cect ee whos ' 5 ‘ > ty SUIRSEC Ae MESON ? f, A j ; ‘ * i y : bale AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL EDITED BY MARY CYNTHIA DICKERSON VOLUME XVI, 1916 NEW YORK CITY Published from October to June, by THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 1916 ~ tory, the imine of scientific research, arploration ag discovers ~ and the y See rent of museum exhibition and paar influence i in % ~ FREE TO MEMBERS OF - THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY _ AGE OH | | Soc 2 PRINTED BY THE COSMOS PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASS. ‘ 1916 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVI JANUARY Orns s Coes WAN NERA TADEa Oot Ot IMEEM Rg age Sg ee hbo ns 5 ca sv cieceielecue 300s 6 b-le ee'e bs Freperic A. Lucas Smee Ce At eu oxlg oes coe ag ws ove ce vcweec buses Soe CLARK WISSLER Sean Ra arg eee ar soo olde a ote o-bca's Secure sfeielee ws Ler Garnett Day Reproductions in Duotone of South American Photographs on Se ee eee oN opposite EE NOs RS ae a er W. D. Martruew The Pawnee Human Sacrifice to the Morningstar..CLarx Wisster and Hersert J. SprnpEn eerie eT eae aw (6 0a: Sup 0 a) 80. B54 a oy Ges wee Me eae db Gee ees wes C.-E. A. Winstow ee Ng ay aS ea dph ib a-ak ele Gk bcs Sb rs os o's hc ew wees Henry E. Crampton Natural History Museums and the Library............................ Grorcs H. SHerwoop FEBRUARY The Oldest Town in America and Its People...........................04... A. L. Krorser ine eooted Animals of the Yellowstone. ... 8... eee cece ce M. P. SKINNER SeeergiOn- Of OUMBtIC VALIAUODS. «ice ee ce ee ence cece ee eee E.uswortn Huntineton The Asiatic Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History. .Roy Cuapman ANDREWS Reproductions in Duotone of Asiatic Photographs....:....... 0.020... 00. c cece ccc cece c cece INITIO GME ULB OLS PRB eigiare et Hb aie oi hap sere oo. s 36 oe so 8.6 cb ce vies cccee veces L. P. Graracap ts the Crocker Land Party Living Like Esquimo?.. .. 0... 5 cee ccc cece lee c cee caw The Work of Ignaz Matausch and Its Significance to the Museum.............. Roy W. MINER A Few Observations on Snakes in the Field...........:................ ArtHur L. Gittam Marcu East Africa — Game Garden of the World.................0.. ccc eeeeeee C. Hart Merriam Rae ELOISE AIMEE NO aiacare 0 viel Av tiv c's -0 sige « ois 0s le's so yee ela eciewe’s James L. Cuarx retest P VOGORTADIG DY TAT. Omtits AMOIOY 0 6 Soi se ec te eee nc cw esse cccccevce Cawbanin romrens ——-A DPANG Of WVONMIGIOR eo sie the esc cece ieee ec ew etecs T. D. A. CocxrerEeti SE POR CIMOG OF RO. SIUC R rope tk oOb 6 nw igrs bt vine bo 6 cca eve veweceecs CiarREeNcE R. Hatter Language as an Index to Ancient Kinships................. 0... cece eee eee Puiny E. Gopparp eeecour mirds: Decreasing OF INCPOASING 6 yi. ook ee ee ce ee ce eee desces Henry Oupys INCI ONS 8 UCPC MURN NUN ie Gat ined 5 sie op) ook 028 0.0.4 b/s cscs 0.s cee oie erg ee os ween wuts APRIL rate TO PiatmitieO WMO 168: o OUNR Fy .5 5 cele verges cea cube ence ev cwenecvetenss opposite SeeerInO -Wiklt Che Devilish oe sy ccc as ache lee ce cep eeedees tae’ Russet J. Couns IRENE MONE Saher, Seg atk eats tie cieles 6 3 TR tis nine Wis Siw ek Soke wees enews Frank E. Lourz Color Plate, Assyrian and Babylonian Seals............... 0... cece cece eee ee ees opposite Dee manic Of Jowele And Charms". 6)... ee ce ae te cc cee nc emess Hersert J. SpPInpEN The White Rat and Sleeping Sickness................. Seg ees R. W. Tower and C. F. Herm IIRC Se CS lent ia a tv shea ie ss a cleteteeies Sele ecw s'e eee ude W. D. Marruew ee EINER S925, s'il sb Sicis aval s olviavievsleseacd-cceniecececce T. GitpertT PEARSON By TS 0 GrEorGE K. CHERRIE May The Ruins of Ancient Petra............5....... Ler Garnett Day and JosrrpH Woop, Jr PoREGuuCHONs Ht Or Or Arabian FPHOLORTADDS::. . . . 6 6 b cane cic wes be ese cd cdeeeeewe ele lee Nee F OMAY TUSPOUIUIGNE TOU —LOLG Go. ie cc cect pete see vanes Hersert L. BripaMan se OUMNH AE SRNR REIR OE eg tet o hne. gai, oie Rials o's oe \e oe dlG ee dig Se le-d bie Be bw C.-E. A. Winstow Decorative Value of American Indian Art................ 0... ccc e cece ees Estuer A. Coster Moccasin Exhibit in the American Museum...............0..c0 ccc cece cece CuARK WISSLER Bee ROH i mete URC BORN eee LG ah ee pie wwielecs eco ere es Freperic A. Lucas ern ogh CE ORNs ORIEN OEM MIN oe Nic ces wip ale ce eee be veweeens G. Ex.ior Smita eRe OAR GRP Pee NEE EN A EEN ON et od ig kn Gaede es wa Wisc e bie dlp wus ob ews eae bolsuiets ome Bird Protective Laws and Their Enforcement....................000055 T. GILBERT PEARSON OcTOBER BOREAS ——~ Mal -CAUGrS MMC OGREIS is a. cc cele w cose bet sec cles cb sceceseeseae Hvuau M. Smita Ese Me eOSEN ENA ANAN GU OE CON IBN CERES Se Sane Pe Se gio ow. bie, bere sities vies 8 tie bean 0 eee Irvine A. Fieip Reproductions in Duotone of Seacoast Photographs............... 0... cece ccc e eee eee enceeees Serene Ast Ws <8, SEMIN NEI ook ge goes sects eters ss hae sb ea ne caw ees Davip Starr JORDAN Suenies A OOTNL AS) GI TON I ee kg we eas ees stie se Cee cens M. D. C. Crawrorp CONE Gy nN UGA Se Ea CIE ee by cae es ores acesele be cas whe elb be eens C. W. Mrap eMC TST Ss RRR a er pe ha ace iy os We one 8's Spd discs eee dig ew eee T. GILBERT PEARSON Fo ehab bated B Tae ea a Oe a COON ca ee ne a ee CuHarRLEs R. EastMan NovEMBER Design and Color in Ancient Fabrics.) ic ec tee tee M. D. C. Crawrorp BER CSISSENISISy “100 RURE et DUIS ttre ge otal as cheje Sie bee be bs eee ede's Grorce H. SHEeRwoop RMORORAIO) 2h WRUNG 0 COMER ROM cress Sad yee deiuTek wld dives ceo es cts eee T. D. A. CockERELL eae IDLO EL OURG OE Ui INU tess oe a eg ec cit thes be eee eee GrorGE T. Emmons Reproductions in Color of Northwest Indian Carvings.............. 0.2 cee cece werner ee eee i ee ORUOU UU Y Ol CORUEIICSs fa.) diss ok soe cell cc cb calc cb cate ereccwceeas CLARK WISSLER The Scourge of the Santa Monica Mountains.... . BINS ae ae Pelle gil waw acter W. D. Martrtruew Weed Oer UDO FICRIE MSORGi. coat cc Sache Pics ete a et cee nenen ee R. W. Tower and C. F. Herm DeceMBER Kunz:on ivory andthe Hlephant.25 < se os ak ec a Sas Os ae ate W. D. Marruew 485 American Indian Saddles. i665 sc gnc. Se veh SS, Sara RNS Eo Criark WIssLtER 497 The Gulf Stream off Our Shoree...3 6 ee a se Ss bc ALFRED GOLDSBOROUGH MayeER 501 olor Plate, Some-Mishes-of -‘Trapical Waterss <3). ie fae) oes ees SAR SS BO ee opposite 507 The Problem of Bright-colored. Fishes.....................0...- JOHN TREADWELL NicHOoLs 507 A Perplexing Phenomenon — Mirage... .. 2.2.20... ccc ccc ccc cece ween CuesterR A. Reeps 513 Insects — A Subject. for Recreation and Research....................00.. Frank E. Lutz 525 meproductions:in Duotone of Inseet Studies: > 6 re a ee ae Pee a eee 529 Common-sense Law in Game Protection..........00 0.0.0.0. cece wees Joun B. Burnwam 533 The American Museum and College ZoGlogy..............0.. 0c ce eee ee ees J. H. McGrecor 6537 iMieration-of ‘Binds in: Ata. oi .ci5.0 255 ee Med Aas ro a PERS he pl bees James P. Cuapin 541 ILLUSTRATIONS African, native, cover, (March) African, photographs, reproductions in duotone of, 167-182 Amulets and charms, 244-248 Amur River tribes, designs from, 425 Antiquities of Mexico, illustrations from, 381, 382 Asiatic Zoélogical Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History, 104-114 Assyrian and Babylonian Seals, color plate opp. p. 243 Bacteria, 295-298 Barnacle covered rocks, cover, (Oct.) Beach drift, 377 Bear group, 477 Birds, migration of, in Africa, 544, 545 Bird reservations, 394-402 Brazil, Vital, portrait of, 192 Bugula turrita, 378 , Cats, vagrant, and their work, 326-328 Children, in the Museum, cover, (May) Chilkat, art objects, 459, 461-464; country of, 453; houses, 455; 456, 457; Indian chiefs, 452 Climatic variations, maps illustrating, 96, 103 Cobra de capello, 194 Copperhead snake, 133 Coral reef group, 216 Crabs, 367, 369, 374, 375 Cranes, whooping, 210 Cypresses, cover, (April) Dance, sacred Tlahewe, 80 Dances, Zuni Indian, 80-85 Deer, 533, 534 Devilfish, 222—227 Diplodocus, restoration of, 188 Dogs, ancient hunting, 403-408 East Africa, game of, 144-153; 154-166 Elephant, evolution of, 487; ivory, 484 Farm, health on, 266 Feather hunting, 258 Fer-de-lance, 192, 195 Fishes, tropical, color plate opp. p. 507; 508, 509, 510, 511 Flamingo and young, color plate opp. p. 217 Flight, beginnings of, 6-11 Florissant fossils, 442-450 Flycatcher, nest of, 261, 264 Fossil bird, new, 475; plants, 442, 446, 447, 448, 450 Hangnests, 26: Heredity, illustrations of laws of, 228-242 Hog-nosed snake, 135 Indian, art motives, 302-307; dress patterns, 465-467; moccasins, 308-313; pottery, cover, (Feb.) Insects, 525 Insect studies, 529-532 Ivory, 484; carved, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495 Korean designs, 416, 426 Koryak designs, 427 Live oaks, 506 Llamas, cover, (Jan.) Loom, Navajo, 386, 387; Ojibway, 382; Peru- vian, 383, 384, 385 Mammoth, Beresovka, 488; ivory of, 484 Martha’s Vineyard, sea mussels on, 356 Matausch, Ignaz, portrait of, 56; work of, 124— 127 Mendel, Gregor, 229 Migration of birds in Africa, maps of, 544, 545 Mirage, 513-524 Moss animals of the sea, 378 Mussels, sea, 356-365 Old Stone Age, Men of, 12—20; 322, 323 Oriole nest, 262 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, portrait of, 4 Palisades Interstate Park, 202-206 Palmettos, 503, back cover (Dec.) Pawnee human sacrifice, 48-55 Periwinkles, 376, 377 Peruvian cloths, 388-392, 418, 419, 421, 422, 424, 428 Petra, ruins of, 272-290 Pheasants, 535, 536 Porto Rico, 58-70 Pottery making, Indian, cover (Feb.) Pteranodon, 251 Rattlesnake, 129, 131, 132, 133, 195 . Roosevelt, Theodore, 192. Saddles, American Indian, 498, 499 Sand beach, 372; waves, 376 Sea anemone, 370 Sharks, 340-355 Shells, ornamental, 116-119 Snake hunting, 128-135 Snakes, poisonous, 192—195 South American bird nests, 260-264; trails, 22-44 South Carolina, 506 Spinetail, nest of, 260 Starfish, 371, 373 St. Augustine, Florida, 500 Sunfish, 212 Tapa cloth designs, 430 Tide rows, 368 Tie dyeing, 428, 429, 431 Tiger, sabre-tooth, 468, 472 Tilefishing, 432-440 Toomey, John, 196 Travois, Indian, 500 Trypanosome, 249, 250 «*% Vertebrates, primitive, 184 Weaving, techniques, 420, 423 Wolf, extinct, of the tar pits, 46, 47 Yellowstone, hoofed animals of, 86-94 Zuni Indian dances, 80-85; Indian women, cover, (Feb.); pottery, cover, (Feb.) so Ee ee ee ee OLUME XVI } JANUARY, 1916 NUMBER s sgalb AMERICAN MUSEUM ay, pe § ue e. OLD 2 HUMAN S$ The American Museum of Natural History BOARD OF TRUSTEES President HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN First Vice-President CLEVELAND H. DopGE Treasurer CHARLES LANIER Second Vice-President J. P. MorGAN Secretary ADRIAN ISELIN, JR. JoHN Purroy MircHe,t, Mayor or THE City or NEw YorRK Wituiam A. PRENDERGAST, COMPTROLLER OF THE City or New York Caspot Warp, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PARKS GEORGE F. BakER FREDERICK F. BREWSTER JosepH H. CHOATE R. Futon Curtrine THomas DEWitrr CuyLeR JAMES DouGLAsS Henry C. Frick Mapison GRANT Anson W. Harp ArcHER M. HuNTINGTON ARTHUR CuRTISS JAMES Water B. JAMES SetuH Low OagpEN MILLs Percy R. Pyne Joun B. TREVOR Fevtix M. WarBurRG GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM A. D. JUmLLiarRD ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS Director Freperic A. Lucas Assistant Treasurer Tue UNITED StTaTEs Trust CoMPANY Assistant Secretary GerorGe H. SHerwoop or New York SCIENTIFIC STAFF Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Director Geology and Invertebrate Paleontology EpmuNpb Otis Hovey, Ph.D., Curator Curester A. Reeps, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Mineralogy L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Georce F. Kunz, Ph.D., Honorary Curator Gems Woods and Forestry Mary Cyrnruia Dickerson, B.S., Curator Invertebrate Zodlogy Henry E. Crampton, Ph.D., Curator Roy W. Miner, A.B., Asst. Curator Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D., Asst. Curator L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Mollusca A. J. Murcuuer, Assistant Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant W. M. Wuee.er, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Social Insects A. L. Treapwe ti, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Annulata Cuarues W. Lena, B.S., Hon. Curator Coleoptera Ichthyology and Herpetology Basurorp Dean, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus Lovis Hussaxor, Ph.D., Curator Ichthyology Joun T. Nicnous, A.B., Asst. Cur. Recent Fishes Mary Cynraia Dickerson, B.S., Assoc. Curator Herpetology Mammalogy and Ornithology J. A. Auten, Ph.D., Curator Frank M. Cuapman, Sc.D., Curator Ornithology Roy C. Anprews, A.M., Asst. Cur. Mammalogy W. Dew. Mivvenr, Asst. Curator Ornithology H. E. Antuony, B.S., Assistant Mammalogy Herserrt Lana, Assistant Mammalogy James P. Cuarptn, Assistant Ornithology Vertebrate Paleontology - Henry Farrrietp Oszorn, LL.D., D.Se., Curator Emeritus W. D. Martuew, Ph.D., Curator Water Grancer, Assoc. Curator [Mammals] Barnum Brown, A.B., Assoc. Curator [Reptiles] Witiiam K. Grecory, Ph.D., Assoc. in Paleon- tology Cuarues R. Eastman, Ph.D., Research Associate Anthropology CLARK WissLeER, Ph.D., Curator Purny E. Gopparp, Ph.D., Curator Ethnology Rosert H. Lowir, Ph.D., Assoc. Curator Hersert J. Sprnpen, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Nets C. Netson, M.L., Asst. Curator CHARLES W. Meap, Asst. Curator Haran I. Smiru, Hon. Curator Archeology M. D. C. Crawrorp, Research Associate in Tex- tiles Gro. Birp GrRINNELL, Ph.D., Research Associate in Ethnology Anatomy and Physiology Ra.exw W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Public Health CuHARLES-Epwarp A. Winstow, M.S., Curator IsraeL J. Kuireter, Ph.D., Assistant Public Education GrorGce H. Suerwoop, A.M., Curator G. Cuyp® Fisuer, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Ann E. Tuomas, Ph.B., Assistant Books and Publications Raupexu W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Ipa Ricuarpson Hoop, A.B., Asst. Librarian THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM January, 19! 6 VOLUME XVI, NUMBER | Sar are 3 , “ Is, tol zt ame ay L \ a) ar he * a 4 , - : bel a “PUBLISHED MONTHLY FROM OCTOBER TO JUNE | BY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL — HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY. TERMS: ONE~ DOLLAR AND A HALF PER YEAR, TWENTY CENTS PER COPY. ENTERED AS SECOND © CLASS MATTER JANUARY 12, 1907, AT THE ~ POST-OFFICE AT BOSTON, MASS., ACT OF CON- GRESS, JULY 16, 1894. CONTENTS FOR JANUARY Frontispiece, Portrait of Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn................... 4 Author of Men of the Old Stone Age, a new book on the ancestors of man, published by Charles Scribner’s Sons Sateamiaiied OF PUGH, <0... ee ee eee Freperic A. Lucas 5 Discussion of the origin of flying, in the light of the recent discovery of feathers on the hind legs of young birds, which may have served the purpose of wings in ancestral birds mu ot the Old Stone Age”..................-.5.0.0. Ciark Wisster 13 Review of a recent book by Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn concerning the types of the extinct ancestors of man in Western Europe, originally dispersed from some center in Asia Illustrations from restorations by Dr. J. H. McGregor NS OSG OS IRS i Oe aa Lee Garnett Day 23 The story of the Collins-Day Expedition across South America, with especial reference to experiences with mule train on the trails of the high Andes ; Illustrations from photographs by the members of the expedition Reproductions in duotone of South American Photographs.................. 33 Giving glimpses of travel and life in the high Andes Pictures taken by members of the Collins-Day South American Expedition mets Wor or the lar Pits.................5 50.0.4: W. D. Marruew 45 The great extinct wolf of the asphalt deposits at Rancho La Brea The Pawnee Human Sacrifice to the Morningstar CLARK WIssLER and HERBERT J. SPINDEN 49 Discussion of a possible connection between human sacrifice ceremonials among the Pawnee and the Mexi- cans — ' Bs a * hom MOA MCAUSCN ee tee eee C.-E. A. Winstow 57 An appreciation, with reference to the work he accomplished for the halt of public health in the American ~ Museum Ne REN cn, yd ale ne ame 8 8 Henry E. Crampton 59 A description of the island, where the New York Academy of Sciences, with the support of the Insular Government, is making a prolonged and comprehensive survey Natural History Museums and the Library.......... Grorce H. SHERwoop 71 With a description of the method of codperation between the American Museum of Natural History and the New York City libraries Mme NOLES. 05 ooo a’, ec See ee Bligh) ch bas Peay Cae e ah rete 73 Mary Cyntata Dickerson, Editor Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMERICAN MusEUM Journau, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Jourr.al is sent free to all members of the American Museum. oe Photo by Fowler, Evanston PROFESSOR HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN Author of a recent book on the extinct ancestors of man, Men of the Old Stone Age, published by Charles Da Costa professor of zoélogy in Columbia University, Curator Emeritus of vertebrate paleon- Scribner's Sons; tology and President of the Board of Trustees in the American Museum of Natural History See “‘ Men of the Old Stone Age’ — A Review,’’ page 13 THe AmerICAN Museum Journat VotuME XVI JANUARY, 1916 NUMBER 1 The Beginnings of Flight By FREDERIC A. LUCAS HE recent recognition by Mr. C. William Beebe, curator of birds at the New York Zodélogical Park, of certain feathers on the hind legs of the young of modern birds,! which according to his view may have served the purpose of wings in ancestral birds, brings up anew that ever fascinating problem, “ How did flight begin?” and this in turn is inseparably connected with that other problem, “How did birds begin?” ” The answer to this latter query is seemingly as far off as it was fifty-four years ago when the first Archwopteryx came to light in the famous quarries of Solenhofen. We are pretty sure that birds branched off from reptiles, fairly sure that they must have started as far back as in the Trias or even Permian, when the curious anomodonts faintly -foreshadowed the coming mammals. But just what form gave rise to birds we know not; we have not even any 1“The Tetrapteryx Stage in the Ancestry of Birds,” by C. William Beebe, curator of birds, the New York Zodlogical Park. Published in Zoologica, Vol. II, No. 2, 1915. 2 Fifteen million years ago, in the middle of the Paleozoic or second great period of the earth’s history, the Age of Fishes was just drawing to a close. The only vertebrate animals that could live upon land were the primitive, froglike batrachians, and even these were probably much more at home in the water. We have no record of the myriad different types of creatures that succeeded these first dwellers on the land, except their fossil remains found buried in the rocks of the various geologic ages, and this record is far from complete. Hence, although we believe that the higher vertebrates — reptiles, birds and mammals — are derived from the slow-crawling, cold-blooded, small-brained primitive batrachian, it is not possible to trace the successive stages of the descent. living bird that shows such strong traces of reptilian origin as do the monotremes among mammals. Like Mr. W. P. Pycraft, Mr. W. DeW. Miller and the writer, there are some even so heterodox as to believe more or less firmly that possibly birds had not one, but two points of origin, and to feel that if we could follow back their lines of descent we should find that the ostriches came from one, and the birds of flight from another. And why not? Is it any more strange that Nature should have repeated herself once than that all our birds should have been de- rived from one pair of ancestors? Such heretics —and a_ heretic is merely one who differs from the major- ity — such heretics as believe in this so-called “diphylletic” origin of birds cannot help propounding the queries, “ Is the ostrich big because he doesn’t fly?” or “Doesn’t he fly because he is big?” or “Did he never fly at all?” Those who bring forward the ever-ready fact that the embryology of the ostriches seems to indicate that they are de- scended from forms that flew, are re-- minded that embryology is not regarded as so decisive in its testimony as it was fifty years ago. We are all familiar with the ready argument that such extraordinary struc- tures as feathers could not have been developed twice, but this is not a whit more strange than that they should have 5 9 Aepo} sjeurureur Suoure jerimmbs ‘dn surduinf Aq ynoqe yy3noiq sea 41 BY} OO ‘74 3Iy Jo UIFIIO oy} 07 Se setioey} pediournd ‘spliq usepour jo Zunok oy} Ul pue rhuajdoxyoip ul siojoeIeYo uO posed Si Spiiq jo Arysaoue oy} UI 03e3s xksr9}deNa], oy} Jo SurMBIp sty, SGYIg NYA3GOW 4O YOLSAONV 319ISSOd Vv SULA] oy} SeOp se seeJ} WIOIJ FurUE{dJOA 10 UMOp Suiduinl Chinen Ancestors of Extinct and Existing Species of Man PRE-HUMAN RACES Races bdlo ngi ng serviceable diagram shows at a glance (Fig. 262, page 491) the as- sumed zodlogical rela- tions of the known types of early man. S Here the reader may see clearly the group- ing into extinct forms and into those not widely divergent from the man of today. Of the former, four types are recognized, Trinil, gt oa J H jExsting Spee of f Man Heidelberg, Neander- H t f lomo Jsapiens thal and Piltdown. In slinging ‘ 7 vj each case the type 1 4 Ito V 4 specimens are charac- ENS Estige hi a ees terized and well illus- ‘ : eg ae trated. An unusual \ +f a feature of the book is the finely modeled restoration of each type by Dr. J. H. McGregor of Columbia Reproduced through the’courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons To show the assumed zodlogical relations of the known types of early man (Fig. 262, p. 491, Men of the Old Stone Age} University. By care- fully overlaying these ancient skulls with clay “MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE” 15 of a thickness corresponding to averages for the soft tissues of modern men, the approximate contour of the face is ob- tained. Thus we may form an idea of about how these men would appear in life. The discussion of the Piltdown type, the most recent find, deserves notice, for our author does not accept the chronological determinations of the leading English scientists who place it in early Pleistocene times, “but regards it as clearly late Pleistocene. The probability of this has been greatly increased by the recent dis- covery of Dr. Gerrit S. Miller, an Amer- ican scientist, that the jaw found with the Piltdown skull is not human. Dis- carding this jaw we have a skullcap that promises to be that of a more advanced man. Had this discovery been available at the time of writing, our author could have made his case stronger. This brings us to an important general conclusion in the book, viz., that no acceptable evidences of man as such occur before the Pleistocene. This con- clusion is in opposition to the views of some dis- tinguished European scientists but is fully supported by faunistic and other correlated data. Reference should be made to the very important correlation chart on page 41 show- ing the geological cli- matic, and _ faunistic associations with the successive forms of man. This chart shows us that the most modern types of ancient men come upon the scene at the close of the last period of glaciation. The most distinctive of these was the Cré-Magnon, which we see from the restoration would pass among us today with little comment. In fact, many cele- brated anthropologists believe that the blood of this race still flows in the veins of the French of the Dordogne district and elsewhere. However this may be, some of the most distinctive facial char- acters of the Cré-Magnon type are still to be found in parts of Europe. These old Cr6é-Magnons were a fine race, rather taller and somewhat larger of brain than modern Europeans. The author emphasizes the point that it is coincident with the appearance of the Cr6-Magnons that the great develop- ment of the most distinctive Paleolithic culture appears in Europe. The two great periods were the Aurignacian and the Magdalenian, each characterized by a more or less individualized art. Charles Scribner’s Sons The ape-man of Java (Pithecanthropus erectus). Antiquity estimated at 500,000 years. It is not improbable that the prehuman races of this remote geologic age used more than one natural weapon of wood or stone After the restoration by Dr. J. H. M cGregor 16 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Since these Cré-Magnon men may in part be our ancestors, we should like to know whence they came and in what manner they faded away or were en- gulfed. To these pertinent questions no very clear answers can be given. There is no reason to believe that the race came into being on the spot. No part of Europe is considered the ancestral home of any known type of man, but all tween Magdalenian culture and that of the Eskimo has attracted the attention of many students. Notwithstanding the fact that in midwinter the Eskimo live upon mammals of the sea, their culture is essentially a caribou or reindeer cul- ture. This they have in common with the Siberians and the Lapps. Their bone needles, barbed points, and har- poons are in many cases startlingly like Reproduced through the courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons *-* Head of the ‘‘Old Man of Cr6-Magnon” (rejuvenated by the restoration of the teeth), showing the method of restoration adopted in the models by Dr. J. H. McGregor. By carefully overlaying these ancient skulls with clay of a thickness corresponding to averages for the soft tissues of modern men, the approximate appearance of these men in life is obtained are assumed to have been dispersed from some center in Asia. So far as the Cré- Magnons have racial affinities elsewhere, we find them in Asia and the extreme north of America. Our author notes their slight anatomi- cal similarity to the Eskimo but does not discuss the point further. It may be permissible to digress slightly at this point because the striking parallel be- those of the Magdalenians. Even the celebrated baton de commandement seems to have its counterpart among the Eskimo where it is a homely implement. Also the undoubted artistic genius of the Eskimo has been cited. While many of the speculations upon this Eskimo parallel are fanciful, it must be consid- ered significant that we have associated with the reindeer of both the Old and Reproduced through the courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons THE PILTDOWN MAN OF ENGLAND The apelike structure of the jaw Antiquity variously estimated at 100,000 to 300,000 years. (This latter does not prevent the expression of a considerable degree of intelligence in the face. sentence to be found under the corresponding illustration in Prof. Osborn’s book is of interest in the light of a discovery made by Dr. Gerrit S. Miller of Washington since the publication of the book — namely, that the jaw discovered with the Piltdown skull is ape instead of human. This leaves a skullcap of a more advanced man.) Prof. Osborn places the Piltdown man in late Pleistocene times. He concludes that there are no acceptable evidences of man as such before the Pleistocene CORRELATION OF, CLIMATIC, RACIAL, CULTURE & LIFE STAGES 19/4 200000 YEARS POST GLACIAL Gee RECENT FOREST, MEADOW. ALPINE Z Zésc y - | REnON CES ZR MR L, Saunton | LIAB: |" deimator | REINDEER PERIOD, ARCTIC Z IV. GLACIAL” 7-22-47) “|28000 Year WEANDERTHAL| TUNDRA, STEPPE , ALPINE Z WORM, WISCONSIN Ze f EAA\i | 4 MOUSTERIAN 3 é FOREST, MEADOW Z ‘Lowest Terraces” I oe hie 50,000 YEARS ” ” COLD FAUNA GZ tj; § » «| ARRIVAL: STEPPE, TUNDRA, FAUNA ir 5 Ze: ili b piss ig LOWER | * (KRAPINA) asT WARM AFRICAN-ASIATIC 3. INTER - Ali's; PALAEO- FAUNA Gy GLACIAL “l'\\'\ | |2CHELLEAN LITHIC E.ANTIQUUS, HIPPOPOTAMUS G RISS -WURM Ali |\i| 4) 41100000 reans D.MERCKI, E.TROGONTHERI| Sa tiihi ALSO FOREST, MEADOW jj. ps, ae LAI | 17 PRE-CHELLEAN P/LTDOWN ZY Middle Loess Z ii i! 5+/25000 YEARS EURASIAT/C FAUNA el / G tis " ty itt) r ~ I. GLACIAL % Z RISS, POLANDIAN Ze COLD TUNDRA FAUNA g ‘Middle Drift’ : WOOLLY MAMMOTH & Fantadigegeaeas > a RHINOCEROS. FIRST E ILLINOIAN FZ. "i | | STEPPE & REINDEER VALLETTA gg betes i ! 2. INTER- GLACIAL \ /ATIC MINDEL-RISS 9225000 y WARM peice AS. HELVETIAN : YARMOUTH 1o}250000 , E.ANTIQUUS , E. TROGONTH- Long Warm HEIDELBERG) Ry Dp. MERCKII, HIPPO- Stage u\275000 5 . POTAMUS ‘Older Loess” \\) 131325000 , E. MER/D/IONALIS —TROGON- Ge KANSAN Hs pat Old Drift” Zs (4 J6\400000 YEARS thc, id Masato 1. INTER- Ze “WARM ZZ Lg 7425000 AFRICAN - AS/ATIC. FAUNA THERIT, D ETRUSCUS, GY UNZ-MINDEL 18}450000 HIPPOPOTAMUS : |. MACHERODUS Ta ZT GLACIAL 7. °1*74990 PITHECAN- YZ GUNZ, SCANIAN 2 EE ANE OT BOD | TRG AUS Z NEBRASKAN Y FAUNA /N S. BRITAIN (TRINIL) Z “Old Terraces” I ch Wcities Se, ae ee Grud PLIOCENE PLIOCENE ZZ!" Jlsego00_. WARM FOREST GLACIAL — |B Hae S81 s7vowe cutures | HUMAN | STAGES OF MAMMALIAN INTERGLACIAL |2 | &| AND COLD FAUNAS | RACES AND PLANT LIFE Reproduced through the courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons GREAT EVENTS OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH To the left the relation of glacial and interglacial stages in Europe and North America, with the author’s theory regarding the divisions of time, the beginning of the Old Stone Age, and the successive appearance in Europe of different branches of the human race. To the right the prolonged warm temperate period in Europe in the non-glaciated regions, followed by the relatively brief cold period during the past 70,000 years [From p. 41, Men of the Old Stone Age} Chart prepared by Dr.C. A. Reeds of the American Museum, in coéperation with the author 18 Reproduced through the courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons NEANDERTHAL MAN OF CENTRAL FRANCE Antiquity estimated as between 40,000 and 25,000 years. The author does not consider that this race developed into any other races, or in fact that Western Europe was ever a center of evo- lution for new types of men. It is in Asia that archeological traces of the ancestors of the types of Western Europe await the investigator After the restoration modeled by Dr. J. H. McGregor 19 Reproduced through the courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons CRO-MAGNON TYPE OF PREHISTORIC MAN This type of man would pass among us today with little comment, in fact some of the most distinctive facial characters of the Crd-Magnon type are still to be found in parts of Europe. Antiquity in Western Europe estimated as at least 25,000 years After restoration modeled by Dr. J. H. McGregor 20 “MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE” 21 the New World a sufficient number of cul- ture traits to distinguish a modern rein- deer culture period. If the association between certain traits and the reindeer is so strong as to carry the former over the range of the latter, it would not be unreasonable to expect that some of the Magdalenian culture did follow the rein- deer down through all these many cen- turies. One of the assigned causes for Magdalenian decline and the retirement of the Cré-Magnons is the retreat of the reindeer before the encroaching fores- tation of Western Europe. It is cer- tain that the reindeer culture of the Magdalenians would vanish from Europe with the animal, but it is almost equally certain that it would to some extent fol- low the migrating fauna to other regions. Archeological research in Asia_ will finally solve this problem. Returning to the book before us we see that previous to the dawn of the Neo- lithic which followed the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age, at least four other varieties of men came into Western Europe and laid the foundations of the present population. (These are enu- merated in the Table on page 500.) Throughout the discussion it is made plain that in the Stone Age we are deal- ing with a culture rather than with a race, for many varieties of man came upon the scene and vanished, while the culture waves rose and fell in what ap- pears to be their own time. The one striking culture coincident with the ap- pearance of the Cré-Magnons has been noted, but other racial variants playing important parts came in before the close of the period. To quote our author: “All these steps indicate the posses- sion of certain generic faculties of mind similar to our own. That this mind of the Upper Paleolithic races was of a kind capable of a high degree of educa- tion we entertain no doubt whatever, be- cause of the very advanced order of brain which is developed in the higher members of these ancient races; in fact, it may fairly be assumed from ex- periences in the education of existing races of much lower brain capacity, such as the Eskimo or Fuegian. The emer- gence of such a mind from the mode of life of the Old Stone Age is one of the greatest mysteries of psychology and of history.” The author regards the Cré-Magnon, Briinn and other human types of the Upper Paleolithic Period (p. 491) as collaterals of the same ancestral stem and not as having been evolved one from the other. Neither does he consider that the Neanderthal, Heidelberg, etc., devel- oped into other races. There is no good evidence that Western Europe was ever a center of human evolution for new types of men. It was by position doomed to be a marginal area into which rolled successive waves of human life fully differentiated elsewhere. ‘Then he concludes, “‘We may therefore imagine that the family tree of the races of the Old Stone Age consisted of a number of separate branches, which had been com- pletely formed in the great Eurasiatic continent, a land mass infinitely larger and more capable of producing a variety of races than the diminutive peninsular area of Western Europe.” It would follow then that the Cré- Magnon mind came into being some- where in the East and may perhaps have leftiits archeological traces in Asia, where they await the future investigator. This ‘sketch can but inadequately present even this one aspect of Pro- fessor Osborn’s .many-sided and timely work. ‘The general reader can turn to it again and again for new suggestions. Perhaps no other scientific subject can so | deeply stir the imagination as the one: hundred thousand years of man’s con- tinuous history in Western Europe. Bs - <= a uJ ie j= Q uw ne < ao uJ = al a o a) < a ‘= <= pie j= ul Q a ” ” = Oo oc uu Oo = < a) =< B Oo oc oO < > =< = S WW ps FE Lo) = 4 5 = South American Trails By LEE GARNETT DAY Illustrations from photographs by members of the Collins-Day South American Expedition, 1915 gives the traveler more contrasts in trail, scenery and climate than do the Andes in the last range of the Cordillera. From the barren snow line at the ridge down to the headwaters of the great Amazon system is but a few hundred miles, yet in this distance four distinct changes in the fauna and flora areapparent. Starting over a hard open road where we made eighteen or twenty miles a day, the trail winds down through a rolling country until the last pass is crossed and the first signs of tropical vegetation appear. Then through the mountains of the Yungas the route lies over forested hill and dale or along nar- row-ledge trails, and eventually reaches lower planes where the freshets turn into narrow streams and the streams at last into rivers. Here amidst the most abundant tropical growth, the paths underfoot more often resembled swamps than terra firma and five or six miles were considered a good day’s work. In fact the stream beds often proved bet- ter trails than the machete-cut roads through the palm and cane brakes. Crossing South America from Mol- lendo on the west coast to Parad on the east, by far the most eventful part of the journey is the five hundred miles by mule train from Cochabamba, high in the Cordillera, to Todos Santos, the headwaters of the Amazon, thirty-four hundred miles above its mouth. Cocha- bamba itself is a city of sixty thousand inhabitants, the greater number of whom have never left its suburbs. A railroad is in course of construction, but from Arque, the end of the rails, all eae no place in the world commerce must pass by mule pack for two days over the boulders of the river bed. We reached Cochabamba from Mollendo by rail, lake steamer and coach. After crossing the first two ranges of the Cordillera by rail, we ascended the third by pack train! starting from Cochabamba. Our party consisted of Messrs. Alfred Collins, Willard Walker, George K. Cherrie, Robert Becker and the writer; and after securing twenty-eight mules, a chief arriero or mule driver, and two Indian helpers, we started for the head of the pass and the tributaries of the great Amazon River beyond. The mule trail from Cochabamba to Todos Santos is far from an easy one to follow, notwithstanding that it is constantly traveled, being the route for most of the commerce between the low hot grazing lands of Bolivia at the eastern base of the Andes, and the high well-populated table-lands around La Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro and other cities. It is always very narrow, passes through heavy woods, over ridges, along sides of cliffs, up or down a stream, and is often difficult even to locate. Especially is this true in the rainy season when pools of mud and tangled roots encumber the way in the woods and mule 1 The most convenient unit of baggage for transpor- tation of this kind is a small fiber trunk or case holding eighty pounds. Two trunks made a perfect pack for the animals, compact, easy to cinch and of proper balance. At any time during the rainy season all instruments, food and clothing must be packed in bags impervious to moisture. The constant and daily rain — not to mention frequent wettings from crossing deep fords and mountain freshets — soon rusts arms and penetrates film packs. Our moving-picture camera was enclosed in three separate water-proof containers and the films protected by paraffined tin cases. 23 3 te . +, 9!YD puernieg ‘sopenby ysnosyy Iseoo Us91s0M 941, 3u0]e spus}xe osje™yng ‘sapuy oy} jo sefura yesqUuao puB UJ9ISEM SY} WEEMJoq PIAT|OG Ur e10y AJUO Jou puNoJ st A10411I0} Apues uoIseq Yong -AvMLEY equIeqeyDoTr omNIG 94) jO aul] oy} Suoje S['Y_Uos1seq 9Yy} UO UOISOJo pul A, VIAIIO8 NI SALSVM AGNVS Surpeo] Jo uoryesedo oy} Sump [Ms pueys [iM Aoy} 7eY} OS syeuIUe Yyord oYyy Surpjojpulyq jo poyjour oy} sMoys ydesZ0j0y4d oy, ‘syord ey} Zuysn{py - ESA a © ee aad Y iat a ash FO SILIN}UID INOJ 94} PUB JOaTSaU YSNOIY] UMOP UsYOIq dAvY SaSpliq yons Auvut ysnoyyye ‘a3piiq juaroue ue yo Aruosew ay} Aq pouueds st aoeds oy) ‘Ua110} Ure}UNOW & Jo UOUBD MOLILU ay} SSOuOe spea] [fe ay) e1eyM ‘AQuanberq ‘uonednoso ystuedg jo au ay) Surinp spew aiam ‘A[UO aly a[ Sus Ul Sapnur 10j yYSnoua opi ae Yor ‘sprey UvIPUY 24} JO so; WIW4Ll S3HL NO 3901¥s HSINVdS LN3IONV NV Naad AO SLYASAG HOIH AHL OL N33SBYXS SLI SGN31 SNLOVD NIVLNNOW pedojaaap useq aavy voedie pur ewe yioq yorym wos WO} P[IM ay} aq 0} pasoddns st oovuen3 ayy ‘(Nuaq) sorstiy jap vdweg ivau uoryeaaya joajy puvsnoy} usaizy ye (aynu }SIY 94} JO pvol YOvq vas) OovueNS punoj uontpadxe ayy dWVD OL NYNLAY AYVAM V INDIAN MOTHER AND CHILD Of a South American tribe at Todos Santos on the head-waters of the Chaparé. Because of the love these people have for birds and many kinds of animals, every Indian home contains numerous pets SWIBII}S ULLJUNOU SsO1Dv PUB ‘SHIT. JO Sapis Suoye ‘spoom Aavay ySno1y} spurm pue Mowe skeaye St [len ey, ‘omiQ pue ‘equieqeyoog ‘zeg vy punose spur-aiqe} pajerndod-jam ‘ySry ay) pue q JO Spuvl Sulzesi3 OY ‘MO] a4} U9aMjJaq POIIUIUIOD BY} JO JSOU IOJ aINOI BY} SI YOIYM ‘[le1} SOJUNG SOPOT, ay} UO AaTIVA SBTUNA 9y} UI MOI, SAQNV SHL NI STIVYL HSINVdS G10 DSNO1V poomaiy 10J J2Oq ay} Jo sdoys uanbaay ATlaessaoau ay} Jo asnvosq saanvuU ay} Jo aouRzULeNnbor ay} SVU 0} santunjioddo Auvw pey uontpedxa ay} ‘pioureyy ay} Sutpusosap uy ‘aayoo 10 voond Suipunod JO} pasn IV}IOU USPOOM YIM UdIP[IYO saANeN YSAIY AYOWWW SHL 3CGISS3E 3WOH V INSERT PRINTED BY THE ME VINNE CPeoecec wcw YAo! The Grim Wolf of the Tar Pits THE GREAT EXTINCT WOLF FROM THE ASPHALT DEPOSITS AT RANCHO LA BREA NEAR LOS ANGELES Skeleton of Canis dirus recently mounted in the American Museum By W. D. MATTHEW tion to my title, if he happens to notice it. The Latin adjec- tive which I have freely translated by “crim” means rather dire, dreadful, terrible, than grim (L. torvus or truz). And tar of course is not really the same thing as asphalt. But the objection is after all rather superficial; for the ex- pression “grim wolf” is a familiar one, and whether used in fairy tales or in classic poetry it seems to carry a refer- ence rather to the destructive and ter- rible qualities of the animal than to any harshness or savagery of aspect. For the wolf is after all a handsome beast; fully equal in good looks to his domesticated brethren, and distinguished from them only by the untamed wildness of his ways and a disposition to include human beings and other fairy tale heroes as proper, not to say principal, items of his diet. On these grounds I hold that “grim wolf” is a perfectly proper and accurate translation of Canis dirus. It is at least as good as any other term that could be substituted, and more familiar and euphonic. As for tar pits of: course, it is incor- rect — asphalt isn’t tar. But it looks and acts like tar, and the phrase gives just the concept one wishes to convey of the black, semi-liquid tenacious sub- stance that filled these pits or chimneys during the time when they were active, and served as a trap for the unwary animals that ventured within its clutch. Whereas asphalt, to the average reader, is connected with hard firm roads, a bit N O doubt the purist will take excep- slippery for animals in wet weather but not at all like the treacherous soft sub- stance of the La Brea pits. Tar-pits is the term in common use in Los Angeles as far as I could observe, and this is probably the reason why. But enough of linguistics. The sub- ject of this notice is a new fossil skeleton just installed in the hall of the Age of Mammals on the fourth floor of the American Museum. This extinct wolf is a near relative of the living wolves, which range all over the northern world, but is of somewhat larger size, and dis- tinguished from any of its modern con- geners by various small peculiarities in the teeth and skull. Its remains have been found in the older Pleistocene formations of various western states, but nowhere so perfectly preserved or so extraordinarily abundant as in the asphalt deposits at Rancho La Brea, where it is the most abundant of all the marvelous fossil fauna of that unique formation. More than a thousand com- plete skulls, and a proportionate number of skeleton bones have been disinterred there, chiefly by the Los Angeles mu- seum and the University of California. Dr. Merriam tells us! that Canis dirus “was evidently the dominant type of . wolf in this region at the time of deposi- tion of the asphalt beds. This species includes the largest individuals of the Canis group known from America. Some of the specimens exceed in dimensions all 1 Merriam, J.C. ‘‘The Fauna of Rancho La Brea,” Part II, Canide, Memoirs of the University of California, Vol. I, Part II, p. 218. 45 New fossil skeleton of extinct wolf recently mounted in the American Museum. More than a thousand complete skulls and a proportionate number of skeleton bones have been disinterred in the asphalt beds at Rancho La Brea the largest known recent wolves. Other individuals are considerably smaller than some of the large northern wolves of the — present day. The skull is especially large, and the head seems to have been relatively large compared with the limbs. The teeth are very massive, but those regions of the cheek-tooth dentition con- structed especially for crushing are rela- tively small. The comparatively light limbs and very massive head show that the animal was not as well developed for running as are the timber wolves and coy- otes. The massiveness of the dentition, without corresponding development of the crushing surface, indicates use of the teeth in smashing large bones. The form of the skull indicates that the head was normally held low and was often used in hard pulling and hauling of heavy bodies. The great number of individuals of Canis dirus found at Rancho La Brea, suggests that the wolves of this species sometimes associ- ated themselves in packs and that groups of considerable size may have assembled to kill isolated ungulates and edentates. 46 Particularly the young of the large ani- mals, the aged and injured, when they could be separated from their associates, would be the natural prey of the great wolf, but adults in normal strength may also have succumbed to the combined attack of several of these powerful animals.’’ Dr. Merriam gives the length of one of the largest skulls as 282 milli- metres (11y5 inches). The skeleton shown in the photograph is that of an unusually large animal, and was presented in exchange by the University of California. It has been mounted by Mr. Adam Hermann, the pose selected being a_ characteristic phase of the trot: A trotting mastiff in the Muybridge photographs of Anvi- mals in Motion served as guide. This is the step that would commonly be used in a long chase. It suggests the grim, unrelenting, tireless pursuit of its prey, seen far away across the bare rocky hills of Southern California, and affords an interesting contrast to the pose of the skeleton in the “ Asphalt Group”, which stands excited, hesitant, feet wide apart, THE GRIM WOLF OF THE TAR PITS 47 undecided whether to leap aside from the near presence of the dangerous sabre- tooth tiger, or to dash in on it if its entanglement has rendered it helpless. In the trotting step two feet are lifted from the ground together, right fore and left hind alternating with the opposite couple. The body is pitched forward from the spring of the right fore and left hind limbs, the alternate couple have reached forward to the next step, the neck and head are stretched rather stiffly forward, while a faint curvature from side to side in the backbone is caused by the slight twist of the pelvis and the alternating pull of the shoulder and hip muscles on the back. All these details if correctly represented serve to give a lifelike appearance to the mounted skeleton, so that it is not difficult to sketch in mentally the outlines of the great wolf pursuing his distant prey over hill and valley with unwearied _perti- nacity. For the grim wolf of the tar pits was a veteran of the chase, and must have had a long career of successful hunt- ing before he rashly adventured upon the treacherous surface of the asphalt spring and came to an inglorious and miserable end in its sticky depths. It is not difficult to sketch in mentilly the outlines of the great wolf pursuing his distant prey over hill and valley with unwearied pertinacity., Restoration by Mr. Erwin Christman mrt ey 8 Be 4 r =| e bee ; 2 : 4 ' % : £ a4 b 4 i | : f ; ' ¥ Sing ; 4 % | THE GREATEST CHIEF OF THE PAWNEE INDIANS Petahlayshahrho, chief of the Skidi band of the Pawnee from 1852 to 1874. Owing to the heroic efforts of his father, of the same name, the custom of human sacrifice had been discontinued in this tribe as a public ceremony. It was however still occasionally repeated in secret, and was only finally abolished as a result of the persistent campaign of this man who, as the greatest chief of his tribe, was later prominent in negotiating the treaty of 1858 48 The Pawnee Human Sacrifice to the Morningstar By CLARK WISSLER and HERBERT J. SPINDEN OMETIMES it happens that the most insignificant looking object has the most interesting history. In the Museum’s Pawnee Indian collec- tion is a simple pair of thongs, but slightly decorated, which of themselves would escape notice, yet which stand, so far, as our only objective representation of the Pawnee human sacrifice ceremon- ies. The historic home of the Pawnee was Nebraska, where they resided until moved to Oklahoma in 1876. They were to some extent an agricultural people but were also great buffalo hunters. They had a highly developed ceremonial and religious system in which certain stars in the heavens were the leading gods. One very bright star, probably Mars, was the Pawnee god of war, although often spoken of as the Morningstar, and there was in the keep- ing of certain priests a ritual for the sacrifice of a captive to this star. While the sacrifice was made only when the star was in a certain position at dawn, it was not an annual occurrence but was given only when the Morningstar himself called for it. This he did by appearing to an individual in a dream or vision. Then war parties were sent out until a captive maiden was secured. She was kept under guard but otherwise treated like a goddess until the time of the sacrifice. The accessories for the sacrifice cere- mony were provided by various indi- viduals. The thongs mentioned above were intended for tying the hair of the captive. It seems that the Pawnee had for many years performed this gruesome ceremony somewhat unwillingly, im- pelled by a sense of religious duty. It is said that the officiating priests always found it a sore trial. One time about 1818, as arrangements for a_ sacrifice were under way, a bold young man de- cided to rescue the captive. At the psychological moment he interrupted the proceedings and announced it as his intention to free the captive at any cost. He then cut the poor girl loose from the scaffold, carried her swiftly through the awestruck crowd, mounted his horse and dashed away. When beyond pursuit he gave her a horse and sent her on her way. i] US IS oO Ga AIH 3) SES (3===2) DQ = : —@ t The scaffold sacrifice among the Aztecs of Mexico City, as shown in a drawing from the Codex Telleriano- Remensis recording its first appearance. The symbol of the year One Rabbit appears above, below it being recorded the important events of that year, beginning with the sacrifice. The date was written in later by a Spanish priest who interpreted the native manuscript with valuable marginal notes 49 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Then~ returning to the village he an- nounced his oppo- sition to the con- tinuance of the ceremony. As he was already a dis- tinguished warrior and the son of the chief’s sister, which according to the Pawnee system, gave him the hereditary right to succeed his uncle, many strong men rose in _ his favor and pledged their future support. The name of this man was Petahlay- shahrho. In 1821 he visited Washing- ton, D. C., and a medal was presented to him by the ladies of that city in recog- nition of his humane deed. Nevertheless, the ritual of the sac- rifice was still regu- larly performed as a formal matter and many conservative individuals looked forward to a revival of the sacrifice itself. In anticipation of this, vows to furnish the accessories were still made. Thus it was that a man by the name of White-horse, while the tribe was still in Nebraska, made a vow that if he were fortunate during the year he would give the thongs for the next Morningstar sacrifice. Things came his way and he did as he had promised, but the thongs did not serve the purpose intended because the sacrifice had been discontinued. He was bound to pre- serve them however, and at his death passed them on to his family and thence to the keeping of the American Museum. To the serious-minded reader this human sacrifice ceremony of the Pawnee presents some interesting problems. So far as we know there was nothing like it among the other Plains tribes, nor any- where else in the United States and Can- ada, except possibly in Arizona and New Mexico; but in ancient Mexico we find some curious parallels. The Pawnee captive was tied upon a rectangular frame, which according to descriptions consisted of two upright poles and five cross pieces. Four of these cross pieces were in the nature of steps, to the top one of which the feet were bound, and the arms were made fast to the fifth cross piece. Scaffolds of this kind are pictured in Mexican codices. The idea in the Pawnee sacrifice was to offer the victim’s blood and to cut out the heart, which was also the Mexican idea. Again, the Pawnee ritual required that the captive should be induced to do everything of her own free will, even to mounting the scaffold; this also has its Mexican counterpart. The Pawnee captive was shot full of arrows; the Mexican codex sketches show many ar- rows sticking into the sacrifices. Finally, there was an astronomical idea involved, and there is reason to believe that this also was characteristic of the Mexican Thongs used by the Pawnee Indians to tie the hair of the maiden to be sacrificed. They are made of buffalo hide, painted red as a sign of blood, and small deer-hoof rattles are attached to the ends. Underneath the beadwork decoration a small quan- tity of buffalo hair is tied for obscure ceremonial reasons THE PAWNEE HUMAN SACRIFICE rites. All this suggests an_ historical connection between the Pawnee and Aztec cultures, and since the Pawnee is a small group compared with the latter, the probabilities favor the Mexican origin of the ceremony. Let us now turn our attention to the question on its Mexican side. The scaf- fold sacrifice may have been invented by Moctezuma IT in 1506, or more likely, it may have been taken over into Aztec ritual at that time from some tribe in southern Mexico. The early Spanish interpreter of the Codex Telleriano-Re- mensis, writes under the year One Rab- bit (1506) : “In this year Moctezuma shot with arrows a man in this fashion [refer- ring to the illustration], say the old men, because for two hundred years there had always been hunger upon the year One Rabbit.” ! The unexcelled historian of the Indians, Fray Bernardino de Saha- gun, refers to the same year (in which Zozullan had been captured) in these words: “The Mexicans killed many of those from Zozullan which they took in war, and placing them as a windmill’s wings between two poles they shot them, and each year they made this fiesta.”” In addition to the representation of this sac- rifice in the historical portion of the Co- dex Telleriano-Remensis (and its copy, the Codex Rios), there are other represen- tations in the Codex Nuttall, the Manu- serit du Cacique and the Codex Porfirio Diaz. All of these are native books made before or just after the coming of the Spaniards. The scaffold sacrifice was evidently associated by the Aztecs with the feast of the month Tlacaxipehualiztli. This feast was sacred to Xipe Totec, the Lord of the Flayed, a war god whose appalling cult had spread far and wide over Mex- ico and Central America. The feature 1 According to the Aztec system the year One Rabbit recurs every fifty-two years. of Xipe worship which has at- tracted most at- tention was the wearing by war- rior priests of the skins of flayed victims and the holding of a mock battlein this grue- some attire. €!It may be added that the earliest reference toscalp- ing is in connec- tion with the cult of Xipe. Anoth- er ceremony per- formed at this feast was a sort of gladiatorial con- test in which a captive, bound by a rope to the cen- ter of a_ great stone disk and armed with a short wooden club, was com- pelled to fight four warriors fully armed, two wear- ing jaguar-hide costumes and two dressed to repre- sent eagles. In the drawing from the Manuscrit du Cacique the cere- monial of the stone disk is indi- cated at the left. The rope passes from the victim’s waist to the cen- ter of the stone. The handicapped 52 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL gladiator wears the characteristic blood- red dress of the god Xipe Totec. Before a temple at the right is the scaffold, the cross bars of which are tied with ropes. To this scaffold a victim, also wearing the costume of Xipe Totec, is bound. A priest, whose body is painted black, has pierced the sacrifice with several arrows and the blood is streaming down. In the Codex Nuttall the contest on the stone disk is more fully represented and that on the scaffold is somewhat with four cross beams at the bottom and one at the top. The victim is stretched across the open space and his body is pierced by arrows. In one picture we see a priest in the act of shooting. Behind the temple is a pole with some sort of framework at the top and with arope hanging to the ground. Various indi- viduals are also shown, each with his name hieroglyph above his head. There is nothing to indicate that the scaffold sacrifice is here connected with the feast The Mexican feast to Xipe Totec, the Lord of the Flayed, representation from the Manuscrit du Cacique. A temple is depicted at the right, before which a captive taken in war is being sacrificed on a scaffold. A priest garbed in black is throwing arrows at the victim with an atlall, or throwing stick. At the left is shown the contest of the stone disk, in which another captive fights four armed warriors. and head-dress of Xipe Totec abbreviated. There is a _ remarkable uniformity however, in essential details. The day Six House is recorded in both pictures and there are also figured eight sacrificial knives. Under the sacrifice on the scaffold is an object which may represent the sacred bowl used to catch the blood. Two human sacrifices on scaffolds are drawn in a somewhat more realistic fashion in the Codex Porfirio Diaz. In each picture we see a temple (drawn out of seale as always) and before it a scaffold Both victims wear the blood-red costume of Tlacaxipehualiztli. Above the upper cross bar in one case there is a heart, which may indicate that this vital organ was offered to the divinity in whose honor the ceremony was celebrated; in’ the other case there is a disk-shaped object which doubtless represents the sun or some other heavenly body. There is good reason. to believe that the scaffold sacrifice originated in southern Mexico and that it was connected primarily with the sun or some important planet Most of the and secondarily with war. €¢ QOHLIOVs pjoyeos oy} UMOYS SI 4jJo] OY} FV ‘sense se (9AO0qe UMOYS SOUO 0Y}) OA} PUR Sa[see se possoIp OA} ‘SIOLI -IeM pourre AT[NJ moj syysy ‘sqnjo uspoom yyIM ATUO pouLIe pUe ¥SIp 9y} JO 10}U00 oY} 0} 4YSTeM 94} puNoI sdoi ev Aq pousysey ‘10yeIPE]S oAIyded oy, ~poyuesoider ApreopO oro st “OOIXOTAT UIVYINOG “Boexe” Jo 9}7e]g oY} JO oqi1y OUIOS 07 po}Ipei908 A][eJ0UN3 SI pu ‘0J9 ‘seTUOUTEIeD ‘s}sonbuod sps09e1 41 ‘u90I08 osouRde sr *s}diosnueul 9AtjeU oy} [Je Jo peasosoid Ay[NFYNeeq sour oy} Ajqeqosd st sm y, °77077NAJ Lapory oy} ur poxordop se 0910], odry jo yseoq soko sty mOIj UNI sIeay, YSIP 9U0}S 94} JO 3S9}U09 [eLIOVeIPE]s OUT, B OY] Popjoy pue urys-1s0p uo U9} SJ0IsSINOVS NVWNH 4O GHOOsY LNSAIONV : a : 3 3 1 nd. , : : WEELELE TY ‘ Eo) : ' Pa = RG R/ , ? iy SH \’ enee gm . SAealo : 54 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL native records of this, sacrifice refer to southern Mexico and are largely con- cerned with astronomy. ' From these pictures alone we should be unable to obtain more than an ob- jective similarity to the human sacrifice among the Pawnee. . But Sahagun and other early writers give us intimate studies of acts and thoughts of the Mexi- cans that could hardly be expressed in drawings. Many ceremonies are de- scribed; some occurring at fixed times One of two drawings in the Codex Porfirio Diaz representing a scaffold sacrifice. in the National Museum in Mexico City and is accredited to the Ciucatecan tribe of the State of Guerrero. Before a crude drawing of a temple, a priest shoots arrows at the victim before the eyes of onlookers who sit and watch in the year, others at a time regulated by the Tonalamatl, or book of days, or by the rising of some star or planet. The psychological attitude toward human sacrifice comes out clearly in many of these accounts. Ceremonialism was intensely devel- oped in Mexico and the dramatic quality of many Aztec rites of human sacrifice has probably never been equalled. We are apt to think only of the gruesome features of human sacrifice and to over- look the spiritual ones. The victim was often regarded as a personification of a god and as such he was féted, clothed in fine garments, and given every honor. Efforts were made to cause him to go willingly to his death, uplifted by a truly religious ecstasy. It was considered unlucky that he should grieve or falter. To give an example: On the last day of the month Toxeatl there was sacrificed a young man chosen from captured chieftains for his beauty and accom- This manuscript is preserved plishments. For an entire year this intended victim, gayly attired and accompanied by a retinue of pages, had been granted the freedom of the city. When the month of Toxcatl entered he was given brides whose names were those of goddesses, and in his honor was held a succession of brilliant festivals. On the last day there was a parade of canoes across Lake Texcoco, and when a certain piece of desert land was reached the brides and courtiers bade farewell to the THE PAWNEE HUMAN SACRIFICE 55 victim. His pages accompanied him by a little-used trail to the base of an apparently ruined temple. Here he was A leader in the Pawnee ceremony of human sacrifice stripped of his splendid garments and of the jewels that were symbols of divin- ity. With only a necklace of flutes he mounted the steps of the pyramid. At each step he broke one of the flutes and finally arrived at the summit, where the priests, knife in hand, awaited the naked man whose heart was to be offered to the very god he had impersonated. This ceremony is given only as an example, but it illustrates two characteristics found in several other Mexican sacri- fices — namely: the paying of homage and honor to the person chosen for death; and secondly, the necessity of keeping the victim in good spirits and of inducing him to act voluntarily through the ritual. Where women were con- cerned deception was used, but with men an attempt to inspire a religious exalta- tion, triumphing completely over the weaknesses of the flesh, appears to have been practised. If a real connection between the con- cept of human sacrifice among the Pawnee and among the Mexicans should be proved by these facts, we must re- member that the extension to the north must have taken place before 1519 — when the arrival of the Spaniards cut off abruptly the ancient religious rites of the Mexicans — and that it probably took place only shortly before this date since the Aztecs themselves seem to have acquired the rite no earlier than 1506. Photo by Mr. Julius Kirschner IGNAZ MATAUSCH His recent death is an almost irreparable loss to the Museum’s technical constructive work. Mr. Matausch’s work of many years has been done under the supervision of the department of invertebrate zodlogy, which will tell in the next issue of the Journnat the story of his connection with the department and of his many masterpieces of work in wax modeling for the Darwin hall. [This photograph was taken for the JounNAt but a fortnight before his death] Ignaz Matausch HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HALL OF PUBLIC HEALTH By C.-E. A. WINSLOW] HE most striking feature of the ag hall of public health is the case of monster models of insect car- riers of disease. These models, which include the four stages in the life history of the fly; the flea (carrier of bubonic plague); and the egg and adult of the body louse (carrier of typhus fever), rep- resent the last contributions of Ignaz Matausch to the American Museum. No one who has not watched the pro- cess can guess the almost infinite detail involved in the preparation of these won- derful models. Days of patient work are first needed in studying the habits of the insect and in breeding it so that abundant living material in all stages may be obtained. Then every part, every tiny hair, every minute sculptur- ing must be worked out and to scale, each observation being checked up, by the examination of a series of individuals ~ to eliminate abnormal variations, and by comparison with living specimens to avoid the distortion due to death changes. Each part of the model is then modeled and cast and finished and fitted together, the proportions being studied and compared with life at every stage. I suppose Mr. Matausch has said to me a hundred times, “ You see, this must be right in the eatreme.” When the model has been put to- gether and the hairs and scales have one by one been prepared and fitted exactly in place, when the coloring has been completed with the same exhaus- tive care, it is no wonder that such a model as the fly took a year of solid work on the part of its tireless creator. The model of the flea was prepared by Mr. Matausch largely outside of regu- lar Museum hours, which were taken up with other preparation work. The model of the louse was made entirely in this way and was presented to the Museum as the gift of Mr. Matausch. It is a satisfaction to me to remember that some of the last weeks of his life were made happy by his election to life membership in the Museum as a recog- nition of this generous gift. Mr. Matausch worked before hours and after hours, on Sundays and holi- days, for the Museum and its officers, for his loyalty was fervent and intense. Above all however he worked for the love of his work, which absorbed and consumed him with a power such as I have never seen equalled. He said to me once, “I love this work so. The only hard time in the day is the morn- ing hour in the subway — for then I am so anxious to get to work.” Watching him, one had visions of monks bending over their task of pious illumination, of Renaissance artists decorating some chapel ceiling. Ignaz Matausch worked in a different medium but he was in spirit a brother to every one who has ever labored with utter self-abandon for an ideal of perfect work. The model of the Aedes mosquito, carrier of yellow fever, upon which Mr. Matausch was engaged for the six months before his death with consuming enthusiasm and which he rightly believed would have been most beautiful of all. his contributions, was left unfinished. The models already completed however, will long stand as a monument to a great Museum artist; and the memory of his ardent and tireless personality and of his complete devotion to the attainment of the perfect result will remain a living influence with all of us who knew him. 57 ss : uns oy} jo skei 9sU}UI 00} OY} PUL S}oosuT MIOiy WIOY} preNs 03 ‘suoezuLTd oy} J0AO peosds si YJOjoesdoYyH *1O1J0}UT O43 JO S{[Ty oY} J9AO pue sdoTTBA ey} YSno1y4} peoids oo9eqo} jo sppey yeeIX) Ga0NGOud SI AdVOSGNVT IVNSNNN LSOW Vv ‘..O000VEOL MOGVHS,, DNIMOYD NI Sk og: # en ga i On entering the harbor of San Juan, the ship passes the western end of the city Porto By HENRY E. HE island of Porto Rico undoubt- edly surpasses all other regions of equal size — certainly of the New World — in the variety and num- ber of its features that arouse vivid interest. The extent of the island is not great, for its irregular oblong mass is only one hundred miles in length and about thirty-five miles in breadth, or approximately three times as large as Long Island; yet its inhabitants number more than 1,200,000, thus making it more thickly populated than any other equivalent area in the Western Hemi- sphere, excepting certain portions of New England. Its: place in history is a large one, for since its discovery by Columbus in 1493, it has served as the battle ground of Spanish, Dutch, and English, and as a haven for the buc- caneers who operated throughout the Spanish Main. Even in purely scien- tific respects it commands the interest of many a department of investigation, close to El Morro (‘The Castle”), an old fortress at Rico CRAMPTON because its different portions display un- usually varied geological and topographi- cal characters. They also support well diversified forms of plant and animal life, whose study is especially important on account of the island’s value as a link in the Antillean chains that connect North and South America with each other and with Mexico. Hence the prob- lems of evolution, distribution and mi- gration, of human beings as well as of organic forms in general, are particularly well defined and engaging in the case of Porto :Rico.! 1 For these and other reasons, ‘the New York Academy of Sciences has undertaken a prolonged and compre- hensive survey, of the island, for which it has gained the support of the Insular Government and active participation on the part of the New York Botanical Gardens, the American Museum of Natural History, and other institutions. More than a score of investi- gators have already taken the field for work in anthro- pology, botany, geology, paleontology, and zodlogy. As one of these, I have twice visited Porto Rico, and have become somewhat familiar with the delightful scenes with which the present brief article is concerned. — Tue AUTHOR. For the most part, the shores are long even stretches of sandy beach, but toward the northwest the high ground ends in a series of abrupt headlands The tide pools and boulders constitute the homes and holding-ground of varied forms of animals and plants; they are surpassed only by the coral reefs in the richness of their flora and fauna 60 Porto Rico is only one hundred miles long and about thirty-five miles wide, yet its inhabitants number more than 1,200,000. Some 50,000 are crowded into the small area of San Juan, and everywhere over the island — on the open plain, in a valley near the coast, or in remote and unlikely hollows of the hills are small towns of some 15,000 each On the southern side of the central range the land drops more rapidly to the plains of the island’s periphery. Here irrigation is necessary in order that sugar cane may be grown, for the moisture of the trade winds condenses on the northern slopes. The land becomes a desert bearing several species of cactus 61 ssei3 pue saysnq Ayao: Survey ‘jong 10 Ajureur ‘uMOp 4nd Udeq OALY S90I} OY} BIDYAOSTO ‘S}YSIoY OY} UO seorIe [jeUIS 0} pezoIIjseI Aepo} St 4SeI0J [eAoUILId OY J, L1SdYO4 IWAAWIYd S.OOIY OLYOd AO 143357 SI AINO LYVd TIVWS V £9 SUMO} O51] OY} U9EMJo UOIZBOTUNUIUIOD JO Seu] YUNI} VY} 93NjT}sUOo yey} sptos qooj10d oy} Suoye pue spyey ey} ynoqe pueys sumed [exo oy} O1OYMAIOANT «*oanqyNowse Joj 914e7MS JOU st punoss oy} “AOL19j}UT VY} JO sureJUNOM OY} UT “Urey yeyseOo s_puLTsI oY} 07 ATUOPpNs yeYyAMourOS doip simds pesses3ynq ‘ofueI ureyuNOUT oAISSeUT sIy} UIOIg OOIY OLYOd JO YHOIMSLNI S3HL NI MGIA The valleys are beautiful wide basins surrounded by triangular white hills of limestone. splendid roads and many natural beauties, will always be attractive to the casual visitor — as well as to the inves- tigator of its scientific resources As the approaching steamer nears the northern shore of Porto Rico, where the capital city of San Juan is situated, the huge bulk of the island emerges from the haze of the horizon, and displays the jagged profile of the massive mountain range that forms the interior highland more than three thousand feet in alti- tude. From this great backbone the buttressed spurs drop somewhat sud- denly, and irregularly for the most part, to the coastal plain of greater or less 64 Porto Rico with its inland extent; the deep clefts of the upland valleys disappear, and one may judge how rapidly the swift mountain rivers must change to slow, winding streams upon the flat land of the island’s margin. Coming nearer, San Juan and its buildings become visible and soon a point at its eastern end detaches it- self from the rest to stand out as the cape surmounted by El Morro (“The Castle’), which guards the entrance to the Not the fort is harbor. until PORTO RICO 65 rounded does the city itself become fully visible, for it is built on the landward side of the sandstone ridge which bounds the bay on the north. Elsewhere, for the most part, ships must lie in open road- steads; only at Guanica, Guayanilla, with the mainland; there are plazas and open spaces, but these seem only to accentuate the concentration of living quarters. As one travels about, the same feature becomes more prominent, for on the open plain, in a valley near -. In the limestone regions, hundreds of large and small caverns have been excavated by underground streams. This cave mouth near Corozal is reached by a forty-foot climb up the face of the cliff. Once it is gained, the down- ward view is a striking and characteristic panorama of hill and field and stream and one or two other places is there anything that approaches a_ protected harbor like that of San Juan. At first view, the city is impressive by its extent, the close construction of its ancient and modern buildings, and by the delicate pastel shades of its tinted whitewashed walls. More than fifty thousand. people are crowded in dense areas, on the narrow rock mass that extends eastward from El Morro for two and a half miles to its connection the coast, or in remote and_ unlikely hollows of the hills, one encounters town after town of more thar ten thousand or fifteen thousand Natur- ally the problems of public health are of the highest importance, and of neces- sity they received the immediate atten- tion of the Americans when they came into control of Porto Rico in 1898. Old methods of water distribution by casks have been extensively replaced by a sys- tem which brings water through lines of inhabitants. 3AVO WZOHOO AHL 4O HLNOW 3HL WOUS MIA x a eee OL gi POE sete 7 ae PORTO RICO 67 pipes from the upland streams; and everywhere measures have been taken to reduce the severity of epidemics or to stamp them out, sometimes at the cost of buildings whose dynamited ruins show how frequent in some areas were the abodes of domestic animals that trans- mitted disease. On the whole, Porto Rico of today is a healthful island, with To- ward the northwest however, bold head- beach grape and lupine vegetation. lands terminate in cliffs at the water’s edge, below which there are broken boulders and tide pools that support varied forms of seaweeds and of animal life, and constitute rich fields for the collector. The peripheral portions of the island and the wide outer parts of the The way into the cave narrows until after four hundred yards or more of walking and scrambling and creep- ing, one emerges into daylight through a small hole on the other side of the hill. Relics of the ancient tribes Colum- bus found in Porto Rico have been discovered in these caves a warm climate well tempered by the trade winds, and well cultivated almost everywhere. With its splendid roads and natural beauties, it is and will al- ways be attractive to the casual trav- eler, as well as to the investigator of its scientific character and resources. The shores for the most part are even beaches of sand, with the characteristic valleys bear enormous fields of sugar cane, which is one of the great staple products. On these alluvial coastal por- tions citrus fruits also are grown exten- sively, as well as pineapples. Altogether, the impression that is early made upon the visitor is one of intense agricultural an impression that .deepens industry as one’s acquaintance grows. 68 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL In the interior valleys, plantations of tobacco are laid out. The plants are protected by sheets of cheesecloth which, with their sharply-defined bor- ders, seem like incongruous fields of snow upon the deep green of the hills. Even the steep slopes of the hills bear here and there their little patches of tobacco or of other crops, centering about a native hut perched precariously near the top, and set off by the graceful royal palms. Higher up, the character of the ground or of the gradient may be such as to render the region unsuitable for tobacco, yet even here coffee and cocoa are grown under the shade of specially planted trees. Little remains of the larger forest, for wood becomes scarce when so many demand it daily for fires. Only on the higher peaks of the great central moun- tains are there any relics of the primeval growth that once extended so widely. On the flanks of the main east-and- west backbone of the island, composed of igneous rocks, there are broken levels and hills of limestone, full of marine indications of their Since their formation the land has risen so as to lift them many hundreds of feet above their former level. Where the rivers have worn against them, they display stratified faces of especial in- terest to the geologist and palzontolo- gist. Passing the great divide from north to south, the mountains drop more rapidly to the foothills and to the coastal plains. In the southeast the ground is still suitable for sugar and cocoanut groves; but coming west, the effect of the heights in cutting off the moisture of the trades becomes more marked, and a semi-arid region with its characteristic cactus is encountered. Here the cane can be grown only by extensive irriga- tion, which the Insular Government has fossils and other origin at the border of the ocean. Within the cave thousands of bats hide in the holes of the arched roof and there are various insects and huge Arachnida with long delicate antenn# which serve them in place of their virtually useless eyes PORTO RICO 69 undertaken with great success and profit. Toward the southwest, the land becomes a typical desert, and about This Interior of a cave above Ciales, Porto Rico. is a cave with many mouths and a huge vaulted chamber with many stalactites and stalagmites Lake Guanica it supports little besides the association of cactus plants. In the limestone regions, hundreds of large and small caverns have been exca- vated by underground streams. One of these, near Corozal, is well worthy of description. The valley is a beautiful wide surrounded by peculiar triangular white hills of limestone, and the cave mouth, about forty feet in height, is reached by means of creepers and ledges on the very face of the cliff. Once it is gained, the downward view is a striking and characteristic panorama of hill and field and stream. On the sides of the entrance there are hundreds of spider webs, each with the dried remains of its casual collection of prey. Trend- ing inward and upward, the way nar- rows until after four hundred yards or more of walking and scrambling and creeping, one emerges into daylight through a small hole on the other side of the hill. Thousands of bats hide in the holes of the arched roof, or cling to its rough surfaces. On the walls there are peculiar forms of insects and huge Arachnida, with long delicate antennze which serve them in place of their virtu- ally useless eyes. By way of contrast, the cave in the hills above Ciales is one with many mouths, and a huge vaulted chamber with stalactites and stalag- mites above and below. On account of the dominant Spanish influence for so many centuries, the population naturally exhibits a_pre- ponderance of the characters of that race. Only a small section however, has retained its purity, of which it is justly proud; for the most part the people are mixtures of Spanish, Negro and Indian characters. It is strange that so few are found with unmixed African features, although in certain settlements. they too have preserved many of the customs as well as the basin, Ancient carvings of crude design are found on the hard dense boulders along the streams physique of their ancestors. The ab- original type has long since disappeared, save in restricted regions where now and then a countenance displays features not unlike those of Spaniard and African. Relics of the tribes Columbus found in Porto Rico are discovered in caves, shell heaps, or about dwelling places. Very striking carvings of crude design are not infrequent on the hard dense along the streams, especially Utuado. These are somewhat similar to the boulders in the carvings pictographs of St. Vincent and other Antilles and to the curious sculptures of inland British Guiana. environs of Ancient method of water distribution in Porto Rico, now replaced by a system which brings pure water from the rivers of the highlands 70 Natural History Museums and the Library By GEORGE H. SHERWOOD USEUMS and libraries are alike in M that they are both educational agents of the community — the former through their explorations, researches and exhibits: the latter through their books. The purpose of each is the diffusion of knowledge, but naturally the methods of im- parting this knowledge differ. The method of instruction in the museum is primarily an appeal to the eye and is based on the inherent curiosity of the individual. It is therefore elemental. The method of instruc- tion in the library is a direct appeal to the mental traits of the individual. It presup- poses previous instruction. The value of each is dependent upon the extent to which it is used. Both are faced with the same prob- lem — namely, how to arouse and maintain the interest of the community. The museum attracts the casual visitor and his natural curiosity is turned into a desire for further knowledge. He accordingly seeks the library as the means of satisfying this desire. The museum therefore is one of the natural feeders of the library. On the other hand, the desire of the reader to see in concrete form the objects about which he is reading, leads him to enter the exhibition halls of the museum. In such cases, the library becomes one of the natural feeders of the museum. There is a wide field then, for coéperation between the museum and the library, and especially between the natural history museum and the library. The means of carrying out this codperation will differ considerably according to the location, char- acter and size of the institution, but the same general principles will underlie all methods. In 1907, The American Museum of Natu- ral History made its first efforts to bring its work into closer touch with the libraries of New York City, and it was felt that the best results would be obtained by working through the juvenile departments of the libraries. Conferences were held with the supervisor of the children’s libraries, and several small col- lections for exhibition in the libraries were prepared. These collections were designed to stimulate the reading of good books relat- ing to the subjects which the specimens illus- trated. The material was selected with due regard to the general character of the district in which the library was located, and the results in some instances were very striking. An Eskimo exhibit was placed in a branch library on the lower West Side, which has a cosmopolitan population. In less than four weeks the call for Arctic books increased from nothing to four hundred, and to meet the demand the librarian found it necessary to draw on Arctic books from other branches. The results warranted the continuation of this work and for several years it has been carried on in a more or less energetic way. That it has not developed still more rapidly was due in part to the absorption of the Museum’s department of education in organ- izing and carrying out other features of museum extension. Early in the current year the American Museum was in a position to give more atten- tion to this phase of museum work and the matter of codperation with the libraries was taken up as a special branch of the Museum’s department of public education, all loans being made through this channel. Libraries were visited in order better to understand their needs, and the children’s librarians came to the Museum, suggesting the type of exhibit that would appeal to their patrons. From this data, a number of special circulating col- lections were prepared for use in the children’s rooms of the libraries. Each collection was planned to be a unit in itself, to consist of rela- tively few specimens completely labeled, and to be scientifically accurate as well as interesting. If you really want a friend to read a book you do not give it to him but loan it. Our experience in providing circulating nature study collections for the public schools of New York City had emphasized the impor- tance of making the collections “‘loan collec- tions,” and not leaving them for an indefinite period in the schools. This same idea was applied in connection with the library circu- lating collections, and it was decided to limit the loan period to four or to six weeks. The results of the year’s work have fully justified this decision. During the spring six collec- tions were completed and put in circulation. These were designated as follows: 1— Spring- time Collection; 2—The Eskimo; 3—In- 71 72 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL dians of the Plains; 4— Indians of the South- west; 5— New England Birds and Nests, and 6 — Life at the Seashore. In addition to these regularly circulating sets, a few spe- cial collections were prepared to meet the needs of certain libraries. The ‘Springtime Collection” consists of small habitat groups of the common birds, such as robin, song-sparrow and goldfinch, with nests and eggs, male and female parent birds, and in addition shows peculiar habits of several other birds such as nuthatch and woodpecker. Common insects, batrachians, turtles and snakes are also represented in this collection. The ‘Eskimo Collection” consists of thirty-nine pieces which give a fair represen- tation of the life of the Eskimo. The “In- dians of the Plains Collection” consists of thirty-eight specimens, including household utensils and articles of dress and emphasizing the decorative art of the Indians as illustrated by their work. The “Indians of the South- west Collection” consists of forty pieces illustrating the weaving and pottery-making for which these Indians are especially noted. The collection illustrating life at the sea- shore comprises sea birds, shells, starfishes, sea-urchins and other marine forms that can readily be found along the seashore, the principal object of interest being a minia- ture lighthouse, about two feet in height, showing a portion of the headland and beach on which it stands. This collection was first sent to the Fort Washington Branch of the New York Public Library, and the following quotation from a letter of the librarian shows some of the results of coéperation between the museum and one library: “We used the Museum collection as a basis for the stories used in the work with our older boys’ club. Sea stories were told and the ship models explained — rigging, masts, etc. Adult visitors to the room were inter- ested in the exhibit, and a member of the library who had had interesting experiences at sea, talked informally for an hour or so about ships, to a group of about thirty boys. A collection of books on aquatic animals, ad- ventures at sea, sailors’ yarns, poems deal- ing with sea life, were put with the Museum’s collection. We had approximately one hun- dred and seventy circulations from this col- lection. A bulletin of ‘Stories of the Sea’ was also posted. Kindergarten classes visiting the children’s room with teachers were shown the exhibit in detail.” Although some of the collections were not completed at once and have been in circulation but a short time, they have been seen by more than 30,000 children. The number and yari- ety of similar collections that may be prepared is almost unlimited. It would be compara- tively easy to prepare an exhibit illustrating the methods of attracting birds around our homes, such as are described in the many books for bird lovers of which Wild Bird Guests by Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes is a good example. Many groups of books on geog- raphy and travel could be given added interest through a collection from a natural history museum. The plans for the development of the work during the present winter contemplate the preparation of additional collections whieh will be definitely correlated with the special books in the children’s libraries and particu- larly with the story hour conducted by the librarians. Codédperation along these lines is particularly worthy of consideration for there is little doubt that it will produce results of great value to the children. The exhibits thus far planned have been de- signed primarily for children. Similar exhibits might well be prepared for adult readers. In connection with a series of books on ama- teur gardening a collection showing the injuri- ious insects which so often frustrate the ambitions of the tiller of the soil would not only stimulate interest in this group of books but also would convey much profitable information. Similarly education on problems of public health, as the campaign for the extermi- nation of mosquito and fly, can be materi- ally assisted by small exhibits from the natural history museum, while large numbers of exhibits could be prepared which would visualize and vitalize books on useful arts, fine arts, sociology, geography and travel. These are only a few of the ways in which practical and effective coédperation may be promulgated between libraries and the mu- seum. Museum Notes DanieLt Giraup Exuiotr, noted zodlogist and writer, died on December 22, 1915, at his home in New York City. Dr. Elliot shared with the late Professor Albert S. Bickmore the honor of being one of the two scientific founders of the American Museum of Natural History, and it was through his knowledge, gifts and purchases that the Museum was able to obtain what are now some of its most valuable collections. Dr. Elliot’s own collection of birds supplied the Museum with the group of extinct Labrador duck, one of the most valuable bird groups in the Museum, and his extensive travels enabled him to bring to the Museum many other important acquisitions. Dr. Elliot was the author of many scientific works, a traveler and collector of unusual range and experience, and he will long be re- membered as one of the most distinguished naturalists of his time. In recognition of his services to the American Museum he was elected a member of the Board of Trustees in November, 1915. Tue New York ZoGé.oaicau Society is developing in Georgetown, British Guiana, a new zoological idea. On January 22, Mr. C. William Beebe, curator of birds in the New York Zodlogical Park, sailed for Demarara to establish there a tropical zodlogical station for the study of the evolution of birds and the life histories of important South American species. Mr. Beebe was accompanied by three assistants, Mr. G. Inness Hartley as research associate; Mr. Paul G. Howes, an expert in micro-photography and the inten- sive study of invertebrates, and Mr. Donald Carter as collector. One of the first bird species to be studied exhaustively in its native haunts will be the rather elusive hoatzin, which thus far never has been shown alive in captivity, and which even at this late day is a living challenge to ornithologists. The life histories of the vast majority of tropical birds are yet to be learned, and the new zodlogical station, equipped with expert knowledge and all necessary facilities, will enter and exploit a rich and extensive field. The Government of British Guiana is offer- ing the new enterprise codperation, and ter- minal facilities of great practical value. The Trinidad Steamship Company has joined in promoting the enterprise in many ways. The entire fund for the first year’s work of the new Tropical Zodlogical Station has been furnished by five members of the Board of Managers of the New York Zodlogical Society, Messrs. Cleveland H. Dodge, Mortimer L. Schiff, C. Ledyard Blair, James J. Hill, and George J. Gould. Not the least important function of the new station will be the gathering and forwarding of regular supplies of living verte- brates for the New York Zodlogical Park. Ar- rangements have also been made for collecting reptiles in alcohol for the department of rep- tiles of the American Museum, for which facilities have been provided well in advance. TurovueH the interest of the Honorable F. M. B. Fisher, of Wellington, New Zealand, the Museum has been presented by the Minister for Internal Affairs of the New Zealand Government, with two of the five live specimens of Sphenodon forming part of the New Zealand exhibit at the Panama- Pacific International Exposition. This al- most extinct lizard-like reptile is now found only on certain rocky islets in the Bay of Plenty, Northern New Zealand, and although specimens preserved in alcohol have reached this country in small numbers, no living example has before been seen here, much less studied. Great scientific interest attaches to these seemingly insignificant creatures, owing to the fact that this species (Sphenodon punctatum) is the sole surviving representative of the whole order of Prosauria, or primitive reptiles, and is thus practically a “living fossil.” The “tuatara’’ as it is locally called, is now protected by law in New Zealand, having been formerly hunted for food. Models and casts are being made from the living tuataras at the Museum by the sec- tion of reptiles, preliminary to the construction of a habitat group. Since the last issue of the JourNat the fol- lowing persons have become members of the Museum: Life Members, Mrs. Apotr S. LADENBURG and Messrs. Rosert Woops Buss and ALPHONSE H. KuRSHEEDT. Sustaining Members, Mrs. Tuomas A. Epison and Hon. LispenaRD STEWART. Annual Members, Mrs. James Brite, Mrs. Morcan Drx, Mrs. T. E. HArpEn- 73 74 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL BERGH, Mrs. W. K. Harrineton, Mrs. G. J. Heimer, Mrs. Jerrerson Hoaan, Mrs. Eton H. Hooker, Mrs. Revusen Howes, Mrs. Artuur B. Jexyii, Mrs. DrLancey Kane, Mrs. Ernest L. Srmpson, Mrs. Dr Cost Smitu, Mrs. E. W. Sparrow, Mrs. JoHN StemmeE, Mrs. H. Grant Stravs, Mrs. Apert Strauss, Mrs. Horace M. SweTLanpD, Mrs. THEODORE TIEDEMANN, Misses FLorEeNcE GAyLey, MArGareT Hog, and CaTHLEEN VANDERBILT, REVEREND ANDREW CHALMERS WILSON, Dr. 8S. A. ELLs, Dr. JosrpH 8. WHrEtwricut, Dr. R. H. Wyuir, and Mzssrs. Davin A. ANSBACHER, C. L. Bausner, Ricuarp P. H. Durkexr, Frep. T. Fierrmann, Henry 8. FLemina, Dupitey G. Gautier, Rospert L. Gerry, Rosert McM. Gitiespie, ArtHuR G. Hic- eins, E. 8. Hurr, Witu1am R. Innis, HENRY JAMES, JR., FREDERICK Kurrrorr, WILLIAM M. Lesuiz, OrMonD EvGENE Lewis, FRED. Muuier-Scuatt, CHartes H. Russet, Herman Hvumsoitpt Suunor, FREDERICK Bouton Simpson, Martin Strauss, LIONEL Surro, Noau W. Taussic, THomas D. Van Dusen, Ernst G. Victor, C. BLAINE Warner and A. Murray Youna. Dr. CLark WIssLeR and Dr. Ropert H. Lowie were delegates from the American Museum to the Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, which convened in Washington, December 27-31, 1915. Dr. Lowie also represented the New York Acad- emy of Sciences and Dr. Pliny E. Goddard of the Museum was delegate for the American Ethnological Society. Meetings were held in affiliation with the Section of Anthropology of the Second Pan-American Scientific Con- gress and with the American Anthropological Society, the American Folk-Lore Society, the American Historical Association and the Archeological Institute of America. In the Section of Archeology Mr. Charles W. Mead read a paper on “The Puma Motive in Ancient Peruvian Art”; Mr. Alanson Skinner on “Chronological Relations of the Coastal Algonkin Culture’; Mr. N. C. Nel- son on ‘Pueblo Ruins of the Galisteo Basin, New Mexico”; Dr. H. J. Spinden on “ Recent Progress in the Study of Maya Art”; and Dr. Clark Wissler, Dr. C. A. Reeds and Mr. Leslie Spier on “Excavations on the Abbott Farm at Trenton, New Jersey.” In the Section of Ethnology papers were read by Dr. Clark Wissler on “Comparative Study of Pawnee and Blackfoot Rituals” (by title only); Dr. Herbert J. Spinden on “ Origin and Distribution of Agriculture in the New World”; and Professor A. L. Kroeber on “The Pacific Coast Tribes of North America.” On Thursday evenings during January a course of four lectures on ‘Varieties of Culture among North American Indians,” were given by the department of anthro- pology of the American Museum. Dr. Robert H. Lowie spoke on ‘The Indians of the East,’ and ‘The Indians of the Plains,” and Dr. Pliny E. Goddard on ‘The Indians of the Southwest,” and “The In- dians of the Pacific Coast.” A pHASE of the work of the Museum’s — department of education, which is growing faster than facilities can be provided, is the lecture and demonstration work with the blind children of Manhattan and the Bronx. Since 1910, when it was first inaugurated through the Jonathan Thorne Memorial Fund, this work has been a regular part of the education department’s activities, but during 1915 it has been possible to extend and reorganize the facilities afforded. As a result, classes of blind children from the public schools now visit the Museum from ten to fifteen times each month, as against twice a month in 1913. The aim has been to codperate as perfectly as possible with the schools and teachers in regard to time, sub- ject and treatment, and secondly to have the classes as small as possible so that each child may handle at leisure each specimen or exhibit and may ask questions about it. Talks are given upon a series of subjects, for example: ‘How our Furred Friends spend the Winter’’; ‘‘ Native Birds and their Nests’; ‘How Men Travel”; ‘Cotton, Wool and Silk.”” Miss Ann E. Thomas, who has charge of this work, makes a point of showing as many natural specimens as pos- sible, in addition to models. Appreciation of the work is so general and practical that twice as many classes are asked for as can be provided with the present equipment. Mr. Barnum Brown returned early in January, bringing a carload of fossil dinosaur bones, chiefly from the Belly River Cretaceous formation of Alberta. The collection com- prises two complete skeletons; one of the horned dinosaur Ceratops, of which the Mu- MUSEUM NOTES 75 seum previously possessed only skulls; the other of the helmeted dinosaur Stephano- saurus, not before represented in the Muse- um’s collections. Other notable specimens are a complete skull and jaws of the horned dinosaur Monoclonius; a skull and part of the skeleton of an armored dinosaur; and the largest skull yet discovered (five feet in length) of the duck-billed dinosaur, T’racho- don. Another very rare specimen is a com- plete lower jaw of a cretaceous marsupial mammal. In addition to the vertebrate remains, two large silicified tree trunks were secured, over forty: feet in length. When these are sec- tioned it will be possible to determine the genus to which they belong. They are of especial interest because the center of the tree is silicified, while surrounding it the outer portion had carbonized, forming lig- nite. Several large slabs were also obtained on which impressions of many species of leaves are beautifully preserved. This ma- terial will be displayed to show the type of foliage contemporaneous with the dinosaur life of Alberta. After bringing to completion the Museum’s work on the Red Deer River, which has extended over a period of six years and been productive of four and a half carloads of valuable fossils, Mr. Brown went to Northern Montana. Here he secured a large collection from the Upper Cretaceous beds on Milk River. Work was continued in this field until zero weather compelled cessation of operations. Mr. N. C. NELson returned to New York about the middle of December, having fin- ished the American Museum’s archzologi- cal investigations in the Rio Grande Valley of northern New Mexico. Mr. Nelson has spent four seasons investigating the territory formerly occupied by the Tanos, which embraces approximately twelve hundred square miles, and in this area has found forty-two true pueblo ruins, composed of from one to forty-three communal houses each, besides innumerable minor sites of archzological interest. These latter consist of small houses, temporary camps, caves, rock shelters, quarries and pictographs. Of the forty-two pueblo ruins found, Mr. Nelson partly excavated the twenty-seven most important, clearing all told something over seventeen hundred ground-floor rooms. He also investigated neighboring territory on the north and on the west, in which were located about twenty-five pueblos. Three of these were tried out by excavation, and a fourth, the historic pueblo of Kotyiti, a natural stronghold in the days of the rebellion, was entirely cleared. Out of these diggings over nine thousand artifacts have been obtained, exclusive of about an equal number of frag- mentary objects, immense quantities of broken pottery, animal bones and food stuffs. Not all of the catalogued specimens however, were of such a character as to make their preservation worth while, being made up of mealing stones, hammer stones and similar common objects. Of the three hundred and thirty-five human skeletons exhumed, about seventy-five or eighty were in condition to be kept for study. By excavation in the large stratified refuse heaps belonging to some of the ruins five successive styles of pot- tery were recognized. With these different styles of ceramics as a key it has been possible to separate the forty-two Tano ruins and about an equal number of ruins in neighbor- ing territory, into five chronological groups. Although this chronological determination does not apply to the entire Pueblo area, it will assist toward an understanding of a large part of it, and marks a real step in the elucidation of Pueblo history. In the course of the summer Mr. Nelson also made an _ eight-hundred-mile recon- naissance trip by team and on foot through northwestern New Mexico and adjacent parts of Colorado and Arizona. The journey included the Mesa Verde district, famous for its cliff dwellings; several tributary val- leys of the San Juan where many ruins were observed; the remarkable ruins of the Chaco Cajion of which Pueblo Bonito is well known; and finally the ruins of the Zufi Valley. These four districts were somewhat distinct culture centers in prehistoric times, all but the last mentioned being apparently abandoned by the Pueblo Indians when the Spaniards first came into the country. Many of the picturesque ruins observed are in a fair state of preservation and Mr. Nelson brought back about two hundred and fifty photographs. Fragmentary pot- tery was gathered everywhere for compara- tive studies. THE MEMBERS of the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress and their friends were 76 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL tendered a reception and luncheon on Thurs- day, January 13, by the president, trustees and scientific staff of the American Museum of Natural History. The guests were re- ceived in the reptile hall on the second floor, from whence, under escort of members of the Museum staff, they undertook a tour of inspection of South and Central American and other exhibits. The Museum’s South American archeological, mineral, and fossil vertebrate collections are especially valuable; its South American study collection of mam- mals is the largest in the world and its South American study collection of birds the largest in North America. Among distinguished members of the Congress present were Dr. Ernesto Quesada and Dr. Juan B. Ambrosetti of Argentina; Antonio Carlos Simoens da Silva of Brazil; Le General Légitime, Ex-President of Haiti; Excellentissimo Sefior Federico A. Pezet and Dr. Julio Tello, of Peru, and Dr. Aristides Agramonte of Cuba. A sorntT archeological expedition of the American Museum and the University of Colorado, in charge of Mr. Earl H. Morris of the latter institution, closed its four months’ field operations in the San Juan district on December 20, 1915. Mr. Morris spent the early part of the summer assisting Mr. Nelson with his work in the Rio Grande Valley, and in September Mr. Nelson ac- companied Mr. Morris to the northern field. Their first joint undertaking was the excava- tion of a small seven-room cliff house on a branch of Johnson Cafion on the southern border of the Mesa Verde. This cliff house had never before been entered by a white man but the difficult undertaking was not rewarded by any finds of especial importance. Some of the very numerous small-house ruins on the adjacent mesas were tried out with better results. These ruins antedate the cliff dwellings and are often overgrown by large trees, sections of which were taken for the purpose of determining their age. The main part of the season’s work how- ever was devoted to the examination and par- tial excavation of ruins in tributary valleys of the upper San Juan including the La Plata, Kootch, Carriso, Frances and Gobernador cafions. Several of the worked ruins belong to the earliest Pueblo period, while others toward the east are of a date falling within the time of the Spanish occupation and sug- gest Zufii affiliations. A considerable collec- tion of pottery and other specimens were obtained. Mr. Morris is now at the mu- seum of the University of Colorado at Boulder, working over his data. An exhibition of paintings by Mr. F. W. Stokes of scenes in the Arctic and Antarctic is now on view in the west assembly hall of the American Museum. On February 13 to 27 an exhibition of bird pictures in water color by Mr. H. C. Denslow will occupy the same hall. Tue American Scenic and Historie Preser- vation Society held its twenty-first annual meeting on the evening of January 21, in the American Museum of Natural History. The Honorable George W. Perkins, a vice president of the society, and president of the Palisades Inter-State Park Commission, delivered the address of the evening on the progress made in the development of the Inter-State Park and the plans for its future. With funds provided in part by the states of New York and New Jersey but more largely by private generosity, the Commission has purchased the twelve and a half miles of the Palisades between Grant’s Tomb and Nyack and has accomplished a great deal toward rendering it a convenient recreation ground. Roads have been built, beaches made, docks, boat houses and restaurants established and in 1915, upwards of a million people crossed the Hudson to walk, camp or picnic, while tenting privileges were enjoyed by twelve to fifteen thousand. Extensive plans for further improvement are in contemplation by the Commission. Ar the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress held in Washington December 27, 1915 to January 8, 1916, Dr. Frank M. Chapman and Dr. Herbert J. Spinden repre- sented the American Museum. Dr. Frank E. Lutz also attended the Congress as dele- gate of the New York Entomological Society and Dr. P. E. Goddard as delegate of the American Ethnological Society. At a special meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science held in connection with the Pan-American Congress, Dr, Frank M. Chapman delivered an address giving an account of the zodlogical survey of South America conducted for the last five years under the auspices of the American Museum. The American Museum of Natural History Seventy-seventh Street and Central Park West, New York City Open free to the public on every day in the year. The American Museum of Natural History was established in 1869 to promote the Natural Sciences and to diffuse a general knowledge of them among the people. It is dependent upon private subscriptions and the fees from members for procuring needed additions to the collections and for carrying on explorations in America and other parts of the world. The membership fees are, WmiiAd WEOMDECrS. . ..... 2. 2. ee $ 10 Sustaining Members (annually)... 25 OSE TICT COL 02) c-Si 100 TN BRS Se Sy i 500 BEIM OMG ast ete ce Ph ere $1,000 Associate Benefactors.............. 10,000 Associate Founders................ 25,000 PIO RCUOIS yo Lo cc a hlonh te seis 50,000 Guides for Study of Exhibits are provided on request to members and teachers by the department of public education. Teachers wishing to bring classes should write or telephone the department for an appointment, specifying the collection to be studied. Lectures to classes may also be arranged for. of children. In all cases the best results are obtained with small groups The Museum Library contains more than 60,000 volumes with a good working collection of publications issued by scientific institutions and societies in this country and abroad. The library is open to the public for reference daily — Sundays and holidays excepted — from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. The Technical Publications of the Museum comprise the Memoirs, Bulletin and Anthropological Papers, the Memoirs and Bulletin edited by J. A. Allen, the Anthropological Papers by Clark Wissler. the institution. These publications cover the field and laboratory researches of The Popular Publications of the Museum comprise the JourRNAL, edited by Mary Cynthia Dickerson, the Handbooks, Leaflets and General Guide. The following list gives some of the popular publications; complete lists, of both technical and popular publications, may be obtained from the Librarian. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS HANDBOOKS Norrs AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE PLains. By Clark Wissler, Ph.D. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. INDIANS OF THE SoutTHWEsT. By Pliny Earle Goddard, Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. ANIMALS OF THE Past. By Frederic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Paper, 35 cents. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE LEAFLETS Generat Guipe To THE CoLLEctTIONs. New edition issued December, 1914. Price, 25 cents. Tue CoLiection or Minerats. By Louis P. Grata- cap, A.M. Price, 5 cents. Norrn AmMEricaAN RuMINANTS. Pri e, 10 cents. Tue Ancient BAsket Makers oF SouTHEASTERN Urau. By George H. Pepper. Price, 10 cents. Primitive Arr. Price, 15 ents. Tue Birps oF THE Vicinity or New York City. By Frank M. Chapman, Se.D. Price, 15 cents. PeruviAaN Mummies. By Charles W. Mead. Price, 10 cents. Tse MeEreorires IN THE FoYER OF THE AMERICAN Museum or Narurat History. By Edmund Otis Hovey, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Tse Hasitat Groups or NortH AMERICAN Birps. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. Price, 15 cents. By J. A. Allen, Ph.D. Tue Inprans oF MANHATTAN ISLAND AND VICINITY. By Alanson Skinner. Tue Strokes PAINTINGS REPRESENTING GREENLAND Eskimo. Oui of print. Brier History or ANTARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 10 cents. TreES AND Forestry. By Mary Cynthia Dickerson, B.S. A new edilion in course of preparation. Tue Protection or R1vER AND HARBOR WATERS FROM Municipat Wastes. By Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, M.S. Price, 10 cents. Priant Forms 1x Wax. By E. C. B. Fassett. 10 cents. Tue Evo.utTIion OF THE Horse. Ph.D. Price, 20 cents. MAmmorus AND Mastopons. By W.D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Price, Price, By W.D Matthew, REPRINTS Tue Grounp Storn Group. By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 6 cents. MeEtuHops AND Resutts IN HERPETOLOGY. Cynthia Dickerson, B.S. Out of print. Tue Wuarr Pitt Group. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. Price, 5 cents. Tue Sea Worm Group. Price, 10 cents. Tuer ANCESTRY OF THE EDENTATES. thew, Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. By Mary By Roy W. Miner, A.B. By W. D. Mat- i ae hw si : 2 os ‘s ay es" wigs ey ow GS diss ‘ + a oe ee Nests Ande Soy Pe ae arte be sacieh as 2 Fe THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 5 ket ei i alae ct | fe Be aes Wn OF - : rs . tok, aa, pioanes | oo Se NATURAL HISTORY HP. 4 Foster ha ISS pee —~ ED ot: Seat - 2 = \ + z ~ . mn an t= % SOM u : : é : See FOR THE. PEOPLE || | FOR EDVCATION : peak een | FOR SCIENCE. i = ; om — = Lad a “G oe + ra “as os << ‘4 ~~ sage | eee Re = - . od > a ~ if ‘ ~~ s . D « ~s Xe O77 S39 eee = a aie x So Aw gah Yi, 3 Bisa b> ne )LUME XVI PODRVAKT, 1910 no NUMBER LUNI TODAY — FORECASTIN YELLOWSTONE PARK BI | ZOOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO CHINA The American Museum of Natural History BOARD OF TRUSTEES President Henry FatrrietpD OsBorNn Second Vice-President J. P. MorGan First Vice-President CLEVELAND H. DopGE Treasurer Secretary Henry P. Davison ADRIAN ISELIN, JR. JoHN Purroy MitcHe.t, Mayor or tHe City or New York Witiiam A. PRENDERGAST, COMPTROLLER OF THE City or New YorK Casot Warp, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PARKS GerEoRGE F. Baker FREDERICK F. BREWSTER JosEPpH H. CHOATE R. Fuiton CurtTine Tuomas DEWITT CuYLER James DoucGias Henry C. Frick Mapison GRANT Anson W. Harp ArcHER M. HuNTINGTON ARTHUR CURTISS JAMES Watter B. JAMES Seto Low OcpEN MILLS Percy R. Pyne JoHn B. TREVOR Freirx M. WarsurG GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM A. D. JUILLIARD ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS Director Freperic A. Lucas Assistant Treasurer Tue UNITED States Trust Company Assistant Secretary Grorce H. SHERWOOD or New Yor«K SCIENTIFIC STAFF Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Director Geology and Invertebrate Paleontology Epmunp OrT1s Hovey, Ph.D., Curator CuesterR A. Reeps, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Mineralogy L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator GrorcGe F. Kunz, Ph.D., Honorary Curator Gems Woods and Forestry Mary Cynruia Dickerson, B.S., Curator Invertebrate Zoédlogy Hewry E. Crampton, Ph,D., Curator Roy W. Miner, A.B., Asst. Curator Frank E. Lurz, Ph.D., Asst. Curator L. P. Gratacarp, A.M., Curator Mollusca A. J. Mutcuuer, Assistant Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant DaniEL_ M. Fisx, A.M., Assistant W. M. Wuee ter, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Social Insects A. L. Treapwett, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Annulata Cuarues W. Lena, B.S., Hon. Curator Coleoptera Ichthyology and Herpetology Basurorp Dean, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus Louis Hussaxor, Ph.D., Curator Ichthyology Joun T. Nicuots, A.B., Asst. Cur. Recent Fishes Mary OCynruia Dicxerson, B.S., Assoc. Curator Herpetology Mammalogy and Ornithology J. A. Atuen, Ph.D., Curator Frank M. Cuapman, Sc.D., Curator Ornithology Roy C. Anprews, A.M., Asst. Cur. Mammalogy W. DeW. Mituer, Asst. Curator Ornithology H. E. Anruony, B.S., Assistant Mammalogy Herpert Lana, Assistant Mammalogy James P. Cuapin, Assistant Ornithology Vertebrate Paleontology an Henry Fairrietp Ossorn, LL.D., D.Se., Curator Emeritus W. D. Marruew, Ph.D., Curator Wa trer GRANGER, Assoc. Curator [Mammals] Barnum Brown, A.B., Assoc. Curator [Reptiles] Witiiam K. Grecory, Ph.D., Assoc. in Palzon- tology CuHaR.LeEs R. Eastman, Ph.D., Research Associate Anthropology CLARK Wiss.LeirR, Ph.D., Curator Puiny E. Gopparp, Ph.D., Curator Ethnology Rosert H. Lowiz, Ph.D., Assoc. Curator Herpert J. Spinpen, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Nets C. Netson, M.L., Asst. Curator Cuarues W. Moaap, Asst. Curator M. D. C. Crawrorp, Research Associate in Tex- tiles Gro. Brrp GRINNELL, Ph.D., Research Associate in Ethnology J. H. McGrecor, Ph.D., Research Associate in Anthropology Anatomy and Physiology Raurpu W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Public Health CHARLES-Epwarp A. Winstow, M.S., Curator Isragt J. Kurauter, Ph.D., Assistant Public Education Gerorce H. SHerwoop, A.M., Curator G. Cuypr Fisuer, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Ann E. Tuomas, Ph.B., Assistant Books and Publications Ratpu W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Ipa Ricnarpson Hoop, A.B., Asst. Librarian THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM February, 1916 VOLUME XVI, NUMBER 2 f ys . x . j Kaw a x ‘ ’ ee: oR MM © ae 2 gh Z + % 2 a z marie ls a : > Leta =a ¥ a » on eae PUBLISHED MONTHLY FROM OCTOBER TO JUNE BY THE. ‘AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY. TERMS: ONE DOLLAR AND A HALF PER YEAR, TWENTY CENTS PER COPY. ENTERED AS SECOND- CLASS MATTER JANUARY 12, 1907, AT THE — POST-OFFICE AT BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, ACT OF CONGRESS, JULY 16, 1894. —_— CONTENTS FOR FEBRUARY The Oldest Town in America and its People.............. Asks KROEBER- 81 An account of the prehistoric Pueblo Zufii, and of the life and culture of the Zufii Indians today as studied during a recent residence among them Illustrations from photographs by the Author The Hoofed Animals of the Yellowstone.................. M. P. SKInNER 87 History and habits of the semi-wild herds of buffalo, antelope, moose, elk, sheep and deer in the Yellow- stone National Park Illustrations from photographs made by the Author during twenty years’ experience in this region Prediction of Climatic Variations................ ELuswortH HuntTINGTON 97 Discussion of causes of storm and drought and the possibility of predicting these far in advance with important economic results The Asiatic Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History Roy CuHapman ANDREWS 105 Reproductions in Duotone of Asiatic Photographs........................ 107 Showing ancient monuments of some of the world’s most ancient civilizations Photographs taken by Mr. Roy Chapman Andrews during previous expeditions to China, Japan and Korea IE LS L. P. Gratacap 115 Ways in which shells and shell motives have been utilized in decoration by savage and civilized peoples Is the Crocker Land Party Living Like Eskimo?........................ 121 Letters from members of the Museum’s expedition in the Arctic telling of their doings, discoveries and plans The Work of Ignaz Matausch and Its Significance to the Museum Roy W. Miner 125 Character sketch of the late artist modeler with an account of his achievements A Few Observations on Snakes in the Field.......... Artuur L. Gittam 129 Telling of the Author’s experiences and methods while snake-hunting SR ne oe eee cea 135 Mary Cynrata Dickerson, Editor Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMERICAN MusEuM JOURNAL, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the American M useum. ARRAYED AS FOR THE SACRED TLAHEWE DANCE Miss Kathryn Deming of New York in native Zufii costume THe American Museum Journac VoLuME XVI FEBRUARY, 1916 NUMBER 2 Symbol of the rainbow god worn on the head by a masked dancer impersonating the god The Oldest Town in America and its People By A. L. KROEBER Professor of Anthropology in the University of California HREE hundred and sixty-six years 7 ago the intrepid Spaniard Coro- nado marched a little army north- ward from Mexico across the deserts of Sonora and Arizona until in what is now the western part of the state of New Mexico, he found and conquered and occupied a group of Pueblo Indian towns whose fame had reached him under the designation of the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” or Zufti. As the years went on one or another of the seven allied towns was abandoned . and its inhabitants moved to the central one of the group, Halona, “Place of the Ants.”’ For over two hundred years now, the whole Zuni tribe has concentrated itself in this settlement which is known to Americans as the Pueblo Zuii, and to its inhabitants as Ittrwawa, “The Middle Place,” for in native belief its site marks the exact center of the earth. With the possible exception of two or three other Pueblo settlements, Zui is thus the oldest inhabited town in the United States, far surpassing in anti- quity Jamestown, Plymouth, and other early English settlements, as well as 81 82 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Sante Fé and St. Augustine of Spanish foundation. The tribe numbers six- teen hundred souls or as many as it could muster after it had gathered itself together after the first disastrous shock of Spanish contact. The houses are still built in the prehistoric way of stone masonry, mortared and plastered with clay, and rise densely clustered, terraced one above the other to a height of four or five stories. The life too of the Zuni, runs in the current of long ago. They have bor- rowed from the American his shirt and his overalls, and have learned to like his coffee and sugar, his bacon and wheat flour. Sheep and donkeys they ob- tained long since from the Spaniard, and many today can boast of owning horses and wagons. But inwardly and in all his relations with other Indians, the Zuni is still purely aboriginal. He does not know whether today is Sunday or Wednesday, whether it is January or July; or what the American names of the store-keeper, missionary and govern- ment agent are. He knows these people by nicknames which he or some friend has given them, and he reckons time by the number of days to the next cere- monial dance ordained by his priests. He supports himself as his forefathers of the immemorial long ago did, through raising corn by hand culture in sandy patches where it would seem that the grain would not even sprout. In the middle of the plaza around which his town is built stands a decaying, roofless and gutted Catholic church, which his forefathers built of adobe under the direction of Spanish missionaries; but two centuries of Christian régime have not influenced the inward spirit of the Zuni. He knew that soldiers stood back of the priest and therefore he obeyed him, yet he hardened his heart against him; and no sooner did Spanish and Mexican authority relax than the Indian quietly shook off the hateful yoke of im- posed religion, and reverted openly to the ancient native ceremonials which he and his fathers had kept alive by secret prac- tices in hidden underground rooms within fifty yards of the walls of the mission. Painted dance tablets with sun, star and cloud sym- There is never a month at Zufi and at some seasons never a week without a public ceremonial dance, and every day brings some religious ritual bols. THE OLDEST TOWN IN AMERICA AND ITS PEOPLE 83 Such tremendously tenacious conser- vatism has kept the Zufi substantially where they were before Columbus dis- covered America. They are not hostile to Americans, in fact their native code of politeness requires that every one They should be treated with courtesy. The Zufii are tenaciously conservative. § the next ceremonial dance. All that any member of the tribe asks is that he should be left alone to practice his reli- gion and live his life as his fathers did. On the relaxation of Spanish and Mexican authority the tribe reverted openly to the ancient native ceremonials, which had been kept alive secretly in hidden underground chambers are merely indifferent to ourselves. All that every Zuni asks is that he should be left alone to support himself, to practice his religion, and to live his life as his fathers did, without interfering with any one and without being interfered with. then that these It is no wonder The Zufi Indian even today reckons time by the number of days to S4 remarkable peo- ple have long at- tracted extraor- dinary attention from anthropolo- gists and students of the aboriginal. Frank Hamilton Cushing, whose genius in cer- tain directions has never been equaled among any of his col- leagues, took up his residence at Zuni nearly forty years ago, and became in every sense a full mem- ber of the tribe, looked on as such by the Zuni themselves. He took part in their war expeditions against the hated Apache and Na- vaho raiders; be- came a member of one of the six sacred Kivas, and was initiated into the religious soci- ety of the priests of the bow. A host of other students have fol- lowed in his foot- steps and the list of anthropologists Wand swallowed by a medicine juggler of a religious society. The lower smooth portion of the stick is thrust down the throat for a length of fourteen inches THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL who have visited Zuni includes most of the eminent names in America, such as Powell, McGee, and Mrs. Stevenson, to mention only some of those no longer living, as well as Tylor and other famous foreigners. With all this study accomplished, one has however to be at Zuni only a few days before being aware that our knowl- edge of the life of the people is very in- complete; in fact that in many respects the ground has scarcely been scratched. Mrs. Stevenson for instance has pub- lished a quarto volume four inches thick on the ceremonies and religious system of the Zuni, yet any tourist in a week can see rituals enacted with full pomp to which she barely alludes. It is not that the studies that have been made are in their nature superficial. In fact many of the published accounts are in- tensive in their detail. It is the Zuni life or culture that for all its aboriginal- ity, is so intricately complex that no volume however thick could hold all that is to be said about any one of its several phases. No one knows exactly, but there must be nearly two hundred gods and mythological characters that are impersonated by distinctively masked and costumed dancers. There is not a month, and at certain seasons not a week, without a public dance in the town, and at no time a day without some sort of religious ritual. The family life of the Zuii is lived precisely as if no white man had yet set foot on American soil. The people are divided into sixteen clans each named after an animal or plant. Descent in these clans is not from the father as we inherit our names and as titles and royal succession descend in Europe, but from the mother. A Zuni is of his mother’s clan but he recognizes his relationship to his father’s people by calling himself the child of his father’s clan. THE OLDEST TOWN IN AMERICA AND ITS PEOPLE 85 Sacred prayer meal bowl of a rain priest. needed for the crops Along with taking precedence over the men in carrying the group names, the women own the houses. A man may, by the labor of his own hands, erect a new house for his wife, from quarrying the rock to laying the roof, while she does nothing more than plaster the walls; yet let a divorce and separation take place, and the property unquestioningly belongs to her. The Zufi are as monog- amous a people as we. They look with repugnance not only upon polygamy, but also upon subsequent marriage with a former wife’s sister or relative. At the same time, divorce is easy. Persons have only to separate. A man tired of Note the ornaments of frogs and dragon flies, symbols of water his wife leaves her. For a woman the procedure is not quite so simple owing to her property right in the house; but at that, she need only nag and abuse her husband until he takes his little bundle of clothes and returns to his natal home. If misplaced affection or stubbornness prevent him from taking the hint, she can have recourse to the more drastic method of simply installing his chosen successor, in which case nothing remains for the deposed husband but to leave quietly. It would certainly seem as if the Zui had long ago achieved for them- selves some of the most radical portions of even the ultra-feministic program. A RARE ANIMAL IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK There are only about one hundred Virginia or white-tailed deer in the Yellowstone, restricted to the lower Gardiner River and Tower Falls, and because of lack of suitable range, this species is not likely to increase in numbers here White-tailed deer mother and fawn, Yellowstone National Park The Hoofed Animals of the Yellowstone’ STORIES OF THE WHITE-TAILED AND MULE DEER, BUFFALO, MOOSE, ELK, MOUNTAIN SHEEP AND ANTELOPE AS THEY THRIVE UNDER THE PROTECTION OF THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE By M. P. SKINNER divided into two herds known as the “tame herd” and the “wild herd.” The tame herd had its nucleus in twenty-one bulls and cows purchased in 1902 from the Allard herd of Mon- tana and the Goodnight herd of Texas. While three more animals were caught within the park and added, still the present herd of one hundred and eighty- five adults, and forty-nine calves born in 1915, is the original herd and its in- crease. This herd is maintained in the upper Lamar Valley where it is permitted to graze in care of a herder until the . ‘HE buffalo of the Yellowstone are 1Tllustrations from photographs. by} the Author, made during a residence of twenty years in the region. forage becomes short in late December or early January; it is then driven into an enclosed pasture and fed on hay until the new grass makes its appearance. Fifteen bulls are driven down to Mam- moth Hot Springs for the public to see during the season. While this is a “tame” herd it is just as well not to take too many liberties with it. Three of the soldiers from Fort Yellowstone with an investigating turn of mind became curi- ous as to the reason for the “ Dangerous”’ signs, opened the pasture gate and went in on foot. Some hours later the buffalo keeper found them enjoying the scenery from a pine top with an angry buffalo pawing the ground underneath. 87 88 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL © The “wild herd” is the remnant of the vast herds that once inhabited our plains and were driven back into the mountains by advancing civilization. Owing to poaching and the difficulty of . protection under the laws then existing, it decreased until only twenty-two ani- mals were known to be in Yellowstone Park in 1902. In July, 1912, a special effort resulted in counting forty-nine animals, and the number is now believed to be about seventy. Evidently this band will multiply if given adequate protection. The word “wild” is a good one; for these are the wildest of the wild, never permitting the approach of horse or man, living in the remotest portions of the park, and wintering at an elevation of eight thousand feet amid the hot springs of the Pelican Valley. Here they manage to gain a scanty living from the grass freed from snow by the interior heat. Aside from deep snow this valley is a good place for them, affording as it does good protection from the bleak, wintry winds that sweep across the park plateau. In summer they have ample grazing in secluded nooks. Throughout the southern part of the park and particularly in the valley of the upper Yellowstone River, live the moose. Living the farthest south of their. kind and isolated among the mountains, it is hardly to be wondered at, that here has developed a peculiar form known as Alces americanus shirasi. The number is conservatively estimated at six hun- dred. Since these animals are slowly spreading to other parts of the Yellow- stone and are found even far to the south of Jackson Lake, it is evident that they are increasing. Observations at the center of abundance seem to confirm this. These moose are found mainly upon the broad willow-covered, marshy bottoms of the upper Yellowstone, Snake, Falls River, and Gallatin valleys. Feed- ing upon the willows and a few scattered quaking asp, as well as upon the aquatic plants of the numerous beaver ponds, their supply of food is plentiful. Their habitat is a secluded one and they have The remnant of the vast herds of buffalo that roamed our plains in years past occupies Yellowstone Park and is known as the “wild herd” THE HOOFED ANIMALS OF THE YELLOWSTONE 89 no enemies within the park. The out- look for the preservation and increase of this herd is good. But the mammal that has taken most kindly to the park is the elk. Origi- nally living far out on the plains and at a much lower altitude, the elk seems to have adapted itself to its forced retire- ment to these mountain fastnesses, until now the region we are discussing This ‘“‘wild herd” was reduced in 1902 to only twenty-two members, through difficulty in proper eeees under laws existing then. In 1912 there were forty-nine and in 1915 about seventy. These buffalo ae et wilc and never permit the approach of man or horse. They winter at an elevation of 8000 feet in Pelican Valley 90 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL contains the only large herd that is left in the country. Nor is it here only that we observe the adaptability of this deer. Coming as no doubt it did from Asia by way of a land or ice bridge across Bering Strait, the elk or wapiti, the largest of the round-horned deer, gradually spread to all parts of what is now the United States, except perhaps the extreme southwest, thus enjoying a wider range than any other American mammal with the possible exception of the black bear. It is a similar adaptability that is seen in the. behavior of the captured elk. For this herd furnishes a surplus of a thousand elk a year which are caught and shipped away to supply preserves and zoological gardens. It takes only three or four days to tame these wild animals so that they can be shipped and handled in small lots as easily as cattle. Yet, such are the anomalies of Nature, this animal (together with the wild buffalo) is the only one to fail to respond to the protection the park affords; it is still as wild as ever and the tourists have dif_fi- culty in believing the tales told them of its abundance. And it is abundant: careful estimates of the northern herd place its number at thirty-seven thou- sand, and there are other herds at the heads of the Madison and Gallatin rivers and along the southern boundary of the park. Probably forty thousand head winter within the park and seventy thousand spend the summer there. In severe winters, food for these elk be- comes hard to get, for they eat grass, browsing upon willow and quaking asp only when forced to do so. They feed then in the open “grass country”’ of the northern section of the park where the elevation is low and the snow not so deep. From November to April they can be seen by thousands in the Black- tail, Hellroaring, Slough Creek, and Lamar valleys. On one ride of ten miles last winter a horseman counted eight thousand four hundred and forty- three elk in the Lamar Valley. Fre- quently they appear close to the build- ings about Tower Falls and occasionally come even among the buildings at Mam- moth Hot Springs. So many are seen on the surrounding hills from Gardiner that they cause no comment. But in summer, the heat combined with the flies drives the elk high up the mountain heights and they are then in the natural pastures at timber. line. This habit together with their wildness makes them hard for the tourist to find. The elk have some enemies within the park. The panthers and the coyotes get a few of the young, and the wolves get many of the adults as well. As yet the damage is not severe and it is hoped the authori- ties can hold these marauders in check. In one or two instances these wild elk have been “tamed” by being fed. As usual with members of the deer family, familiarity with man soon makes them dangerous. At times workmen have been forced to climb trees to get away from these tamed elk even when the elk was a female without horns. Hence attempts at taming have been dis- couraged. An interesting stage in the elk’s life is that immediately following birth. In the latter half of May and early June the cows separate from the herd and retire to the quaking asp and willow thickets of the low valleys. Here the young elk are born, usually a single calf, but sometimes there are twins. The new calf is dark brown, covered with white spots; the long, ungainly legs are so weak that the little elk can stand or — walk only a few moments at atime. For the first few days the mother hides her youngster in the brush whenever she leaves it to secure food for herself. The little elk so hidden sticks so closely to his hiding place that one can approach THE HOOFED ANIMALS OF THE YELLOWSTONE 91 and even touch him. Touching him however breaks the spell and he totters off on unsteady legs to find his mother, sometimes squealing like a little pig as he goes. In the course of a week or ten days the muscles become stronger and the legs more serviceable; the mother then leads her one by easy marches _to- ward the summer ranges away from the heat and the flies which are beginning to be bothersome. Another animal that is widely dis- tributed throughout America, and one that was very important as a meat supply to our pioneer forefathers is the Virginia or white-tailed deer. Here in the Yellowstone it is rare, only about one hundred being known to exist. As its range is restricted however to the lower Gardiner River and to a small sec- tion about Tower Falls, it is frequently seen. Moreover its natural sagacity has led it to appear in numbers at Mam- Bull moose crossing a beaver dam. moth Hot Springs in winter where it is fed hay by the park scouts. This deer is naturally timid and spends its time hidden in the heavy alder and willow thickets where it finds seclusion and plenty of browse. It has no enemies except an occasional panther; but owing to lack of suitable range within the Yellowstone it is improbable that it will ever increase in numbers. The mule deer however, has a different status. This is the deer known through- out the Rockies as the “black-tailed deer,” although the name ought to be restricted to the Columbian black-tail of the coast states. It is preéminently a deer of the open, frequently seen on open, sage-brush hills; and even when it does go into timber, it is apt to select open pine and fir forests in contrast with the thick brushy woods that the white- tailed deer prefers. Estimated con- servatively at twelve hundred, it has seg? ~ me ot The moose in Yellowstone are living farther south than any other moose of the country. They number some six hundred and there is splendid prospect for their protection and increase ] * cdr gt A Miia. Tourists at Mammoth Hot Springs are certain to see the mule deer or common black-tailed deer of the Rocky Mountains. This species is conservatively estimated to number twelve hundred in the park, and is rapidly increas- ing. It is fed in severe winters and the park scouts keep up a war on its enemy, the panther increased in the last few years, and signs of extending its throughout the park. shows range Its present center of abundance especially in winter, is Bunsen Peak and the immediate vicinity of Mammoth Hot Springs. The flour- ishing condition of this species is no doubt due to its being fed in severe win- ters and to the war waged upon its only dangerous enemy the panther — puma or mountain “lion”’ as it is locally known. The spreading of hay has brought this deer about Mammoth Hot Springs in large numbers, and it becomes so tame that most tourists see at least a few. Indeed it is about the only hoofed mam- 92 mal_ that the hurrying tourist can see along the much traveled main routes. Being a deer of the open, carrying its head high, and having noble branching antlers, it is bound to attract attention whenever seen. During the summer season a mother deer with her two, and sometimes three, daintily spotted, beauti- ful little fawns always wins the admira- tion of even the most blasé tourist. At such times it is curious to note that the little fellows exhibit their natural timidity; often the fawns will glance up at their mother as if to make sure that she sees the strange creatures in front. Many are the stories of the deer’s THE HOOFED ANIMAIS OF THE YELLOWSTONE 93 tameness. It is the accustomed thing for troops of deer to make the round of the kitchens at Fort Yellowstone getting a biscuit here, a bit of lettuce there, at the next house perhaps a turnip or a beet. For years one large and particu- larly fierce-looking buck came habitu- ally to the trooper’s quarters for scraps from the table. The bighorn, or Rocky Mountain sheep, is one of the notable sights of the Yellowstone Park. Retiring as it does in summer to the tops of the highest mountains, some effort is required to reach its haunts. But when it makes its appearance near the coach road on Mount Washburn, or when the winter storms drive it to the lower levels, then one has the opportunity of making the acquaintance of this most interesting mammal. Within the park limits it is very tame and illustrates to a marked degree the changes that protection has worked in this wild, timid, hunted ani- mal of the old days. The scouts spread hay for it all through the winter along the main road up the Gardiner River cafion. There are at present about two hundred and fifty in the park, but they do not seem to be increasing at a satis- factory rate. Yet they seem to be breeding well and many lambs are seen each year. The panthers get a few and possibly coyotes catch some of the lambs; still the habit of the sheep to keep near cliffs and their climbing abilities, protect them from these foes. It is possible that the sheep go outside the park and being unafraid, fall easy prey to the hunter. While sheep are perhaps the least inter- The bighorn or Rocky Mountain sheep is very tame in the Yellowstone. It retires to the tops of the high- est mountains in summer, being able to climb up and down steep cliffs at high speed; in winter it may be driven to low levels by severe storms. There are thought to be some two hundred and fifty bighorns in the park 94 esting to watch, yet the ever-changing mountain scenery amid which they dwell, often rewards the searcher for sheep even when no sheep are found. At times the sheep are found at low elevation, as for instance along the canon edge at Tower Falls; or on heights easily reached, as on Specimen Ridge. Nevertheless they are never far from cliffs toward which they can flee in times of danger. As usual with animals living in such places, they are accomplished climbers, often going up and down cliffs at high speed where an experienced mountain man would not care to follow at any speed however slow. If they slip, they do not seem to care but somehow manage to catch footing farther on. While all the hoofed animals fight among them- selves to some extent, the mountain eas on + THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL sheep in this respect are in a class by themselves. Not only do they fight all winter and summer when the deer and elk are quiet and peaceable; but they are continually at it merely for the fun of it; even lambs a few months old spend minutes at a time charging and butting. While the battles of the deer are usually either twisting or pushing matches, the sheep charge each other at full speed; springing into the air just before meet- ing, they come down and together with a terrific crash. Again and again they draw apart for another try; and again and again they come together with all the force that is in them. But the most interesting of all the Yellowstone animals is the pronghorn or antelope. An object of curiosity and controversy among scientists since the hp! sal .. ww “os » aor « The pronghorn or antelope is most interesting of all the hoofed animals of Yellowstone National Park. The fate of the antelope depends on the preservation of the Yellowstone herd, some six hundred animals — a difficult problem, for antelope are wild and heedless of danger. The herd was reduced a few years ago by the escape of fifteen hundred across the northern boundary of the park where they disappeared as though the earth had opened to receive them. The park scouts give more attention to the antelope than to any other of their charges THE HOOFED ANIMALS day it was first described, the antelope steadily challenges the attention of all — so different is it from all other existing animals and having so many strange habits. Even to this day there are many plainsmen who deny that it sheds its horns. Since the day on which the great Audubon drew attention to this peculiarity by denying that such a thing could occur, to the present day, argu- ments pro and con have been tossed back and forth through the pages of our out- door papers. Yet it is not a matter for argument at all. It is a fact that the antelope does shed its horns as regularly as any deer. As in other matters, so here, the antelope has its own method. The only hollow-horned mammal known to shed, it sheds only the sheath of the horn, leaving the bony core with a new sheath already growing upon it. The horns are lost in November, as against February for the white-tailed deer, March for the mule deer and April for the elk. The new sheath grows so rapidly that the wild antelope with partly grown horn is seldom seen. And the cast horn itself is eaten by mice, chipmunks, gophers, coyotes and even by antelope themselves. Our prong- horn, as the name shows, is noted for having the horn branched. The hair too is remarkable and feels like excelsior, being coarse and stiff. An animal of the open, the eyes of the antelope are on the side of the head and are unusually keen-sighted. This being so, a strange object is noted at once and the antelope’s great curiosity leads to an investigation at once. The writer was once bird- hunting in Wyoming in a region where antelope were very wild and _ scarce. There was no antelope in sight at the beginning of the hunt; yet a large white OF THE YELLOWSTONE 95 English setter ranging back and forth after his quarry served to draw a male antelope up to within a hundred feet, ‘although two men and five horses were there in plain sight. The more the dog attended to his own business, the more curious the pronghorn became. The antelope trusts to its own fleet legs for escape, never entering timber if avoid- able. It does not thrive in a zoélogical garden, and will not breed in a small enclosure. Hence the fate of the species hangs upon the preservation of the Yel- lowstone herd. There are now six hun- dred antelope in it and they are slowly increasing. But they present a hard problem. The young are harried by the coyotes; perhaps the larger wolves also get a few. Wild as they can be, yet so heedless of danger that they are con- stantly trying to leave the park never to return. A few years ago fifteen hundred head got out across the northern bound- ary, scattered and disappeared as if the earth had opened and swallowed them. Appreciating the great value of this herd, the authorities spend more> time and money upon its care than upon all the rest of the Yellowstone animals together. Fed every day in winter in corrals espe- cially constructed to admit only the ante- lope, the winter range patroled twice a day, a dozen men employed destroying coyotes and constant watch kept in sum- mer— such is the measure of the care taken of this, our most unique mammal. The white or Rocky Mountain goat has never been seen within the Yellow- stone; nor is there any evidence that it . was ever there. It is true that the goat is a more northern animal, yet the park plateau is elevated and at least some of the ground seems suited to its needs. tor Long itude 1 97° from DOT FT T matt ERS . HHI a th SS ‘i MT | i HAUL LAU UAH | = il ee FI i We = - > it un Ts WITH Ts ul MIU nut THM 3 HUUUHLTY UNDA UNNUHEHE i tiitttt su iin S i Uh Si MTU j > — II vega te ' — > — Ba tee ah i ‘ -----3 wee , HH “f! (i) | a : ; ee | az ada * fu PCA wt es an SS 4 > “he ‘@ 4 “i, sd vt Fe ap OR: ot, J : _ Ape S Seahet *, > eM, * Pier J AO opts y's oy wm; eth ee $22 Be ys ak! wr Te > ay Te. OTE. RARE RR TS MY et UT. ee Iie "S| sampmagpramer one ‘ ; ny en etet ey. Nes ie eae he one 8 . DENSE WILDERNESS OF LARCH IN NORTHWESTERN KOREA The trees are hung with long gray mosses which form a curtain overhead. The Museum's expedition of 1912 traveled six hundred miles through this forest, which had not before been traversed by white men. The entire southern two-thirds of Korea has been completely denuded of forests, but the Japanese are now beginning the work of reforestation Blnyouvyy UIIY4INOS puv vaIOY Ua}svayj}ioU jo sjivd paiojdxoun oj19y}14 OJUT payesjaued YoIYyM ‘ZI6I Jo uontpedxa s winasnyy ay} uo uaye} sem ydesSojoyd ayy, = *‘aangyno1u3e s0J Ajtunjs0ddo ay331] Surpsoye ‘snourejunow pu Ayoou st woes Sty} [[V ‘eunyouvyy jo saddajs Surjor ‘}sea ay} pue vasioy Jo Sule}UNOU ay} UseMJ9q ATepUNOg UJa}svayIIOU 9Y} SULIOJ YOIYM ‘Jaary uawN] oy} dn Surjoo7y LEAW VIYNHONVW OGNV VSYHYOM 3AYSHM ee ce a lalal pon ae nT gles Fi eer Stay, 601 Mojaq ureyd ay} Uo st ‘asouedef oy} Aq 3][INq ‘uIyoURSIazy JO AID MOU DY, ‘aULTYS anbsainjord sty} pue ‘a}v3 plo uv ‘s[jeM Sulpquinio Maj ev Ioj aAvs posvaddesip Ajainue Mou sey Aj}I0 [VUISIIO OY, “suUBLINYouR pue suvaioy ay} usemjoq sajj3eq Aueu Jo auaos ay} SBM pu ‘uletd JaALI ay} JO JNO asOI YOIYA [IY [eanyeu v Jo do} 9y} UO jINq svM UTYOURSIaH] JO A}19 Plo ay YAAIMY NIVA AHL NO ‘NIHONVSIAH LV ANIYHS Ort ssed juvjiodu ue sprens 1 asaym ydeoxa sums ul zed soul 94} 10} MOU SI jNq ‘p]1OM ay} UL YIOM QaISUazap ONURSIS Jsour 94} SI 71 ‘sped parpuny A19A9 siamo} YIM ‘OplM Jaaz AJUaM) PU IYSI9y UL Je9J OM}-AJUIM) Sulsesiaay *ArnjUao YIUI9}INO} ayy UI JING SEA 1124 juaseid ay} Jo yred sayvai3 ay) nq “OD “g Aunjuao ply} ey) Wow saj}ep ‘eyOSuoW| pue vulyD usemjaq Arepunog ay} uo ‘Zuo] sayiw perpuny useijy ‘(Tea }Vaid ay, “Suryad 0} AVM sty} suloo suvavivo anbsainjoid Auewt Avpo} uaaa pu ‘eljoSuoyy O}U! anos uvavseo pediouud ay} ues Aj19ULI03 ssed sty} yYsnoiy yf SSVd MOMNVWN SHL LV VNIHD 3O T1IVM LV3YHS BHL 8 : 3 tee ees ‘ i ‘ - ty A od ls qo gly Se) vole ile See ee nom Se eae Pee * eaagere oy - Oe Re ES PR ' < , a5 at ne ts eo mS + att t «oe } Ill uo] satu Om} onuaav uv WO; Ady, “SUNS OM) pue Surpuvys Om) ‘yeuluB Yowa jo saanejuasaidal INO} oie BY, ‘SSULY Py} JO Yep 9Y} SurumMou! ppioM ay} Jo Sainjwaso By} [[e ‘919A 7] SB ‘yuasdidai 0} ‘Aayjea uado ay) ssoroe paSuvi ore speuue jusrayip Auvul jo salsa a[qieut asayy, “peep [vJOUIUIT ay} JO sUOHeIqeYy Suroq sv juejodun A19A aie squio} pue ‘eulyD ut spreaaid diysiom Joysaouy “Sulyed Jeau ‘moyueN ye VUIYD JO sio1adwy Sutrpy ay} JO squio} ay} 0} peo ay} Surury syuswMUOU! OUSID SIVWINVY S3HL SAO ANNSAV SHL ON THE ROAD TO THE MING TOMBS One of the great animal figures hewn out of a single block of marble — the guide standing beside it is almost six feet tall. Each emperor of the Ming dynasty, which ruled China from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century, was given an elaborate shrine, approached through an avenue of these marble animals KOREAN GUNBEARER, WITH PURPLE AZALEAS This gunbearer, Paik-sontar, accompanied Mr. R. C. Andrews on the Museum's expedition of 1912. He belongs to the ‘‘tiger hunters,’’ an important military guild to which is elected any one who has been sufficiently courageous to kill a tiger—this feat being difficult of accomplishment with the primitive native weapons. Azaleas, rhododendrons and other flowering shrubs are found everywhere in Korea, their colors painting the moun- tain slopes about the first of June ; ye0q yowe Zurnd uoul xis 10 day ‘pamo} oie j1ed jsOUI dy} OJ nq ‘s[Ies Jo suvouI 4q Apred szsat1 ay} dn ssaisoid syun{ ayy *s9zaa1j J9ALI BY} B10Jaq JyeYy & pue di} punol suo Ajuo ayeu ued ‘AnUNOD ay} JO sjred ULaY}IOU ay} 0} JsvOd ay} WIZ ‘sjonpoid 19430 pus jes ‘UI0D SurA11ev9 ‘syunf ay} yey} Os JUDIIMO WIMs Alaa & sey ‘sjred soddn s}I Ul ‘IaATy NEA ey NIWA AHL NO SYNNF ASANIHD oO , oe ue oe et ae FIL Qemesemanm * aaa sesacae Ornamental Uses of Shells By L. P. GRATACAP HELLS, apart from the unique product of the pearl, have often been made serviceable in garden and house and for personal ornament. The old-fashioned garden bed with its fence of clamshells is a very homely in- stance of the former, and the basket and box, encrusted with variegated shells, in less sophisticated days extorted an un- feigned admiration. The popular em- ployment of the lustrous or iridescent surfaces of shells, often unsuspected be- neath their dull repellent epidermis, has attained today a very wide recogni- tion, and the industrial use, also orna- mental in its purpose, of the fresh-water clam for the manufacture of buttons assumes economic importance. A glance at the catalogues of various “pearl manufacturing companies” re- veals an extraordinary aptitude for inven- tion, and illustrates the great adaptability of shells to service. Perhaps the most striking and certainly the most sesthetic use of shells in ornament illustrated in the American Museum, is the remark- able shell turban that crowns the head of the Tahitian fire-walker in the hall of the South Sea Islands. It is composed of two wreaths of densely bedded gray- greenish, purple-tipped Partulas, and forms an artistic unity with the naked figure and the barbaric ceremony. The The headpiece drawing is taken from the basic design of the mural frieze in color around the shell hall of the American Museum. This design by Mr. Albert Operti, combines seaweeds with Atlantic Coast pecten and conch shells. use of shells is further illustrated in the Museum’s collections by the Helicina and Cassidulus necklaces of the Samoan Is- lands, the shell bracelets (Trochus) of New Guinea, and those of the Philippine Islands, made from the apex of Conus literatus. Mr. A. D. Gabay has presented a small collection of polished shells to the Amer- ican Museum’s section of conchology, which reveals the softened brilliancy of the sea clam (Meleagrina margaritifera) and the metallic splendors of the aba- lone. A few ornaments cut out of the mother-of-pearl and from the burnished surfaces of the abalone, serve to show the availability of this material in a kind of bastard jewelry, as well as its more legitimate employment in objects of convenience, such as paper cutters. Among these specimens is a very curious series of pearl blisters, or deli- cate white films encasing minute organ- isms, among the latter tiny crabs whose outlines are revealed under the nacreous coating in a very unmistakable way. Shell ornament when it assumes a personal decorative purpose is certainly very ancient. Prehistoric remains dem- | onstrate this conclusively, as shown in buried necklaces which not infrequently, as in central France, are formed even of fossil shells. The really extraordinary affection for shell ornaments among the aboriginal races, as well as the admira- tion, exhibited in parlor bric-a-brac, for shell flowers among modern races, illus- 115 116 Ornamental basket made by the Indians of Central America. The basket itself is formed of small white oval shells (Olivella); the flowers are made of thin and Both basket and flowers are constructed with fine wire. In shallow, white and rose-tinted shells (Tellina). the American Museum trates the appeal which these objects In the Board of Trade returns for the United Kingdom, in 1897 make to the eye. the value of the imported shells (which THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL included tortoise shell) was about three millions of dollars, and while an appre- ciable amount of this represents indus- trial uses — as the shell powder mixed in the finer grades of porcelain — yet a large remainder is attributable to the vagaries of taste. The shells employed in aboriginal decoration either as insignia of office or for personal adornment, or in avoca- tional and culinary uses, do not seem to be as numerous as the adaptability of shells in their wide range of color and The South Sea Islanders perhaps show the form would. lead one to expect. most affection for them. The superb orange cowry (Cypraea aurantia) was worn by Fiji and Tonga chiefs as a badge of rank, the egg cowry (Ovula ovum) by Papuans and Melanesians, and, accord- ing to Professor Lydekker, “not content with their own shells, these latter sav- ages imported those of a species of Struthiolaria from New Zealand; these Part of a shell basket made by the Indians of Lower California. not as fine as that in the Central American baskets, glue instead of wire being the basis of construction. tion in the American Museum of Natural History The effect is showy, but the workmanship On exhibi- ORNAMENTAL USES OF SHELLS they ground down until little except the mouth remained, in which condition they were strung together into neck- laces.” In the Gabay collection occur a few necklaces of Cantharidus from the Fiji Islands, some of which have been bril- liantly dyed; and shells appear in dress also as bracelets and bangles, head wreaths, fillets, coronets, belts, and nose and ear drops; while from South Amer- ica come land and fresh-water shells as adornments for the cloaks of the women. Not only were the shells themselves de- voted to this service, but the animal’s colored operculum which closed the mouth of the shell in different kinds of Turbo, was also attractively utilized. In more prosaic and more useful ways In shells have aided savage culture. In the fire-walk of the Tahitian Archipelago the cele- brants walk over hot stones to demonstrate the protect- ing power of the goddess Te-Tua-nui-o-tahu-rai. American Museum’s life-size model hebe) The of a fire-walker represents him bearing a branch of the sacred ti and wearing a headdress of delicately tinted shells (Partula 117 various Pacific islands fishhooks are cut from the ear shell (Haliotis), knives are made from the Cyrena and from the pearl clam, and the sinkers that weigh down the nets of the Fiji Islanders are ponderous dark cowry shells (Cyprea mauritiana), while the common tiger cowry (Cyprea tigris) cut in two, loaded with a stone, and combined with lively-colored olives (Oliva), attracts the cuttle-fish in the waters of these islands. Drinking cups and spoons can be readily formed from the Cymbas and Melos, and in West Africa the big Achatina serves the same purpose. Concha, the Latin word from which the science derives its name, in its secondary meaning was indeed applied to a vessel for oil, unguents, or even to a salt-cellar, as Horace sings, Funde capacibus, unguenta de conchis; while as trumpets, the resonant interiors of shells yield the summoning or the challenging notes “ that call to dinner or to war’s alarms.” Several large shells, among them the great chank shell (Turbinella pyrum), the two large tritons (7. tritonis and T. vari- abilis), the helmet (Cassis cornuta) and the frog snail (Ranella lampas), all vigorously treated, meet both these requirements. In this digres- sion from their ornamental values it is interesting to note that the thin, di- aphanous, flat valve of the glass oyster (Placuna placenta) has been long in use in China for window panes, and that the heavy J'urbinella — which is a sacred shell in India — has formed an oil lamp in Hindu temples. The shell flowers — roses and tulips — which are seen in the South Ken- sington Museum in London, illustrate an unnatural use of the ornamental quality of shells, although the deli- cacies of color for a moment blind the eye to the hardness of texture and the conventionalized crudity of form. In « rd eee awed A novel method of converting natural objects into elegant objects for the home consists in coating shells, sea urchins, sea horses, corals and the like, with a thin film of silver. The sea horses and the outside of the shells are silvered. One ported by sea horses to form bon-bon dishes.1 shell is shown below the other in reversed position the Gabay collection of the Museum is seen the metallic blue, polished shell of the nautilus, and in the Museum’s South Sea Island hall, the heraldic use of the nautilus in conjunction with flat plates of mother-of-pearl! is shown in the head- dress of the Tingua tribes of the Samoan Islands. The problem of determining the chronological succession of sesthetic motives in races can hardly be sepa- rated from a studious consideration of the features in nature that evoke the sense of color or suggest the categories 1 Loaned by Mrs. F. A. Constable that they might be photographed for reproduction in the JourNaL. 118 Above are shown two large abalone shells sup- of form. The lines in vegetation, and its concrete products in flower, leaf and trunk, stem, tendril and bud, have indis- putably been assimilated in art and ar- The column, the acanthus and lotus-leaf capitals are examples. The shapes and attitudes of animals, with expressions derived from their qual- ities of strength or ferocity, have most conspicuously furnished heraldic design and topical sculpture with motives and ornament. Shells, less noticeably, must have stimulated artistic feeling, although their involution in art in the way of convention is not conspicuous. Ruskin Stones of enumerates chitecture. in his V enice ORNAMENTAL USES OF SHELLS twelve “proper materials’? of ornament derived from the visible universe — which with Ruskin was the most valid the truest source of decorative The sixth of these, in a progres- and ideas. sion upward, was shells, of which he wrote: “T place these lowest in the scale (after inorganic forms) as being moulds or coats 119 of organisms: not themselves organic. The sense of this, and their being mere emptiness and deserted houses, must always prevent them, however beautiful in lines, from being largely used in ornamentation. It is better to take the line and leave the shell. One form, indeed, that of the cockle, has been in all ages used as the decoration of half-domes, which were named “‘conchas”’ from their shell form: and I believe the wrinkled lip of the cockle, so used, to have been the origin, in some parts of Europe at least, of the exuber- ant foliation of the round arch. The scallop also is a pretty radiant form, and mingles well with other symbols when it is needed.” Ruskin is always naively interest- ing, often stimulating, not invariably rational. The palette of nature has been more lavishly requisitioned in other areas of animal life, but it would be a crabbed and carping judgment to deny the charm of color in shells, its abun- dant variation or the delicacy of its em- ployment; while the shells themselves are as organic as is a skeleton, or the ribbed and netted framework of aleaf. Very re- cently Mr. Y. Hirase of the Kyoto Conchological Museum, published 1 Reproduced from the clay model through the courtesy of the sculptor. Fountain design’ by Mr. F. B. Clark. The shell motive is introduced in the mermaid’s headdress and further accentuated by the cornice of mingled shells around the basin 120 a very suggestive analysis, for decorative uses, of shell outlines which, half conven- tionalized and more or less intricately interwoven, form patterns possibly of wide adaptability to domestic and pub- lic ornament, in wall papers, curtains, embroidery and textiles. The subject has an available circuit of application not fully realized, and a significant illustration of this may be seen in a recently completed design by Mr. F. B. Clark for a fountain, here re- produced through the kindness of the sculptor. The wall of the basin in which the graceful mermaid surmounts a seaweed-draped rock, tantalizing with a reed the mutinous crustacean, has a cornice or frieze made up of a contin- uous, interblended train of seashells. As a very curious adjunct to the aspect of shell ornamental uses was the dis- covery in a Franco-Merovingian bury- ing ground at Nesles-lez-Verlinctness in France of a Cyprea pantherina (habi- tat — Red-Sea to Australia), which had been used as an ornament or perhaps as an amulet; and the further statement by Dr. Tiberi, in a memoir on the shells found at Pompeii, that these same shells were apparently valued by the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Roman women of that ill-fated city, as amulets. Perhaps the most original, and in a sense presumptuous use of shells for or- nament is the recent successful attempt to coat them with a dull silver film which, being electrolytically applied, re- produces with fidelity every feature and detail of the shell’s surface. Examples of such shells are on exhibition in the Museum. These silverized shells sup- port variously designed implements, or themselves form finished vessels, handles and ornaments. The effects are ingeni- ously diversified by combining with the shells other objects, such as sea urchins, and by combining contrasted types of shells into an artistic composition! In the shell hall of the Museum Mr. Albert Operti has most effectively turned to account the outlines of seaweeds as decorative adjuncts, the pecten (P. ir- radians and P. pallium) as an escutcheon, and the beautiful big conch of our east- ern coast (F. carica) as a dividing pillar. These, treated vividly in color, produce a charming mural frieze which gives the hall a needed esthetic relief. 1This interesting ware is manufactured by Mr. L. E. Tuzo of Fanwood, New Jersey. Is the Crocker Land Party Living like Eskimo? THE CROCKER LAND EXPEDITION DISAPPOINTED IN ITS HOME-COMING IN 1915, FORCED TO REMAIN IN THE ARCTIC A THIRD YEAR; ALSO TO LIVE AS DO THE ESKIMO ON THE GAME OF THE LAND UNLESS RELIEVED BY THE SHIP “CLUETT” — THERE IS NO CROCKER LAND. LAND WHICH PEARY THOUGHT HE SAW AND NAMED DOES NOT EXIST HE unexpected pleasure comes to the JourNnaL of publishing the following letters by members of the Crocker Land Expedition in the American Arctic, written personally to Colonel H. D. Borup, father of George Borup who was drowned in Long Island Sound on April 28, 1912. This was just at the time when he was laying plans for the Crocker Land Expedition of which he was to have been leader. After one year’s delay the expedition went north (1913), with Mr. Donald B. MacMillan as leader, and was ex- pected to return the past fall (1915), but the ship “Cluett” chartered by the American Museum and sent to bring back the party, failed to reach Etah. Thus the men are not only disappointed in their hope of arriving home for the new year 1916, after two years of Arctic life, but also the supplies taken north in 1913 being exhausted, they face a year of living as the Eskimo do, on the ani- mals of the land without white man’s food. The “Cluett” however did succeed in reaching North Star Bay about one hundred and twenty-five miles south of Etah, and being equipped with food and other supplies for two years, is thus ready to act for the relief of the Crocker Land party. Therefore even if the motor boat, which Rasmussen re- ported as starting sometime in Septem- ber to bring the men from Etah to the ship, did not get through because of ice conditions, the distance is a con- venient one for sledging between the two points. The friends of the expedi- tion are optimistic in believing that the members of the original expedition and the party of the relief ship “Cluett” have joined forces either at Etah or at North Star Bay, and that there is good cheer in the enforced stay, while scienti- fie work and exploration unexpectedly continue into the third year. The following letter of November 28, 1914, is from Mr. MacMillan, leader of the expedition at Etah, to Colonel Borup: From the newspapers you have already learned of the results of our first year’s work —a failure to find Crocker Land where Peary claimed to have seen it and where indicated on the latest maps. Here it is placed due northwest of Cape Thomas Hubbard one hundred and twenty miles dis- tant. Our observations on three successive days agreed remarkably well, putting us at 108° 22’ 30” west. longitude and 82° 30’ north latitude, one hundred and fifty-two miles due northwest of the cape. This we covered in nine marches, being held up twice by open water for a few hours only. Between the leads, of which there were thirty-four in all, we found excellent going over a hard, compact, rolling surface enabling us to cover twenty- six, twenty-four, eighteen and twenty-four miles respectively in the last four marches. - At the last camp, under perfect conditions with our most powerful glass, there was not a thing in sight throughout the whole horizon. On the fourth march we thought we had it. All leads had frozen, the water sky had dis- appeared, leaving the horizon as clear as erystal. Stretching for at least one hundred and twenty degrees there was every appear- ance of an immense land—hills, valleys, snow- 121 122 capped peaks — as plain as a thing could pos- sibly be. I even asked one of the Eskimo toward which point we should head. He smiled and said that he thought it was “ poo- jok” (mist). Green declared that if he ever saw land that was land! The only reason I had for doubting its existence wasits size. As we proceeded, it gradually changed in appear- ance and extent with the revolving of the sun, and finally disappeared altogether. Standing later on the heights of the cape where Peary stood eight years before, we saw the same thing, and had we not been out there we could have taken our oath that it was land. Our best judgment then, as now, is that this is a mirage of the sea ice, due to layers of air at unequal temperatures lifting the in- equalities of the ice, causing the shadows and the lighted spots to resemble land. At one time this resemblance extended practically throughout the whole horizon, crossing Peary’s trail of 1908, and even joining the northern shores of Grant Land. In other words, it appeared where we know positively there is no land. I believe for several reasons that there is land farther to the west. We have removed it at least two hundred-miles. If Peary saw it from Cape Thomas Hubbard then its sum- mits rise to a height of 11,000 feet; to us, one hundred and fifty-two miles off, those same peaks would have risen in the sky to a height of 9,000 feet — too big for us to miss unless we were totally blind. We had many serious handicaps to over- come — first, the crossing of Smith Sound. Peary stated in an interview that we were on the wrong side of the channel and were facing unusual difficulties. I realized this from the moment when our captain quit and wanted to gohome. There was nothing to do but sit tight and wait for the sound to freeze and then hustle, which we did, crossing in December on the thin ice and putting in a big cache at Cape Rutherford. In February we crossed in six hours by following the edge of open water, taking a chance but it had to be done. Mumps, influenza and dysentery played havoc with men and dogs on our first start. No snow for snow houses compelled the men to sleep on their sledges at fifty-five degrees below zero for three nights which did not help matters any. Two or three of Peary’s old veterans were doing too much talking so I decided to fire them at once. We returned to Etah where I at once re- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL organized, cutting down the party to seven Eskimo only and three white men, having each man drive his own sledge. The plans now were carried out without a_ hitch. Mene Wallace, the New York Eskimo, de- cided that hard work did not agree with him so he left us; this was quite agreeable to me and others but when another young fellow, fearing that Mene would steal his wife, followed him I began to do some thinking. However we got up over the glacier with our heavy loads and then we were all right. The last trip convinced me that we cannot travel far on pemmican alone for the dogs. It has too much salt in it, giving the dogs diarrhoea and causing them to vomit a yellow oil. They could not possibly pull a standard load of five hundred pounds. Our long marches in Eureka Sound were made following a killing of twelve musk oxen; the long marches on the polar sea were with practically empty sledges and on two pounds a day, which is a double ration. Had it not been for caribou at Cape Thomas Hubbard I doubt if we could have left the land. One dog dropped the first day, two on the third, one on the fifth and two on the return. Due to my constant walking and running, mine kept on their feet up to within a few miles from home, when two staggered so that I cut them loose letting them come in later. We covered about twelve hundred miles in all in seventy-two days, leaving on March 11 and getting home on May 21, a few days before the sound broke up. Since that time we have been very busy killing walrus for our dogs this winter and laying in meat and eggs for ourselves. Within a few days I start on a thousand-mile trip to sledge the mail out to civilization, going to Upernavik, South Greenland. About March 1 we start again for Ellesmere Land, on a long fifteen- hundred-mile journey into a section of the country where no man has been for fifty years and a large part of which is unexplored — south of, Ellef and Amund Ringnes lands. Shall be compelled to depend entirely upon the country for our return as I want to come back by way of Jones Sound. With such a plan sledges will necessarily be very heavy at the start and will remain so for some time as no caches can be made. As far as I know this will be the lengest straight-a-way trip on record and must be made within ninety days or we shall not get back in time to re- IS THE CROCKER LAND PARTY LIVING LIKE ESKIMO cross Smith Sound. If not back by the time the ship gets here in July she can come over and pick us up somewhere on that shore. The boys are all well and happy thus far. We have plenty of coal, oil and provisions until August, 1915. If for any reason the ship should fail to reach us we could pull through by living as the Eskimo do..... The cigars which you sent to the friends of George have nearly all been delivered. One or two of the men are expected here this moon. Ah-wah-ting-wah, one of the boys who was with George and me at Cape Morris Jesup, is dead. His box I opened for the boys here on Thanksgiving Day telling them of your gift. The Eskimo girls were highly pleased with what you and your daughter sent them. They will never forget George or you either. I have given presents to many others telling them that you wanted me to do it for George. I wish you might come up next year and see this country and these people... .. If we are not back it means some work for some- one to hunt us up; our lives may depend upon that someone... . . The following is a letter written in August, 1914 to Colonel Borup by Mr. W. Elmer Ekblaw, geologist and botanist of the expedition, at the time engaged in research at Umanak, North Star Bay: 123 Just a message of greeting and good wishes from this “‘Land of Thule” as the Danes call the unglaciated tract about Wolstenholme Sound, where I am engaged in geological and biological research this summer; just a message of greeting from the busy season in this far-away corner of the world. Our fine summer is fast waning. In two weeks our all-day sun, with us since April 21, begins dwindling and on October 21 it will leave us to twilight and darkness for four months. The harbor is almost clear of ice except for the icebergs that stud the waters of the sound, drifting idly about in the tidal currents or aground on some shoal. Daily we are ex- pecting a ship, either one from the United States or from Denmark. The past year has been one of adventure, experience and satisfactory scientific work. Our leader has written you in full regarding the work of the expedition so I shall not tire you with a repetition of the narrative which he has already sent you. I shall add only that my summer’s work at this station gives me opportunities for correlations and com- parisons with similar work at Etah next year which I had not expected to have. I trust that I shall see you upon our re- turn, which I think will be sometime in the autumn of 1915, unless ill luck betide the vessel coming up after us. Perhaps we may have the pleasure of finding you aboard her when she reaches Etah and safe anchorage in Foulke Fjord. tet Apoq AMoyjoy ol} UI pesueise oJ0M ‘sUOTJOASSIP [eN}OR UOJ] SSe]s JO XVM UI pajepour ‘suUesIO, feUsJo}UI oy} iol], “usye}] seM 4sBO XVM MOT[OY B YOIYM WOT; ‘epeur jsIy seA Jopoul AvP y *AdevinV0R eyNjOsqe YIIM SUOT}OeUUOD pue sUOTIsOd BAIVETeI Jay} JUOSeIdes PUL SUBFIO S} JOpOUr 0} BIqGe 9q 0} JOpsO UI YOSNEIeP “IPA, Aq OpeUl oJOM YOoSUI SIy} JO SUOTJOVSSIP OJBOTPp AUBTY -YadIdS G1al4 NONWOO V 4O AWOLVNV IVWNY3SLNI SNIMOHS 1300OW @ 7 : Pee W3LSAS AAILS39I0 | ' 9Nv4 NOSIOd = So OF ' : ‘ f SNVDYO ' LONG NOSIOd } | AMOLSHOMS © PON Ae bpeatee e - SQNV19 PsN Bes : : aNv19. 1 ONAN (YAM, VITONVD visas : SLAUANNIdS LUV3H Pe Pear amecagmet ONN7 AYA LUV ‘ 4 ‘ ' ‘ ' 4 ‘ { ‘ ‘ 1 ‘ ' 4 ee mee Oe ee ee me we ee oe an, ee eee t ' ' t ' ‘ 1 ‘ ‘ , i ‘ i ‘ t t \ ‘ ' ' { ' ‘ t ' { ' ‘ oem wm mew ew ce een! Se otictnatnatindinntontonton! The Work of Ignaz Matausch and Its Significance to the Museum By ROY W. MINER HERE are born occasionally persons endowed with an unusual com- bination of qualities which so permeate and take possession of the mind as almost to replace the will, driv- ing their possessor irresistibly onward through unusual paths in life. So ab- sorbing becomes the life passion that extraneous matters, important to others, become subordinated to the grade of merely disturbing influences. These natures are delicately balanced, sensi- tive, keenly alive to impressions, react- ing to the lights and shades of visual impression with the accuracy of seleni- um, but with an intensity that affects the whole psychology of the mind. Such a person was the artist modeler Ignaz Matausch. In him this native endowment was supplemented by a training from boyhood in the most delicate handling of the materials of his art, and as one watched him at work manipulating wax, wood, celluloid, tiny needles of hand-wrought german silver or minute splinters of glass, welding, melting, joining all into place in the intricate construction of his giant insect models, one felt that the most refrac- tory materials were malleable to his hand. This of course was an_ illu- sion. The mind guiding the hand was trained to select, almost instinctively, the substances best adapted to the work. The great, rounded, clumsy-looking fin- ger tips worked with the delicate sen- sitiveness and almost feminine touch popularly associated with the long tapering fingers of the so-called “artistic hand,” and the very dexterity of their manipulation more than convinced the observer that the true hand of the artist is not that physical member but the accurate eye, the superperceptive brain and that correlation through nerves and muscles which is produced only by long-continued and arduous training backed with an infinite patience and enthusiasm. This may seem high praise to some, but not to one who has watched Ignaz Matausch at work day after day, year after year, gradually building up his wonderful insect models, such as the giant housefly shown in the hall of public health, and patiently engaged on the minute details of the complex ex- hibits in the Darwin hall, in which his work is blended with that of other skilled preparators, as in the case of the window groups. Among the models which are peculiarly his work may be mentioned the series illustrating the life history of the tree hopper, accurately constructed after long-continued and_ painstaking original observations, and a series illus- trating the peculiar unadaptive struc- tures seen in many tropical species of this same group. A model showing the ana- tomy of the common spider is one of the best products of his skill, in the pre- liminary work for which he made many original dissections with the collabora- tion of Prof. Alexander Petrunkevitch. His share in the marine window groups however, is of peculiar significance and has contributed much to their success and the widespread attention which they have attracted. Among them the Cold Spring Harbor group was largely constructed by Mr. Matausch, and his work is joined with that of other mem- 125 GROUP SHOWING FAUNA OF A SAND SPIT This complicated group, full of intricate minutie#, shows ribbed mussels (Modiola plicalula) closely packed among the roots of spartina grass, and overrun by fiddler crabs two of whose burrows are shown in section. Below the surface of the water a starfish and a drill snail are shown attacking an oyster; other animals represented are mud crab, long clam, edible mussel, mud snail and serpulid worm. The group was assembled by Mr. Matausch and the fine modeling of wax for accurate representation of texture is essentially his work 126 WORK OF IGNAZ MATAUSCH bers of the preparation staff in the Woods Hole annulate group and the Vineyard Haven wharf-pile group. At the time of his death, Mr. Ma- tausch was putting the greater part of his time and attention on his important share in the complex and ambitious Nahant tide-pool group, which is as yet incomplete. The modeling and color- ing of the natural bridge of rock which is to arch the tide pool was entirely his work and for months he had labored industriously assembling the thousands of separate casts which go to make up the great zone of barnacles, one of the 127 conspicuous features of the group. This part of the work he left complete. Other artists, meanwhile, were modeling and coloring rockweed, preparing sea- weed and sea animals for the under- water portion of the group, and Mr. Matausch was engaged alternately in assembling these and in constructing the important starfish colony for the group, the illness His un- finished work must be completed by with which resulted in his death. when he was taken others, but what he has done for the Museum will remain in its halls as a fitting memorial to his great ability. One of the many interesting models in the Darwin hall made by Mr. Matausch in collaboration with Mr. Mueller, glass blower, and Mr. Shimitori, colorist. This model, 8,000 times actual size, represents the tip of a sea whip” with some of the tiny polyps which build it up as the coral polyps build up coral 83 19 20]! 943 Jo UoNdeoxe 94} YIM pue 490} yYySI0 jo UMOUY SOYBUS BOOP JSOUL VY} JO ouO SI (WIRTH “T “Vv “AI Aq psy ‘2uadno02 s1pJ09 sajopdg) oyeus raydo# “AqANdeo Jo syyuoUL Joye UsAD AjrerTUrey Aue Sunuases (AyoID0g JeoIso]90Z YOK MON OY} Jo yred 94} Ye sayNdoa Jo 10789 ‘sreurjyiq “J puowkey “ij Jo spuey oY? UL ‘snonajounja siydonjid) eyeus ould 9ytyA-pue-yoRlq IYT, “AJo01} po]puey oq ued pue AyiAndeo ul eure} ouro00q soyeus Aue py SSMAVNS ODIGNI GNV 3NIid 40 SAIdWVX3 Seyeyg PeUs) oY} Ul soyeus ssoyulzey Jo so1oeds ysoFie] oy} ore OYeUs yor qyi3ue] & ure}}e seyeus oso], JO O3Ipur oy], “s}uepor uodn Ajureur Surpeey ‘1070113800 [ojiamod & SI 4] ‘posodurey-peq AoA u9}JO SI ULOQUDY 'Y Ulan “Af Aq 0104Ud Hunting “‘bell-tails” (diamond-back rattlers) among the saw palmettos. St. Johns River, Florida A few Observations on Snakes in the Field By ARTHUR L. With illustrations from photographs of the living snakes in the field by Mr. E. L. Bell and Mr. A. L. UPERSTITION, exaggeration and lack of knowledge usually run riot in the telling of snake stories. One day this past summer while I was in the reptile house at the New York Zodlogical Park, a man called two of his acquaintances over to the small cage where a horned rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) was confined and said to them: “See that snake there? Well, it’s the most dangerous snake in the world. If it sticks that horn into you, it means instan- taneous death!” I hastened of course to correct his statement, and explained that the “horn”? was harmless and that the snake’s venom was ejected through enlarged teeth called “fangs.” The gentleman was not particularly grateful however for my inter- ference. At another time, when one of my friends and I were snake-hunting in Con- necticut, we stopped for a few moments at a GILLAM Gillam farmhouse along the road to inquire of the farmer living there as to the whereabouts of a den of the “chunkhead”’ — that being the local name of the copperhead snake (A ncistro- don contortrix). After having directed us, he told us with seriousness of various harrowing experiences he claimed to have had with “chunkheads”’ and how they had “‘jumped”’ at him a distance of fifty feet right through the air. He was unacquainted with the fact that it is practically a physical impossibility for any snake to “jump” or strike much farther than a distance equaling about two- thirds of -its own length. Although it was somewhat accidental that I first took an active interest in snake-hunt- ing, I soon found it such a fascinating out- door sport that I became absorbed in it. It excitement and healthful, red- with an _ ever-changing 129 combines blooded exercise Snake-hunting in northern New Jersey and in the Ramapo Mountains, New York association with nature. . Catching the snakes is only a part of the sport; it opens a new field for the camera. Snakes are not always submissive posers. I have often worked for more than an hour to get one quiet long enough for the portrait. Sometimes a naturally quick, nervous snake would sur- prise me by immediately assuming a satis- factory pose and holding it the necessary length of time for a clear exposure, while a less agile and less sensitive one might make the matter very difficult by moving at the wrong time. Snakes have individual as well as class For instance, although it is the common belief that a rattler will always peculiarities. sound its rattle as warning of its presence, my experience has been that this cannot be relied upon. In fact it is apparently an exception to the rule to find one thus giving a warning. Of the numerous specimens which I have -aptured during the past two or three seasons, 130 only a very few have rattled before being actually interfered with. These were ex- tremely nervous examples and remained such throughout the period of a month or more that they were in my possession, Dur- ing that time the slightest movement made by any one within sight or sound of their sages would: be the signal for them to start an aggressive buzzing. That this nervous- ness or anger was peculiar to these particular specimens and not to the season, there can be little doubt. On one occasion, within a few minutes of capturing one of these nervous specimens, I caught another rattler of practi- cally the same coloration and size and with the same number of rattles, which when it attempted to escape I headed off, forked and then bagged by hand without its having rattled at all— although it had repeatedly struck at my stick. Frequently I have known rattlesnakes to strike at my stick or at me without having sounded the rattle. OBSERV ATIONS ON SNAKES IN THE FIELD Some of the rattlers observed have been so gentle and quiet in their behavior that had I been willing to chance it, I believe I could safely have handled them, although I gave them free liberty of their heads. It is never wise however to let confidence lead into any recklessness. Other specimens on the other hand, continually acted in an altogether vicious manner and showed no signs of tam- ing. Judging from a single specimen one can never be sure just what to expect from another snake of the same species. One young rattler (about a year old) which I caught in Connecti- cut was about the sauciest snake that I ever met, while another of the same age captured in Massachusetts by Mr. Charles Snyder (of the New York Zodélogical Park) and myself a few days earlier was its exact antithesis. A 131 party of seven of us had been out to “look over” a special den on top of one of the mountains, but had had no success in finding specimens as it was late in the season at that spot and evidently all of the snakes had crawled away to lower levels for food and water. On our homeward way we had wandered down nearly to the foot of the mountain and were in fairly heavy timber on an easy slope of land, when the youngest member of our party tripped and fell full length on the ground, throwing his hands out ahead of him to break the force of his tumble. Immediately there was a scream from him of ‘‘ Rattlesnake!” and with almost as much speed as he had made in falling he scrambled to his feet again. When his left hand had hit the earth, he had seen that it was within about four inches of a small rattler Forking a rattler preliminary to bagging it. After the rattler is thus secured so that it cannot strike (forked stick about five feet long), the fork can be replaced by the fingers and th: snake safely handled in the transfer from the ground to the collecting bag. The tail should be grasped with the other hand to prevent the snake coiling about the arm 132 which was lying in a coil and wide awake. The snake made no attempt however, either to strike or escape, but waited patiently to be bagged. Had the same accident happened with the little Connecticut rattler I am cer- tain that there would have been at least a couple of punctures in the young man’s hand. In my opinion, a rattlesnake uses its * Sf es “a Mr. Charles Snyder, head keeper at the park of the New York Zoédlogical Society, showing how he handles a poisonous snake for observation of its mouth and fangs. The specimen is one of fifteen banded timber rattlers captured on a trip to Scaghticoke Mountain, Connecti- cut. The teeth of harmless snakes are solid; poison- ous snakes have two or more grooved or hollow fangs in the upper jaw, connected by a duct with a poison gland on the side of the head THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL rattles not only as an expression of nervous- ness and anger, but also as a lure to attract the curiosity and attention of its prey and bring this prey within reach of the strike — or perhaps so to bewilder the prey with fear that it will be incapable of moving until the strike can be made. Also it seems that the rattling is a mode of communication that snakes have with one another. I have been on snake ledges at various times when every- thing was still and quiet, and while in the act of bagging the one or two snakes which were then in sight, have heard one, two or three others answer the buzzing my captives. were making — the replies coming from widely separated points. In one instance a reply came from another ledge about eighty yards. from me. I have sometimes wrapped the rattles of newly captured specimens in damp cotton before I placed them in my bags so that their buzzing would not confuse me in locating a stranger’s song. One fallacy which most people believe, is that a rattlesnake or copperhead can always be located by the odor. The fact is, one may handle fifty or more of either species — hold- ing them within a foot of the nose — and not observe any particular odor. Then at some other time, one or more of the lot may chance to emit its pungent secretion. If it does, the “‘nerfume”’ is really very noticeable — some- thing of a cross between banana oil and cucumber, yet like neither. Under proper atmospheric conditions the odor might be noticed sixty yards away, although five or ten yards would be the more likely distance. Sometimes I have noticed the scent where 1 was unable to find any snake, in spite of careful searching. Considering the nearest retreat where a snake could have escaped my observation, I have figured that the odor must have been there ten minutes or longer before my arrival. Usually a rattlesnake or copperhead, if disturbed, will attempt to escape, but often it will remain just where it may happen to be, silently or otherwise, and refuse to budge. Frequently I have almost stepped on one, or have stepped over one before seeing it. It is far safer to let a snake crawl over your feet than to put your foot on it. When it is crawling it is thinking more of getting somewhere than of striking and if a person remains quiet, there is scant likelihood of its becoming troublesome, although it does not have to coil to strike. Mr. Bell and I Three specimens of poisonous snakes — Copperhead known locally as “‘chunkhead” (Ancistrodon contortriz); moccasin or ‘“‘cotton-mouth” (Ancistrodon piscivorus) from Cape Canaveral, Florida; and banded timber rattler (Crotalus horridus) from the Wallkill-Hamburg Mountains, New Jersey. Of the one hundred and fifty snakes of the world whose bite could bring death to man, only seventeen are native to the United States, with seldom more than two in any given district. The only successful treatment for snake poison after it has entered the circulation, is injection of antivenomous serum. Such serum is of untold value in Brazil, South Africa and India. Snake-hunters can render themselves immune to snake bite for a few days or weeks by precautionary injections of such serum. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell was a pioneer in the United States in the study of snake venom. Experiment is still in progress toward the production of a perfect serum. This must be obtained from an animal (horse) made immune by large dosages of the mixed venom of a large number of poisonous snakes, since immunity to the bite of one species does not always insure immunity to that of others. have taken photographs of each other as we stood in the midst of four or five large rattlers — some crawling over or between our feet. Yet the “stunt”? was not as dangerous as it might seem. It was only necessary for one of us to stand still while the other drove the snakes toward him. The one standing was merely part of the scenery according to the snakes’ view, and everything was serene as long as we did not move while within their 133 134 striking distance. When a rattler or copper- head does strike however, it sometimes not only makes a-simple strike with its fangs but also grips its jaws together and tries to wrestle its fangs deeper into the object struck so as to cause a better injection of its venom. On one of my trips to the Wallkill-Hamburg Mountains of New Jersey while I was stand- ing at the edge of the top of a small cliff about forty feet high, I discovered two rattlers, male and female, lying near each other at the bottom. By retracing my steps about eighty yards, I was able to work a way to THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL the foot of the cliff, then after fixing up the snake bag in nearby bushes, I advanced to where the rattlers were, meanwhile lightly beating the low berry bushes ahead of me with my stick so that I might not accidentally step on any hidden snakes. When I came up to the two snakes the yellow-phased one (female) slowly crawled away directly to the rear of the black one (male, supposedly), which went into a coil, head toward me and waited. Neither snake rattled although I was then standing within four or five feet of them, and had beaten the bushes close to Pilot or mountain black snake (Coluber obsoletus) and the more abundant common black snake or racer (Bas- canion constrictor). The pilot can be distinguished from the racer by its broad head, keeled scales and white spots on the margin of the scales as well as by its slow movement, its good nature and its great power as a constrictor. The pilot is, next to the indigo and pine snakes, the largest harmless snake in the United States MUSEUM NOTES them with my stick. At the time, it seemed to me as though the male was deliberately pro- tecting the rete of the fe- male. Snakes seem to be beyond bard and fast rules of individ- ual action and the more they are studied the more unex- pectedly interesting are the traits discovered. They offer an endless subject for fascinat- ing investigation. - : The hog-nesed snake (Helerodun platyrhinus) otherwise known as “puff adder’ and “spreading ad- der,” is a big bluffer and the “pos- sum” among North American snakes It is absolutely h in spite of —— its warlike post and hissings and can under no conditions be induced to bite. When its threats 135 prove vain, it simulates death. Even the young Tikes newly hatched from the eggs hiss, spread and. flatten the head and neck and strike savagely, later playing dead. The ringhals cobra of South Africa also is reported to feign death [F. W. Fitzsimmons, qr of South Africa] o Museum Notes i Since the last issue of the Journa the following persons have become members of the Museum: | Life Members, Mrs. Freperic DELANo Hircn, Mrs. StepHen V. HArkKNEss, and Messrs. WitiiAM FRANKLIN LuxToNn Eb- WARDS, ALFRED WARREN GALE, NORMAN JAMES and Freperic A. JUmLIARD; Sustaining Members, Miss EMELINE Roacu and Messrs. A. W. Erickson, J. PRENTICE KELLOGG, and Puitip C. LINDGREN; Annual Members, Mrs. P. B. Acker, Mrs. Rosert C. BrrxHaun, Mrs. Arruur C. BiaGpEN, Mrs. Cuartes H. Brooxs, Mrs. JoEL Freper, Mrs. Henry E. Haw trey, Mrs. E. R. Hewirr, Mrs. Ropert Hunter, Mrs. R. G. Hurcuins, Jr., Mrs. Wint1am B. IsHam, Mrs. 8. M. Jarvis, Mrs. Purp B. Jennines, Mrs. Heten M. Kennerzey, Mrs. Percy H. Stewart, Mrs. A. W. Swann, Mrs. Cartt Tucker, Misses Marian Hacue and Margaret C. Hurwevt, Dr. Myron P. Denton, Dr. L. Emmerr Hott, Dr. Oscar H. Rogers and Mgssrs. T. Howarp Barnes, WeLcome W. BrapEN, Witu1am B. Down, Sanprorp D. Foor, GreorGeE S. FRANKLIN, HENRY HERING, BERNHARD HorrMaNNn, ArtTHuUR S. Hype, JospepH A. McALernan, F. H. THEAKSTON, SamueEt Hinps THomas, Lewis M. ‘THomp- son and Wiiu1aAM TURNBULL. Aut doubt as to the probable safety of the members of the Crocker Land Expedition, and of the party sent under Dr. Hovey to bring them home, was removed on February 6 by a letter from Mr. Knud Rasmussen, the Danish explorer, dated London, January 28. Mr. Rasmussen was in London in order to meet his ship ‘Kap York” which had re- cently arrived in an English port from Green- land. Captain Pedersen of the ‘Kap York” was in connection with the ‘“Cluett”’ and Dr. Hovey on September 12 for about two hours and therefore had the latest news of the relief party. The ports were then full of new ice and Dr. Hovey dared not put into port from fear of becoming icebound for the winter. The “Cluett” was therefore waiting in Wol- stenholme Sound for the return of Mr. Rasmussen’s motor boat, which had been 136 dispatched to Etah to bring back the Crocker Land party. Captain Pedersen was of opinion that if the motor boat did not return soon, it would be impossible for the ‘‘Cluett”’ to get home in the fall of 1915. In this case however, there need be no fear for Dr. Hovey and the other members of the expedition, who would receive assistance from Mr. Freuchen, (the manager of Mr. Rasmussen’s station at North Star Bay) or could get provisions by sledge from Upernavik, where the Danes would be glad to make welcome the members of both expeditions. Mr. M. P. Sxryner has presented to the American Museum valuable motion-picture films and photographs of animals of the Yel- lowstone Park, obtained during his twenty years’ experience in that region. Mr. Skinner is a member of the American Museum and has been working in the Museum building during the winter on a book on the birds of the Yellowstone Park. He is an authority on the animal life of the Yellowstone and has rendered much service to the United States Biological Survey in connection with a census of the park. THE animals of the Yellowstone, described in the present issue of the JouRNAL, are well represented in the North American mammal hall of the Museum by a series of unusually large and well executed group studies, showing the animals as they appear in their natural environment. Specimens of the American bison, in all stages of development, and in summer and winter coats, are shown pawing the Kansas prairie where they formerly ranged in countless herds. Several moose, with adults and young of both sexes, are shown in a second-growth forest — their favorite feeding ground. There are three fine specimens of the elk, or wapiti, formerly so abundant in the mountains and foothills of the northern and western states and now comparatively rare; also groups of mule deer, Virginia deer, mountain sheep and pronghorn antelope. The rapidity and com- pleteness with which the advance of civiliza- tion has wiped out of existence the vast herds of these wild creatures that once owned the hills and plains of this continent, makes the sanctuary the Yellowstone affords to the surviving remnants an incalculable advantage to the cause of natural history — as well as THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL adding to the value of the groups in the Ameri- can Museum. THe annual meeting of the Board of Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History was held at the residence of Mr. Ogden Mills, on February 7, 1916. Mr. Henry P. Davison was elected a trustee in the class of 1917 to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Dr. Daniel Giraud Elliot. — Messrs. Arthur Curtiss James, Walter B. James, J. P. Morgan, Perey R. Pyne and John B. Trevor, trustees in the class of 1916, were reélected in the class of 1920. The trustees were the guests at dinner of Mr. Ogden Mills. Owine to ill health Mr. Charles Lanier has resigned his position as treasurer of the American Museum of Natural History. At the recent meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Museum, a resolution was passed accepting his resignation with regret and expressing appreciation for the service he has rendered the institution in serving as treasurer for the past twenty-five years. Mr. Henry P. Davison was elected treasurer for the year 1916. In view of their generous contributions and genuine interest in the growth of the Museum the trustees have passed a special resolution electing Messrs. Cleveland H. Dodge, Arthur Curtiss James and Archer M. Huntington, Benefactors of the Museum; Mrs. John B. Trevor and Mr. Felix M. Warburg, Associate Founders; Dr. Bashford Dean and Messrs. James B. Ford and Henry C. Swords, Patrons; Mrs. Herbert L. Satterlee, a Fellow, and Mrs. M. Orme Wilson and Messrs. Lincoln Ellsworth and Alexander Smith Cochran, Life Members of the Museum. — Ow1na to the fact that a number of higher classes of membership in the American Mu- seum have recently been created by the trustees and that many former contributors now dead would have been elected to these higher memberships had such degrees been in existence during their lives, it was resolved at the recent annual meeting of the Board of Trustees to place the names of such con- tributors in the respective classes of member- ship to which their contributions would have made them eligible. In accordance with this resolution the names of Mrs. Robert L. MUSEUM NOTES -tuart and Messrs. Morris K. Jesup, Darius Ogden Mills and William H. Vanderbilt were ‘added to the class of Benefactors; those of Messrs. James M. Constable, Henry O. Havemeyer, Oswald Ottendorfer, Percy R. Pyne, Ist., Charles E. Tilford and Cornelius Vanderbilt, 1st., to the class of Associate Founders; those of Mrs. Martha T. Fiske and Messrs. Hugh Auchincloss, Benjamin P. Davis, William E. Dodge, 2nd., Henry Iden and William R. Sands to the class of Associate Benefactors; those of Miss 8. M. Hitchcock, Mary E. Rogers, Frederika Gade, and Messrs. Samuel D. Babcock, Joel Goldenberg, Solo- mon Loeb and Edward S. Russ to the class of Patrons, and that of Leonidas A. Van Praag to the class of Fellows. Tue Mvusevo is now publishing Professor Bashford Dean’s bibliography of fishes. This is a compilation which aims to be of constant use to all who seek to learn what is known of a large and important series of the backboned animals. It is the more neces- sary since the literature of this subject has become so vast and is so widely scattered that even specialists remain in ignorance of important papers which concern their work. To give an idea of the scope of the present bibliography we need only mention that it refers to about 50,000 books and scattered papers in all languages, and deals with the entire subject of fishes, fossil as well as living, — their distribution, structure, physiology, development, their parasites and diseases and their evolution. In this sense, it is believed to be the most complete bibliography which has hitherto been attempted of any major group of animals. The present work has been in preparation off and on for twenty-five years, and repre- sents a large amount of detailed research. From 1910 to 1918, Dr. Louis H. Hussakof coéperated in the work; since that time it has been enlarged and edited by Dr. C. R. Eastman and during the past few years numerous authors have given their time generously in revising their special bibli- ographies. It should also be recorded that the National Museum generously con- tributed a manuscript on the bibliography of fishes — mainly dealing with the kinds of fishes and fisheries — which the death of Professor G. Brown Goode left unfinished. The volume now in press gives the names of authors who have written upon fishes, 137 listing their works in chronological order. It includes all references dating from the middle of the eighteenth century down to the year 1914. Earlier literature of the fishes will be published as an appendix to Volume I. Volume II, which will probably be in press in 1917, will provide an elaborate index for Volume I, digesting all titles, and telling the reader what books or papers he should consult for any particular subject. Tue J. Leon Williams collection, and other exhibits illustrating fossil man and _ his ancestry, were exhibited during 1915 at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. They have now been returned to the Museum and are installed in the hall of the age of man. This collection should be studied in connection with Men of the Old Stone Age, the recent book, by Professor Henry Fair- field Osborn. Four cock pheasants, illustrating partial al- binism to a complete degree of albinism, have been presented to the American Museum by Mr. Walter Winans of Surrenden Park, England. These, with two normal pheasants also presented by Mr. Winans, are being mounted for a group showing gradations from the normal to the albino bird. A RECENT addition to the exhibits in the North American mammal hall of the Museum is a group illustrating the seasonal change in color of the varying hare (Lepus americanus virginianus). Like the ermine and some other northern mammals, this animal changes its coat, being brown in summer and pure white in winter— a good example of protec- tive adaptation. For many years it was supposed that the actual hair of this animal changed color, but it has been conclusively demonstrated by Dr. J. A. Allen, curator of mammalogy at the American Museum, by examination of many series of specimens in all stages of the change, that there occurs — an actual shedding of the darker hairs and a new growth of white ones. This process is gradual, usually occupying several weeks. The specimens in the group show a few of the stages passed through by the hare in changing from the brown of summer to the white of winter. The group has been ar- ranged by Mr. A. E. Butler in the Museum’s taxidermy studio. 138 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Mr. Russet J. Cotes, whose contribu- tions to the Museum’s department of fishes are well known, secured a fine specimen of the spotted porpoise, Prodelphinus plagiodon (Cope), during the past summer off the coast of North Carolina. At the time of the cap- ture a rough sea made getting possession of the specimen after it had been harpooned a task of difficulty and danger, and a less persistent man than Mr. Coles would un- doubtedly have cut the animal loose. After his efforts were rewarded by getting the animal ashore, he made a plaster mold and took a complete series of photographs and measurements; the flesh was then cut away from the skeleton which was sent to the Museum. The spotted porpoise is rela- tively rare along the coast of our Southern States, and the Museum has not previously possessed even one skeleton representing its genus. ComMISSIONER GEoRGE D. Prart, of the New York Conservation Commission, has secured the services of Mr. Francis Harper of New York City to make a detailed study of the fishing waters of Oneida County, New York, as a basis for scientific working plans for fish stocking and protection. The ap- pointment is in furtherance of Commis- sioner Pratt’s plan for seeing that the product . of the State fish hatcheries is followed to its ultimate destination, and that the proper planting and protection of the millions of fish annually produced in the State hatcheries are assured. When completed in Oneida County the work will be extended to other | parts of the State. Mr. Harper was formerly engaged in private research work in the department of ichthyology of the American Museum. Tur JOURNAL has been in receipt for some time past of a small but steady stream of new subscriptions from persons who have come upon it quite fortuitously and to whom it was hitherto unknown. In view of this and of the fact that practically every subscriber renews his subscription annually, an effort. is being made to bring the Journat to the Two views of the spotted porpoise (Prodelphinus plagiodon), which was taken during the summer of 1915 by Mr. Russell J Coles and presented to the American Museum, together with many photographs and a plaster mold made from the fresh specimen immediately after capture ~MUSEUM NOTES attention of some of the many thousands unconnected. with the Museum who are nevertheless interested in natural science. The cost of publishing the JourNAL is considerable, and the same expenditure might easily benefit a much larger circle of readers. The collaboration of present friends is asked in making it known. A series of color pictures, taken by Messrs. Henry Berger, Jr., and Frank Ives Jones, -showing the Columbia Highway, Rainier Park, and mountain scenery of the Northwest, will be shown in the auditorium of the Ameri- can Museum on Thursday evening, Febru- ary 24, at 8.15 o’clock. The pictures have been taken by the new Paget process of direct color photography. Mr. ALANSON SKINNER has resigned his - position as assistant curator in the depart- ment of anthropology of the American Mu- seum, to accept a position where he will con- tinue in similar work. Mr. Skinner has been connected with the Museum since 1902, when as a boy, he accompanied local field parties engaged in archeological work. Tue Zuni Indian collection, made for the American Museum last summer by Pro- fessor A. L. Kroeber, is now on exhibition in the hall of the Indians of the Southwest. Tue recent death of the Siberian tiger in the zodlogical collection at Bronx Park has provided the Museum with a splendid skin for mounting. This will be used in construct- ing a group for the Asiatic hall when the hoped-for new wing of the Museum shall have become an actuality. CONSIDERABLE improvements are being made in the exhibits on the south side of the dinosaur hall of the Museum. The prepara- tion of new exhibits has for some time inter- fered with the opening of this part of the hall, which contains the various kinds of fossil rep- tiles other than dinosaurs. The fine series of ancient Permian reptiles from Texas and South Africa has now been rearranged with important additions and the fossil turtles are being partly rearranged so as to provide more space for new exhibits. For several years past Miss Dorothea Bate has been engaged in systematic and very 139 successful explorations for fossil vertebrates in the caves of the Mediterranean Islands. One of her recent discoveries is an interesting extinct type of antelope found in caves of the Balearic Islands a few years ago and named Myotragus. It is a relative of the chamois but is distinguished by enlarged lower front teeth like the incisors of rodents and had very short legs and feet. Miss Bate has sent to the Museum a series of specimens of this animal — incomplete skulls, jaws, limb and foot bones, which are on exhibition in a table case in the hall of the age of mammals. Explorations for fossil vertebrates in caves and other localities in the West Indian islands are yielding results no less remarkable than those obtained by Miss Bate from the islands of the Mediterranean and of especial interest to Americans. The explorations of Professor de la Torre and Mr. Barnum Brown in Cuba have already been noticed in the JourRNAL. More recently the zodlogical survey of Porto Rico, conducted by the New York Academy of Sciences, has secured remains of several new and remarkable extinct animals from that island. It seems certain that systematic and thorough explora- tions in all the Antilles would yield results of great scientific value, which would go far toward settling the much disputed questions as to their geologic history and connections with one another and with the mainland. TWENTY-FIVE ancient pottery vessels ex- hibiting unusually fantastic and effective decorative designs and obtained in the Mimbres Valley, New Mexico, have recently been purchased by the Museum from Mr. E. D. Osborn. Also a varied collection of specimens obtained in the neighborhood of Oldtown, Maine, and representing the culture of the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Malecite and Micmac Indians, has been purchased from Mr. G. A. Paul. THERE will shortly be installed in the hall of public health of the American Museum. an exhibit illustrating the comparative food values of a number of common articles of diet. The exhibit consists of a series of one- hundred-calorie portions of various raw foods; the percentage of heat-giving, energy-pro- ducing and muscle-building elements they contain being indicated beside each. In this series perishable foods will be shown by means of models, the less perishable, as rice or oat- 140 meal, being represented by the actual sub- stance. : ReEcENTLyY the exhibition corridors and halls of the American Museum have presented, even to the casual observer, a very practical demonstration of the codperation of the American Museum with the high schools of the city. Regent’s week at the schools recurs twice a year and as only about one-half of the pupils can take the examination at one time, excursions are arranged to the Museum for lectures and laboratory work in biology. Upwards of five thousand pupils visited the Museum during the week. Each class at- tended at least one lecture, besides doing the laboratory work planned for. Lectures, illus- trated with colored lantern slides and motion pictures, were given at intervals during the week by Mr. George H. Sherwood, curator of public education, Dr. G. Clyde Fisher and Mr. Paul B. Mann. A course of lectures open to school children will be given at the American Museum on Monday afternoons at four o’clock, beginning March 6 and lasting through April 10; on Wednesday afternoons, beginning March 8 and las ting through April 12; Thursday after- noons, beginning March 9 and lasting through April 13, and Friday afternoons, beginning March 10 and lasting through April 14. Mr. Georce K. Cuerrie will lecture on Friday evening, March 17, to the adult blind of Greater New York on ‘With Colonel Roosevelt on the River of Doubt.” Mr. Cherrie was the naturalist detailed by the American Museum to accompany Colonel Roosevelt on the South American trip which resulted in the discovery of the River “Duvida,” now named River Roosevelt. Tue first annual meeting of a society for the study of fish and reptiles will be held in the Museum on March 8 at 9.30 a.m, Papers are scheduled to be presented by Professor Ulric Dahlgren of Princeton Uni- versity; Dr. Thomas Barbour of the Agassiz Museum, Cambridge, and Mr. Henry W. Fowler of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. Messrs. Lang and Chapin of the American Museum staff will show slides of some of the interesting fishes and reptiles of the Congo region. This society has been formed with the object of bringing THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL — ichthyologists and herpetologists into closer touch with one another for purposes of study- and the advancement of science, and the meet- ing is open to any person interested in fishes, batrachians or reptiles. Professor Bashford Dean, curator emeritus of the Museum’s department of ichthyology and herpetology, will be the first president of the society. THERE has been prepared in the taxidermy laboratory of the American Museum of Nat-- ural History a life-size model of the extinct fishlike animal Dinichthys. This creature lived about twenty million years ago in the sea that existed on the site of the present state of Ohio. Dinichthys was one of the most ferocious animals that ever lived in the sea. Although like a fish in appearance it is regarded by scientists as belonging to a lower, more primitive order. Its head and the front half of the body were protected by heavy plates of bone, so that it swam about like an armored fish-cruiser. It was quite safe against attack by the other dinichthyids and by the sharks that lived in the same habi- tat. It had tremendously powerful jaws, with “fangs” in front, and behind these, knifelike cutters which chopped against each other. Five or six species of Dinichthys, ranging from two to fifteen feet in length, lived side by side in the Ohio sea. The species mounted (Dinichthys intermedius) reached a length of about eight feet. Amona the more important additions made to the collection of minerals, largely through the expenditure of the income from the Bruce Fund, are the following: a superb crystal of rubellite, (tourmaline), showing a parallel intergrowth of two individual erys- tals; a very showy, blue-green smithsonite, relieved by a white surface of crystallized calcite, from New Mexico; a plumose mi- caceous aurichalcite covering scalenohedral calcite, also from New Mexico; vivid yellow autunite in platy crystals, from South Australia; an opalized stem from Nevada of white opal with fiery foci distributed over it; curved, pink tourmalines in crystallized lepidolite from California; a unique speci- men of amblygonite showing crystal faces; two remarkable specimens of mammillary or botryoidal cassiterite from Mexico; the rare parahopeite from South Africa and the minerals new to the collection, epidesmine, fizelyite, jezekite, barthite and bavenite. The American Museum of Natural History Seventy-seventh Street and Central Park West, New York City Open free to the public on every day in the year. The American Museum of Natural History was established in 1869 to promote the Natural Sciences and to diffuse a general knowledge of them among the people. It is dependent upon private subscriptions and the fees from members for procuring needed additions to the collections and for carrying on explorations in America and other parts of the world. The membership fees are, “Annnal Members... 2% ois es ty. 35 $ 10 Sustaining Members (annually)... 25 quite Members... es Kates nce gs 100 OUOWS © iclkiavs a0 vee hie Mey erie Dw 500 1 EER RAS Si Se ag ers a eer $1,000 Associate Benefactors.............. 10,000 Associate Founders................ 25,000 RRM UOU Ss oe loa) cso v,s5 2 ae evsiele’s ou 50,000 Guides for Study of Exhibits are provided on request to members and teachers by the department of public education. Teachers wishing to bring classes should write or telephone the department for an appointment, specifying the collection to be studied. Lectures to classes may also be arranged for. of children. In all cases the best results are obtained with small groups : The Museum Library contains more than 60,000 volumes with a good working collection of publications issued by scientific institutions and societies in this country and abroad. The library is open to the public for reference daily — Sundays and holidays excepted — from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. The Technical Publications of the Museum comprise the Memoirs, Bulletin and Anthropological Papers, the Memoirs and Bulletin edited by J. A. Allen, the Anthropological Papers by Clark Wissler. the institution. These publications cover the field and laboratory researches of The Popular Publications of the Museum comprise the JourNAL, edited by Mary Cynthia Dickerson, the Handbooks, Leaflets and General Guide. The following list gives some of the popular publications; complete lists, of both technical and popular publications, may be obtained from the Librarian. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS HANDBOOKS Nort AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE PLains. By Clark Wissler; Ph.D. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST. By -ipee f Earle Goddard, Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents ANIMALS OF THE Past. By Frederic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Paper, 35 cents. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE LEAFLETS GENERAL GUIDE TO THE COLLECTIONS. issued December, 1914. Price, 25 cents THE a or Minerats. By ae P. Grata- cap, A.M. Price, 5 cents. North American Ruminants. By J. A. Allen, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Tue Ancient Basket MAKERS oF SOUTHEASTERN Uran. By George H. Pepper. Price, 10 cents. Primitive Art. Price, 15 cents. Tue Binns oF THE Vicinity or New York Ciry. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. Price, 15 cents. PeruviAN Mummies. By Charles W. Mead. Price, 10 cents. Tse METEORITES IN THE FoYER OF THE AMERICAN Museum or Narurat History. By Edmund Otis Hovey, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Tue Hasitat Groups or NortH AMERICAN Birps. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. New edition in course of preparation. New edition Tue INpIANS OF MANHATTAN ISLAND AND VICINITY. By Alanson Skinner. Price, 20 cents. Tue Strokes PAINTINGS REPRESENTING GREENLAND Eskimo, Out of print. Brier History or ANTARCTIC ExPLORATIONS. 10 cents. TreEES AND Forestry. By Mary Cynthia Dickerson, B.S. A new edition in course of preparation. THE Protection oF RivER AND HARBOR WATERS FROM Municieat Wastes. By Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, M.S. Price, 10 cents. PLant Forms 1n Wax. By E. C. B. Fassett. 10 cents. Tue Evo.LuTion oF THE Horse. Ph.D. Price, 20 cenis. Mammorus anp Mastopons. By W.D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Price, Price, By W.D Matthew, REPRINTS THe Grounp Stotrn Group. By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, & cents. MeErtuops anv REsutts IN HERPETOLOGY. Cynthia Dickerson, B.S. Out of print. Tue Warr Pitt Group. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. Price, 5 cents. Tue SEA Worm Group. Price, 10 cents. Tue ANCESTRY OF THE EDENTATES. thew, Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. By Mary By Roy W. Miner, A.B. By W. D. Mat- He has borrowed from the American his shirt and his overalls, but two centuries of contact with the white man and the white man’s religion have not influenced the inward spirit of the Zufii The cover of this Jounnat is from a photograph showing preparations for firing a piece of pottery in accordance with the primitive but effective method of the Zufii Indian of New Mexico NUMBER GAME GARDEN OF THE WORLD—IN AFRICA WITH ROOSEVELT, AKELEY AND DUGMORE PROGRESS: A DRAMA OF EVOLUTION ~ INTERSTATE PALISADES PARK The American Museum of Natural History BOARD OF TRUSTEES President Henry FairFiELD OsBoRN First Vice-President CLEVELAND H. DopcE Treasurer Henry P. Davison Second Vice-President J. P. Morgan Secretary ADRIAN ISELIN, JR. JoHN Purroy MitrcuHe.t, Mayor or THE Cityior New YorK Wiuu1am A. PRENDERGAST, COMPTROLLER OF THE City oF NEw YorRK Casot WarpD, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PARKS GrEorRGE F. BAKER FREDERICK F. BREWSTER JosEPH H. CHOATE R. Futton CurTtrine Tuomas DEWi1trtT CuYLER JAMES DouGLAS Henry C. Frick Mapison GRANT Anson W. Harp ArcHER M. HUNTINGTON ARTHUR CURTISS JAMES Water B. JAMES Seto Low OagpEN MILLs Percy R. Pyne Joun B. TREVOR FreLtrx M. WaArBuRG GrorGE W. WICKERSHAM A. D. JuImLurarD ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS Director Freperic A. Lucas Assistant Treasurer Tue UNITED StatTEs Trust CoMPANY Assistant Secretary Gror@eE H. SHERWOOD or New York SCIENTIFIC STAFF Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Director Geology and Invertebrate Paleontology Epmvnp Otis Hovey, Ph.D., Curator CueEstER A. Reeps, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Mineralogy L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Georce F. Kunz, Ph.D., Honorary Curator Gems Woods and Forestry Mary Cyntuia Dickerson, B.S., Curator Invertebrate Zodlogy Hewry E. Crampton, Ph.D., Curator Roy W. Miner, A.B., Asst. Curator Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D., Asst. Curator L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Mollusca A. J. Murcu.ter, Assistant Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant Danieut M. Fisk, A.M., Assistant W. M. Wuee ter, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Social Insects A. L. TreapweE Lt, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Annulata CuHaR Les W. Lena, B.S., Hon. Curator Coleoptera Ichthyology and Herpetology Basurorp Dean, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus Lovis Hussaxor, Ph.D., Curator Ichthyology Joun T. Nicuots, A.B., Asst. Cur. Recent Fishes Mary Cynruia Dickerson, B.S., Assoc. Curator Herpetology Mammalogy and Ornithology J. A. ALLEN, Ph.D., Curator Frank M. Cuapman, Sc.D., Curator Ornithology Roy C. Anpkews, A.M., Asst. Cur. Mammalogy W. DewW. Miter, Asst. Curator Ornithology H. E. Antuony, B.S., Assistant Mammalogy Herserr Lana, Assistant Mammalogy James P. Cuapin, Assistant Ornithology Vertebrate Paleontology fe Henry FairFriEup Ossorn, LL.D., D.Se., Curator Emeritus W. D. Marruew, Ph.D., Curator Watrer Grancer, Assoc. Curator [Mammals] Barnum Brown, A.B., Assoc. Curator [Reptiles} Wixtiiam K. Gregory, Ph.D., Assoc. in Paizon- tology Cuarves R. Eastman, Ph.D., Research Associate Anthropology Criark Wissuer, Ph.D., Curator Puiny E. Gopparp, Ph.D., Curator Ethnology. Rosert H. Lowiz, Ph.D., Assoc. Curator Hersert J. Sprnpen,’ Ph.D., Asst. Curator Nets ©, Netson, M.L., Asst. Curator CHARLES W. Meap, Asst. Curator M. D. C. Crawrorp, Research Associate in Tex- tiles Geo. Birp GRINNELL, Ph.D., Research Associate in Ethnology J. H. McGreaor, in Anthropology Anatomy and Physiology RaupxH W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Public Health CuHARLES-Epwarp A. Winstow, M.S., Curator IsrareL J. Kiiauer, Ph.D., Assistant Public Education Gerorat H. SHerwoop, A.M., Curator G. Cuypp Fisuer, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Ann E. Tuomas, Ph.B., Assistant Ph.D., Research Associate Books and Publications © Rapes W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Ipa Ricuarpson Hoop, A.B., Asst. Librarian 9 HE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION AND THE | DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM March, 1916 VOLUME XVI, NUMBER 3 PUBLISHED MONTHLY FROM OCTOBER TO MAY INCLUSIVE, BY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY. TERMS: ONE DOLLAR AND A HALF PER YEAR, TWENTY CENTS PER COPY. ENTERED AS SECOND- CLASS MATTER JANUARY 12, 1907, AT THE POST-OFFICE AT BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, ACT OF CONGRESS, JULY 16, 1894. “a CONTENTS FOR MARCH Cover, Field Lilies on the Uasin Gishu Plateau Photograph taken in British East Africa by Mr. Carl E. Akeley Frontispiece, The African Lion “Hannibal”’............................... 144 Modeled and mounted for the American Museum by Mr. James L. Clark East Africa — Game Garden of the World....:......... C. Hart Merriam 145 Review of Roosevelt and Heller’s Life Histories of African Game Animals Illustrations from photographs, drawings and maps in the Roosevelt and Heller volumes, and from cartoons of Roosevelt in McCutcheon’s In Africa Pioneer Photography in Africa...................... ;.... JAMES L, CuarK 154 Story of the work of Mr. A. Radclyffe Dugmore in securing for America the first fine series of African wild game pictures . Illustrations from photographs by Messrs. A. Radclyffe Dugmore and James L. Clark African Photographs by Mr. Carl E. Akeley.................. br eid nes 167 Typical scenes of forest, mountain, jungle, plain, and river, with some of their plant and animal inhabitants Progress — A Drama of Evolution.................... T. D. A. CocKERELL 183 An attempt, in dramatic form, to show that, since progress in the past has not followed the most generally accepted paths, it may be expected to deviate from them in the future also Illustrations from original drawings by Mr. Albert Operti she’ lreatmentor moeme ite. . >... fo. oe cee CLARENCE R. HAttrer 192 Effects of different snake poisons, and the preparation and use of antivenomous serums Language as an Index to Ancient Kinships............ Puiny E. Gopparp 197 Showing how stability of language may provide a connecting link between otherwise entirely differen- tiated peoples Are our Birds Decreasing or Increasing. ........ Ts Fe RAS Henry Otpys 199 Discussion of methods and results in obtaining statistics of bird life ee ee 201 From an address by the Honorable George W. Perkins before the members of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society and the American Museum of Natural History Account of the origin, development and future possibilities of the great park on the west bank of the Hudson River 3 Museum Notes....... Mary Cynrarta Dickerson, Editor Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMERICAN Museum JourNAL, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the American Museum. A RESIDENT OF AFRICAN WILDS The lion “Hannibal” who lived at the New York Zoélogical park from 1902 to 1906. After his death the skin was mounted for the American Museum by Mr. James L. Clark and is now on exhibition on the third floor at the en- trance to the synoptic mammal hall. The photograph is from the mounted Hannibal 144 Tue American Museum Journa VotumME XVI MARCH, 1916 NuMBER 3 East Ae Came Garden of the World A REVIEW OF ROOSEVELT AND HELLER’S LIFE HISTORIES OF AFRICAN GAME ANIMALS! By C. HART MERRIAM Illustrations chosen by the Editor from the photographs, drawings and maps in the Roosevelt and Heller volumes and from cartoons of Roosevelt in McCutcheon’s In Africa 2 North America less than a century ~ ago the western plains supported vast herds of big-game animals — antelope, buffalo, elk, and mule deer — accompanied by bands of hungry wolves and usually also by a few grizzly bears. But the steadily increasing pressure of armed explorers, hunters, and fur traders, followed by stockmen and later by ranch- men, told heavily on the wild game, until at present antelope, except in the Yel- lowstone National Park, are reduced to a few small bands; the buffalo as a wild animal, except in the Yellowstone and the Canadian Northwest, has ceased to exist; the Plains grizzly has been ex- terminated; the elk and mule deer have been forced back into the less accessible parts of distant mountains or have taken refuge in our national parks, while of the original Plains animals the wolf alone remains in material numbers — and he has altered his habits to meet the changed conditions, keeping out of sight 1 Life Histories of African Game Animals by Theodore Roosevelt and Edmund Heller, with illustrations from photographs, and from drawings by Philip R. Goodwin: and with 40 faunal maps. 2 vols. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1914. The account of the expedition, entitled African Game Trails, by Theodore Roosevelt, was published four years earlier (Scribner’s 1910) and to lovers of wild nature is a’book of thrilling interest. in the daytime and preying at night on the settlers’ cattle in place of the buffalo of bygone days. In other countries, including South -Africa, the course of events has been much the same. But in East Africa, owing partly to the astonishing tardiness of exploration and settlement, and partly ~ to the foresight of the British Govern- ment in setting aside large areas as game preserves, wild beasts are still to be found in amazing abundance. The num- ber of kinds is no less surprising than the number of individuals. Nowhere else on the globe exists an assemblage of game animals in any way comparable; indeed, the number is almost beyond _ belief. For instance, not fewer than thirty spe- cies of antelopes, gazelles, steinboks, hartebeests, elands and their allies, in- habit the region at the present time, besides giraffes, zebras, buffalos, ele- phants, rhinoceroses, hippos, lions, leop- ards, cheetahs, jackals and hyenas. During the past half century this surprising wealth of game animals has attracted hunters from all quarters of the globe. In the comparatively brief period between the discoveries of Speke and Grant and the hunting expeditions of Selous, Harry Johnston, and Roosevelt, : 145 9FT uedo ey} Ul JI Jt oy} OJUL Yoox AUBUT JO ‘saysng JOAO SulSu1ds ‘spsiq oy Jsouje Yo 03 sjeumue oy} ‘spunoq pue sdeoy Aseurpsovsyxe {sour oy) Sexe}, ‘poulIeyTeE USYM ‘YOrYM oUO OY] SI BTfeduI oY} BoLITY eTpprur Jo sjeunue peusoy oy} Te Fuomy -YSAIY VNVL SHL NO 3dO17S LNV V11VdWI suosy’ § dauqgi dog’ Sa)tDY") Asajzunoa yfnowy) paonpouday Aajayy “140. AQ O}0Yq ANGER. ° EQUATOR au 0} so Greenwich 0° LiL. POATES ENGR'G CO., N.Y. ° Longitude West 3 Longitude ‘ast 20° from By courlesy Charles Scribner’s Sons DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF THE WHITE RHINOCEROS The localities occupied by this species are everywhere bounded by rivers. The Nile race (2 on the map) (Ceratotherium simum simum), the only one which still exists wild, is confined to a limited district west of the Nile and is never found on the east bank; while the southern race (1 on the map) (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), formerly very abundant between the Zambesi and Orange Rivers — although now represented only by some dozen preserved individuals — has never been known to occur north of the Zambesi. The river boundaries illustrate forcibly the strong aversion of these great quadrupeds to crossing streams. During historic times the white rhinoceros has not been known to inhabit the region between its present ranges, although this is apparently well suited to its habits, and the separation must have been comparatively recent, since the races exhibit only slight structural differences. Roosevelt and Heller’s Life Histories of African Game Animals contains some forty maps setting forth the distribution of the big game of the continent 147 148 a literature on African game has sprung up and grown to voluminous if not formidable proportions. It has remained however, for Roosevelt and his field assistant Heller, as a direct outgrowth of the Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition to write the Life Histories of African Game Animals — a book which for all time will stand as a treasure house of information on the geography and general natural history of the region. ! In training, field experience, knowl- edge of animals, and in literary ability, the authors form a rather remarkable combination. Roosevelt had long been recognized as the most pleasing writer and highest authority on the habits and hunting of the big-game animals of North America; Heller had attained the repu- tation of being one of the world’s most 1 In the light of this assured permanent value of the work, it is interesting to quote Colonel Roosevelt. He has said that his idea in writing this book was to record his own field observations and such observations of others as he thought accurate, in order fo stimulate interest in the study of the life histories of African game animals — that the book was more a first word than a last word on this subject.— Tue Eprror. From McCutcheon’s In Africa By courtesy Bobbs-Merrill Company Roosevelt showing his pigskin library to John Stephenson and Mrs. Carl E. Akeley in the Roosevelt African camp THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL 3 experienced and successful mammal col- lectors, having previously worked in East Africa (on the Akeley expeditions), and in western North America from Alaska to the deserts of Southern Cali- fornia and Nevada. Hence in the writ- ing, the life histories naturally fell to Roosevelt; the account of geographic ranges and the descriptions of species to Heller. In the preface and early part of the book the authors outline the routes and geographic areas covered by the expedi- tion, describe the natural features and dominant elements of the flora, give an admirable summary of the history of east and middle Africa, mentioning the — accomplishments of successive explorers and hunter-naturalists, and digress far enough to discuss such general subjects as game preserves, the geographic dis- tribution of animals, the systematic relations of genera, species and sub- species, the derivation of the fauna geo- graphically and paleontologically, and the theories of concealing and revealing coloration in relation to natural selection. Whether or not one always agrees with their conclusions it must be admitted that the discussions abound in interesting observations and en- tertaining comments and deductions. In many instances fun- damental __ scientific truths are expressed with more than ordi- nary clearness. Thus, in speaking of the ranges of animals and plants we are told that every species has a Fred tendency to enlarge McCutcheon, 6FT YyslelO “T sourer Aq urnesnyy [eure Ny] OY} JOJ poyUNoU pue ‘uor}Ipedxy UBOLIZY JJPAQSOOY-UeIUOSY}IUIg OY} UO pazO9]]00 SUTYS WIOIJ OpeUT SI ‘BOLUyY JO SoI2dOUTYY 1G A, OY) SurMoys ‘dnoss sty LT4A5SO0Y¥ SAYOGOSHL AG LOHS SONIHY ALIHM ff oe cp ste MENS , oe From McCutcheon’s In Africa By courtesy Bobbs-Merrill Company Improving each shining hour its area of distribution, and that “the ‘distribution of each species marks the limits within which it is able successfully to compete with its environment. It would appear therefore a comparatively easy matter to determine the factors which are accountable for the distribu- tion of any species; and yet no task in natural history is more difficult... .The distribution of one species may depend upon the distribution of its food plants or animals, of another upon its natural enemies, of another upon climatic condi- tions; while yet others may be limited in distribution by natural boundaries such as large bodies of water or high mountains.” Later, the authors mention the physi- cal obstacle imposed by the Tana River, which “acts as a barrier across the desert portion of the coast slope from Mount Kenia eastward to the sea,” separating the ranges of a dozen game animals, St ral ora Martugow £ THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ce including zebras, gi- raffes, oryx, harte- beests, gazelles, an- telopes and wart hogs. One’s surprise at the effectiveness of a river — barrier is relieved by the remark that “the aversion which most antelopes have for crossing rivers is due no doubt chiefly to the fear of attack by the crocodiles which haunt the streams.” Throughout the work the animals are discussed with refer- ence to their environ- ment — the features imposed by geogra- phy, vegetation and climate being kept constantly in mind. We are told that the mammals of equa- torial Africa, unlike those of northern regions, “have no definite season for shedding their coats, nor are they sub- ject to any seasonal climatie change which would necessitate such a change.” And further, that there seems to be no definite breeding season in East Africa, there being “no climatic necessity for such a habit.” Roosevelt’s writings on North Ameri- can game animals have proved him an unusually keen and accurate observer, eager to learn just what the animals are doing, and certain to record what he has seen while it is still fresh in mind. Hence it is not surprising that his accounts of hunting strange beasts in a new field, as told in his African Game Trails and Life Histories of African Game Animals, should abound in detailed observations, often enlivened with spirited scenes and thrilling incidents. Drawing by Philip R. Goodwin Reproduced through courtesy Charles Scribner’s Sons DEFENSIVE ACTION OF RETICULATED GIRAFFE Giraffes make no effort to hide or escape observation, trusting to their own wariness, speed, and keen senses, especially sight, for protection. With the exception of the ostrich, giraffes are the wariest game in all Africa and hardest to stalk. This one was caught asleep by Colonel Roosevelt. When he was within a few feet of it, it reared and struck short and finally withdrew. The lion is the giraffe’s only enemy among beasts 151 ost a8e1 SsoJosUOS SOSNOIe UBUT B JO [JOWUS JO JYSIS OY} JOY}IO seseo oUIOS UL yNq ‘4[Nsed [eNsN oY} St IeoJ “yjouIs St UeUT BY} Jr +AzISOLIND pue quoulJeppiMeq ATUO seonpur Ayjensn UeUL v JO YYSIS oY], “poos ose SZurreoy pue |[ouIs Jo sesues s}t ynq “FYysIseXe JO pue JIM JO [[NP St sosgdouTYs You|q peddr-yooy ey], Y3LYOd V ONISSOL SOHSOONIHY MOVIE \SUOg $,sauqiuog sajany Asajinoo ybnosy, poonposday uimpooy -Yy dipyd west and California. In no one of these widely separated divisions do we find any indication of former unity or the survival of a common culture, except that the languages, on even superficial examination, show that they are all derived from the same source, and that therefore the tribes speaking them must have been at some time in close social contact. On the other hand, particularly in Cali- fornia and on the Northwest Coast of North America, we find two fairly uniform cultures rather distinct from each other and from all others, yet each of these cultures includes a large number of distinct languages. Here the leveling influences of social contacts and a common environment have wrought uniformity except in language. These are the facts. What, we may ask, are the causes of so great conservatism in language? One of these causes may be that language is acquired by the child in the home before it is capable of walking about and seeking any society beyond that of the immediate family. The vocabulary of the child is limited and is added to throughout life, but the form of the language becomes fixed very early. The ordinary child ac- quires and is able to pronounce clearly the sounds of its own language by the time it is eight or nine years old. Soon after that age, at fourteen or fifteen, it becomes incapable of hearing and reproducing the unfamiliar sounds of a foreign language perfectly. The process of acquiring a language is so difficult for an adult that it is attempted only under exceptional circumstances. ‘There may be something too in the fact that speech, hay- ing been once acquired, often becomes very largely an unconscious reflex process. A highly organized language of the usual American type is so thoroughly a unit that it is generally not possible to mix two unre- lated languages. The old must be discarded in its entirety and the new language adopted in its place. The feeling of the identity of the social group is however too closely bound up with language to allow such changes. That languages in North America have given way and been discarded by the people who formerly spoke them for the languages of their neighbors, may have happened repeatedly; but since language is the last element of culture to disappear, when it does go there is nothing left, and all evidence of former differences and likenesses is lost. Are Our Birds Decreasing or Increasing By HENRY OLDYS the American Ornithologist’s Union, held not long ago in Washington, was a discussion of the present relative abun- dance or scarcity of insectivorous birds in the United States. The conclusion reached, to which all the speakers assented, was that the insectivorous birds are now much more numerous than they were in the days of the original settlers. This verdict was based both on theoretical condition and actual obser- vation. In 1898, Dr. W. T. Hornaday of the New York Zodlogical Park, on the strength of reports secured from many naturalists, estimated an average decrease of forty-six per cent in the birds of thirty states and terri- tories in the preceding fifteen years. In 1904 Mr. Edward Howe Forbush, under direction of the Massachusetts State Board of Agri- culture, prepared a similar report concerning the birds of Massachusetts, based on opinions obtained from more than two hundred per- sons. The conclusion he reached was that “the smaller birds in general have not de- creased greatly in Massachusetts as a whole in recent years, except in and near the centers of population.” The discrepancy among these various conclusions is palpable, even after making due allowance for the fact that Dr. Hornaday’s summing up includes game birds which, as is well known, have undergone a marked decrease. Aside from the annual statement of the condition of game animals and game birds, based on reports of sportsmen, which was issued by the United States Department of Agriculture for several years, I am not aware of any other attempts to ascertain the extent of numerical changes in our avifauna. The Department of Agriculture has however, put into operation a scheme for securing a count of nesting birds in limited areas throughout the country, by which means a more or less reliable basis may be obtained for compari- son with similar counts on the same areas periodically. Incidentally it might be men- tioned that the government of Germany a few weeks before the beginning of the great war, inaugurated a like count of its birds. Somewhat on the same order was a census, 2 ie of the features of a meeting of made under the direction of Dr. 8. A. Forbes of the University of Illinois a few years ago, when several assistants made trips across the State, noting all the birds in their paths, while others made similar observations in selected circular areas. Information of this kind, as Dr. Forbes points out, cannot be taken as a proportional basis on which to estimate the total number of birds in a state, but must be regarded merely as a census of the areas under observation, a limitation particularly applica- ble to Illinois with its exceedingly varied topography, but holding true of practically every other state in the Union. While all such efforts to determine the relative abundance or scarcity of birds, whether by actual count or by general ob- servation, have a definite value, yet that value must not be overestimated, a caution that would, I doubt not, be seconded by those who have been instrumental in securing such information. Those schemes that involve a count of the birds cover but an insignificant part of the region under investigation, while in the others a very great degree of uncer- tainty is injected by the personal element. The latter difficulty is well set forth by Mr. Forbush in his report. ‘A conclusion one way or the other,” he says, ‘‘cannot safely be formed by any individual unaided, except in regard to a limited territory with which he has been familiar for a series of years. Such a conclusion, when formed, is merely an opinion, and the personal equation inevitably comes in to bias it. Some people are natur- ally optimistic, and their reports show it; or they have recently begun to study birds and see more of them now than in former years. Others are pessimistic, or have be- come imbued with the popular belief that our birds are being rapidly exterminated. Some are elderly people, who do not, perhaps, hear or see so clearly as in their youth, and are not so much afield, and do not notice so many birds as in their younger days. Some reports come from closely populated regions, where many causes operate to destroy or drive out the birds; others come from more sparsely peopled regions, where the birds and their natural enemies are not so much inter- fered with. These personal or environmental 199 200 differences tend to, produce contradictory reports.” Still less can the figures thus secured be used as sound statistics when no attempt is made to separate birds by groups according to the different influences at work upon them. Thus, to class the wild turkey, which early colonists in New England were accustomed to shoot from the doors of their dwellings, but which is now practically confined to a few favored localities in the southern half of the United States, with the English sparrow, whose phenomenal increase is within the knowledge of all, and to report that the wild turkey and English sparrow on the average have neither increased nor decreased, would palpably be an unsatisfactory conclusion. Yet while not so striking, other groupings are equally inconclusive. Birds that habitually _nest in swamps must decrease as swamps are drained unless they alter their habits to conform to the changed conditions, which is not evident; while birds that build about homesteads are likely to increase as home- steads multiply. It will readily be under- stood that to average these two distinct classes will produce results that can have little, if any, scientific value. To attain a high degree of accuracy all investigations of relative numbers of birds should consider each species separately and should give due weight to all factors that may enter into the problem; even then allowance must be made for error — human bias, in- complete returns and overlooked factors. The complexity of the inquiry may be illus- trated by one or two examples. Bewick’s wren is a bird that nests freely around the homestead; hence it would seem that in- creasing settlement of the country should cause it to increase. But the same influence tends to increase the aggressive house wren, which is inimical to Béwick’s wren and re- duces its numbers by breaking up its nests and driving it away from the homestead. Again, the destruction of hawks and owls would appear to be of direct benefit to the crow blackbird by reducing its enemies; but hawks and owls keep down crows, which rob the nests of blackbirds and of course would do so with greater frequency in the growing decrease of hawks and owls. So, too, the spread of the gospel of bird protec- tion, with its repressive influence on de- struction of birds by boys, on the shooting of the larger non-game birds by men for sport, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL on the collecting of birds for the cage or for the millinery market, and the success of this doctrine in its advocacy of providing food, shelter and nesting places for birds, ought, one might think, to cause a general increase of all non-game birds. But the changed conditions thus brought about are also beneficial to such birds as jays, crow blackbirds and others of the larger birds that have the habit of feeding on the eggs and young of the smaller; other things being equal, these tend to increase disproportion- ately and in a growing ratio. (This rule however is subject to special exceptions.) It has been found also that the substitution of the camera for the gun may work for actual net decrease of birds in regions occupied by foxes, which are reported to follow the scent of the nature photographer and clean out oc- cupants of the nests he photographs. , a 6 bd TELE LT isd ite From exhibit in the American Museum of Natural History INHERITANCE OF COLOR IN PEAS Mendel’s classic experiments were made with the common garden pea (Pisum sativum). When peas of yellow seed color were crossed with those of green seed color, the peas of the resulting plants were all yellow. When these yellow peas were mated together the peas of the resulting plants were one-fourth pure yellow seed color, two-fourths yellow hybrids, and one-fourth pure green. Of these the pure yellows and greens bred true, the hybrids continuing to give half hybrids and half pures as before i aan a a i i, el a perimental — study Heredity and Sex MENDELISM AND SOME OF ITS RECENT DEVELOPMENTS By FRANK E. LUTZ. ' HE history of science is as full of 8 episodes replete with “human interest” as is the history of nations. Not the least of these is the story of Gregor Méndel, a_ peasant, later a monk, and finally Abbot at Brinn, but now known not for his theology or his kindly deeds to his fellows, but for his patient and successful work in his avocation — the study of heredity. The principal material which he used in this study was the common pea, and his results were published in an obscure journal in 1865. Darwin knew of his work but failed to appreciate its signi- ficance. In fact, it remained unnoticed until eighteen years after Mendel had died when, independently but simul- taneously, it was brought to our at- tention, together with important confirmations, by three noted bota- nists:, De _ Vries, Correns, and Tsch- ermak. Its redis- covery has not only given us a theory of heredity which has revolu- tionized the practi- cal breeding — of plants and lower animals, but also it has given a new impetus to the ex- of evolution and, through the “eu- genics” movement, Gregor Mendel, Abbot of Briinn, whose experiments in plant hybridization (1853-1884) led to the formula- tion of important principles of heredity bids fair to play an important part in the development of human society. It is fitting, therefore, that the American Museum should arrange exhibits illus- trating the principles of Mendelism. In the Darwin hall of the American Museum, features of the Mendelian law of heredity are shown by means of peas and rats, while in the insect hall not only Mendelism, but also the later developments of Mendelism — its relation to the mechanism of the germ cell and to sex — are illustrated. As an illustration of Mendelism in its simplest form we may take the following: The commoner of the two beetles — both undesirable immigrants from Eu- rope — which feed upon our asparagus is Crioceris aspar- agi. It is a small green creature with cream-colored markings. In some individuals _ these markings consist of three small spots on each wing cov- er; in others these spots are larger, and the two front ones on each side are joined. Now, if an asparagus beetle having the spots small and separate mates with one having the spots large and joined, the off- spring (the “hy- brids” or, as this 229 Mr es . From exhibit, American Museum of Natural History ILLUSTRATION OF SIMPLE MENDELISM Inheritance of color pattern in the common asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi). The upper experiment shows the result of mating a beetle having spots small and separate with one having spots large and joined. The offspring are hybrids, unlike either parent, but if mated with one another half their offspring will be hybrids, one-fourth pure-blooded and like the original female ancestor, and one-fourth pure-blooded and like the original male ancestor. If one of these pure-blooded offspring now mates with a hybrid, the resulting offspring will be half hybrid and half pure-blooded, as shown in the lower experiment 230 HEREDITY AND SEX generation is called, F,) will have the spots large but not joined. If these hybrids mate, the next generation (F2) will, in the long run, consist of one indi- vidual with spots small and separate to two with spots large and separate (hybrids) to one with spots large and joined. ‘This is shown in the insect hall and in the figure on page 230. Half of the F, generation are hybrids, and if mated with similar hybrids will give offspring in these F, proportions, 1:2:1. The! rest are pure. If spots-small- and-separate be mated with spots-small- and-separate all the offspring will have the spots small and separate, no matter what the previous ancestors were. Like- wise spots-joined mated with spots-joined can give only spots-joined. Although this case has not been as thoroughly studied as the others to be mentioned here, it is cited first because it shows clearly which are hybrids. In the others the law of dominance is so prominent that the simplicity of Mende- lism is obscured. Let us analyze this case by means of symbols. We will let S stand for spots small and separate and J for spots joined. As every individual is made up of two parts, maternal and paternal, we will indicate individuals by two letters. The beetles with which we started are therefore SS and JJ. The former produces germ cells each one of which carries the factor S, and each of the germ cells of the latter carries ./. United, these make a hybrid individual, SJ. Now the essential point is that a given germ cell can carry the factor for only one condition of a given character. Therefore hybrid asparagus beetles pro- duce two kinds of germ cells, one bearing S and the other J. There are equal numbers of each kind. An S sperm has equal chances of fertilizing an S and a J egg, giving equal numbers of SS and S.J offspring. There are just as many J sperm, and they have equal chances of 231 fertilizing an S and a J egg and therefore we should get a similar number of SJ and JJ offspring. The total would be one SS to two SJ to one JJ. “Q:.E:D.” A further test consists in mating pure individuals with hybrids. SS produces only S germ cells, and S.J equal numbers of S and J germ cells. Therefore, there will be an equal number of the combina- tions, SS and SJ. See page 230. The ordinary “sour fly” or pomice fly (Drosophila ampelophila) has been used more than any other species of ani- mal or plant in the experimental study of inheritance. The two examples used in the insect hall and shown on page 232 are illustrations of simple Mendelism plus the law of dominance. This is a very slight complication and consists merely in the fact that when two char- acters are joined in the hybrid only one (the “dominant”’ one) is evident. The “recessive’’ character is there however, and half of the germ cells produced by such a hybrid bear only the recessive character. If a pomice fly having aborted wings of a certain kind be mated with a pure normal-winged fly, all the offspring (hybrids, or Fi) will have normal wings, for normal wing is domi- nant and aborted wing is recessive. If these hybrids be mated together we shall get in the F, generation, one pure normal-winged to two hybrid (but having normal wings), to one pure aborted- winged. More briefly, the ratio is three normal-winged to one aborted-winged. Although the eye can not distinguish between the two kinds of normal-winged F:, breeding shows that they exist in — the proportions just mentioned. In the second illustration, normal body color is dominant and black is recessive. Mendel used peas in his own experi- ments, and on page 228 is shown part of the exhibit in the Darwin hall illustrating these. The pair of characters concerned is yellow seed color (dominant) and green C8S S9lIBS JOJOO oy} UI AyreyTMig “SSUIM yeULIOU SuLAey spuqdy oy} yioq pue jueurmop vind oy) ‘eArIssodoi oand 9uo 0} spluqdy OM} 0} JUeUTWOp oand oUO sonposd [IM Sueur Tey} pue ‘puqdy yore jo s]jeo wes ey} Jyey Ur ‘AOMOY [, ‘SSUIM JeuJOU VAeY [Te [IM AY posurm-pejsoqe ue pue [euou vind e WoIy SuLIdsyo ey} OS ‘10J09 Yep OF 44ST] pue SUIM pozJoge Oo} YUeUTMIOp 4 juesesd SI Ja}OBIBYO BAISSIO9I OY, St SUIM ]BULION) “JUEPIAV st (QUO yURUTMIOp 9Y}) eUO AyUO ‘praqky wv UT peutOf ore sJOJORIeYO OMY UO AA “AIF GOIWOd OY) UL (J4FI) JOJOO Jo pu (jJe]) YISUeT FUIM Jo ooueyLOYUT AJONVYNIWOG 40 MV71 SHL A40}81 7 JOUNIDAT fo uMasnyy undriuauy ‘yigiyra Woody uy yd Ya uy Yq Ya ad peyioge-yiep suo 0} [eUiIOU-yIep 9e14} 0} poyOge-7Y4SIT] 9814} 0} [BULIOU-]4ST] CUTU JO OTVeI BY} UL ‘S[BNPIAIpUL JO Spuly JUVJayIP MOF vq B10 Jory y ][IM 9104} UOT}e19UeS ply} OY} UT “S[[e9 UIIeS Jo Spury JUeJeyIp IMO; ‘siequinu jenbe ur vonpoid youo TIM ‘1OAOMOY SpLIqhy oseyT, “SSUIM [eUIIOU YIIM YYST] eq [IM “Tenprlarpur posuim-poyioge yep e& YIM pesuIM-[euJOU 44s e SuNeUT Woy ‘SuLIdsyO. UOTeI0Ues-4sIy 9Y} Jo [][e ‘SJo}OVIeYO JUBUTWIOp oe SuIM yeulIOoU pue JO;OO Apoq 4YysIT VuUIG SHALOVYVHO AO SYHIVd OML AO AONVLIYSAHNI Ks0js1pJ JOUNMAT fo wnasnpy udridaup “igryxa UWOL yy 234 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL seed color (recessive). In order that this case may be understood in its relation to the zodélogical illustrations, it should be noted that seeds are really young next- generation plants. In this exhibit the fact is emphasized that the extracted dominants and recessives of F2 and sub- sequent generations, 7. e. the pure off- | spring of hybrid parents, are really pure. If mated, each to its kind, they carry on their strain indefinitely. As illustrations of Mendelism in verte- brates, experiments with the wild gray and domesticated “fancy” rats! are exhibited in the’Darwin hall. If a pure gray rat be mated with a white rat the offspring will all be gray, for gray is dominant while white is recessive, and in the F, generation there will be three grays to one white (see page 235). This white, however, will be pure. Sup- pose a breeder had only one white rat, but wished to establish a strain. He could mate it with a wild gray, and although the hybrids would all be gray, he could get pure white individuals either by mating the original white with one of its hybrid offspring, or by mating hybrids with hybrids. In the former case he would get fifty per cent hybrids to fifty per cent pure white (see the asparagus beetle illustration) and in the latter seventy-five per cent grays (one-third of them pure gray) to twenty- five per cent pure white. Let us go a step further and consider what happens if there are two independ- ent pairs of characters. In this connec- tion compare page 232 with page 233. On page 233 it is seen that one of the parents has aborted wings and dark body color while the other is normal with re- spect to each of these characters. Since light body color and normal wing are 1 The rats shown are largely from the important experiments of Professor W. E. Castle, of Harvard, who kindly outlined this portion of the exhibit. The rest of the rats were obtained from the N. Y. Zodlog- ical Park through the courtesy of Mr. Ditmars. dominant, all of the F, generation are light and have normal wings. In the F, generation one-fourth of the offspring have aborted wings, one-fourth have dark body color, while three-fourths have long wings and three-fourths have light body color. However, there are four different combinations in the ratio of nine light-normal to three light- aborted to three dark-normal to one dark-aborted. Those acquainted with the laws of chance will see that this is the ratio to be expected if twelve light and four dark (3:1) be independent from, and combined in a random fashion with, twelve long and four aborted. The germinal analysis may be given as fol- lows, L standing for light color, d for dark color, N for normal wing and a for aborted wing. The recessive condi- tion of the characters is indicated by the small letters. The one parent, LLNN, produces germ cells which are all LN. The germ cells of the other parent, ddaa, are all da. Therefore the offspring will all be LIdNa. These offspring, male and female, will each produce four kinds, (in equal numbers) of germ cells: LN, La, dN and da. Suppose the combina- tions of letters just given to be eggs, and combine them in a random fashion with the four kinds of sperm: LN, La, dN and da. LN sperm, fertilizing the various kinds of eggs, would produce equal num- bers of LUNN, LLNa, LdNN and LdNa individuals. Writing out in like fashion the combinations for the other kinds of sperm and adding the results together, we find we have 1 LLNN +2 LLNa+2LdNN+4 LdNa= 9 light-normal, 1 LLaa+2 Ldaa= 3 light-aborted, 1 ddNN+2 ddNa= 3 dark-normal, 1 ddaa= 1 dark-aborted. | | HEREDITY In the case of the rats (page 236) only a sample of each class of F: individuals is shown. The ratio is nine black-self- colored to three black-hooded to three yellow-self-colored to one yellow-hooded, for black is dominant over yellow and self-colored over hooded. There is, theoretically, no end to the MENDELISM AND SEX 235 number of pairs of characters which may be concerned in any one cross, but the principles are the same: a given germ cell carries but one of each pair, and where both members of a pair come together in the union of two germ cells to form an individual, one of the char- acters usually dominates over the other. From exhibit, American Museum of Natural History IN RATS If a pure gray rat be mated with a white rat the offspring will all be gray, for gray is dominant and white is recessive. and will breed true; the other two grays are hybrids. In the next generation there will be three grays to one white; the white and one of the grays are pure 236 If three pairs of characters are concerned there will be, typically, eight classes of offspring, in the F,; generation. This is seen in the third exhibit (page 237) illus- trating inheritance of color and pattern THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL in rats where, again, only samples of the various classes are shown. Frequently, as in the case of the rats, the breeder is able, by crossing known varieties, to get new or hitherto unknown varieties in F.; From exhibit in the American Museum of Natural History DUPLEX INHERITANCE IN RATS The two pairs of characters here involved are black versus yellow, and self-colored versus hooded, black and self-colored being dominant, respectively, to yellow and hooded. The first-generation offspring are all gray hybrids, each with four different kinds of germ cells, which produce in the following generation four kinds of individuals, as in the case of the pomice flies. One only of each kind is shown HEREDITY AND SEX 237 that is, new combinations are made. The exhibit in the American Museum showing inheritance of flower color in sweet peas, is complicated by the fact that not only are there three pairs of characters, but also that color of any kind, that is any kind but white, can occur only when certain members of two of these pairs come together. One of the white parents had one of these char- acters and the other had the second; union by crossing gave colored offspring. From exhibit in the American Museum of Natural History INHERITANCE OF THREE PAIRS OF CHARACTERS Where three pairs of characters are concerned in a cross there will be eight classes of individuals in the second generation of offspring. The pairs of characters concerned above are black and cream-colored, yellow and cream- colored, and self-colored and hooded (the condition in which all pigmentation is concentrated near the head). Black, yellow and self-colored are the dominants. The eight classes of offspring (of which only samples are shown) are: black-yellow-self (gray), black-yellow-hooded (white with gray hood), black-cream-self (black), black-cream- hooded (black hood), cream-yellow-self (yellow), cream-yellow-hooded (yellow hood), cream-cream-self (cream) and cream-cream-hooded (cream hood) 238 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Before passing on to the explanation of what may be called the mechanism of Mendelism, a word should be said for the benefit of those who may have read or heard the Mendelian principles given in terms of presence or absence of char- acters. We may say that a fly’s eye is red in the presence of the factor for red, and white in its absence, or we may speak of the pair of characters as red and white. It has seemed better to use the latter alternative here, but the presence-and- absence way of putting it works out well in certain cases and has given rise to some interesting speculations. Thus, Profes- sor Bateson has suggested that all or-.. ganic evolution has been brought-about by the successive dropping’ out of char- acters. This seemis hard to believe, but certainly the origin of many varieties, whose origin we think we have seen, can be neatly explained in that way. In order to understand the mechanism of Mendelian inheritance it will be neces- sary to explain some of the details of cell structure. The bodies of all the higher animals and plants are made up of cells, which are frequently looked upon as units of body structure. The lowest animals and plants consist of but one of these cells. The germ cells, egg or sperm, are merely some of these cells split off from the main mass of body cells, and differentiated so that they may unite and form a new mass of body cells, the new individual. In some cases the egg cell can carry on this process without uniting with the sperm, but in the vast majority of cases among higher animals and plants such union is normally neces- sary. Within these cells are bodies called chromosomes, the name _ being given because they stain deeply when treated with certain reagents. The chromosomes have, for some time, been supposed to be the bearers of heritable characters, and this supposition has now become almost a certainty by reason of Mendelian studies, especially those with the pomice fly, Drosophila ampelophila. We are, as yet, in the dark concerning the exact method by which these char- acters are transmitted, so that “bearers of heritable characters” is in great part a figure of speech, but, at any rate, these characters are somehow bound up with special chromosomes. Most, and probably all, organisms have a definite number of these chromo- somes, although the number is not always the same in both sexes. In the pomice fly the number is the same (eight) “in each sex, but one of the chromosomes (the “Y’’) of the male seems to carry maleness and not, as far as is known, any other character. When it is present the individual is a male. It is, however, paired in the body cells of the males with a chromosome which does carry factors for certain body characters, and this other chromosome may be called X. In each of the female body cells there is a pair of these X chromosomes but no Y. When a body cell destined to become a germ cell differentiates, the result of the rather complicated process may be stated simply by saying that it breaks in two, making two nearly similar cells. In the case of the male, the Y chromo- some goes to one half, 2. e. to one sperm, and the X chromosome to the other. Each egg has an X chromosome. If a sperm having a Y chromosome enters an egg, the union will have one X and one Y and the resulting individual will be a male. However, if a sperm haying an X chromosome enters an egg, the union will have X paired with X; there will be no Y and the resulting individual will be a female. Since the chances are equal that an egg will be fertilized by a Y- bearing sperm or by an X-bearing sperm the determination of sex is a random matter; it depends upon which sperm HEREDITY AND SEX enters and not at all upon the mother; and the number of each sex will, in the long run, be equal. All this is, of course, subject to amendment by further inves- tigation, and too sweeping generaliza- tions should not be made, but it, or a similar relation, seems to hold for other strictly bisexual animals and it is the only explanation for the following, among other, facts. A few pomice flies were found having white eyes instead of red. This white condition is recessive to red but in in- heritance the proportions are not those of simple Mendelism. In what has gone before nothing was said about sex, because characters which have been previously mentioned occur without regard to it. This particular eye color however, is one of a number of characters which are “sex linked.” If a white- eyed male be mated with a pure red- eyed female (see page 240), all the off- spring, both male and female, will have red eyes. If these offspring be mated with one another, all the females of the next generation will have red eyes, but half of the males will have white eyes and only half will have red eyes. On the other hand, if a red-eyed male be mated with a white-eyed female (see page 241), all the male offspring will have white eyes and all the female offspring will have red eyes. This is what has been called “criss-cross” inheritance — the sons being like their mother and the daughters like their father. If these offspring be mated with one another, half of the male and half of the female offspring will have white eyes, the re- mainder having red eyes. The explanation is as follows: This pair of characters, red eye versus white eye, is associated with the X, or sex, chromosome. In the first case men- tioned the female was pure with respect to this eye-color character; that is, both 239 of the X chromosomes carried the factor for red eye color (see page 240). The male, since it showed the recessive char- acter, must have been pure with respect to white eye color and, furthermore, all males are necessarily pure with respect to this particular pair of eye colors, and also with respect to all other sex-linked characters, since they have but one X chromosome, and since that chromosome, » like any other, can bear the factor for only one of a pair of characters. All of the eggs, in this mating, carried the fac- tor for red eye color. Half of the sperm carried the factor for white eye color and the other half had no factor con- cerned with this pair of characters. If a sperm bearing the factor for white eye color united with an egg, the offspring would be a hybrid since it contained factors for both eye colors, but, since red is dominant over white in this case, this individual would show the red color. It would also be a female since the union which produced it was with a sperm having an X chromosome. If a sperm not bearing the X chromosome (that is, one with the Y) united with one of the eggs, all of which bore the factor for red eye color, the result would be a male pure with respect to red eye color, since the only factor concerned with this pair of characters came with the egg and was red. In other words, all the females of this generation had red eyes and were hybrids with respect to eye color, while all the males had red eyes and were pure with respect to eye color. Half of the eggs which go to produce the next generation bear the factor for red eye color, and the other half bear the factor for white eye color. Half of the sperm have X chromosomes bearing the factor for red eye color, and the other half have no X chromosomes, and thus have no influence upon eye color. Taking up the first class of sperm, namely, those F emMALe Mace SO UB ( From exhibit, American Museum of Natural History SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE White eye color in the pomice fly is one of a number of characters which are sex-linked. the chromosomes of the pomice fly, circles referring to body cells and ovals to germ cells. The diagram represents The sex chromosomes are shown above and below the ordinary chromosomes (see text), the factor for eye color which each one carries being indicated by an initial. The odd-shaped figure is the ““Y’’ chromosome. When this is present the individual is a male 240 Por FemMace L] mE C] m R) G Eggs Sperm From exhibit, American Museum of Natural History “CRISSCROSS ’”’, SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE Ifa red-eyed male be mated with a white-eyed female, all the male offspring will have white eyes and all the female offspring red eyes; if these be mated with one another, half of the male and half of the female offspring will have white eyes, the remainder having red eyes 241 242 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL bearing the X chromosomes: they will, when uniting with an egg, produce female individuals and, since half of the eggs have the factor for red while the other half have the factor for white, half of the resulting females will be pure red, while the other half will be hybrid, but will have red eyes because red is domi- nant over white. In other words, all of the females of this generation show red eyes. When the sperm lacking X chro- mosomes unites with the eggs, half of which have the factor for red in their X chromosomes and the other half white, the result will be males, half of which will be pure red and the other half of which will be pure white. This gives us the result stated above; namely, all the females and half of the males red-eyed while the other half of the males are white-eyed. This case may perhaps be more readily understood by reference to page 240, and page 241 shows the details of the second case mentioned above, which involves what is known as “criss- cross”’ inheritance. The relatively complicated “sex- PARENTS linked”’ inheritance just explained be- came simple when the explanation was found, and comes near to demonstrating that there is a relation between heritable characters and chromosomes. It would probably be carrying scientific scepticism too far to continue doubting that it is a causal relation. Ordinary Mendelian characters, that is, those which come out in F, in the 3:1 ratio, are related to or borne by the ordinary chromosomes, that is, those chromosomes which are alike and paired in each sex. The interested reader may make diagrams, similar to the ones given here, which will show the mechanism graphically. Now that we think we know where the something which transmits a given character lies in the germ cell, we begin to wonder harder than ever what that something is and how it does it. A number of big steps have been taken in the explanation of heredity and, although the goal is still far ahead, by looking back over the ground already covered we are encour- aged to believe that it will finally be reached. Simple Mendelism _ illus- trated by cross between white and red races of Mirabilis Jalapa, giving pink hybrids in Fi, which when inbred give one white to two pink to one red Courtesy of Columbia University Press Lapis Lazuli Anhydrite Fossil Coral . él’ dea Devenion Amethystine Quarts About About 2500 B.C, Banded Agate Period Abeut 2500 B.C. 2000'B.0. About 2800 B.C. Hematite 1000 B.C. About 2000 B.C, Lapis Lasuli Aragonite-banded Amazon Stone Probably Assyrian 2000 B.0. or earlier 2000 B.C. About 1500 B.C. of 700 B.C, Amethystine Quarts Black Serpentine, hard and compact Seals of this type are generally as old as 2500 B.C. Marble, discolored Juspery Agute fi 4 . by fire As late as 800 B.C, Aragonite Rock Crystal Serpentine (banded) About 2500 B.C, Probably as old robably as old us Abc nt 1200 B.C. Probably as early as 3000 B.C. 0 2500 B.C. Jnsper, banded red Ferruginous Ayote Shell and black 7 Agate (banded) B.C. 2000 B.C. 1 Chaleedony, Blue About 800 B.C loosed About 1200 B.C. Saphirine Assyrian of about About 700 B.0. basta From ‘*The Magic of Jewels nud Charue,’’ by George F Kune, Courtesy of J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia ILLUSTRATIONS OF ACTUAL PRECIOUS STONES AND MINERALS USED FOR SEALS IN ANCIENT ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA Mostly from the Morgan-Tiffany collection in the American Museum of Natura) History, New York City. “The Magic of Jewels and Charms” A BOOK THAT OPENS VISTAS OF ETHNOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN RESEARCH By HERBERT J. SPINDEN N_ his newly published book,! Dr. George F. Kunz combines his au- thoritative statements on precious stones as such, with a wealth of liter- ary, ethnological and antiquarian detail. -While charming the casual reader with an easy style and an ever-changing sub- ject matter, he presents his scientific facts in a fashion that is fundamentally methodical. Moreover, he gives so many definite references to scientific papers and first descriptions that he appears to open the gates of research rather than to close them. There is often something dismally definitive about a book written by a recognized authority, in that the evidence upon which the conclusions are based may be stated so broadly that it cannot be tested or contested. The dictum of unbending authority is like the word of the Prime Minister, which may not be answered even when it fails to convince. Jewels are precious because we make them so and not because they minister to our animal needs. But outside of the absolute eesthetic interest in color, clarity and fine craftsmanship, and the com- mercial interest of rarity, there still remains in our days a romantic and superstitious interest, coming down from times when jewels and charms were believed to have use as well as beauty. Among all primitive and most civilized peoples many stones are regarded with superstitious reverence for their magical properties. 1THe Macic or JEwets AND CHaArms. By George Frederick Kunz. 8vo., pp. xv + 422, and 90 illustra- tions in color, doubletone and line. J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia. Magic stones are not gems alone, but under this name are included such fabulous wonders as the statue of Mem- non at Thebes, which greeted the dawn with vocal and musical notes. Accord- ing to early belief, the sarcophagus was a stone cyst that consumed the body of the dead person placed within it, or per- haps caused this body to turn to stone. Many stones were regarded as having special curative properties, usually in accordance with the primitive doctrine that like cures like, studied by anthro- pologists under the broader manifesta- tions of “sympatheti¢ magic.” Thus galactite (nitrate of lime) was connected with the idea of mother’s milk because a solution of it greatly resembles milk. In many cases, however, the magical character does not seem to depend upon a quality of similarity so much as upon a quality of test and apparent success. Many fetishes, or luck stones, belong in this category. Often these are peculiar pebbles found under the guidance of a dream and kept by the finder as a symbol of his luck. Sometimes these fetishes suggest some animal or object, and then take over the proper character or special favor of the animal or object suggested. The philosophical corollaries of the fetish or charm-stone idea are often very interesting. It seems almost impossible - to separate stones that have curative properties from those that have broader talismanic virtues. When the more strictly religious use of various stones is taken up in the book, we are led through the mazes of pagan and Christian ceremonies; we have ac- 243 By courlesy of J. B. Lippincott Company PEBBLES FROM CALIFORNIA BEACHES Pebbles from Pescadero Beach, San Mateo County, California. The California beaches have furnished some very interesting ornamental pebbles, chiefly of chalcedony or agate, a few of jasper or fossil coral. Centuries ago the Indians of this region valued them as talismans or amulets Searching for semi-precious pebbles at Redondo Beach, Los Angeles County, California 244 « ri : 4 . 3 i hd By courtesy of J. B. Lippincott Company OLD HINDU WEARING ANCESTRAL PEBBLES AS AMULETS Stones and pebbles of little intrinsic value but supposedly with occult powers, are handed down from father to son in Hindu families of the poorer class By courlesy of J. B. Lippincolt Company CARVED AND WORKED STONES FROM THE SACRED WELL AT CHICHEN-ITZA Near the great temple pyramid at Chichen-Itz4, Yucatan, Mexico, is the Sacred Way, traversed in times of tribulation by processions of priests bearing ornaments and trinkets, which are thrown into the Sacred Well at the end of the way as peace offerings to the gods. Fragments of carved stone ornaments recovered from the well indicate a high development of artistic skill and lapidarian art among the ancient Mayas 246 The Crocodile. A Fish. Hippopotamus. By courtesy of J. B. Lippincott Company FLINT AMULETS OF THE PR/EDYNASTIC PERIOD, EGYPT The chipped stone implements of prehistoric man are regarded with superstitious rever- ence in many parts of the world. In Ireland the flint arrow-head is believed to have been shot at man or beast by the fairies and to protect the wearer against injury from them; the Scandinavian peasants share with the Burmans a delusion almost universal among primi- tive people, that these prehistoric stone implements have fallen from the sky and ‘are charms against lightning 248 By courtesy of J. B. Lippincoll Company Various animal concretions were at one time believed to contain a quintessence of the nature of the animal in which they occurred. Magic jewels were supposedly extracted from the fabled dragons of India (see first illustration); toadstones were much sought after as an- tidotes for poisons (second picture), and various animal “bhezoar”’ stones were administered for various ills (see drawing at bottom). Cuts taken from Johannis de Cuba’s Ortus Sanilalis, Strassburg, 1483, and used here through the courtesy of J. B. Lippincott Company THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL counts of church treasures, of the origin of rosaries, and of many ritualistic ob- servances of primitive peoples. The student of American archeology will find references to turquoise and jet among the Pueblo Indians of the South- west, to jade carvings and mosaic inlays of semiprecious gems among the natives of Mexico and Central America, as well as to peculiar ceremonies in which gem stones were employed, such as the sacri- fices at the Sacred Cenote in Chichen- Itzi, Yucatan, and at Lake Guatavita in Colombia. The scope and divisions of subject in Dr. Kunz’s new book are indicated by the list of chapter titles: matter I. Magic stones and Electric Gems II. On Meteorites, or Celestial Stones III. Stones of Healing IV. On the Virtues of Fabulous Stones, Concretions and Fossils V. Snake Stones and Bezoars VI. Angels and Ministers of Grace VII. On the Religious Use of Various Stones VIII. Amulets: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental IX. Amulets of Primitive Peoples and of Modern Times X. Facts and Fancies Stones about Precious As an example of printing the book leaves little to be desired. The Jour- NAL is privileged to make use of one of the color plates showing objects of particular interest to the members of this institution, because the specimens represented are mostly contained in the Museum’s collections. The seals of ancient Assyria and Babylon, bearing the signatures of rulers, are carved in shell, quartz, agate and marble as well as in lapis lazuli, Amazon stone and other material of greater value, and this is one of the most complete collections representing the precious stone mate- rials in ancient Assyria and Babylonia. These seals can now be dated with con- siderable accuracy and some are as old as three thousand years before Christ. ———-™ The White Rat and Sleeping Sickness By R. W. TOWER and C. F. HERM the physiological laboratory of the American Museum has gen- eral interest because of its connection with that dire disease of man, sleeping sickness. A domestic white rat, one of the kind so frequently kept as a pet, was brought to our laboratory a few days ago with a statement from the owner that the small creature seemed to be sick. Under observation he became less active each day, sitting continually in a sleepy attitude as if dazed and utterly oblivious to the excitement or turmoil in his neighborhood. Occasionally he would waken to eat or would change his posi- tion in a lackadaisical manner if physi- cally disturbed. Af- ter a few days of increasing drowsi- ness an endless sleep overtook him. We were asked to explain the malady which killed the rat and among the va- rious examinations that were made, a drop of blood was observed under the microscope. The an- swer was there, for’ besides the usual red and white cells in the blood plasma, there were myriads of minute animals many times longer than broad, lashing their way around, hurrying here and oie following observation made in piling up the red ones until they re- sembled rows of pennies standing side by side. Such battling! Like schrapnel from an exploding shell! How could any living cell withstand such an ordeal? What must be the nature of these wild, wiggling, microscopical creatures? To the novice they would appear like tiny eels escaping from a foe. Their activity is indeed so vivacious that it is scarcely possible to make out the structure of the organism. Close observation reveals the form and appearance of a “trypano- some,” a name which itself means a “boring body” and rather uniquely de- scribes one component of their mode of propulsion. They are a representative — View of a drop of blood under. the microscope, showing normal blood con- there pushing aside _ Stituents and, in addition, many minute parasitic animals which continually lash z F . their way through the plasma. These are the parasites which in man produce the white cells and the fatal sleeping sickness so dreaded in certain districts of Africa 249 250 of that class of blood parasites which produce in human beings the fatal sleep- ing sickness in those districts of Africa where the tsetse fly abounds. Examine under many magnifications these trypanosomes which have been killed and stained with suitable aniline Trypanosome greatly enlarged. It shows a “basic granule,” or blepharoplast near the posterior end, a round nucleus set near the middle of the granular body, a vibratile flagellum like a minute whip lash at the head, The Trypanosome feeds upon the liquid plasma of the blood, first reaching the blood through the bite of a flea, tsetse fly or other blood-sucking insect dyes and you will find a most interesting structure typical of this class of the one- celled animals known as the protozoa. The whip-like projection or flagellum indicates the anterior portion of the animal, which however is capable of moving both forward and_ backward. This flagellum, an ever active vibratile THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL whip, is a motor organ which runs back like a chord over a clear, more or less transparent, undulating membrane end- ing in a darkly stained granule. This structure technically called the “ blephar- oplast”” has the function of governing the motility of the organism, while the larger, heavily stained area above — the nucleus — superintends the vegeta- tive activities of the cell. In this vege- tative process our trypanosome appar- ently lives on the liquid plasma of the blood. The corpuscles are not directly attacked, suffering only physical injury, yet who can predict what poisonous substance the trypanosome may pro- duce which in turn will prove detri- mental to the activities of one or another tissue of its host. : That the parasite first reached the blood of this rat by the bite of a flea is most probable, since these blood-suck- ing insects were abundant in its hair and there waiting again to carry the inoculation to another unsuspecting rodent. Trypanosomes are widely distributed over the whole world, they attack all classes of vertebrates and while the great majority have no apparent effect upon their hosts, especially the cold-blooded forms, yet among warm-blooded ani- mals they are, in certain cases, the most deadly parasites known to science. They are carried from one host to another by the bite of many _ blood- sucking insects, although cases are recorded where infection has been trans- ferred in a direct way, as through the food, or by immediate contact with the uninjured skin. | Restoration by G. Howard Short Courtesy of Aéronautical Journal A Reptilian Aéronaut A NEW SKELETON OF PTERANODON, THE GIANT FLYING REPTILE OF THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD By W. D. MATTHEW purchased a remarkably fine skele- ton of the Pteranodon, or giant pterodactyl, found in the Kansas chalk formation by Mr. Handel T. Martin. It is believed to be the most complete single individual of the giant form yet discovered, and was about twenty feet from tip to tip of the wings. One hind leg, the tip of one wing, and most of the skull and jaws are missing, otherwise it is practically complete. The skeleton will take some time to prepare and mount suitably before it can be placed on exhibition. These gigantic flying reptiles are the most extraordinary of all extinct animals. They surpassed the largest living birds in spread of wings, although with much less bulk of body. Their habits and method of flying were differ- ent from those of birds, and in many particu- F | ‘HE American Museum has recently lars are still a puzzle. They had no feathers, but a wing membrane like the bat, only it was stretched on a single enormously long digit instead of upon five. The construction of the wing finger shows that they must have de- pended almost entirely upon soaring in their forward flight. The flight of the albatross and other long-winged sea birds affords the nearest analogy. The wings could not be folded back against the body as in birds; the shoulder and elbow were hinge joints allowing only of movement up and down; the move- ments at the wrist joint were more complex, but were concerned chiefly with the rotating upward and downward of the wing plane, in association with the stretching and back- ward flexing of the wing; the knuckle joint, halfway out upon the wing, allowed of sharp backward flexure, and at this joint were three hooked claws (the remains of the other digits) 201 252 which served, presumably, to enable the crea- ture to cling to trees or rocks, or to hang from cliffs or boughs when resting. The head is converted into a great vertical fin, used no doubt in directing the flight; the huge, straight, compressed bill in front, and a - great crest projecting backward from the occiput to balance it. The hind legs are long but not very stout, and the tail is reduced to a mere rudiment. The body is disproportion- ately small, smaller than in most large birds, and the bones are hollow shells scarcely thicker than a visiting card. As a conse- quence they are crushed completely flat in fossil skeletons, and the true forms and rela- tions are very difficult to reconstruct. ‘So far as has been made out by studies of paleontologists and aéronautical experts,! the pteranodons, while much more specialized for soaring flight than are any modern birds, were more limited in their movements. They were incapable of the poise-flapping and plunging dive so characteristic of the king- fisher; the wing muscles were too weak for the first movement, and inability to fold the wings backward prevented the headlong dive. Their construction was too delicate to allow of sudden changes of speed. It is not clear that they could venture to dive at all, in view of the apparent difficulty they would have in rising from the water, save in calm weather. Yet there is no doubt that they were accus- tomed to fly far out at sea, for their remains are chiefly found in the chalk beds of western Kansas, deposited far out in the great interior sea of the Cretaceous period, over a hundred miles from the nearest shore line at that time. They are supposed to have fed’ chiefly upon 1 See especially articles in the Aéronautical Journal, October, 1914, by Dr. E. H. Hankin, Prof. D. M. S. Watson, and Mr. G. Howard Short. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL fish, which they might obtain by skimming at high speed close to the water and darting the great bill down to pick up objects close beneath the surface. In view of the extreme lightness of the body and hollowness of the bones, it is somewhat surprising that skele- tons are ever found in these offshore chalk formations. One would rather expect that they would float upon the surface until, if not devoured, they disintegrated and dropped apart, and that the bones would always be found scattered over the. bottom, as indeed they generally are. Possibly the occurrence of associated skeletons is to be explained as due to the animal having been seized by a marine reptile or fish and dragged down into deep water, causing the air-filled bones to collapse and the carcass thereby to become water-logged. If its captor then dropped it by accident or was tempted by some more allur- ing prey, the pteranodon, or what was left of it, might sink rapidly down to the bottom and be buried under the soft ooze. : On land these animals must have been singularly awkward and inept. They might rest upon the knuckle joints of the flexed wings, but could not walk upon them, since the shoulder. and elbow joints did not permit of any fore-and-aft movement. They could not fold the wings backward and walk upon the hind limbs, and if they were able to walk upright upon the hind limbs at all, which is doubted by the best authorities, it must have been with the wings uplifted and flexed in the middle in a very singular pose, difficult to balance properly, if indeed it was possible. Nests or roosting places of some sort they must have had, but of these and of the birth or early development of the young nothing is known, and a wide field is left for conjecture as to the life and habits of these strangest of extinct animals. ~The Traffic in Feathers’ AN ACCOUNT OF THE METHODS OF THE FEATHER TRADE IN MEETING THE DEMANDS OF FASHION, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE BIRD LIFE OF THE COUNTRY By T. GILBERT PEARSON Secretary, National Association of Audubon Societies RAFFIC in the feathers of American birds for the millinery trade began to develop strongly about 1880 and assumed its greatest proportions during the next ten years. The wholesale milliners, whose business and pleasure it was to supply these ornaments for women’s hats, naturally turned for their supply first to those species of birds most easily procured. Agents were soon going about the country looking for men to kill birds for their feathers, and circulars and handbills offering attractive prices for feathers of various kinds were mailed broadcast. The first great onslaughts were made on the breeding colonies of sea birds along the Atlantic Coast. On Long Island there were some very large communi- ties of terns and these were quickly raided. The old birds were shot down and the unat- tended young were necessarily left to starve. Along the coast of Massachusetts the sea birds suffered a like fate. Maine, with its innumerable outlying rocky islands was, as it is today, the chief nursery of the herring gulls and common terns of the North At- lantic. This fact was soon discovered and thousands were slaughtered every summer, their wings cut off, and their bodies left to rot among the nests on the rookeries. During a period of seven years, over five hundred thousand skins of the tern, or sea swallow, were collected in spring and summer in the sounds of North and South Carolina. These figures I compiled from the records and accounts given me by men who did the killing. Their method was to fit out small sailing vessels on which they could live comfortably, and cruise for several weeks; in fact they were usually out during the entire three months of the nesting period. That was the time of year that offered best rewards for such work, for then the feathers bore their brightest luster, and the birds, being assembled on 1 By the courtesy of Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson this chapter from his book A Manual of Bird Study, to be published shortly by Doubleday Page and Company, is given advance publication in the JouRNAL. their nesting grounds, could easily be shot in great numbers. When dead, the custom was to skin them, wash off the blood stains with benzine, and dry the feathers with plaster of Paris. Arsenic was used for curing and preserving the skins. Men in this busi- ness became very skillful and rapid in their work, some being able to prepare as many as one hundred skins in a day. Frequently, millinery agents from New York would take skinners with them, and going to a favorable locality they would employ local gunners to kill the birds, which they in turn would skin. In this way one New York woman, with some assistants, collected and brought back from Cobb Island, Virginia, ten thousand skins of the least tern in a single season. Into the swamps of Florida word was carried that the great millinery trade of the North was bidding high for the feathers of those plumed birds which gave life and beauty even to its wildest regions. It was not long before the cypress fastnesses were echoing to the roar of breechloaders, and cries of agony from the birds were heard even in the remotest depths of the Everglades, while piles of torn feathers became common sights everywhere. What mattered it if the tropical birds of exquisite plumage were swept from existence, if only the millinery trade might prosper? The milliners were not content to collect their prey only in obscure and little-known regions, for a chance was seen to commercial- ize the small birds of the forests and fields. Warblers, thrushes, wrens, in fact all those small forms of dainty bird life which come about the home to cheer the hearts of men and women and gladden the eyes of little children, commanded a price if done to death and their pitiful remains shipped to New York. Taxidermists, who made a business of se- curing birds and preparing their skins, found abundant opportunity to ply their trade. Never had the business of taxidermy been so profitable. For example, in the spring of 253 254 1882, some of the feather agents established themselves at points on the New Jersey coast, and sent out word to residents of the region that they would buy the bodies of freshly killed birds of all kinds procurable. The various species of terns, which were then abundant on the Jersey coast, offered the best opportunity for profit, for not only were they found in vast numbers, but they were also comparatively easy to shoot. Ten cents apiece was the price paid, and so lucrative a business did the shooting of these birds be- come that many baymen gave up their usual occupation of sailing pleasure parties and became gunners. These men often received -as much as a hundred dollars a week for their skill and prowess with the shotgun. It is not surprising that at the end of the season a local observer reported: “One can- not help noticing now the scarcity of terns on the New Jersey coast, and it is all owing to the merciless destruction.” One might go further and give sickening details of how the birds were swept from the mud flats about the mouth of the Mississippi, the innumer- able shell lumps of the Chandeleurs, and the Breton Island region. How the Great Lakes were bereft of their feathered life, and the swamps of the Kankakee were invaded. How the white pelicans, western grebes, Caspian terns, and California gulls of the West were butchered, and their skinned bodies left in. pyramids to fester in the sun. One might recount stories of bluebirds and robins shot on the very lawns of peaceful, bird-loving citizens of our Eastern States, in order that the feathers might be spirited away to glut the never-satisfied appetite of the wholesale dealers. Never in this country have birds been worn in such numbers as in those days. Ten or fifteen small song birds’ skins were often seen sewed on a single hat. In 1886, Dr. Frank M. Chapman of the American Museum, walked through the shopping district of New York City on his way home two afternoons in succession, and carefully observed the feather decorations on the hats of the women he chanced to meet. He found, in common use as millinery trim- ming, many highly esteemed birds, as the following list which he wrote down at the time will serve to show: Robin, brown thrush, bluebird, Blackburnian warbler, blackpoll warbler, Wilson’s black-capped flycatcher, scarlet tanager, white-bellied swallow, Bo- hemien waxwine, waxwing, great northern THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL shrike, pine grosbeak, snow bunting, tree sparrow, white-throated sparrow, bobolink, meadow lark, Baltimore oriole, purple grackle, bluejay, swallow-tailed flycatcher, kingbird, kingfisher, pileated woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, golden-winged woodpecker, Acadian owl, Carolina dove, pinnated grouse, ruffed grouse, quail, helmet quail, sanderling, big yellowlegs, green heron, Virginia rail, laughing gull, common tern, black tern and grebe. This was a period when people seemed to go mad on the subject of wearing birds and feathers. They were used for feminine adornment in almost every conceivable fashion. Here are two quotations from New York daily papers of that time, only the names of the ladies are changed: ‘Miss Jones looked extremely well in white with a whole nest of sparkling scintillating birds in her hair which it would have puzzled an ornithologist to classify.’ and again, ‘Mrs. Robert Smith had her gown, of unrelieved black, looped up with black birds; and -a winged creature, so dusky that it could have been intended for nothing but a crow, reposed among the curls and braids of her hair.” Ah, those were the haleyon days of the feather trade! Now and then a voice cried out at the slaughter, or hands were raised at the sight of the horrible shambles, but there were no laws to prevent the killing nor was there any crystallized public sentiment to demand a cessation of the unspeakable orgy, while on the other hand more riches yet lay in store for the hunter and the merchant. There were no laws to protect these birds nor was there, for a time, any forceful man in evidence to start a crusade against the evil. The most shameless blot on the history of America’s treatment of her wild birds has to do with the white egrets. From the backs of these birds come the “aigrettes’” so often seen on the hats of the fashionable. Years ago, as a boy in Florida, I first had an oppor- tunity of observing the methods employed by the feather hunters in collecting these aigrettes, which are the nuptial plumes of the bird and are to be found on them only in the spring. As a rare treat, I was permitted to accept the invitation extended by a squirrel hunter to accompany him to the nesting haunts of a colony of these birds. Away we went, in the gray dawn of a summer morning, through the pine barrens of southern Florida, until the heavy swamps of Horse Hammock - — = er i THE TRAFFIC IN FEATHERS 255 were reached. I remember following with intense interest the description given by my companion of how these birds with magnifi- cent snowy plumage would come flying in over the dark forest high in air and then volplane to the little pond where, in the heavily massed bushes, their nests were thickly clustered. With vivid distinctness he imitated the cack- ling notes of the old birds as they settled on their nests and the shrill cries of the little ones as, on unsteady legs, they reached up- ward for their food. Keen indeed was the disappointment that awaited me. With great care we approached the spot and with caution worked our way to the very edge of the pond. For many min- utes we waited, but no life was visible about the buttonwood bushes which held the nests, —no old birds, like fragments of fleecy clouds, came floating in over the dark canopy of cypress trees. My companion, wise in the ways of hunters, as well as in the habits of birds, suspected something was wrong, and presently found nearby the body of an egret lying on the ground, its back, from which the skin bearing the fatal aigrettes had been torn, raw and bleeding. A little farther along we came to the remains of a second, and then a third and, still farther on, a fourth. As we approached, we were warned of the proximity of each ghastly spectacle by the hideous buzz- ing of green flies swarming over the lifeless forms of the parent birds. At one place, beneath a small palmetto bush, we found the body of an egret which the hunters had overlooked. Falling to the | ground sorely wounded, it escaped its enemies by crawling to this hiding place. Its attitude spoke plainly of the suffering which it had endured. The ground was bare, where, in its death agonies, it had beaten the earth with its wings. The feathers on the head and neck were raised and the bill was buried among the blood-clotted feathers of its breast. On the -higher ground, we discovered some straw and the embers of a camp fire, giving evidence of the recent presence of the plume hunters. Examination of the nests over the pond re- vealed numerous young, many of which were now past suffering, others, however, were still alive and were faintly calling for food which the dead parents could never bring. Later inquiry developed the fact that the plumes taken from the backs of these parent birds were shipped to one of the large millinery Aeuses in. New Yor. «iors 1a duets tas, were placed on the market as “‘aigrettes,” and of course subsequently purchased and worn by fashionable women, as well as by women of moderate incomes, who sacrifice much for this millinery luxury. There were, at that time, to be found in Florida many hundreds of colonies of these beautiful birds, but their feathers commanded a large price and offered a most tempting in- ducement for local hunters to shoot them. Many of the men of the region were very poor and the rich harvest which awaited them was exceedingly inviting. At that time gunners received from seventy-five cents to one dollar and a quarter for the scalp of each bird, which ordinarily ,contained forty or more plume feathers. These birds were not confined to Florida but, in the breeding season, were to be found in swampy regions of the Atlantic Coast as far north as New Jersey; some were even discovered carrying sticks for their nests on Long Island. Civilized nations today decry any method of warfare which results in the killing of women and children, but the story of the aigrette trade deals with the slaughter of innocence ‘by the slow process of starvation, a method which history shows has never been followed by even the most savage race of men dealing with their most hated enemies. ‘This war of extermination, which was carried for- ward unchecked for years, could mean but one thing, namely, the rapid disappearance of the egrets in the United States. As nest- ing birds, they have disappeared from New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, and also from those States of the central Mississippi Valley, where at one time they were to be found in great numbers. Quite aside from the professional millinery feather hunter there should be mentioned the criminal slaughter of birds by individuals who have killed them for their own lady friends. I know one colony of brown pelicans which was visited by a tourist who killed four hun- dred of the big, harmless inoffensive creatures. in order to get a small strip of skin on either side of the body. He explained to his boat- men, who did the skinning for him, that he was curious to see if these strips of skin with their feathers would not make an interesting coat for his wife. The birds killed were all caring for their young in the nests at the time he and his hirelings shot them. There was, a few years ago, in a Georgia city, an attorney who accepted the aigrette 256 scalps of twenty-seven egrets from a client who was unable to pay cash for a small ser- vice rendered. He told me he had had much pleasure in distributing these among his lady friends. Another man went about the neigh- borhood hunting male Baltimore orioles until he had shot twelve; he wanted his sisters to have six each for their Sunday hats. The roseate spoonbill of the Southern States was never extensively killed for the millinery trade and yet today it is rapidly approaching ex- tinction. The feathers begin to fade in a short time and for this reason have little commercial value, but the amateur northern- tourist feather hunter has not known this, or has disregarded the fact, and has been the cause of the depletion of the species in the United States. Almost every one could cite instances similar to the above, for there are many people who are guilty of having had some hand in the destruction of birds for millinery purposes. In addition to the feathers of American birds already mentioned, the feathers of certain foreign species have been very much in demand. One of the most popular foreign feathers brought to this country is the paradise. About nine species of paradise birds, found in New Guinea and surrounding regions, furnish this product. The males are adorned with long, curved, delicate feathers which are gorgeously colored. As in the case of all other wild birds, there is no way of getting the feathers except by killing the ‘owners. Much of this work is done by natives, who shoot them down with little arrows, blown through long hollow reeds. The high price paid for these feathers has been the occa- sion of the almost total extinction of some of the species, as indicated by the decreased number of feathers offered at the famous annual London feather sales. Travelers in the regions inhabited by the birds, speak of the distressing effect of the continuous calls of the bereft females, as they fly about in the forests during the mating season. As a high-priced adornment the paradise is the one rival of the famous aigrette. The marabou which has been fashionable for a number of years past comes principally from the marabou stork of Africa. These white, fluffy, downlike feathers grow on the lower underpart of the body of the marabou stork. These birds are found in the more open parts of the country. Their food con- sists of such small forms of life as may readily THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL be found in the savannas and marshes. To some extent they also feed like vultures on the remains of larger animals. The long tail feathers of pheasants have been much in demand by the millinery trade during the past ten years. Although several species contribute to the supply, the majority are from the Chinese pheasant, or a similar hybrid descendant. known as the English ring-necked pheasant. Many of these feath- ers have been collected in Europe, where the birds are extensively reared and shot on great game preserves; vast numbers however, have come from China. Oddly enough, in that country the birds were originally little dis- turbed by the natives, who seem not to care for meat. Then came the demand for feathers, and the birds have since been killed for this purpose to an appalling extent. The popular hat decoration called “nubia’”’ suddenly appeared on our market in great numbers a few years ago. It is taken from the Manchurian eared pheasant of northern China. Unless the demand for these feathers is overcome in some way there will undoubt- edly come a day in the not distant future when the name of this bird must be added to the lengthening list of species that have been sacrificed to the greed or shortsightedness of man. The fashionable and expensive hat deco- ration which passes under the trade name of “goura’’ consists of slender feathers, usually four or five inches long, with a greatly en- larged tip. They grow out fanlike along a line down the center of the head and nape of certain large ground pigeons that inhabit New Guinea and adjacent islands. Perhaps the best known species is the crowned pigeon. There is a special trade name for the feath- ers of almost every kind of bird known in the millinery business; thus, there is ‘‘coque” for black cock; ‘cross aigrettes,”’ for the little plumes of the snowy egret, and “eagle quills” from the wings not only of eagles, but also of bustards, pelicans, albatrosses, bush turkeys and even turkey buzzards. The feathers of macaws are used in great numbers in the feather trade, as well as hundreds of thou- sands of humming birds, and other bright colored birds of the tropics. Feathers have always been one of the most coveted and easily acquired of feminine adorn- ments. At first they were probably taken, almost wholly, from birds killed for food; but later, when civilization became more complex THE TRAFFIC IN FEATHERS 257 and resourceful, millinery dealers searched the ends of the earth to supply the demands of discriminating women. The chief reason why it has been so difficult to induce educated and cultivated women of this age to give up the heartless practice of wearing feathers seems to be the fact that the desire and necessity for adornment, developed through the centuries, has become so strong as to be really an inherent part of their natures. It is doubtful if many people realize how terrifi- cally strong and all-powerful this desire for conforming to fashion in the matter of dress sits enthroned in the hearts of tens of thou- sands of good women. There was a time when I thought that any woman with a matured instinct would give up the wearing of feathers at once upon being informed regarding the barbaric cruelties necessarily involved in their taking. But I have learned, to my unutterable amazement, that such is not always the case. Only last week I received one of the shocks of my life. Somewhat over two years ago a young woman came to work in my office. I supposed she had never heard, except casually, of the great scourge of the millinery trade in feathers. Since that time however, she has been in daily touch with all the important efforts made in this country and abroad to legislate the traffic out of existence, to guard from the plume hunters the plundered colonies of egrets and other water birds, and to educate public sentiment to a proper appreciation of the importance of bird protection. She has typewritten a three-hundred-page book on birds and bird protection, has acknowledged the receipt of letters from the wardens telling of desperate rifle battles that they have had with poachers, and written letters to the widow of one of our agents shot to death while guard- ing a Florida bird rookery. In the heat of campaigns she has worked overtime and on holidays. I have never known a woman who labored more conscientiously or was appar- ently more interested in the work. Fre- quently her eyes would open wide and she would express resentment when _ reports reached the office of the atrocities perpe- trated on wild birds by the heartless agents of the feather trade. Recently she married and left us. Last week she called at the office, looking very beautiful and radiant. After a few moments conversation she approached the subject which evidently lay close to her heart. Indicating a cluster of paradise aigrettes kept in the office for exhibition purposes, she looked me straight in the face and, in the most frank and guileless manner, asked me to sell them to her for her new hat! The rest of the day I was of little service to the world. What was the good of all the long years of unceasing effort to induce women to stop wearing bird feathers, if this was a fair ex- ample of results? Of all the women I knew, there was no one who had been in a position to learn more of the facts regarding bird slaughter than this one; yet it seems that it had never entered her mind to make a per- sonal application of the lesson she had learned. The education and restraint of legislative enactments were all meant for other people. How is this deep-seated desire and demand for feathers to be met? Domestic fowls will in part supply it; but for the finer ornaments we must turn to the ostrich, the only bird in the world which has been domesticated exclu- sively for its feather product. These birds were formerly found wild in Arabia, south- western Persia, and practically the whole of Africa. In diminishing numbers they are still to be met with in these regions, espe- cially in the unsettled parts of Africa north of the Orange River. From early times the plumes of these avian giants have been in demand for head decorations, and for cen- turies the people of Asia and Africa killed the birds for this purpose. They were cap- tured chiefly by means of pitfalls, for a long- legged bird, which in full flight can cover twenty-five feet at a stride, is not easily over- taken, even with the Arabs’ finest steeds. So far as there is any record, young os- triches were first captured and enclosed with a view of rearing them for profit in the year 1857. This occurred in South Africa, Dur- ing the years which have since elapsed, the raising of ostriches and the exportation of their plumes has become one of the chief business enterprises of South Africa. Very naturally people in other parts of the world wished to engage in a similar enterprise when they saw with what success the undertaking was crowned in the home country of the ostrich. A few hundred fine breeding birds and a considerable number of eggs were pur- chased by adventurous spirits and exported, with the result that ostrich farms soon sprang up in widely separated localities over the earth. The lawmakers of Cape Colony looked: askance at these incipient 258 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL competitors and soon prohibited ostrich ex- portation. Before these drastic measures were taken however, a sufficient number of birds had been removed to other countries to assure the future growth of the industry in various regions of the world. It was in 1882 that these birds were first brought to the United States for breeding purposes. Today there are ostrich farms at Los Angeles, San Diego and San José, California; Hot Springs, Arkansas; Jacksonville, Florida, and a few others elsewhere. There is money to be made in the ostrich business, for the wing and tail plumes of this bird are as popular today for human adornment as they ever were. Even low grade feathers command a good price for use in the manufacture of boas, feather bands, trimming for doll hats and other secondary purposes. When the time comes for plucking the feathers, the ostriches are driven one at a time into a V-shaped corral just large enough to admit the bird’s body and the workman. Here a long slender hood is slipped over his head and the wildest bird instantly becomes docile. Evidently he regards himself as effectively hidden and secure from all the terrors of earth. There is no pain whatever means of scissors. attached to the taking of ostrich feathers, for they are merely clipped from the bird by A month or two later, when the stubs of the quills have become dry, they are readily picked from the wings with- out injury to the new feathers. The ostrich industry is worthy of encour- agement. No woman need fear that she is aiding the destruction of birds in any way by wearing ostrich plumes. There are many more of the birds in the world today than there were when their domestication first be- gan, and probably no wild African or Asiatic ostriches are now shot or trapped for their plumes. The product seen in our stores all comes from strong happy birds hatched and reared in captivity. Use of their feathers does not entail the sacrifice of life, nor does it cause the slightest suffering to the ostrich; taking plumes from an ostrich is no more painful to the bird than shearing is to a sheep, and does not cause it half the alarm a sheep often exhibits at shearing time. If the call for feather finery rings so loudly in the hearts of women, that it must never cease to be heard, it is the ostrich — the big, ungainly, yet graceful ostrich — which will supply the high grade feathers of the future. Courtesy of National Association of Audubon Societies A sickening slaughter of snowy herons (egrets) to satisfy the demands of fashion and the vanity of woman Stories at South American Birds PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NESTING HABITS OF FLYCATCHERS, SPINETAILS, JACAMARS, ORIOLES, AND PUFF BIRDS By GEORGE K. CHERRIE collector, particularly in South America, I have derived the greatest pleasure from studying the nesting habits of the birds. In addition to the pleasure obtained, a careful study of nests, eggs, and habits of the adult birds at nesting time has enabled me to learn much regarding relationships of vari- ous species. There is much also to be learned about bird psychology as a result of such study. Apropos of the latter, I have frequently been asked if I thought individual birds showed peculiar tastes, in any way differing from other birds of the same species, and in reply I have sometimes told of my experience with the broad-billed yellow flycatcher of the genus Rhynchocyclus, which is very abundant along the middle Orinoco. Near my camp, in the neighborhood of Caicara, I found many nests of these birds; in one case three of them within a radius of fifty yards. One of these three was composed entirely of small, thread- like vegetable fibers of a shiny black color. Another was of dark gray-brown fibers, while the third was composed of very fine grasses, pale brownish-gray in color. There is little doubt that the black vegetable fibers were just as abundant and as easily accessible to the two other pairs, as to the birds that em- ployed them in the construction of their nest; so also were the gray fibers as accessible to the birds using the black ones. If it was not individual taste that induced the birds to employ the different colored fibers, I do not know what it was. As showing how light can be thrown on the relationships of birds the following instance is of interest. Of the nests of six species of spinetail (Synallaxis) that I have found, five were of the usual form and materials; ex- traordinary structures about three-fourths of a yard long, composed of dry, usually thorny twigs, skillfully woven into a cylindrical mass, with a long tubular entrance to the nest cavity, which occupies the lower half of the | N my long experience as a natural history cylindrical nest body. This nest might be described as retort shaped. It is sometimes built within a few inches of the ground, but may be several yards above it. The nest proper is supported ordinarily between the twigs or small branches of the limb, while the entrance to the nest lies along the main branch and is held up by it. Asa rule, these thorny nests are not concealed in any way by surrounding foliage or bushes, the birds ap- parently depending upon the sharp thorns of which the nest is composed for protection; also, the nest proper is concealed by the great mass of twigs on the top of it. These twigs are laid longitudinally, so as to form a kind of thatched roof, thus protecting the nest from rain —as it is usually occupied during the height of the rainy season. The nest cavity is lined with soft dry leaves and wood fiber, as a foundation for an inner nest lining of gray lichens. The nests of five of the species of spinetail were all of this general type, but that of the sixth species, the fox-red spinetail, was entirely different. I had been seeking the nest of this species for weeks, and some time prior to my discov- ery of it I found a pair of the birds hovering about what appeared to me to be a mass of drift grass, that had lodged between the forks at the top of a slender sapling. At that time it was about two meters above the surface of the river. (The sapling stood in a flooded area perhaps one hundred meters from the river shore.) Masses of drift grass, like that on which the spinetails were at work, are very common along the river after the season of high water, and in many cases represent merely accumu- lations of drift. On the other hand, in many cases they have as their foundation old nests of Pitangus or Myiozetetes, or other birds that construct nests of grass toward the tips of the limbs in trees growing in these season- ally submerged areas. These nests become impregnated with a fine sediment from the surrounding water, and as the water recedes, 259 r; : The nest of the white-throated spinetail is characteristic of spinetail nests in general, composed of sharp thorns and twigs and entered by a tubular passage. The nest is placed in a low thorn bush, and if it is touched or shaken the young of this species, when nearly fledged, have the singular habit of running out, jumping to the ground, and concealing themselves in the long grass the mud-filled nests, or masses of drift as the vase may be, become tenanted by many forms of insect life, soon developing into favorite hunting grounds for various species of insect- feeding birds. These gradually tear them to pieces and often pierce them through and through with tunnels in search of their insect prey. It was such a ragged piece of drift that this particular pair of spinetails had laid claim to. When discovered, the interior was pierced by several tunnels. One of these had been closed at one end with leaves and vegetable fibers, and a large nest cavity had been excavated at about its middle. Some dry leaves and wood fiber were there as a nest lining and, as an inner nest lining, the same kind of gray lichens as in the nests of the other five species of spinetail. Outwardly, the nest was a mere bunch of drift grass: the site chosen and the materials employed were wholly different from those used by the allied species. In the use of the gray lichens for an inner nest lining however, we find a trait common to all, 260 The question naturally arises, “Is the use of this gray lichen for the inner lining of the nest cavity a custom descended from distant common ancestors?”’ There is perhaps no group of birds in all the tropics that will more richly repay careful study of its nesting habits, than the fly- catchers. There is certainly no group in which occurs a greater variety of nests. Some species for instance build tiny, frail, lichen- covered nests, as dainty as any of those built by the humming birds. Some weave strue- tures that might well serve as a model for the African weaver birds. Certain flyeatchers, on the other hand, build bulky rough nests that remind one of the work of jays or crows. Some members of the group are secretive, constructing their nests in the most sheltered and retired spots in the thick forest, hidden among bunches of leaves, or otherwise con- cealed. A few nest near the ground; others place their nests high up in the tree tops, while in the open plains districts of the great river basins, there are perhaps few objects more prominent in the landscape than the STORIES OF SOUTH AMERICAN BIRDS 261 great grass nests of the yellow-breasted fly- catchers in the tops of the low trees. One of the most interesting South American nests I have found is that of the two-banded Bucco or puff bird. This species has the ex- traordinary habit of excavating into occupied nests of the common termite, or white ant, of the region (whose nests are so conspicuous in many of the forest trees). The Bucco usually makes the entrance to its nest in the middle of the side of the termite nest, the tunnel passing backward and upward for nearly the entire diameter of the termite dwelling, and ending in a slightly enlarged spherical chamber about fifteen centimeters in diameter — the entrance tunnel being only about one-half that width. No nesting ma- terial is carried in, the eggs being deposited on the débris at the bottom of the nest cavity. It has always been a mystery to me how the birds were able to carry on their work of ex- cavation, because termites, at the slightest disturbance, swarm out in countless thou- sands, and I cannot conceive how any living object could endure being covered by these viciously biting little insects. Another prob- lem I have not been able to solve is how the young birds, particularly immediately after being hatched, could possibly survive. No less curious are the bed-fellows some of the jacamars have in their nests. Somewhat kingfisher-like in form, but decidedly more like humming birds in plumage, the jacamars construct their nests after the manner of the kingfishers, that is by excavating a hole in the bank of a stream, or in an embankment of any sort, carrying their tunnel back for a distance of about a yard from its entrance, and usually slanting it slightly upward so that water is prevented from running down into the cavity and accumulating there. No soft lining is taken into these nests, but great quantities of beetles and other insects are deposited around the eggs after they have been laid, or the eggs are deposited on the insect mass after it has been taken in. After the insect mass has remained for some time in the nest cavity, flies are attracted by the decaying bodies. As a result maggots develop, and I have found the eggs resting on a squirm- ing, writhing mass of maggots! There are many natural history problems here pre- sented. Does the parent jacamar incubate the eggs sitting on the top of this mass of maggots, or is the heat from this writhing mass sufficient to induce incubation? If the Brown, Nest of broad-billed yellow flycatcher. black, and gray nests of this species were found, seeming to indicate exercise of individual taste by their builders.— Nest of fox-red spinetail in a mass of drift grass; unlike nests of other spinetail species 262 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL young birds should emerge from the egg into the mass of maggots, there is no doubt in my mind that they would very quickly die. Does the jacamar so time the depositing of its eggs that the young will not emerge until after the maggots have gone into the pupa stage? Other species of birds, such as the motmots, carry quantities of insects into their nests, but only after the young are born. I have frequently found very vile-smelling nests of An oriole nest suspended beneath the midrib of between the webs of the two halves, which are pierced and slit to permit the these birds, but no maggots develop until after the young are pretty well grown, and indeed have moved from the nest cavity proper, so that they escape immediate con- tact with the maggots. A species of puff bird whose nest I had long sought was discovered finally quite by acci- dent. One day, as I was trying to protect myself from a sudden shower that had over- taken me in the forest, and was crowding in among the thick branches of a low tree, I heard a sound that seemed to come from the ground beside me —the cheep of a young bird. I looked about on all sides but could not discover any- thing. The sound was re- peated. It seemed nearer to my feet than before but nothing was in sight. My attention however was presently fixed on what appeared to be a small pile of brush that had been brought together by a eur- rent of wind. Closer ex- amination revealed the fact that there was an en- trance beneath this pile of brush on one side, where the ground seemed to have been swept clean by some animal entering and leay- ing. With a movement of my foot I pushed the brush aside, and was sur- prised to find beneath it a good-sized hole leading down into the ground. I had no idea what the oe- cupant might be, but se- cured a long stick with a fork on the end of it. I punched this into the hole to discover whether there was a tenant, and was sur- prised to hear a bird’s sharp squeak as a result of my investigation. A few twists of the stick in my hand and I drew it out banana leaf and . : with a bird attached to interweaving of the supporting fibers. In the fresh green leaf the in- the end, the feathers hav- cisions are not evident at any distance, so that the nest itself is concealed ing become entangled both from above and from the sides, and is protected from sun and storm as ’ I well as from enemies about the small fork. It £96 Sesseis YSIeUl pepeq-MOlIeU ‘YsNo} ‘Fuo0] W101] Opeu ore S}soU OY} pu ‘speq JOALI JOyJO puke OIOUTIO 9Yy} Suole uoOUIMIOD O1e SpJIq 9SeYT, *10YyI0F0} UGAOM 9q AT]eN}Oe JO JoyJOUR VUO ysUTese sseid ABUT S}S9U INOJ JO 9914} Jey} JOedUIOD OS SOUTTJOWIOS 9B SOTUO]OD VY, ‘SIeeddestp pue so;puIAp Auojoo pig 94} peuopuege Jo peXo1jsep oq yscu dseM oy} pynoys pue ‘sjsu PUB SpIIq oY} UVEMJOq 4STXo 0} sreodde driysMOT[e} poos yeipsog ‘s}ovsur snowweusnd vy} Aq popsoyye u01}00j01d oy} soz Ayqeqoid (91nj9o1d Jo 7Y4F11 99s) 9eq JO dsvM jo so1oeds oUIOS Jo JsoU 9Y} IeVU 4YING SABMTe a1e — s}sou AVYSIO JO GAY-AYUGAVS O} XIS WIOIJ — SoTeTIA PsIq soy], SLSANONVH G3ATIIS-S3LIHM AHL 40 ANO100 264 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL was a surprise to find a bird at all, but it was a greater surprise to find the bird a puff bird. Whether this nest cavity, which was about five feet in depth, had been excavated by the puff birds I do not know, as this is the only nest I have ever found of the species, but if the puff bird did construct its own nest cavity, the earth that was removed was carried some distance away leaving no sign of it about the entrance. This however, is perhaps not surprising, for the swallow-wing, another relative of the puff birds, is known to excavate its own nest cavity, digging down sometimes for a couple of feet in the open level prairies, and while doubtless a large amount. of dirt and sand are carried out, no accumulation of such material is ever found about the en- trance. There is no doubt that the pile of brush over the entrance to the red-billed puff bird’s nest had been placed there by the birds themselves. It was a fine example of how birds sometimes build structures, either to hide their nests or to protect themselves. Nests of two species of the flat-billed flycatcher. hangnests, these birds seek the protection of insect neighbors, often suspending their nests from the tips of the branches of trees infested with stinging or biting ants The orioles and hangnests have some very interesting and curious nesting habits. For instance there is one form of white-billed hang- nest that, I believe, always constructs its nest (or nests, as this species builds in colonies) in the immediate neighborhood of, or sur- rounding, the nest of some species of wasp. Year after year these colonies increase in size as the wasp nest increases in size, and if through any accident the wasp nest is de- stroyed or abandoned, within a year or two that locality will be abandoned by the hang- nests also. I remember a case in which a col- ony of these birds nested in one place for ten consecutive years, At the end of that time I cut the branch that supported the wasp nest, thus destroying the wasp colony. Three years later, when I visited the locality, there were not more than six pairs of birds in the colony — that had previously been tenanted by at least one hundred birds. The orioles and hangnests are not the only — species of birds that seem to derive protection, or company, from neighborliness with the wasps. Very often I have found nests of tanagers, and also . some of the smaller fly-catchers, near those of the wasp. Appar- standing between the respective tenants of the different colonies, but there is little doubt that should a monkey, for instance, attempt to get into a nest of the colony of hang- nests, it would be very quickly driven away by the insects. An instance of a similar protec- tion occurs among the small flat- billed fly-catchers of the genus Todirostrum, which frequently sus- pend their nests at the ends of twigs or branches inhabited by some of the vicious species of stinging or biting ants. These no doubt furnish protection from any of the bird’s enemies that might attempt to ereep Like the quently had my hands severely stung by the small irate tenants of such branches, ° ently there is never any misunder- — down the branches, and I have fre- a MS = le Museum Notes Since the last issue of the JourNAL the fol- lowing persons have become members of the Museum: Life Members, Miss Jutta J. PIERREPONT and Messrs. Gares W. McGarran and RuSssELL PERKINS; Sustaining Members, Messrs. Max HEr- MAN and Howarp NoTMAN; Annual Members, Mrs. H. 8. Bowrn, Mrs. GarpINER GAy.LEy, Mrs. Paut GOTTHEIL, Mrs. Cuaries W. Leavitt, Mrs. BANYER Luptow, Mrs. E. L. Luptow, Mrs. Joun H. Lyncu, Mrs. James W. McLane, Mrs. Emerson MacMiuuin, Mrs. Grorae Mas- spy, Mrs. Ponsonspy Ocin, Mrs. CHARLES ALBERT Perkins, Mrs. Wiii1AM C. PryTon, Mrs. G. M. Puetrs, Mrs. Ernest Poorer, Mrs. Howarp L. THomas, Mrs. CATHERINE D. Vernon, Misses Lutu Benzicer, SARAH. J. Day, M. E. Koutmr, Mary L. Lupineton, Erset L. McLean, Lity 8. Piquer, and H. Waitt, Dr. A. A. Britt, Dr. Watton ‘Martin, Dr. Harry H. West, and Messrs. C. W. Ever, James C. Farrett, Henry Herve, Jr., WituiAM W. Ketcuner, W. G. Kevurre., G. Levor, C. R. Minter, Auaus- tus L. Moss, Brensamin Nicotyt, Murray OtypHant, Epaar Paumer, Wititam C. Payton, JouHn O. H. Pitney, WiiitaM L. Ransom, Henry ScHREITER, BLEECKER Van WaAGENEN, and Wiu1aAmM P. Wain- WRIGHT. Tue American Museum of Natural His- tory announces the establishment of a new class of membership in the institution. For some time it has been evident that there is a very large number of people who would enjoy being associated with the American Museum, yet who, because of remote residence from New York City and infrequent visits, cannot participate in the lectures and various other privileges that come to the Annual Member from his near residence. To enable these friends to become identified with the work of the institution the trustees have just created a new class of membership to be designated as “Associate Members.’’ The only condition of eligibility to Associate Membership is that the candidate reside at least fifty miles from New York City and pay the annual member- ship fee of three dollars. Associate Members receive current issues of the American Mu- seum Journal, a complimentary copy of the President’s Annual Report, an annual pass admitting to the Members’ Room, two com- plimentary tickets admitting to the Members’ Room for distribution by Members to their friends, and the services of an instructor for guidance when visiting the Museum. Al- ready more than one hundred Associate Members have been enrolled from twenty- two different states, as far apart as Vermont, California, Louisiana, and Winnipeg. It is hoped that present members will codperate with the Museum in making this opportunity known to those whom it may interest. Mr. J. P. Moraan has financed in part the excavation by the American Museum of Natural History, of the famous Aztec ruins in the northwest corner of- New Mexico. The name ‘Aztec’”’ has no historical significance in this case but is a part of the folklore of the Southwest, presumably because the first explorers, who were familiar with the Aztec culture of Mexico, assumed that all of the ruins and evidences of higher culture in America were to be attributed to the Aztecs. The ruins are in fact of the well-known Pueblo type, and belong distinctly to prehistoric Pueblo peoples, since these ruins have never been occupied since the discovery of the country by the Spaniards. Notwithstanding their great age the ruins are in an excellent state of preservation and constitute a very rich archeological site. Many of the walls are standing to the second story and portions of the timbered ceilings still exist, some of the cedar beams being still in place. The owner of the ruins, Mr. H. D. Abrams, has very carefully protected them from vandalism for many years, so that they are on the whole the best-preserved ruins in the Southwest. An arrangement has been made with Mr. Abrams by which the ruins are to be scienti- fically studied and excavated by the Museum. Five seasons will be required for this work. Besides the large ruin, there are five or six smaller ones, and the old reservoir even. is preserved. Mr. N. C. Nelson will set out for New Mexico on May 4 to make prelimi- nary surveys, and will be joined there by Mr. Earl H. Morris of the University of Colorado who will assist in the excavations. Mr. Nel- son will also undertake the excavation of pueblo ruins near Zufii, with the assistance of Mr. Leslie Spier. 265 qaaomoy ArjUNOD oy UT 99% uinesny] UkOLeUrY ey} jo YI;eoy Oqnd jo [ey 9yy Ul puNo] aq 0} 9Ie SUONdIIOSep peTejJep YIM sjepour oseq_ J, yiyeey Jo preoq UMO sIy pue JovULsue AreyIURS UMO SI JUO}X9 V]QeJepIsuOd & O} 9q JSUT JOpjoyssnoy Youve “SULIOJ SNOLBA UL BSvaSIP VqeoluNUIUIOD YsuUIese UON9e}01d pue pooy puke y]IUI pue Jo}eM GINd WIY JOJ VINOVS 0} SI YI UOTOUN] VsoyM S}ledxe jo UOTyeZIURTIO eyesogeye ue kq popsens si Joyjomp 4719 oy} Jo YeoYy oY, “AreyTUes ope pue dn pouvep we; UTES ey} YILM pojsesqUOD ‘peords ATyoMD ]IM eleyeu pue proydé} oseyM we} Vy WdaV4 S3HL NO HLIVSH MUSEUM NOTES Ir 1s with extreme gratification that the library of the American Museum of Natural History announces its recent acquisition of a very handsome two-volume copy of the first edition in Latin of the “Peregrinationes,” by Theodorus De Bry, 1590-1602, the generous gift of Mr. Ogden Mills. Sometime in or before 1587, Theodorus De Bry, a German engraver and publisher of Frankfort-on-Main, visited London, and there became acquainted with the geographer, Richard Hakluyt. With Hakluyt’s assist- ance, De Bry collected materials for a finely illustrated collection of voyages and travels. The publisher intended, originally, that the “Collectiones Peregrinationum in Indiam Orientalem et Indiam Occidentalem” should appear in English, French, German and Latin. So stupendous, however, proved to be the undertaking, that all thoughts of a French and English edition had to be dropped after the publication of the first volume in 1590. In 1598 Theodorus De Bry died, and the work was continued by his widow, and his sons, Johann Theodor (1561-1623), and Johannes Israel ( -1611). The “Peregrinationes”’ were finally completed in 1634, forty-four _ years having been required for their publica- tion. To the Museum library, however, and to its users, bibliographic importance is never of paramount interest. Books are valued for their contents and authority, and, pragmati- cally, for their degree of usefulness, and such beguiling fields as book collecting per se must, naturally, be consistently avoided. The “‘Peregrinationes,”’ however, combine to a most unusual extent both bibliographic and intrinsic importance. If De Bry is rare, he is also exceedingly valuable for research into the anthropology and early .zoédlogical knowl- edge of the New World. Mr. Mill’s interest in rare books, and his liberality toward the library of the American Museum have already been remarkably instanced by his gift last November of the nine volume set of Lord Kingsborough’s “Mexican Antiquities,” and more recently of the original manuscript of “The Butter- flies of North America; Whence they come; where they go; and what they do,” by Titian Ramsey Peale. Dr. FRANK M. CuapMan, accompanied by Mr. George K. Cherrie, will leave New York on May 6, for a general ornithological survey of the South American regions from which the 267 Museum has been acquiring collections during the past five years. Dr. Chapman will pro- ceed first to Ecuador, to obtain, from the upper slopes of Mount Chimborazo, material for a group representing birds of the paramo. This is to be a companion to another proposed group, showing the bird life of tropical South America in the valley of the Magdalena in Colombia, for which studies have already been made. Going next to Cuzco, in Peru, Dr. Chapman intends to study the distribu- tion of bird life in the Urubamba Valley. This latter work is to be done under the joint auspices of the American Museum of Natural History and the Yale Peruvian National Geo- graphic Expedition. Dr. Chapman hopes later to meet Mr. Leo E. Miller in Argentina, and to gather there material for a pampas habitat group. One of the objects of the expedition is to establish general relations with the large museums of Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, and to this end Santiago, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro will probably be visited. Dr. Chapman expects to return in October, but Mr. Cherrie will re- main in South America to take up zodlogical work for the Roosevelt Expedition in the marshes of Paraguay. Miss M. C. Dickerson has recently re- turned from a brief stay in Florida, where she has been making studies and collecting acces- sories for the large habitat group representing the reptile and batrachian life of that region. The group is now in process of construction in the Museum’s taxidermy studio, under Miss Dickerson’s supervision; it is the fifth in the series of groups showing the home life of reptiles, and the largest yet attempted. [The cover designs of this issue of the JOURNAL show two of the photographic studies made.] Tue photograph (reproduced on page 216) of the Brooklyn Museum’s coral reef group, gives only an inadequate impression of its - complexity.and beauty. It represents an actual reef at Sandy Cay, in the Bahamas. Among the branches of the staghorn coral, in the upper left hand corner of the group, ap- pears a school of young red snapper fish; below are gayly colored gorgonians and sea fans, and a colony of the tube sponge. On the white sand in the foreground is a brown sea star, and beside it a stinging sea urchin with black, needlelike spines. At the right 268 is a fine specimen of greenish-yellow brain coral, above which swims the black and yel- low fish, rock beauty (Holacanthus tricolor). The coral-red base and fringe-crowned disk of the passion flower anemone (Condylactis passiflora) appear on different portions of the reef. Wax models of the more delicate animals and color studies of all the group material, were made in the field, and the effect of real sea water, with its depth and perspective, has been obtained by using two panes of plate glass, three inches apart, in front of the group, each coated on the inner side with a delicate invisible stain of gelatin. Str Douaias Mawson, on his way through New York recently, reported that he had made a renewed attempt to secure’ for the American Museum a full series of the skins of the Antarctic penguins from Macquarie Island. The few skins however, brought back by the party sent there in 1915, were useless because so poorly prepared. Sir Douglas Mawson is making efforts to estab- lish Macquarie Island as a national reserve for wild life and thinks that the Common- wealth of Australia is likely to take favorable action. There has been great difficulty in relieving the small colony on the island, and at Christmas the government station there was abandoned, but may be resumed after the close of the war. A MEETING of those members of the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science who live in or near New York was held in the American Museum of Natural History on the afternoon of May 5, to arrange for the annual meeting of the Association, which is to take place this year in New York City on December 26-31, inclusive. Presi- dent Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, presided at the conference, and a motion was adopted to make Columbia Uni- versity the official headquarters of the meet- ing, which is expected to be the largest and most important gathering of scientists ever before convened. About two thousand dele- gates are expected, and a reception committee is to be appointed consisting of prominent citizens of New York interested in scientific work. On Friday evening, May 26, in the audi- torium of the Museum, Mr. Charles Crawford Gorst, of Cambridge, Mass., will give a special entertainment for the adult blind of New THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL York City and vicinity. The program will consist of two whistling solos, Mendelssohn’s “Spring Song,” and the waltz from Gounod’s “Faust,” as well as some unusual feats of whistling, and the imitation of about sixty common bird songs. Mr. Gorst imitates such complicated songs as those of the wood thrush, bobolink, and mocking bird with much exactness. His work along this line is approved by naturalists and ornithologists, by whom he is generally regarded as the best imitator of the wild bird songs of our country. In his lecture Mr. Gorst will touch upon bird songs compared with human music, deserip- tive quality of bird music, and the language of birds. The lecture will begin at 8:15, but the memorial hall will be open at 7:30 to give the blind an opportunity of handling speci- mens of the birds whose songs are to be imi- tated. This lecture is the last for the adult blind given at the Museum this season. Mr. GrorGE SHOSBREE, taxidermist of the Public Museum of Milwaukee, is spending a.” month at the American Museum, studying the new processes in taxidermy under Mr. Carl E. Akeley. Mr. WaAtrer WINANS, of Surrenden Park, England, has presented to the American Museum the skin and skull of a Chillingham wild bull, a specimen of the famous white cattle, long supposed to be descended from the wild stock that once inhabited Britain. After much discussion of the subject it now seems evident that the Chillingham cattle are not descended from indigenous wild ancestors, but from white cattle originally introduced into the island by the Romans for sacrificial purposes. AccorDING to cablegrams received from the Crocker Land Expedition, and from Dr. Kk. O. Hovey of the relief expedition, both parties are safe and well. Arrangements are being considered for their transport to New York either by Mr. Rasmussen’s ship “Kap York,” or by a special relief ship to be sent out by the American Museum. An exhibit showing the principal birds mentioned in Shakespeare’s plays has been installed in the west corridor as the Museum’s contribution to the Shakespeare Tercente- nary Celebration. Each specimen is accom- — panied by a quotation in which the bird is mentioned. The exhibit has been prepared by Mr. Charles H. Rogers. The American Museum of Natural History Seventy-seventh Street and Central Park West, New York City Open free to the public on every day in the year. The American Museum of Natural History was established in 1869 to promote the Natural Sciences and to diffuse a general knowledge of them among the people. It is dependent upon private subscriptions and the fees from members for procuring needed additions to the collections and for carrying on explorations in America and other parts of the world. The membership fees are, Annual Members.............+- $ 10 _ Sustaining Members (annually)... 25 Life: Members... s.46 arenas 100 WOMOWSs 6 5563s cae ee ee 500 2 IRS AES Ry le ay en $1,000 Associate Benefactors.............. 10,000 Associate Founders................ 25,000 PICT St) 5 19 5o6 ina. a8 Siete woth wise ek 50,000 ' Guides for Study of Exhibits are provided on request to members and teachers by the department of public education. Teachers wishing to bring classes should write or telephone the department for an appointment, specifying the collection to be studied. Lectures to _ classes may also be arranged for. of children. In all cases the best results are obtained with small groups The Museum Library contains more than 60,000 volumes with a good working collection of publications issued by scientific institutions and societies in this country and abroad. The library is open to the public for reference daily — Sundays and holidays excepted — from 9 a. M. to5 P.M. The Technical Publications of the Museum comprise the Memoirs, Bulletin and Anthropological Papers, the Memoirs and Bulletin edited by J. A. Allen, the Anthropological Papers by Clark Wissler. the institution. These publications cover the field and laboratory researches of The Popular Publications of the Museum comprise the JourNAL, edited by Mary Cynthia Dickerson, the Handbooks, Leaflets and General Guide. The following list gives some of the popular publications; complete lists, of both technical and popular publications, may be obtained from the Librarian. : POPULAR PUBLICATIONS t HANDBOOKS Norrn AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE PLatns. By Clark Wissler, Ph.D. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. INDIANS OF THE SouTHWEST. By Pliny Earle Goddard, Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. ANIMALS OF THE Past. By Frederic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Paper, 35 cents. ir saan By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 25 cents. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE LEAFLETS GENERAL GUIDE TO THE CoLLECTIONS. New edition issued December, 1914. Price, 25 cents. Tue CoLiection oF MinERALS. By Louis P. Grata- cap, A.M. Price, 5 cents. NortH AMERICAN RumMINANTS. By J. A. Allen, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Tue Ancient Basket Makers or SouTHEASTERN Uran. By George H. Pepper. Price, 10 cents. Primitive Art. Price, 15 cents. Tue Binns or THE Vicinity or New York City. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. Price, 15 cents. Peruvian Mummies. By Charles W. Mead. Price, 10 cents. Tue METEORITES IN THE FOYER OF THE AMERICAN Museum or Natrurat History. By Edmund Otis Hovey, Ph.D. Price, 10 cenis. Tue Hasirat Groups or Norra AMERICAN Birps. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. New edition in course of preparation. ~ Tue INDIANS OF MANHATTAN ISLAND AND VICINITY. By Alanson Skinner. Price, 20 cents. TREES AND Forestry. By Mary Cynthia Dickerson, B.S. A new edition in course of preparation. Tue Protection oF River AND HArBor WATERS FROM Municipat Wastes. By Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, M.S. Price, 10 cents. PLant Forms 1n Wax. By E. C. B. Fassett. 0 cents. Tue Evo.uTion or THE Horse. Ph.D. Price, 20 cents. Mammorus anv Mastopons. By W.D.Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. How to CoLiect AND PRESERVE INSECTS. E Lutz, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Our Common ButterrursEs. By Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D., and F. E. Watson. Price, 15 cents. Tue Bic TREE AND 1Ts Story. Price, 10 cents. REPRINTS By W. D. Matthew, Price, By W. D. Matthew, By Frank Tue Grounp SLotrnH Group. Ph Price, 5 cents. Toe WHarr PiLte Group. Price, 5 cents. Tue SEA Worm Group. Price, 10 cents. Tue ANCESTRY OF THE EDENTATES. thew. Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. Herepitry AnD Sex. By Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D. Price, 10 cenis. ; By Roy W. Miner, A.B. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. By W. D. Mat- At the edge of a cypress swamp.— This and the front cover are from photographic studies recently made in Florida by Miss M. ©. Dickerson, preliminary to the construction of a Florida group in the American Museum of Natural History =. —— OLUME XVI The American Museum of Natural History © BOARD OF TRUSTEES President Henry FatrFIELD OsBORN First Vice-President CLEVELAND H. DopGE Treasurer Henry P. Davison ~J. P. MorGan Secretary. ADRIAN ISELIN, Jk. JoHN Purroy MircHet, Mayor or THE City or New YorK Wititiam A. PRENDERGAST, COMPTROLLER OF THE CiTy oF NEW YORK Caspot Warp, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PARKS GerorGE F. BAKER FREDERICK F. BREWSTER JoserpH H. CHOATE R. Futton CutTrine Tuomas DeWitr CuyYLER JaMES DouGLas Henry C. Frick Mapison GRANT Anson W. Harp ARCHER M. HUNTINGTON ARTHUR CuRTISS JAMES WaLtTerR B. JAMES A. D. Jutuuiarp CHARLES LANIER SetH Low OGpEN MILLs Percy R. PYNE Joun B. TREVOR ~ FeLix M. WaRBURG GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS Director Freperic A. Lucas Assistant Treasurer Tue Unitep States Trust COMPANY Assistant Secretary GrorGce H. SHERWOOD or New YoreE SCIENTIFIC STAFF = Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Director Geology and Invertebrate Paleontology Epmwunp Oris Hovey, Ph.D., Curator CuesterR A. REEps, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Mineralogy L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator GeorGE F. Kunz, Ph.D., Honorary Curator Gems Woods and Forestry Mary Cynrtuia Dickerson, B.S., Curator Invertebrate Zoélogy Henry E. Crampton, Ph.D., Curator Roy W. Miner, A.B., Asst. Curator Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D., Asst. Curator L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Mollusca A. J. Mutcuier, Assistant Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant DawnieEt M. Fisk, A.M., Assistant W. M. Waee ter, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Social Insects A. L. TreapweE tt, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Annulata CuHar.es W. Lena, B.S., Hon. Curator Coleoptera Ichthyology and Herpetology Basurorp Dean, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus Lovis Hussaxor, Ph.D., Curator Ichthyology Joun T. Nicuoxs, A.B., Asst. Cur. Recent Fishes Mary Crnruia Dickerson, B.S., Assoc. Curator Herpetology Mammalogy and Ornithology J. A. Atten, Ph.D., Curator Franx M. Cuapman, Se.D., Curator Ornithology Roy C. Anprews, A.M., Asst. Cur. Mammalogy W. DeW. Mi ter, Asst. Curator Ornithology H. E. Anruony, B.S., Assistant Mammalogy Herpert Lane, Assistant Mammalogy James P. Cuaprn, Assistant Ornithology Vertebrate Paleontology Henry Farrrie_p Ossorn, LU.D., D.Se., Curator Emeritus W. D. Marruew, Ph.D., Curator Wa tter Grancer, Assoc. Curator [Mammals] Barnum Brown, A.B., Assoc. Curator [Reptiles Witiiam K. Grecory, Ph.D., Assoc. in Paleon- tology ‘ Cuarues R. Eastman, Ph.D., Research Associate Anthropology Cuiark Wisster, Ph.D., Curator Puiny E. Gopparp, Ph.D., Curator Ethnology Rosert H. Lowie, Ph.D., Assoc. Curator Herpert J. SpinpEN, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Nets C. Netson, M.L., Asst. Curator Cuarves W. Meap, Asst. Curator M. D. C. Crawrorp, Research Associate in Tex- tiles Gro. Birp GRINNELL, Ph.D., Research Associate in Ethnology J. H. McGrecor, Ph.D., Research Associate in Anthropology Anatomy and Physiology Rautpexo W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Public Health CHARLES-Epwarp A. WINSLow, M.S., Curator IsraEL J. Kiicier, Ph.D., Assistant Public Education GerorGce H. SHerwoop, A.M., Curator G. Cuiype& Fisuer, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Ann E. Tuomas, Ph.B., Assistant Books and Publications Raupxu W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Ips Ricuarpson Hoop, A.B., Asst. Librarian Second Vice-President —e— tik AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM i) May, 1916 VOLUME XVI, NUMBER 5 ONE DOLLAR AND A HALF PER YEAR, TWE TY: CENTS PER COPY, ENTERED AS SECOND- CLASS MATTER JANUARY 12, 1907, AT THE POST-OFFICE AT BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, Be OF CONGRESS, JULY 16, 1894. CONTENTS FOR MAY Cover, Children standing before the Flamingo Group in the American Museum Frontispiece, The Most Beautiful of the Rock-hewn Monuments of Petra From photograph made in the age-old city of Petra, by Lee Garnett Day The Ruins of Ancient Petra....Lee Garnetr Day and Joserx Woop, Jr. Description and history of the forgotten capital of the Edomites, in the Arabian Desert, and the strange stupendous relics of its opulence twenty centuries ago Illustrations from photographs by Lee Garnett Day Reproductions i nee emia t notographs......... 2... 22sec eee es Showing rock tombs, temples, and amphitheatre in the long-deserted city of Petra, near Mount Hor in Arabia , From photographs by Lee Garnett Day Three Polar Expeditions, 1913-1916................ HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN History to date of the plans, doings, dangers, and fortunes of the Crocker Land; StefAnsson Arctic, and Shackleton Antarctic Expeditions MEMO i MOT IAN. ce ice eck cece cess C.-E. A. WinsLow Account of the American Museum’s collection of living bacteria and its service to science Decorative Value of American Indian Art.............. Estuer A. CosTER Introduction by Mr. Walter Scott Perry, Director of the School of Fine and Applied Arts, Pratt Institute Suggestions for adaptation of Indian art motives in various modern crafts Moccasin Exhibit in the American Museum.............. CLARK WISSLER Showing principal moccasin patterns used by the Indians, and the relation between these and the decorative design Illustrations from photographs of exhibits in the American Museum of Natural History Sea Cows, Past and Present............... Reece o.. Freperic A. Lucas History of the manatee, dugong, and rytina as recorded in science and fable Been: Or the ON Stone Ages ec etivig eck eee eee. G. Extiot SMITH Review of “Stone Age” controversies in Europe, and of Henry Fairfield Osborn’s recent book on this subject Vagrant Cats in the United States Summary of bulletin recently issued by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture ee sae (oe wie ele eisie-e ee p 6 6 8b wees et we ee 3 + OHS Bird Protective Laws and their Enforcement......... T. GILBERT PEARSON Account of the enactment and effect of federal laws for bird conservation in the United States Museum Notes eee. i ee eis eee siete es Weeds 6 + 6 6 © F 6 2 © 6 0 + 0 06 0 ew 6 6 ee vr & Ove 8 272 287 291 295 301 308 315 319 326 329 303 Mary Cyntara Dickerson, Editor Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMERICAN Museum JOURNAL, 77th St. Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the American Museum. and asia ween MOST BEAUTIFUL OF THE ROCK-HEWN MONUMENTS OF PETRA 21 Khazneh, or “‘The Treasury” (named by Arabs), cut in a vast rose-colored cliff opposite the approach to Petra, has been so protected from wind and rain by overhanging rocks through the centuries, that it looks like a building recently finished. It was probably built about 106 A. D., when this section of Arabia was a part of the Roman Empire. Great must have been the opulence of Petra — always a safe retreat and impregnable storehouse for caravans of precious goods — when she could dedicate sumptuous monuments like El Khazneh to her rulers. We were led to visit the ruins of mysterious Petra by the chance remarks of a French archeologist; we hastened to Beyrout and Damascus, then to El Maan, four hundred miles southward. Here we were in Arabia, Tue American Museum Journa. Votume’ XVI MAY, 1916 NuMBER 5 ‘The Ruins of Ancient Petra By LEE GARNETT DAY T was in the fall of 1912 that a | French archeologist, with whom we had unearthed some of the old Punic ruins at Dugga, in Tunisia, spoke to us of the ruins of Petra and their curious situation in the mountains of the Arabian desert. The idea of seeing a city so strange and so seldom visited appealed to us, and accordingly we soon accomplished the first stages of the journey to Beyrout and Damascus. About four hundred miles below Damascus lies the village of El Maan. Here we alighted from a pilgrim train and, with the aid of a Syrian interpreter, Teep by name, made arrangements with the kaimakam to goon to Petra. Orders were given that very night, and after a few hours’ sleep we arose at three in the morning to set out. Our caravan of soldiers and Bedouin horse boys, extra pack animals and the ancient Teep, was soon under way, and we started into the desert. The cold was intense and there was a bitter wind blowing dust in our faces. Above, a full moon and brilliant stars shed a baleful light on the dreary wastes around us. The only sounds to be heard were the tread of feet and hoofs, and occasion- ally the howl of a scavenger dog of Maan. About one o’clock, we entered a limestone cafion two miles from the entrance of Petra itself. From this point we saw for the first time the mysterious red and purple complex in and JOSEPH WOOD, JR. whose labyrinths lies the forgotten city. As we approached the purple moun- tains they presented an extraordinary ap- pearance, for the soft sandstone has been carved by rain and wind-blown sand into grotesque shapes — gigantic mushrooms, spires and domes. Toward this riot of colorful forms we headed, winding in and out among the outlying ridges. The early history of the ancient city of Petra is a matter of conjecture only, and it is not even known with certainty when that history began. From its impregnable situation, protected on all sides by practically unscalable moun- tains, through which but one narrow gorge makes a feasible means of entrance, it seems probable that Petra was inhab- ited from very early times. The steep and lofty mountains among which it lies flank the eastern side of the Arabah, or El Ghor, a valley in Arabia leading from the southern extremity of the Red Sea to the northern end of the Gulf of Akabah. The biblical Mount Seir, of which Mount Hor is a peak, is the principal mountain of the range, and travelers approach Petra by a track which leads around Mount Hor and enters the plain of Petra from the south. The Horites of the Bible may or may not have had a city on this site, but Petra was almost certainly the capital city of the Edomites, and Edom as a nation is recognized as older than Israel. The first recorded inhabitants of 273 PERPENDICULAR WALLS OF PETRA’S ENTRANCE GORGE The only entrance into the rock-encircled city is a narrow gorge one mile in length. Rocks tower perpendicularly on either side, obscuring the sunlight hundreds of feet overhead. Looking up from the abyss, high precipices appear through occasional openings, their ragged peaks, fantastically tinted in pink, yellow, and blue, glittering in sunshine. The passage is now half choked up, but shows signs of the care with which it was kept open in the prosperous times of Petra. The river was covered with a massive stone pavement and banked by stone walls. A channel was cut on each side at a higher level to provide for a constant supply of water to the city at all seasons, and a conduit of earthern pipes was bedded in mortar in a groove of the rocks. To provide for the swollen river in the rainy season, a long shaft twenty feet square was hewn through the wall of the gorge into the next valley The photograph was taken from the doorway of the Khazneh showing the gorge at its inner end THE RUINS OF ANCIENT PETRA 275 Petra, or “Sela’’ — The Rock — were the Nabatezans, a people of ancient Arabia who seem to have occupied the country evacuated by the Edomites when the latter pressed forward into southern Judea, and to have succeeded to its commercial prosperity as a center for the trade routes from Egypt. The importance of the city under Nabatean rule increased until, during the reign of king Aretas III, surnamed “Friend of the Greeks,”’ royal coins appeared. The city must then have had a large popu- lation and have presented a general Grecian appearance. In A. D. 106, Arabia Petrzea became part of the Roman Empire, and the Nabatezean, or native dynasty, came to an end, but the city continued to flourish. In A. D. 131, Hadrian, that indefatigable traveler, visited the city, and it is proba- ble that the superb Khazneh and the Deir were built at this time. A century later, when the city was at the height of its splendor and power, some sudden catastrophe put an end to the issue of coinage and the building of sumptuous tombs. The activity of Palmyra and of the Persians diverted the trade routes, thus removing the great raison d’etre of Petra’s power. When no longer a great storehouse of precious goods and a safe retreat for passing caravans, Petra rapidly dwindled in population and im- portance, although it still remained a religious center. Christianity found its way there at an early date, Athanasius mentioning a Bishop of Petra; but, as in all of north- ern Arabia, Christianity was swept away by the Mohammedan conquest in A. D. 629-632. The Crusaders were the last to hold the city, Baldwin the First form- ing of it a baronial fief, known as the Chateau de la Valée de Sela. In 1189 the Crusaders left, but remnants of their citadel still remain. The extraordinary ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity to eastern rulers during the middle ages, but after the Crusaders’ departure, nearly seven hun- dred years elapsed before another Euro- pean, Burckhardt, visited them in 1812. Owing to the wildness of the natives, who had no one to keep them in sub- jection, few Europeans visited the place during the nineteenth century, and then only with large escorts of soldiers, in some cases even artillery. The Turkish Government, however, has changed con- ditions within the ten years, so that now, except from chance brigands, there is nothing to fear. As far as I know, very little has been published in English on the marvels of Petra, and this combined with its inaccessibility, probably ac- counts for the fact that very few persons have seen what must certainly be reck- oned as one of the wonders of the world. We slowly made our way over the rocky bed of the Musa, our horses having difficulty in finding a sure footing, and presently came near to the towering painted cliffs, where we saw the first evidences of ancient civilization. Cut into the rock, here of a cream color, was a tomb, perhaps twenty feet square, its entire face protected by a portico of circular arches, with columns cut from the rock and left in situ. Doors opened into the mountain from this tomb, and in the pitch-black vaults lived families of the wretched natives, who now in- habit some of the outlying tombs. A little farther on were two immense pillars of yellow rock, formed by hewing two of the mushroom-shaped formations, which are a peculiarity of this district. The surroundings were so uncanny, due to the work both of nature and man, that our whole party became silent. Turning a corner, we came to the face of the cliffs and saw the entrance to the famous eastern sik or gorge. 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Aq poinfar qonur Mou ‘yYJoM [eyuoUNUOUL & Jjes}t ‘ABMITeYs JeoId CYT, “pus ouO Ye Jeyye Ue YIM oIeNbs yoo} 44I0j} JoquIeYO & OVUT Speoy ‘Op Ue9}UeAGS pue YSIq yooy Aq) ‘IEG 94} jo keMioop Vy], “SeTMOUIIIND SNOISTfeI YIM pojoouU0. ‘yods peyuenbesj yonur e sea sty} yeyIdeo yue1OUe 94} Jo Skep yYFIIq OY} UI Jey} IqQNOp OU st Jey], “YOO oy} UI yO aseorTe}s OU0}s peoiq 8 jo suevout Aq outavs dooys & ZuIquiyo Aq poyowos neoye[d MOIeU & UO SI ,.“JUdATOD,, OY} JO ,“NAq [H,, ‘e]du1e, ory} OUOUL OTVULTIF ayy ‘eIJOg SIO] Ue BY GIOJoq Su] JJESep ey} ssoI0e JaPPABIT OY} OF O[GISIA poe ‘ureyUNOUT oy] Jo sse1o ysourdo} ey} Jo 9ovJ Oy} ULIND “(‘q “y TET) UeUpeP jo oun oy} ur Ayqeqo.d ‘eiqery uF JoMOd OyUT OUTED OUTDO 1O}Je poyNdexy Vdlad NI 4dI10 V SO LSAYO S3HL LV WOOH FHL NI GSAHVO ATIdWSL db ose jar - gpa “45 AS ue aod a at at Ei sf ote: “= t: . ‘ Cem iy Be - THE RUINS OF ANCIENT PETRA a wavy line of black drawn down a red and purple slate, and you will have an idea of this entrance to Petra. The river Musa has cut a bed’ for itself through the three or four hundred feet of sandstone ridge, and into this gorge we entered. Once within, all sunlight vanished and, by the pale light which did reach the bottom of the cleft, we saw the overhanging walls painted in natural colors of every shade and intensity. Here a ribbon of yellow; above it a background of red, veined with narrow bands of green, blue, and white. In some places dozens of parallel striz, each of a different color, bent in graceful curves until they blended into some new decorative scheme. High above stood rock fingers forty or fifty feet in height and but a few feet in diameter, their tops bathed in the sun, and each of a color that beggars description — some banded, some solid red, golden or purple. If there were not a single cutting or ruin of any kind here, the natural wonders of the gorge and the basin beyond would more than repay any trouble taken to see them. A hundred feet from the entrance, and the flume had narrowed from twenty . feet to half that width and had curved, so that now we could see but a short distance forward, backward and above; for like a glacial crevasse, the ghastly smooth walls, with foothold for no living thing, bent over us, shutting out the sky. The effect was indescribably weird. One had entered not an ordinary cafion, but into the vitals of the mountains themselves. Everything was unnatural; the colors, the goblin scenery, the en- gulfing walls—and we knew that farther on the hills held greater and more mysterious surprises in store. On our right as we continued inward, appeared the black entrance to a tunnel. A shaft twenty feet square and three 279 hundred and sixty feet long had some- time been hewn through the wall of the gorge into another and parallel valley. Five hundred feet beyond, the gorge abruptly ended, and we emerged into the basin of Petra, relieved to escape from the overpowering oppression of close perpendicular walls. Before us, hemmed in by rose-colored walls from two to four hundred feet in height, lay an L-shaped valley, narrow near the entrance to the sik, but widen- ing after a quarter of a mile, into a plain, perhaps a square mile in extent. On either side of us were continuous rock tombs in three or four rows, one above the other, extending on the right to the farther end of the basin, and on the left, cut along the length of the so-called “Mount of Sacrifice.” This high rocky butte rose several hundred feet above the valley, ascended by a stupendous stair- case cut in its sides. In its base was hewn a gigantic amphitheatre, its tiers of carmine-colored seats capable of accommodating over three thousand people. The walls of this narrow portion of the basin contain the oldest tombs built by the Nabatzans, the construction of which dates back to about 800 B. C. The pylon-like facades, twenty to thirty feet high, are pierced in the center by a single door, above which are steplike decorations, similar to those sometimes employed by the Navajo. The facades of some of these step tombs extend several feet out from the cliff from which they are carved: others are flush with it: Everything is of salmon-colored rock, “A rose-red city, half as old as time.” The silence was absolute. Not a living creature but ourselves disturbed the quiet of the valley, which once must have echoed with the plaudits of the thousands seated in the amphitheatre. - 280 We made our way past the rows of stately tombs, until the valley broad- ened and swung to the west. Here was the site of a city with an hundred thou- sand inhabitants, a fact borne out by the countless hewn masonry blocks, which covered an area of a square mile to a depth of many feet. One building re- mains nearly intact, a temple of con- siderable size, its great walls containing secret passageways, in which, it is told, the priests concealed themselves and astounded the worshipers by voices purporting to come from the gods. We explored many tombs and, late in the afternoon, found a very convenient suite, which we appropriated. It was cut about seventy feet above the stream’s bed, and was approached by a stone staircase. In front of the door of this tomb was a level terrace, a few yards square, on which we did our cooking, and which commanded a view of a large part of the basin. Somewhat below our room, and connected with it on the inside by a stairway, was a second tomb, which we apportioned to Teep. Below that was a large grotto, in which the horses, Bedouin boys and soldier dwelt in a happy community. The singular number is used with reference to our army, as shortly after our arrival, we had decided that it was needless and ex- travagant to have more than one soldier, and had sent the others back to El Maan. The floor of our apartment was inches deep in dust, the removal of which occupied the greater part of the remaining hours of daylight. Then the Bedouins collected a quantity of grass and willows, of which we made beds. The nights were very cold and clear, disturbed only by the howling of jackals. Soon after sunset the valley became dark as the pit, but about nine o’clock, directly across from our home, the moon ap- peared over the mountain ramparts, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL giving a weird effect of being in the basin itself, with the cliffs behind it. We rambled about that dead city at night, half afraid of what might emerge from its gaping doors. In these wanderings we went alone, the natives being un- willing to leave the cheering influence of the fire. Near our end of the valley was a side gorge with vertical purple walls, at the base of which began a staircase, cut from the rock. For half a mile this staircase, four yards wide, winds upward into the labyrinths of this goblin country. In some places it is cut in a shelf along the edge of a yellow abyss; in others through an intervening buttress thirty or forty feet high, composed of sinuous veins of red, purple, blue, and gold. Finally, after working along the edge of a ghastly chasm with overhanging walls, the way - arrives at a plateau, backed by a honey- combed wall of gray which faces out into the blue spaces of the western desert. In this cliff is a gigantic cutting, comparable in size to the Abu Simbel in Egypt, or the Kailas Temple in India. This facade, standing for centuries in this remote and terrible spot, is very impressive. The architecture of the Deir, as it is called, is similar to that of the Khazneh, but not of so pure a style, nor are its carvings so delicate. At the same time, the location and magnitude of the Deir render it more astonishing. The fa¢ade is in the neighborhood of one hundred and sixty feet in height, sur- mounted by an.urn, hewn in situ, like the rest of the cutting. We climbed this by means of a series of staggered holes cut in the cliff, like a vertical ladder, from the ground to the summit of the facade. The urn proved to be of gigantic size; so huge, in fact, that a horse and carriage could be driven around its base. . Like all the hewn tombs, temples, and The ruins of mysterious Petra— The site of Petra is covered with heaps of hewn stones, foundations of buildings, fragments of columns, and vestiges of paved streets, indicating a crowded city of many thousand inhabitants. The only level space was along the course of the river. The bottom of the river was paved, in some places it was completely covered in, bridges were thrown across it, and a strong embankment of hewn stone confined the turbulence of the current. A paved way, of which portions still exist, ran parallel with the stream, and was bordered with public buildings, now demolished and swept away by the winter torrents. The “*three-storied”” tomb, shown in the distance above, faces the chief concourse of the city The valley of Petra is traversed by many streams, which become torrents in the rainy season, and to the breaking of bounds of these waters is to be ascribed the fact that among the ruins of the ancient city scarcely one stone now stands upon another. Only one building, called by the Arabs the “‘ Kaszr Faraoun,” or Palace of Pharoah, has outlasted the centuries. This edifice, in a corrupt style of late Roman architecture, decorated with stucco, may have been a palace, temple, or public building. Near it still stand the remains of an archway apparently leading to a raised public forum. The front of the Kaszr Faraoun had a four-columned portico now in ruins; the interior is divided into two parallel chambers, and there were several stories. Beams of wood, let in between the courses of masonry, continue to this day, a strong proof of the dryness of the climate 281 Z8S Ajo 8y} Jo ureld ey} 101) spusose ‘11aq] ey} 0} Surpeey yey Oy YOnuT AJOA ‘YOO VY] UI yNO aseOITeyS VW ‘ywede qooj porpuny 9u0 ynoqe pueys Aoyy, “IWSIoy [PUIZLIO ay} O}eOIPUL 0} PUNOIAZOIOJ ay} UI SY¥sIeqo JOOJ-AqITY} OM) OY} SuIAvo] ‘yoo1 oy} UMOP SuNnINO Aq oIOY peyeao] Useq sey UTIO;}e]d ysea WY ‘oAoqe ysnf ureyuNOUT oy} jo 7IUTUINS ey} UO Iey]E oY} 38 S}solId oy Aq pouLJOjsed seorAsas oY} 0} JUBpUa}}e ‘skep Jsvoj UO Poo}s vI}Og JOUR Jo ajdoed ay} ‘ApjUEpIAe ‘aIaqT « JOIAIWOVS JO LNNOW,, SWHLad OL HOVOUddV E86 uorey JO quIO} ey} JO o}IS OYy “IOPFT JUNOP [eoNqiq eyy saeedde ‘s][1y Jo asues ay} puokeg ‘yjo] ey} OF, “peziqeyul sea BIjeq 91OJoq UeAG drysiomM Jo oov]d B se UssOYyO uVeq 9AeY ABU UOTJENIIS BAIssoJduTT pues pyIM AyUSOyUSeUT st pue ‘eIjeq Ul YUSUINUOUT ysepfo oy} UeY? Jepjo st Arenjoues JUoIOUR SIT, “Ysva CY} OBJ SJeIPE GIO “soyLIoKSs oy] e1OJoq WNOIA oy} JO 19}4SNvIs oY} JOJ posn Ajqeqoid sem pue ‘apis 9UO ye [ood pooTq eB YIM paprAoid ‘punod si Jeq[e JaqjO VY, “1eI]e BY} JO JUOIJ UI 4NO YNO SI UIseq Je[NSueze1 aS1e] Y “Aq JeaU SI JeyBM JOJ IOAJOSOI B puke ‘a1 JOJ popusyut Ayqissod st do} oy} UO MOTOY YW “sep_Nsuey01 st ouo [edioulid oy) ‘siqye OM} oe BJO], “paJaaoostp yod ,,o0e]d YSIY,, ONTUIEg queIOUB Jo UsUIIOedS 9}e[duUI0D Jsour ey} SI ‘eljog Surpunoiins sureyUNoU oyy JO ysoYySty sry} UO ALIOD JHL JAOSV JOIINOVS HOS SYVLIIV AHL * iy ied ek Te — 284 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL public buildings in Petra, the interior of the Deir consists of a rectangular chamber, bare of any. ornamentation or columns, its sole opening consisting of a battered doorway. about twenty feet high. A hundred feet from the door, in front of the temple, is a large altar, cut from a natural knob of rock some twenty feet high. Leading up to this is .a staircase of small dimensions, evidently intended for the use of the priests only. Beyond the altar lies a chasm several hundred feet in depth, perhaps fifty feet wide, with perpendicular sides, while on the opposite side is a wall of yellow, rising to a height of a hundred feet, its topmost ridge ornamented with cream- colored domes resembling giant beehives. Near our headquarters was a small tomb consisting of a rectangular cham- © ber, hollowed in rock of a pinkish hue, veined with white lines. The walls of this room were covered with hundreds of recesses some six inches square, divided from one another by walls an inch or so in thickness. The cellular construction has given to this tomb the name “ colum- barium,” or pigeonhole tomb. Only a few yards away from the columbarium was an unfinished tomb, which illustrated the method used in constructing the many facades. First a vertical cliff of the requisite height was chosen, and a ladder of staggered holes cut in its face. By means of this re- cessed ladder, bronze or iron bars were driven into the cliff in a horizontal line, a few feet below the level fixed for the highest part of the fagade. Supported by these bars, workmen then cut into the rock, forming a deep horizontal gallery, extending the width of the in- tended construction. This recess once cut, numerous workmen could enter it and, continually cutting down its floor, scarp the face of the cliff to a plane surface. They would then deepen the upper gallery and, in a like manner, always cutting downward, complete the actual carving, arriving eventually at the base. In this way the use of scaffold- ing was eliminated. Of this unfinished tomb, the scarping of the rock face, the initial gallery, and the rough capitals of four columns are alone completed. On the north wall of the basin is a series of the largest and finest facades in Petra, excelled in workmanship, size and beauty only by the Khazneh and the Deir. The “tomb with the urn,” built on the same lines as the Khazneh, the “tomb with the portico,” and the “ three- storied tomb” are all works of great - The last mentioned has an - magnitude. interior room over one hundred and twenty feet square, which, like the rest of these chambers, is inhabited during ; the rainy season by tribes of nomads, together with their cattle, sheep and goats. We were in Petra but a few days in advance of the time when the dead city is infested with these desert peoples. The facades of this north wall show many kinds of architecture: the Naba- teean, which is the oldest and reminiscent of the Egyptian style; pure Greek, the result of Greek influence in the reign of King Aretas, 100 B. C.; the best of Roman designs, such as the Khazneh, and also, later still in point of time, a hybrid architecture, partly Greek and partly Roman, of which the Deir is a fine example. The ‘Mount of Sacrifice,’ whieh dominates the basin, stands at its east- ern extremity, near the defile which furnishes the sole entrance to Petra. Its color is carmine at the base, changing to purple and yellow toward the sum- mit. The northern base was originally honeycombed with tombs, but many of these were totally removed and others rendered mere frontless caves by the excavation necessary to build the theatre. a (} Sr, a » UNFINISHED TOMB IN PETRA In hewing out the ornamental facade of a tomb the workmen began from above. The face of the rock was first scarped to the perpendicular and on its smooth surface the design of the tomb was traced. Then, working in a horizontal gallery cut in the rock, the capitals of the columns were cut out, and this work, with about a foot of the column itself and the bare lines of the entablature above, is all that has been finished. Working down- ward is obviously the easiest way and is that followed in the case of the celebrated cave temples at Elephanta, Salsette, Ellora, Ajuntah, and other places in the west of India. A doorway in the lower left-hand corner of the unfinished tomb admits to a good-sized chamber, containing receptacles for dead bodies 285 286 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL This isolated peak was the religious center of the city, and had apparently been a place of worship even before the first Nabatean tombs were built. All over it are tombs of the oldest design, small tablets, and here and there a rock altar. From base to summit is a vast stair- case, equal in size to that leading to the Deir. This leads up, either by gentle steps or inclined planes, to an artificial plateau forty feet below the main sum- mit, and separated from it by a shallow notch. Primarily this eminence must have nearly equaled the elevation of the highest point, but it has been entirely hewn down by industrious ancients to its present level, apparently for the sole purpose of leaving two obelisks about thirty feet high, which indicate the original level of the rock. These red pillars, one hundred feet apart and still attached at the base to the mother rock, represent a stupendous amount of labor, quite equal to that required to build the staircase, or carve out the Deir. Near the southern edge of the plateau is a yellow stone altar cut, of course, from the living rock. Across the notch, on the west side of the main summit, are the remains of yet another civiliza- tion; a citadel of the Crusaders. These worthies built two of these fortresses during the twelfth century, to guard the city; both of which are now mere piles of masonry blocks, with scarcely one stone standing on another.’ Beyond the Crusaders’ citadel, on the 1 Of the thousands of buildings once composing the city, as noticed before, only one, and that by virtue of the size of its stones, still stands. Even the heavy causeways and bridges are entirely dissociated, and in the entire valley there ure not, as I remember, a score of places where even a few courses of masonry are still intact. The individual building blocks were carefully squared, and are even now suitable for use. The natives of Wadi Musa have taken advantage of this circumstance, and that entire village is built of the creamy stones of ancient Petra. highest point of the mountain, is a large triple altar and a shallow rectangular basin of considerable size — relics of Sem- itic worship. These were probably hewn long before the earliest time when Petra was inhabited, and indeed represent the most complete specimen known of an ~ ancient Semitic sanctuary. No more suitable place for worship could have been chosen than this eminence, rising above a wild valley, guarded by winding and dreadful abysses, which thread their way among painted mountains. After our period of study, exploration, and mild adventure, we were loath to leave the valley where each day had brought new evidence of forgotten splendor, but trains on the Hedjaz Rail- road were infrequent, so with a last visit to the Deir, we prepared to leave. We dispatched our baggage and horses in the early morning, and late in the after- noon, left the sik and rode to the small Bedouin village of Wadi Musa. Here we were welcomed by the sheik and in- vited to share his evening meal. Seated with great ceremony on a large rug laid on the earthen floor of the low- ceiled house, we silently ate kouskous — and roasted goat’s. flesh and drank deliciously spiced coffee. Around us gathered the tribal leaders, courteous though mute, and very distinguished looking in the dim light of an oil torch, with their patriarchal beards and white robes. At nine the moon rose, the signal for our departure. We thanked the hospitable sheik, donned our heaviest clothes and started on our all-night ride to El Maan. . At Damascus two days later, the last sunset at Petra was a vivid recollection, as it is even now. When the valley is in black shadow the summit of the “Mount of Sacrifice” still glows with the red horizontal rays that pour through the gap in the surrounding mountains. ———— GIANT URN CARVED FROM THE SOLID ROCK IN PETRA, THE STRANGE LOST CITY OF THE ARABIAN DESERT The size of this urn, one hundred and sixty feet above the ground, crowning EI Deir, is such that a horse and carriage could be driven around on its base. E] Deir is gray in tone, contrasting with the fantastic color of most of Petra’s mountains. (The general tint of the sandstone is a fine rich red, but the surface of the rock is veined with white, saffron, orange, vermilion, pink, crimson, and violet in endless variations, producing beautiful or bizarre effects.) El Deir, the most immense of Petra’s rock-hewn monoliths, compares in size with the Abu Simbel in Egypt, or the Kailas Temple in India. We climbed to the urn by means of a vertical ladder of holes cut in the cliff Ayo ayy punose soulavs pur syyiey Ayoor ap Suowe seme ‘uappry aue ‘sjeyiod paseyo Ajauy ypim jrynnea waqjo ‘squio} Iyjiug “YyoRad Jo yno ySty asoy} Ayeroadsa ‘parkas [[ys axe sayoru Auepy “peep 24} Jo sayse oy} pjoy 0} pasn aiam ‘squiogeyZo URWIOY 24} UI puNoy asoy} ayI] Aaa ‘quio} siy} Jo s|[eM aUQ UT sayoru peUs 24. ‘sioop surdes ay} — WodZ aSIOULA IYSIUL JeYyM Jo preae Fey Gysiu ye osfe AYO peap ayy Yysno1y3 porapuem apy ‘urpoumueYyoyy pue urysiyD jo- aouangul ays “urMIOY ayy “Ya2IH) ay} “uRaeqeN eareu ay} Jo 2ouangut ay} Surovsy “sed ayy Jo spury ueUINY Aq auop yIOM ay} pur sade ayy Ysnosyy urer pue purm Aq auo}spurs qos ay} UO auUOP YOM ay} ZuLeydioap ‘surns quays ay} Jo syyUTAqe] ayy ysnoiy} pesepuem 2A, ALIO GVAd 3HL NI SWOL «SLOONOADId,, V IO AVGOL SNIVWAY ts, ha i are poreay aq 0} JOU pu 30] Payo}eIM v aie ‘sqUIO} ay} JO SLOOP ay} Worf UIEJUNOUL IY} OFUT uado yey} s}Nea yor[q-youd ayy SurAdndd0 saanjeu Aue ‘IaAaMoy ‘MON *SIIIP[OS Paulie jo sarpoq asre[ YIM suns ay} yoroidde 0} Aressad0u usaq sey } sivaA U9} JY} UTYIIM [HUQ “searyeU pyiM jo spueq Aq ydaoxa payasap paureuter Ayo 94} “6gII Ul Ja] SIapeSNID oY} JaIFY “YWws ay} Jo sjaArvu oy} Jo auO SI} ysnoypye ‘eag uses aay Aepo} Mag *SIaMOH pur ssvId yssuoUle Uapply ‘saoufd euLsi10 tay} UT UIeUar [Ys UNTUsdsoId ay} Jo suUIN[OD ay} JO saseq ay} yng IIS puke pues YM pataA0d UVeq PUL UWivaTs dy} OFU! Ua|[ey MOU sey adeys poyeagja ay J, *S1O}eJOads puesnoy} aay ayepourMOIe Ajisea pnoo sywas aydind pur par jo sia aay-Ayry} sy pue ‘surezUNOUL s BIg Jo 2UO Jo NG AYoor asny & JO aseq oy} J UMY sem aNeayYydure sy 7, ALIO 3HL GSYSSHO JONO SLIGNVW1d SYSHM JON3TS ONV NING Ayied Ino jo Juepuayje uv sem ‘siapesnig ey} Jo afAys ayy ut sBuiddesy asioy puke Gaysnu ULIAN]IP93UR YUM “puNoIdero} ay} Ul UINOpag AY], “squIo} asayy jo yUSUIEUIO JeINJDa}YOIe ay} 03 Arnfur yonuT pasned savy ‘spulM 24} 0} pasodxa uoKenys Ywa]q sey} puR “Wayy eA0qK sxIOI Y3 WOIZ JazIBAQ = *AleNEIS JO} sayoiu daap Aq payesedas sayduiay sinyeiuru 32143 jo sysisuod Aloys Jaddn asoym ‘quioy prpuayds sayjour st 34311 ay) ye WH Burmo[py ‘uautspsay aateU jo saquy Aq uoseas Aurer ay} ut -pardnose Mou—aieq pur UMay-Ysnol ‘ssaquivyo SuIyoIUUVD INO OFUI Pra] ‘siaqsejid Aq pousOpe ‘saouRIQUa INO} SJ] *1OGET SPA PUL YIRIM Ysea syUasaider Bury 9330910} 9WOS JO quIO} snopuadn}s sty} GaoI3s jedioutid ayy Jo adoys ayy Surpeay Ajqeqoad ‘A319 ay} puke wRas 243 Suryoo]19a0 SuoNENys SuIpueUIWOd & UT ‘(speaideo uvlyyUIIOD oy][UN JOU av I SsOIO” SUIUUNI SJUSLUBULO IY}) GUO} , Pal1Oys-2aIY},, 10 URIYIULIOD aU} SI BAJAJ Jo [JBM YOU oY} UT apEdey Suryiays ysour ay], Vulad 40 11VM HLYON 3HL SO MGIA —_—_ —- es « Three Polar Expeditions, 1913-1916 AMERICAN, CROCKER LAND EXPEDITION; CANADIAN, STEFANSSON ARCTIC EXPEDITION; BRITISH, SHACKLETON ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION By HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN Secretary of the Peary Arctic Club Since the Journat for May has been so greatly delayed, it is possible to include late news of the Crocker Land Expedition. Mr. Maurice C. Tanquary reached New York June 20, by way of Copenhagen, after a 1300- mile sledge journey across Melville Bay and through Danish Greenland. When the relief ship ‘‘Cluett’’ sent last summer to bring back the expedition to New York failed in its purpose, three members of the expedition, Messrs. Maurice C. Tanquary, Fitzhugh Green and Jerome Lee Allen, planned to come out by way of Copen- hagen. They left the main party January 20, and began the long journey down the coast of Greenland under the guidance of Mr. Peter Freuchen of Thule, North Star Bay. They reached Upernivik February 11, and Umanak March 3, Danish settlements where they were received with great cordiality. At the latter place they were fortu- nate in gaining the friendly services of Mr. Knud Balle, high priest of Greenland, who gave his help as guide and interpreter for the further journey. They reached Egedesminde: March 21 where they had planned to join the regular annual mail sledge for Holstensborg. Conditions of travel were so poor, however, it was judged that one of the party might get through safely, but not all three. Mr. Tanquary was chosen, Messrs. Green and Allen remaining at Egedesminde to join the next mail party. It now comes out that Mr. Green has been requested by cable from the Crocker Land Committee in New York to act as commander of the new relief ship ‘‘ Danmark,’’ which has been engaged in south Greenland to bring out the members of the expedition this summer. Therefore he will go back to North Star Bay, where Dr. Hovey or Mr. MacMillan will take command. Thus Mr. Allen is left alone to follow the mail sledge to Holstensborg and take steamer from Copenhagen for New York. Throughout the months of difficulty in the Arctic both the Crocker Land Expedition and the relief party have enjoyed the codperation and support of the Danish people, and especially of the two Danish gentlemen, Mr. Knud Rasmussen and Mr. Peter Freuchen. For the very cordial spirit of this codperation, and for the very considerable material benefit, the Crocker Land Committee would express profound appreciation.— Tue Eprror. = saying, “Inter arma _ leges silent,” of the olden time in Rome, reduces itself in terms of the present to “In the greatest war the world has known, polar expeditions re- ceive scant attention.”’ Three parties, adventurers of science and discovery, iso- lated — two for three years, the other for two — strive in doubt and mystery, and were it not for the shadow which falls from the East the world would be alert to learn the fate of the absent, and if necessary, to succor them. — It is perhaps worth while briefly to review and set forth in connected narrative, the facts, meager and fragmentary, which have at intervals become known concerning these expeditions, in order that when their fate shall finally be determined and the results weighed and measured, we may have a fairly accurate idea of the whole story of each from beginning to end. In the early summer of 1913 the Crocker Land Expedition under Mr. Donald B. MacMillan, supported by the American Museum of Natural History, the American Geographical Society, and the University of Illinois, was gathering its forces on the Atlantic coast — at the same time that Stefansson was making ready at Vancouver for the Canadian advance into the North, and thinly veiled rivalry existed between the two expedi- tions as to which should reach Crocker Land, now known to be non-existent. Leaving the Brooklyn Navy Yard July 2, in the chartered “ Diana,’ MacMillan, leader, Ensign Fitzhugh Green, United States Navy, topographer, Messrs. W. Elmer Ekblaw, geologist, Maurice -C. Tanquary, naturalist, and Harrison J. Hunt, surgeon, constituted an efficient, well-balanced and well-equipped party. The expedition struck its first bad luck on the rocks of Red Bay, Labrador, com- pelling delay, transhipment to the “ Erik,” and arrival at Etah too late to cross Smith Sound. Hard work all win- 291 292 ter however, for which Mr. MacMillan’s former Peary discipline and acquaint- ance with the Eskimos peculiarly fitted him, permitted a base in Buchanan Bay on the west side of Smith Sound. From there an overland march to Cape Thomas Hubbard — opening the Peary cairns of 1906 at that point — launched the ex- pedition in good form in March 1914, on a straight course for the supposed Crocker Land. Months later, and after much peril, Mr. MacMillan and Ensign Green returned to report that although they had placed themselves upon the exact location, only sea, with no sign of land in any direction, was visible; and that the further work of the expedition must necessarily omit its central objective. Mr. MacMillan had however brought his entire party through the winter in good health, the summer had been profit- ably occupied in scientific research and the arrival of relief in the next season, 1915, was confidently awaited. The three organizations supporting the expedition, therefore, a year ago in July, 1915, dis- patched Curator E. O. Hovey, of. the American Museum, in :the Grenfell Labrador schooner “Cluett” to bring home the expedition. The “ Cluett”’ however did not return. Midwinter brought news of her disable- ment in Wostenholm Sound and the certainty that both parties, the Crocker Land and its relief, must winter as best they might. Late in May of this year, 1916, Mr. Tanquary forwarded from the Faroe Islands a cablegram from Dr. Hovey telling of disappointment, diffi- culty and failure. The members of the party were alive and well, scattered at various stations and in different lines of work; short of both food and transpor- tation facilities, and in imperative need of help from home. Mr. Tanquary, a few days later arrived at Copenhagen and in due course at New York. In the meantime the supporters of the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL expedition have engaged the “ Danmark,” already in south Greenland, to bring out the men this summer, and Mr. Knud Rasmussen has been requested to carry sufficient food in at once for the months preceding the arrival of the “ Danmark.” This American expedition, whatever may be its final outcome, has fully realized the inexorable conditions of Arctic work, the uncertainty of opposing forces of nature, and certainty that the best-laid plans of work will be greatly modified, if not com- pletely changed; also that the net results, when the history is finally made, will be altogether different from those expected, although perhaps of no less value. Stefainsson’s departure, in 1913, was full of promise. Adopted by the Domin- ion of Canada, commissioned by it as its first adequate Arctic explorer, he set out from Vancouver on the Pacific coast. The “Karluk” and her two auxiliaries not only were freighted with sufficient supplies and equipment but also carried a scientific staff carefully selected, with each man qualified for his especial de- partment of investigation. Everything, barring the usual minor difficulties, promised well, until, late in the autumn discouraging news came of the separation of the ship from the shore, with Captain Robert A. Bartlett, its navigator, and nearly the whole company on _ board drifting in the pack, while Stefansson with three associates, hunting, was hope- lessly marooned on land. . The first winter closed in upon this predicament and not until the following May (1914) did Captain Bartlett bring himself to St. Michael, Alaska, with his tale of the three months’ drift of the “Karluk”’; of her crushing and sinking, late in January, 1914; of the loss of the’ scientific party and also its supporting party, headed from the ship for Wrangel Island, and of the arrival at this island of the survivors; of his own sledge jour- THREE POLAR ney with an Eskimo over the pack to shore, thence to Emma Harbor, Siberia. Later the Wrangel Islanders, were taken off by the auxiliary schooner “ King and Wing,” transferred to the coast guard “ Bear,’’ and sent to their homes. Then came Mr. B. M. McConnell back to civilization, with word that having wintered on the Alaskan coast with Stefansson,:after they had been ma- rooned on shore, he had left Stefénsson with two comrades early in April, about sixty miles north of Martin Point, with sixty days’ provisions and the purpose of making a reconnaissance, if possible, of unknown land to the north. The next winter passed in silence, doubts increasing week by week, almost to despair, until nearly a year later Stefansson himself arrived at Herschel on the north coast of the continent, re- porting a most adventurous and suc- cessful year. He had journeyed seven hundred miles northward and eastward over the ice,' and had been obliged to 1 Of the severe winter ordeal, perhaps this hitherto unpublished letter to General Thomas H. Hubbard, a staunch friend and liberal patron, whose lamented death occurred before its arrival in New York, may be interesting as a human document: ““West Coast oF Banks IsLanp, near Lat. 73° 45’ N. $ July 1, 1914. Dear GENERAL HUBBARD: I haye heard that in dropping a hundred feet to their death men review the sins of a lifetime. We landed here a week ago from a ninety-six day trip across the ice from Alaska, on which (because of accidents near the start) our fuel gave out over forty days before we eventually made land. You will guess that there were times of uncertainty and discomfort, especially when water lanes impeded and contrary currents and winds carried us faster away from land than we could travel toward it, but I hope you will be glad to know that the pleasant memory of your kindness to me in New York when I came home the fall of 1912, was among the most cheering of the mental resources I had to draw upon and that — like the sinner falling to his death — I kept thinking that I had failed perhaps in telling you clearly how much I valued the “vote of confidence” you gave me. Heaven knows when I shall get a chance to send this out of Banks Island, but I hope it will get to you some time to tell you that I at least remember your kindness. We have had much hard luck, but we have finished a trip more difficult than it looks and shall continue to fight misfortune with what courage we have. [Signed] VirusALmMur STEFANSSON, EXPEDITIONS 293 winter on the western shore of Banks Island, because he did not find there the schooner “North Star,’ which he had instructed to proceed there and await his return. The following spring he had journeyed over the ice westward and northward. New land was sighted June 18, fourteen miles from camp (N. lati- tude 77° 56’), of which approximately a hundred miles of coast was defined. Afterward he had made an overland summer march across Banks Island, returning in good order with his com- rades to his base. Confronted by what he thought “the unthinkable news” of the loss of his flagship, the “ Karluk,”’ he spent no time in vain regrets, and purchasing the “Polar Bear,” adapted for his purpose, taking a new stock of supplies and utilizing the fast-waning summer, he set forth again to the un- known North, purposing to winter on Banks Island or Prince Patrick, and then, in the Spring of 1916 to develop to the farthest the possible reaches of the new land mass, intending to return to civilization late in the fall of this year, 1916, or early in the spring of next year. In the meantime the southern land detachment of the expedition, under the direction of Dr. R. M. Anderson, has been working diligently along the Alas- kan coast in the delta of the Mackenzie and eastward toward the Coppermine with encouraging results. When Ste- fansson’s full narrative shall be sub- mitted to the world, it will doubtless be seen that no expedition has been more fruitful in adventure or.richer in scien- tific reward. Captain Louis L. Lane, in a new, not-yet-named, 300-ton power schooner, left Seattle early this month, hoping to meet Stefaénsson two months later at Banks Island, and to bring him and his Arctic sheaves of three years’ ad- venture to home and country. In the Antarctic the record exceeds, 294 if anything, that of the Arctic in interest and mystery. Shackleton’s bold and daring project of traversing the great Antarctic land mass was well developed —when the war cloud burst. He ten- dered his services to his country, but Britain generously bade him “God- speed” on his scientific quest, and his “Endurance,” crossing from London to Buenos Aires, left South Georgia late in the Fall of 1914, for a landing place on Coats Land. Subsequent wireless re- ports were that the conditions were more difficult than had been expected and that the “Endurance” would be unable to make her way out of the pack before the following autumn (1915) and that the transcontinental attempt must be postponed for a year. Meantime the “ Aurora,” Sir Douglas Mawson’s staunch steamship, had left Australia for the familiar British Ross Bay base on the opposite side of the continent, there to await Shackleton’s advent, sending relief parties inland to lay provision depots for the overland party. More than a year passed in silence, until in March, 1916, New Zea- land picked up a wireless message from the “Aurora.” Little by little the tragic tale came out, and weeks later, a tug dispatched to her relief brought the ship into port. Ten months before, the “Aurora,” with three landing parties at an unknown distance upon the _ ice barrier, and another of her own on shore, had been torn from the land by storm, and for ten long months had drifted helplessly to and fro. With rudder twisted like a corkscrew and coal ex- hausted, the plight of the ship was pitia- ble, and her ultimate salvation provi- dential. While sufficient food is sup- posed to have been available to support the Ross Bay parties for one season, their fate cannot be known until the Australian relief expedition, which will be dispatched immediately upon the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL opening of the austral summer, returns. _ Remarkable as was the tale of the “Aurora,” that of the “Endurance,” her consort, and of Shackleton, the leader, is even more extraordinary and possibly tragic. The “Endurance,” struggling bravely, finally sank, taking down equipment and nearly all of her stores. A scanty stock, transferred to the ice, enabled the entire party, how- ever, to subsist, until by slow and painful marches they finally reached the limit of the floe, whence in three open boats they committed themselves to the one thousand miles of sea between them and the Falkland Islands. During the peril- ous journey one of the boats was lost, although it is not yet clear whether those on board perished.. At last, Elephant. Island was made, whence, leaving his party of twenty-two in a make-shift cave in the ice, Shackleton with two comrades pushed overland to the Nor- wegian whaling station on the opposite side of the island. Thence, taken to Port Stanley in the Falklands, he com- municated to the world his tale of work and adventure. Little Uruguay promptly responded by the immediate dispatch of a small government vessel, which, picking up Shackleton at Port Stanley, endeavored to reach the marooned party on Ele- phant Island. On June 19, however, Shackleton cabled that impassable ice barriers had baffled him and that only a more powerful and specially equipped steamer could hope to effect the rescue, and that in the meantime the party must shift for itself as best it could up- on reduced rations and what penguins and seals it might, perchance, capture, a discouraging not to say desperate out- look; and here, for the moment, the eur- tain falls upon what is certain to prove one of the boldest and most fruitless, except in heroism and fortitude, of any of Britain’s polar adventures. A Garden of Germs MUSEUM OF LIVING BACTERIA A UNIQUE PUBLIC SERVICE By C.-E. A. WINSLOW Curator of Public Health in the American Museum of Natural History and Professor of Public Health in the : Yale Medical School N one of the tower rooms of the | American Museum of Natural His- tory is a strange sort of miniature botanical garden. All that the casual visitor would notice in the large concrete closet which forms the inner sanctum of this unique laboratory would be rows upon rows of test tubes in neatly ar- ranged and classified wooden racks. A somewhat closer inspection would show in each tube a sort of jelly. On the slanting surface of the jelly is what looks like a smear of whitish paste in some tubes, while in others the paste is more abundant and yellowish and in still - others it looks like a wrinkled mass of moist brown paper. The smear, or the wrinkled mass, in each case is a growth of mi- crobes, millions of them; and the collection is a museum of liv- ing bacteria. It is a far ery from the whale and the dino- saur, repre- sented by their mighty _ skele- tons in the ex- hibition halls of the Museum, to the typhoid ba- cillus, so tiny blood. Germ of anthrax or ‘wool-sorter’s disease,” in a drop of In very susceptible animals enormous multiplication of these bacteria takes place in the blood, and the capillaries often become choked with them. such as man, the bacteria remain localized in an abcess or carbuncle at the point of infection and do not permeate the blood stream. From photo-micrograph presented to the depart- ment of public health by Dr. H. C. Ernst that 400,000,000 could be packed into a grain of granulated sugar. Yet the bacteria fall within the field of natural history as truly as whale or dinosaur, redwood tree or elephant. Indeed the inter-relationships between microbes and the higher plants and animals are so many that this group is of peculiar interest. Their activity in changing de- composing organic matter into forms suitable for the food of green plants and in fixing the nitrogen of the air and rendering it available for utilization, lies at the very foundation of all agriculture. Bacteria not only cause manifold dis- eases of plants and animals, but are also the active agents in the decay of foods and other or- ganic com- pounds; while on the other hand they ripen our butter and cheese, make vinegar and lac- tic acid, and aid us in a score of other arts and industries. These small- est and most abundant of liv- ing things have heretofore never been — honored with the recog- 295 In less susceptible animals, 296 nition of museum authorities. Anima!s of all sorts can be studied and identified at the American Museum and at the ] ) Each contains mil- lions of individuals and has grown from an invisible in oculation of the nutrient jelly. In order, from the top, they are: the pink water bacillus, a typical-look- ing colony, so-called because of the pink pigment it produces when grown on agar jelly; the nitrogen-fixing bacterium, which grows in the soil and assimilates at- mospheric nitrogen to serve as food for higher plants; the ray fungus, which produces a cattle disease to which man is also subject; the yellow coccus, a mi- crobe common in the air, which produces a yellow color when grown in a culture medium Four colonies of living bacteria. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL park of the New York Zodélogical Society, higher plants at the New York Botanical Gardens.. The discoverer of a new mi- crobe however, has been forced to de-- pend for identification upon comparison with written descriptions unless he could obtain what he wanted from the Kral collection at Vienna, which has never been brought back into a complete con- dition since Dr. Kral died several years ago. The need for a permanent stand- ard collection of bacterial types has been urgently felt by all workers in this country; and for the last five years this -need has been met by the museum of living bacteria, maintained by the de- partment of public health of the American Museum. Bacteria cannot be dried and put away_ in trays like bird skins. They are iden- tified, less by their simple structure than by their physiological behavior, by the ferments they produce and the changes set up in the media in which they grow. This collection must be a museum of living specimens and the task involved in bacterial horticulture is no small one. Most bacteria grow on a jelly made up with meat, peptone, and the extract from a Japanese seaweed, agar. Some how- ever, require very special foods, as vari- ously and exactly compounded as those that are prepared in the diet kitchen of a hospital. Some must have egg; some, blood; some, milk; some, salts of special kinds. Some need air while others must be cultivated in tubes from which oxygen has been removed by special chemical Some will live for weeks with- out attention, while others must be transferred to a fresh tube of food jelly A laboratory helper is busy all the time preparing the culture media for these small but exacting plants, while the bacteriologist in charge is quite fully occupied in transferring them at the proper time, and to the proper medium, means. every three days. For identification of a new microbe it is necessary to compare its behavior with that of standard types, hence the need of a collection of standard types. Each pin on the map above represents a university, or normal-school, or board-of-health laboratory which has received cultures for study from the American Museum collection by touching the old growth with the tip of a platinum needle and transferring an invisible, but potent, inoculum to a new culture tube. There are now about seven hundred different strains of living bacteria in the - Museum collection, representing practi- cally all known types of this diverse group. Bubonic plague has alone been excluded, on account of accidents which have occurred in other laboratories with this peculiarly deadly germ. Typhoid and diphtheria germs, however, are to be found, with those of whooping cough and cholera, meningitis and leprosy, influenza and pneumonia, and a dozen more of such pathogenic forms. The original strain of tubercle bacillus iso- lated by Robert Koch is there, with one of the most recently discovered of disease germs, isolated by Plotz and believed by him to be the cause of typhus fever. In the collection, also, are the bacteria which cause plant diseases and those which decompose foods. There are strains of the Bulgarian bacillus which makes buttermilk and the lactic acid bacteria utilized by the tanner. One germ that infects sugar cane came from Louisiana and another was found fixing nitrogen in the soil of a bean field in the Middle West. The keeping of records incident to the maintenance of this collection is in itself no light task. For each of the nearly seven hundred types there is a history card with a serial number on which every single transfer to a fresh tube is entered, with the date and the initials of the bacteriologist, so that one can tell at a glance exactly what has happened to each strain since it was added to the collection. The previous history, source, and original date of isolation of the cul- ture is of course kept on file, and a cross index by names makes it possible to find 297 862 “Bliayoeq Suid jpiyuapr “‘quodJj Ul UMOYS POs sseps By} OF peyor)jze s_pseu winurjeyd yy jo dy ayy Aq may} 07 podiojsuesy oq OF US & JOJ FUNLEM o]LI978 9Ie SIOYIO pue ‘eLIa}ORq JO SamNy;ND ULeJUOD YOY Jo ouIOS ‘ATJol yUeLIyNU JO saqn} s}10ddns jjo] 9y} Ye JOpjoy aatM ayy, Ivod oY} Ve Sey}jJOq ey} 9J0U — Ule{s VUIOS YIM PosJO[OD UVeq SurAvy Joyye pue peyrusew AyYsIy ueyM A]UO UVES oq UBD BIIG]ORq GoUIS AzessadeU st edoosoJOTU W woy} Yysinsurstp 07 Aem AjUO ey} Ua}jJo esNeoeq SUsMIIDeds peop se poAsosoid oq JoUUBO BIIOJORq Vasey] qsoul “jseyTeUUs oY} o1e YOIyM ‘(aseesIp YIM UOTyOQUTOD Seliysnpul pue sje Aueul Ul UeU Aq Jo asN apeUl SI S19y}O JO UOKjOR yy SesRestp vonpoid e1se}9eq BOG Joy Ayjof jo peeysur pasn uezjo si yoryM ‘poo prnbiy Surureyuoo seqny Jo yous & st yqSIL oy} PY “ydeaiz0j}0yd ay} ul ‘op Aayy yey Aq st , ‘4Qjzee ey} UO SeInyeeJO SULAIT JO yuajod ysouL APBAT}OaT]OO pue “yuepunqe ,Seqosolu,, JO, SUES, pa][eo) BIJajORq JO Uspies SuIAly eB Sey UMesnyY UROWeUTY Oo], SWYAD JO NAGHVD V ONILVAILINOG YOs LNAWdINOA ur pesn uayM AyypeDodse ‘ Pi | sigs ib a ey ~ i * ; U ‘ t; } A GARDEN OF GERMS at once any desired type. A third set of cards is arranged by institutions and shows which of our types was received from each laboratory and which has been sent out to each, and on what date. When a single microbe is planted in a suitable jelly medium it will grow and divide again and again (under favorable conditions once in twenty minutes), till in a few days or weeks there will be a colony, perhaps half an inch across, a city of millions of descendants of the original germ, and of characteristic form, texture, and color. The museum of living bacteria has made it possible to prepare an unusually interesting set of such bacterial colonies of different types, which is exhibited in a window case in the hall of public health on the third floor of the Museum. In connection with the albums of wall charts and large photographs on public health circulated by the public education department of the Museum in the schools of the city, special sets of bacterial cultures have been prepared, illustrating the growth and development of bacteria and their effect upon the various media in which they multiply. Six of these sets of twenty cultures were in circulation dur- ing the past year and were used by about one thousand children. Sterile culture plates and media are also fur- nished to the teachers in the high schools so that they may themselves demonstrate the growth of bacteria on plates inoculated with water or milk, or infected by exposure to the air or by the touch of a finger. The main object of the bacterial col- lection is however to furnish standard types for the use of teachers and investi- gators in other bacteriological labora- tories throughout the country. It has been the policy of the Museum to dis- tribute subcultures from our strains as widely as possible to all responsible 299 persons and in all cases without charge. Disease germs are, of course, carefully guarded, being sent only to laboratories of known standing so that they may not get into the hands of unauthorized per- sons, while special “teaching sets” of typical non-pathogenic forms are sent to the smaller colleges and normal schools for use in class work. Statistics of the Museum of Living Bacteria Number of Institutions sup- Cultures sent types in plied during out during Year collection year year 1911 479 52 615 1912 597 125 1232 1913 637 221 2939 1914 669 314 3218 1915 695 408 3460 The growth of the bacterial collection to a total of six hundred and ninety-five different types, and the development of its distribution to such an extent that in 1915 nearly thirty-five hundred cul- tures were sent out to over four hundred different institutions, is indicated in the table above, and the geographical range of the service is strikingly illustrated in the map reproduced herewith. Every university and health department of importance in the field of bacteriological teaching or research in the United States or Canada depends upon our service at the present time; and cultures have been sent to Cuba, to Austria, to England, and to South Africa. Many of the cultures which go out are used for teaching purposes as is shown by the great increase of demands in September and January. It is difficult to overestimate the value of such a ser- vice! as this to colleges and medical 1 The general appreciation of this service may, per- haps, be suggested by the following quotations from the many letters, which have been received in regard to it, from representative bacteriologists. Doctor Dorset, of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, writes, “Your Museum is certainly rendering valuable assist- ance to laboratories by furnishing authentic cultures 300 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL schools which have no facilities for keeping bacterial cultures in condition throughout the year. Even more important however are the facilities which the Museum collec- tion offers to the investigator. Syste- matic bacteriology a decade ago was ina pre-Linnzan stage; but it has developed rapidly in the United States during re- and with so little red tape to be unwound before they can be secured”; Professor Ravenel, of the University of Wisconsin, ““The starting of this department is a great help, not only to us, but, I am sure, to all other teachers in the United States’’; Professor Lipman, of the New Jersey Agricultural College, ‘“‘Such a station will meet a long-felt want”; Professor Lyons, of Har- vard, “Permit me to say that I think your selection of fourteen organisms for teaching purposes is most happy and that they have proved invaluable in our classes”’; Professor Rettger, of Yale, “‘It is a perfect godsend to have an institution like yours furnish one with cultures of all kinds”; Doctor Hill, of the Minnesota State Board of Health, “I think this is a fine thing and should have been done long ago”; Professor Church- man, of Johns Hopkins, “‘Such a bacteriological station as yours will tremendously ease the burden of research work; it will make certain studies possible which would otherwise be out of the question and it will make it possible for bacteriologists to work with standard cultures and so to obtain more accurate results. I think that all those familiar with the facts hail the establishment of your department as an advance of great importance”; Professor Sedgwick, of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, ‘‘I feel sure that you will be glad to know how highly we biologists with bacteriological leanings value and appreciate this generous scientific service on your part.” cent years; and scarcely a paper upon bacterial classification can be found in which the types sent out from the American Museum do not play a pri- mary part. The museum of living bacteria does not however, exist solely for the purpose of aiding other investigators. The cura- tor of the department of public health of the American Museum is chairman of the committee on classification of the Society of American Bacteriologists, and in this connection Dr. Kligler and the other assistants have been steadily at work on the systematic relationships of various groups of bacteria (at present, the group to which the typhoid germ belongs). We expect to make a report on a revision of bacterial genera at the- New Haven meeting of the Society next fall. It is hoped that by attacking group after group the whole family of the bacteria, which has presented so difficult a problem in the past, may be mapped out and brought together in a work which shall be as fundamental as the contributions of the American Mu- seum to systematic biology in other fields. t j : Decorative Value of American Indian Art By ESTHER A. COSTER With an Introduction by Mr. Walter Scott Perry, Director, School of Fine and Applied Arts, Pratt Institute With illustrations from photographs of china decorated by the author Inrropuction: — The art of the American Indians, exhibited in the very remarkable collection in the American Museum of Natural History, furnishes valuable lessons in the fundamental elements of design. These primitive craftsmen felt the principles of design intuitively. Religious symbolism furnished an infinitude of motives. Their art was a means of communicating their emotions, and in it they expressed the characteristics of their race. The first impulse was to produce an article for use and that impulse gave expression to an object which was made beautiful by a creative idea. The decoration of a useful object was always made subservient to the purpose, and refinement of line and beauty of form thus developed with elimination of the unessential. The love of the craftsman for his work so permeates the design that it awakens in the student an enthusiastic response, and stimulates the constructive imagination and creative impulse. The American Indians possessed a remarkable appreciation for fine space and mass rela- tion, and as a race were characterized by great refinement of feeling and deep religious convic- tion. The fact that there is a sincerity of purpose underlying every line and motive give their designs a significance that is inspiring im a study of their craft. Beautiful forms common in nature were drawn upon with remarkable skill in selection and adaptation. In fact, nature was the primal source of their art inspiration. Herein lies the suggestive thought for the designer of today. Their motives are always simple, direct, spontaneous, and therefore vital. They are imbued with life and movement. Remarkable versatility is shown in the use of the limited amount of material at their command. By working out the designs in the material itself, they preserved the organic structure of the design and displayed wonderful ingenuity in developing their motives in restricted areas. The Indian designs are illustrative of principles that lie at the foundation of all design. Repetition, symmetry, rhythm, straight and curved line arrangements, light and dark, space relations, color values, are carefully related and produce patterns of simple beauty and artistic merit. The straight-line pattern was the most commonly used, being especially adapted to borders and forming the decoration on wearing apparel, pottery, utensils, and objects relating directly to their everyday life. To the Indian, stability and strength were qualities that stood for superiority of type, and these elements are characteristic of their art expression. The ele- mental forces — fire, air, and water — were expressed in a well-ordered symbolism. Each beautiful ornament is derived, whether intentionally or unintentionally, from some constant natural form which has made its appeal as a divine creation. Wa rer Scott PERRY motives to the modern crafts. As from ~ all primitive art, it is necessary to Perc. few people, even among art students, have any adequate realization of the wealth of material which awaits the seeker for new ideas in the American Indian collection of the American Mu- seum of Natural History. Too many visitors look upon the Indian exhibits as curious and interesting without appre- ciating the possibilities of adapting the choose the best, but the simplicity and directness of expression, even where the execution is crude, hold many valuable lessons for present-day designers. _The Indians drew their inspiration directly from nature, using familiar forms but interpreting them in so simple a fashion that the resulting motive be- : 301 302 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL came a true art expression. The favorite mode of decoration was the border, which appears in great variety. Most of the surface coverings, except those of the Alaskan tribes, are really a combination or repetition of borders. These designs are mostly arranged in straight lines, the weaving of beads, fiber, or grass, making this style of ornament necessary. The Iroquois sewed the beads on to the material and so could use the scroll in their designs. In all these Indian de- signs the units are well planned, well spaced, and wonderfully accurate in execution. Sometimes a single motive was used as = ca A a & a * a | z: ie af wi ie } t ry | | » alin 4 o “ , oy A Lad Age [ * | y my a SX be oy ae h is | se \ le By M § | iv J é | 4) The Indian made every object for use but always Put into its construction original ideas of decoration in both design and color. This folding raw-hide bag made by the Hidatsa-Mandan, is decorated with a design of straight and curved lines, and in shades of green, orange, black, brown and blue decoration, many of these being very beautiful in shape and each symbolic of a natural form. In a few cases a num- ber of units, usually differing from one another, were scattered irregularly over a surface, but so far as I have observed, the Indians did not use a repeating pattern as in our own fabrics and wall papers. The Alaskan tribes covered the whole surface with motives set closely together, but these were irregular in shape so did not follow any definite rules of surface design. The Pueblo pottery and baskets are often fairly well covered with decoration, but the design is more in the form of a rosette or wide border. The rosette was much used, both as a decorative motive by itself and elabo- rated to cover a surface. The painted skin robe in the Dakota collection is a wonderful example of the rosette form. The proportion of the different sections of the design is subtle, and shows an appreciation of rhythm and symmetry. The color also is especially fine in this example. The decorative rosettes of beads or colored quills are of interest from the skillful arrangement in them of lines and spaces. . In pointing out practical steps toward utilizing the Indian exhibits, it will be easier to consider the several classes of craftsmen and the especial needs of each. First, the needleworker: For cross stitch embroidery or crocheting, there are hundreds of designs that can be copied without any change except the choosing of colors suitable for the work. The woven bead patterns are the simplest to copy. All the Eastern and Plains tribes have fine examples. For more elaborate work in a different style the bead pat- terns in flower motives will be found effective, and are suggestive of Persian brocade patterns,» but simpler in line. The straight line animal forms of the (a oe Design reproduced from that on Hidatsa-Mandan skin bag (see preceding page), in rich and contrasting although subdued coloring. The simplicity and directness in Indian design hold many valuable lessons for present- day designers, and painted skin bags and robes provide unusually inspiring motives for modern work, especially perhaps for the worker in leather and various fabrics. ‘The American Museum offers a vast wealth of material in Indian decoration for the student of modern design 4 ae Sauk and Fox would be fascinating for “glorified patchwork,” the silk appliqué nursery linen, and are similar in charac- of the Menominee Indians, although ter to the well-known Coptic embroid- rather crude in execution, will be most eries. To the worker in appliqué, or suggestive. The embroidery of the Hopi 303 Sugar bowl decorated with motive found on a beaded belt made by the Sarsi Indians. Much of Indian design uses only the straight line which was best adapted to work in weaving with beads, fiber and grass and Zuii tribes is very different from the usual work of today, but with its well- planned motives, its simplicity of treat- ment, and its interesting stitches, it is an inspiration to the earnest student. For the worker in leather, or other fabrics to which ornament is applied, the bead decorations will give many ideas for design but the quality of line may need to be modified to suit the medium The painted skin bags and robes will be most in- spiring for this work. The simplicity of the motives and the interesting method of application will be a revelation to the student unfamiliar with Indian art. The effect of the foundation showing through the rather thin color gives a transparency of expression. An embroidered blanket of the Hopi Indians furnished the match box design, and that of the from a large two-handled water vessel of the Pima tribe. pepper pot came The reproductions unfortunately do not show the colors of either object or design, which play so strong a part in the whole artistic result 304 DECORATIVE VALUE OF AMERICAN INDIAN ART that is far more artistic than the hard solid color applied to so much of our modern fabrics. The effect is much more like block printing, although there is no evidence that the Indians were The black 9) familiar with that process. is a peculiarly attractive tone, “rusty describing it as nearly as words can. It has a much softer effect than our com- mercial black and is well worth copying. The white is a dull gray white which is beautiful to look at but most difficult to duplicate. The preponderance of these two colors harmonizes the variety of bright colors used in Indian designs. The patterns shown in the Indian weaving, whatever the material, are wonderfully suggestive to the designer of textiles. There is not the variety of motive found in the Persian and Italian textiles but there are strength, simplicity, and fine proportion. The texture of the fabric itself, especially the best of the Navajo blankets, makes a humiliating contrast with the flimsy weaves of our 305 This design of black spikes upon a bright yellow ground was obtained from a Pawnee skin coat, deco- rated with quill bands on the shoulders and down the front modern looms. Some of the coarser weaves shown in the bags of the Wood- land tribes, would be well adapted to materials for bungalow furnishings. The woven bead bands give many suggestions The design represented on the cup and saucer was taken from a beaded bag of the Plains-Cree. Indian art is full of suggestions for the modern craftsman, whether he be a needleworker,- worker in leather, in metal, in kera- mics or pottery, or a designer of textiles 306 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL for patterns which may be borrowed entire, and could be used for rugs, or even for dress trimmings. For the worker in metals, the decora- This elaborate all-over design on a tall candlestick was originated by the Tlingit Indians for a painted paddle. In the adaptation of Indian design to mod- ern art, suitability to the new material and medium . . * and to the size, shape and use of the article’must be considered tive rosettes will be especially helpful. The craftsman must consider the limita- tions of his medium, but many of the rosettes offer beautiful shapes for jewelry. The well-spaced lines of the motive insure an interesting design without further ornament, which is not always true of commercial jewelry. The at- tempt to cover poor design by adding jewels, which in themselves are always beautiful, is a pitiful display of ineffi- ciency. The Indian pottery is often crude in execution, but the shapes are wonderfully well conceived. The sim- plicity of form is well worth studying, and for the worker who models his own shapes there are many suggestions. There are comparatively few examples with handles, but the pieces, especially the bowls, are well proportioned and show a subtle feeling for curvature. For the keramic worker there are absolutely limitless possibilities. For the potter there are suggestions both for shapes and decoration. The use of natural clay with the decoration in soft dull colors might open up a new field. The pottery workers have developed wonderful glazes and colors, but a careful study of the Pueblo pottery will reveal a beauty in the simpler method. The decorations are often remarkably well planned and the fret ornament of the Utah tribes is as beautiful as the Greek, although not as good in technique. The Zuni designs are more in accord with modern lines of thought, and show a freedom of handling that is refreshing compared with some of the over- decorated commercial pottery. The In- dian motives lend themselves especially well to tiles for walls, floors, or mantels. Some of the woven patterns could be reproduced for floor tiles with artistic effect. In selecting designs for any craft, a few general principles must be followed, a Very large china tray, with design in red and blue adapted from the decoration on a painted robe of buffalo hide made by the Dakota Indians. The rosette was much used by the Indian, showing unconscious appreciation of rhythm and symmetry in design, and is one of the many instances where he took his motive direct from nature which may be classified as follows: First, the artistic value of the original example; second, the suitability of the design to the material and medium to be used; third, the suitability of the design to the size, shape, and use of the article to be decorated; and fourth, the addition of the personal element in the adaptation of the design. If these principles are rigidly followed the Museum exhibits will prove of in- estimable value, and will open the way for the development of a truly American art expression. In adapting Indian motives the primi- tive spirit must be retained or the result will be a disappointment; but a rever- sion to the simplicity and free expression of Indian art is what modern craftsmen most need to counteract the tendency to over decoration, mechanical technique, and lack of individuality. 307 80 pesoiog useq Ajqeqoid sey pue oFeqouulA, oY) UI se sieodde UOIeIO09p Jo a[k}8 oUTeS ayy 0k “qUO1j UI UIeas OU 910 Jo1041 YIM govtid ouO ur Joddn oy} pue ojos oyeredes opryMer v OALY ‘SUISeODOUE OYEdEIY ‘sI0qIO OM) ey], “UreaS B SOPIy UOT}EI00ep qyuo1y 94} pue void 9UO UI afos pue do} epeur st yje] OY} 38 UIsBODOM OSeqouUTM EY, “AryUNOD VY} I9AO 9H} 0} Oqi1} WO1y poyeisiur sojkjs snoleA oy} MOY syeoAod deur e YIM Apnys pue ‘pastasp usez}ed Jepnorjsed of} UL APDeITp BSOIe UOLe1ODVp PUB UFIsop oy} MOY SMOYS JIqIyxXe oy} Jo Apnjs y (‘s99puter JO Noqreo jo suloy 94} Ul ATUO PUNO; SI UISeODOUE ayy) ~“SetzyUNOD aioq}iou Wor SuoUMIOVds sdk} pospuNy [eIVAS SMOYS JIqIYXo MoU OY} PUL ‘P]IOM oy} aI UOTNYYsUI Aue Jo UOT}aT[OO UTseOv0UT ysesuey ey} Sey Wmasnyy ueoLIeUry oy], SNVIGNI OHVdVYV GNV ODVE4ANNIM SHL 4O SNISVOOOW AN : < z Nt : fi, i re ip HH (nseceayate aitinea gi He Moccasin Exhibit in the American Museum By CLARK WISSLER SPECIAL moccasin exhibit has been placed in the center of the Eastern Woodland Indian hall of the Museum. Two points are shown by it: the principal moccasin patterns and their distribution, and also the rela- tion between the style of decoration and the structure, or cut. This is not offered as an exhaustive treatment of the sub- ject, but as an introductory guide to the study of footwear in general as shown in all parts of this and the adjoining halls. As far as we know, this Museum has the most extensive moccasin collection in the world. From many tribes we have in our storage collections large series presenting all the varieties of pattern and decoration. From these many hundred examples, type specimens were selected for our exhibition halls, where they give an adequate exposition of the primitive skin shoe. The regular Museum visitor will find oS : ; : . The true moccasin is usually made from a single these moccasins an interesting subject piece as shown in this undecorated baby’s moccasin of forstudy. As the collectionsin our halls %t deerskin. This moccasin was cut after the pattern sche shown at left below. The most skillful maker cannot show, the true moccasin is almost con- avoid a somewhat unsightly puckering at the sides of fined to Canada and the upper two-thirds the seam of the United States. In Mexico and southward into South America, it does Siberia and even in the European Lap- not occur so far as our data go. In land, we find a similar skin shoe or boot, One-piece moccasin patterns. The flaps of the left-hand moccasin are additions to the pattern, and in the right-hand one the seam is carried over the toe to avoid puckers. Decorations on the front of the moccasin were evidently originally designed by the Indians to cover the seam 309 ore PTF GOUBP SURO a}IYM | ay} “BJOINe ay} JO} jOquIAS sjooyyoR|g ay} SI UIseODOUL STY} UO UFISep oy} UT *(1Je[ Fe UISeDOUT) SIOqYsiou Mey? JO aIAIS ey} Jo UONVeIUE UL YoYed poedeys-—) poyesooep & uO Suryyjnd jo ayqno2 ayy 0} OF Aoqy qoXk “qaosut pedeys-() OU YIM snyy ‘(Z[¢g esed UO 4YSII Ye UsJO}Ved Jo} Je) doy gooId-9u0 YJOoUIS pue 9jOS o}eIedos B YIIM UTsSRODOUT B savy ‘Seqiiy eseyy JO YyNos ‘suerpuy Jooyyoesg ey, “UISkODOU o[PPIUL 9Y1 UL UMOYS SB YIO[OPeOIG JO JOATOA YIM JJOSUT SIY] BULIBAOCD JO WOISND VY} PEMOT[OJ Vaey SuLIpuy oy) Shep epesy G0UIG “URIS PaAINO B YIM qJasUT podeys-() oy} Ul JurMas ‘71g eFed Uo 4 jo] Ve UsO}Ved WOT BpeUT “UISeOdOUT QooId-OM} B OSN BpeUBL U19}SeA\ PUL Avg UOSpNy JO suLIpU] “pus VATyesOVep B YNq GUOU Soares YI MSY pasn eq 0} sonurjuo09 pue JusueULIed smOveq sey ‘esodind [eloeds B 9A 0} poeusisep ATPUISIIO ‘UOT}eIOVep JO B]Aqs ve YOIYM UT SeoUBysUT KUBUT ystuiny S}ueues ueIpuy LOOsMOVIE AHL AG GaldOO AVE NOSGNH 4O 37TALS 3HL ITs 9ATJOUL VY} 3S9FSNS 0} J1oSuT OU Suraey Ysnoylye ‘UFIsop Ie[LUMIS B UT OFULIY SOUUTIOL uol}e1009p JO VUTYOS STU, -uoumo0ds o[pprur oy} Ul se papeeq ose sdeysed pue AJOA B JO UOTIOSUI OY} IOJ soptaoid soddn oy} Ul Ws Y “efOS prey & OF potyors}e XNOIS GNV AHOVdY JHL 4O SNISVOOOW 0s pue speoq pue jured osn Koy} pue ‘eyoedy ey} Jo YOU OAT] OY XNOIS 9} 0} poyeodde sey JOT OY 7B UIsedOOUI UT SB pesutIy UeyjO pue poyured Aypesoues st yorym ‘good podeys-A MoieU soddn goard-ouo & jo Zurystsuoo (gTg eFed Uo UMOYS) useyjed ulseo00ur & 9ABY oyORdyY ot], étititin ches 2 : peaked sf TE Eterts55*e,? » "a? ee* oF fe ( oa*s. me Lt *' * wee st ‘ * Uitte: 7) ‘ 9 te 7 - BT TT aH eee s © The moccasin at the right is made after the right-hand one-piece pattern on page 309 (although the puckering is carried over the toe and under the foot to leave the top smooth), and the fringe and beaded border cover the seam. The Sioux moccasin on the left has a separate sole with a single-piece upper and consequently no seam in the midline on top, notwithstanding which its maker has utilized the beaded border and middle fringe idea of decoration At the left, pattern for moccasin with U-shaped insert, used by tribes around Hudson Bay and in Western Canada. At the right a Blackfoot pattern to be sewed on to a sole. This may be given a separate U-shaped decoration like a false insert, in imitation of the other 312 MOCCASIN EXHIBIT IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM and if we consider the whole of the Old World we find the leather shoe and boot strictly confined to the northern part as . was the case in the New World. In both hemispheres, sandals are found among the peoples next south of the shoe wearers, and still farther south, in Africa, Australia, and lower South America, barefooted peoples are found. In the New World the area of the moccasin is also the area of skin clothing, while the area of the sandal is where woven cloth prevailed. Practically the same relation obtains in the Old World. This curious parallel has been remarked upon many times as due to climatic differences, skins being indispensable in the far north and unendurable in the south. Yet, this can scarcely be the whole story, for leather shoes are far from being a burden in warm countries. The probabilities are that the absence of leather or skin footwear in aboriginal textile areas is due to the difficulty of maintaining textile and skin dressing arts simultaneously. We must remem- ber that it is but yesterday since cloth was essentially homemade by the house- wife and if we go back still further, so ~ was the dressing of skins. But nowhere in the world of uncivilized peoples do we find the women extensively carrying on weaving and skin work simultaneously to an equal degree. One or the other predominates. There was no doubt a limit to the trades a woman could master and since there was nothing like modern division of labor, only the one of these arts best adapted to the climate would prevail. So when a people came to be wearers of textile clothing, they would not make skin or leather shoes. While the moccasins of our Indians appear to the casual observer as of great variety, a little analysis will show a few common structural features. Among these are the manner of tucking in the 313 er Pattern for Apache moccasin, with sole separate as in a shoe. The upper is cut nearly its whole length to receive a narrow V-shaped insert, which is usually painted as well as decorated at its edges with fringe and beads. surplus skin over the instep and the method of lacing. Now these same features are found in Siberia, and defi- nitely raise the question as to one having been borrowed from the other. Since the skin-shoe-wearing natives of Siberia were in contact with the natives of Alaska, there is no good argument against their common origin. The most natural explanation of the observed similarity would be that this type of shoe was perfected in one place and from thence distributed as we now find it. A careful comparison of the shoes in our collections will suggest the direction in which they traveled. A point of more general significance may appear if we consider the kinds of skins used for clothing. The predomi- nant kind is reindeer in the Old World and caribou in the New, two closely allied species. If we take an outline map of the world and indicate the re- spective ranges of these animals, we shall have in the main the area of skin clothing. It thus turns out that the skin shoe is a correlate of reindeer cul- ture; a suggestion that will no doubt 314 offer new problems to the investigating visitor. The decorations found upon footwear present even more interesting problems, for we see from the exhibit that certain styles and even designs had their origin in the structure of the moccasins, but that when over-developed they were borrowed by people using other patterns. We are thus able to discover how certain decorations were devised and also to trace their migration over the continent. For example, the true moccasin is usually made of a single piece of skin as shown in the baby’s moccasin figured on page 309, the pattern for which is shown below it at the left. The shaping of the piece to the foot results in a puckered seam down the top of the moccasin, which is inclined to be unsightly even at the hands of the most skillful seam- stress. It is not strange therefore that one finds this part of the foot overlaid by a piece of beaded skin (see page 308). Such an ornamental patch will conceal all the unsightly lines and give a fine field for decorative design. In the east- ern part of the United States where this pattern of moccasin was prevalent, such an overlay is frequently seen, but farther west in the Plains we find moccasins made in a different way, yet some of them bear a band down over the foot as if they were also hiding seams beneath, whereas in fact there is no seam whatever. A slight variation of pattern is shown at the right in the figure on page 312 where the seam is carried over the toe and under the foot. The point here is that a smooth seam is secured without the puckered effect. The decorations can now be a narrow band along the seam, but usually a fringe is added. To the left is a Sioux moccasin, the upper of which has no such seam, yet upon it is sewed a fringe with a beaded border, giving the same effect. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Another type of moccasin’ found around Hudson Bay and westward in Canada is shown on page 310. Its pat- tern is indicated at the left of the figure on page 312, a single piece of skin being so folded as to cover the foot just over the instep, where a U-shaped insert is placed. The sewing in of this insert results in a bold curved seam. The decoration is placed along this seam and on the U-shaped insert. Since trade days it has been customary to overlay this insert with broadcloth or velvet, as shown in the moccasin in the middle. Just south of the Indians using this style live the Blackfoot who use a moceasin with a separate sole and the upper in one piece as shown in the pattern at the right on page 312. They decorate this one-piece upper however, as if it had the. U-shaped insert, as shown in the left- hand moccasin. It is clear that the intent is to make their moccasins appear like those of their northern neighbors. Still another example may be cited. On page 313 we see the pattern for the Apache. This moccasin has a sole like a shoe, but the upper is split almost to the toe and a long narrow insert sewed there. Just what may be the purpose of this is not clear but it determines a style of decoration. The insert is painted and fringed at one side as shown at the left — on page 311. North of the tribes using this pattern are the Sioux and Cheyenne, who frequently adorn their footwear as at the right. This moccasin has no insert but the beaded bands are in place and the space between them painted. The point in all this is that these styles of decoration first developed not out of nothing but as correlates of the structural pattern. They first served some real use, but once established as styles, were carried over to footwear of other patterns where they serve no function of the structure. Sea Cows, Past and Present By FREDERIC A. LUCAS UST why the manatee, the first sirenian known to Europeans, should have been called a “sea cow” (Vacca marina) is hard to say; possibly because its flesh resembled beef, certainly not because its form was in any way like that of a cow. It has also been suggested that it received this appella- tion on account of the style of its teeth, the character of its food, and its manner of browsing on water plants. There was a belief with many that everything on land had its counterpart caught glimpses of the round head of a dugong peering above the waves, or perhaps saw a mother with her baby tucked under her arm, they not unnatu- rally thought of them as having some human attributes. Thus, from saying that they looked like men, it was a short step to saying that they were men. A seal does not look much like a man, and yet anyone who has seen a seal’s head bobbing above the waves will know how strong, under these conditions, is the or analogue in the sea, and when one is looking for re- semblances, they are gener- ally to be found. Thus, the ordinary seals were sea wolves; the fur seals, sea bears; while other animals did duty as sea dogs, sea horses, and sea elephants. At first sight one would hardly think of the chunky clumsy sea cows as in any way connected with myth or fable, or as having con- tributed aught of interest to the pages of history. Yet for a family numbering so few members, and those of retiring hab- its, there is — save the elephants which naturally could not be overlooked — no group of animals so often mentioned in myth and history. In the first place the dugong, the sea cow of the Red Sea and African coast, has a good claim to be considered the original mermaid. True it does not look the part, when seen too near; but when the Arab traders cruising down the Red Sea, or on their way to Madagascar, This figure of the manatee occurs in Oviedo’s History of the Indies, 1535, and is the earliest known representation of the sea cow. One species of manatee inhabits the rivers of western Africa, another those of northern and eastern South America and parts of Florida resemblance of the seal to a human being. A little imagination is a great help in “seeing things” and the creation of the mermaid would seem to lie be- tween seal and sea cow, Norseman and Arab — with the odds in favor of the sea ~eow, since the seal was already bespoken for the sea wolf. Another claim to distinction possessed by the dugong is that its hide is believed to have been that used by the Israelites to cover the Ark of the Covenant, the 315 316 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL word usually translated “badger,” really meaning some kind of a sea beast, a fact — or belief — embodied in its scien- tific name Halicore tabernacult. An incidental point of interest about one of the sea cows found in the rivers of northern South America is that its flesh might be eaten on fast days, as it was considered by the Catholic Fathers to be a fish. This lack of zodlogical knowledge is hardly to be wondered at; we are all apt to judge by appearances, and (with apologies to Pliny and Aris- totle) systematic zodlogy was an un- tropical waters, dwelling in the icy seas around the bleak shores of a barren island; another illustration, like that of the mammoth, of the danger of con- cluding, because a group of creatures is now found in warm regions, that all of its kind have lived there. When Bering, in 1741, discovered the island now bearing his name, he hap- pened upon one of the abiding places of the fur seal and also discovered the rytina. It was made known to the reading world by Kipling in his story of Kotik the White Seal, which is as Dugong, or sea cow of the African coast and Red Sea. or manatee, and it has two tusks deeply imbedded in the skull. The bones of all sea cows are extremely dense, their weight serving the purpose of the ballast tanks of a submarine, enabling the animal to browse readily on aquatic plants. The skeleton is lightest in the seagoing dugong, but even in this species the bones are heavy com- pared with those of land animals. [From photograph of dugong model, seven feet in length, in the American Museum) known science in the days when the code was drawn up, and even today we are called upon to tell the position of the bat and explain why a porpoise is not a fish. Perhaps the most interesting as well as the largest member of the sea cow family, is the great Arctic sea cow, or rytina, once found about Bering and Copper islands off the coast of Kamtchatka. This species is the léast known — be- cause it was long ago “ eaten off the face of the earth by gluttonous man.” Strange it is to find the largest members of a family whose natural home is in Its skin is smooth and leathery, unlike that of the rytina good as a story as it is poor as natural history. There is this compensation however — had it been truer to nature, David Starr Jordan would not have written Matka and Kotik.' At the time Bering discovered the Arctic sea cow, Alaska was the source of a most important fur trade, due largely to the then abundance of the valuable sea otter, and thither sailed the Russians from Petropavlosk. Provisioning the 1 Malke and Kotik.— A Slory of the Mist Islands, A charming tale written by Dr. Jordan in order to show that it is possible to combine accurate natural history with literature. SEA COWS, PAST AND PRESENT 317 vessels was none too easy a matter and salt beef was especially difficult to pro- cure; so when the rytina was found and proved to be most excellent beef, the fur traders stopped at Bering Island on their way to our Northwest Coast to lay in a store of salt rytina. Unhappily ‘the supply of rytinas was limited, owing to the limited number of proper feeding grounds, and so before many ‘years the animal was eaten out of existence. Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, who passed two years on Bering Island, during which time he gathered many valuable tom of the old cartographers, decorated his chart of Kamtchatka with figures of the sea lion, fur seal, and rytina. But for this we should be in doubt as to the tail fin of the animal, since Steller’s description is far from clear; also we might wonder if Steller was correct in saying that there were no finger bones in the paddle,: since other members of the family have them. Scientifically, the sea cows are inter- esting because they afford one of the instances where a theoretical ancestor has duly materialized. All aquatic mam- The great Arctic sea cow or rytina (see right of picture) discovered by Bering in 1741, was the largest member of the sea cow family, and once abundant about Bering and Copper islands off the coast of Kamtchatka. It is now extinct, having been hunted for its flesh which resembled beef. Our only figures of the animal are these on the chart of Kamtchatka made by Lieutenant Waxell of Bering’s party. The creature is said to have been so helpless that it was rolled about by the surf and banged against the shore, and its hide — no doubt for protection — resembled bark and was so thick that it was hewn off with axes sea cow skeletons, estimates that at best there could not have been more than two thousand individuals. For our knowledge of the rytina and its habits, we are indebted to Steller, the surgeon of Bering’s party, an en- thusiastic naturalist, who in the midst of starvation, disease, and death, care- fully studied and recorded the habits of the animals of Bering Island. Our only figures of this extinct animal are those made by Lieutenant Waxell, of Bering’s party, who, following the cus- mals, seals, sea cows, and whales, are believed to be descended from. four- footed, land-dwelling forms, whose re- mains are imbedded somewhere in the rocks. So far none of these hypotheti- cal beasts has come’ to light and the paleontologist is compelled to fall back on the “imperfection of the palseonto- logic record.” The fact is we really know little of what lies buried in the rocky tombs of the past, and not only have we no continuous record of the life of other days, but also only rarely 318 do we get even so much as a connected chapter, most of our knowledge being based on scattered pages or odd _ sen- tences torn here and there from the book of time. Anyone who has seen a fur seal in his native haunts has no difficulty in believ- ing him to be descended from some bearlike beast; but it seems a far cry from a sea cow, or a fishlike porpoise, to any land-frequenting quadruped, and the best evidence we have so far lies in the traces of the hip bones and small vestiges of the limbs, which, though buried in the body, still lie where they should if they are the representatives of former limbs. It would of course be one link in the chain, one step toward a four-footed animal, if we could find a four-paddled porpoise, but none has yet come to light, and here is where the sea cow comes for- ward with an important bit of evidence. When palontologists were hunting in the Fayum, Egypt, for ancestors of existing elephants, they came upon remains of a manatee, not unlike those of today, save that it possessed four well-developed paddles; and _ because it was so evidently the predecessor of the modern sea cows, it was named Eosiren. Today the sea cows are a scattered race; one species of manatee inhabits the rivers of western Africa, another those of northern and eastern South America and parts of Florida. One du- gong occurs on the east coast of Africa and in the Red Sea, while a near relative is found on the northern coast of Aus- tralia where it is hunted for its oil. Those interested in sea cows from a zoological standpoint will find that they display considerable diversity both ex- ternally and internally. Thus, the du- gong is clad in a smooth leathery skin; the hide of the manatee suggests that of THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL an elephant, while the covering of the rytina is said by Steller to have re- sembled bark, being so thick that it was hewn off with axes. Steller also says that the creature was so helpless that it was rolled about by the surf and banged against the shore, so it would seem that such a hide was a necessary protection. The dugong has a broad forked tail, not unlike that of the porpoise, while the tail of the manatee is rounded. The rytina was absolutely toothless, while the manatee has, during its life- time, a series of eleven teeth on either side of each jaw, and these are replaced from behind, as in elephants, and not from below, as in the vast majority of mammals. The dugong has two tusks so deeply imbedded in the skull. (which is bent sharply downward in front) that they seem of little practical use. In one particular all known sea cows agree; their bones are extremely dense, being almost ivory-like in texture in our own manatee. In this species too, the ribs reach their maximum size, being so large as almost to touch one another, with the result that the skeleton is extremely heavy. This weight of bone is believed to serve the same purpose as the ballast tanks of a submarine and to enable the animal to browse readily on aquatic plants. The skeleton is lightest in the sea-going dugong, though even in this species the bones are heavy in comparison with those of land ani- mals. The lungs, in the manatee at least, are long and narrow, and though of small capacity suffice to keep the animal afloat so that the nostrils are just above water. Aside from these more appar- ent characters, there are peculiarities of heart, backbone and hip bones which are of more interest to the anatomist than to the average observer. ‘Men ei the Old Stone Age” By G. ELLIOT SMITH Professor of Anatomy and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Manchester, England T is only sixty-eight years since there | first came to light a skull that can be called really old in the geological sense. Lieutenant Flint, of the Royal Artillery, found this historic specimen in the Forbes Quarry at Gibraltar in 1848, and presented it to the Gibraltar Scientific Society; but it was not until 1862 when Mr. Busk saw it that any special importance came to be attached to it; and it was then transferred to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in England. But, in the meantime, Dr. Fuhlrott in 1857 recovered from a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, the fragments of a human skeleton of like age, including the upper part of a skull whose more obtrusive features, no less than the fact that it came at once into the hands of a competent anatomist, rivetted attention upon it as the relic of a hitherto unknown type of humanity. From the moment when this anatomist (Professor Schaafhausen) claimed that ‘‘the extraordi- nary form of the skull was due to a natural conformation hitherto not known to exist, -even in the most barbarous races’”’ and that the ‘‘human relics were traceable to a period at which the latest animals of the diluvium still existed,’ a lively controversy was started, and, with the addition of the highly inflammable material supplied by the appear- ance of Charles Darwin’s classical work, developed into a great conflagration. As Huxley remarked, many years afterward;— “Tt was suggested that the Neanderthal skele- ton was that of a strayed idiot; that the characters of the skull were the result of early synostosis or of late gout; and, in fact, any stick was good enough to beat the dog withal.” Since then many more remains of a variety of ancient types of mankind have come to light, as well as a great deal of information relating to early human handiwork and achievements, the animals which these men of the Old Stone age hunted, and the conditions under which they lived. Almost every new discovery has started afresh such disputes as followed the finding of the Neanderthal skull; and history has repeated itself with remarkable consistency. For these discussions have invariably fol- lowed closely the lines so crisply described by Huxley in the case of the Neanderthal skull. Long before the discovery of these actual fragments of the man of the Old Stone age, archeologists had become aware of his former existence by finding implements of human workmanship in caves and in ancient gravels, often in association with the bones of extinct mammals. But it was not until the year 1887 that the Belgian scientists, Frai- pont and Lohest, made the discovery, one of the most important and fundamental in the whole history of the growth of our knowledge of early man, that the Neanderthal people were the makers of the type of stone imple- ments which are now called Mousterian, and that they were contemporaneous with the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave bear, and the cave hyena in Western Europe. This clearer vision of Mousterian man (Homo neanderthalensis) in his natural sur- roundings stimulated further enquiries; and as the result of a long series of remarkable discoveries, no less than of the intensive investigation of the known material, espe- cially by Schwalbe and Boule among many others, we now have a surprisingly full view of the physical characters and the achieve- ments of this peculiarly distinctive type of humanity, which occupied Europe many _thousands of years (Professor Osborn be- lieves more than twenty-five millennia) ago. The information that has been accumu- lating has illuminated not merely the Mous- terian phase of industry and Neanderthal man, but has revealed also a long succession of later cultural phases and waves of varying types of humanity, all of which, however, differ from the men of the Lower Palolithic age in conforming much more nearly to the modern type. The last twenty-two years have also brought to light the fragments of three di- vergent and much more primitive types of humanity, the genus Pithecanthropus, found in Java in 1894 by Dubois; the Heidelberg 319 320 jaw found in the Mauer sands by Schoeten- sack in 1908, which I am inclined to follow Bonarelli in regarding as the remains of a special genus, Palewanthropus; and the genus Eoanthropus found by Dawson near Piltdown in England in 1912. The small fragments of these three most primitive members of the human family afford us tantalizingly imperfect glimpses of man in the making, and have not unnaturally supplied the material for some of the most lively controversies in the whole history of anthropology. There are still wide diver- gencies of opinion in respect to almost every aspect of the problems raised for discussion by these relics. Recent years have witnessed the extinc- tion of the bitter animosities which, in the sixties and seventies of last century, were inevitably excited by the mere suggestion that man was descended from the apes. The fact of man’s descent is no longer ques- tioned, but the intense theological emotions of fifty years ago have now given place to profound differences of opinion concerning the interpretation of the details of the techni- cal evidence as to how man and human insti- tutions were evolved. Every human frag- ment and scrap of man’s handiwork that has been preserved to us from the Old Stone age has become a nucleus around which the liveli- est discussions have centered. The anato- mist who investigates the features of the hu- man remains, the archeologist who explains the significance of the implements and culture, the zodlogist and paleontologist who deal with the associated fauna, and the geologist who interprets the circumstances under which the remains are found, all take their share in these discussions; and as the conclusion arrived at by each of these investigators has an intimate bearing upon the results obtained by workers in the other fields, there is ample scope for differences of opinion to arise. Per- haps the most difficult problems of all are those which have been raised by the attempts to determine the changes of temperature and climate and the comings and goings of the various mammals, and to associate them with man in the different stages of his chequered career in Europe. During the last forty years many books have been written in Europe to expound and interpret these highly complex problems; and during recent years the growth of interest in such questions has been shown by a great THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL increase in the number of such works, in England, France, Italy, Germany and else- where. Incidentally this has revealed wide discrepancies in the interpretations of the facts by different writers, which in many cases no doubt have been due to the particu- lar angle from which the observer has viewed the evidence, whether it has been from the standpoint of the anatomist, the archzeolo- gist, the paleontologist or the zodlogist, respectively, but perhaps even more to the influence of the individual circumstances of each writer. To those of us who have been involved in this sea of contending factions the news that — Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn was pre- paring a comprehensive survey of the whole field of controversy was received with especial — interest and expectation. For not only is Professor Osborn a leading authority on the past history of mammals — a subject which — is so intimately interwoven with the records of the men of the Old Stone age —but also he is a scientist who for many years has taken a broad view of the problems of vertebrate evolution. Moreover, as president of the American Museum of Natural History, he commanded the expert advice of specialists in every one of the multitadinous branches of science that are involved in the study of early man and his achievements. For no one man can possibly speak with authority.upon every aspect of so vast a theme. Expectation was raised by the news that these complex prob- lems were to be dealt with by a competent investigator, who was far removed from the influence of all those factors that tend to warp the judgment of writers living amidst the turmoil and the conflict of opinions in Europe. ' In his ‘Men of the Old Stone Age” Pro- fessor Osborn has given us perhaps the most complete review of all the facts of the case that has appeared in any language within a similar compass. He has dealt very fully with the question of the climatic conditions under which early man lived in Europe; and in his treatment of the problems of the Glacial epoch and of chronology, which are perhaps the most highly controversial of the multitude of thorny topics with which his book deals, he has fallen into line with other American writers and gone the whole way with James Geikie and Penck. In the rest of the book he has dealt equally fully with every aspect of the subject, the history of the discoveries, _ MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE 321 the nature and significance of the human remains and the interpretation of their age, the animals associated with them, and the characteristic features of the implements. Perhaps the outstanding feature of the book is the fulness and excellence of the account of the artistic achievements of the Upper Paleolithic people of France and Spain, which Professor Osborn was able to study in company with the three distinguished authori- ties on this subject to whom the book is dedi- cated. Valuable as such a complete and impartial review of all the evidence is to the student of the problems of the childhood of mankind, it is somewhat of a disappointment that Professor Osborn has paid so much deference to what has been written on this side of the world, and has shown such excessive modesty in refraining from dealing more boldly, and on less conventional lines, with the interpre- tation of the great mass of data he has brought together. For no one is better equipped and more favorably situated than he is for this great work of reading the real meaning of the information now available, and of viewing in broader perspective the story of the Old Stone age. On this side of the world we should like to have had his views also on the question of early man in America, and in fact in the world at large, beyond the limited area of Europe. But, as Professor Osborn has not done all these things, we are none the less grateful for the magnificent volume he has provided. To review a large volume such as ‘‘ Men of the Old Stone Age,” which itself is a con- densed summary of a vast mass of material, is no easy matter. What I propose to do is to pick out of the rich matrix of Professor Osborn’s account the story of man himself, and comment upon certain of its aspects. No human remains have yet come to light which can be referred with certainty to a time earlier than the Pleistocene. There are very definite reasons for including the Javan fossil Pithecanthropus within the human family, but also for regarding it as the most primitive member of that family, not on ‘‘the direct ancestral line of the higher races of men.” Most modern writers assign its age to the early Pleistocene: but Professor Osborn, without definitely denying this possibility, is inclined to agree with Dubois’ original claim that it belongs to the uppermost Pliocene. His reason is that the fossil elephants which occur in Java along with Pithecanthropus are also found twenty-five hundred miles away in the foothills of the Himalayas of India, where they are regarded as of the uppermost Pliocene age. But as allied spe- cies did not arrive in Europe until early Pleistocene times there is the possibility that the animals whose remains have been found in Java, may also not have wandered east before then. In any case a vast interval of time elapsed before the only two other known members of the human family earlier than Mousterian man, died in the neighborhood of Piltdown and Heidelberg respectively. We can only conjecture what was happen- ing to the human family during this enor- mously long period, in which its doings are completely hidden from our gaze. But it is certain that somewhere in Asia or Africa — and it is important to emphasize the fact that Africa north of the Sahara has never been the home of the negro, as Professor Osborn assumes, except sporadically during the last fifty centuries — the parent stock of apelike men, of which Pithecanthropus must be regarded as an offshoot, aberrant alike in structure and habitat, was working out its own salvation, and from time to time budding off colonies of which the Piltdown and Heidelberg genera and the ancestors of the Neanderthal and sapiens species are alone known to us. Dr. Smith Woodward and most of the British geologists, estimate the age of the Piltdown skull as almost, if not quite, as great as that of the Heidelberg jaw. But Professor Osborn regards the latter not only as defi- nitely older, but even as much as twice as old, while Pithecanthropus is four times as ancient! This remarkable conclusion is based upon the statement that ‘as the Pilt- down man was found in deposits containing pre-Chellean implements, he probably lived in the last quarter of the Glacial epoch, (not older than the Third Interglacial age) and not in early Pleistocene times as esti- mated by some British geologists,’ whereas ‘all authorities agree that the jaw of Heidel- berg is probably of Second Interglacial age.”’ But whether or not there is this wide dis- crepancy between the ages of the Piltdown and Heidelberg remains, there is no doubt that they represent distinct genera; and in my opinion the former is definitely more primitive and simian than the latter. It must notbe forgotten that the Piltdown 322 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL brain-case is the only representative of a pre- Mousterian human skull known to us, except- ing only that of the more primitive and aber- rant Pithecanthropus; and, in spite of its obtrusively human features, in certain re- spects it is much more primitive and apelike than any other known skull. There has been a vast amount of controversy as to how the real form of this cranium should be recon- structed from the broken fragments that were recovered. Although no two recon- structions that have been made are quite identical, the defi- nite anatomical details clearly dis- cernible on the fragments leave no room for any doubt as to the general form of the skull, and af- ford no warrant for certain gro- tesque ‘‘restora- tions’’ which were exhibited in 1913. It is satisfactory to note that Pro- fessor Osborn’s restoration is in substantial agree- ment with Dr. Smith Wood- ward’s, and is a very close approx- imation to the truth, although I think that they both err slightly in ~ exaggerating the extent of the cranial cavity. with the Piltdown skull is the only part that enables any com- parison to be made with the Heidelberg speci- men. Now, although the latter is very massive and of primitive conformation, the structure of the chin region —for there is no real chin — and of the teeth is definitely human. The Piltdown jaw however, is equally definitely simian in most of its char- acters. Some authorities are so impressed by this fact that they claim it to be an ape’s jaw, which does not belong to the skull with which it was found. The brute strength of the Neanderthal men did not enable them to hold their own against the species Homo sapiens The jaw found which came after. After restoration by J. H. McGregor This is not the place to discuss this ques- tion. But the acceptance of the view that the jaw is an ape’s and the cranium a man’s would involve the supposition that a hitherto unknown and extremely primitive apelike man, and an equally unknown manlike ape, died on the same spot, and that one of them left his skull without the jaw and the other his jaw without the skull. Not only so, but it would involve also the admission that an anthropoid ape was living in England in middle Pleistocene times, and would therefore invalidate Pro- fessor Osborn’s conclusion that the lowering of the temperature in Europe swept out all such apes by the middle of the Pliocene, un- less it is claimed that they returned in the Pleistocene But is there any real need for in- voking such enor- mously improb- able coincidences and such drastic rearranging of our ideas of the pale- ontology of Eu- rope? In spite of their primitive form and simian appearance the teeth are human. Theoretical con- siderations, no less than certain remarkably prim- itive features of the _ brain-case, also add confirmation to the view that the jaw really belongs to the skull. If we admit this, it will follow that, what- ever the relative ages of the individuals found near Heidelberg and Piltdown respectively, the latter belongs to an earlier genus than the former. As to the route by which the Piltdown tribe reached Europe there is no conclusive evi- dence. Professor Osborn tells us that “so far as present evidence goes it would appear that pre-Chellean -culture did not enter MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE 323 Europe directly from the east, or even along the northern coast of the Mediterranean, but rather along the northern coast of Africa, where Chellean culture is recorded in associa- tion with mammalian remains belonging to the middle Pleistocene epoch.” “Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape.’”’ This then is a faint hint that the earliest type of human- ity to reach Europe came from Africa. For a vast span of time afterward we are completely in the dark as to the history of man in Europe, until there suddenly appears upon the scene, oc- cupying Europe from Gibraltar to Neanderthal, and from England to the Carpathians, the uncouth race of Neanderthal men, characterized by ‘an enormous head placed upon a short and thick trunk, with limbs’ very short and thick set, and very robust; the shoulders broad and stooping, with the head and neck habitually bent for- ward into the same curvature as the back; the hands ex- tremely large and without the delicate play between the thumb and the firi- gers characteristic of modern races.” In spite of the big brain, this is a vastly different type of humanity from any races that we know today, and one that was unable to hold its own in competition with the supe- rior type of man which we distinguish as the species sapiens. I have quoted from Professor Osborn the hint that the earliest human beings to enter Europe came from Africa. The distribution of Mousterian remains — not forgetting that between Africa and Asia. J. H. McGregor The nimble-witted race (Homo sapiens, the same as the man of today) was evolved probably near the isthmus It later superceded the Nean- derthal race in Western Europe. the most primitive, and possibly the earliest, of them was found at Gibraltar—suggests that the Neanderthal race may have followed the same route. It in turn was superseded by races of men of modern type, before whose nimbleness of mind and skill of hand neither the brutal strength nor the massive brain of the Neanderthal race availed to spare it from extinction. Such evidence as we possess points to the fact that the newcomers also ‘‘came through Phoenicia and along the southern coasts of the Mediterranean, through Tunis, into Spain.” m The reconstruc- tion of the wonder- ful story of Upper Paleolithic man and his works is one of the greatest achievements of re- cent anthropologi- cal research, to which Professor Os- born has done full justice in his book. Somewhere in the neighborhood of the isthmus linking Africa to Asia, Homo sapiens was evolved; and from time to time fresh broods of the new type of intelligent and enterprising humanity left the parent stock and took possession - of Asia, Africa and Europe, and even- tually of the rest of the world. The vanguard of this higher type of man in Western Europe brought with it the germs of the culture known as Aurignacian, which After restoration by perhaps did not attain its maturity and its distinctive characteristics until the immi- grants had been settled for some time in southern France. One of their most remarkable practices was the mutilation of the fingers and the sil- houetting of these damaged members on the walls of caverns. This is one of the earliest 324 examples of the migration of an element of culture. For this Aurignacian procedure eventually spread to the ends of the earth, so that, long after the major portion of the inter- vening territories had become swamped with successive waves of other cultures, South Africa, Australia and America have preserved for us the termini of these extremely ancient migrations. After the Aurignacian culture was estab- lished in Europe, another wave, apparently coming through eastern Europe, introduced the Solutrian phase of industry, which in turn gave place to the Magdalenian. The latter was not developed from the Solutrian in Western Europe, nor was the Solutrian derived from the Aurignacian. All three represent distinct offshoots from the common parent in either Asia or Africa, each of which successively intruded into Europe and sup- planted its predecessor there. There are reasons for believing that long before the close of the Magdalenian epoch a new culture was beginning to filter into Europe from the South and to make its impress upon the distinctive civilization. Eventually this new influence became dominant and developed into the higher phase which is known as the New Stone, or Neolithic, age. To me the facts seem to point quite clearly and definitely to the conclusion that the Azilian people repre- sent the vanguard of the New Stone age. But Professor Osborn, who impartially sum- marizes the evidence with great fulness, inclines to the view that the Azilian epoch represents the concluding phase of the Old Stone age. But this fact serves to illustrate the conclusion that there is no real break between the Old and the New Stone ages. The real break is between the Lower and the Upper Palzolithic ages. One of the most remarkable aspects of modern anthropological thought is that anat- omists and archeologists, in many cases, adopt as a self-evident proposition in expla- nation of their data a view which most ethnol- ogists not only most strenuously reject, but also refuse even to discuss. It is gratifying to find that Professor Osborn speaks with no uncertain voice in favor of the common-sense point of view. “Certainly the archwxologic testimony strongly supports [the] culture-invasion hy- pothesis.”” “It is apparent that [in the sud- den appearance and development of the Aurignacian industry in Europe] we witness THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL not the local evolution of a single people, but rather the influence and collaboration of numerous colonies reacting more or less one upon the other and spreading their inventions and discoveries.” Amidst the relatively simple conditions of culture in Europe of the Old Stone age this explanation of the facts stands out clearly as the true and only tenable one. But at the same time the study of these early cultures reveals ‘‘the great antiquity of the spirit of man and the fundamental similarity between the great steps of prehistory and history.” Men have continued to imitate one another and to borrow ideas the one from the other, from that remote period until today. This has been the chief factor in the upbuilding and the spreading abroad of the civilization to which the world at large is heir at the present time. “The rise of the spirit of man through the Old Stone age [in Europe] cannot be traced continuously in a single race because the races were changing; as at the present time, one race replaced another, or two races dwelt side by side.” Professor Osborn might have added also that then, as now, a small group of immigrants provided with some means of dominating another community, such as superiority of weapons or skill, might force its culture upon, and so leaven that of the subject population. “The sudden appearance in Europe.... of a human race with a high order of brain power and ability was not a leap forward but the effect of a long process of evolution else- where.”’ “Whether the Neanderthals were exter- minated entirely or whether they were driven out of the country, is not known; the en- counter was certainly between a very superior people, both physically and mentally.... and a very inferior degenerate people.” In fact, ‘‘after prolonged study of the works of the Cré-Magnons,”’ Professor Osborn says of these newcomers ‘‘one cannot avoid the con- clusion that their capacity was nearly if not quite as high as our own,” They were in fact members of our own species, Homo sapiens, and except for the fact that they lacked the advantages which we enjoy of the knowledge and experience accumulated dur- ing many millennia by them and their suc- cessors, they were quite as competent and as well-endowed by nature as we are. . They represent what I might call the Neo- MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE anthropic phase of culture — the appearance upon the earth of men capable of formulating ideas and of reasoning, men of imagination, and endowed with an artistic sense and abil- ity not inferior to modern man’s powers in these respects. The arrival in Europe of these men of - modern type ought surely to be regarded as the greatest event in its history. Yet the traditional method of subdividing the human epochs does not give due recognition to this fact. At a time when little was known of early man except his stone implements, John Lubbock (afterward Lord Avebury) dis- tinguished the two well-marked cultural phases before the coming of metals as those of the Old Stone and the New Stone — Palzo- lithic and Neolithic —respectively. But since then we have learned something about the men who made and used these weapons, and have come to appreciate the fact that modern man and the manifestation of the human spirit came into evidence long before the Neolithic epoch. The profound break in human history is not represented by the transition from the Paleolithic to the Neo- lithic, but by that between the Lower and the Upper Paleolithic. “Lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto of Aurignac was quite distinct from that of the Lower Paleolithic.” Many later writers, and no one more emphati- cally than Professor Osborn, have more strongly emphasized the fact that ‘‘in the whole racial history of Western Europe there has never occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappearance of the Neanderthal race and the appearance of the Cré-Magnon race’ — ‘‘Homo sapiens, the same race as ourselves.’’ I would go further and give expression to this well-attested fact in our nomenclature; for without that kind of specific emphasis even the most careful writer is apt to get his perspective distorted. If we refer to the epoch of the modern type of man as the Neo- anthropic age, and include in it the Upper 325 Paleolithic and all the subsequent ages of human achievement, the Mousterian period and all of man’s record that went before it ean then be included in a Palzanthropic age. Such a nomenclature would I think stress the outstanding result of modern research. If. it be urged that the men of the Upper Paleolithic differed radically from their Neo- lithic successors in their lack of the knowledge of agriculture, the domestication of animals and the manufacture of pottery, I would remind the reader that many races of modern men, which are included within the species sapiens, are still without these accomplish- ments. Moreover these achievements were all the work of the modern type of man himself and cannot be regarded as essential distinctive features. For the historian of America does not refuse to regard as Europeans the Span- iards and the Portuguese immigrants into America during the sixteenth century because they did not introduce the steam engine and the electric dynamo! Nor does the fact that men of the Upper Paleolithic lived in a different climate and used to hunt many creatures now extinct affect the question. What counts for vastly more than all these facts is the consideration, so aptly put by Professor Osborn, that Homo sapiens made his appearance at the close of the Mousterian period, and “effected a social and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the Upper Paleolithic from the Lower by a break equal to that which sepa- rates the former from the Neolithic.’’ The evidence marshalled by Professor Osborn clearly points to the conclusion (in fact, an- other quotation from his book, already cited, actually expresses it) that the former break is even greater, and that the new spirit of mankind really began to manifest itself in Aurignacian times, and continued with no essential change, beyond the acquisition of new arts and crafts into Neolithic and later times. Vagrant Cats in the United States MAN HAS KILLED OUT THE WILD NATIVE CATS IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, HAS PROHIBITED BY LAW THE IMPORTATION OF THE MONGOOSE AND OTHER NOXIOUS MAMMALS, IN ORDER TO PROTECT THE COUNTRY’S BIRDS AND OTHER WILD LIFE — YET HAS BY HIS OWN HAND INTRODUCED AS DESTRUCTIVE A SPECIES IN VASTLY LARGER NUMBERS Brief Review of a Recent Notable Publication } between cat lovers as such and those physicians, game protectors, and bird lovers who wish to see bounds put to the activities of cats, that the Board of Agricul- ture of the State of Massachusetts has issued a bulletin dealing with the cat and the best ways of utilizing and controlling it. The author of this bulletin, Mr. Edward Howe Forbush, State Ornithologist, has brought together in readable form a mass of informa- tion on the history, habits, and proclivities of cats, with opinions of experts, and records and observations of many cat owners and others, in order to establish the proper status of the domestic cat as a useful or harmful economic factor. The most impressive fact that first emerges in a study of this interesting volume is one probably unknown to the majority of cat owners — namely, that unowned cats abound, literally in hundreds, not only around the towns and villages of New England, but also in the fields and forests in places far remote from human habitations. Cats are mainly nocturnal in their habits, and the large num- bers of wild house cats that roam the woods and fields escape general attention on this account, but the evidence collected by Mr. Forbush from many hunters, trappers, naturalists and other observers, leaves no doubt that these vagrant cats are widely distributed, very numerous, and that they constitute a serious menace ‘to wild life. Under natural conditions the domestic cat is preyed upon by the puma, lynx and wild cat and also by dogs, foxes, wolves, : is largely on account of the dissension !Tue Domestic Cat: Binp Kitten, Mouser anv Destnoven or Wiip Lire.— Means or Urtinizine AND Contnouuine Ir. Bulletin Number II, Economic Biology. By Edward Howe Forbush. Published by the Board of Agriculture of the State of Massachusetts, 1916. 326 raccoons, and by the golden eagle; but in New England today these enemies are rare Courtesy of Massachusetts Slate Board of Agriculture Vagabond house cat with robin. Many house and barn cats, expected to hunt for a living, make birds their staple diet.— Cals kill for the love of killing. This well-fed pet was known to kill fifty-eight birds in one year.— The bird-killing instinct is incurable. This cat has been “‘taught not to kill birds” by tying the victim under her chin, but she still kills them VAGRANT CATS IN THE UNITED STATES or nonexistent, and although a fox or dog may catch an occasional cat or kitten, there is no effectual natural agent to check their increase. Moreover, man adds every year to the numbers of these wild cats. Many cats are abandoned by their owners, in the city in the summer, or in the country on returning to town. At the end of the summer of 1914, forty, and one hundred deserted cats re- spectively, were reported from Orchard Beach, Maine, and from Nantucket Beach, and these are only two of many such reports. The greater number of these cats survive and run wild. Mr. Frank M. Chapman of the American Museum is quoted as estimating the number of cats in the United States to be at least twenty-five million and possibly twice that number. ‘Having,’ says Mr. Forbush, “practically exterminated the wild native cats of the Eastern States, and having passed a national law prohibiting the importation of noxious mammals and birds, we have in the meantime introduced another destructive species in vastly larger numbers, and dis- seminated it throughout the land so that it must live upon the country as the native cats formerly did. Because of its abundance it has become more destructive to wild life about the dwellings of man than any other creature, and is therefore more injurious or beneficial to man according as it preys upon man’s enemies or his friends.” Although some cats in domesticity have been trained to eat food of a vegetable nature, these animals are naturally carnivorous and feed upon birds and small mammals. They kill so often simply for sport, leaving their victims undevoured, that they are exceed- ingly destructive. Courtesy of Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture Locations in Massachusetts of observers who fur- nished information used in the bulletin ‘‘The Domestic Cat,” published by the State Board of Agriculture 327 Dr. A. K. Fisher, in charge of the economic investigations of the United States Biological Survey, estimates that the cats of New York State destroy three million, five hundred thousand birds each year. Young birds and nestlings especially fall a prey, as the cats climb up to the nests. Many game birds are killed, especially ruffed grouse and quail, the latter perhaps the most useful bird of all to the farmer. On state game pre- serves the records show that depredations of cats cost thousands of dollars yearly, and on many islands where birds are protected the introduction of cats has resulted in complete extermination of some species. In addition, rabbits, moles and shrews, frogs, toads, and lizards, succumb to the rapacity of this in- corrigible hunter. Of these creatures the shrew alone is of more economic importance to mankind than .is the cat, for it eats twice or three times its own weight of insects every day. The food of the toad consists of weevils, caterpillars, potato beetles and other destructive insects, and this animal is so much more useful to the human race than the cat which destroys it, that it should be protected by law. Frogs, lizards and sala- manders are also nearly all insectivorous and harmless, and therefore useful each in its own degree, while the economic importance of birds can scarcely be overestimated. Without going into details as to the differ- ent species of birds and their respective values it will suffice to state that the fight against insect pests such as the gypsy moth, the brown-tailed moth, and the elm leaf beetle, cost the State of Massachusetts about nine million dollars in one year (1913). There are about fifty species of birds that feed on the brown-tailed moth and gypsy moth; others devour the elm leaf beetle and other insect ravagers. These birds should be protected and increased in every way possible, but each of these useful species is constantly preyed upon by the domestic cat and is becoming scarcer every year. What has the cat to set against all this indictment? A canvass of cat owners and eat lovers in Massachusetts brings out the fact that only about one-third of the cats kept in country towns are known to catch rats at all, and only about one-fifth catch them regularly. As mousers, cats make a better. general record; but traps and pre- cautions properly used, will free any dwelling of rats and mice, and will do more in a month 328 towards disposing of them than even a good cat will do ina year.! In spite of the fact that the cat is not a necessity, there will probably always be some who wish to keep cats either as pets or as mousers; but Mr. Forbush is of opinion that if ownerless cats could be eliminated and owned cats confined to the buildings or en- closures of their owners, the cat evil would be considerably lessened. It is not cruel to keep a cat in confinement. Cats kept in buildings, or brought up in narrow quarters, and well fed, are quite con- tented and will then be more likely to con- fine their hunting proclivities to rats and mice. Good feeding alone will not keep a cat from killing birds, but good feeding com- bined with confinement at night will make it less likely to go afield, especially if a good breakfast is provided before release in the morning. Ninety per cent of cats at present are allowed to roam at night, thus contract- ing colds and disease to infect the children 1 Those who do not know how to get rid of mice and rats are referred to Economic Biology Bulletin No. 1, Rats and Rat Riddance, procured from the Massachu- setts State Board of Agriculture, State House, Boston. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL oy ae — Ue and other members of the homes they visit, while they destroy more birds and game than | rats and mice: Objections to proposed legislation, directed toward licensing owned cats and destroying vagrants, come chiefly from people who do not wish to pay the tax. Many cat lovers wel- come the idea as affording protection to owned cats and avoiding the suffering of others. This admirable little booklet, which is strongly recommended to the attention of nature lovers and cat owners, brings the dis- cussion to a close as follows;— ‘‘The claim of the cat to a place in our domestic life rests primarily on the fact that it is supposed to do for us, with little conscious effort on our part, the onerous and disagreeable task of destroy- ing small rodents. Insomuch as the creature fails in this, and in so far as it destroys other more useful forms of life, in such measure it becomes an evil and a pest. It will become an influence for good or ill according as we mold it, restrain it, and limit its activity. It is our duty to check with a firm hand its undue increase in domestication, and to elim- inate the vagrant cat as we would a wolf.” = M. H. P. Courlesy of Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture On Muskeget Island a colony of gulls and terns, protected by the town of Nantucket, were almost entirely ‘ * killed out by a few stray cats, their only enemies, Thousands of nest sites showed only egg shells and the scattered remains of parents Bird Protective Laws and their Enforcement’ a Se - Secretary of the National Association of Audubon Societies animals have been enacted in greater numbers in the United States than in any other country in the world. In a government bulletin on ‘‘American Game Protection,” Dr. T. S. Palmer states that the earliest game laws were probably the hunting privileges granted in 1629, by the West India Company, to persons planting colonies in the New Netherlands, and the provisions govern- ing the right of hunting in the Massachusetts Bay Colonial Ordinance of 1647. As soon as the United States Government was formed in 1776, the various states began to make laws on the subject and these have increased in numbers with the passage of years. For example, between the years 1901 and 1910, North Carolina alone passed three hundred and sixteen different game laws. As various forms of game birds or animals showed indications of decreasing in numbers, new laws were called into existence in an attempt to conserve the supply for the bene- fit of the people. Not infrequently laws were passed offering bounties for, or otherwise encouraging, the killing of wolves, pumas, and other predatory animals, or of birds re- garded as injurious to growing crops or to poultry. State laws, intended primarily for the pro- tection of wild life, may be grouped as follows: First, those naming the time of the year when various kinds of game may be hunted; these hunting periods are called ‘‘open sea- sons.” Second, the prohibition of certain methods formally employed in taking game, as for example, netting, trapping, and shooting at night. Third, the prohibition or regulation of the sale of game. By destroying the market the incentive for much excessive killing is re- moved. Fourth, bag limit; that is, indication of the number of birds or animals that may be | AWS for the protection of wild birds and 1 By the courtesy of Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson this further chapter from his book A Manual of Bird Study, to be published shortly by Doubleday, Page and Company, is given advance publication in the JOURNAL. shot in a day; for example, in Louisiana one may kill twenty-five ducks in a day, and in Arizona one may shoot two male deer in a season. Fifth, the provision of protection at all seasons for useful birds not recognized as game species. The term ‘‘game,” as defined today, in- cludes bears, coons, deer, mountain sheep, caribou, cougar, musk ox, white goat, rabbits, squirrels, possum, wolf, antelope, and moose. Game birds include swans, geese, ducks, rails, coots, woodcock, snipe, plovers, curlews, wild turkeys, grouse, pheasants, partridges, and quail. Sometimes other birds or animals have been regarded as game. Robins and mourning doves, for example, are still shot in some of the southern states as game birds. Little was done in the way of securing laws for the benefit of song and insectivorous birds and of birds of plumage until 1886, when the bird protection committee of the American Ornithologists’ Union drafted a bill for this specific purpose. This bill, besides extending protection to all useful non-game birds, gave the first clear statutory terminology for de- fining “game birds.” It also provided for the issue of permits for the collecting of wild birds and their eggs for scientific purposes. The states of New York and Massachusetts adopted the law that year. Arkansas fol- lowed eleven years later, but it was not until the Audubon Society workers took up the subject in 1910 that any special headway was made in getting states to pass this meas- ure. Today it is on the statutes of all the states of the Union but nine, and is generally known as the “Audubon Law.” In all the states but Florida and Mississippi there are special state officers charged with enforcing the bird and game protective laws; usually there is a game commission of three or more members, whose duty it is to select an executive officer who in turn appoints game wardens throughout the state. These men are paid salaries in some cases; in others they receive only a per diem wage, or receive certain fees for convictions: License fees are usually required of hunters, and the money thus collected forms the basis of a fund used 329 330 for paying the wardens and meeting the other expenses incident to the game law enforce- ment. The Federal Government is also taking some share of the responsibility in preserving the wild life of the Union. On July 2, 1897, Congressman Lacy introduced in the House a bill to prohibit the export of big game from some of the western states. In 1909, some amendments were made to the Lacy law, one of which prohibited the shipment of birds, or parts thereof, from a state in which they had been illegally killed, or from which it is illegal to ship them. The enforcement of this by Federal officers has been most potent in breaking up a great system of smuggling quail, grouse, ducks and other game birds. Probably the most important game law as yet enacted in the United States is the one known as the “Federal Migratory Game Law,” or the “‘McLean Law.” A somewhat extended discussion of this important meas- ure seems justifiable at this time. When, in 1913, the first breath of autumn swept over the tule sloughs and reedy lakes of the Northwest, the wild fowl and shore birds of that vast region arose in clouds, and began, by stages, to journey toward their winter quarters beneath southern skies. If the older birds that had often taken the same trip thought anything about the subject, they must have been impressed, when they crossed the border into the United States, with the fact that changes had taken place in reference to shooting. In Minnesota, for instance, the firing of guns had begun on September seventh, in other years; but those ducks that reached the Mississippi River below St. Paul found no one at hand waiting to kill them. As they proceeded, by occa- sional flights, farther down the river, there was still a marked absence of gunners. The same conditions prevailed all the way down the valley until the sunken grounds of Arkan- sas and Mississippi came into view. What did this mean? Heretofore, at this season, hunters had always lined the river. This had been the case ever since the oldest duck could remember. The Missouri River too was free from shooting throughout the greater part of its length, which surely was sufficient cause for many a grateful quack. What was the reason for this great change? Had the killing of wild fowl suddenly lost its attraction for those who had been accustomed to seek pleasure afield with gun and decoys? No, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL indeed, banish the thought, for it is written that so long as man shall live, wild ducks shall grace his table and comfort his palate. The remarkable changes which had so affected the fortunes of the wild fowl were due to the enactment of the new Federal Migra- tory Game Law on the fourth day of March, 1913. The law did not in itself prohibit wild- fowling on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers between the hours of sunset and sun- rise; but it gave authority to certain func- tionaries to make such regulations as they deemed wise, necessary and proper, in order to extend better protection to all migratory game and insect-eating birds in the United States. The Secretary of Agriculture, to whose department this unusual duty was assigned, read the law thoughtfully, con- cluded the task did not come within the bounds of his personal capabilities, and very wisely turned the whole matter over to a committee of three experts, chosen from one of the department bureaus known as the “Biological Survey.” This committee, consisting of Messrs. T. S. Palmer, A. K. Fisher and W. W. Cooke (all names well known in bird protection circles), at once began the preparation of a series of regulations to give effect to the new statute. Drawing extensively from the reec- ords stored in the survey offices, and season- ing these with their own good judgment and knowledge of existing conditions, they brought out in a period of three.months and nine days, or to be more precise on June twenty-third, nineteen hundred and thirteen, a set of ten regulations which, in many ways, have revolutionized shooting in the United States. These were printed in pamphlet form and distributed widely; for before they could take effect as law it was necessary that they should be advertised for a period of at least three months in order to give all dissatisfied parties an opportunity to be heard. The whole idea of the Government taking over the matter of protecting migratory birds, and the startling character of some of the regulations promulgated by the committee, were justly expected to bring forth either shouts of approbation or a storm of dis- approval, and possibly both sounds might be heard, Long experience has shown that it is necessary for public opinion to approve of a game law if it is to be effective. Thus it was that, following the mailing of circular rules, the gentlemen of the committee stood, BIRD PROTECTIVE LAWS AND THEIR ENFORCEMENT metaphorically, on tiptoe and, with hand to ear, scanned the distant horizon. Nor did they have long to wait before critical rum- blings began to be heard in many directions. “Why allow bobolinks to be shot during the months of September and October in Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia and South Carolina, and deprive the people of our State of this heavenborn privilege which we have always enjoyed?” shouted a lusty North Carolina hunter. “Tf you are going to place a five-year close season on the shooting of curlew, why not also include the golden plover, which every one knows is equally rare?” a bird protec- tionist wished to know. “Tt may be all right to curtail our spring shooting, but if so, we want to be shown,” the Missouri sportsmen observed, in tones that left no doubt as to their earnestness. As the committee waited, the sky began rapidly to fill with interrogation points; for it has ever been the case that the dissatisfied ones of the earth are louder in their objections than are the satisfied ones in their commenda- tions. As a matter of fact, the regulations were on the whole remarkable for their clear- ness, directness and fairness. They came nearer being formed for the benefit of the birds, instead of for the pleasure and con- venience of the hunters, than any general, far-reaching, bird-protective statute which had been enacted in this country. Let us examine briefly this unusual docu- ment prepared by the Biological Survey. For the purposes of the regulations, migra- tory game birds are defined as ducks, geese and swan, rail and coots, pigeon, crane and shore birds, which include plover, snipe, woodcock, and sandpipers. Migratory in- sectivorous birds are enumerated as thrushes, orioles, larks, swallows, wrens, woodpeckers and all other perching birds that feed en- tirely, or chiefly, on. insects. Having thus conveniently classified mi- gratory birds into two easily comprehensible and distinguishable groups, the way was open to deal with them separately and distinctively. Therefore, after declaring it to be illegal to kill any bird of either class between sunset and sunrise, the regulations go on to state that excepting bobolinks, which may be shot in a few states, no insect-eating bird shall be killed in any place or in any manner, even in the daytime. This provision, by one stroke, completed 331 the campaign which the Audubon Society had been waging for long years on behalf of the robin. In Maryland, North Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana and Tennessee, the robin-potpie-loving inhabitants must in future content themselves with such game birds as quail, grouse, wild turkeys, and ducks. The life of Sir Robin has now been declared to be sacred everywhere. He and his note are to dwell beneath the protection of the strong arm of the United States Government. Another feature of the Audubon work was also completed by this section of the new . regulations: that is, the safeguarding of all song and insect-eating birds in the states of Montana, Idaho, Nevada, Maryland, Utah, Arizona, Nebraska, Kansas, and New Mexico, constituting the group of states whose legis- latures had thus far withstood the impor- tunities of the Audubon workers to extend protection to such birds. Having disposed thus of the subject in so far as it applied to non-game birds, attention was turned again to game birds. Taking into consideration the fact that some of the migratory game birds had been killed until they were alarmingly few in numbers, and that if the species were to be saved all shoot- ing of them must for a time be stopped, regulation number four was provided and read as follows: “A close season shall continue until September first, nineteen hundred and eigh- teen, on the following migratory game birds: Band-tailed pigeon; little brown, sand-hill and whooping cranes; swans, curlew, and all shore birds except the black-breasted and golden plover, Wilson or Jack snipe, wood- cock, and the greater and lesser yellow- legs.” Recognizing the fact that the above in- cludes three swans and fifty-four shore birds, we may see that what the paragraph really does is to prohibit for five years the killing of sixty-two varieties of birds which have heretofore been regarded as legitimate game throughout the greater part of North America. This section goes on to provide: ‘A close season shall also continue until September first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, on wood ducks in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, Cali- fornia, Oregon, and Washington; on rails in 302 California and Vermont; and on woodcock in Illinois and Missouri. The most exquisitely colored of all Ameri- can water fowl is the wood duck, which was formerly abundant about the ponds and streams almost everywhere in the Eastern States. So rapidly is it disappearing before the remorseless advance of civilization that it seems a pity the committee of specialists did not include the name of this much perse- cuted species in the former paragraph. The suspension of hunting on the two great rivers of the interior was avowedly done for the purpose of permitting waterfowl to have a safe highway from their winter feeding grounds, along the Gulf Coast, to their nest- ing areas in Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Canada. The wisdom of this plan is at once apparent and it is to be deplored that topo- graphical conditions did not permit the es- tablishment of like routes of safety along the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards. The above includes what we might call the minor regulations proposed by the Biological - Survey Committee. Then comes the big regulation, the one which is of absorbing interest to every member of the vast army of five million hunters in the United States. This is the regulation which divides the country into zones and prescribes the shooting season in each. Touching on this point the government experts already mentioned gave out this statement by way of explanation: “More than fifty separate seasons for migratory birds were provided under statutes in force in nineteen hundred and twelve. This multiplicity of regulation or zones to suit special localities has apparently had any- thing but a beneficial effect on the abundance of game. The effort to provide special sea- sons for each kind of game in each locality merely makes a chain of open seasons for migratory birds, and allows the continued destruction of such birds from the beginning of the first season to the close of the last. It is believed that better results will follow the adoption of the fewest possible number of zones and the regulation of the seasons in each so as to include the time when each species is in the best condition, or at the maxi- mum abundance, during the autumn. For this reason the country has been divided into two zones, as nearly equal as possible, one to include the states in which migratory game birds breed or would breed if given reasonable protection, the other the states in which THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL comparatively few species breed, but in which many winter. Within these zones the seasons are fixed for the principal natural groups, waterfowl, rail, shore birds, and woodcock. In no case does the zone boun- dary cross a state line, and except in very rare cases the seasons are uniform throughout the states. Deviation from this rule leads ulti- mately to the recognition of a multiplicity of local seasons, which has done much to retard game protection.” The “breeding zone” referred to is made to include all the states lying wholly or in part north of latitude forty degrees and the Ohio River. Twenty-five states in all are thus designated and they embrace virtually the entire region in which wild fowl in any num- bers have been known to make their summer homes today. The “wintering zone’”’ consists of the states lying wholly or in part south of this line, and includes twenty-three states and the District of Columbia. = In the northern zone, the season when ducks, geese, brant, and unprotected shore birds are allowed to be killed is between September first and December sixteenth, that is, three and one-half months. At no other season may they be hunted or taken without making the adventurous sportsman liable to the pains and penalties of the law to the extent of a fine of one hundred dollars or ninety days in jail. There are a few ex- ceptions to this season, made out of respect to existing state statutes or in deference to expressed public opinion, but there are not many. One of those is in New York State, where, with the exception of Long Island, no hunting is allowed until September sixteenth, thus making the open season only ninety days in length. Considering the number of gun- ners in this large state and the relatively small number of birds, one may judge the season to be quite long enough. In the southern zone the shooting season for shore birds is the same as in the north; but the waterfowl season has been slipped forward, that is, it is made to run from Octo- ber first until January sixteenth. Here also we find a few exceptions to the general rule. There is, too, an open season in both zones, running from two to three months, on the killing of woodcock and rails. The above statements regarding open and close seasons on migratory game birds refer to a subject principally of interest to sports- MUSEUM NOTES men, but the big fact that more restrictive ’ measures have been taken for the protection of our wild bird life. should be of decided interest to all members of the great non- shooting public. To go back a little and make our story more complete, it may be said that when the Biological Survey Committee had promul- gated their proposed regulations, and had had time to sift some of the more serious com- plaints, a series of hearings was arranged in different parts of the country. To these gatherings came sportsmen, game commis- sioners, Audubon Society men, and others who had things to say and to learn. A member of the committee was present to explain the law, hear objections, and answer questions, and in a large number of instances he sent the various delegates away more or 303 less content that the regulations should stand as they were. As might be expected, it has been found necessary to make some changes, especially in regard to state exceptions, but these have not been numerous, and the regulations as shown above were embodied in a proclama- tion signed by President Wilson on October first, 1913. This had the effect of giving the regulations the full force of the law. Today, for the first time in the history of wild life conservation, we have before us the unusual spectacle of the United States Government taking a serious hand in a problem which had been found to be too difficult for solution by the different states working separately. Many of us_ believe that this foretells a brighter day for the perpetuation of the wild life of our country. Museum Notes Since the last issue of the JourNaL the following persons have become members of the Museum: Life Members, James Gore Kina, JR., Haro. I. Pratt, and Master JoHN WaALDo Dova.as; Sustaining Member, previously an Annual Member, Mr. A. Avuaustus HEAty. Annual Members, Mrs. Paut GorrHeEi., Mrs. CHartes H. Luprneton, and Mrs. Freperick H. Osporn, Dr. C. G. Camp- BELL, and Messrs. ELMER DEan CovuLtEr, J. H. Jasper, Wriu1am Gitman Low, JR., RoswE.u SKEEL, JR., and LELAND 8. STILL- MAN. In order to ensure the safe return of the Crocker Land and relief expeditions, the Crocker Land Committee has chartered the steamer ‘‘ Danmark” and provisioned it for the relief of the explorers. The “Danmark” will proceed from its base in south Green- land to Egedesminde, where Mr. Fitzhugh Green has been instructed to go on board to represent the Committee until Dr. E. O. Hovey or Mr. Donald B. MacMillan is reached. Mr. Jerome Lee Allen, also at Egedesminde, will either board the ‘ Dan- mark,” or return to America via Copenhagen, as he elects. At North Star Bay, Dr. Hovey, Captain George E. Comer, and Messrs. Harrison J. Hunt and W. Elmer Ekblaw, will be taken on board; and Mr. MacMillan will probably have returned from his western trip and will be found at Etah. The explorers will then be taken in the “‘Danmark”’ to St. John’s or Sydney, where they should arrive in late August or early September. Mr. Maurice C. Tanquary arrived in New York on June 20, and brought with him reports from Dr. Hovey and Mr. MacMillan. The wrecking of the “ Diana,” the breaking down of the first relief ship ‘‘Cluett’”’ owing to unusual ice conditions, and the difficulty of securing a thoroughly reliable vessel at this time owing to the disturbed state of ship- ping, has made the expense of relieving the expedition greater than could possibly have been foreseen. The charter fee alone of the steamer “ Danmark”’ is $18,300; other unex- pected expenditures make the total of $40,000 © to be raised by the Crocker Land Committee to ensure the safe return of the two parties. In this great emergency any contributions that those interested in scientific exploration are inclined to make will be much appreciated by the Committee. Tue Museum has recently received a gift of $10,000 from Mrs. Russell Sage, and in view of her interest in the conservation of bird life the Trustees have assigned this to a 334 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL special fund, the income of which is to be devoted to the enrichment of the Museum’s collection of birds. The fund has been desig- nated “The Margaret Olivia Sage Fund,” and in recognition of the gift the Trustees have elected Mrs. Sage an Associate Bene- - factor of the Museum. In the forty-seventh annual report of the American Museum of Natural History, Presi- dent Henry Fairfield Osborn lays stress upon the urgent need of the institution for more space. No building has been added since the erection of the southwest wing under the law of 1905, while the collections have doubled in extent, important educational departments have been opened, available space in the pres- ent building is crowded to capacity, and the scientific and educational value of some of the finest collections in the world is lost for lack of a building in which to house them. The esti- mated cost of the proposed new southeast wing and court building is $750,000. It will provide space for the collections of mammals of the sea and fauna of Europe and Asia; for the splendid collections of existing fishes and reptiles, now crowded away in the dark and out of sight; for the superb collection of whales hitherto not exhibited; for other col- lections, and for offices, laboratories and storage room which are seriously needed. Since it seems possible that the finances of New York City will not permit of the building of this extension in the near future, the question is being considered by the Trus- tees of the Museum as to the advisability of raising funds for the new wing by private sub- scription and solving in this way a problem that is rapidly reaching a crisis. Apvices from Mr. Roy Chapman Andrews, dated from Shanghai, May 18, indicate that conditions in China will not interfere with the carrying out of the plans of the American Museum’s expedition there. Mr. Andrews intends to work in Fukien Province, until the arrival of Mr. Edmund Heller, when the expe- dition will proceed into Kweichow Province as previously arranged. Dr. Herspert J. Sprnpen has recently returned from Venezuela, where he has spent some months in an archeological reconnais- sance of the northern and central parts of this comparatively untried region, theoreti- cally of great importance for the light it may throw on certain possible cultural con- nections. The construction and decoration, for instance, of the figurine idols found in caves and near sacred lakes on the Andean paramo, distinctly indicate a cultural bond between Venezuela and Central America. Studies made on the shores and islands of Lake Valencia, along the Orinoco, and else- where, show a series of types such as might be due to divergent regional development, while other features of Venezuelan archz- ology, as for instance, urn burial, indicate customs once prevalent all over this area. These burial urns, containing dessicated human remains in a sitting posture, are found throughout Venezuela, in caves, low mounds, or more generally about two feet under- ground, and the practice probably extends considerably beyond the limits of Venezuela itself. It is known also in Nicaragua and in the southern United States. Dr. Spinden is of opinion that the plastic art of Vene-— zuela is identical with the ‘archaic art’* already known in Mexico and Central Amer- ica, and that this archaic culture, always indicating an agricultural people, skilled in the making of pottery and textiles, once extended across northern South America, and will provide a connecting link between the remarkable pottery of Marajé, at the mouth of the Amazon, and the very simple ceramic ware of the Valley of Mexico. Full data and details of this exploration will shortly be published in the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, while briefer reports of Dr. Spin- den’s Venezuelan studies in the JourNaL will come with the usual authority and charm of his articles. At a meeting of the Trustees of Columbia University on May 1, Dr. William K. Gregory was promoted to the rank of assist- ant professor of vertebrate paleontology, and was assigned a seat in the Faculty of Pure Science. Dr. Gregory graduated from Columbia in the class of 1900, and has since been closely associated with Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn in the latter’s courses at — the University and his researches at the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Gregory’s appointment assures the con- tinuation of the two principal courses on the evolution of the vertebrates and the evolution of the mammals, which were opened by Pro- fessor Osborn in 1892 and have since been od Sp MUSEUM NOTES carried on continuously in Columbia Uni- versity and at the American Museum of Nat- - ural History. The students in these courses have had full access both to the study and the research material of the American Mu- seum. After twenty-five years of active service in Columbia University Professor Osborn has continued as research professor of zodlogy (since 1910), and in this capacity has published two of his chief works, The Age of Mammals (1910), and Men of the Old Stone Age (1915). These are designed especially for the use of college and university students. The next work in this series of volumes will be entitled The Evolution of the Vertebrates, the leading author of which will be Professor Gregory, who is preparing the work in col- laboration with Dr. Bashford Dean, Dr. Charles R. Eastman, and Dr. William Diller Matthew of the American Museum staff. This volume was projected by Professor Osborn in 1895 in coéperation with Professor J. Howard McGregor, but after a series of delays in its preparation the entire series of illustrations, and the manuscript as far as prepared, have been turned over to Professor Gregory. Tue Museum has recently received from Mr. Roy Latham, of Orient, Long Island, several fishes which are interesting because they throw light on migration up and down the Atlantic Coast. There is a great difference in the character of marine fishes found north and south of New York at differ- ent seasons. In summer the dividing line between northern and southern species is somewhere in the vicinity of Cape Cod, in the winter, of Cape Hatteras. It results that in the latitude of New York many fishes are migrants of seasonal occurrence like the birds, their dates of arrival and departure however, being comparatively little known. Tue preparation and mounting of some of the large mammal skins of the Congo collec- tion was begun early in April in the studio of Mr. Carl E. Akeley in the Museum. Speci- mens of the white rhinoceros and of the okapi, for the groups of these animals to be installed in the projected new African hall, are now being worked upon, and all the material is being mounted by Mr. Akeley’s new taxi- dermic process, which is giving extraordinarily satisfactory results. The group of the rare African okapi will be of unusual importance, because the complete data at hand will make 300 it possible to present this animal authorita- tively and truthfully as has never been done before. Mr. James L. Clark is associated with the work for the African hall, and several assist- ants have been added to the force in the elephant studio. AN expedition to Nicaragua, Central America, to obtain reptiles and fishes for the collections of the American Museum is now in the field, financed by the Cleveland H. Dodge Fund of the American Museum. The expedition is in charge of Mr. Clarence R. Halter, assistant in herpetology at the Mu- seum, and Mr. L. Alfred Mannhardt, of Yale University. Nicaragua has a rich reptile fauna which is of unusual interest, not only because of the great diversity in the topo- graphical features of the region, but also because the isthmus today forms a transition tract between the two continents and is supposed, in the past, to have had land connection with Cuba and Jamaica. The expedition plans to proceed by slow stages up the Bluefields River, by steamer and canoe, collecting in the interior to the north and the south; then, crossing the Chontales Mountains, to collect on the eastern and western slopes southward to the river San Juan, which will be followed eastward to the coast. In addition to the enrichment of the Museum’s collections, it is hoped that eco- logical and other studies made in the field will prove of value toward the construction of a habitat group of the reptiles of Nicaragua. The expedition will be in the field between three and four months, with headquarters at Bluefields, on the Atlantic side. UnbeEr the will of the late Charles E. Rhine- lander the Museum is to receive the sum of $8000, and may possibly become later a further beneficiary to the extent of $12,000 from a trust fund. THe memorial tablet to the late John Pierpont Morgan, designed and executed by Miss Beatrice Longman and presented to the Museum by the Trustees, has been set into the south wall of the gem room on the fourth floor, where is housed the Morgan collection of gems. The simplicity of the memorial is in accord with the wishes of Mr. Morgan’s son, and the inscription is taken from the resolution of. appreciation passed by the Trustees on the occasion of Mr. Morgan’s 338 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM. JOURNAL death. Miss Longman, who is a pupil of the sculptor, Daniel French, has achieved in this tablet a work of art not unworthy to rank among those collected by the lover of art whom it commemorates. Tuer permanent endowment of the Museum has been enriched by the receipt of $10,000 from the estate of Mr. Emil C. Bondy in payment of a bequest. Mr. L. D. Kettoaea has been elected a Patron of the Museum in recognition of his generous support of the Crocker Land Expe- dition. Mr. Greorce C. Lonciey has added the specimens resulting from his last winter’s archeological work in the island of Jamaica, to the collection previously presented by him to the Museum. The Longley collec- tion is believed to be the largest and most representative one from Jamaica in existence. Tue annual convention of the National Education Association, July 1-8, was at- tended by thousands of teachers from all parts of the United States. A luncheon was given by the Trustees of the American Museum to the members of the science department of the Association on Friday, July 7, in the Philippine hall of the Museum, and the Museum’s auditorium was placed at the disposal of the science department on that date. The department of public education of the Museum prepared a special exhibition of the American Museum’s educational work in connection with the schools and libraries of the city, including the circulating nature study collections, the work for the blind, and the system of loaning lantern slides; this is still on view in Memorial Hall. Also, a special leaflet was printed and distributed, calling attention to the most important and interesting exhibits in the Museum. Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, addressed the Associa- tion on July 6, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and also on July 7, at the American Museum, taking for his subject on the latter occasion, “‘The Museum as the New Force in Public School Development.”’ Mr. Artuur L. GriuaM has enriched the collections of the American Museum by the gift of a considerable series of Florida rep- tiles and batrachians. The new collection numbers two hundred and fifty specimens. It includes many examples of certain of the poisonous snakes of Florida — diamond-back rattlers, water moccasins and coral snakes — and also many alligators, ranging in size . from seven feet to ten inches. Mr. Gillam sent the greater part of the material alive, by express, from the field; thus many of the specimens are being used as studies for wax casts which will find place in the Florida reptile group now in process of construction in the Museum, under the supervision of © Miss M. C. Dickerson. TuE collections of the American Museum of Natural History are constantly and in- creasingly made use of for study by teachers and classes from the schools of the city and from a considerable radius of the country around. -In order that full advantage may be taken of the varied and extensive exhibits, without expenditure of much time in pre- liminary study, the Museum’s department of public education, in coéperation with the staff of the various scientific departments, is preparing a teacher’s handbook, indicating the ways in which the exhibits can best be utilized in the teaching of geography, history, natural science, and economics. The com- plete handbook will include sections on the North American Indian collections, the habitat bird groups, mammals, fossil verte- brates, reptiles, batrachians, invertebrates, insects, public health, and other branches of natural science. Part I of this handbook, dealing with the North American Indian collections, is now ready, and may be obtained at the Museum. It provides a short ethnological summary of the material to be found in the four Indian halls of the Museum, followed by detailed and illustrated suggestions as to ways of using these in teaching elementary history, English, and geography, taking into consider- ation the school requirements in each case. ‘References to other exhibits in the Museum are indicated where appropriate, and a list of suggested reading for the teacher is pro- vided for each subject, while floor plans of the various halls make it easy to find the designated objects. This section of the handbook has been prepared by Miss Ann E. Thomas, of the department of education, with the advice and criticism of Dr. Pliny Earle Goddard, curator of ethnology. The American Museum of Natural History - Seventy-seventh Street and Central Park West, New York City ' Open free to the public on every day in the year. The American Museum of Natural History was established in 1869 to promote the Natural Sciences and to diffuse a general knowledge of them among the people. It is dependent upon private subscriptions and the fees from members for procuring needed additions to the collections and for carrying on explorations in America and other parts of the world. The membership fees are, Annual Members..............-- $ 10 Sustaining Members (annually)... 25 Life Memibersis..y was atacai sce.s 100 TWelloWs . 3. ccko ere sae eat aa 500 POTN s sidi es die kes ers tal acd aca kee opie 8's 0 $1,000 Associate Benefactors.............. 10,000 Associate Founders.............+6. 25,000 SR OOUAQUINE vatican gain en araie 8 lk Re Bees 50,000 ‘Guides for Study of Exhibits are provided on request to members and teachers by the department of public education. Teachers wishing to. bring classes should write or telephone the department for an appointment, specifying the collection to be studied. Lectures to classes may also be arranged for. In all cases the best results are obtained with small groups of children. The Museum Library contains more than 60,000 volumes with a good working collection of publications issued by scientific institutions and societies in this country and abroad The library is open to the public for reference daily — Sundays and holidays excepted — from 9 a. M. to5 P.M. The Technical Publications of the Museum comprise the Memoirs, Bulletin and Anthropological Papers, the Memoirs and Bulletin edited by J. A. Allen, the Anthropological Papers by Clark Wissler. the institution. These publications cover the field and laboratory researches of The Popular Publications of the Museum comprise the JourNAL, edited by Mary Cynthia Dickerson, the Handbooks, Leaflets and General Guide. The following list gives some of the popular publications; complete lists, of both technical and popular publications, may be obtained from the Librarian. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS HANDBOOKS Nortu AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE PLatns. By Clark Wissler, Ph.D. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST. By Pliny Earle Goddard, Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. ANIMALS OF THE Past. By Frederic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Paper, 35 cents. sp By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 25 cents. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE LEAFLETS GENERAL GUIDE TO THE CoLLEcTions. New edition issued December, 1914. Price, 25 cents. Tue CoLLection or Mrnerats. By Louis P. Grata- cap, A.M. Price, 5 cents. NortuH AMERICAN RUMINANTS. Price, 10 cents. Tue AncieNT Basket Makers oF SOUTHEASTERN Uran. By George H. Pepper. Price, 10 cents. Primitive Art. Price, 15 cents. Tue Brrps oF THE Vicinity oF New York City. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. Price, 15 cents. PeruviAN Mummiges. By Charles W. Mead. Price, 10 cents. Tue METEORITES IN THE FOYER OF THE AMERICAN Museum or Natura History. By Edmund Otis Hovey, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Tue Hasitat Groups or Norta AMERICAN Birps. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. New edition in course of preparation. By J. A. Allen, Ph.D. Tue InprIANS or MANnuATTAN ISLAND AND VICINITY- By Alanson Skinner. Price, 20 cents. TREES AND Forestry. By Mary Cynthia Dickerson, B. A new edition in course of preparation. Tue ProrTecTION oF River AND HARBOR WATERS FROM MunicirpaL Wastes. By Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, M.S. Price, 10 cents. PiLant Forms 1n Wax. By E. C. B. Fassett. 10 cents. Tue Evo.LuTtion oF THE Horse. Ph.D. Price, 20 cents. MAMMOTHS AND Mastopons. By W.D.Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. How To CoLiect AND PRESERVE INSECTS. E Lutz, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. Our Common Butterruies. By Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D., and F. E. Watson. Price, 15 cents. Tue Bic TREE AND 1Ts Story. Price, 10 cents. REPRINTS By W. D. Matthew, Price, By W. D. Matthew, By Frank Tue Grounp SitotH Group. Ph.D. Price, 4 cents. Tue WuHarr PILE Group. Price, 5 cents. Tue SEA Worm Group. Price, 10 cents. Tue ANCESTRY OF THE EDENTATES. thew, Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. Herepiry AND Sex. By Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. By W. D. Mat- ” ; t., ey % ox ’ " a he “2 iP wh zg _.7@ Sr en i ene Sh tp a eh Var wees i i, : ‘ . 4 alk , - t t, 4 ey t ‘. - MW . » * ead : a 2 7 Se < D mee * ¥ ri Aart we |e é ane 1 gE ih Pino ae tate oi : ie ie frat We vee Atom ty tee Pj om THE AMERICAN MUSEUM | NATURAL HISTORY ||. 9 My on ) per ¢ RRMA 8 ile a 2 x 7 _ FOR THE PEOPLE | |] FOR EDVCATION | |} FOR SCIENCE . t ‘ ThA Ge * = =” ah a ti | a . Y tis ‘ * P * a” A, . . t 5 : ¢ 2 4 we * ’ . & 4 * - : y; * Cari Lf vit “ ™ ie, Pals » ay > cree : A 2 : . ott : ¢ .. 4 — At , : ci , ’ : ILUME XVI ~ PROTECTION FOR OUR VILD BIRDS _ A POSSIBLE NEW SEA FOOD BOARD OF TRUSTEES eal President Henry FairFIELD OsBORN First Vice-President CLEVELAND H. DopGE Treasurer Henry P. Davison JoHN PuRROY Mercaa, Mayor OF THE Crry or New York — Wituram A. PRENDERGAST, COMPTROLLER OF THE CiTy oF New Y Casot Warp, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PARKS © Henry C. Frick L MapiIson GRANT OGDEN Minis Anson W. Harp Pyn ArcHER M. HUNTINGTON ARTHUR CuRTISS JAMES Water B. JAMES A. D. JUmLuiarRD GerorGE F. BAKER FREDERICK F. BREWSTER JosepH H. CHOATE R. Futton Currine Tuomas DeWitTr CuYLeR James DouGLas ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS Assistant Treasurer Assis Tue Unirep States Trust Company Y or New York Director Freperic A. Lucas : SCIENTIFIC STAFF Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Director Geology and I invertebrate ‘Paleontology Epmvunp Oris Hovey, Ph.D., Curator CuesterR A. Reeps, Ph.D., Asst. Curator Mineralogy 3 L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator GeorceE F, Kunz, Ph.D., Honorary Curator Gems ‘Woods and Forestry Mary Cynrata Dickerson, B.S., Curator Invertebrate Zoélogy Henry E. Crampton, Ph.D., Curator Roy W. Miner, A.B., Asst. Curator _ Frank E. Lvurz, Ph.D., Asst. Curator L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Mollusca A. J. Moutcuuer, Assistant Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant Daniet M. Fisk, A.M., Assistant W. M. Wuee per, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Social Insects A. L. Treapwett, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Annulata Cuarves W. Lena, B.S., Hon. Curator Coleoptera Ichthyology and Herpetology Basurorp Dean, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus Lovis Hussaxor, Ph.D., Curator Ichthyology _ Joun T. Nicnots, A.B., Asst."Cur. Recent Fishes Mary Cynruia Dickerson, B.S., Assoc. Curator Herpetology Mammalogy and Ornithology J. A. Atven, Ph.D., Curator Frank M. Cuaruax, Se.D., Curator Ornithology Ror C. Anprews, A.M., Asst. Cur. Mammalogy W. Dew. Miter, Asst. qCurator Ornithology H. E. Antuony, B.S., Assistant Mammalogy Henrserr Lana, Assistant Mammalogy James P. Cuarix, Assistant Ornithology Henry Farrrietp Ossorn, LL. D Emeritus Barnum Brown, A.B., Assoc. Wituiam K. Grecory, Ph.D., tology 2 Cuar.es R. Eastman, Ph. D.,R Anthropology CLARK Wiss.er, Ph.D., Curator — Purny E. Gopparp, Ph.D., Curato: Rosert H. Lowre, Ph.D., ‘Keoots Herpert J. SpinpEN, Ph.D., AS News ©. Newson, M.L., Asst, Cu Cuar_es W. Mrnap, Asst. Cue M. D. C. Crawrorp, Research tiles ia) Geo. Birp GRINNELL, Ph.D., — in Ethnology in Antsropoloa¥ Louis R. Surrrvan, A.B., » ae Ee CuARLEs-Epwarp A. WINsLow, M T. G. Huut, Ph.D., Assistant Public Education — Gerorce H. Suerwoop, A.M., Cura G, Ctype Fisuer, Ph.D., Asst. Cura Ann E. Tuomas, Ph.B., Assistant — Books and Publications Raps W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Ips Ricnarpson Hoop, A.B., Asst. = = oe oe Aericsricn ‘sk aml jegte AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION ' THROUGH THE MUSEUM October, 1916 VOLUME XVI, NUMBER 6 INCLUSIVE, BY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY. * ONE DOLLAR AND A HALF PER YEAR, | CENTS PER COPY. ENTERED AS SECO’ POST-OFFICE AT BOSTON,. MASSACHUSETT OF CONGRESS, JULY 16, 1894. 7, CONTENTS FOR OCTOBER Cover, Where Barnacle-covered Rocks stand out to Sea Photograph taken on the Massachusetts coast by Mary Cynthia Dickerson Frontispiece, A Famous Painting of a Shark Encounter.................. From photograph of Copley’s picture ““Watson and the Shark’’ in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts Sharks — Man-eaters and Others........................ Hues M. Smita Account of the habits, haunts, and history of the more interesting and important sharks of the world, with especial reference to their relations with mankind Illustrations from photographs, and from original paintings by Charles R. Knight A Community of Sea Mussels................. Seas e p Irvine A. FIeLp Story of its growth, mode of life, and vicissitudes. Such a community is one of the greatest organi- zations in nature for making flesh food by a short and rapid process Reproductions in Duotone of Seacoast Photographs..................... Showing some of the inhabitants of the beaches and shallow waters of the Massachusetts coast in the month of September From photographs by Mary Cynthia Dickerson The Laws of Species Forming.................... Davin STARR JORDAN Brief discussion of the importance of segregation as a factor in producing new species among animals The Loom in the New World................. a pee: M. D. C. CRawFrorp Description of primitive types of loom used in North America southward to Peru, and comparison. of these with ancient old-world and modern looms Illustrations from photographs of exhibits in the American Miemciti of Natural History Ancient Peruvian Cloths....../...........+.. Bae ah atta Cy W. Mrap Some account of the prehistoric textiles of the Peruvian desert and their value as fieairation for weavers and designers of today Illustrations from photographs of exhibits in the American Museum of Natural History Pincle - Sanr’s. Sere ca ie eg ee T. Gi~Bert PEARSON History of federal bird reservations in the United States; their development and accomplishment Illustrations from photographs by National Association of Audubon Societies Hunting Dogs of the Ancients...................... CHARLES R. EASTMAN Lineage of dogs.of the chase as traced in ancient monuments Museum Notes........ ere Marr eee) oa ede ee ee 340 341 356 367 379 381 389 395 403 Mary Cyntara Dickerson, Editor Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMERICAN MusbUM JOURNAL, 77th St. Centra] Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the American Museum. and Courlesy Boston Museum of Fine Arts THE FAMOUS PAINTING, ‘““WATSON AND THE SHARK,” BY JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, DEPICTS A THRILLING RESCUE FROM A “*MAN-EATER” IN HAVANA HARBOR ‘The subject of the picture (probably chosen by the artist to exhibit skill in portraying flesh tints under water) is a bathing accident not dissimilar to those recently recorded on the New Jersey coast. Brooke Watson, an American, who afterward became Lord Mayor of London, lived as a youth in Jamaica, and it was while bathing in these tropical waters that the gruesome encounter with the shark occurred. Watson escaped from the encounter with only the loss of a leg, owing to the heroic work of a boat’s crew in the harbor, and the story goes that when as Lord Mayor he was questioned in after years about the loss, he delighted to mystify the inquirers by replying gleefully ‘It was bit off!” The original of this picture, painted in 1778, belongs to Lord Aberdare; a duplicate is in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 340 THe AMERICAN Museum Journa VoLumME XVI OCTOBER, 1916 NuMBER 6 Sharks — Man-eaters and Others WITH SUGGESTIONS THAT AMERICANS TURN TO ECONOMIC ACCOUNT SOME OF THE SMALLER SPECIES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST By HUGH M. SMITH United States Commissioner of Fisheries The unprecedented attacks by sharks on human beings along the middle Atlantic coast of the United States in the summer of 1916, resulting in the death of four bathers, produced a profound sensation and materially interfered with the attendance ‘at seaside resorts, while leading to an astonishing amount of newspaper discussion in the course of which the public was regaled with more fiction and also more facts about sharks in general than ever before in our history. Several departments of the federal government became involved in the matter, various individuals and committees offered rewards for the capture of ‘‘man-eating”’ sharks, and a bill was introduced in Congress appropriating money for the purpose of enabling the Department of Commerce to codperate in the extermination of man-eating sharks on the New Jersey coast. The Bureau of Fisheries was incessantly importuned to explain why sharks were behaving as they were, and to take action that would prevent further attacks. There was some criti- cism of our inability to cope with the situation, although obviously there was little that could be done. The culprits were never identified. It was not known whether one individual shark of a species common to the region was running amuck; whether representatives of several local species had been forced to attack human beings because of certain undetermined bio- logical or physical conditions; or whether there was an advent of a shark or sharks from distant waters with feeding habits different from those of the domestic species, which in no former years had exhibited any man-eating tendency and were dangerous only when they themselves were attacked. There were no attacks reported after the middle of July and the scare subsided; but out of all the excitement and discussion there has arisen a keen lay interest in sharks — their kinds, habits, size, distribution, and economic value; and in answer to that interest there have been special displays in museums and publication of much authentic matter in the secular and scientific press— Huacu M. Smirn. HE term “man-eater” is applied by the public to almost any shark of medium or large size, and during the recent scare any shark . over five feet long was likely to be called a “man-eater”’ and recorded as such in the daily press. The writer saw a published photograph of a “man-eater”’ shark and its proud captor; assuming the height of the man to have been six feet, the shark could not have exceeded three feet in length. In fish literature the name “man-eater”’ is restricted to the white shark [Carcharodon carcharias (Linneeus)], known also as the great blue shark. The name man-eater is justified, however, only by the large size, formidable teeth, voracity, and obvious ability of the fish to kill and eat human beings; it is certainly not warranted by a confirmed man-eating habit.1_ While 1In this connection it is interesting to quote the opinion of Mr. J. T. Nichols of the American Museum and Mr. Robert C. Murphy of the Brooklyn Museum, 341 342 this fish occurs regularly, although not abundantly, in summer along parts of our coast where sea bathing is exten- sively indulged in, it must be regarded as comparatively inoffensive in our waters even if the recent fatalities on the New Jersey coast are. attributable to it. The genus Carcharodon reached its ° climax in the past, during the Eocene or Miocene, when fish immensely larger than any now existing must have roamed the seas. It has been thought that, because of the size of the fossil teeth,! individuals seventy to eighty feet long must have been common. The model? of the jaws of a shark of this genus in the American Museum of Natural History suggests the colossal proportions at- tained in geological times. In _ these degenerate modern days the maximum length reached by the white shark ap- pears to be about forty feet, with teeth three inches long. The British Museum contains the jaws of a specimen thirty- six feet long from Australia. The gusta- tory feats that can be performed by fish of such size may be judged by the accom- plishment of a thirty-foot individual on the California coast which had in its stomach an entire sea lion weighing who consider the circumstantial evidence sufficient to convict the white shark in spite of lack of definite proof against it: “White sharks are so scarce that their habits are little known, but they are said to feed to some extent on big sea turtles, biting off their legs and even cutting through their shells. Of this species it may be said that judging from its physical make-up it would not hesitate to attack a man in the water... .Even a rela- tively small white shark, weighing two or three hundred pounds, might readily snap the largest human bones by a jerk of its body after it had bitten through the fles. The occurrence of the white shark near New York being almost as unprecedented as the attacks on bathers which happened simultaneously, the cap ture of a specimen by Mr. Schliesser confirms our belief that the white shark was responsible for the casualties.” These views of Messrs. Nichols and Murphy are stated in full in the Magazine Seclion of the New York Times for August 6, 1916.— Tue Eprrorn. ! Opinion of the late Dr. George Brown Goode. *See photograph on back cover of Jounnar THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL one hundred pounds. The writer has before him a note on a shark of this species collected by a Bureau of Fisher- ies party at Menemsha Bight, Martha’s Vineyard, on August 19, 1916; it was twelve feet eight inches long, and more than five feet in girth at the pectorals, and was estimated to weigh one thousand pounds. In the same family with Carcharodon, and distinguished therefrom by having the edges of the teeth entire instead of serrate, are the mackerel sharks, of which four species may be found on the — Atlantic coast.!. One of these,? a cos- mopolitan species in temperate lati- tudes, is the “porbeagle” of England, [Zsurus nasus (Bonnaterre)].? It attains a length of ten to twelve feet. The com-— mon species on the east coast of the United States is the “blue shark” of the Cape Cod fishermen, [Jsurus puncta- tus (Storer)|, readily distinguishable by the large black spot on the pectoral fin. It reaches a length of eight to ten feet. The mackerel sharks are handsome, trim, and active species, and are so named because they are present chiefly during the mackerel season and prey largely on that fish. They are some- times very annoying to purse-seine, pound-net, and gill-net fishermen. Related to the mackerel sharks ana- tomically, but differing markedly from them in habits and disposition, is the basking shark or bone shark (Cetorhinus maximus). These names have been applied by our fishermen in allusion to the facts that the fish often remains All of these are now placed in the genus Isurus by Garman. The Plagiostomia. 1913. * Another form ranging from New York to the West Indies, was described in 1869 by Captain Atwood as Carcharias ligris but has not been recognized by later writers; it appears to be a distinct species and may be called Isurus ligris. It attains a length of ten feet or more. : * Generally recorded in recent literature under the name Lamna cornubica (Gmelin). 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Jo YASUE] & sUTe}Ie ‘sfooYoS UI SUITAS 3] ‘opnyzey sty} Seyowes A]feuoIseo00 YyoryM yYysy yeoldos} & ‘(sn917904D Opsa90a]DF)) YTeYS 1031) 10 paredod] ey} eq 07 APY St YIOK MONT JO APUIOLA OY} Ul Uaye} YreYs ysoFse] at Re SNOlo08d44 GNV INAAOVYHD “AAILOV SI MHYVHS GHVdO37 3HL myhruy “Yy sajioys) XQ 720 U2 spaund paysyjqndun wory STE odXk} podeys-iourmrey pojeieS3exo siq} 0} podeys-youuoq wor} Surdrea ‘speoy! podeys Ajosueys yA SULIOJ JO SolIes B SEpNpUL ssuojeq peoy-JoMUTeY oy} |YoryM oF Aprurey oY, “qaIys 00}}00 pedizjs e Osfe pue UeUL B JO SUTeUIEI peYyoe}Op oY} pouteyUOD ‘cQgT ‘1equIeydeg ur ‘yIOX MON ‘peoysoaATyY 7e 7y4Sneo usulloeds eB pue “ooJ UVE}FY JO YISuUI], & suTeq}e 2] “s}josnyoesse yy Se YOU Jey se ‘JoUTUINS UI 4seOo OLjURT] VY 9Y} Suoye yuonboijur you ysy aeytfodoursoo e ‘(puebd > im Part of large shawl-like garment of cotton cloth with a border of vicufia wool, from the Peruvian coast, near Lima. The animal figures represent the puma 389 > Oo. a 2 i Oh ) rv) ut tr He ey a > GEE) <2) a> gm A ee ni; oy ; } ‘ ta yy % ii ANCIENT INCAN PONCHO Near the opening for the head the Inca is shown, with his battle-axe and shield and wearing a poncho. The decorations in the upper half of the garment represent feathers; below they are geometrical designs, This poncho comes from the island of Titicaca, Bolivia down with the baton or weaver’s sword until they met over the cotton warp threads and completely covered them. For twisting their threads the Peruvians used wooden spindles weighted with 390 whorls, which were generally made of clay, tastefully decorated. In the fall of 1912 the Museum’s exhibit of these old Peruvian textiles was installed in the South American gal- pati 4 tith Hasitif coe abe = <4 a = ~ Tapestry from Ancén, Peru, The warp is of cotton; the weft of vicufia wool. Leap GEE BRIE ui This design of birds’ heads and geometrical designs in yellow on a deep reddish-brown ground, is strikingly decorative and has been ex- tensively copied by artists Cotton cloth from Casma, Peru. cloths appear to have been yery common in Peru lery. It shows many different weaves, the most beautiful pieces being in the form of tapestry. It is doubtful if any other field of primitive art furnishes an equally good The design is painted in black on a plain white ground. These painted opportunity for the study of color schemes and conventionalized designs. That this has been recognized and appreciated is attested by the fact that these textiles are studied, and have been 391 a ay =——~— Ss TL AAAAAIY ALAM Y| | . K \ ‘ \y INCAN PONCHO FROM THE ISLAND OF TITICACA, BOLIVIA The two lower rows of squares show human figures and the puma. The squares above contain, for the most part, geometrical designs, but in some of them birds are represented flying up to or down from the clouds, the step- Silver tinsel yarn in considerable quantity is woven into this poncho. form figures probably representing clouds. This yarn was spun in Peru by twisting a thin band or ribbon of silver about a finished yarn of cotton . ANCIENT PERUVIAN CLOTHS for some years, by an average of one hundred and fifty art students each month, who carry away with them for future use copies in black and white and in colors of these color schemes and designs.. Aside from their value to artists and art students, these old Peruvian textiles claim our admiration from a technical point of view. This side of the subject, although of very great interest, will not be taken up here, as it has been treated ina paper by Mr. M. D. C. Crawford, published by the Museum in its anthro- pological series. Mr. Crawford is in- terested in the textile business, and. is familiar with the history of textiles, and with the materials and machinery used in the processes of spinning and weaving. The wonderfully complex ma- chines of the present day but repeat the processes formerly performed by the weaver’s fingers. The finest textiles known have been made by hand; ma- chines have not made fabrics more per- fect. Mr. Crawford’s paper will be the first to treat the prehistoric Peruvian cloths from a purely technical point of view. . We do not know the age of the Peruvian fabrics. They probably be- long to different epochs, and while a part of them may not greatly antedate the historical period (1532), others are undoubtedly of a very much greater age, perhaps several thousand years older. This assumption is reasonable and in ac- cordance with what we know of the de- 393 velopment of other arts and industries. All things connected with old Peru are associated in the popular mind with the Inca. Now the truth of the matter is that the coast region did not come under the Inca sway until about one hun- dred to one hundred and fifty years before the conquest, and most of these fabrics were made many centuries be- fore that time. Various localities in- cluded within the boundaries of ancient Peru, have furnished us with specimens of this cloth; but by far the greater number of specimens comes from the coast region, which is largely a desert of dry, nitrous sand, well adapted to their preservation. So well are the fabrics preserved that many of the pieces are as strong, and their colors apparently as bright, as when taken from the primi- tive loom. The ancient inhabitants lived in the fertile valleys of the rivers flowing from the Cordillera to the Pacific, and buried their dead in the desert sand near, and it is from these graves that the best-preserved specimens come. It was a very long step indeed from the first attempts at weaving to the production of these beautiful fabrics. The designs, and something of the textures, of the Museum’s mummy cloths are shown in the illustrations, but the wonderful color schemes, which never fail to delight the artist’s eye, are all but lost, as they always must be when photography is relied upon for their reproduction. TERNS, CORMORANTS, AND PELICANS ON KLAMATH LAKE, OREGON This huge lake with its stretches of tule islands, was made a bird reservation eight years ago and is now the home of great colonies of pelicans, gulls, cormorants, and terns, with ducks, geese, and many other birds. The great blue herons build their platform nests over an area of several acres; the pelicans, once near extermination in this region owing to the quill hunters, now sit in rows, hundreds together, and view with calmness the close approach of the Audubon patrol boat. Western grebes were once so nearly exterminated that they are not numerous even yet, after eight years of protection 394 A village of Farallon cormorants on lower Klamath Lake, receiving a visit from the writer Uncle Sam’s Birds By T. GILBERT PEARSON Secretary, National Association of Audubon Societies The JourNnat publishes as a third article in the series from Mr. Pearson’s book soon to be brought out by Doubleday, Page and Company, this chapter on bird reservations. It is with unusual satisfaction that we read the vividly told story of the growth of federal protection, together with descriptions of various rookeries, such as that ‘in the “‘ Big Cypress”’ near Fort Myers, Florida, and accounts of the splendid loyalty of the wardens who daily hold watch over the birds. There should be added to this story of bird protection, the legislative triumph which has just come to pass, through the final ratification by Congress on August 29 of an international treaty for conservation of all migratory birds of the North American continent. This treaty, now active law in Canada and the United States north of Mexico, was initiated more than two years ago by Senator George P. McLean of Connecticut. It followed through the necessary course in Canada, then came down from Ottawa in the August just past, to meet success or failure in Washington. Great was the delight of those interested either from the economic side or from sentiment, to see the treaty pass quickly through the hands of the Secretary of State, the British Ambassador, the President, and go to the Senate, where it was made law by a two-thirds majority vote. It is prophesied that the enactment of this international law protecting migratory birds will prove the most far-reaching of any step ever taken in any country for the increase of the native bird life. [See page 410 for some of the specific restrictions of the treaty.|— Tue Eprror. HE creation of reservations where game birds of the state, with the excep- all wild birds may be protected tion of the crow and a few other species at all times is a very modern idea and was first brought prominently to public attention by the efforts of the Audubon Society. The United States Government first manifested an interest in this subject about thirteen years ago, and it came about in this manner. On May 29, 1901, the legislature of Florida was induced to enact a statute making it a misdemeanor to kill any of the non- regarded by the lawmakers as_ being injurious to man’s interests in some way. Shortly afterward, the Audubon So- ciety employed a man to protect from the raids of tourists and feather-hunters a large colony of brown pelicans that used as a nesting site a small, muddy, mangrove-covered island in Indian River on the Atlantic coast of the state. Soon murmurings began to be heard. “ Peli- 395 396 cans eat fish and should not be pro- tected,” declared one Floridian. ‘“ We need Pelican quills to sell to the feather- dealers,’ chimed in another with a keen eye to the main chance. There was talk of repealing the law at the next session of the legislature, and the hearts of the Audubon workers were troubled. At first they thought of buying the island, and putting themselves thus in a position to protect its feathered in- habitants by preventing trespass. The island proved however, to be unsur- veyed government land, and some one suggested the idea of getting the govern- ment to make it a reservation to pro- tect the birds. At length the matter was submitted to President Roosevelt, who no sooner ascertained that the land was not suited for agricultural purposes, and that the Audubon Society would guard it, than, with characteristic di- rectness, he issued the following remark- able edict: “It is hereby ordered that Pelican Island in Indian River is re- served and set apart for the use of the Department of Agriculture as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds.” The gist of this order, bearing the authorization of the Secretary of Agri- culture, was shortly painted on a large sign, which was then placed on the island, where all who sailed near might read. Imagine the chagrin of the Audubon workers upon learning from their warden that, when the pelicans returned that season to occupy the island as before, they took one look at this declaration of the President and immediately de- parted, one and all, to a neighboring island entirely outside of the reservation! Signs less alarming in size were substi- tuted, and the pelicans, their feelings appeased, graciously returned, and to the joy of all concerned have since dwelt there peacefully, and flourished under the protecting care of the government. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL In view of the fact that some people contended that the President had over- stepped his authority in making a bird reservation, a law was drafted, and passed by Congress specifically giving protection to birds on lands set apart as national bird reservations. The legal difficulties now removed, the way lay open for the creation of other bird reser- vations, and the Audubon Society eagerly seized the opportunity. Explorations were at once begun to locate such other government territories as might be found to contain important colonies of water birds, and this work was quickly extended over many parts of the United States. Plumage hunters and eggers were busy plying their trade wherever this class of birds was known to collect . in numbers, and the work had to be hurried if the birds were to be saved. Mr. Frank M. Miller, of New Orleans, reported a case in which five thousand eggs were broken on one Louisiana island inhabited by sea birds, in order that fresh eggs might subsequently be gathered by the eggers whose waiting boats lay at anchor offshore. | No won- der the friends of the birds were pro- foundly disturbed concerning the future welfare of the wild water birds, and hailed with delight the accession to their ranks of the daring, quick-acting Mr. Roosevelt. So enthusiastic was Mr. William Dut- cher, president of the National Associ- ation of Audubon Societies, with the results achieved in federal reservation work in 1905, that he declared in his annual report that if the Association had done nothing else than secure federal bird reservations and help guard them during the breeding season, its existence would be fully warranted. President Roosevelt established that year four more bird refuges; one of these, Stump Lake, in North Dakota, Society. The breeding places of the sea birds are cared for by the Society with the result that ten thousand young birds were reared one summer recently on the rookery islands et, — a a A. Ay ye} id go, f Eee ane ha ww Tey The demand for the skins of terns and gulls for the millinery trade and the resulting wholesale " slaughter, have made these birds extremely scarce in many regions. On the bird reservations, storms and high tides are now their only enemies, but these causes sometimes destroy many thousands of eggs a year 397 398 was an important nursery of gulls, terns, ducks, and cormorants in summer, and a safe harbor for wild fowl during the spring and fall migrations. Huron and Siskiwit islands, lying in Lake Superior, and the homes of innumerable herring gulls, were made perpetual bird sanctu- aries, and an Audubon warden took up his lonely watch to guard them against all comers. ic =e Noddy terns, on the Bird Key reservation, Dry Tortugas, Florida. The noddies build their nests of twigs, moss, and sea shells in the bay cedar bushes Away down at the mouth of Tampa Bay, Florida, is the ninety-acre island of Passage Key. Here the wild bird life of the Gulf Coast has swarmed in the mating season since the white man first knew the country. Thousands of herons of various species, as well as terns and shore birds, make this their home. The dainty little ground doves flutter THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL in and out among the eactus on the shel- tered sides of the sand dunes; _plovers and sandpipers chase one another along the beaches, and the burrowing owls hide in their holes by night and explore the island by day. When this place was described to President Roosevelt, he immediately de- clared that birds must not be killed here any longer without the consent of the Secretary of Agriculture. With one stroke of his pen, he brought this de- sired condition into existence, and Mrs. Asa Pillsbury was duly appointed to protect the island. She is one of the few women bird wardens in America. These things happened in the early days of government work for the pro- tection of water birds. The Audubon Society had found a new field for en- deavor, which was highly prolific in re- sults. With all the limited means at its command, the work of ornithological exploration was carried forward. Every island, mud flat, and sand bar along the coast of the Mexican Gulf, from Texas to Key West, was visited by trained ornithologists, who reported their find- ings to the New York office. From here they were hurried to Washington for the approval of Dr. T. S. Palmer of the U. S. Biological Survey, and of Mr. Frank Bond, of the General Land Office, where the executive orders were prepared for the President’s signature. The Breton Island reservation off the coast of Louisiana, including scores of islands and bars, was established in 1904. Six additional reservations were soon afterward created along the west coast of Florida, thus extending a per- petual guardianship over the colonies of sea and coastwise birds in that terri- tory, — the pitiful remnants of the vast rookeries which had been despoiled to add to the profits of the millinery trade. The work was early started in the UNCLE SAM’S BIRDS 399 West, where Malheur Lake and Klamath Lake reservations, in Oregon, resulted. The latter is today the summer home of myriads of ducks, geese, grebes, white pelicans and other wild waterfowl, and never a week passes but that the waters of the lake are fretted with the prow of the Audubon patrol boat, as the watch- ful warden extends his vigil over these feathered wards of the Government. Not only have lakes with reedy mar- gins, and lonely islands in the sea, been turned into federal bird reservations, but such reservations have been made to include also numbers of the big gov- ernment reservoirs built in the arid regions of the West. Once set in motion, this movement for federal bird reservations soon swept beyond the boundaries of the United States. One was established in Porto Rico, and several others among the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, where on the rocky cliffs may be seen today clouds of puffins, auks and guillemots (queer creatures which stand upright like a man), shouldering and crowding one another about on the ledges overlooking the dark waters of Bering Sea. One reservation in Alaska covers much of the lower delta of the Yukon, including the great tundra country south of the river, and embracing within its borders a territory greater than the state of Connecticut. From the standpoint of preserving rare species of birds, this reservation is doubtless one of the most important which has thus far come into existence. It is here that many of the wild fowl which frequent the California coast in winter, find a summer refuge safe alike from the bullet of the white man and the arrow of the Indian. Here it is that the lordly emperor goose is making probably its last stand on the American continent against the aggres- sions of the destructive white race. Away out in the western group of the Hawaiian Archipelago are located some of the world’s most famous colonies of birds. From over vast regions of the Pacific, the sea birds journey hither when the instinct for mating comes strong upon them. Here come the “love birds” or white terns, and many albatrosses, those great winged wonders whose home is onthe rolling deep. Their numbers on these islands are such as to be almost beyond the belief of men who are unfamiliar with bird life in congested colonies. On Febru- ary 3, 1909, these islands and reefs were included in an executive order whereby the Hawaiian Island reservation was brought into existence. This is the largest of all our government bird re- serves, and extends through more than five degrees of longitude. At intervals in the past these islands had been visited by vessels engaged in the feather trade, and although no funds were available for establishing a warden patrol among them, it was fondly hoped that the notice given to the world that the birds here were now the wards of the United States would be sufficient to in- sure their safety. A rude shock was felt, therefore, when late that year a rumor reached Washing- ton that a Japanese poaching vessel had been sighted heading for these waters. The revenue cutter “Thetis,” then lying at Honolulu, was at once ordered on a cruise to the bird islands. Early in 1910, the vessel returned, bringing with her. twenty-three Japanese feather hunters who had been captured at their work of destruction. In the hold of the vessel were stored two hundred and fifty-nine thousand pairs of wings, two and a half tons of baled feathers, and several large cases and boxes of stuffed birds, for which, had the Japanese escaped with their booty, they would have realized 400 over one hundred thousand dollars. This island was again raided by feather collectors in the spring of 1915. President Taft continued the policy of creating bird reservations begun by Mr. established during his administration. President Wilson likewise is a warm friend of bird protection and has given these measures his support. One of many reservations he has created is the Panama Canal Zone which, however, is in charge of the Panama Canal Com- mission. With this exception, and that of the Pribilof reservation, which is in charge of the Bureau of Fisheries, all government bird reservations are under the care of the Department of Agricul- ture and their administration is directly in charge of the Bureau of Biological Survey. The National Association of Audubon Societies still contributes in a modest way to the financial support of some of the wardens. It may be noted that there are no government bird reservations in the original thirteen colonies. This is be- cause there were no government waste lands containing bird colonies in these states. To protect such colony-breeding birds as were here found, therefore, other means were necessary. The subject is well taken care of by the Audubon So- ciety, which from its New York office employs annually about fifty agents to guard in summer the more important groups of water birds along the Atlantic Coast, and about some of the lakes of the interior. Water bird colonies are usually situated on islands where the birds are comparatively free from the attacks of natural enemies, hence the question of guarding them resolves itself mainly into the question of keeping people from disturbing the birds during the late spring and summer months. Painted signs will not do this. Men Roosevelt, and a number were THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL hired for the purpose constitute the only safe means. Some of the protected islands have been bought or leased by the Audubon Society, but in many cases they are still under private ownership and the consent necessary for placing a guard there has been obtained as a favor from the owner. Probably half a mil- lion breeding water birds now find pro- tection in the Audubon reservations. On the islands off the Maine coast the birds chiefly safeguarded by this means are the herring gull, Arctic tern, Wilson’s tern, Leach’s petrel, black guillemot, and puffin. There are protected colonies of terns on Long Island, terns and laughing gulls on the New Jersey coast, and colo- nies of black skimmers, and various terns in Virginia and North Carolina. : One of the greatest struggles which the Audubon Society has ever had has been to raise funds to protect the colonies of egrets and ibis in South Atlantic states. The story of this fight is longer than ean be told here. Briefly, — the protected colonies are located mainly in the low swampy regions of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. I have been in many of these “rookeries” _ and know that the warden who under- takes to guard one of them takes his life in his hand. Perhaps a deseription of one will answer more or less for all the twenty others the Society has under its care. Some time ago I visited the warden of the Corkscrew Rookery, located at the edge of the “Big Cypress” swamp, thirty-two miles south of Fort Myers, Florida. Arriving at the colony late in the evening, after traveling thirty miles without seeing a human being or a human habitation, we killed a rattlesnake and proceeded to make camp. The shout- ings of a pair of sand-hill cranes awak- ened us at daylight, and, according to Greene, the warden, the sun was about UNCLE SAM’S BIRDS “two hands high”? when we started into the rookery. We crossed a saw-grass glade two hundred yards wide and then entered the swamp. Progress was slow, for the footing was uncertain and the tall saw grass cut our wrists and faces upon the slightest provocation. There are many things unspeakably stimulating about a journey in a tropical swamp like this. You work your way through thick, tangled growths of water plants and hanging vines. You clamber over huge fallen logs damp with rank vegetation, and wade through a maze of cypress “knees.” Unwittingly, you are sure to gather on your clothing a colony of ravenous ticks from some swaying branch. Red bugs bent on mischief scramble on you by the score and bury themselves in the skin, while a cloud of mosquitoes waves behind you like a veil. In the somber shadows, through which you move, you have a feeling that there are many unseen things that crawl and glide and fly, and a creepy feeling about the edges of your scalp becomes a familiar sensation. Once we came upon the trail of a bear and found the going easier by wading on hands and knees through the opening its body had made. In the more open places the water was completely covered with floating water plants, which Greene called “wild let- tuce.” These appeared to be uniform in size, and presented an absolutely level surface except in a few places, where slight elevations indicated the presence of inquisitive alligators, whose gray eyes we knew were watching our movements through the lettuce leaves. Although the swamp abounded in un- pleasant conditions under foot, we had but to raise our eyes to behold a world of beauty. The purple blossoms of air plants, and the delicate petals of other orchids greeted us on every hand. From 401 the boughs overhead, long banners of gray Spanish “moss” waved and beck- oned in the breeze. Still higher, on the gaunt branches of the giant cypresses a hundred feet above, were the great wood ibises standing on their nests, or taking flight for their feeding grounds a dozen miles to the southward. We were now fairly in the midst of an immense bird city, and some of the in- habitants were veritable giants in the bird world. The body of a wood ibis is about the size of a turkey hen. Its long neck terminates in a most remarkable appendage, for the top of the head is not only innocent of feathers but is also destitute of skin — “flintheads’”’ the people call them. The bill is nearly ten inches long, is slightly curved and very massive. Woe to the unlucky fish and alas for the luckless rat when once the blow falls from the flinthead’s heavy beak! There were probably one hun- dred thousand of these birds inhabiting Corkscrew Rookery at the time of my visit. Then, too, there were large colo- nies of the smaller white ibis and several varieties of herons. Once, eight of the almost extinct roseate spoonbills wheeled into view above the swamp, but quickly passed from sight. The most interesting birds here, and those concerning which the Audubon Society is most solicitous, are the white egrets. These snowy birds, of exquisite beauty and queenly grace, have been persecuted for their plumes in this coun- try almost to the point of extermination, and here is situated the largest assem- blage of them left in Florida. “These ‘long whites’ are never off my mind a minute,” said the warden, as we paused to watch some fly over. “Two men came to my camp last week who thought I didn’t know them, but I did. They were old-time plume hunters. They said they were hunting cattle, but 402 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL I knew better — they were after egrets and came to see if I was on watch. I told them if they saw anyone after plumes to pass the word that I would shoot on sight any man with a gun who attempted to enter the Corkscrew, and I would do it too,” he added, as he tapped the barrel of his Winchester. “It is terrible to hear the young birds calling for food after the old ones have been killed to get the feathers for rich women to wear, and I am not going to have my birds sacrificed that way.” This is a region where the Audubon warden must constantly keep his lonely watch, for should he leave even for a short time there would be danger of the colony being raided and all the protec- tive work of many seasons wiped out. A successful shooting trip of plume hun- ters to the Corkscrew might well net the gunners as much as five thousand dollars, and this, in a country where money is scarce, would mean a magnificent for- tune. The warden is fully alive to this fact, and is ever on the alert. Many of the plume hunters are desperate men, and he never knows what moment he may need to grasp his rifle and defend his life, away down there in the shadows of the Big Cypress, where the alligators and vultures would make short shrift of his remains. He remembers, as he goes his rounds among the birds day by day, or lies in his tent at night, that a little way to the south on a lonely sand key, lies buried Guy Bradley, who was done to death by plume hunters while guarding for the Audubon Society the Cuthbert egret rookery, and that even at this time, above him on Orange Lake, the warden in charge carries in his body the bullet from a plume gatherer’s gun. Only three days before my visit, Greene’s nearest brother warden, on duty at the Alligator Bay colony, had a desperate rifle battle with four poachers who, in defiance of law and decency, attempted to shoot the egrets which he was there to guard. I like to think of Greene as I saw him the last night in camp, his brown lean face aglow with interest as he told me many things about the birds he guarded. The next day I would leave him, and night after night he would sit by his fire, a lonely representative of the Audubon Society away down there on the edge of the Big Cypress, standing as best he could between the lives of the birds he loved and the insatiable greed of fashion. Army of young white pelicans at Klamath Lake reservation, Oregon , Ancient Tibetan hunting dog pursuing wild horses. [After Kraemer] Hunting Dogs of the Ancients By CHARLES R. EASTMAN a4 HEN Alexander the Great was on \/ \/ his Indian expedition, he was presented by the King of Al- bania with a dog of unusual size; being greatly delighted with its noble appearance, he ordered bears, and after them wild boars, and then deer, to be let loose before it; but the dog lay down and regarded them with a kind of immovable contempt. The noble spirit of the general became irritated by the sluggishness thus manifested by an animal of such vast bulk, and he ordered it to be killed. The report of this reached the king, who accordingly sent another dog, and at the same time sent word that its powers were to be tried, not upon small animals but upon a lion or elephant; adding that he had had originally but two, and that if this one were put to death, the race would be extinct.’’ “Alexander, without delay, procured a lion, which in his presence was immediately torn to pieces. He then ordered an elephant to be brought, and never was he more de- lighted with any spectacle; for the dog, bristling up its hair all over the body, began by thundering forth a loud barking, and then attacked the animal, leaping at it first on one side and then on the other, attacking it in the most skilful manner, and then again retreating at the opportune moment, until at last the elephant, being rendered quite giddy by turning round and round, fell to the earth, and made it quite resound with its fall.” In the narrative just related, which is found in the eighth book of Pliny’s Natural History, written in the first century of our era, we find mention of a fierce race of hunting dog bred by the Albanians. Questions of no little scientific and historical interest arise, namely, whence came this powerful variety of dog of the East? And how was it related to other canine breeds that were used in ancient times in the chase of great animals, or to the greyhound, used in coursing for hares? For an answer to these questions we must interrogate those monuments which have come down to us from remote antiquity, and represent for us the very earliest glimmerings of light that appear — after the long night of prehistoric darkness — in Babylonia, Assyria and Egypt. Here we find an interesting tale unfolded. Directing our attention as far backward as the earliest culture strata in Turkestan, which correspond to the metal periods in Europe, we find several varieties of Canidz abun- dantly represented, among them the so-called “dog of Anau,” brought to light in the exca- vations of the citadel of that name. This was a domesticated canine of moderate size, standing with respect to its cranial structure very near to the primitive dingo, and also to a small wild dog of the palolithic period (C. poutiatini Studer), which latter is re- garded as the probable ancestor of the shepherd dog. In vain do we search the Assyro-Baby- lonian monuments for indications of. the shepherd dog of the East; in them are repre- sented only the huge Tibetan mastiff and 403° Courtesy of Boston Museum of Fine Aris Hunting scene from a Rhodo-Milesian vase of the seventh century, B.C. Cretan, erect-eared hound, dating from earliest Minoan times, about 4000 B.C. (From cover of a steatite vessel found at Mochlos). The Cretan hound is abundant in Crete today and has an extremely ancient lineage, which can be traced back to a prehistoric domestication of the Abyssinian wolf. (From Nouveaux Mem."Soc. Helv. Sei. Nat. Vol. XLVI) ri 404 i = c= SAY NT erIAHSs ony olf Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. Egyptian hunting dogs represented on a royal monument found at Thebes, dating from the eleventh dynasty, about 2100 B.C. The stela shows King Horus accompanied by one attendant and five of his dogs. The dogs are of a southern race for they have Berber names inscribed in hieroglyphs above their figures. In three cases a transla- tion of the foreign name into Egyptian is written vertically before the dog’s breast greyhound. From this may be inferred that the ancient Assyrians had no relation with the later inhabitants of Anau, and that their large hunting dogs with drooping ears, not distantly related to the modern St. Bernard, were of different origin from those which we find in central Asia and in Egypt. On the other hand, the interesting fact that the Anau type of dog is found in ancient Egypt tends to confirm the current opinion that the primitive inhabitants of the Nile valley mi- grated from central Asia into northwest Africa by way of the Red Sea, and brought with them this dog as well as the long-horned cattle, which are undoubtedly of Asiatic origin. There are found in ancient Egyptian monu- ments, and also among mummified remains, numerous indications of an erect-eared, short- muzzled, smooth-haired dog, which, in the opinion of experts, ‘‘seems to correspond well with the Anau dog,” a subspecies which has received the distinctive name of Canis familiaris matris optime Through com- 1Duerst, J. Ulrich. Animal Remains from _ the Excavations of Anau. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 73, 1908, p. 352. See also Keller, Conrad, Studien iiber die ’ Haustiere der Mittelmeer-Inseln. Nouv. Mem. Soc. Helvét. Sci. Nat., vol. 46, 1911. On the ancestry of mercial intercourse this type was carried from Egypt into ancient Greece, and from the Balkan region it spread into Austria and central Europe during the early historical period. The so-called Canis molossus of the ancients, and also the modern St. Bernard, seem to have been derived from that domesti- cation in western Asia to which the powerful mastiff-like Assyrian hunting dogs belonged, such as we find represented in the monu- ments, and examples of which were presented to the Macedonian conqueror. Besides the Anau type of dog the primitive Egyptian possessed a huge coursing hound’ with drooping ears, used in the chase of large animals. From what early domestication this canine race was derived is uncertain, though it may have come from India as. a modified descendant of the Tibetan hound. Indian effigies of the latter date back to the second millennium before our era, but, in Egypt, hunting scenes showing the lop-eared sight-hound have come down to us from the earliest dynasties. This creature appears to the St. Bernard see an article by H. Kraemer in Globus for 1904, Bd. 85. On early Egyptian canine races, see Hilzheimer, Max, Beitrag zur Kenntnis der nordafri- kanische Schackale, etc. Zoologica, Bd. 20, Heft 53, 1908. 405 406 have been introduced into Crete, through trade relations with that island, as early as 3000 B.C., and possibly at a still earlier period was brought thither from Egypt an entirely different kind of hound, having erect ears, the origin of which is pretty certainly traceable to the Abyssinian wolf (Canis simensis). This “ wolf’’, or fox, persists even at the present day in a feral state in the Ethiopian region, and appears to have been domesticated at an extremely remote period among the primitive inhabitants of northern Africa. The supposed descendant of the erect-eared Ethiopian hound has maintained a continu- ous existence in Crete, from a date which may be roughly assigned to the fourth millennium before Christ down to the present day; and, what is not less remarkable, the identical strain appears to have been carried by trade routes, possibly by way of Carthage, into the Balearic Islands, and still exists there, com- paratively unmodified. Thus, the modern varieties known respectively as the Cretan and Ibaza hounds, belong to an extremely ancient lineage, which may be traced in un- broken continuity back to a prehistoric do- mestication of a North African feral species. The Cretan hound is abundant in the island today, and manifests all the characteristics which we should expect to find in a primitive greyhound. Historical evidence shows that, at about the beginning of the Christian era, this breed of canine was held in high esteem and became fairly widespread in the countries bordering upon the Aigean Sea. It figures frequently in ancient Cretan coins, dating from at least as far back as 500 B.C., and is readily distinguishable by its erect ears, slender flanks, and long light limbs, among pictorial representations of animals in the minor arts. The most ancient of these drawings, now preserved in the Museum of Candia, belongs to early Minoan times, or to a period corresponding to the first Egyptian dynasties. It shows a hound in recumbent posture, and is painted upon the cover of a vessel made of black steatite. Probably from this race is derived the modern Russian borzoi, commonly called in this country the Russian wolfhound, and also the famous long-limbed, Sicilian coursing hound of an- tiquity. Likenesses of these animals, stamped on Sicilian coins, attest the fondness with which they were regarded by the ancient Greek inhabitants of Trinacria. We have THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL besides a little touch in passing from Horace (Epist., I, 2), and an account also of the chase by Oppian (Cyn. I, 480). Writes the bard of the Sabine farm: ....*Venaticus, ex quo Tempore cervinam pellem latravit in aula, Militat in silvis catulus.”’ In which lines “‘venaticus catulus” indi- cates a young coursing hound, and “cervinam pellem”’ a stuffed deerskin. Besides the hound and the heavy, mastiff- like race of hunting dog, which latter gave rise probably to the so-called Canis molossus and the modern St. Bernard, three other breeds were commonly raised in Europe and Asia during the period of Greek and Roman — supremacy. One of these was the pariah, or street dog, already briefly referred to. Another is the shepherd, and a third is the spitz dog, this last being almost certainly derived from the jackal. These five are the prevailing pure strains, although side by side with them there flourished, as is well-known, a large number of hybrid or impure stocks. The pariah and shepherd dog, as regards their history and characteristic traits, are too familiar to require further mention, be- yond recalling that they were probably first domesticated in ancient India. That the origin of the spitz is to be sought in the domesticated jackal admits of scarcely any — doubt. The fox is excluded as a possible ancestor, on account of the differently formed pupil of the eye, differences in the dentition, and a very distinct odor, which sharply separates the vulpine species from the dog or wolf. As noted by Keller, “when our do- mestic spitz with lowered brush and _ half- turned head warily holds aloof from strangers of human kind,” he manifests the hereditary instinct of the jackal; and even his whine and yelp are not dissimilar. it as certain that several varieties of the North African jackal (subgenus Thos of Oken) were domesticated by the ancient Egyptians; and Bekmann, in his Geschichte der Rassen des Hundes, is of the opinion that no less than ten varieties of canines are depicted in the monuments. . Among the favorite varieties of spitz dog in - antiquity were the Maltese and Etruscan strains, and innumerable paintings of these appear in Greek ceramic art from the fifth century B.C. onward. As a household pet and lap dog, the spitz was highly prized, and — Hilzheimer regards — } > ae, eae amir, e. Courtesy of Boston Museum of Fine Arts Etruscan bronze dog, found near Chiusi, Italy. Date probably about 300 B.C. Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. Cypriote hound seizing a hare; probably a votive offering of a hunter. From Cyprus, 300-400 B.C. 408 ' THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL hence figures extensively in classic literature. Martial’s epigram, for instance, is well known. Finally, it may be instructive to note the observations which Arrian, a military officer in the service of the Emperor Hadrian, has written down in regard to coursing, as prac- tised among the Gauls with both scent- and sight-hounds. In his dissertation on hunting he writes: “The most opulent and luxurious among Courlesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. Erect-eared hound from Cyprus; 300-400 B.C. the Gauls course in this manner. They send out good Hare-finders early in the morning, to those places where it is likely to find Hares sitting, who send back word if they have found any, and what number; then they go out themselves, and put them up, and lay in the dogs, themselves following on horseback. “Whoever has good greyhounds should never lay them in too near the Hare, nor run more than two at a time. For, though the animal is very swift, and will oftentimes beat the dogs, yet, when she is first started, she is so terrified by the hollowing and by the dogs being very close, that her heart is overcome by fear; and, in the confusion, very often the best sporting Hares are killed without shew- ing any diversion. She should, therefore, be suffered to run some distance from her form and re-collect her spirits, and then, if she is a good sporting Hare, she will lift up her ears, and stretch out with long rates from her seat, the dogs directing their course after her with great activity of limbs, as if they were leaping, affording a spectacle worthy the trouble that must necessarily be employed in properly breeding and training these dogs.” Finally, special mention may be made of one of the subjects represented in the accom- panying illustrations. Varieties of the hound, including the familiar one with erect ears, are incised in a limestone grave-stela now in the Cairo Museum. It is a royal monument found at Thebes, and dates from the 11th dynasty, approximately 2100 B.C. The following note regarding this stela has been kindly supplied by Miss Caroline Ransom, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. “The stela shows King Horus accompanied by one attendant and five of his dogs. The latter were evidently of a southern race, for all have Berber names inscribed in Egyptian hieroglyphs above their figures, and in three instances a translation of the foreign name into Egyptian is written vertically before the dog’s breast. This stela finds mention in an Egyptian document written nearly one thou- sand years later than the date of its erection, namely in the “Abbott papyrus” now in the British Museum. In this document is con- tained the official report of the inspection of the royal tombs, under Rameses IX of the twentieth dynasty, to ascertain what damage had been done by tomb robbers. It is one of the romantic episodes of Egyptian arche- ology that the actual stela mentioned in the ancient document should come to light.’” — ore Museum Notes Since the last issue of the JournaL the following persons have become members of the Museum: Annual Members, Mrs. C. GiLBerT and Mrs. Grorcse M. Tuornton, Dr. Henry H. JANEWAY, Dr. C. R. Le Fevre, Dr. Quin- TARD Taytor, and Messrs. Epcar A. HetitMAN, JouHn F. LamBpen, SAMvEL L. NicHotson, WALDEN Pett, Martin J. Quinn, E. A. CapprELen Sito, Harry Wearne, and JosepH A. ZANETTI. Tue death of Dr. Seth Low, which occurred on September 17, at his country estate, Broad Brook Farm, deprives the American Museum of Natural History of one of its most valued friends. Dr. Low had been one of the trus- tees of the Museum since 1905. Dr. Ciark Wisster, during the summer, has continued his work with Mr. James R. Murie, chief of the Pawnee Indians of Okla- homa. With the aid of Mr. Murie, Dr. Wissler has secured many interesting rituals of the religion of the Pawnee which is now passing away. The more important parts of these rituals have been written down as texts in the Pawnee language with transla- tions in English. Mr. N. C. Netson has been engaged for some time in a reconnaissance to determine the boundaries of glazed pottery in the Southwest. In his archeological work he has visited Ramah, Chaco Cafion, and Farming- ton, New Mexico. Near the latter town he inaugurated the exploration of the great ruin known as Aztec. This work, which will take several years to complete, is under the im- mediate charge of Mr. Earl H. Morris of the Museum of the University of Colorado. Mr. Morris, who has received a fellowship at Columbia University, will spend the year in New York. THE arrival from the Arctic of the steam- ship “Danmark,” chartered from the Green- land Mining Company, bringing Mr. Donald B. MacMillan, leader of the Crocker Land expedition and Dr. E. O. Hovey, leader of the expedition sent to his relief, is daily expected at the time the JourNaAL goes to press. The latest letter received from the expeditions, dated July 10, reported all well. Three members of the original expedition, Dr. Maurice C. Tanquary, Ensign Fitzhugh Green, United States Navy, and Mr. Jerome Lee Allen, have already arrived in the United States via Copenhagen. Those returning on the “Danmark” with Mr. MacMillan and Dr. Hovey, are Dr. Harrison J. Hunt, Messrs. Jonathan C. Small and W. Elmer Ekblaw, and Captain George E. Comer. ~ At the last report the ‘‘Danmark” had been detained three or four weeks beyond her expected schedule. Dr. Frank E. Luz, of the American Mu- seum, and Mr. J. A. G. Rehn, of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, spent July and much of August studying and col- lecting insects in the vicinity of Tucson, Arizona. Mr. B. Preston Clark generously contributed toward the field expenses and the Philadelphia Academy also coédperated in the work. In addition to securing speci- mens for the study collection, an effort was made to obtain material which would bear especially upon the problems of ecological and geographical distribution. In order to encourage the establishment of a school of American designers and to stimulate interest in ancient art as an inspira- tion for modern artists, Mr. E. W. Fair- child, owner of the trade publication Women’s Wear is offering $475 in prizes. These are specifically for the best original designs suit- able for any type of woven fabric, the source of inspiration for which was found in some museum or library. The designs must be applicable to American fabrics, therefore practical qualities will receive as much con- sideration as artistic merit. Contestants may submit any number of designs but one award only will be made to one person. Designs remain the property of the designers, Women’s Wear reserving only the right to reproduce the designs in black and white. Designs will be exhibited under proper condi- tions and the attention of mills directed towardthem. The competition is open to all, and closes December 15. The judges will be Mr. H. W. Kent, secretary of the Metro- politan Museum of Art, New York City, Mr. Albert Blum, treasurer of the United Piece Dye Works, Lodi, New Jersey, and Mr. M. D. C. Crawford, research associate 409 410 in textiles at the American Museum of Natural History. A sprrit of hearty codperation with the reptile work in the American Museum has been evinced by museum authorities in New Zealand, with the object of obtaining for the Museum in the United States materials and accessories for the constriction of a habitat group of the reptile Sphenodon. Photographs of Karewa Island, in the Bay of Plenty, where these animals occur, together with bo- tanical and other specimens, have already been received, through the curator of the Canterbury Museum at Christchurch, New Zealand, from Mr. R. W. B. Oliver, of Auck- land, a most competent observer, who sends also valuable notes and descriptions. This and other material to be shipped later will en- able the American Museum to make available to the public in the near future a study group of the world’s most interesting living reptile. Dr. Maurice C. Tanquary, the first to return from the Crocker Land expedition, on which he served as zodlogist, has been appointed assistant professor of entomology in the Kansas State Agricultural College. Tue treaty between Canada and the United States for federal protection of migratory birds, now become law in both countries, was actively supported by practically every national, state, and local organization inter- ested in the protection of wild bird and ani- mal life. Prominent among these may be mentioned the American Game Protective and Propagation Association, the National Association of Audubon Societies, and the more than one hundred state and local organi- zations affiliated with it, and the New York Zoblogical Society. The treaty provides: First, that no migratory bird important to agriculture because of insect-destroying pro- clivities shall be shot at any time. Second, that no open season for any species of game bird shall extend for a longer period than three and one-half months. Third, that both coun- tries shall so restrict open seasons on game birds as to prevent their being taken during the breeding season. After the success of this important measure, for which the people of this country owe a profound debt of grati- tude to the President and Senate, and espe- cially to Senator George P. McLean, it comes as a surprise to learn that the continued exis- tence of Lake Malheur in southeastern Oregon THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL is threatened —one of the largest wild-fowl reservations and a natural refuge and breeding place for thousands of water fowl. A pro- ject on foot in Oregon would drain the lake and use the land, and application has been made to the federal authorities to achieve this end. It is much to be hoped that this valu- able reservation, which now attracts large numbers of wild fowl from Canada, will not be suffered to disappear. . Tue New York State College of Forestry in coéperation with the Lake Placid Club conducted a “forest week” at Lake Placid in the Adirondacks, July 24-28. Round table discussions in the morning, field studies in the afternoon, and an address illustrated by lantern slides and motion pictures, in the evening, constituted each day’s program. Addresses were given by Mr. Melvil Dewey, president of the Lake Placid Club; Dr. Hugh P. Baker, dean of the New York State College of Forestry; Dr. J. 8. Whipple, president of - the New York State Forestry Association; Clifford R. Pettis, director of the forestry New York State Conservation — Commission; Professor Henry R. Francis, — landscape engineer of the New York State division, College of Forestry; Dr. John H. Finley, commissioner of education, Albany, New York, and Mr. Benton MacKaye, of the United States Forest Service, Washington, ‘ D.C. This is the first time a Forest Chau- : tauqua has been held in the Adirondacks and its notable success has already suggested plans for a repetition next year. Ar the time of the ammunition works ex- plosion on Black Tom Island, New Jersey, it was extensively noted in the public press that the seismograph at the American Museum did not record any unusual occurrence. In this connection it may be of interest to men- tion that a seismograph is designed to register earth movements, and the instrument at the Museum is tuned to record only such move- ments. The explosion of the ammunition plant produced very little if any movement of the earth, the damage done and the principal effects being due to air concussion. This would not affect any seismograph, and such slight earth motion as may have been due to the explosion was too local and ineon- siderable to be recorded, Mr. Roy W. Miner spent several weeks of the summer at Nahant, Massachusetts, MUSEUM NOTES 411 to make additional studies of environment for the Nahant tide-pool group, which is now being constructed in the Museum under his supervision. A NEw edition of the Museum’s guide leaflet, ‘Habitat Groups of North American Birds,” came from the press this summer and may now be obtained at the Museum. Mr. Lesuiz Sprer has been added to the scientific staff of the Museum as an assistant in the department of anthropology. For the present, he will care for the archzological and ethnological collections exhibited from the Eastern States. Tue American Scenic and Historic Preser- vation Society will hold a meeting jointly with the Palisades Interstate Park Commis- sion at the American Museum of Natural History on Thursday, October 26, at 8.15 p.M. The Honorable George W. Perkins, of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, and the Honorable George D. Pratt, of the New York Conservation Commission, will give addresses illustrated by stereopticon slides and moving-picture films. Tue Museum’s expedition to Nicaragua, under Messrs. Clarence R. Halter and L. Alfred Mannhardt, will remain in the field until January. To date, scientific collections of reptiles and fishes have been made from the eastern coastal belt — and shipments north of living specimens of Basiliscus and Caiman are being prepared for use in the reptile group work of the Museum. ‘The ex- pedition will now carry the survey into the mountains of the interior, to Lake Nicaragua, and the western coast. Mr. Roy CHapMan ANDREWS, in charge of the Museum’s Asiatic zodlogical expedition, reports that nearly two hundred mammals and four hundred birds have been collected in the vicinity of Foochow, in the province of Fu-kien. Mr. Edmund Heller has joined the expedition, which on August 10 was on the way to Yunnanfu, where prospects are very good for making important collections in Yunnan Province. Dr. P. E. Gopparp visited, during the summer, the White Mountain Apache of Arizona. He made a clan census of these Indians and a study of their social organiza- tion. While among the Apache, he was very fortunate in witnessing two elaborate cere- monies for adolescent girls, securing still and motion pictures. Certain features of these ceremonies had never before been photographed. Mr. Louis R. Sunirvan has been added to the scientific staff of the department of anthropology as assistant in physical anthro- pology. Mr. Sullivan will care for the skeletal and other somatological material in the department and will develop exhibitions showing racial differences and man’s rela- tions to the Primates. In response to the interest in museum exhibits as a source of inspiration for textile and costume designs, which has recently been aroused by Mr. M. D. C. Crawford among manufacturers, designers, and distributors of clothing and fabrics, the department of anthropology of the American Museum of Natural History offers a course of four lectures dealing with primitive textile arts in ancient and modern times. The lectures will be given at the Museum building on Tuesdays October 3, 10, 17, and 24, at 8:15 p.m. On October 3, Mr. M. D. C. Crawford will speak on “Special Textile Processes and Products’’; October 10, Dr. Clark Wissler will speak on “Primitive Textile Arts’; October 17, Dr. H. J. Spinden will lecture on “Textile Arts of Mexico and Central America,” and Mr. M. D. C. Crawford will follow on October 24, with a consideration of ‘‘The Textile Arts of Peru.” A LARGE collection of insects has been presented to the Museum by Dr. Edward B. Southwick, for many years economic ento- mologist for New York’s Department of Parks. In addition to the insects themselves, the collection contains some fine examples of insect work in the form of nests and borings. In connection with the teachers’ institute organized by President Wilcox, of the New York Board of Education, during the two weeks September 11-23, the staff of the de- partment of public education of the American Museum has given a number of lectures and addresses in several of the city schools calling the attention of teachers to the opportunities they have for obtaining assistance from the Museum in coéperation with the school work. Given before audiences of teachers to a 412 majority of whom the subject matter was new as well as important, the lectures were especially valuable and fruitful, and several delegations of teachers have since visited the Museum to examine the lantern slides and other aids afforded. Arrangements have already been made by many teachers for systematic borrowing during the winter. Tue annual fall exhibition of the Horti- cultural Society of New York will be held in the American Museum of Natural History November 9-12. It will be open to mem- bers of the American Museum on Thursday November 9, from 7 to 10 p. M. and to the general public on the remaining days. It will also be open to the public on Friday and Saturday evenings, November 10 and 11. Tue Museum has had three expeditions for fossil vertebrates in the western United States during the past summer. All report a fair degree of success, especially in the dis- covery of new and interesting fossil faunas. Mr. Barnum Brown, in charge of the expedi- tion for Cretaceous dinosaurs in Montana, reports the discovery of Cretaceous dino- saurs distinct from those of the localities hitherto explored by the Museum, and per- haps representing an older stage in their evolution. Mr. Walter Granger reports the discovery in a new locality in New Mexico of numerous remains of small mammals of an age intermediate between the Torrejon and Wasatch horizons. Mr. Albert Thomson has continued work in the Agate quarry, se- curing additional material needed for the group planned to represent this quarry fauna and has also secured interesting material from the Pliocene beds farther south. Dr. W. D. Matthew was with Mr. Thomson’s party during the early part of the season, engaged chiefly in an extensive reconnaissance of the later Tertiary fossil beds in western Nebraska. Professor H. F. Osborn has since joined the party for a short time, visiting on his way some of the more important localities in Nebraska. Tue attention of teachers of biology in our higher schools is called to the synoptic series of mammals on the third floor, which has been developed with a view to making it instructive to the student while at the same time interesting to the general visitor. Although still far from completion, the exhibit is in usable shape and gives a fairly THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL comprehensive view of the great class of mammals. It comprises not only examples of every family of existing mammals, illus- trating in many cases their structure and origin in point of time, but includes also exhibits illustrating various points in the evolution of mammals, principles of classi- fication, and interesting, or peculiar, habits. The specimens are accompanied by detailed descriptive labels giving information about the various orders and families of mammals, the series being an example of that defini- tion of a museum, which makes it ‘a collec- tion of labels illustrated by specimens.’”” The casual visitor, by merely walking around’ the gallery however, may get an idea of the range of mammals in form and size, and of their more apparent characters. There are albinos and melanos, exhibits illustrating, modifications for locomotion, variations of — the brain in vertebrates, and the influence A Sa of environment, or adaptation of mammals to their surroundings. An introductory ex- hibit, showing the distinctive characters and evolutionary rank of mammals, is in course of preparation. Mr. Cuartes Dawson, F. S$. A., F. G. 8. — the discoverer of the Piltdown skull which proved so important a connecting link be- tween modern man and the anthropoid apes, died recently at Lewes, England, at the age of fifty-two years. The skull was found by Mr. Dawson in a chalk pit on Piltdown Common where it had been thrown aside by laborers who were digging out flints for road mending. It proved to be one of the oldest skulls of human type ever found, dating from an early glacial epoch, when the North Sea and Eng- lish Channel were dry land. It is believed to be that of a female belonging to a nomadic race without knowledge of fire and living upon uncooked roots, vegetables, and flesh. As bearing upon the problem of the relationships of early European races this diseovery was one of the most important in the history of — science. Mr. Dawson was well known as a geologist and author of many - important papers on geology and paleontology. ; A MopEL of a cave, showing the common brown bat of Virginia, Myotis lucifugus, is now on exhibition in the American Museum. It is thought that bats play an important part in keeping down mosquitoes, and for — this reason bat towers are erected in some localities for their accommodation. The American Museum of Natural History Seventy-seventh Street and Central Park West, New York City Open free to the public on every day in the year. The American Museum of Natural History was established in 1869 to promote the Natural Sciences and to diffuse a general knowledge of them among the people. It is dependent upon private subscriptions and the fees from members for procuring needed additions to the collections and for carrying on explorations in America and other parts of the world. The membership fees are, Annual Members. . a) gs gol 49 ORG, Ly. a ir SO na is “aoe ye Pe SERS i _ THE MOST WONDERFUL TEXTILES OF THE WORLD COME FROM PERU This poncho from Tiahuanaco, Bolivia, is typical of the best work of pre-Incan Peru. It is a tapestry weave, the class of fabric in which the Peruvians reached their highest textile development, and the vicufia yarns are so soft and fine as to give almost the feeling of silk. These fabrics antedate the Spanish conquest by two thousand years and are even more priceless as an art expression than as an exhibit of mechanical skill, uniting exquisite color combinations with a fine sense of proportion. The balance of the design is perfect. The solid color around the neck is a beautiful deep red and the checkered portion is black and gold with occasional red dots 418 DESIGN AND COLOR IN ANCIENT FABRICS exhibit of the successful designs. Per- haps, at a later date, an exhibition may be arranged of hand-decorated textiles, and later still a large exhibition of the products of our great mills, the inspira- tion for which has been suggested by the art objects in the American Museum of Natural History. During the summer, representatives from many silk concerns and one or two cotton houses making fine novelty goods, visited the Museum and made at least a beginning of a careful research into the elements of primitive design. A very enterprising concern of silk printers was especially active, and there is in course of manufacture at this time a large number of patterns which were created from the specimens on exhibition. A well-known retailer came several times and is now using on ladies’ wearing apparel the designs which he took from the same source. This aid to American designers came at a most opportune time, for the condition abroad made it impossible for our great industry to get decorative suggestions from the usual sources. It was therefore judged that this was the psychological moment to exert effort toward the development of a typically American school of design. It can be said that the practical progress being made is already astonishing. The actual woven fabric is by no means the only class of objects which can suggest textile design. Basketry, pottery, carved wood, and many other objects, display designs which require only a little adaptation to become appli- cable to modern fabrics; but it would be impossible even to suggest the extent of these resources at this time and I must confine myself exclusively to fabrics. In these, Peru is easily the most valuable source —in point of beauty, technical interest, and number of specimens. About three years ago I undertook the 419 textile analysis of the wonderful Peru- vian collection of the American Museum, and while I am now more familiar than I then was with the other collections in the Fragment of the border of an Ica shawl, in which a basic fabric is completely covered with embroidery. The design represents the puma god destroying a man. The large shawl-like garments from Ica, Peru, in the Juilliard collection of the American Museum, present grotesque animalistic designs, in which however the color combinations are incomparably beautiful 420 Museum, and have come to a more definite condition of mind as to the art value of all the great anthropological collections, yet my first enthusiasm for the beautiful textiles of the Lost Empire is in nosense abated. In fact, each visit, I make to the Peruvian hall increases my admiration for the wonderful color effects and knowledge of design which these old masters possessed. N z (| ) U la \\ Te. ae 72 ree” Ce iA f ») ( I A I }) Oo 2a — 77 ia_ ’ S “a SS eae Siconsaas >>> ww sae | Fae oad gpeay eet a ) SP a = \ ’ —— 15> SO AP eT eB LI a gE I GP CL = =. —_-— | ey me! ae eR a, Ms a’ To obtain the effect of embroidery completely cover- ing the basic fabric the decorative yarn is laced a full turn over pairs of threads, either of warp or weft ac- cording to the requirements of the design. A very loose basic web is necessary to permit of this change in direction of the embroidery thread Next in importance come the collec- tions of garments and fabrics from the Amur River tribes and those belonging to China The garments of the Koryak tribe of Siberia proper. embroidered have also attracted a great deal of atten- tion, and the Mexican and Southwest halls have been visited by artists capable THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL of adapting material from many different objects. One designer in particular is doing some very original work under the direction of Dr. Herbert J. Spinden, showing the way toward the develop- ment of interest in a great art which until this time has received too little attention from the textile world. The fabrics of Peru are beyond all question the most interesting technical and artistic record of textile history. Compared with them, the Coptic fabrics represent a very limited development, and even the interesting cloths recently excavated in Turkestan by Sir Aurel Stein are but a fragmentary record of the art they represent. In Peru every process of decoration of which we know is found — every trick of the weaver’s art, every skillful blending of colors. In- deed in some of their techniques and color combinations they far surpass modern work. Nor is this a record of scattered fragments. Even the rarer techniques are well represented, and there is enough material (as one promi- nent silk man remarked) to furnish in- spiration for a century of design. Of course; practical textile people do not come to the Museum to get technical information. The value of the collec- tions to them is almost entirely of an wsthetic nature. Still, I have always felt that careful research, accompanied by experiments, might result in the work- ing out of even new technical methods. Color and form are however, the princi- pal things, and in these the collections are wonderfully rich. The recent gifts to the Museum by Mr. A. D. Juilliard, of textiles from Nazea and Ica, contain some of the most won- derful and beautiful color combinations of any fabrics, be their origin what it may. The shawl-like garments from Ica are especially rich in this particular. They are embroidery designs, the basis DESIGN SUBSERVES COLOR IN THESE ICA SHAWLS The embroidered design decorating this fabric is a representation of the puma god repeatedly reproduced in varying color combinations, and the units of design, in ‘this and the other shawl-like garments from Ica in the Juilliard collection, are employed as convenient forms for the massing of colors rather than to exhibit beauty of line. The color combinations achieved in these fabrics are exquisite beyond description, implying a knowledge of color values as fine as the world has ever seen. The figures are in blues, greens, reds, browns, and yellows, on a black ground, while in the border the groundwork is red, and black is used in the figures. All the decorative arts of today requiring the use of strong color could profit inestimably by a study of these perfect specimens 421 PERUVIAN EMBROIDERY EXCELS IN TECHNIQUE In this example of embroidery from the Juilliard collection, in which again the puma god supplies the motive, an especial refinement of technique is used, in which the fabric under the embroidery changes from a plain web to a gauze, the latter permitting the application of the decorative stitches more easily and evenly. Embroidery on gauze is a very ancient art and as still practised by Italian peasants is known as buratlo, but the introduction of gauze areas into a hand loom web in this way involves a degree of skill and a refinement of workmanship which is eloquent of the craft pride of the ancient Peruvian weavers. The color scheme of this fabric uses various shades of blues, yellows, reds, browns for the figures, on a black ground 422 DESIGN AND COLOR IN ANCIENT FABRICS— of which is a gauze ora leno. Strangely enough, this same technique is used in Italy today and is known as buratto. The designs are made up of the repeti- tion of a single figure in varying color combinations. No two figures are ex- actly alike in color arrangement, yet each figure is a perfect color combina- tion in itself and the whole fabric is beautifully harmonious. An artist said to me the other day that if any one could analyze the rules which governed the combination of colors in a single unit, he would know more about colors and their values than does any living man. Nine of these beautiful fabrics were presented by Mr. Juilliard with other only less interesting material, and no finer artistic inspiration can be found than in a care- ful study of them. The modern theory, recently advanced, that colors and music have some relation, might be applied to these perfect specimens and tested for ae accuracy by their harmo- =" —— a ese a 423 units of design are of a more or less terrifying nature, yet the way in which they have been arranged and the details The even open squares produced by a gauze weave are well adapted for the application of embroidery. The principle of gauze weaving is that adjoining warps or groups of warps are twisted one-half turn about each other and the crosses made secure by insertion of weft nies. — A more technical discus- sion of the method of deco- rating these shawls may not be out of place. This \ technique is an interesting ™= P species of embroidery, and fragmentary . specimens ™S have occurred in the re- gion around modern Lima. But in Ica we find the technique intensified, and it becomes the dominant I\J\ J method of textile expres- sion in this part of the world. The object evi- = dently has been to obtain a method of expression / which would permit a repetition of the same fig- ure in varying ‘color com- binations, and while the a emer ase ee fe b a The plain weave of the basic fabric in the Ica shawls changes into a gauze weave in the areas to be covered by the embroidery. technique explains the extreme evenness of the embroidery stitches regardless of the angle at which the needle worked. the plain weave changes to gauze; b, b’, plain weave of fabric outside of embroidered area This a, area in which 424 distorted, indicates that they owe their latest form to the desire on the artist’s part to produce a unit of design adapted It has been the object to show color harmonies to artistic grouping of colors. rather than beauty of line. We are in the habit of seeing embroid- ery stitches more or less uneven and not following exact rules such as woven de- signs create. Here however, each stitch is the exact counterpart of every other and the embroidery has been applied in THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL such a way as to cover completely the basic fabric. Embroidery in its freedom from convention more nearly corresponds to hand painting than does the woven web, and this freedom has been taken advantage of in these cloths. The basic fabric under the embroidery in some webs changes from a plain weave, which is the background of the cloth, to a gauze. The warps have been partially twisted around one another and the turns made constant by the insertion of To the custom of burying with the dead all unfinished work we are indebted for this example of weaving from Ica, Peru, shown just as it was taken from the loom many centuries ago. The skill of the Peruvian workers enabled them to make embroidery (in which the decorative thread is applied to the finished fabric) which closely resembled brocade (in which the decorative thread enters the design during the weaving), and this particular web cleared up a difficult question as to whether certain fabrics were embroidered or brocaded. The fact that the decorative thread is contained in the unfinished web proves this specimen to be brocade, and a comparison of this with other fabrics has made details of differentiation fairly certain ‘soin3y yeumue oy, “JoJOBIeYO VATPCU Apouysip B WEY} GATS “peory) UTyS-ysy YIIM UO poAdes pue ‘end pokp Ksoa poaoid gaey s}uouIes JepNoNsed osey,[, ASojoyyAur pue jrze eseuryy) UT ein3y YOIyM Vs0y} JOAQMOY OTB ‘aoSeip pue ‘ysy ‘yooo oy} A[qejou YoryM soul, Suoye pedoyaaep Ueeq oAeY suSisep oy} ‘eulyO Ur AjqetuepunNn s}set Ayyensn ‘urys ysy jo seoe1d Jo yO yNd Suleq USISep oY} ‘urys ysy jo opeul o7e VINagIS NHY3LSV3 4O SASIHL YSAIN YNWV 3HL WOUS SNDISAG seqiay JOAN sInury ey} Jo ze oY} Jo siIseq oY} ysnoyiTy koyy, “AWO YOK MON JO SioUTISOp 9]T}X0} OF Sury}seso} Ut This beautiful kimono from Korea is a very fine example of brocade, the decoration being woven into the fabric while on the loom, The bold and spirited dragon design, with water and cloud motives, is characteristic. gold, greens, blues, and a beautiful shade of red, form the coloring on a dark blue field. Old This is a marvelous example of skillful weaving, and is besides in the best spirit of Korean art weft. The embroidery stitch here passes completely around the threads making the sides of these minute squares, and would therefore be practically even. When the embroidery threads are taken out, they have a resemblance to cork- serews. The pottery, as well as the woven fabrics from Nazca and Ica, shows a remarkable love of color and indicates Per- haps the art of these people was too knowledge of chromatic harmony. greatly influenced by their superstition, for they have a greater leaning toward animalistic forms than is found in the Tiahuanaco area, where the culture was more highly developed; but in colors they were supreme and these shawl-like garments are the finest examples of their art. Some time ago, a distinguished expert on Oriental rugs, Mr. John Kimberly Mumford, was looking at this American He had brought Museum collection. 426 me some small fragments of wonderful Oriental rugs, that I might analyze them for their construction. These fragments had come from some of the finest carpets in America, and represented perhaps the highest type of coloring in textiles from Asia. The beauty of this art has been described so often and is so much a mat- ter of popular knowledge that to question the supremacy of the rugs of Herat or Ispahan may sound like artistic heresy. Certainly that would have been my judgment until the comparison was made; but it was made by Mr. Mumford himself, who placed the fragments on one of the shawls which we had unrolled He frankly admitted that the work of the Peruvian artists was superior. There can be no doubt that these shawls represent the highest develop- ment in color as applied to textiles. They are unsurpassed masterpieces and their addition to the Museum’s collee- for his inspection. YYYIM Uk rve¢ 1/9 OOGO4 A, VVv ie # a Fi fi24 = — . + As 4 4, r? ' meV VOY VVWONN 7 ‘f? 4 bo 2145004406644 0 ab ee9 ¥ Ad 99991410004 94 of o¢¢4 oldies "TS 7 Ts UN i GI wT, a Sv a / V V | — - ey sa YONA Sep I< = x, TN ( ~ / ys ANA Lead niin Vv a pee SOT I LDIF TY TIT sf ee | eae dv idl La~ sa See. n/ Aid Ie SPs PL DNS Me NA , AR be W niwe Rasa ja? BAP). KORYAK FUR COATS HAVE RICHLY EMBROIDERED BORDERS The Koryak tribe of Siberian natives had come in contact with Russian influence a century or more before these coats were made, and had undoubtedly absorbed much from Russian art. The band on the central coat is a purely Russian floral convention, and very similar forms may be found in. Russian enamel and weaving; the geometric designs are probably the remains of the primitive art of this people. The whole treatment is extremely spirited and has been highly commented upon by competent designers; indeed the collection of Koryak fur coats in the American Museum has had a pronounced influence on textile art for the winter season of 1916-17 in the United States 427 428 tion is of inealculable value. They should serve for generations as an artis- tic inspiration to designers and artists, and if properly studied and applied, they must have untold influence on the zesthetic development of America. The Amur River tribes have left us a record of primitive Chinese motives THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL readers are familiar with this class of art; although it may be said that this collec- tion is very much worth while to textile . designers. But Korea is another ques- tion, for authentic examples of that won- derful people’s art are very scarce. The Museum collection of art from this part of the world is not as extensive as could Tie or resist dyeing is a very ancient art and consists in so treating the fabric that when put in the dye pot only certain portions of it absorb the colors. This is achieved by tying little bunches of the cloth with a cord which resists the dye, producing a pattern when the cord is removed. The art was well known in India, and Moslem conquests spread the method in the Philippines, where the Bagobo tribes are especially skillful, using it for their “bandanna"’ headdresses, Also the Moors carried the craft into Spain whence it spread to Mexico. Except in Peru, where it only exists in the simplest form, the origin of this decorative method can be clearly traced to Asia. The fabric shown above is from Peru which, in their simplicity and strength, should be a help to modern designers. In the collection of bronzes of ancient China, there is literally a mine of sesthetic The modern Chinese embroideries is not illus- suggestions. great collection of trated for lack of space, arid because most be wished, and the same might be said of the wonderful fabrics from Sumatra and Java. Where these collections fail, however, the library comes to our aid with much valuable material for design- ers, especially with a certain book of three volumes, De Inlandsche Kunstnijverheid DESIGN AND COLOR IN ANCIENT FABRICS 429 in Nederlandsch Indié, by J. E. Jasper en Mas Pirngadie, published in 1916. The collection of Koryak and Yakut fur coats and leggings gives us some strong Russian ideas, mixed with the more primitive art of these tribes. It will be rather interesting this year for people who are familiar with the Ameri- can Museum collections to observe how modern artists have adapted these mo- tives to their different techniques. The collection from the Philippine Islands shows some very remarkable methods of fabric decoration, the tie- dyed or “bandanna” headdresses of the Bagobo tribes, and the hemp cloths. In these the warps have been tied and then dyed. The design is thus produced by those portions of the warp which were covered by the thread which tied them when they were dipped into the dye pot. Curiously enough, both these methods have come down to us in modern me- The first, “ban- danna,”’ or simple tying and dyeing, chanical processes. corresponds to modern mastic printing, in which the fabric has the design printed on it in hot beeswax, and is then immersed in a bath of cold dye. ,The the modern method of printing-on warps (that is, on the threads that run the length of the piece) and then weaving with a plain web. The attitude of the American Museum toward artists —in fact, toward any second corresponds to class of people seeking information — has always been most gracious and gener- Those who have come to use the collections have always found that they have been met more than halfway by the staff. Almost every week some one comes to me outside of the Museum and pays glowing tribute to some individual or some collection, and these of course I cannot write of, except to say that one gentleman, Mr. C. W. Mead, in charge ous. An interesting method of making stripes by a dye process consists in rolling the cloth diagonally into a sausage-like form, and tying with some thread which After dyeing, diagonal stripes appear The cloth illustrated is a resists the dye. when the fabric is unrolled. coarse Peruvian cotton of about the same mesh as modern mosquito netting of South American antiquities, has re- cently become acquainted with many textile designers. It seems reasonable to hope, from the results already accom- a > TS & WD Ye — pres * Sw MLL, NOAAH LO, Tapa cloth, made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry tree beaten out thin, is used in many parts of The upper specimen, from Hawaii, is probably painted by hand: the lower, from Fiji, the tropical world. probably printed by a rude plate-printing method, in which strings were fastened on bark to form a design and dye was applied, after which the pattern was transferred to the material by pressure. ‘The coloring is black and white, or black, red, and white 420 DESIGN AND COLOR IN ANCIENT FABRICS plished, that American designs taken from the Museum will be extensively used this season, and it may also be said that the tendency among designers to create fabrics from the art of the New World and to give the public a thorough knowledge of the esthetic value of this art, may not be far distant. Our designers have formerly relied almost exclusively upon suggestions from foreign sources. They had not learned the value of museum research, nor had they formed the least idea of how ex- tensive the local collections are. Of course, the lack of this interest has pre- Nore sy THE Eprror.— For those readers of the JourRNAL who have access to the back files and are particularly. interested in possible ancient sources of modern design, attention is called to the following articles and their illustrations: Navajo Blankets, pp. 201-211, November, 1910; The Fish Design on Peruvian Mummy Cloths, pp. 251-254, December, 1910; Ancient Chinese Bronzes, pp. 59-65, 431 vented our collections from being devel- oped with commercial problems in view. The material here has been gathered with a general view to art and science, and has not been arfanged for any specific class of artists. Perhaps when the great mills for wearing apparel have successfully created fabrics from. these things, the next move will be to reach the makers of upholstery and draperies— and, in short, the workers in the entire field of decorative art, that their energies also may be directed to the material contained in the American Museum of Natural History. February, 1911; Bagobo Fine Art Collection, pp. 164-171, May, 1911; The Making of Pottery at San Ildefonso, pp. 192-196, October, 1911; Saltillo and Chimayo Blankets, pp. 32-34, January, 1912; Ancient Pottery from Nazca, Peru, pp. 207-208, May, 1914; and in issues of the given year, Decorative Value of American Indian Art, pp. 301— 307, May, 1916; The Loom in the New World, and Ancient Peruvian Cloths, pp. 381-393, October, 1916. A choice Philippine woven fabric (Bagobo), in which the design is the result of tying the hemp fiber before it is dyed : ws Courlesy of Paramount Pictures Corporation A FINE SPECIMEN Tilefish, rediscovered in quantity about 1898, was practically unknown on the market until the latter end of 1915, when the United States Bureau of Fisheries induced Captain Carl C. Young, of Gloucester, to fit out a schooner. Captain Young made four trips. He had difficulty in disposing of his first haul, but the Bureau undertook to make the fish known, and before the fourth trip was over, tilefish was selling well and other men were enthusiastically engaging in the fishery 432 The United States Fish Commission schooner, ‘“‘Grampus,”” 1899, setting out from Woods Hole to investigate the distribution of the tilefish grounds Tilefishing in Fifty Fathoms By GEORGE H. SHERWOOD thing, pack your duds and re- port on the ‘Grampus’ at once. She will sail in half an hour.”’ There was no appeal from this command of the director and within the allotted time I was on board the United States Fish Commission schooner “Grampus,” and my first experience on deep water had begun. It was in the latter part of August, 1899, and the “Grampus,” in command of Captain Hahn, was about to leave the government station at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, to continue the investi- gation of the distribution of the tilefish which had been rediscovered along the continental shelf, south of New England. The original discovery of this fish, as far at least as any records go, occurred in May, 1879, when Captain Kirby of Gloucester, while fishing for cod and 66 Noa I want you to drop every- hake south of Nantucket, brought up in one catch about two thousand pounds of a strange fish, most of which were promptly thrown overboard. A few, however, were kept and cooked, and proved so palatable that Captain Kirby landed in Gloucester with about four hundred pounds of the dressed fish and sent a specimen to the United States National Museum. It was found to be a new genus and species, was given the name Lopholatilus chameleonticeps (or the crested tilus with chameeleon-like head), and as it was a large beautifully colored fish of excellent food qualities, and existed in large numbers not far from the coast, steps were immediately taken to locate the fishing grounds and determine the feasibility of establishing a fishery. From time to time during 1880 and 1881, trawls were set and fish caught, 433 434 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL but in March and April 1882, before very much had been ascertained about it, there occurred a catastrophic destruc- tion of the tilefish. Vessels reported having sailed for many miles through masses of the dead fish floating at the surface, and, from accounts of various vessels, it was estimated that an area one hundred and seventy miles long and twenty-five miles wide was covered by tilefish in a dead or dying condition, and that at least 1,400,000,000 individuals had perished. Later in the same year Professor A. E. investigations made both before and since it took place have enabled very probable conjectures to be made. The tilefish belongs to a tropical family accustomed to warm water, and many of the sea-bottom animals found in its vicinity are also tropical or subtropical in character. It was found that the sea bottom, at and below the hundred- fathom line along the New England coast is as steep as a mountain side, and the upper portion of this slope, from sixty-five to about two hundred fathoms, is bathed by the waters of the Gulf ae Courlesy of United States Bureau of Fisheries The ti cisn wu discovered by a Captain Kirby, of Gloucester, while fishing for cod off Nantucket. He sent. specimens to the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, where it was pronounced a new species and named Lopholatilus chameleonticeps or “the crested tilus with head like a chameleon.”” The captain however christened it “‘tilefish”” and such it has remained Verrill, then in charge of the scientific exploration work of the United States Fish Commission, investigating with the ship “Fishhawk,” not only was unable to find a single tilefish, but also noticed a singular absence of many species of crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms, and other forms, which he had found plenti- ful the year before in the same locality. Evidently some marked and sudden change in conditions had fatally affected all these marine creatures, and, although the cause of this change has not been determined with absolute certainty, the Stream. The water here is therefore considerably warmer than that nearer inshore, and than the water which underlies it farther out.. This narrow warm belt is occupied by a continuation of the southern or West Indian Gulf Stream fauna, which could not exist here if the Gulf Stream did not flow along the bottom of this area both in winter and summer. There is evidence, however, that the position of the Gulf Stream is not constant, and that it was receding offshore at the time of the tilefish dis- aster, leaving the subtropical sea-bot- ee TILEFISHING IN FIFTY FATHOMS tom fauna of that area in water at a lower temperature than it was able to survive. It was predicted at the time of the disappearance, that the same species would not be destroyed farther south, and would probably migrate northward and reoccupy these grounds should conditions again become favorable. Although a search was conducted every year for the next ten years, no tilefish were discovered, but from 1889 to 1891 a series of temperature investiga- tions made over this tract by Professor William Libbey, indicated that there was in process a definite movement of warm water toward the shore, a continuance of which would result in the rehabilitation of the tilefish in its former habitat. In 1892 eight specimens of tilefish were obtained on the old ground by the United States Fish Commission schooner “Grampus,” and from this time until 1898 small incidental catches were re- ported by fishing vessels every year. These seemed to indicate that the tile- fish were returning, and in August, 1898, Dr. H. C. Bumpus, director of the bio- logical laboratory of the United States Fish Commission at Woods Hole, de- cided to make a systematic investigation of the tilefish grounds. The “Grampus” was accordingly placed at his disposal for the purpose. This schooner was a two-masted vessel, especially built by the government for investigating the fisheries. She was about one hundred feet over all, with a draft of twelve feet. In addition to the usual cabin space, she was equipped with a small laboratory and apparatus for scientific work, includ- ing nets, dredges, and preserving mate- rials. Three trips were made by the “Grampus,” with the object of deter- mining the abundance and area of dis- tribution of the tilefish. One of these trips yielded 203 tilefish. This catch, 435 totaling more than two thousand pounds, was taken to Montauk Point and dis- tributed to the soldiers at Camp Wickoff. Tilefish were caught at every trial during these trips, and trawls were set in water of a depth from sixty to eighty fathoms. In August, 1899, it was decided to determine the inshore limit of the tile- fish grounds. In addition to the regular crew of the vessel, four of the scientists who were spending the summer in the government laboratory were invited to make the trip, in order to make obser- vations on the habits and anatomy of the tilefish in particular and of any other fauna that chanced our way. Captain Hahn of the “Grampus” was an ideal commander of such an expedi- tion; the highest type of American sea captain and a thorough gentleman. A man of perhaps forty, he had. followed the sea from early boyhood, had risen through merit alone, and was known throughout New England ports as an expert navigator. It was late afternoon when the lines were cast off, and the “Grampus”’ was towed out of the harbor and headed up Vineyard Sound. About nine o’clock in the evening, Gay Head light was passed, and Captain Hahn altered his course to due south. Several of us spread our mattresses on the after deck and prepared to enjoy the beauties of an August night. It was an evening not soon to be forgotten. Overhead, the sky was studded with myriads of stars; on our port were the white and red flashes of Gay Head; on our star- board, the twin lights of the Vineyard Sound Lightship. The red and green lights of passing vessels showed in the distance, while the stillness of the night was broken only by the throbbing of some tramp steamer and by the gentle swish of the water along the sides of the “Grampus.” ~ At last biological theories 436 had been sufficiently discussed, real stories exchanged, and all, save the watch, turned in. The next morning all signs of land had disappeared and we were gliding over a long ocean swell before a fresh breeze. At eight o’clock, Captain Hahn took an observation. Soundings showed about fifty fathoms and the clear blue water indicated that we were near the edge of the Gulf Stream. The particular pur- pose of this trip was to determine how far inshore the tilefish had moved. Previous catches had been made in sixty to eighty fathoms and it had been decided to try for them in fifty to sixty fathoms. Tilefish, like cod, halibut, and other deep-water fishes, are caught on what is called a ground-trawl line. This con- sists of a long heavy cord or line, one thousand feet or more in length, to which is attached, at intervals of six feet, short lines three or four feet in length with a fishhook on the end of each line. The trawl line is carefully coiled in a tub, and each hook baited as it is placed in the tub. To set a trawl, one end of. the - ground line is attached to a small anchor, | which is lowered to the bottom by a small buoy line. To this buoy line a buoy is fastened, which floats on the sur- face and thus marks the position of the anchor and the beginning of the trawl line. As the anchor sinks, the ground line in the tub is carefully payed out, so as not to entangle the short baited lines. When the anchor is fastened in the bot- tom, one of the men rows the dory from the buoy at right angles to the current or tide and the other man pays out the trawl line from the tub. A second trawl line is fastened to the end of the first line and the process of setting continues. Thus, finally, several tubs of trawl are fastened together and stretched along the bottom, making one continuous line THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL baited line every six feet. By setting the ground line at right angles to the current the short lines float out free and . neighbors. It takes an hour or two. set such a trawl and it may take tk hours to haul it. For tilefish, the are baited with pieces of 7 or to eight hours. While the sailors were s and Captain Hahn jogged be in their vicinity. The scien meantime, busied themselv nets and citer: nets, inve with aru life. Lo transparent Salpa, shaped like 1 barrels, went floating by. — small crabs, copepods, and cea, and often concealed fi in the distance. By noon the first trawl of m4 . had been set and the i at to the “Grampus.” ter | the trawl and the “Grampus”: up to the buoy. A dory, ma pulled away. First the buoy hauled in and neatly coiled in then the trawl line itself was_ Almost the first hook that ap a tilefish on it, and watching deck of the “Grampus,” — form resembles some of the lowest inv Le while in its embryonic form it is closely ver character. LEP ur pepyney st Yo eo sit qt [Me7] eo) pue yno oF urese soliop oy} ‘SuryweM JO sIMOy MOJ B JoVFY *“WI0I}0q *[MeI} OG} JNO sXed uvur Joq}0 943 ‘ ves 94} SuoTe poyo}esjs pue 194}050} pouojsej ore [MBIZ JO SQN} [BIVAVG qugJINO JO Opty dy} SsoIOB YROG OY} SMOI WeUT 9UO O]TGA ‘UoY} ‘v0BjJINS oy} 78 eovyd oY} Yseur 07 Aonq & pue “FI Poy OF JOYOUR UB YIM “U10}}0q, BAS OY} OF peddoap st our [Me2} OY} JO pus eug = “yeog ]feUIS 10 AJOp Yous 07 pouorsodde oe UsU OMY pue qn} euo ‘qn B UT patoo st “yooJ xXIs AJOAO SOUT] ITeq JOYS YA pue Suoy oyun & Jey ynoqe ‘our AAvoy sy, ‘“Ul] [MwIy-puNoIs & Jo suBoUT Aq JYFNeO ‘soysy vas-doosp ore Ysyo|LL, NS3GVHNJW HO GINOS HLIM G3LIVa AYV SMOOH AHL uonjpuodso;) saunjngd yunowDsdg ay) fo Asajuno') Oa Se ; > ae St) Marthas 3 <=} Vineyard N antucket I |NWANTUCKET SHOALSL.S. - /} NAUTICAL MILES ch 2,3.,0,19 20.39 49 5p ay | PAtiantic Cty, rf | — > ze: Courtesy of United States Bureau of Fisheries Map showing distribution of the tilefish grounds and the depths at which the fish is found . a —= — Courlesy of the Outlook Company Taking in the trawl.— Accustomed to the pressure of the many fathoms of water under which they live, tilefish gradually become inert a8 they are drawn to the surface and finally float on their backs fish has just been unhooked; another is floating beside the boat 438 in a dying condition. One TILEFISHING IN FIFTY FATHOMS could see fish after fish come over the side of the dory, some of them of good size. As the men took in the trawl, the dory sank lower and lower in the water, and by the time the hauling was com- pleted, it was loaded to the gunwales. The fishermen then pulled away to the “Grampus,’ where we were anxiously awaiting our first glimpse of the tilefish. As the dory came alongside, we were as- tonished at the sight. The fish are bril- liantly colored and had an iridescence almost rainbow in effect. Only a few showed any sign of life and the majority had the air bladder or portion of intes- tine protruding from the mouth. This is always likely to be the case with fishes that are caught from considerable depth (where pressure from the many fathoms of water is great) and is caused by the sudden release of external pressure as they are brought rapidly to the surface. Immediately the scientists became busy. Certain specimens were dissected to show anatomy. A special study was made of the anatomy of the air bladder and samples of the gas in the air sac were taken for future analysis. The majority of the specimens were packed in ice but some found their way to the cook’s gal- ley, and that night we enjoyed our first meal of fresh tilefish. The flesh resem- bles cod and is very palatable. As soon as Captain Hahn saw that we were on tilefish grounds, he decided to set a second trawl. This was set three or four miles west of the first catch. The following day was devoted to fishing. Trawls were set in seventy fathoms, and in fifty-five fathoms and always with success. It was apparent that the tilefish had not only reéstab- lished itself but was abundant over a large area. The second night gave evi- dence of thickening weather, and the sky was overcast. About one o’clock as we lay on deck, the distant throbbing of the 439 engine of some steamer could be heard, and soon the red and green sailing lights could be distinguished, indicating that she was headed directly for us. She came up so rapidly that Captain Hahn decided to “show her the torch.” The mate climbed fifteen or twenty feet up into the rigging and lit a kerosene torch, and, as soon as the light flashed into the darkness, we noticed that the sound On the way to the cook’s galley.— The fish are bright colored and brilliantly iridescent — and taste as good as they look of the engine ceased. The steamer, evi- dently a tramp, was perhaps a half mile distant. In a few minutes the engines again began to vibrate, slowly the red light disappeared, and we knew that she had altered her course. I for one breathed easier. The next morning the weather looked threatening and Captain Hahn decided to haul the trawl that had been set * Ceurlesy of Paramount Pictures Corporation WEIGHING TILEFISH AT THE DOCK When the day's catch has been hauled in, it is cleaned at once and packed in chopped ‘ice in the hold. It is weighed for sale on arrival in port tJetween October and June last, the markets of New York City sold 4,125,000 pounds of tilefish 440 TILEFISHING IN FIFTY FATHOMS the previous afternoon. Scarcely had the men begun to take it in when the wind freshened, and as the morning ad- vanced the big ocean swells changed into whitecaps. Captain Hahn became less talkative. With one eye he watched the sails, with the other the eggshell of a dory, which appeared for a moment on the crest of a wave and then was lost to sight in the trough of the sea. We were now treated to a bit of good seaman- ship. As Captain Hahn saw the last of the line taken into the dory, he headed the “Grampus”’ directly for the little boat. It seemed to us that he would surely run it down, but so well did he know his vessel that with a turn of the wheel he brought the “Grampus” up into the wind; the two fishermen scrambled over the side and in a twinkling the dory was swung on deck. Without a minute’s delay the “Grampus” was headed for home. It was now about eleven o’clock, the wind had risen to the proportions of a gale and a drizzling rain set in. On ac- count of the overcast sky of the preced- ing day, the captain had not been able to take an observation and he therefore laid his course for home by dead reckon- ing. He knew that we were some seventy miles off Gay Head. He made his calculation, set the log, and squared away for the fairway buoy which marks the entrance to Vineyard Sound. The course was almost due north, and the wind was southeast. The “Grampus” had on her summer set of sails, includ- ing a great balloon jib, which stretched from the peak of the topmast to the tip of the jib boom. With the wind on the starboard quarter the sails pulled to the utmost, and the “Grampus” careened with her scuppers under. It was an experience long to be remem- bered. The vessel would rise on the crest of a wave and would then shoot down with a mountain of water behind 441 her. Every now and then her bow would be buried in a wave and as she rose, water would sweep back to the after deck house. Clad in oilskins but bareheaded, I clung to the rigging of the mainmast and watched the scene. The weather became thicker and thicker, and the wind continued to rise. The cap- tain, grave but watchful, let nothing escape hiseye. It was now getting dark. The reading of the log showed that he had run his distance. In the last hour we had traveled twelve knots. If he did not pick up the fairway buoy in the next five minutes, he would turn about and put to sea, for he dared not run in closer to land in this thick weather. Suddenly, the lookout shouted “Buoy dead ahead, Sir, just off the weather bow.” Captain Hahn eased her off and the fairway buoy swirled by us in a boiling mass of foam. Then came the climax of the day. Just as the buoy dropped astern, there was a crash like a thunder clap close at hand, and the great balloon jib was rent from mast peak to boom and blown into many shreds. The captain brought the “Grampus” up into the wind: his orders were sharp and clear. The mate and crew leaped forward to take in the torn sail. They had it almost aboard when the ship buried her nose in a sea and the crest of a wave filled a bag of the sail. The canvas was snatched from the sailor’s hand and in another instant had jerked the mate astride the rail. An- other inch and he must surely have gone overboard. Again the captain shot the vessel into the wind and this time the tattered jib was made secure. The excitement was over. Within half an hour the “Grampus” was in behind Gay Head. A thick fog had come in and we anchored for the night. The next morning, under a gentle wind, we made Woods Hole, with our cargo of fifteen hundred pounds of tilefish. MULBERRY LEAF A MILLION YEARS OLD About a million years ago the now nonexistent Lake Florissant occupied a position in the Rocky Mountains not far from Pike's Peak. Adjacent volcanoes showered into it clouds of fine volcanic ash, carrying down and covering up in layers innumerable plants and insects, which were later sealed up by lava deposits. The shale thus formed splits readily, revealing the flattened fossils of the ancient fauna and flora, thus providing an insight into past conditions, The mulberry leaf (Morus symmetrica) shown above belongs to a type still existing in our southwestern states, but now not found among the living flora of Colorado 442 Colorado A Million Years Ago By T. D. A. COCKERELL Professor of Zodlogy, University of Colorado geological time are even ap- proximately exact; yet they are not pure guesswork. Converging evi- dence, derived from many different sources, leads us to the belief that we can, in a very rough and general way, calculate the passage of time represented by the different strata. It is not im- possible that, in the future, our knowl- edge will become relatively precise, but for the present we may assume that the Florissant fossil beds are a million years old, more or less. Such an assumption, even if correct, is perhaps not particu- larly illuminating, for few of us have had to do with a million of anything. Perhaps the easiest way to think of it is to note that it represents five hundred times the distance of time between us, and the time of Christ. If one mile is taken as the equivalent of the passage of time since the birth of Christ, then five hundred miles will take us back to Lake Florissant and its Miocene life. The estimate of a million years is certainly not too great; the error is probably on the side of moderation. Important discoveries do not always present dramatic elements until seen in the light of subsequent events. Dr. A. C. Peale, in the early seventies of the last century, accompanied a party of the United States Geological Survey which camped one evening in a mountain valley west of Pike’s Peak. While supper was being prepared, Peale wan- dered around examining the rocks, and soon came upon well-preserved fossil leaves. This was the actual discovery of the Florissant shales. I did my best N° one pretends that estimates of to get Dr. Peale to write out in detail his recollections of the occasion, but he never did so. This unexpected discov- ery of Tertiary fossils in the midst of a granite region interested naturalists, especially when it appeared that not only were beautifully preserved leaves to’ be obtained, but also numerous fossil in- sects, together with fishes and even birds. In 1877, Dr. S. H. Scudder, then the greatest authority on fossil insects, spent the summer at Florissant, and obtained a very large collection. The beds proved so rich that many were attracted to them, and the total number of specimens secured mounted to many thousands. Great volumes were even- tually published by the United States Geological Survey, in which Scudder described the insects and Lesquereux the plants, while Cope made the fishes known, in connection with other studies of Tertiary vertebrates. Lesquereux died, and Scudder was stricken with paralysis before he had completed his labors. For a long time Florissant was neglected, except for occasional visits by tourists who gath- ered small collections of fossils. It is probable that during this period the total number of specimens taken away was not inconsiderable, but they were scattered about the country and re- ceived little scientific attention. The Hambach collection, now in the United States National Museum, was the basis of a paper on the fossil plants by Mr. W. C. G. Kirchner. A rather large collection exists in the Natural History Museum at Denver, but for the most part it remains unstudied. The Prince- 443 444 ton Expedition, of which the eminent paleontologists W. B. Scott and H. F. Osborn were members, gathered impor- tant material, part of which went to the British Museum, and was eventually studied by the present writer. Other specimens and collections exist in various places, and from time to time reach the hands of students. Unfortunately, pri- vate collectors, and even curators of museums, do not always recognize the obligation to make these precious ob- jects serve the cause of science. In 1905, Messrs. Henderson and Ramaley, of the University of Colorado, visited Florissant, and secured a small collection, including several new species. In 1906, arrangements were made for more extensive work, with the financial codperation of the American Museum of Natural History, Yale University, the British Museum, and the University of Colorado. Dr. W. M. Wheeler repre- sented the American Museum in the field, while Mr. and Mrs. Cockerell and Mr. S. A. Rohwer came from Boulder. The results were surprisingly good, and for several years expeditions from the University of Colorado, codperating with other institutions, worked during the summer at Florissant. In 1909, Mr. George Sternberg, assisted by a couple of Boulder students, Messrs. Duce and Rusk, made a rather large col- lection, which went to the American Museum, and was described by the writer,' with the exception of a beauti- fully preserved geometrid moth, which remains at the American Museum un- described. More recently the University of Colo- rado has ceased to send expeditions to Florissant, the available time and funds being expended in other directions; but the study of the fauna and flora has * Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX VI, pp. 275-288. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL continued, the supply of materials being as yet far from exhausted. .Perhaps the best public display of Florissant fossils is at the University of Colorado, but that in the hall of geol- ogy at the American Museum of Natural History is scarcely inferior, and a good one is to be seen in the Natural History Museum in London. The Florissant shales are derived from fine voleanic ash, which fell in numerous showers from volcanoes which were ad- jacent to the ancient Lake Florissant. Falling upon or being washed into the lake, this ash formed layers which coy- ered up the numerous insects and other organisms killed by the eruptions, to- gether with plants of all kinds, especially leaves of trees. When lava or mud flowed over these deposits, they were sealed up and compressed, forming shale which now can be split with a knife, revealing flattened but wonderfully pre- served remains. After volcanic actiy- ity had ceased, and the shales had aceu- mulated in deep layers, streams flowing over the surface began to cut out the soft rock, and eventually formed the valley we find today. It is principally along *the sides of this valley that the shale is exposed, and by carefully digging it out, examining every piece minutely, collec- tions may be made by those who are willing to take the trouble. : Those who have seen the exhibits in museums are likely to be disappointed when visiting the locality, since first- class specimens are few, and it often seems that nothing of value is being obtained to compensate for the labor in cramped and uncomfortable positions. Yet, in the hands of experts, the yield is such as it would be hard to duplicate elsewhere. Thus, in 1912, Professor H. F. Wickham, of the University of Iowa, obtained more than ninety species of beetles, of which more than forty were FLORISSANT FLIES More than a thousand different species of insects and plants have been found in the Florissant shales, many of them, like the horseflies (Figs. 1 and 2 above) being very closely allied to living forms. The horses and other animals which these insects must have persecuted were, however, very different from those of today, the mam- malian groups having greatly changed since the Miocene while insects and plants have remained nearly the same. Migrations that have taken place among the latter, make it possible to connect the presence or absence of certain forms with changes of land and water. In the order numbered, the flies above are Tabanus parahippi, Tabanus hipparionis, Psilocephala hypogza, Lithocosmus coquilletti (a genus now extinct), and Chilosia miocenica 445 446 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL. new, in an excavation about twenty feet long and six feet deep. The amount of shale existing is such that it can hardly be exhausted, but it is very unfortunate that inexperienced collectors throw away many valuable specimens, looking only for conspicuous ones, while from time to time very fine things are preserved by confusion of mind regarding the money value of specimens. To a non-scientific person it seems highly illogical to say that an object is in one sense of priceless value, and in another only worth ten or fifty cents. The value of a new species of fossil fly or beetle, in a money sense, is of course very small, since neither mu- That the climate of Florissant was once both milder and moister than it is today is evidenced by the plant re- mainsfound. Fig, magnolia, elm, beech, walnut, cedar, poplar, pine, oak, giant redwood, and other trees, formed a forest of mixed elements such as cannot be found together anywhere today. The redwood, now confined to Cali- fornia, was once widespread over the northern hemisphere and is represented at Florissant not only by foliage but also by large silicified stumps (Sequoia haydeni). (See Cockerell’s Miocene Trees of the Rocky Mountains, 1909| the non-scientific as curiosities and are eventually broken or lost. Many species of Florissant insects are still known only by uniques, and in spite of the richness of the field it is impossible to have any assurance that species so represented will ever be found again. In some cases there is a not unnatural seums nor naturalists can afford to give large sums for objects which “bake no bread,” and which at the time interest perhaps fewer than half a dozen persons in the world. On the other hand, such specimens form part of the material of science, and essential parts of the great structure of knowledge, and will continue 4 4 1 § ; adh el for unknown genera- tions to tell their humble but not in- significant tale of what has been. To lose or destroy them is like removing a brick from some splendid building; the building will not fall, but the offense is intolerable. Perhaps the great- est importance of the Florissant deposit lies in the fact that so many _ species (more than a thou- sand described) of insects and_ plants have been found. The great number of forms of life known enables us to recon- struct a picture of the period, and to draw conclusions from the absence as well as the presence of certain groups. Florissant is, in effect, a sort of Mio- cene Pompeii, afford- ing us an insight into the past conditions which few deposits in the whole world can give. From it, we may even reason about conditions in These fossil leaves are believed to belong to the family Proteacee, plants which today are found only in countries of the southern hemisphere. speculated as to land bridges across which these plants might have come, but dis- covery of them in the Colorado shales, showing that they once existed in the north temperate zone, has changed the nature of these speculations. are strikingly like those of the modern greenhouse plant Grevillea robusta Naturalists have The leaves above Dragon fly (Phenacolestes) found in the Florissant shales, belonging to a genus now extinct remote parts of the world. Thus, the presence of certain characteristic Old World forms of life suggests that land was, or had recently been, continuous between Asia and America; the absence of a distinct South American element indicates that the Isthmus of Panama was still under water. These geograph- ical changes can be demonstrated to have occurred, using quite other evidence; and if it appears that the Florissant beds were 447 This butterfly (Nymphalites scudderi) lived a million years ago. Florissant is especially rich in flowers and flower-visiting insects, and is the only locality in the New World where fossil butterflies are found. Some of these show the wing markings very perfectly F Roses, leaves, ferns, grasses, even fungi and mosses, are among the smaller fossil plants found at Florissant, and flowers are abundant. This one (Porana tenuis) belongs to a type now found in Asia but wholly absent in America, and the finding of such Old World forms suggests that land was, or recently had been at the time the shales were laid down, continuous between Asia and America 448 COLORADO A MILLION YEARS AGO laid down before this event, but after that, we have then a relative date to use in our studies of stratigraphy. Forward evolution among the plants and insects during the last million years or so has been extremely slow, or perhaps in most groups altogether lacking; but migra- tions have been many, and from these we may date our rocks and connect the presence of fossils with changes of land and water. Among the Florissant insects, perhaps the most interesting are two species of tsetse fly (Glossina), a genus now wholly absent from the New World, but well known in Africa, where certain species carry disease-producing Protozoa. Sleep- ing sickness in man results from the bite of tsetse flies infected with a certain trypanosome. Whether the Miocene species of Glossina carried any organisms producing disease we cannot now deter- mine, but it is not unlikely. Professor H. F. Osborn had written concerning the probable reasons for the extinction of so many of the large American mam- mals, and had cited the tsetse fly dis- eases in illustration of possible causes. By a curious coincidence, the tsetse fly was discovered at Florissant shortly after the publication of these suggestions, affording such measure of confirmation as could in the nature of the case be expected. The second species of fossil Glossina, found later, was named G. osbornt in commemoration of this coin- cidence. Florissant is famous for its fossil flowers, and equally for the flower-visit- ing insects, bees and butterflies. All the New World fossil butterflies are from Florissant, and some of them show the bands or spots upon the wings very perfectly. The finest of all was obtained by Scudder, and is in the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard Uni- versity. A very good one, lacking the 449 lower wings, was found by Mrs. Cocker- ell. Moths, for some reason not ex- plained, are extremely scarce, and usu- ally poorly preserved. A very good caterpillar has been found. Beetles are very abundant, and including those lately published by Professor Wickham, now number five hundred and fifteen. To these will be added thirty-nine species of Elateride, which Professor Wickham has described in manuscript. While the beetle fauna shows much in common with that of today, the absence of certain groups is no less remarkable than the great abundance of others, especially of the weevils. The plants, better than the insects, indicate a milder climate than exists in Colorado today, and especially a moister one. There were no palms, but great redwoods mingled with figs, magnolias, Ailanthus, Sapindus, elm, beech, walnut, chestnut, incense cedar, maples, pop- lars, pines, and oaks; a mixed forest con- sisting of elements which cannot be found together in any one place today. Nearly all the plants are very closely allied to living ones, in some cases so closely, that but for the interval of time we might well regard them as mere varieties. Sev- eral species are said to belong to the family Proteacez, and although this ref- erence has been disputed, it appears to be correct. Certainly they are quite unlike any components of the present North American flora, while some of them, at least, are extraordinarily like certain proteaceous species. On one occasion I led my wife up to some young plants of Grevillea robusta in a greenhouse, and asked without any explanation, “Where have you seen that?”’ The reply came instantly: “In the shale.” She did not know why I asked, nor what the plants were; the impression made by the cut of the leaves was naive and immediate. The fossil 450 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL plants having the cut of Grevillea are currently referred to Lomatia, but they might as well be placed in the former genus. This case is of unusual interest because the: Proteace are-today south- ern plants, scattered through the coun- tries of the southern hemisphere, where they lead naturalists to imagine land bridges across which they might have come. Proof that they once abounded in the north temperate zone puts an entirely new face on these speculations. Among the smaller plants at Florissant are roses, including a well-preserved rose- bud, ferns, grasses, and even fungi and mosses. A fruiting moss which we found was transmitted to Mrs. N. L. Britton, and is now at the New York Botanical Garden. A small liverwort, also sent to the New York Botanical Garden, still awaits description. The weak point in the Florissant col- lection, so far, lies in the inadequate representation of organisms other than plants and insects. Scudder described many spiders, but they were mostly poorly preserved. Other spiders are now in the hands of Dr. Alexander Petrunkevitch for description. A single millipede was published by the writer, and a specimen was handed to Mr. R. W. Miner of the American Museum for description, but has not yet been pub- lished. No centipedes have been found, and it is extraordinary: that a single ostracod represents the Crustacea. The mollusks number seven, two only being land snails. There are ten fishes, in- cluding an extinct genus of especial interest. Two birds have been de- scribed, and another is in the possession of Dr. J. E. Cutler of Denver University, and will shortly be made known. Feath- ers are quite common. The only trace of Florissant mammals, as yet, consists of some minute and frag- mentary teeth. No reptile or amphibian has been seen, although we have an object which may possibly be a turtle’s. flattened egg. A general summary of the fauna was published in the American Journal of Science, 1913, (p. 498), but rather numerous additions have since been made, and about sixty species of insects (described by Wickham and the writer), and several plants (described by Knowlton) await publication. A summary of the flora was given in Bulle- tin Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIV, February, 1908. A new species of rose (Rosa wilmatle) from the shales of Florissant The Whale House of the Chilkat By GEORGE T. EMMONS AN ACCOUNT OF THE CHILKAT INDIANS OF ALASKA, AND THE MOST IMPORTANT OF THEIR ANCIENT COMMUNAL HOUSES The material here presented has been gathered from the most reliable native sources through- out a period of twenty-five years of intimate personal acquaintance and association with the Tlingit, and treats of their past, before the exodus from their old villages to the mining camps and salmon canneries of the white man so reduced their numbers that communal life in the large old houses, upon which their social customs and practices depended, was rendered impossible, and the seed of a new life was sown.— GrorGce T. Emmons. PON the discovery of the North- west Coast of America, the Tlingit were found in possession of southeastern Alaska, with the excep- tion possibly of the southernmost por- tion of Prince of Wales Island, which had been wrested from them by invading Haida from Masset on the Queen Char- lotte Islands during the latter half of the eighteenth century. From the testi- mony of the early explorers, this occu- pation seems to have been of sufficient age to have developed a racial type, speaking the same tongue, acknowledg- ing established laws, and bound by like conventions. What knowledge we can gather of their origin and early life from their family traditions, songs, and geo- graphical names, although fragmentary and vague, tells consistently of a uniform northward migration by water, along the coast and through the inland chan- nels from the Tsimshian peninsula and Prince of Wales Island, which was con- stantly augmented by parties of Interior people descending the greater rivers to the sea. The social organization of the Tlingit is founded on matriarchy, or descent through the mother, and is dependent upon two parties, the members of each of which may not marry among them- selves, but the two parties intermarry and supplement each other upon the many ceremonial occasions that mark their intercourse. The two parties are subdivided in- to fifty-six existing families or clans, founded on blood relationship and ab- solutely independent in government, succession, inheritance, and_ territory. Within the family there is a well-defined aristocracy, wholly dependent upon birth, from which the chiefs are chosen; an intermediate class consisting of those who have forced themselves to the front, through wealth, character, or artistic ability; and the poorer people. In earlier days there were many slaves who had no recognized rights. Geographically considered, there are sixteen tribal divisions known as “kwans,” a contraction of ka (man) and an (land lived on or claimed). Of these several tribes the Chilkat-kwan has been the most prominent since our acquaint- ance with Alaska. The relative impor- tance of a primitive people is measured by conditions of food supply and other natural resources. The commanding position of the Chilkat, at the head of the inland channels controlling the mountain passes to the interior, gave them the monopoly of the fur trade of the upper Yukon Valley, and the placer copper fields of the White River region. These products, unknown to the coastal area, were economically important in primi- 451 Photograph copyrighted by Winer ana vond CHILKAT CHIEFS OF THE RAVEN CLAN The chiefs are chosen from a well-defined aristocracy dependent upon birth, and to the chiefs and housemasters belongs the privilege of naming the communal houses on the occasion of their dedication. A name once houses built on that site. guests, wearing the Raven given belongs not only to the particular house but also to all future At the great potlatch, or feast of dedication, the head chief welcomes his hat, emblematic of his family totem or crest « = Se se a ESF psu], oy} Suoure souezJodurl oqit} sty} Seats JoL04U! ‘ospy ‘“Asbvo SuLAT] oyeur opis ureyunoul oy} UO seyozed Arszoq ssoyjsneyxo pue ‘oure3 pue ysy vos ‘uouyes yo Ayddns ssojp}runy & @prlaoid ‘soye] 94} 0} sessed ureyunoul ey} jo pueuru109 d i10q} oAey qisulLL ey} Jo oqhiy FeRTTYD 9GF Yop ynoqe ‘eysepy ‘yeueDH uud’]T jo peoy oy} IeoU SI ‘aaoqe UMOYS *JoIOv]y) WOSPIABG WIOJ} SUIMOTZ ‘SIOALI OMT, *sodeypIA pediouls vVMSV1V “IVNVO NNAT ‘LYM TIHO 3HL AO AYLNNOO SHL et: =: 5 a pa See es ee ne asthe 454 tive days, and after the advent of Europeans the increased demand for furs, and their greater value, made this trade even more lucrative. The Tlingit were a canoe people and might be termed semi-nomadic, as they were on their hunting grounds in the early spring and late fall, while the summer season was spent in the fishing camps by the salmon streams; but not- withstanding these long absences they built substantial villages, where, except for social activities, they spent the winter in comparative idleness. As they looked to the sea for their principal food supply, their villages were directly on the shore just above the high-water mark, in sheltered coves where they could launch their canoes and land in any weather and at any stage of the tide. But the Chilkat, differing from all of the other Tlingit, lived just beyond the open water in a rather restricted territory on rivers that were veritable storehouses of food, bringing abundance of-fish life to their very doors and so permitting them to remain at home throughout the year, except when on their trading trips to the interior, which gave their habitations a more permanent character, and contri- buted to the unity of communal life. Of the four principal old villages, all of which have survived the ravages of constant strife and the still more deadly by-products of civilization — liquor and disease —Klukwan (mother town) has always held the first place in size, wealth, and the character of its people. It retained its supremacy long after the larger of the more southern coast vil- lages had gone to decay, as its more interior and isolated position, and the independent and aggressive reputation of its population, kept white traders at a distance. Klukwan lies at the edge of a gradual slope on the north bank of the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Chilkat, twenty miles from its. mouth. where the swift current concentrated “in a single channel forms a strong eddy that permits the landing of canoes at any stage of the river. Of the five totemic families that form the Chilkat-kwan, four are resident here. — | Of these, the Kon-nuh-ta-di, the sole representative of the Raven party, is the one with which this paper deals. — als ¥ Their legendary history, so imaginary = and interesting, is closely associated with — the wanderings and antics of “Yehlh,” _ the Raven creator, while the earliest | family traditions are centered about the w. 2 south and west coasts of the Prince of ceremonial paraphernalia. Wales and contiguous islands, where, at = a an early period, they must have lived. = Their personal names frequently refer to the Raven, their most honored crest, = as they claim to be the first family of he . this phratry, and it is conspicuously diss played on the totemic headdress” and They claim and use a great many other emblems as the whale, frog, woodworm, silver sal- — mon, hawk, owl, moon, and starfish. ee 3 their house carvings and paintings they — illustrate the hero deeds and conquests _ of their ancestors in early struggles with mythical animals and superna be- ings. When I first visited Klukwan in 1885, the large old communal houses of the — Kon-nuh-ta-di were still standing, the principal one of which, that of the heredi- _ tary chief, “ Yough-hit,” (Whale house), was in the last stages of decay and un- — inhabitable, although the interior fittings et were intact and it was still used upon — It was unquestion- ably the most widely known and elabo- — rately ornamented house, not only at — festival occasions. Chilkat, but in Alaska. It occupied the site of much older houses and, it is claimed, much larger ones. It is said to have been built by Kate-tsu about, ot The Whale House of the Chilkat in 1885, uninhabitable now but with interior fittings intact and still used on festival occasions. In the old days these communal houses, made of heavy timbers split from the giant spruces, were fortresses of defense, with narrow doorways for entrance and the smoke hole in the roof for only light and ventilation. The poorest families of the chief’s following were allotted the sleeping spaces nearest the door, the family of the chief himself occupying the rear of the house. The advent of the white man with his mining camps and canneries has done away with the communal life, and the old houses have for the most part disappeared or been modernized In 1882, the Chilkat were still a comparatively primitive people, practising ancestor worship, cremating the dead, dominated by superstitions and by the shamans or medicine men, who mediated between them and the spirits. The houses of the dead stood in the rear of the rows of dwelling houses and beside them were the crema- tion grounds, strewn with charred logs and partly burnt funeral pyres. ‘The shamans’ dead houses were apart from the others, hidden in the cottonwood groves and guarded by elaborately carved spirit figures and canoes 455 456 or prior to, 1835, and stood in the middle of the village. It represented the best type of Tlingit architecture, a broad low structure of heavy hewn spruce timbers, with noticeably high corner posts, that gave it a degree of character wholly wanting in the larger houses of the Van- couver Island people. It faced the river with a frontage of forty-nine feet ten inches and a depth of fifty-three feet — approximately the proportions of Tlingit houses large and small. Each of these old houses formed a solid structure, the frame and plankmg supporting each other without the use of spikes. The doorway, which was the only open- ing in the walls, was ap- proached by two steps, more than three feet above the ground. It was narrow and low as a defensive measure, so that but one could enter at a time, and then only in a stooping posture equally impossible for attack or defense. The roof covering consisted of a confusion of overlapping spruce boards and slabs of bark, held down originally by smaller tree trunks ex- tending the depth of the structure and kept in place by heavy boulders at the ends. The smoke hole in the center of the roof, which both lighted and ventilated the interior, had been protected by a mov- able shutter balanced on a cross bar resting on two supports so that it could be shifted to either side as de- sired. The interior formed an excavation four feet nine inches below the ground level, with two receding steplike plat- forms. The lower square floor space, Old house in Klukwan on the Chilkat River. most important of the Chilkat villages and retained its character long after those farther south had fallen into decay THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL. twenty-six feet by twenty-six feet nine inches, constituted the general living and’ working room common to all, except that portion in the rear and opposite the entrance, which was reserved for the use of the house chief, his immediate family, and most distinguished guests. This was the place of honor in all Tlingit houses upon all occasions, ceremonial or otherwise. The flooring, of heavy, split, smoothed planks of varying widths, ex- tended around a central graveled fire- Klukwan was the place six feet by six feet and a half, where all of the cooking was done over a wood fire which also heated the house in winter. In front of and a little to the right of the fire space, was a small cellar-like apartment entered by a small trap door in the floor barely large enough to admit a person. This was used as a steam bath, by heating boulders in the fire, dropping them on the floor below with split wood tongs, and pouring water upon them to generate vapor — THE WHALE HOUSE OF THE CHILKAT whereupon the bather entered and the opening was covered over. The first platform, extending around the main floor at an elevation of two and three-fourths feet, comparatively narrow, with a width of two and one-half feet along the sides, and slightly more at the ends, served both as a step, and as a lounging place in the daytime, and that part of it in front, broken by the steps descending from the doorway, was utilized for firewood, fresh game, fish, water baskets, and such larger household articles and implements as were in gen- eral use. The retaining walls of this platform consisted of four heavy hewn spruce timbers approximately twenty- seven feet long, three feet wide, and five inches thick, and so fitted with mortise and tenon at opposite ends that they supported one another without artificial 457 fastenings. The faces of these timbers were beautifully finished in the finest adze work, and those on either side and at the back were carved in low relief to represent a remarkable extended figure, neither wholly human nor animal, with widely outstretched arms painted in red. The upper and broader platform, rising two feet above that below, was at. the ground level, and was floored with heavy planks. This platform constituted the sleeping place of the inmates. Each family occupied a certain space accord- ing to number and relative importance, the poorer members being nearer the door. The spaces were separated from one another by walls of chests, baskets, and bundles, containing the family wealth in skins, blankets, clothing, cere- monial paraphernalia, and food products. On thewalls hung weap- and legs, Sukheen’Rain Wall” Back Partition ASE Tlukeassa Gars c re Yehlh Gars ons, traps, snares, and hunting gear. Cedar- bark. mats covered the floor, over which was laid the bedding consisting of pelts of ig Fire Square “al the caribou, mountain sheep, goat, or bear, and blankets of lynx, fox, and squirrel, which in the daytime were ordinarily rolled up for b - economy of _ space. Sometimes these cham- bers were partly en- closed by skins or old canoe sails. The back compartment occupy- ing the space between ee Ducktoolh Gars c oor Cc Gonakatate Gars the two near interior posts was partitioned Ground plan of Whale House. In size it was forty-nine feet, ten inches in front, by fifty-three feet deep. At a is shown how the retaining timbers forming the walls of both platforms are grooved and fitted at the corners to From a plan drawn by the author support one another. off by a carved wood screen. This was the chamber of the chief and his immediate family. 458 At the level of this upper platform, firmly imbedded in the ground, equi- distant from the sides and nearer the front than the back wall, were four verti- cal elaborately carved posts or “ gars,’ nine feet three inches high and two feet six inches wide, which supported the roof structure. The carved interior post to the right of the doorway entering was known as Gonakatate-Gars and told a story of Yehlh, the Raven. Gonakatate was believed to be a great sea monster, half animal and half fish, variously represented according to the imagination of the artist, but generally shown with fore feet, a characteristic dorsal fin, and the tail of a fish. The principal figure (see color plate) extending from near the top to the bottom of the post, represents this monster holding a whale by the flipper with the tail in its mouth and the head between the hind feet, for the Gonakatate is believed to capture and eat whales. The figure of a woman on the back of the whale is called Stah-ka-dee-Shawut, a family name which serves to mark the locality. In the blowhole of the whale is the head of the Raven, the significant feature of the whole carving. The story of the Gonakatate-Gars is as follows:— During the wanderings of Yehlh, the Raven, along the coast of Alaska, he saw a whale blowing far out to sea. He had neither spear nor line; only his fire bag of flint and stone and tinder, so when it came up to breathe he flew into the blowhole of the whale and made a fire in its stomach that soon killed it. When the whale floated ashore, the blowhole had partly closed and he could only get his head out. He therefore began to sing in a loud voice, which brought all the villagers to the scene, and when they cut open the blowhole the raven flew out. When the people had cut up the whale and tried out the blubber into grease, the Raven returned in human form and asked them how they got the whale, and if they had heard singing within, for he told them that long ago this had happened in his country and all of those who ate the grease had died. This so frightened the people that they left the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL grease boxes on the shore and returned to the village, when the Raven sat down and ate all the grease they had prepared. The carved interior post, to the left of the doorway entering, (see color plate) was named Duck-toolh-Gars, and illus- trates a hero tale of the family that occurred before their northern migration. The human figure represents Duck-toolh tearing the sea lion in two. The head at the base symbolizes the rock island on which the sea lion hauled, when this incident took place. The head of Duck-toolh is wrapped around with sea lion intestines and is ornamented with human hair hanging down over the face. The sea lion forms the central figure; the protruding tongue indicates death, as the body is split in half. The fore flippers are parallel with the body, under the man’s forearms, and the back flippers rest on his shoulders. 2 The villagers depended largely upon the flesh of the sea lion for food, its hide was used for armor and other economic purposes, while the whisker bristles were greatly prized for the crown of the ceremonial headdress. These animals were found in great numbers on a rocky island far to seaward, but the ocean passage in the frail canoes was very dangerous and with primitive spears and clubs it took courage and strength to succeed in the hunt, and so the people prepared themselves for the undertaking by much exercise, and hardened their bodies by sea bathing in the early morning throughout the winter. But Duck-toolh seemingly practised none of these things, he slept late and although of great size was looked upon as lazy and weak until he became the laughing stock even of the children. But he was only shamming, and after the others had gone to bed he bathed and exercised alone. One night a heavily- built man arose out of the sea, and wrestling with Duck-toolh, imparted to him his own strength. Next day Duck-toolh went hunt- ing sea lions with Kash-ka-di, who boasted of his strength and what he would do and ridiculed Duck-toolh. When they reached the rocks Kash-ka-di jumped out and grabbing a great sea lion by its hind flippers tried to tear it in two, but he was thrown high in the air and killed on the rocks. Then Duck-toolh laughed and grabbed the sea lion and tore it apart, beat ~ 6SF quounjszede s, Jory 9Y} 91OJOq UWEdIDS BAI}BIONOP OY} JO JUOIT UI OSNOY OY} Ul UOTISOd s}1 UI YSIp oy} SMOYs oINJOId OY, “4ysod esnoYy JOLIO}UI Peareo oy} se A1O}S oUTeS OY} S]]9} STG} JELqo yse19 Be SY “aS3po soddn oy} Suoye epnosiodo YI prepar pue ‘ULIOMpPOOM B queseide1 0} pojured pue poarvo ‘YUNI} 901} B JO 7NO peMoTfoY ‘(YsSIp WIOMPOOM) ,, YOIS}OY-9y¥N]},, Se UMOUY YsIp svoy DopoOM yeoi3 & SBM OSOY} Suoure JUSUIMIOIG “suoIsed00 queziodumt uo ATUO pezIqryXe ULIOJ 4SeI0 UI syoefqo TeTuoUIAIe0 AueUT oJ0M ‘Joryo 9Y4} Jo Surdsey oy} UL pue ‘osnoFT BBY MA 94} YIM poyerloosse A[Pso[O ASNOH 31VHM SHL NI HSIG WHOMGOOM TWWINOWSYS90 460 the brains out of the smaller ones, and for some unknown reason he wound the intes- tines of the animals around his head. Then they loaded the canoe with the carcasses and returned home and everyone knew that Duck-toolh was strength and he became a very powerful and wealthy man. The carved post on the right of the ornamental screen was named “ Yehlh- Gars”’ or Raven Post, and told the story of the capture of “Ta,” the king salmon. The main figure shows the Raven in human form holding a head with a projecting blade- like tongue, which is known as “Tsu-hootar,” jade adze. At the bottom is the head of a fish which should have been that of the king salmon, but through a mistake of the carver it resembles more nearly that of the sculpin. Coming out of the mouth of the Raven is a bird form called ‘“Tu-kwut-lah-Yehlh,” or Telling-lies-Raven, which symbolizes the lies the Raven told to the little birds mentioned in the story. Many of the myths relative to the wander- ings of the Raven, represent him as always hungry, unscrupulous, and deceptive. One day Yehlh happened to be on the seashore near Dry Bay and very hungry. He saw a king salmon jumping, but he had neither canoe, spear nor line. He accordingly dis- guised himself with an old hat, mat, and eagle skin, found near by, and, taking in his hand a jade adze, ‘‘tsu-hootar,” he sat down near the water and said to the salmon, “Tsu- hootar is calling you bad names, and says that you are afraid to come up to the shore.” The salmon, enraged, came to the shore and was killed by Yehlh, who then kindled a fire and prepared the fish for cooking. Many small birds came around, hoping for a share of the feast; Yehlh sent them off to gather cabbage leaves to wrap the fish in, and while they were away he cooked and ate all the fish, covered the bones with the fire, and told the birds on their return that the fire had eaten the flesh. Then all of the birds felt very bad, the little chickadee cried bitterly and, continually wiping its eyes with its feet, wore away the feathers, which ever after showed a white stripe from the corners down. ‘The blue jay was so angry that he tied up the feathers on top of his head which have ever since formed a‘ crest, for when the Tlingit are angry they THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL tie the front hair up in a knot; while the robin in his grief sat too close to the fire and burned his breast red. The carved post on the left of the ornamental screen was named “'Thluke- ass-a-Gars”’ or Woodworm Post. The large upper figure represents Ka- kutch-an, the girl who fondled the wood- worm, which was afterward killed by her family and which she died mourning. Over her head are two woodworms whose heads form her ears. Beneath is shown a frog in the bill of a crane. The whole post sym- bolizes the tree in which the woodworm lives, — the crane lights on the outer surface and the frog lives underneath among the roots. Members of the Tlow-on-we-ga-dee family display the tail of the worm on their dance dress and pipes, as they attacked that part of it, while the Kon-nuh-ta-di display the whole worm figure, as they killed the head which was the most important part. 1 In 1899, this house and “ Yehlh-hit,” or Raven House, adjoining were torn down and preparations for the erection of new buildings were gotten under way, and in the winter of 1901, after the walls were up and the roof on, a great potlatech was’ given by the Kon-nuh-ta-di, to the three Wolf families of the opposite phratry in the tribe, and the Ka-gwan-tan of Sitka, in which over ten thousand dollars in property, food, and money were distrib- uted. The head chief of the family, mas- ter of the Whale House, “ Yehlh-gu ou,” or Raven’s slave, welcomed his guests upon landing, wearing the Raven hat. The new house, although modern in form and of two stories, took the old name, and it stands today windowless and doorless, the interior grown up in weeds, a monument of the last great pot- latch of the Chilkat, as the chief died soon afterward and his successor has neither the means to finish it nor the desire to live in it, and the elaborate carvings have never been placed but are stored and will probably so remain. HERO TALES TOLD IN CARVED WOOD Within the Whale House, four posts, carved in red cedar by a Tsimshian Indian, support the heavy longitudinal beams of the roof. ‘The Gonakatate post, or “‘gars’’ (left), represents the mythical sea monster supposed to capture and eat whales, and to bring good fortune to all who see it. It tells the story of Yehlh, the Raven. Duck-toolh-Gars (right) represents the hero Duck-toolh, or ‘‘Black-skin’’ (who typifies strength), rending the sea lion taddod ay} jo Jodaay,, ee ‘eyIvS-YIUUT], SBM JaIYD asnoy IY} JO saueU ay} Jo 2UQ —‘sUOISsassod jo panyeA JsOUI ay} pu JseOD JSaMYWON 2Y} JO zt] peruOUI 9199 ay} JO ainyeay yurWodu ue , “YyouUTT,, 23e[d 1addoo paramuey ay} Jo suoTyeyUasaidar 9aI1y} are WuAo0Fed Jaddn ay} Jo 20ry pezpe Al[njarvd ay} UD “SI[va1og eIOINY 94} UT Avjd ye Uses d1e PUk—syIKaP UA[OIA JOU JO IBM Ul PaT[ry ae OYM JUIM aso0y} a1aym ‘Usavay ysaystYy 2y3 9z1]oquIAs 0} pres st pazuasoidas aIn3y papus}xa snolmMd ay J *Ja1[21 MOT UI paaiwo sioquity Surzs10ddns sy pey ‘aaoqge ivy} 0} days ve Sururroj fau0 JAMO] 9YJ, “aSNOF{ 2/eYAA PY} JO JOOY UIeUT ay} puUNOIe papuazxa suTIO;eId OMT, 3SNOH AIVHM 3H1L AO NOILVYOOSG YOIYSLNI punois oy} Suryiys Joye sdoip suryjey ay} jo Buryseyds ay} yuasaidad , “dn ysejds sdoipurey, , 10 ‘ayoynu-u0d-ng se UMOUY ‘do} pur sapis 2y} puNOIe Japi0g ay} UI sainsy Suryonodd |jvuls IY], ‘sULIe PaYyoIaTjsINO YWM sinsy [eIyUId yard ev Aq poezyoquids ‘y111ds ure oy} yuasaidar 0} pajured pue paareo Ajayesoqyla sem ,,“[]em ulRyY,, JO Susayy-ng payed ‘useros sIyy, “wourzredy s joryd ay} OF Axyua ATWO sy} sULIOJ SUTYS NOGIIeD IO yeoS passaip ve Suny YOIYM J9A0 “UI2IDS 9Y} Ul gjoy punos ayy, “Joos ayy Suyjsoddns sysod paareo Jest OM} dy} U92Mj0q Suipuazxe ‘yS1y yoaj Jyey e pue suru Aq Buo] aaj AjUaM} ‘uaaIos B Aq yo pauonnied sem asnopy ay AA PY} JO Ivar ayy UT yuoUTjIEde s JoryD BY, “EYsePY Ul pe earyeU jo ajdurexe ysauy ay} Ajqeqoid si siyy, 43IHO SHL 3O YSSWVHO 3SH1L 3HOS3S N33SYXO0S FHL YEHLH-GARS AND TLUKE-ASS-A-GARS These are the house posts on either side of the decorative screen in the rear of the Whale House. Yehlh-Gars (left) tells the story of Yehlh, the Raven, and the king salmon; and Tluke-ass-a-Gars (right) illustrates the story of the woodworm crest of the Chilkat A Suggested Study of Costumes By CLARK WISSLER HE exhibits in the American In- dian halls are now so system- atic and extensive that the more serious minded visitor may find an unsuspected number of fascinating sub- jects for inquiry. Take, for example, the very common and homely matter of clothing. In the hall for the Plains Indians, in the cases for the Dakota (Sioux) tribes, are a number of hand- some shirts-for men. In the wall case adjoining the Cree collection is a very old shirt of this type, collected in 1838. On examination we find it to be made of two whole deerskins, so cut as to use all ot the material with very little trimming. The shape of a skin as taken by the Indian is shown on page 466, and also the lines for cutting a shirt pattern. The next sketch shows how these pieces are fitted together to form the shirt. One must con- cede that the In- dian women had developed a most systematic pro- cedure and one that shows great economy of labor and materials. Therearemany other equally meritorious tricks of the pattern that we cannot note here. A point of more general interest and significance is the fact that the peculiar con- tour of the sleeves Indian shirt made from two deerskins. Compare with pattern on next page. drawing is from a specimen collected in 1838 and the skirt, which must at first impress one as a monstrosity of style, is wholly determined by the natural form of the deerskin. Thus, the long streamers at the sides are the deer’s hind legs while those of the sleeve are the fore legs. On some shirts the pendent tail forms a center ornament to the skirt. Perhaps we have here a principle of primitive tailoring that applies to other garments. For example, the women of the Plains wear a long skin dress as may be seen on the figures in the hall. When we examine these dresses we find them made of two entire deerskins as shown in the sketch, but now the tails are at the top, the neck at the bottom. The bottom of the skirt thus has a peculiar contour, trailing sides and a center piece. In the older specimens the lines follow closely the natural form of the 466 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL skin but in the newer ones the curves are rounded off. Then if we pass out to the Woodland hall to the Indians of the East we find a peculiar cloth skirt, technically known as the Algonkin slit skirt. These Indians have been in contact with civilization so long that cloth garments alone are found in our collections but this slit skirt has two peculiar trailing pieces at the side. Now, if one took a deerskin and wrapped it around the waist, the head and neck ends would be brought together on the L\, side and one hind and one fore leg would trail. Though we cannot be absolutely sure, this seems the most likely origin of this pattern. We may then formulate a principle that the present styles of shirt and skirt among the Plains, and possibly among the Woodland tribes also, grew naturally out of the form of the material used, and were not creations of the imagination. We may go farther afield to the South American hall where we find the shirts, or ponchos, of a_ prehistoric people. To make a man’s shirt of the poncho type two skins are cut as in the one above (at the left). The two hind portions with tail attached, form the body of the shirt, and each sleeve is made by folding the upper portion of one of the skins as indicated by the dotted line “a>, In the Plains area, two skins are put together to make a woman’s shirt, but the tail is at the top and the sking are not cut (see lower figure at the left). The tail end of the skin may be folded over giving lines for decoration as seen in the drawing of the finished garment oS ; ; . : A SUGGESTED STUDY OF COSTUMES -These are of woven cloth, remarkably. fine, but of a curious pat- tern. They are like rectangular bags with a hole for the head and one for each arm. These people like many others did not cut their cloth but wove the garment entire. Now, weaving in the primi- tive sense, and even in modern times, must proceed in rectangular units; hence, a woven garment is bound to be rectangular and once again we find the con- tour of a shirt largely the inevitable result of the choice of materials. If, on the other hand, we go to the Eskimo collections, we find true coats of elaborate pat- tern, cut and _ fitted without apparent re- gard to the natural forms of the material. In contrast to all the clothing we have so far examined, these people cut up their material and fit it to the lines of the body; in other words, they are real tailors and very good ones too. The only other people in all the two Americas who cut up and fit their material are those living adjacent to the Eskimo in the north. In the Old World, we find that neither the Greeks nor the Romans cut their cloth but the ancient Chinese did. Then to the north of the Chinese we find in modern times Variations in the Indian woman’s garment among different tribes. Even when the use of trade cloth has done away with some of the features of the original skin garments, the pattern concept remains the same the wild people of Siberia who made clothes like the Eskimo, as may be seen in the exhibits. The Lapps of Europe and possibly some of the early Slavs and Teutons were tailors, but if we pass over the strictly modern development of pattern cutting to fit the body, we find the idea only among the Chinese and the peoples occupying the Arctic belts of the Old and New World. Thus it is that the study of so simple a matter as clothing may lead the Museum visitor into an important chapter of the history of culture. ' 89% UBUNSHYD “g UKs Aq UONeIOYSOY “souMOg OY JO T[Ny st eydse oy} PUL sovyMS YORTG oy? Yeoueg polinq pue iY4snvo 910M spuBsNOY} souIT? oUD004SIO[q Ul Inq ‘woY} UodN SuLmMzUOA sjeutue eq} jjnsue siesu0] ou ‘dn palip Mou ‘sjood eseyy, ~“Aoid SHY POMOTOS OY Iqnop OU Yor OFT ‘eMIOFTE aL ‘vorg-v[-oyouey jo sjood yyeydse snoseyoues, oy} ur pua SIY PUNOJ ‘epeUl SBA TOIQBIO}SOI BAOGE BY} UO@JO¥S esoyM WOIJ JOS} OY], “‘UOpojseur Jo yueYdoTe 0} ouIeS J[eUIS WOT] “yseaq yoyo Aue Joy YOJeUT UY} oJOUI SeM soUTI} O110}SIYeId Jo 103K Y}00}-e1qes yvoI3 ONL, NOGOLSVW SHL 40 AYVHYOdWALNOO V — = re = = as \b — = >» SciNN = > Me ae 7 Vit PP f My Y's Us YY MA see f mt RD oy 4 Foe, roe pe A Wed TTR _ a as 44” UJ S / /] : Ss {/s as : ~y % rie / , - NY “ 4 = . > ' Z j ANS ee ar | Se > , ri Z ; HE wi 2ZLK < S ° v MK z Nee S VO —a i S =~ \ P Y, mS a .: % : A —_— <= 7)! = ae Scourge of the Santa Monica Mountains By W. D. MATTHEW crest of mountain over the broad open valley that stretched for miles before him. - It all belonged to him by ‘‘weapon-right’”’—to him and his race, by their strength and activity and the terri- ble curving sabres that were their favorite weapons. Individually or jointly none of the inhabitants of the plain dare dispute their sovereignty; bloody and merciless tyrants though they were, none could suc- cessfully resist them. Well might he stand, fearless and majestic, viewing the scattered timid groups of great pachyderms from whom he intended to select his next victim. Before him lay the Los Angeles valley, wide, grass-covered, with clumps of trees and bushes dotting its surface. Near by were a few springs and water holes in a dry torrent bed that led down into Ballona Creek; to the eastward, in the hazy distance, he could trace the course of the river and beyond it the dim outline of the forest-clad mountains, all shimmering in the heat of a tropic summer day. Through a notch in the mountain spur to the southwest came trotting in single file a bunch of wild horses, bound from the up- lands to the water holes in the valley. Swift handsome animals they were, dun-colored and obscurely striped, with heavy black manes and zebra-like heads. They came down the trail in an irregular broken line, two or three intimate companions trotting or running close together, the whole headed by a great piebald stallion of unusual size and strength. The sabre-tooth watched these for a few minutes as they approached. Should he select one of them for his prey? No, it would mean careful stalking and ambushing them at the water hole, and they were too swift and wary for him to have more than an off-chance of securing one. It was too warm E stood, looking out from the rocky Nore.— The American Museum of Natural History has arranged to secure a complete series of duplicates representing the fossil fauna of Rancho-la-Brea, Mar, Los Angeles, from the collections of the University of California. The asphalt group, the individual mounted skeletons of the sabre-tooth and the great wolf, and skulls of the extinct horse and the great California lion are now exhibited in the Tertiary mammal hall. [See the Journat for November, 1913, pp. 291-297, for detailed description of the group with illustrations.] a day, and he was not desperately hungry. He would levy his tribute some other time. To the left, among the brush-covered sandy slopes that stretched along the foot of the mountain chain, a number of camels were browsing upon the bushes and small trees, stripping the leaves from the young shoots as far up as they could reach. These were big animals, taller than a modern camel, long-legged and clumsy in gait, with a heavy coat of shaggy hair of desert brown color, the body short and with no hump. They too, despite their apparent clumsiness and stupid appearance, were swift and wary creatures, little disposed to come within reach of the danger of an ambuscade and far too speedy to capture in an open chase. The sabre-tooth had no love for an open chase at any time; it was too tiring, and involved too much risk of stone bruises on his feet, or what was worse, getting thorns stuck between his toes. No, there was not much use watching the camels. They seldom came down to water, and when they did they generally selected one of those muddy, open, shallow pools with little or no cover near it. A really high class animal couldn’t or wouldn’t drink such water, muddy, foul, and always more or less alkaline — but these camels! Himself, when he drank, it was from a brook in the moun- tain forests where he slept at night. He turned his gaze upon the low bottom flats in the valley before him where the grass grew rank and lush in places and small groups of bison and other smaller animals were feed- ing. The bison, big and black and shaggy- maned, with gleaming sharp horns and fierce little eyes peeping out from their woolly heads, their slim legs and lithe hind quarters in odd contrast to the bulky head and barrel, were no contemptible antagonists. They were, so his family traditions ran, compara- tive newcomers in this country, immigrants from some distant region who had crossed the mountain passes to the north, and were becoming more and more numerous in the valley, ousting many of its former inhabi- tants. They had brought with them some curious ideas about fighting, bunching to- gether when attacked, in a ring with the young and females in the center, instead of 469 470 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL scattering in flight and leaving the weaklings to their fate. The sabre-tooth found such methods of defense annoying and quite in- comprehensible. If he attacked one of the bulls who stood in defense he could bring it down well enough, in spite of its horns and its massive strength. But then the other bulls would attack him, although they were not menaced at all, and could easily enough have escaped. It was risky and he didn’t like it. What business had these others to interfere between him and his legitimate quarry? A surprise attack, of course, while they were still scattered out on the meadow before they could bunch together, would be less danger- ous. But these rascals had pretty sharp eyes and ears, and if one of them saw or heard anything suspicious the whole herd would. usually thunder off, and not stop until a good distance away. Then the stalk- ing would have to be all done over again — and perhaps a third or a fourth time before he could really get at them. Too much trouble for a sultry lazy afternoon. In the thickets and copses along the course of the river he could see the stirring of various kinds of smaller game. Peccaries, deer, rac- coons, and rabbits, he knew lived in those glades and copses, and occasionally he would catch a glimpse of one. But these were all beneath his notice. He was not going to waste his terrible weapons upon such small fry. They didn’t amount to anything when you did catch them and were just as much trouble to catch as the larger animals. Nor did he consider more seriously the fleet and graceful antelopes — pronghorns and one or two smaller kinds — that he could see far out in the open. They were too shy and too swift to be worth while. Far off in the distance, showing up as mere dots on the slopes of the opposite hills, his keen eye discerned a prey that once within reach was well worth while, and while some- what dangerous had never failed to succumb to the terrible wounds that his great dagger teeth and huge claws could inflict. He did not fear them, these elephants and mastodons, but they were too far away, and they were preternaturally shrewd in getting wind of him unless he took a long circuit and got to lee- ward. Finally, as he watched the valley below him, his eye caught a glimpse of one — no two — big, shaggy, golden-brown animals moving through the brush near the dry creek bed. His eye flashed, his pose changed to a tense watch, with some uncertainty. It might be a couple of those big brown bears, redoubt- able antagonists, whom he would hardly care to tackle without necessity. Of course he could fight and overcome a brown bear if he had to, but he still carried the scars of a former encounter with one of them and was not eager to renew the fray, But these couldn’t be brown bears. Surely he had not mistaken that peculiar greenish gleam in the golden-brown backs. No—there it was again, for certain. This was his favorite prey — the big, clumsy, slow-moving ground sloth that waddled around in such stupid confidence that its heavy hair and thick bone- studded skin made it invulnerable. So it. was to ordinary animals, but not to him. He could pierce that tough skin with tre- mendous hammer blows of his great dagger teeth, and tear wide gashes in neck and flanks until the beast bled to death. Of course one must be careful to avoid the ground sloth’s long claws which could rip him up in turn if they could reach him in their wild thrashing. But he had never had any great difficulty. You sprang on the beast’s back, and struck deep and hard before it could gather its wits together, and then dodged the great claws as they reached up first on one side, then on the other to drag you off. It didn’t last long, if you gashed the neck at the right point. He crouched down and began his stealthy approach. The ground sloths, unsuspect- ing, continued to strip the leaves off the trees about them, standing on their hind legs and reaching up to drag the branches down, then digging around a tall sapling to loosen its roots and pull it over. They were working their way, feeding as they went, toward a series of small pools which lay not in the creek bottom but about half a mile over, and on the crest of a low rise. They were curi- ous looking pools, each surrounded by a bare black patch on which nothing grew. In dry weather they could be seen to be semi- liquid asphalt, covered by a scum of dust, through which broke from time to time bubbles of oil and evil-smelling gas. After a. rain the asphalt surface was covered by a few inches of water, iridescent with a skin of oil and somewhat malodorous, but drinkable. Had the ground sloths but known it, the place had an ugly reputation among the more intelligent animals of the neighborhood. It was reported to be haunted by mysterious earth demons, perhaps the same as the sub- terranean monsters who haunted the quick- ‘| —_ ee SCOURGE OF THE SANTA MONICA MOUNTAINS sands in the river, and who would reach up from below and, seizing the feet of the unfor- tunate animal who ventured into their lair, would drag it down slowly but irresistibly, struggling and screaming, into the depths below. Not all of the animals had heard of this rumor, and still fewer believed it. But many of them avoided the spot merely be- cause of its weird uncanny surroundings, and only under stress of thirst in a dry season would they venture to drink here. There was often water here when there was none to be had elsewhere, perhaps because water came up with the oil and gas, perhaps because a light rain which elsewhere soaked into the dry soil would here collect in pools on the impervious asphalt. The elephants and mas- todons, however, long-lived, shrewd, and highly superstitious, looked upon the place with horror, and could not be induced to venture into its vicinity. Once indeed, it was said, a party of elephants— but that is another story. But the ground sloths knew nothing of the sinister reputation of the Black Pools. Nor perhaps would they have understood and avoided them had they known, for the shim- mer and smell of water was enough to draw them to drink, and only an unbearably alka- line taste might have kept them away. More- over they, like the bison, were comparative newcomers in the country, although they had come from the opposite direction, work- ing their way up from the far south across the rugged Mexican plateaus and hills. They continued their leisurely progress through the brush, crossed the bare black ground around the pools, and splashed into the largest one to drink. For a moment nothing happened. They seemed to be standing on fairly firm although soft bottom. Then, slowly the bottom began to yield and their feet to sink in, and in terror they hastily turned to find firmer footing. But their feet, once through the crust, could not be withdrawn. They were held with incredible tenacity; if by desperate effort they dragged out one foot all covered by the sticky asphalt, it served only to sink the other limbs deeper and hold them more firmly. Little by little, in bawling terror, they were being dragged relentlessly down. Meanwhile the great sabre-tooth tiger had been making his way silently but rapidly, taking advantage of every rock or bit of brush that might conceal his approach, across the valley toward his intended prey. He had 471 come up near behind them when they reached the asphalt pool and now stood lurking in the edge of the brush, ready to rush out and spring upon them as they drank. His eyes blazed in triumph as he noted that first one, then both, were in some kind of difficulty and their movements hampered. With a fierce roar he leaped out from the thicket, flashed across the bare ground between, and sprang upon the back of the nearest ground sloth, and, digging his great claws into its hide, struck his fangs deep into its neck. Perhaps his aim was bad, his hold a little disturbed by the now rapid sinking of his victim into the oozy black depths of the pool. The sloth with a desperate wrench of its body shook him off to one side and he rolled over upon the surface of the asphalt. In a mo- ment he regained his feet, and turned to strike again at the neck of the animal at his side, already sunk more than half below the surface. But in that moment the demon of the Black Pools seized him and held him in its dreadful clutch, first by the fore feet, then the hind feet as well. Strive as he might he could not release more than one foot at a time, and that but for the moment. He for- got all thoughts of prey and turned with a choking snarl to drag himself out. But it was too late. The fierce sabre-tooth, the tyrant of hill and valley, the dreadful scourge of the prehistoric world that we have looked upon for a moment, was hopelessly doomed to follow his intended victim to an awful and lingering death in the black and sticky depths of the asphalt pool, from which rose now, faster and faster, bubbles of oil and malodor- ous gas as the struggling animals sank lower and lower beneath the surface. The screams of the terrified animals had been heard far and wide over the valley, and the sight of their struggles had attracted the great birds that were soaring high above in the air. One by one they came dropping down — vultures, condors, eagles, and smaller birds of prey, and formed a hopping flapping ring, pressing forward to share in the expected feast. A pack of wolves, the great extinct wolf of California, was following up a near trail, but attracted by the disturbance came trotting over to the scene. The leader recognized with savage joy the predicament of the sabre-tooth, his dreaded rival, before whose fierce snarl and menacing claw he had more than once been reluctantly driven from an expected banquet. The hour of his re- venge was now at hand. He came forward, 472 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL followed by his mates, to the edge of the pool, and dancing about in wild excitement yelped out his opinions of sabre-tooth tigers in general and this one in particular, before taking advantage of his adversary’s helpless- ness to spring in upon him and devour him. The harassed sabre-tooth sinking slowly down can respond only by a succession of snarls as he tries vainly to disengage his terrible claws to strike at his enemy. Here the picture stands, as we have at- tempted to reproduce it in the American Museum’s “ Asphalt Group”’ exhibit. The tragedy, whose course has been outlined in fancy in the above sketch, was repeated again and again in the treacherous asphalt pools of La Brea during the course of the Pleistocene involving thousands upon thousands of ani- mals large and small. Finally, the petroleum springs became less active, the pools dried up in part so as to be no longer a serious menace to the animals that ventured upon them, and in our time only a few minor springs remain, dangerous occasionally still to small animals, while the chimneys or openings of the ancient springs are filled with a half-hardened asphalt, of the consistency of brown sugar, and packed full from bottom to top with the bones and skulls of extinct animals and birds, perfectly preserved from decay by the asphalt that surrounds and permeates them. More than two hundred skulls of the great sabre-tooth tiger, the especial subject of this sketch, have been exhumed by the University of California; nearly a thousand by the Los Angeles Muse- um. The great wolf is even more abundant, and many skulls and skeletons of extinct horses, camels, bisons, ground sloths, and nu- merous smaller animals, besides the remains of over fifty kinds of birds, have been obtained from the pits. Animals and birds of prey are much more numerous than the rest, indicating that the struggling victims served as a lure to decoy many more to share their fate. It is a singular fact that although the southern mammoth, or extinct elephant, is known to have been common in the region at the time, its remains are not found in the asphalt de- posits except at one locality where seven skele- tons were crowded together in a_single pit. ; } | Why Does the Heart Beat?: By R. W. TOWER and C. F. HERM HY does the heart beat? It is a \W question not altogether easy to answer. Perhaps there is no adult who has not counted his own or another’s pulse and wondered at the regu- larity of the rhythm with which the phenom- enon proceeds. Doubtless every one who has dressed his own catch after a successful fishing trip has observed how the heart of the animal beats for some time after it has been removed from the body, and has asked him- self: Why this activity and how is it con- trolled? Is this rhythmic contraction of the heart muscles, continuing day after day, year after year, dependent upon factors out- side of the heart, upon stimulations carried to it over nerves from other organs of the body, or is it of an automatic nature, depend- ing upon conditions and stimulations from within the organ —a function of the very heart cells themselves? The answers have been as many and varied as there have been questions. The problem is difficult and complicated. That the heart of a cold-blooded animal will continue to beat some time after being taken from the body has been observed by almost every one, but this proves nothing. That the activity of the heart is regulated by nerve centers outside of itself is undoubtedly true, but this in no way concerns the cause of the rhythmical contraction. It is well known however, that there are within the organ numerous nerve cells which, although cut off from their central office, yet through their natural properties might cause the systematic beating. The cause may also be sought in the nature of the muscle itself, in which case it is assumed that the muscle cells possess the inherent quality of contraction. Many experiments have been performed to solve this interesting problem in a convincing manner. Very recently it has been found possible to grow heart muscles of a warm-blooded animal in an incubator, and during this growth a single muscle cell has been observed to wander away from the mother tissue and by itself begin to 1 Observations from the experimental work in the physiological laboratory of the American Museum. beat. It would therefore seem that the individual isolated cell, having grown to a certain size and finding the necessary food, the necessary warmth, the necessary oxygen, or in other words the correct environment, will begin to beat — that is its business, it cannot help it. Again, several cells, while growing, may attach themselves one to another forming clusters of various appearances, and these cells after a time begin to beat, not each one separately but all together, the rhythm persisting at perhaps one hundred times a Series of single heart-muscle cells which have been observed to grow, beat separately, unite with one another, and finally beat in unison 473 474 minute for several days. In other cases, where several single heart-muscle cells are unconnected, they will be seen to contract, not synchronously but the one independent of the other. These interesting observations rather indicate that the heart cells have an inherent ability to contract and must so do when placed in a favorable environment. Rhythmic contraction is their function. In the developing embryo, these rhythmi- cally contracting cells grow together, side by side, end by end, forming elongated muscle fibers, which placed layer upon layer, even- tually form the contractile portion of the cone- shaped heart. Together with this growth there develop nerve terminals, or ganglia, and nerve fibers which connect the four- chambered heart with the central nervous system. This is essential for, although the heart is capable of automatic rhythmic move- ment due to the inherent property of the muscle cells as we have already explained, it is extremely important that this rhythmic contraction should properly serve the needs of its possessor. It is necessary that some control should be exerted over its activities, so that when the beat becomes slow, it should be accelerated, and when too rapid, it should be inhibited. These results are obtained by two sets of nerve fibers coming from the cen- tral nervous system. One set carries dimin- ishing, or inhibiting, stimuli, the other aug- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL menting, or accelerating, stimuli. Because the rate of the heartbeat changes quickly in response to variations of internal and external conditions, these regulatory nerves are of the greatest value, for through their agency, the motor power of the circulation is quickly adjusted to suit the changing needs of the organism and is adapted to changes in the external environment. Single muscle cell from heart of an eight-days-in- cubated chicken. When a section of the heart tissue is planted in the blood plasma and placed in an in- cubator, cells like above grow out from it, isolate themselves, and begin to contract rhythmically Museum Notes Since the last issue of the Journau the following persons have become members of the Museum: Fellow, Mr. CHarues STEELE. Life Members, Mr. Gaytorp C. Haut and Master ALEXANDER SANFORD KELLOGG. Annual Members, Mrs. Rosert C. Brat, Mrs. Martin Burke, Mrs. JoHN PEYTON Criark, Mrs. N. R. Norton, Mrs. Victor M. Reicuenspercer, Mrs. CHartes WARD Sanps, Misses Assy B. Bares, and M. M. Rooney, Rev. Jonn Appams Linn, and Messrs. E. BenJsamin, Joun Evarts Ciancy, BENJAMIN DorMAN, Roya P, HAMERSCHLAG, Rosert 8. Lemmon, Grorce McNetr, A. Pacenstecuer, Jr., and Morris Rippen- BEIN. Tue Tillotherium is an animal belonging to an extinct group of mammals whose re- mains are found only in Eocene formations, and although the American Museum’s field expeditions have searched these formations for many years, never has any but the most fragmentary material relating to this ani- mal been found. This year, however, Mr. Walter Granger, of the Museum’s depart- ment of vertebrate paleontology, discovered skulls, jaws, and probably all parts of the skeleton, so that a reconstruction will soon provide a means of establishing some valuable relationships. Tue American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, which will meet in MUSEUM NOTES New York City in December, has accepted the invitation of the trustees and scientific staff of the American Museum for the eve- ning of December 26. An address by the retiring president of the Association, Dr. W. W. Campbell, of Lick Observatory, will be given in the auditorium, followed by a re- ception in the hall of the Age of Man. In connection with this meeting of the Associa- tion, arrangements are being made for a spe- cial exhibition by the National Research Committee of the Association, in coépera- tion with the American Chemical Society, showing the application of scientific research in chemistry to pure science, industrial prog- ress, and national defense. Two rare specimens of horses have been secured by Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn for the horse collection of the American Mu- seum of Natural History. They have been sent to this country by Professor J. Cossar Ewart of the University of Edinburgh and are now at the New York Zodlogical Park. One of them, a yellow-dun animal, represents the type of horse known and described by Linnzus in 1766, and is a result of breeding back; the other, a gray-dun specimen, is a true Celtic pony, the same species as that depicted in the caves of France and Spain thirty thousand years ago by the artists of the Old Stone age. This pony was selected by Professor Ewart out of a herd of five hundred sent from Iceland. On July 20 of this year the library of the American Museum became possessed of three more of the stupendous works on birds written by that able English naturalist and master of taxidermy, John Gould, F. R. 8S. The volumes represent the generous and timely gift of Mr. Ogden Mills and are entitled: The Birds of Europe, (5 vols. London [1832-]1837); The Birds of Great Britain, (5 vols. London [1862-]1873); and The Birds of New Guinea and the Adjacent Papuan Islands, (5 vols. London 1875-1888). The books are folio in size, handsomely bound, and profusely illustrated with color plates. Their acquisition is greatly appre- ciated by the ornithologists of the Museum, and outside readers have already consulted them frequently. The matter, moreover, becomes a cause of justifiable pride in that the library’s collection of Gould is now, with a few exceptions, on a par with that of the 475 British Museum. Finally, it is gratifying to note that the many artists and designers who have lately discovered in the library’s files on textiles and primitive art a new well of inspiration, are beginning to grow equally enthusiastic over the bird plates in Mr. Mills’s latest gift. THE arrival of the steamer ‘Danmark,’ which was chartered to bring back the mem- bers of the Crocker Land Expedition to this country, is expected daily. The ‘‘Danmark”’ received her instructions and left her winter quarters in south Greenland on July 18, 1916, and was reported off Upernivik on August 3, 1916. From earlier reports it would appear that the ‘‘Kap York” and the ‘‘Danmark”’ were both probably in the vicinity of Cape York about the middle of August. The Crocker Land Committee has no information of the cause of the unexpected delay in the return of the ‘‘Danmark.”’ No anxiety need be felt, however, for the safety of the party, even though the vessel should have been unfortunately caught in the ice. The “Danmark”’ is a very staunch wooden vessel of four or five hundred tons and is thoroughly equipped for her work. A mail is due from Greenland the latter part of November. Tue skeleton of a gigantic and very re- markable fossil bird was the most important discovery made by the field parties from the department of vertebrate palzontology last summer. It was found in the Lower Eocene of Wyoming by Mr. William Stein. Fossil birds are excessively rare in any of our west- ern fossil fields, and this discovery was wholly unexpected. The bird was much larger than an ostrich, although not so tall, and had a huge head-with high compressed beak, unlike any living bird. Its size and remarkable proportions are well shown in the illustration 476 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL in comparison with the little four-toed horse (Eohippus borealis) its contemporary, whose remains are common in the same formation. The fossil skeleton is now being prepared in the Museum’s department of vertebrate paleontology and will be ready for exhibi- tion, it is hoped, some time during the winter. Dr. Rosert H. Lowie has recently re- turned from an expedition of several months’ duration to the West. Much of the time he spent among the Hopi Indians of northern Ari- zona in a study of their social organization and ceremonials. Dr. Lowie was permitted to witness two of the extraordinary snake dances of this tribe in the villages of Oraibi and Shungopavi, as well as the flute ceremony, performed this year at Walpi. The signifi- cance of the clan system in ceremonial life was especially studied among the Hopi. Dr. Lowie also visited the Arapaho Indians, of central Wyoming, to secure supplementary data for the comparative survey of the so- cieties of the Plains Indians which has now been completed by the department of anthro- pology. An extensive collection of fossil mammals, obtained this summer in Porto Rico by Mr. H. E. Anthony of the Museum’s department of mammalogy, has peculiar interest in view of the fact that today bats are the only mammals found on the island. The fossil specimens include some large rodents about the size of a beaver, distantly related perhaps to the agoutis of Central America and also, perhaps, to the climbing rats of Cuba and Santo Domingo. A ground sloth found in- dicates a smaller animal than the ground sloths of Cuba, South America, and Patagonia; it may possibly prove a connecting link between ground sloths and tree sloths. Re- mains of a very interesting insectivorous mammal, distantly related to the common shrew of North America, were also discovered. This creature has so many primitive charac- ters that it seems as though it might have outlived all of its relatives on the mainland. The discovery of these fossils suggests that the fauna of Porto Rico may formerly have been much more extensive than we now have any idea of. The problem is to determine how these animals arrived there. The large size of several of the fossil mammals, notably the large rodent and the ground sloth, would make it appear doubtful that these animals came into the Greater Antilles on a floating raft from the region of the Orinoco and Amazon. A former mainland connection with Florida or Yucatan may have existed at one time. Before anything can be determined certainly, further exploration of the island will be necessary and careful comparison of the fossil forms with the animals of other land areas. All the animals found are quite distinct from those of Santo Domingo and Cuba. Twelve species of bats were found, one of which is a rediscovery of a species (Stenoderma rufum) known before only by a single specimen, which moreover was lost, so that only a plate and description of the animal is extant. This occurs in a book on the mammals of Egypt written by E. Geoffroy — Saint-Hilaire in 1813. A large number of fossil specimens of this bat were found. A NEW exhibit in the North American mam- mal hall on the second floor of the Museum is a large group illustrating the color phases of the common black bear, Ursus americanus. The general color of this bear, which never varies in the Eastern States, is black; in the Rocky Mountains a cinnamon bear occurs, black and cinnamon cubs being often found in the same litter; at Gribbell Island off the coast of British Columbia and on certain parts of the mainland there is found a white bear, tinged with orange on head and back; while a bluish bear ranging in color from black to light gray, lives on the icy heights of Mount Saint Elias in southeastern Alaska. These distinct color phases were at one time looked upon as constituting different species but it is now certain that this is simply a case of polychromatism of the black bear, not un- like the dichromatism of the screech owl, where brown or gray phases may occur in the same nest. The specimen of the blue bear shown in the group was presented to the Museum by Mr. G. Frederick Norton of Goshen, New York, and it is through his interest and by study of the many specimens obtained by him, that it has been possible definitely to determine that the glacier bear is only a phase of the black bear. The back- ground for this group has been painted by Mr. Albert. Operti. Tue first complete skeletons ever dis- covered of the fossil horse Pliohippus have recently been purchased by the Museum and constitute a very important acquisition. oo » 4 LLY seredsqns yeorydei3003 & UZA9 OJBOIPU! JOU SBOP JO[OO S President Henry FatrRFIELD OsBoRN First Vice-President Cievetanp H. DopGE Treasurer Henry P. Davison ' Joun Purroy Mitrcuet, Mayor or THE City or NEW York - CoMPTROLLER OF THE CiTy oF NEW York : Casor Warp, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PARKS Be, Henry C. Frick Mapison GRANT Anson W. Harp ArcHer M. HuntineTon ARTHUR CuRTISS JAMES Wa ter B. JAMES A. D. Jur“urarpD WituiaAm A. PRENDERGAST, GeorGE F. BAKER FREDERICK F. BREWSTER JosepH H. CHoaTEe R. Fuiton Curtrinc Tuomas DeWirr CuyLeR James DouG.tas ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS Assistant Treasurer Tue Unitrep States Trust COMPANY or New YorE Director Freperic A. Lucas SCIENTIFIC STAFF Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Director + Geology and Invertebrate Paleontology Eouvun Oris Howny, Ph.D., Curator Cuester A. arretg, =~ Di, Asst. Curator M. ‘etched L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Georce F. Kunz, Ph.D., Honorary Curator Gems Woods and Forestry Mary Cyrnruia Dickerson, B.S., Curator Invertebrate Zoblogy Henry E. Crampton, Ph.D., Curator Roy W. Miwer, A.B., Asst. Curator Frank E. Lurz, Ph.D., Asst. Curator L. P. Gratacap, A.M., Curator Mollusca A. J. Mourcuuer, Assistant Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant W. M. WueEe er, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Social Insects A. L. Treavwe.t, Ph.D., Hon. Curator Annulata Cuanves W. Lene, B.S., Hon. Curator Coleoptera Ichthyology and Herpetology Basurory Dean, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus Joun T. Nicnors, A.B., Asst. Cur. Recent Fishes Many Cyrnrtuia Dickerson, B.S., Assoc. Curator Herpetology Mammalogy and Ornithology J. A. Aven, Ph.D., Curator Frawxx M. Cuarman, Sc.D., Ourator Ornithology Ror C. Anprews, A.M., Asst. Cur. Mammalogy W. DeW. Mivver, Asst. Curator Ornithology H. E. Axtnonry, B.S., Assistant Mammalogy Henvert Lana, Assistant M James P. Cuarix, Assistant Ornithology t / Second Vice-Pri J. P. Mo Secreta ADRIAN IskE CHARLES Lave OapEN Mitts © Percy R. JouHN B. Feiix M. GEORGE Vertebrate Paleonialeg Henry Fairrietp Osporn, LL. DS Ds Emeritus ; W. D. Martruew, Ph.D., Curator. Watrer Grancer, Assoc. Cura’ Barnum Brown, A.B., Assoc. 01 Wituiam Kk. Guaaoas: Ph°De tology Cuartes R. Eastman, Ph.D., Re ~ Anthropology Cxiark Wiss_er, Ph.D., Curator — Purny E. Gopparp, Ph.D., Curator Rosert H. Lowe, Ph.D., Assoc. Cur iC Herpert J. SprnpEN, Ph.D., Asst. Cu NE xs C. NELSON, M.L., Aasé, Caries W. Meap, Asst. Curator M. D. C. Crawrorp, Research 4 tiles Geo. Birp Grinne Lt, Ph.D., in Ethnology J. H. McGrecor, Ph. D., Res in Anthropology Louis R. Suutivan, AM., Anthropology : Lestre Spier, B.S., Assistant An i Anatomy and Physiolog Rarrex W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Public Health = Cuarves-Epwarp A. Winstow, M.S. ; T. G, Howt, Ph.D., Assistant Public Education Georce H. Suerwoop, A.M., © it G. Oxype Fisuer, Ph.D., Asst. Curat Any E. Tuomas, Ph.B., Assistant Books and Publications — Ratpu W. Tower, Ph.D., Curator Ipa Ricwarpson Hoop, A.B., Asst. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM December, 1916 VOLUME XVI, NUMBER 8 _POST-OFFICE AT BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, ACT OF CONGRESS, JULY 16, 1894. | CONTENTS FOR DECEMBER Cover, Winter Haunt of Ruffed Grouse and Quail Scene in Massachusetts, photographed by Mary Cynthia Dickerson “Kunz on Ivory and the Elephant...................... W. D. MarraHew Review of a recent book by George F. Kunz on ivory and the elephant, in art, in commerce, and in science, with especial reference to the evolution of the elephant Illustrations by courtesy of Doubleday, Page and Company Mamarasy 1ndiats See cts ees css elge ee eae ee CLARK WISSLER Study of the origin and adaptations of horse culture in the New World Illustrations from photographs of exhibits in the American Museum The Gulf Stream off Our Shores........ ALFRED GOLDSBOROUGH MAYER The effect of ocean currents of different temperatures on the life and range of creatures of the sea Illustrations from photographs by the Author Color Plate, Some Fishes of Tropical Waters................... opposite Designed and supervised by John Treadwell Nichols, and drawn by Albert Operti, to show the striking and varied colors of reef fishes as contrasted with free-swimming species which venture away from the protection of the reef The Problem of Bright-colored Fishes........ JOHN TREADWELL NICHOLS Brief discussion of the significance of color among tropical fishes, as having protective, warning, or merely differentiating value Illustrations from photographs of living fishes in the New York Aquarium by courtesy of the New York Zodlogical Society A Perplexing Phenomenon — Mirage.................. CHESTER A. REEDS Account of the various types of mirage with explanations of the deceptive effects they produce Insects — A Subject for Recreation or Research........ Frank E. Lutz Dissertation on the importance and interest of insects, biologically, economically, and as a hobby Reproductions in Duotone of Insect Studies....................0 00000055 Stories of instinct and intricate structure, suggestive of the innumerable insect problems awaiting dis- covery and solution From original photographs by Mary Cynthia Dickerson Common-sense Law in Game Protection.............. JoHN B. BuRNHAM Account of the effects of the buck law on the preservation of deer and winged game in New York and New England Illustrations from photographs by Arthur A. Allen and Philip S. Farnham The American Museum and College Zoédlogy.............. J. H. McGrecor Appreciation of the resources for study and research afforded by the American Museum of Natural History to the colleges of the city of New York Piipration of: Tiepamete eens ok ies see ees. JAMES P. CHAPIN Study of conditions affecting migration of birds in Africa, and the extent to which migration occurs TU UREN | NAR cae bacnccecubee 485 497 501 507 507 513 533 537 541 546 Mary Cynara Dickerson, -£ditor Subscriptions should be addressed to the AmMERIcAN MusgUM JOURNAL, 77th St. and Centra] Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the American Museum. uae = Courlesy of Doubleday, Page and Co. ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH IVORY Kast African ivory, in the photograph above — a group of elephant tusks at Zanzibar Fossil ivory from Siberia, below a group of mammoth tusks from the Lena River 464A THe AmericAN Museum Journal VotumME XVI DECEMBER, 1916 NuMBER 8 Kunz* on Ivory and the Elephant By W. D. MATTHEW HE chapters in Dr. Kunz’s new book of most interest to stu- dents of natural history are those dealing with the sources of ivory, with modern elephants and with the evolution of the Proboscidea. It will be a surprise to many readers to learn how considerable a proportion of com- mercial ivory has been derived from the fossil mammoths of the islands north of Siberia, of the possibilities of Alaska as a source for (fossil) ivory — and one may add, the possibilities of future exploration in the Canadian Arctic islands. The author describes at some length the habitat and characters of the modern Asiatic and African elephants, devotes a chapter to elephant hunting, and another to the elephant in history, citing numer- ous quaint descriptions and curious legends from classical and medieval writers. Other chapters, no less in- teresting, deal with the sources and qualities of ivory and the methods of working it. There are numerous illus- trations, a few of which are reproduced here, of notable carved pieces. The chapter upon the evolution of the elephant is a brief account of the principal discoveries taken up in order of their geological age, and illustrating the successive stages in the evolution of 1 Kunz, George F., Ivory and the Elephant in Art, in Archxology, and in Science. Doubleday Page & Co., Garden City, New York, 1916. Pp. i-xxvi, 1-527 with numerous illustrations. elephants from primitive tapir-like ani- mals of the early Tertiary. This interest- ing chapter in evolution is in large part a result of discoveries of the last few years. It has been briefly summarized by Andrews,! Lull,? Barbour,’ and Matthew,’ from whose accounts and illustrations Dr. Kunz has drawn, and to which he has added a number of recent discoveries. This chapter might very well, as a re- viewer in the New York Times remarked, be extended into a book of itself. It is one of the most impressive records of the evolution of a race of animals. The elephant is not only the largest of land animals but it is quite as singular and extraordinary in comparison with other quadrupeds as any of those strange extinct types which writers are so fond of calling “grotesque” and “bizarre.” It stands off by itself in a separate order from all other living mammals, and the extreme specializations seen in its.trunk, its tusks and grinding teeth, the propor- tions of its limbs and character of its feet, are as different from the ordinary run of quadrupeds as one could well 1 Andrews, Chas. W., 1903. On the Evolution of the Proboscidea. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 196, pp. 93- 118; 1908, Guide to the Elephants, Recent and Fossil etc. British Museum (Natural History), London. 2 Lull, R. S., 1908. The Evolution of the Elephant. Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXV, March. 3 Barbour, E. H., 1915. Prehistoric Elephants in the Morrill . Collections. Sunday State Journal, Omaha, Jan. 3, 1915. 4 Matthew, W. D., 1915. Mammoths and Mastodons. Amer. Museum Guide Leaflet No. 43, Nov. 1945; Climate and Evolution, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XXIV, pp. 171-318. 485 486 imagine. How well fitted they are to the animal’s size and habits and how dexterously and intelligently he makes use of them is well known. The gradual evolution of these struc- tures from small and primitive begin- ings through many successive stages is illustrated in Dr. Kunz’s account by the records and pictures of numerous fossil discoveries. Most of these are of recent years, and perhaps one reason why an extended monograph upon the evolution of the Proboscidea has not yet appeared is the rapid succession of these discoveries and the belief of paleontologists that we are upon the verge of new finds of importance that will settle some of the doubtful problems. Bones of fossil elephants, on account of their size, were indeed noticed and mentioned by ancient writers. But they were thought to belong to “ giants.” This idea was not so absurd as it might seem. Probably very few of the finders had ever heard of an elephant, much less seen one. The long straight limb bones, the short wide vertebrae, espe- cially of the neck, even perhaps the deep rounded jaws and the round _high- vaulted skull, if these happened to be noticed, would seem to the medieval mind, lacking our modern book knowl- edge but steeped in folk lore and pagan myths, to be exactly what the bones of giants or of ancient heroes of the north would be like. Picture to yourself, if you will, the laborers excavating for the foundations of some ancient castle or cathedral and coming across a buried mammoth skeleton deep beneath the surface. Most of the bones would crumble to dust, but several perhaps would hold together enough to enable them to be uncovered and some could be taken out more or less broken. Among them most probably would be ribs, one or two limb bones, a few centra THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL _ powerful. of vertebre, some pieces of the jaws. The teeth would almost surely go to pieces. The rounded surface of the skull might be exposed, butin attempting —__ to lift it it would surely crumble into small fragments. Parts of the broad basin-like pelvis might be noticed, or < the wide short shoulder blade. © All workmen or interested visitors ¢ see would be quite unlike any ske of horses or cattle or of any quadrupeds that they knew ; Certainly therefore these bones belong to animals. But giants — body knew about giants. 7 anywhere between twelve and 1 feet tall and enormously rob Naturally — their. bones would be massive in pro The sexton, who has often dug up in the old churchyard, pee these are like them save for siz thickness. Father Roger, who h down from the ~ to look at t theory just as pat, and can vesgia of rhymes and tales about gian lived right “round hereabouts” ; somewhere off in the Holy Land. served perhaps by some casual ina book of sermons or a local ch firm belief in the “giants of afore: They were no fools, these folk of Middle Ages. They had. plenty « shrewd native wit and observation. — They could tell a hawk from a h shaw just as well as you or I. Buty else would you expect them to conch = * = fy <4 SS \\ YY W fy 4% Wy Courtesy of Doubleday, Page and Co. STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE PROBOSCIDEA Outlines of skull and head restored by Professor R. S. Lull. a — Elephant, Pleistocene period, and still surviving in tropical regions; b — Mastodon, Pliocene and Pleistocene; ¢ — Trilophodon, Miocene; d— Palxomastodon, Oligocene; e, Maeritherium, Eocene and Oligocene. The two lower figures-are on a larger scale, one six- teenth natural size; the others are on a scale of one thirty-second 487 S8F peAsesoid uveq sey sty} jo jxed JfeuIs ev AyUO ynq Arey yoeiq JO yeoo Aavay & Aq oj] SulMp possaoo sem “BHEMS U19jseoy11OU UT JOATY BYAOSOIO OY} Jeou [los BIpPUN} UezZOIy BY} UT SoMIT) 1I0}STYoId Woy poaresalg HLONWVW VHAOSSY3d SHL Jeulue oy y, ‘umosny, pesrz01j0g 04} UI poyunoU AOU PUL ‘OO6T Ul poraAOOSICT 027 pup ‘abo ‘kopajqnog fo Ps . as = ‘ ne tee Z Py Wi AAA YD PAL yey Ae. ae . q 4 : J athe Vary ty AOU NE hy Fens, Nu Messe Merten Taal te dn, Mel T age and Uo, Loubleday, t iy of Couriesy MEDI/AEVAL BOOK COVER OF AN EVANGELIUM aris, P three horizontal panels Bibliothéque Nationale, Innocents), it is typical of the Metz carvings as con- sixth century) now in the back to the ate tod ht possibly from the Cathedral of Metz. varving (thoug Classic In its serious treatment of the subjects of the having come Magi, and Massacre of the ation of the Ador trasted with those of Rheims (leading schools of Caroling ’ (Annunciation Many such valuable old book covers, with ated during revolutions in the past ian art). bindings of silver set with precious stones, have been greatly mutil 492 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page and Co. BIRD AND ANIMAL CARVING ON A CROSS One of the arms of a cross now in the Louvre Museum. The work is by a Spanish artist of the twelfth century and shows Moorish influence. Among the various carved birds and animals are figures of the fabled griffin, a favorite subject of art in medieval times 493 ss cs Se | | 4 : A | Courtesy of Doubleday, Page and Co. ORIENTAL IVORY CARVING OF HIGH RANK Finely wrought statuette of Ganesa, the elephant god of the Hindu Pantheon, now in the collection of Mr. Charles L. Freer, Detroit, Michigan. In niches of the base are carved figures, more or less obscure. Indian carvers greatly prefer African ivory to that of India or Ceylon, since it is of finer grain and is less likely to yellow with age 494 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page, and Co. ANCIENT ASSYRIAN CARVED IVORIES They were found at Nimroud, with twenty-nine other pieces, in 1845, after having been buried in the earth twenty-eight centuries (since 980 B. C.) They are now valuable possessions of the British Museum. It could not be decided whether they were parts of a throne, or ornamented the walls of the palace chamber where they were found. The panel showing an Egyptian king holding a lotus is of especial interest. Assyrian ivory carving took its inspiration from Egypt A SHOSHONE INDIAN SADDLE Many Indian tribes were mounted a century before they were visited by white men, having obtained horses from other tribes in contact with the conquering Spaniards to the south (16th Century). This accounts for the similarity of Indian saddles, to one another and to the type in southern Europe and Asia and their total lack of resemblance to English saddles. The one shown above consists of two wooden side bars which rest on the back of the horse, a curious high pommel and cantel also of wood, between which is slung the seat (usually covered with a folded blanket or buffalo hide). The hook under the pommel head serves to suspend the seat and also to carry a lasso. The stirrups are of wood, and hang from the side bars by rawhide straps 496 ; } ’ Se ee Arieneen Indian Saddles BORROWED, TOGETHER WITH OTHER FEATURES OF HORSE CULTURE FROM THE SPANISH COLONIZATION, IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY By CLARK WISSLER N THE North American Indian col- lections the American Museum visi- tor may see some curious saddles of native make. At first sight they appear as crude attempts to copy European sad- dles, but upon closer study prove them- selves far more significant. Wrapped up in their histories is the whole story of bringing the horse to the New World and in part his domestication in the Old. Our idea of the western Indian is that of a horseman, but as far as we know, all the horse-using tribes were in exist- ence and living much the same as now long before the horse came into their hands. If we examine the fine old saddle in the Shoshone case of the Plains Indian — hall, we find it quite different from our own. First of all it has two straight side bars that rest upon the back of the horse. Next we note that the high front (pommel) and back (cantel) are about the same shape. In fact the front of the saddle can be told only by a curious hornlike hook under the broad head of the pommel. This serves two purposes: supporting one end of a curious suspension seat and serving as a hanger for a lasso and a whip. To us such a saddle looks uncomfortable, but before mounting, the Indian places over the seat a folded. buffalo robe or a blanket. These saddles are made of wood securely bound with buffalo hide, sewed on wet so that it may become tight by shrink- ing. In the Mills Catlin collection is a sketch showing a woman making a sad- dle. The binding and sewing were done by women and not infrequently the wood work as well. There are several kinds of saddles in the cases, but upon examination all those having frames, or trees, will be found of the same general pattern. Their different appearance is due to the finish given their pommels and cantels. While the side bars are uniformly of wood and always similar in shape, the bows and cantels are often made of antler which being less pliable modifies the form. Are they Indian inventions or were they copied from white people? This is one of the questions that arises as we look over these saddles. As they are so strikingly different from our own, we may be led to assume them original with the Indians. Yet the fact that all the various tribes have the same pattern should raise a suspicion that an external origin exists. In the first place we find among ourselves two kinds of saddles, the cowboy type and the type used on our streets. The former is used almost exclusively west of the Mississippi River, that is, in the region of the Indian saddle. Further, there is clearly a resemblance between the cowboy saddle and that of the Indian. But the Indian saddle is quite old, since exactly the same form is described by Lewis and Clark. One may then suspect that the cowboy sad- dle and the Indian saddle came from the same source. This, by the history of the case, can be no other than the Spanish American colonies. The saddle in use in the eastern United States is the 497 while wet so as to be tight on shrinking. Even the wooden parts were often made by the women. Sketch by Catlin in the Mills Collection of the American Museum Indian saddles were made by the women, who bound the wooden parts together with buffalo hide, sewed on In the camp scene above, a saddle is shown staked to the ground while its rawhide cover dries and sets. English type and was introduced by the English colonists. The history of the English saddle is well known and it is clearly differentiated from the saddle of southern Europe and Asia. The latter is quite like the cowboy saddle in all its essential features. It is therefore cer- tain that the Indian saddles were bor- rowed from Spanish colonists. One scarcely need be reminded that the Indian saddle is but one feature of horse culture and investigation shows that the whole of this culture, or the horse culture complex, was borrowed from the Spanish colonies. The historic details of how the Indians took up the horse are lost, but they must have done 498 it quickly. The Spanish adventurer, De Soto, carried horses across the Missis- sippi in 1541 and at the same time an ex- pedition under Coronado set out from Santa Fé, New Mexico, toward the same river. Both carried horses, some of which certainly escaped. In any event these expeditions demonstrated the value of the horse to the Indians. At that time many of the tribes were using dogs to transport baggage by means of a travois, examples of which may be seen in the Plains hall. We infer that when they saw the Spanish pack trains, they were struck by the superiority of the white man’s “dog”; at least the Indian names for horse are derived from the words for AMERICAN INDIAN SADDLES dog; thus, Dakota, shunkawakan (dog supernatural), and Blackfoot, ponoka- mita (elk-like dog). The first exploration by La Salle (1682) revealed horse-using Indians on the lower Mississippi River and the first visitor to the Blackfoot of Canada in 1754 found the whole tribe mounted. It is therefore likely that many of the Plains tribes had horses one hundred years before they were visited by white men. The tribes in contact with the Spanish settlements drew their supply from the whites and in turn traded to their Indian neighbors or lost to them by theft. In this way horses could be rap- idly carried to the tribes of the north, in fact some of the earliest explorers in west- ern Canada occasionally found the Indi- ans riding horses with Spanish brands. Thus the study of the Indian saddle will lead one to the whole story of the horse in the New World and eventually to the Old World. The association of horse and man may be traced back to the dawn of culture in Europe. On the second floor of the Museum (directly 499 above the Plains hall) is shown a rock carving of a wild horse from the cave men and on the wall a reproduction of a cave painting. Just where and when the horse was first tamed and ridden is not certain but everything points to the great plains of western Asia, where even today we find the most distinctive horse culture in the world. That the horse was developed by a non-agricul- tural people is clear from the almost universal Old World use of the ox with the plow and cart even to this day. The horse first came to the historic nations as a military aid and it was but recently that he displaced the ox as a draft animal. We have thus far discussed the his- tory of the horse in North America, but in the pampas of the southern continent this animal played a similar réle. Al- though we have less data, it appears that the method of introduction and the rapidity of native adoption closely paral- lel the above. At least, we find the same general types of saddle, lasso, and other trappings. Before they had horses the Indians used dogs, attaching them to the travois, a primitive vehicle consisting of two trailing poles bearing a net or cross bar for a load. The horses of the Spaniards no doubt seemed to the Indians very wonderful “‘dogs’’; Indian names for a horse are derived from their words for dog 00g uwyed ay} pue ep}1AUI oY} Jo uOIse1 OY} OFUL O¥T]JJOM SOYSNI Spjoy MOUS FO-1ey WOI] Ive pyoo ‘uns [eIues Jo skep Joye Any Uoppns Uy “Yq}JOU oY} pue sordos} oY} USBMJOq PUNOIZ9}}}eq JOJULA OY} ST STG T, VdivOl4d “ANILSNDONV “LS 440 SAHOVAE AHL ONOIV YSAHLYON MOVIE V wakvy “DV &q 004d ror ie a r + The Gulf Stream off our Shores By ALFRED GOLDSBOROUGH MAYER Director of the Department of Marine Zodlogy, Carnegie Institution of Washington T IS on that vague borderland where | things antagonistic blend that so much of charm and _ interest lies. Nor is science exempt from this general law for in the domain of blended inter- ests, in physical chemistry, and biological medicine, research has enriched most notably the thought of the modern world. Nor is the naturalist free from this alluring fascination of the border- land, as of the forested river bank close to the desert sands, of the mountain peak where familiar things commingle with the strange ones of the tropics and wild strawberries mature beneath the shade of tree ferns. Thus, of all our coasts, the waters of southern New England have most of this varied interest of a region of blended faunas. Here during early spring one finds among the melting ice vast swarms of floating creatures which have been driven far to the southward of their Arctic home by the cold northeasters of our winter. In March and early April they mature with remarkable rapidity only to perish in the insufferably warm water as the season advances. Then, in August, their place is taken by rare and occa- sional wanderers from the tropics blown far from the blue region of the Gulf Stream to languish for a time in the chill waters off our shores. Thus flitting over the hot sand and dig- ging burrows into the beaches of southern Long Island, one finds the tiny young of the ghost crab, Ocypoda, the floating larvee of which have made the long jour- ney from the Carolinas or the Bahamas only to die as autumn advances. Indeed, as is well known, the vast majority of the minute young of marine animals swim or float in the ocean during their early stages; and this applies to such sedentary creatures as sea ane- mones, corals, starfishes, oysters, clams, and even sponges. Thus these feebly- swimming, usually transparent larve may be carried by ocean currents for hundreds of miles during their several weeks of free life only to settle down, wholly change their appearance, and pass into the monotonous quietude of their adult days. In this manner the tiny, pear-shaped larvee ‘of the corals, although only as large as pin heads, have been carried far to the northward to settle upon Ber- muda, or to form the most northerly of the world’s coral reefs off Beaufort, North Carolina. Even in Great Peconic Bay, Long Island, we find wanderers from the tropics making themselves at home, at least two jellyfishes and a slender-armed serpent star, Ophiura brevispina, from the West Indies being of their number. The “sea wasp” jellyfish, Tamoya haplonema, is a pale, livid creature whose relatives spend most of their lives in the depths of the sea commonly coming to the surface only to cast out their eggs or sperm. This Long Island medusa is _ rarely seen, for it gropes languidly over the bottom capturing fish and small shrimps by means of the stings inflicted by its four pale pink, whiplike tentacles. - Its bell is cubical and about four inches” high and near the pulsating margin, set. each within a niche, there are four little knobs studded with eyes all looking 501° 502 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL inward in the direction of the mouth. Thus if one may venture to ascribe sensations of any sort to a jellyfish, this one’s chief pleasure seems to be in observing himself eat. It is found off the coast of Brazil; and Great Peconic Bay is at its northern limit. It is remarkable how abundant and apparently well-conditioned an organ- ism may be at the extreme limit of its range. Thus the scallop shell, Pecten irradians, is found by hundreds in Provincetown Harbor, Cape Cod, but practically vanishes north of this point. Also on Smith Island, Cape Fear, North Carolina, we find a flourishing grove of palmetto palms, the most northerly of their species. There is something pathetic in Nat- ure’s wholesale ruthless destruction of all who transgress her laws, and it is with a pitying eye that one finds in our chilling sea the iridescent crest and float of the Portuguese man-of-war, Physalia, a beautiful glass model of which may be seen in the American Museum. This creature appears only occasionally off our coast but then nearly always in swarms as is commonly the case with the floating animals of the sea. The Physalia when well grown must always remain floating with its numerous tentacles stretched far out like slender ribbons edged with rows of purple beads, and woe betide any un- wary fish which touches their stings. The struggling, more than _half-para- lyzed victim is drawn quickly within reach of the hundreds of greedy mouths which fasten like suckers upon it. A creature of the wide and open sea is the Physalia and little is known of its de- velopment excepting that when very young it can discharge the gas from its then oval float and sink with its single tentacle into the ocean’s depths. For a long time it was thought that all of our physalias were males, but recently the female organs have been discovered and we now know that the creature is. hermaphroditic. In the Pacific there is a smaller species which has one large and many small tentacles. Our Phy- salia passes through such a stage but eventually acquires many large tenta- cles. Over the wide region of the tropi- cal Atlantic this beautiful creature may be seen flashing its iridescent hues above the deep blue of the sea, drifting cease- lessly, unharmed by hurricanes or calm, and heedless of the sunshine or the night; while gliding languidly in and out among the tangles of its tentacles, fishes of purple and silver hues find their refuge and their food. Rivaling the Physalia in interest but smaller and more uniformly blue are its two floating relatives, Velella and Por- pita. Velella is a parallelogram-shaped animal, about three inches long and an inch wide, while in the center there is an oval chitinous float which extends up- ward in a sail-like crest. Porpita is” much smaller and is circular and has no crest. In the Gulf Stream one some- times finds swarms composed of such myriads of these creatures that the water is dotted with purple-blue for many square miles, There are inter- esting things respecting the habits of Velella and Porpita, among which is the fact that they are always infested with great numbers of minute, rounded, yellow-colored plant cells. Even the youngest larvee of these creatures have these plant cells which by giving off oxygen and consuming carbonic acid must aid the vital processes of their host. Blue is the prevailing color of the upper surfaces of these floating animals of the surface waters of the tropics, and the remarkable drifting snail, Janthina, is no exception to the rule as it exudes a bubble like raft which floats both it and i i NY i ik 0g soyowoq oy} Suoye ySTUr KEI OFUL poytyo Sf paw siopeM QJOYS PJOO oY} JOAO UL pozslIp sey UTBIIYG JIN 94} JOAO Je UTE ouL VOINO14 ‘YSAIY S.NHOP “LS JO HLNOW 3HL YVAN ‘SOLLAW1Vd S3HL SNOWY LSIN SNINYOW wakoy *9 “VW 49 910Ud 504 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL its cluster of eggs upon the surface of the sea. These and many other smaller creatures are occasionally cast up upon our shores by summer storms, but their destruction along our coast is as nothing compared with the thousands of dried floats of Velella and Porpita and the broken shells of Janthina which often lie heaped in drifts over southern beaches. It is curious and indeed largely un- explained, that floating animals tend to appear in swarms. No matter how rare the creature, if the townet reveals one, others will almost certainly be caught in its near neighborhood. I have seen a swarm of the brown- rimmed southern jellyfish, Stomolophus, in which individuals were rarely more than ten feet apart, yet for over sixty miles we passed constantly through them. But swarms of creatures in the tropics are as little in comparison with the vast numbers of individuals which gather in the frigid seas. In cold waters one finds many individuals but few species, whereas in the tropics the spe- cies are many and the individuals relatively few and far between. Everywhere protection is the keynote of their coloration for in the depths where no red light can penetrate, the animals are of the peculiar “deep-sea red”; for being red in the absence of red causes them to appear black in the dimly lighted regions they inhabit. Similarly, the backs of floating animals, especially in the blue waters of the tropics, are blue, while on their sides they shade through silver into glistening white on the underparts, in accordance with Abbott Thayer’s law of protective coloration. It is to that vast, unsteady, but domi- nant swirl of tropical surface waters into the north Atlantic that we owe the occasional presence of a few West’ In- dian creatures along our northern New England shores; but at least a hundred to one of our shore animals are those of the cold gray-green waters which creep slowly down hugging closely to our beaches all the long way from the chill, fog-haunted region of Nova Scotia to the - sparkling strand of Florida. It is this long gray streak of cold water clinging to our coast that gives the raw chill to winds blowing over the ocean upon our shores; and the prevailing northeast gales from November to April drive the cold waters steadily southward so that Arctic marine animals flourish at this season off the New Jersey coast. Even Florida is not exempt, as all who have experienced the rush of a black “norther” along her shores must know. This cold shore water of our editing coast has) commonly been called the “Arctic current,” but this is a popular fallacy for the true Arctic current is of clear green water which sheers out into the open Atlantic from the eastern shores of Newfoundland, bearing ice- bergs within it far out into the mid- Atlantic, never down our New England coast. Through the narrow passage, only forty-four miles in width, between the Bahamas and Florida, there pours the true Gulf Stream flowing northward at a rate of full three miles an hour. Al- though often checked by northerly winds or accelerated by favoring breezes, this vast body of water rushes as a mighty river out into the free expanse of the ocean to be lost in the wide world- eddy that passes northward between our shores and Bermuda, to bend ever eastward and finally when less than half way across the Atlantic to die into a mere drift borne still eastward by the ~ prevailing winds.to the:shores of grate- ful Europe. Along the coast of Florida, one oftelh _—_ —— ee ee ) THE GULF STREAM OFF OUR SHORES sees the edge of the Gulf Stream clear cut in deep blue against the dull gray- green of the shore drift, and myriads of little swirls and eddies mark the border ~ line between the two opposing currents. At one stroke of the oars, one leaves the barren shore drift and enters the tropi- cal ocean with hundreds of heat-lov- ing creatures swimming hither and to through the genial limpid element that is bearing them remorselessly northward to perish in the “roaring furies”’ of the Atlantic. Off Key West, or Miami, the Gulf Stream flows within a few hundred yards of the outer edges of the coral reefs. At Cape Hatteras it may be ten miles or more off shore, and beyond this point it wanders with many variations as a wide surface eddy farther and farther from our shores to lose itself in the midst of the Atlantic. Often one finds temporary whirls or counter currents in its meandering un- certain course, and none can predict its movements except in the most general way; so that some sea captains who constantly sail over it, to and from the West Indies, have actually lost faith in the existence of the Gulf Stream. The popular conception of it as a “mighty river” flowing over the ocean is quite erroneous, for ocean currents are more of the nature of eddies or swirls, those affecting the surface being counter- balanced by others in the depths. Thus the Gulf Stream is a surface eddy due to the pressure and friction of the pre- vailing tropical winds as they pass over the ocean from colder regions toward the heat equator. These tropical trade winds blow as young gales with pro- verbial constancy toward the southwest in the northern, and toward the north- west in the southern hemisphere. Thus their westerly trend imparts a similar movement to the surface waters of the 505 equatorial region. | Were the Isthmus of Panama now widely open, as it prob- ably was long ago in the age of the reptiles, the equatorial current would surely rush through the gap to continue its course across the vast expanse of the Pacific. In our day, however, the great, deep, shut-in basin of the Gulf of Mexico acts as a trap into which the waters are forced through the wide Straits of Yucatan, and out of which they must rush through the narrow channel of the Straits of Florida, to travel along our coast toward Cape Hatteras, and thence outward into the Atlantic. Just why it should desert our shores beyond Hatteras and swerve ever more and more toward the eastward may not be so clear until we consider that any body moving either north or south tends to maintain its direction in space inde- pendent of the rotation of the earth. Thus the trade wind of the northern hemisphere tends to go straight south- ward toward the equator, but the earth rotating from west to east passes under it as the wind blows down from the slowly moving northern latitudes to the more rapidly moving equator. Hence the wind is forced into a more and more westerly direction. In fact, every body moving north or south in the northern hemisphere is forced by the earth’s rotation toward the right, and in the southern hemi- sphere toward the left; and this applies to the course of storms or air currents as well as to water currents. Thus we see why the cold northerly current must’ cling constantly to our eastern coast, while the Gulf Stream in its northerly trend must go far out into the Atlantic — both currents tending always toward the right. Moreover, we know from recent re- searches such as those of Harris upon the tides, or of the Norwegian steamer 506 “Michael Sars” upon currents, that the ocean is more elastic, so to speak, than we had supposed. Thus it breaks up into “regions of vibration”’ in its tidal movements. For example, the Medi- terranean is cut into two distinct tidal areas by the narrow channel, blocked by Sicily, between Italy and Africa, and we now know that over the ocean there are many more or less independent tidal regions bounded by chains of islands or embayed by continental shores, and tidal waves may affect not only the surface but be detected a thousand feet or more beneath. Thus a surface cur- rent flowing northward must be counter- balanced by a deep one flowing south- ward, and this is why the cold Arctic waters wander toward the tropics along the deep-lying ocean floor, the tempera- ture at eighteen thousand feet under the equator being only slightly above the freezing point. No forests are more somber than stately live oaks, heavy with their burden of “ tree moss.” ously this plant is not a moss, but is a relative of the pineapple. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Thus it is that the floors of the deep open oceans are covered with cold polar water and the deep sea animals off Nantucket are strikingly like those off Ceylon, while similarly, the surface creatures of the West Indies bear a close general resemblance to those of the tropical Pacific. Indeed, so important a factor is temperature in the control of animal life that probably not one in a thousand of the West Indian species ranges north of Cape Cod. Thus the West Indian creatures which appear along our shores in summer are children of the surface drift whose lives lie at the mercy of the current and the wind as they ceaselessly float eastward across the tropical Atlantic and then through the wide sweep of the great ocean eddy to be returned to the shores of Africa, thence outward from the peril of the beaches to the free and open — Photo by A. G. Mayer Yet curi- It flourishes in the damp warm air of our southern coast from Florida to South Carolina, and will grow upon telegraph wires quite as readily as upon live oaks snonoidsuoou! Suteq uo spuadap Mayes asoyn "yoor ay} Jo ALMo9as ay} Woy rez aINjUaA WOPlas YyoryM seysy Xq ‘saysy jool-uou ‘SuPUIWIMS-997 [ews ‘vawayzp Jo ooyos v YSU Joddq ge] oddn ‘eeprnussewmog Ayres ‘Moja Ayrundurt y31M payuney siojoo pares pue Suryiys ay} Moys 0} ‘(¢emnFppigv vuostavds) ysy 1011ed poi pue aniq (sxpousoonay snajuarnuogny) Kiosa18 neaq pue Ypr[q yA pepueg (syyvxvs fnpfapngy’) ysy yueaSias ‘YSU JoMOy ‘aepnuOpo}weyD Ajrurey “Yowlq puw Mopac (ozoreg snyguvsopozz) Kyneoq yo01 pue ‘anfq pue moja (wagnse shyzysyaSup) ysy esue vpnuiieg ‘19}U90 ay) uy SAHSISA AaSBY TVWYHOO The Problem of Bright-colored Fishes’ By JOHN TREADWELL NICHOLS ern fishes are rather dull. Many species found about tropical reefs, on the other hand, are very highly colored, with bold or bizarre markings. The Bermudas, and Santa Catalina Island in California, are famous for such brightly colored fishes, and tourists admire them at these places from spe- cially constructed glass-bottomed boats. Looking through the glass, vision is not hampered by the glare of the ruffled surface, and one can look down through the limpid oceanic water to where the fishes ply in and out among the pictur- esque heads of coral and other forms of fixed marine life at the bottom. Living fishes of bright color have been very successfully installed by the New York Aquarium, in tanks where they are admired by crowds of people who other- wise would not have the opportunity to enjoy them. Quite apart from their popular interest, the gaudy colors of such fishes have long appealed to the naturalist; they have been the subject of considerable serious study, and vari- ous theories have been advanced to explain them. Wallace claimed that their bright colors matched the brilliant corals and seaweeds of the reef, and rendered the fish inconspicuous in the same way that duller colors are known to conceal spe- cies found in less variegated environ- ments, and for years this explanation was widely accepted. It seems how- ever that he exaggerated the color of the reef background, which is as a whole of a : | ‘HE colors of the majority of north- 1 Photographs by Mr. E. R. Sanborn of living fishes at the New York Aquarium, and used in the JouRNAL through the courtesy of the New York Zodlogical Society. rather uniform gray or green tone with only here and there bright areas. The bold colors of certain stinging or dis- tasteful insects are explained as a warn- ing to possible enemies, which would be expected more readily to learn to recog- nize and avoid such species when boldly colored. Professor Reighard of the University of Michigan has done care- ful experimental work on tropical fishes to determine whether they might be classed in the same category with warningly colored insects, and has ob- tained conclusive proof that their colors are not of this character. Messrs. Abbott H. and Gerald H. Thayer, in an eloquent plea for the universality of concealing coloration, follow Wallace in the belief that the colors of reef fishes actually do blend with their environ- ment and render them inconspicuous, although at first thought this does not seem to be the case. The work of these gentlemen has especial interest as it approaches the problem with the pro- fessional artist’s knowledge of color values. Dr. Charles H. Townsend of the New York Aquarium has called attention to the striking color changes which certain species undergo. Such changes often make for the concealment of the fishes, but do not prove that the bright colors when present have also a concealing value. Often a single fish has color patterns so different as to give the impression of more than one distinct species, but to anyone familiar with the different fishes, the bright livery of each is diagnostic. The center of abundance of aquatic life is in the sea close to the shore. Here exist many more varieties of fishes than landward in restricted fresh waters, or 507 f elongate The New York Aquarium has re- gins oO} d A. townsendi, the latter f head, outer mar iaris, an ines oO} hthys isabelita, A. cil ers and the ventral fin are yellow. ic al color, but the nape, breast, sp ’ fferences, all from Key West, Angel g 8 & =| -_ 5 n © A a sd 3 ~] 3 qi o o o a — i th slight structural di These fish abound about the coral reefs of the western Atlantic 3 kK z <= po - < = oc uJ Lon ie] uJ = uw L - Le ie) em a RRA AD ~ SS gi." a\" 4%, * > om “~ . “es * ‘ Ben et aS wa od ad A, =< y 2, $Y -~“s e ips WY —2 “4 ~ . oa a ° ~ ao & e We ot © a Vv Z +,” a4" \s SS oe oe oe Hie . : a\ti\a. ~~ ee aye .* ‘wa One of the commonest butterfly fishes in the West Indies (Chxtodon ocellatus), and the one most frequently drifted northward by the Gulf Stream at the end of the summer. City in October. “ocelli” or eye spots seaward in the vast monotonous stretches We find the very greatest number of forms along of the ocean’s floor or depths. the shores toward the equator, where in perennial summer conditions about the tropical reefs, kinds have arisen and multiplied to take advantage of every slightest phase of the peculiarly favor- able and practically unchanging environ- ment. Many related species exist to- gether in the same waters. The West Indian fish fauna, for in- stance, is rich in bright-colored parrot 510 It has been found in the vicinity of New York The specific name is a misnomer, as the species is preéminent among butterfly fish for its lack of fish. Among the common or widely distributed species are the red parrot fish, Sparisoma abildgaardi, with fins and lower surface bright cherry red; Sparisoma chrysopterum, bright greenish blue, with fins largely brick red; Spari- soma viride, deep blue with yellowish shades, the tail fin with a yellow cres- cent; Scarus vetula, which is dark sky blue with red stripes on the head and fins; Scarus ceruleus, a deep uniform blue; Pseudoscarus guacamaia, which is green. All the above are parrot fish. THE PROBLEM OF BRIGHT-COLORED FISHES In the same region among the Poma- centrids, the sergeant major, Abudefduf saxatilis, is everywhere common, a yellow fish with vertical black cross bars. At Porto Rico another Abudefduf occurs commonly with it, which may be recog- nized by an equally bold but quite dissimilar color pattern. Unfortunately, the writer in a recent visit to that island was able to obtain only the very young of the second species, the identity of which cannot. be satisfactorily deter- mined; but larger ones were seen. Relatives of Abudefduf, one or more brightly colored members of the genus Eupomacentrus, are always present. The commonest one has striking yellow and blue color contrasts. Several butterfly fish (Chetodon) are characteristic of the same waters, readily differentiated from one another by the bold bars and eye- like spots which characterize their vari- ous patterns; and among the most striking of our American fishes are mem- bers of the same family, the long-finned blue and yellow angel fish Angelichthys, and Holacanthus tricolor, bright yellow or orange with a jet black center. Three species of blue angel fish (Angelichthys), 511 recognizable by color differences, have recently been found at Key West. In the writer’s opinion 7t is of value to each species to possess some distinctive badge or uniform separating it from tts neighbors, and this accounts in part for the bright colors. For the rest, the security which the innumerable crags and crevices of the reef afford, makes it possible for reef fishes to flaunt in safety banners which, if shown in the open, would but court destruction. Professor Reighard has called attention to this latter fact in speaking of the bright colors of reef fishes as “immunity colora- tion.” The case is not unlike that of gaudy tropical birds which can vanish among the dense foliage whenever their splendor attracts unfavorable notice. In conclusion, the bright colors of reef fishes are believed to be of value to them for differentiation and recognition pur- poses. As in the past, it is easy to ad- vance theories to explain, but it still remains for any one to gather sufficient proof on the subject to convince not only himself, but also others. This would seem an interesting field for some in- vestigator at a marine biological station. The sergeant fish (Abudefduf saratilis) is readily recognized on the reef by its bold black and yellow bars, and is one of the most abundant tropical fishes. The very young, no larger than one’s finger nail, and looking precisely SE SE eR Sie eee ee eee ee en ee a oe ek a Serer Ue erg 149dQ y40q)y Aq undid “Kem JOY UO JOYRIEJ sop u901}5 pepssooid pey drys oy} [UN e]qIStA Jou sem ‘oSesrar 9q} UL peseur ‘s#1oqoog pue Slabs of blackboard slate mounted on tripods and sprinkled from the opposite end of the artificial desert. Trees, and between the light from the sky and the plain. The desert THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL dogs about two thousand feet above his head. The camp seemed to be pitched on the top of a mountain. It was turned up- side down, however, and protruded above a curtain of cloud, which enshrouded the summit, save at the very peak. It ap- peared no different through a telescope. When he had journeyed a half hour, he came upon an Eskimo camped on the ice — the same apparition which he had beheld in- verted and far above him. (6) — Captain William Scoresby, Jr., the well-known explorer, observed an instance of this kind in the Arctic when he saw his father’s ship inverted and very distinct in the sky. With his glass he could distinguish the details of the masts and the hull of the ship which was thirty-four miles distant and fourteen and three-quarters miles beyond the limits of vision. (7) — At noon, October 15, 1912, on the Antarctic continent, one of Captain Robert F. Scott’s parties saw in the sky to the south a- wonderful inversion of a pressure ridge. The sun was very hot with no wind blowing. (8) — On one occasion Woltmann noticed in the air the image of the water, and below suspended upside down, the shores, houses, trees, hills, and windmills. A layer of air separated the inverted images from the objects beneath. On another occasion he observed that the inverted image and the objects beneath were in contact. (9) — Captain William Scoresby, Jr., ob- is heated by gas jets, and as the air above it warms up the eye looking along the sand sees in the distance a brilliant pool of water in which the inverted images of the mountains are reflected. Afler Wood Tracings from photographs of artificial mirages produced by the apparatus described above. After Wood A PERPLEXING PHENOMENON — MIRAGE served on July 18, 1882, threesuperimposed . images, all inverted and in contact with one another, of a brig and the surrounding ice field. (10) — Flammarion, the French astrono- mer, states! that for an extent of some six miles the sea upon the Sicilian coast assumed the appearance of a chain of somber moun- tains, while the waters upon the Calabrian side remained quite unaffected. Above the unaffected waters appeared a row of several thousand pilasters, all of equal elevation, the same distance apart, and of uniform de- grees of light and shade. In the twinkling of an eye these pilasters lost half their height and appeared to take the shape of arcades and vaults, like the Roman aqueducts. A long cornice rose upon their summits; then countless castles developed, all exactly alike. These soon faded away, and gave place to towers which in turn disappeared, leaving nothing but a colonnade, then windows, and lastly pine trees, and cypresses, several times repeated. (11) — Dr. Albert Heim, the Swiss geol- ogist, has described a case observed in the mountains of Thuringia, where he suddenly 1 Flammarion, The Atmosphere, translated by James Glaisher; F. R. S., p. 168, London, 1873. A number of the other observations cited have been taken from this work, NORMAL AIR OBSERVERS EYE 517 beheld three lofty peaks appear above an inter- mediate chain which usually concealed them from sight; and these peaks appeared to be so clearly defined that he was able to distin- guish, with an ordinary glass, tufts of grass that were sixteen miles distant M. de Tessan saw a phenomenon of the same kind in the harbor of San Blas, Mexico. (12) —It is reported that it is an every- day sight to see the Sierra Nevada Moun- tains on the coast of Spain suspended several degrees above the blue waters of the Mediter- ranean. (13) — Another instance is related of a ship that during the Colonial period was expected at New York from England. Ona Sunday afternoon, after a violent storm, she was seen floating in the air, every spar repre- sented so clearly that there was no question of the identity of the vessel thus painted in the clouds; but that was the last that was ever seen of the ill-fated ship. (14) — A letter from Tenerife, published in the Courier des Sciences states that from the summit of this mountain, whence the view embraces a horizon of one hundred and fifty miles radius, a mirage rendered visible the Alleghany Mountains in North America, three thousand miles distant. (15) — It is reported that from Ramsgate, on the southeast coast of England, in fine DISTANT OBJECT = RAREFIED AiR. Le ATED EROUnO Tiip - Out of doors when a layer of warm rarefied air arises from contact with heated ground or warm water, occupying a position below the colder, more dense normal air, two images of a distant object may be seen — one inverted beneath the other. [Compare with the upper part of the tank experiment, also see figure on page 520.] This is “inferior mirage ’’ and is explanatory of the appearance of trees and their reflections, which haunts the desert traveler with the hope of water. Drawing by Chester A. Reeds NORMAL AIR __--- ELEVATED SS ERECT IMAGE PS Ite ‘ ee ae TIE LEVATEDS: ei a ee INVERTED IMAGE ‘| Ti Lit) REFRACTED RAY Pa Sr age: RAREFIEQ AIR OBSERVERS EVE ae aa DENSE OR NORMAL AIR BF When a zone of warm rarefied air is sandwiched between normal air above and colder or denser air below, a superior mirage” of distant objects may be seen. Three images are produced, one above the other, the middle one inverted. [Compare with the lower part of the tank experiment, also with page 521 and the figures on page 522.] Drawing by Chester A. Reeds 518 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL weather, the tops of the four highest towers of Dover Castle may be seen. The remainder of the edifice is concealed by a hill, which is about twelve miles from Ramsgate. On the 6th of August, 1866, at seven in the evening, the four towers were not only to be seen, but also the entire castle from roof to base. (16) — Upon the shores of the Orinoco, Humboldt and Bonpland observed that the hillocks of San Juan and Ortiz and the Galera Mountains sixteen miles distant, seemed to be suspended in the air; the palm trees appeared to have no hold on the ground. In the midst of the plain of Caracas, these men saw at a distance of a mile and a half a herd of oxen apparently in the air. Humboldt also no- ticed a herd of wild cattle, part of which seemed to be above the surface of the ground, while the remainder were standing upon the soil. (17) — Borchgrevink, the first man to land on the Antarctic continent, observed in Victoria Land in 1899— when he was leader of an expedition to that region — both during the time the sun was low in its descent and when it rose again, a strong mirage effect - toward the west, showing images of icebergs far below the horizon, and Antarctic scenery, visible to them only through this phenome- non. This strong mirage remained after the sun’s return late in the summer, and the open- ing of the ice was prophesied thus long before the ice fields near Victoria Land broke up. This Antarctic party watched the northwest- ern sky with interest, for they could see the far-away broken ice fields with their dark channels and towering bridges, and on sev- eral occasions the men became enthusiastic, thinking that they had discovered the masts of the “Southern Cross,” their ship, in the mirage. (18) — From their southernmost point on the Ross Barrier, December, 1902, Captain Scott and his companions saw long snow capes running out beyond Mount Longstaff and meeting the level horizon of the barrier, while farther still the mirage threw up small white patches against a pale sky which were indicative of still more distant capes and mountains. The direction of the extreme land thrown up in this manner was south 17° E., and hence they could say with cer- tainty that the coast line, after passing Mount Longstaff, continues in that direction for at least a degree of latitude, that is, approxi- mately seventy miles. From this they felt -sure that the high mountainous coast line does not turn to the east before reaching the 84th parallel. Amundsen, the Norwegian explorer, on his dash to the South Pole, 1911, records that the range did not turn to the east before it crossed the 85th parallel. A mirage thus assisted Scott and his compan- — ions, who knew well the appearance of a snow-capped country, in detecting objects “beyond their normal range of vision. When we coérdinate these descriptive — records and the results of the two experi- ments previously noted, we find that the interest centers about the number, kind, and association of the images produced by light as it passes from distant objects - through or across layers of air (or other media) having different densities. The upper portion of the tank experi-_ ment develops one kind of mirage, the lower portion another. Between posi- tion 2 and 4 [lower figure, page 514] the alcohol and water media produce three images in a vertical plane, the middle one being inverted. In the second ex- periment and in: observations (1), (2), (3), and (4), only the inverted and the superimposed erect images appear. The lower image fails to develop. . Optically alcohol is denser than water, hence in the upper part of the tank the optically denser medium is above, the — rarer below. To produce similar illu- sions in the field the same relation of density must exist. This is not the normal condition of the atmosphere, but since there are often temperature varia- tions, it may develop that air layers, in contact with the heated ground or warm water, may be very much heated for a short distance up, producing an unstable condition in the atmosphere: This con- dition does not extend very far laterally — and much less vertically, and conse- quently in no wise affects the general law of the decrease in density in the atmos- _ phere upward. This variation in den- Y oo pie in i, ia ae ae — i -— re oe Po To ee | i A PERPLEXING PHENOMENON — MIRAGE sity of the air layers develops most often in the desert or on extensive plains in the summer time. On cold autumn mornings a heated layer may arise over large bodies of water. Slight variations in the supply of the heat may produce grotesque changes in form, as in observa- tion (3), or produce unsteadiness of the image as in observations (3) and (4). In this form of mirage, called “inferior mirage,” the inverted object appears to be reflected on a surface of water; in reality it is an inverted image of the sky and of objects which rise above the horizon [graphically represented on pages 517 and 520]. When the images lie in a horizontal instead of a vertical plane, a phase of inferior mirage called “lateral mirage” exists. It is generally developed in the air opposite extensive walls, board fences or high cliffs having a southern exposure. In the lower portion of the tank experi- ment the syrup and water media produce between positions 2 and 4 [upper figure, page 514], three images in a vertical plane, with the middle one inverted. The lowest image is the ordinary one, the others have been lifted above their true positions. In observations (5), (6), (7), (8), and (9), a like order of images should occur, the inverted image and the higher erect one appearing as if sus- pended in the sky. The lower erect one should rest on the surface of the earth. In number (8) the upper erect image is mentioned; in observations (5), (6), (7), and (9), either it was not recorded or it was not seen. Sometimes it may be absent. In the tank experiment the rarer of the two lower media lies on top and the denser below. To have the same rela- tions in the atmosphere, it is necessary for a zone of rarefied air to be sand- wiched in between normal air above and 519 denser air below. Should the rarefied zone reach to great heights, as is sug- gested in observation (5), no mechani- cal unstability of the air would arise, since the denser layers are everywhere below the less dense. The illusions will consequently be far steadier and afford much better optical images in this variety, called “superior mirage,” than in inferior mirage. Both erect and inverted images of objects, even below the horizon, may be seen in the sky, since in superior mirage the path of the light waves through the rarer medium is concave toward the earth and when the rarefied zone is very high it may be abnormally concave. A superior mirage may arise where warm air passes over a frozen sea or ice cap and may be local in its distribution. A superior mirage was seen in Paris between the hours of three and four of a December morning in 1869 [see page 521]. The Arctic explorer Scoresby noted that typical examples of this kind were never observed on the sea closer than fifteen miles. Observation (6) illustrates this point [see also figures, pages 517 and 522], Should the zones of rarefied air in superior mirage be increased to two, three, four or more such zones, a series of images all in a vertical plane would appear. The basal and highest ones would be erect images, and the inter- mediate, inverted ones. Such an effect is called “multiple mirage.” Observa- tion (9) is a record of one. Mr. Albert Operti, the artist with Peary in 1906, sketched a multiple mirage which he saw. It consists of four inverted images between two erect images, of a distant is- land and the surrounding ice floes [page 512]. The objects which gave rise to the mirage were not seen at first, but as the ship drew nearer to them, they were sketched in position. When the images produced by inferior, 520 lateral, superior, or multiple mirage are abnormally elongated vertically, or ap- pear deformed, broken, and repeated, such as described in observation (10), a variety of mirage called “Fata Mor- gana” is said to exist [page 523]. The light rays instead of being bent in plane and regular strata of air, as in the other types of mirage, are refracted in curved and irregular strata. Magnification of objects may occur in all directions, but chiefly vertical — parallel with the axes of cylindrical air fields. If these fields should be broken or repeated several times and remain far distant from one another, the images produced will have a similar distribution. This form of mirage is often observed on the seashore at Naples, Reggio, and on the Sicilian coast. The Italians have named it “Fata Morgana” after the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL The illusory appearance of a brilliant pool of water reflecting trees and other objects, is well known in the desert. It is due to the layer of warm rarefied air above the surface of the hot sand, which refracts light from objects beyond it and makes inverted images of them appear to the observer. is refracted in the same manner, producing the deceptive lake. From Lockyer fairy Morgana, of Arthurian romance. The phenomenon generally occurs in the morning in very calm weather. Fata Morgana is of frequent occur- — rence in the polar regions in the vicinity of distant floating ice rafts. Slight irreg- ae ularities on the ice floes appear as lof 2 pinnacles. Open lanes between the ice — floes sometimes appear as dark vert ca lines. Scott, Mawson, and member the Scottish National Antarctic Expe The sky near the tion have noted this form of mira: pearing on the ice field of the Antarctic. continent where crevas varying in temperature from 22° ] above zero to 20° below, raises points | of ice only a foot or two in height i battlements with castellated towers When the sea is apparently cone: ULI DUD) Af 49fY “8AOGe ONO po}IOATI UB PUL MOTeq Woes st S}oofqo oY} Jo oFeUT [eUIIOU OY, ‘eAOge Ire eUTIOU pue YEO OY} YIM 4ORzUOO UI Ire [OOO Jo Jake] B UOVMYOq poyprapues Je We Jo JoXv] v Jo eouesoid oY] OF ONP seM PUL FuUIOUT JoquIBDeq] B UO INOJ puL cory} Jo SIMOY ey} WaEMJoq WOES se ooUIeOdde stq.L, 6981 NI SINVd NI N3SS ADVYIW YOINSdNS V 4O HOLSMS = a = cement SHS EASE eres thine es Ships with their inverted images in the sky are sometimes seen at sea (superior mirage). The one de- scribed by Captain Scoresby, Jr. in 1822, in Greenland waters, was an image of a ship then thirty-four miles dis- tant and fourteen miles below the horizon. noticed or is absent. and the horizon is seen above the hulls of ships, or when distant shores take the form of high cliffs and very distant objects seem to rise into the air like clouds, the “looming” variety of mirage known as is said to exist. Owing to the absence of the inverted image in looming this variety may not at first appear to be as striking as the other forms of mirage, but when objects far below the sensible horizon are lifted up The upper image which theoretically should appear is sometimes not After Herman, Klein, and Thome in the sky as mentioned in observations — (11) to (18) it arouses especial imterest, particularly from explorers. It assisted Scott and his companions, who knew well the appearance of their snow-coy- ered Antarctic country, to detect ob- jects beyond the normal range of vision. If observation (14) from Tenerife be true, it is one of the most striking ob- servations ever made of looming. In this instance the ratio of the distance from the observer to that lt «Care Sag “a ec) ee Superior mirage on land, similar in principle to the above. Flammarion beyond it, is one to twenty; the trajectories of the light ‘ays must have reached tremendous heights, other- wise the observer would not have seen the Alleghany Mountains of North Amer- ica lifted up in the sky. When looming is produced on a smaller scale the rays of light which give rise to the upper erect image in superior mirage [page 517] may lift mountains, trees, a DIY ct iy The type of micage called by the Italians “Fata Morgana” (from the fairy Morgana of Arthurian romance), occurs when the images produced by the various types of mirage are abnormally elongated, deformed or broken, due to the curving and irregularity of the layers of air. The one shown above was seen on the Italian coast, where such mirages are common, as they are also in polar regions. Afler Flammarion The kind of mirage known as “‘looming” is one of the most interesting. There is no inverted image, but low shores may be reflected in the sky as high cliffs, and mountains and objects far below the horizon may appear lifted up in the sky and magnified. Scott and his party made use of this phenomenon in the.Antarctic to detect objects beyond the normal reach of vision. The picture shows a landscape with palm trees and mountain as seen when lifted up and magnified by looming. This is the kind of mirage which may have given rise to Peary’s ‘Crocker Land.”’ After Appleton’s Journal 523 524 or other objects up into the sky and magnify them [see page 523]. In June, 1906, Peary saw’, approxi- mately 120 miles to the northwest of Cape Colgate, and later from Cape Columbia, “the faint white summits of a distant land above’ the ice horizon” which he called “Crocker Land.” This is somewhat like Scott’s observations of looming in the Antarctic in 1902, ob- servation (18), which were confirmed by Amundsen on his dash to the South Pole and back. Mr. MacMillan and Ensign Fitzhugh Green covered 152 miles of the interven- ing floe ice in the spring of 1915, in search of “ Crocker Land,” before circumstances compelled them to turn back. Twice while en route and once after they re- turned to Cape Thomas Hubbard, they saw what proved to be a mirage extending through at least 120 degrees of the hori- zon. MacMillan describes the mirage 2 as follows: “April 21st was a beautiful day; all mist was gone, the clear blue of the sky extending down to the very horizon... . Great heavens, what a land! Hills, valleys, snow-capped peaks extending through at least 120 degrees of the hori- zon!....As we proceeded, it gradually changed its appearance and varied in extent with the swinging around of the sun, finally at night disappearing alto- gether. *R. E. Peary, Nearest the Pole, p. 202. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1907. *D. B. MacMillan, In Search of a New Land. Harper's Magazine, November, 1915. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL in every particular an immense seemed to be mocking us. It near and so easily attainable, if only turn back.” “a Later at Peary’s cairn, Ca Hubbard, he writes: “The exceptionally clear, not a cloud of mist; if land could ever could be now. Yes, there 7 could be seen even without a extending from southwest true t northeast. Our powerful glasse ever, brought out more clearly background in contrast with the \ the whole resembling hills, val eys snow-capped peaks to such a de had we not been out there f dred and fifty miles, we wo staked our lives upon it. Our then as now is that this ws or loom of the sea ice.” . If Peary’s observations had | tended over a longer period no dou would have observed that his. “Cr Land” was an instance of — loot MacMillan’s description is no specific, but it seems to have been case of looming. The numerous sure ridges which were frequent. with, could well, under abnorn mospheric conditions, give rise t immense land with hills, valley snow-capped peaks.” . Insects may take twenty per cent of the fruit crops in the United States, but in return they give us the remain- ing eighty per cent, for they pollenate the flowers and so enable the fruit to develop. Photograph from wax model of apple blossoms exhibited in the insect hall of the American Museum Insects AN INEXHAUSTIBLE AND RELATIVELY UNTOUCHED FIELD FOR RECREATION OR RESEARCH By FRANK E. LUTZ HERE are certain threadbare sub- jects which contain so much poorly appreciated truth that additional articles upon them may not only be pardoned but also welcomed. One of these is certainly the importance of insects. Important? In all ways. They are small but mighty and I almost believe that, even as to bulk, they would run other groups:a close race. If all the insects were one insect what a great insect that would be! When we consider the number of species, there is really no good second to insects. There are as many (probably more) kinds of these animals within a hundred miles of New York City (even though that circle contains a great deal of insectless salt water) as there are of birds in the whole world. The figures in the note below! are not accurate — they cannot be made so — but they are intended to be fair. Even if there were no other considerations, would not the fact that approximately three-quarters of the known species of animals of the world are insects, place them in the top rank? Think of the chance for studies of more than ten thousand life histories 1 The following shows the number of described species in the various animal groups, with insects not only leading in number of species but also standing for approximately three-quarters of the whole number of known animals of the world: Insects 400,000 Worms 7,000 Mollusks 50,000 Arachnida 5,000 Fishes 15,000 Protozoa 5,000 Birds 13,000 Reptiles and Amphibians 5,000 Crustaceans 8,000 Mammals 4,500 526 different ones within a few hours’ travel of your home. Some of these are in water, others underground; some in or on plants, others in or on animals; some only in the midst of the near swamp or on the top of the hill over yonder; others in your garden or even in your house. Insects keep “cows,” building sheds to cover them, make gardens, have slaves, construct houses for themselves and offspring, dig caves, hollow out wood, sing songs, catch prey and have all sorts of devices to keep from being caught, go to live with their relatives, and make themselves generally interesting. What a wealth of material and how neglected! An earnest amateur can learn in a week to recognize all the reptiles and amphibians of his neighborhood. It is indeed a poor nature lover who can not give at least some name for every com- monly seen mammal within hundreds of miles around him. Singly and by crowds we get up and bedraggle our- selves with dew to hear or see a few different kinds of birds, and we mark that day in red which has permitted us to find a bird’s nest with a few smooth, splotched eggs in it. And we do well to do it, but ——. Can you give names to a tenth of the insects you see every year, beyond calling most of them “bugs” when really very few of them are bugs, or saying that it is a “buffalo moth” when really it is a beetle, or a black “beetle” when really it is a roach? What is that creature on your rosebush singing in a subdued treble? “Now that you mention it, I do hear some- thing but I have n’t the faintest notion what it is.” Eggs? No bird’s egg ever laid can surpass in delicacy of coloring hundreds of different kinds of insect eggs; and there are the multitudinous shapes and intricate carvings —not merely smooth ovoids. I have probably not examined one per cent of the insect eggs THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Have you in yours? which are laid every year in my garden. There are a-plenty there at the moment you read this. Some are on the branches, others are under bark, others are placed in neat slits made in stems or leaves by the mother, others are underground. The garden full of them now and full of insects: Of course it is winter but the red a black butterfly which lately emer, from “a pale green house studded 4 golden nails” is the only one « insects which is definitely known to us when winter comes. They are as eggs, as larvee, as pupae, and as. Most of them are hard to find ! is the fun of it, the training in dare which the insect world almost unchallenged. dj About the time this is publis largest gathering of scientists e in the United States will be m this city. What can the chen us about the firefly’s cold light gall maker’s sting which ca to produce growths different 4 thing which plants would ever physicist tell us of i Sosa flight ne ing of a beetle’s elytron, the mo of the house fly) or of the s board in a male cricket’s wing? chologists have written galore of insti and insect activities but the camp of their colleges are full of un material. Sharks are dissecte anatomical studies, the development starfish eggs is most minutely obs in order to understand embry i and hundreds of dollars are spent raising rats, mice, guinea pigs and like, for the purpose of discovering laws of inheritance. Strength to work, but Insects have anator INSECT STUDY FOR RECREATION OR RESEARCH 527 too, curious anatomies, adaptations to all sorts of conditions, vestiges of ancient structures and the very newest wrinkles in many lines. Insects have embryos too; apparently almost anything may happen between the time the sperm enters the egg and the time when new eggs are formed, or there may be no sperm — not even a male. Sometimes this happens regularly every other generation, sometimes the Amazonian state lasts for an indefinite number of generations and then males appear. Why? Other groups of animals show a similar condition of affairs. but they are not in my yard, or in yours, and we must have a compound microscope to see them. When it comes to the study of inheritance I venture to say that one certain species of insect has taught us more about the intricate laws governing the transmission of characters, the re- lation between these and the chromo- somes in the germ cells, about sex itself, than all the backboned animals put together. Each individual of that spe- cies took from the meager budget of the biological department merely a minute bit of rotten banana for food and a milk or olive bottle was a luxurious cage for hundreds of them.’ But let us come down to earth and see how our pocketbooks and, indeed, our very lives are affected by insects. Even I hesitate about mentioning the relation between the yellow fever mos- quito and the Panama Canal; but have you or any of your family ever had malaria? An insect did it. Did your baby have “summer complaint” last season? Very likely a fly fell into the milk or walked over the butter. The fly’s feet were not clean but he could n’t help it. Neither can the mosquito help giving you malaria, nor our neigh- bors to the south, yellow fever. Prob- ably the parasites they carry, and in- cidentally pass on when they come for a meal, worry them too. We have all heard about the tsetse flies and the keeping of horses and cattle out of cer- tain parts of Africa. Apparently tsetse flies have been at this trick for some time as there were Glossinz in Colorado during Miocene times and Henry Fair- field Osborn believes they may account for the disappearance of certain mam- mals from North America. It has been said that old maids are the support of the British Empire for they keep cats; cats destroy field mice which prey upon bumblebee’s nests; bumblebees insure seeds to red clover; red clover makes good beef; and good beef makes big strong men who extend and keep up the British Empire. It is typical of human arrogance and egotism that the beginning and end of that amazing chain of logic should be Homo. Bombus is far more important. She went bustling about fertilizing clover and other plants before there was a British Empire, or old maids either. Mice may have broken into her nest but she did not need the pampered nuisance of Egyptian heathenism to take care of that. We stretch out our hands, sigh, and mournfully quote “ Full many a flower is born to blush unseen and waste its sweetness on the desert air.” Unseen? Waste? Do you really think the petals were painted or the perfume distilled for the sake of an animal who, if he does not pass them by unseen or unsmelt, is apt to break off the flower - and shortly throw aside its withered beauty, or else to breed and breed the plant until he has succeeded in making it different, an “improvement” upon the work of its Creator? Those petals and those perfumes were developed quite independently of man and for the attraction of what he sometimes dis- dainfully calls “bugs.” 528 I do not know how the figures stand now but not so very long ago there were, in the United States, fourteen times as many deaths due to malaria and in- testinal diseases (many of which are carried by insects) as were caused by railroad accidents. Insects caused a property loss in the United States of five times that caused by fire. They took twenty per cent of the fruit crops in the United States, but in return gave us the remaining eighty per cent, for they pollenated the blossoms and so enabled the fruit to develop. In fact, the damage done by insects is due al- most entirely to less than one per cent of the species, and a large number of the remainder spend their lives keeping these in check. Human efforts have failed to exterminate the gypsy moth, and the United States government is now importing insect parasites of the pest to aid in the work. The Australian lady beetle has saved the orange groves of California from the white scale. While these considerations — and page upon page of unexaggerated statistics could be given to enforce the point — are important, Thoreau was not far wrong when he said: “We accuse savages of worshiping only the bad spirit or devil. Though they may dis- tinguish both a good and a bad, they regard only the one which they fear, worship the devil only. We too are savages in this, doing precisely the same thing. This occurred to me yesterday as I sat in the woods admiring the beauty of the blue butterfly. We are not chiefly interested in birds and insects, for example, as they are ornamental to the earth and cheering to man, but we spare the lives of the former only on condition that they eat more grubs than they do cherries, and the only account of the insects which the state encourages THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL is of the insects injurious to vegeta- tion.” Far be it from an entomologist to apply Thoreau’s characterization to the governing bodies of our educational institutions. When universities fail to provide, in a curriculum, more than a smatter for the study of insects, they are merely reflecting the general state of human minds. It is more difficult, — on the average, to identify an insect than an animal belonging to a smaller group, yet if museums provided curators of entomology, with the same liberality with which they provide curators of vertebrate animals, there would be in the American Museum alone, in pro- portion to the number of species in- volved, more than seventy-five on.the scientific staff working with insects, — carrying on research, identifying speci- — mens for amateurs, writing leaflets to interest and help the layman, as well as supervising the preparation of exhibits which would not only display the interest and wonder of insect life but — also explain, by their efficient aid, the problems of general biology. Why are things so? I do not know. When people really get acquainted with — even a few insects there is no lack of interest. Twice a month about a score — of business men, lawyers, doctors, stock- brokers and “laboring men,” meet in a room in this Museum and discuss” insects with an enthusiasm not sur- passed by any society affiliated with the New York Academy of Sciences. A similar society meets in Brooklyn; another in Newark. These men, each from his own viewpoint, appreciate insects, Perhaps the reason most of us do not, is because we still cling to the ‘ ideas of centuries ago when everyone understood “Beelzebub” to mean liter- ally “lord of flies.” . SOME STRUCTURES AND INSTINCTS OF COMMON INSECTS PHOTOGRAPHS BY MARY CYNTHIA DICKERSON Approaching winter catches the second brood of the viceroy butterfly in the early caterpillar stage and the small atom of life must protect itself as best it may. It sets about to build.a house by a rather elaborate process: it cuts a leaf, as above, and continues until both sides fall away; then with threads of silk it draws one side of the remnant of the leaf over to the other side, above its head. It fastens the stem securely to the twig, and lines the house with many layers of silk. Then it crawls in headfirst, and hibernates nearly six months, swept by boisterous winds in a temperature often below the zero point Break open a decaying chestnut stump in the frozen winter woods and in its frost-lined chambers we may find dozens of hibernating glowworms, each bearing its cold light. Who can explain this hibernation, when even breathing is suspended? Who can explain the glowworm’s light? Who the instinct that teaches insects to crowd together in winter quarters, when the woods present hundreds of places apparently equally good? Insects may be frozen ‘‘stiff’’ so that they break at a touch like fragile glass, yet return to their full vitality at once ona renewal of high temperature. Each glowworm of the species shown above changes into a white and pink chrysalis in May, which after a week sheds the skin and becomes a firefly, a black beetle ornamented with red and yellow on the thorax : Courtesy of Ginn and Company and Doubleday, Page and Company 529 ‘ ogc stsoydiowejau Joasul JO Saliojs UMOUY-}saq pu ysatduIIs ay) Jo auO st yong “no sjMeio Ayi9yyNq ay} pue ‘peay ayy Jaao syyds ‘uimy syt ur ‘urys stpesdiyo ay) Ayeuy ‘ySnosy moys 0} suigeq sSuIM aSuvio pue uMmoiq sAyia737Nq ay) jo usayed ay syaam om} uy *Ayta}3Nq By} Jo azI] Mau ay) 105 Aressavau Siay}O Jo Suyoajied puv seyidisaye9 ay 0} [NJasn samnjonns jo uondiosqe ‘uryiim sovjd Surye) ore saSueyo [njrapuom ysnoyije—atqvaourut AT[OYM St JOasUI ay) ULLOJ sty} UT | S}ods uaplos yA peppnis syeskiyo usais-p[eiawa ue pfoyeq pue !yno Surpunos WUOJ ay} ‘SuNovsyUOS aaoge syuaUSas ay) ‘saduvyo adeys ay) A[MO[S *S]SAI MOU aIN}RaID BYU “Yyouem ayy Aq saynuru imoz 10 9vaiy) Inq uaye) sey ssad0id aToyM eyL ‘jedivo y[Is ay) oyuL dn yt saysnd as10y pue soya yea YM pue (syooy (pia parfddns st osfe yorym) pua Japuays sit yno sayovad 71 ‘ULyS ay} 0} payoRNE sureUor IIMS Hf yy aSuo] spuosas Moy ay} Sump usy) ‘ssew papaauys [pews B oyu! premdn Yo urs ay} syxiom 31 UOOVIWUOD IeMOsNUL Aq :aANOR AIBA SaUIODeq qe[[idiayeo ay} aBvys sty} yy “peay ay} 1aA0 syds sumoy moj-AjuaM) Ja]ze pueL ‘SUBSOO] MOU UL{S 24], “ssaTUoNOU ‘premUMOp peasy Suny 1 ‘Jaaq Jo sured JayIo ay) YIM Ploy sit OF Suna ‘uay) ‘ALIS ay} Ul poysuRzUa azaM syooy anu Aue Jay) YIM J2F PUlY ot [HUN siy} 19A0 poyfeM I] “ALIS Jo yodeo yory) [Tews ev unds sey 31 Yyorym uo ods amnoas v UasoYyD MoU sey pu jnoge Ajssapsai poiapuem pue Suynve paddoys 37 “syoom OM} JOJ UMOIS sey pu JaUIUNS aye] Ul 33a ayNUIU e WO’ payoyeY 1] ‘stsoydiowejaut ay} 103 Apeai sI—pieMuMmop prey Sursuvy—Ayioyng yoreuoul ay} jo sepjidsayeo sty_y. e ¢40}UIM Jo sjiiod ay} dAtAIns uvd 339 JOasSUI ue sv afl] Jo JUsUISeIy & Ssofdjay puv ojnUTW Os }eY} JopuoM oy) UIe{dxXD IQ ¢sS5Sa May} Av] $JOASUI AQUOWIUIOD JY} JO Mo} BV UDAD dIBYM [[9] BM UBD = “‘pIpAyey Aqeq papvay-asie[ pure ‘juaiedsuvy ‘(Suoj yout %) aannuruntp Ajsnosorpny & yf Woz YoyeY [[IM a19y) ouN[ yxoU jo a[pprur ay} Aq pur ‘saat, Ssa ay], ‘salp pue punoss ay} 0} si[ey Feat ay, “saquiaydag ULSI SIU], ‘SdaXv] Teurapids Jamo] puv saddn ay} usamiaq Fea] ay} UIyILA Usppry A[Snus S30 ue SuIAvgy ‘31 MaIpy IM ATMOTS ays asned vB Jay ‘Feo, oY} OUI USIO oy¥I][-I1e}IUWIIOS ajoyM ay} uey pue dy siqy paysnd joys a[quiapisuoo YIM pue ‘feal ay} Jo aspa ay} ysureSv 10jISOdtAo ay} Jo pua dreys ury} oy) ind ‘19y YyeoUIapuUN Apog Joy paamno ays “sea Ausraqdses oy} ut 83a ue poysodap ysnf sey [passelua] prpAyey SuLM-MOLIeU afeUulas ay TL, ainjyeirsduid} paiaMmo] 9y} 0} Surpuodsea -109 dW IaMO[S YeEYMOWOS UL Jdaox9—}YSIU [[V Urese Udy] pue suUTYsUNs oy} UI Aep |e Aeave sdsei ay yey) ‘(s8a] UOJ sty UO ae Siva sty) (¢) SULSUIs UMO SIY UI JYSI[ap yonut os saye} Jaddoysseis Mopeoul oy, ‘94a UBUMY 2} O} 2TQISIA 9q 0} pide 00} sauIo0s -3q JUSWAAOW 9y} spado0id oIsnur ay} sev Inq ‘ys1y ye A[TsnondIdsuod a}eIqIA SSUIM JY, ‘laqureyo Suneuosai podeys-jodums} ev wuo0jy 0} rede peaids puodaq puv saseq asoy} 32 Jayi0 yove 19A0 dsevi sSULM OY} (UMOP poy SUIS 0} Siozoid sAVMe OY) SULSUIS oTIYM pue sse[suist jo sajyejd Sutddepisao oy] are sSurm sty jo saseq ayy, ,j dil - j dil -j dil - j dif jt-I-I-I-I-I-IZ,, ‘19AO puv JOAO DUIAY} QUO Sty SdseiI PUB JSITRIJUDWINSUI UL SI OEY =“ Iaquiay -dag ul apispeor ay} Aq 1amoyeuoo ve uo [%z2 x ] saddoysseis Mopvour , SuLsuls,, dU], o> », \) ‘ety. te Py es er rte ot ; j > a> ey ere ¥ Fee ie case ee : es ee eae eee ST Delicately patterned yellow eggs [x 3%] of a mourning cloak butterfly. The little caterpillars come out at the tops of the eggs after about two weeks. No bird's egg ever laid can surpass in delicacy of coloring. hundreds of different kinds of insect eggs, and they are of multitudinous shapes and intricate carvings. Every garden is full of them at this moment, although it is winter wef oe ee The caterpillar of a tomato sphinx moth a famous case of parasitism, where the caterpillar not only is destroyed by the parasites but also must carry the cocoons of its destroyers about on its back. If it escapes attack until it is full grown, it becomes possessed by a strange instinct which makes it desert the high leaves where it has been feeding in the sunshine, descend to the ground, and plow headfirst down into the darkness— to sleep until ready to transform into the winged moth. There are plants incapable of making seeds unless these are injurious insects which man keeps in check by means of their parasites 532 sphinx moths bring them pollen. There ee — Photo by Philip S. Farnham Does are now safe from the hunter, although at one time they and the fawns were the chief victims in the shooting season. Under the “buck law,” the deer in Vermont, which were almost exterminated forty years ago, have increased until six thousand bucks were killed there last open season Common-Sense Law in Game Protection By JOHN B. BURNHAM President of the American Game Protective Association es which govern us have been aptly defined as “rules of ac- tion.”” Game laws in this coun- try are rules designed to prevent the extermination of our wild species. Both sentimental and selfish reasons are be- hind our game laws. It is a religion with some men to exert themselves to protect the wild game solely that pos- terity may benefit thereby. With others, the incentive is to perpetuate a sport in which they are interested. Both sentiment and selfish interest meet on the ground of common sense. There can be no division of opinion when it is shown that a species has been killed off more rapidly than it breeds. The only important difference of opinion likely to occur among game protection- ists is as to when and to what extent any particular species requires protec- tion. In this country in recent years some very interesting problems in game pro- tection have developed in which the old method of simply shortening the shoot- ing season is either not sufficient or not practical as a means of conserving the supply, and where neither the reduction of the bag limit nor the prohibition of the sale of game will avail. Here for the first time on a large scale the park principle 533 534 of preserving the female animals and birds and only permitting bucks and cocks to be killed has been put in prac- tice. The results already obtained show conclusively that this is one of the most valuable methods of preserving game which has ever been tried, and while the plan received its initial support from men who were actuated by unselfish motives, with horns longer than a fixed mini- Only deer mum size are allowed to be killed, so that the hunter, before shooting, must first be very certain of the Thus the buck law has the ad- vantage of protecting human life nature of his quarry THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL it has proved so practical that it has now won over most of the other element as well. The remarkable result obtained by state protection of hen pheasants in New York and of doe deer in Vermont will serve to illustrate what may be ac- complished under such a system. Ten years ago game of all kinds, with the possible exception of cottontail rab- bits, was extremely scarce in Monroe County, New York. As far as the writer has been able to ascertain there were no quail left in the county and but few ruffed grouse. Many local sports- men had either abandoned shooting or chosen other localities. Today, however, the situation is reversed and men from distant portions of the state and even from other states are attracted to Monroe County for field shooting. else The cause of this improvement has been the introduction of the Chinese ring- necked pheasant, coupled with the pro- tection of the hen birds. For six years prior to 1904, the State Forest, Fish and Game Commission sent to applicants in Monroe County one hundred and thirty-five pheasants which were distributed in various localities for stocking purposes. In 1908 the pheas- ants had increased to such an extent that a very short open season was given for cock birds only. A year later a care- ful estimate indicated that more than six thousand pheasants had been killed in the county and from that time until the present the supply has been increas- ing despite the fact that on each shoot- ing day Rochester alone sends thousands of sportsmen over the county by the various trolley lines radiating from that city. If it were possible to protect female grouse, similar results, although in less degree, might be hoped for. Un- fortunately however it is impossible to distinguish the sexes of grouse at shoot- ing distances and therefore this method COMMON-SENSE LAW IN GAME PROTECTION can never restore our noblest game bird. In this country, deer hunting has been subjected probably to more abuses than any other field sport, until the term has become almost synonymous with cruelty and butchery. Any one reading Charles Dudley Warner’s story of deer hounding, who has not been moved to pity, must be cold-hearted indeed. Under former conditions does and fawns were the chief victims of the open season. Sportsmen weed seeds and wild fruits better than the corn, buckwheat, and kaffir corn. for two years and are increasing in numbers endowed with sentiment therefore hailed with enthusiasm the advent of a law which protected these helpless creatures. From the practical standpoint Vermont furnishes the best illustration of the common-sense value of such a law. Forty years ago deer were practically exterminated in the state of Vermont. There were a very few left in the wilder portion of northeastern Vermont ad- joining New Hampshire but throughout the rest of the state merciless hunting 535 had caused their extinction. In 1878 seventeen deer procured from the Adi- rondack: section of New York were released in Rutland and Bennington counties. Thereafter these deer were protected by an absolute close season for nineteen years. In 1897 an open season was given which has been con- tinued each year since that time. Dur- ing the nineteen seasons which have since elapsed bucks only have been killed, with the exception of three recent Photo by G. A. Bailey, Geneseo, N. Y. Pheasants feeding at winter feeding station of the Geneseo County Bird Club. As long as the snow was on the ground they came regularly to be fed, but afterward made no use of the food put out, seeming to like These birds have been protected years when an open season for does also was given on the ground that deer had become too numerous and were destroy- ing orchards and otherwise damaging farm crops. Last fall six thousand deer were killed in Vermont. The average during the first four years of the open season, from 1897 to 1900 inclusive, was only one hundred and fifteen deer a year. The remarkable fact is that this great in- crease in Vermont deer has not taken 536 place under the protection afforded by a close season but under the “buck law.” In proportion to its hunting area more deer are killed under a buck law in Vermont at the present time than in any other state under any kind of law. The deer are also the heaviest and finest specimens of the Virginia deer to be found in the United States. The future of the species is thus assured for all time. The theoretical increase of deer under a law protecting does and fawns has been very interestingly presented in a table prepared by Dr. A. K. Fisher and Prof. F. E. L. Beale, of the United States Bio- logical Survey, from suggestions made by George Shiras, 3d. For purposes of the comparison it was assumed that a breed- ing stock of twenty-four bucks and ' twenty-four does, aged two years, was available, and that the increase annually thereafter was one and one-half fawns a pair. The ratio would not, of course, be affected if fewer or more were taken as the original stock or as the increase. Under a law permitting indiscriminate killing, and assuming that fifty per cent of the deer were shot annually, extermi- nation would result at the end of ten years during which period one hundred and fifty-five deer would have been killed. Under exactly the same conditions, with the single exception of limiting the killing to bucks more than one year old, at the end of the ten-year period 781 would have been bagged and there would remain a breeding herd of 781 bucks and 1562 does, or a total of 2343 live deer in the woods. Thus is demonstrated that with a buck law good shooting is afforded and the supply of deer is simultaneously increased. It seems incredible, in view of these facts, that any sensible persons. still desire a law permitting the killing of does and fawns; and yet there is an even THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL more important reason than the economic one for the buck law: that is the saving of human lives. The buck law, as commonly found on the statute books, prohibits the killing of all deer, except deer having horns in excess of a certain minimum length, three or four inches usually. This pro- vision requires the hunter to exercise caution before shooting. If he waits long enough to ascertain that a deer has horns of legal length he is not likely to shoot anything else by mistake. Incredible as it may seem, there are hundreds of men in this country who, under a law permitting the killing of any kind of deer, will shoot at almost anything that moves in the woods. The writer of this article, who is an ardent deer hunter, has twice narrowly escaped death by reason of criminal carelessness of this character. Instances are common un- der the old form of law, of shots being fired at dead deer which were being carried on men’s backs or were being hung up, and of horses and cattle killed, as well as of men losing their lives, be- cause the pseudo hunter did not take the chance of losing a possible advan- tage by waiting long enough to ascertain definitely what it was he saw over the sights of his rifle. In the seasons of 1909 and 1910, in five states not having a buck law, forty men were killed. In the three seasons, 1910 to 1912, in nine states having a buck law, no lives were lost from this cause. Today in the greater portion of the big game territory of this country and Canada only horned game can legally be killed. It is hoped that the rule will soon become universal. In the sections where the law is in force the practical benefits are immediately apparent. Only when the supply becomes too large is there any excuse for even a temporary abandonment of the principle. The American Museum and College Zodlogy By J. H. McGREGOR Associate Professor of Zodlogy in Columbia University, and Research Associate in Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History _. a teacher of zodlogy in Colum- bia University the writer has, during the past few years, made increasing use of the exceptional facil- ities afforded by the American Museum of Natural History as an adjunct to regular class work. The following state- ment sets forth what these teaching facilities are and how they may be utilized. Of course the scope of the Museum’s activities today is far broader than the field of natural history in the old restricted sense, but the present notes will be limited to the domain of zoology. Until within the last two decades most zodlogical museums were little more than systematic collections of “specimens,” stuffed skins and mounted skeletons of mammals and birds, al- coholic preserves of invertebrates and cold-blooded vertebrates, cases of in- sects, shells, and fossils, all duly labeled as to genus, species, and locality. Such collections are of value to the taxonomist and undoubtedly of considerable inter- est to the general public, but they really tell very little about any particular animal, except as regards its form and external features. It is true that the American Museum, even twenty years ago, was much more than such a mere collection of species, but especially during the last fifteen years the Mu- seum has undertaken to show, not merely how animals appear in life, but their essentials of structure, their habits, relation to environment, and in many cases their life histories. Forms so mounted as to appear absolutely lifelike are exhibited in settings which simulate exactly their natural surroundings, and in many cases even microscopic or- ganisms such as Protozoa, Rotifera, and Bryozoa are represented down to the finest details of structure, by greatly enlarged models marvelously wrought in glass and wax, and in some cases with their environment correspondingly mag- nified. The aim at present is, in short, to tell as much as possible about the animals and their ways of living. The Museum avowedly performs a threefold function; first, the develop- ment of its collections, involving constant and extensive field work and explora- tion; second, research, as evidenced by the numerous volumes of “memoirs” and “bulletins” —the scientific staff is prolific in original investigations; and third, education. As a factor in popular education the réle of the Mu- seum is probably very generally realized, but its service in connection with the more technical college and university study of zodlogy, while no less real, is perhaps less generally appreciated. In the first place should be mentioned the thoroughly cordial attitude of the Museum authorities. The President, the Director, and in the writer’s experi- ence all the officers of the Museum, not merely tolerate but welcome the use of the Museum facilities by students. In the case of Columbia University the codperation has been especially close, as a number of men are connected with both institutions as professors and curators. In numerous cases researches by graduate students are based upon Museum material. Indeed, for some years the department of vertebrate 537 538 paleontology in the Museum has main- tained a “Columbia room” and two of the University graduate courses in zodlogy (Evolution of Vertebrates and a course on Mammals) are given by Professor W. K. Gregory at the Mu- seum entirely, owing to the fact that all the material used in these courses belongs to the study collections of the Museum. The proximity of the Mu- seum thus renders the maintenance of a large University museum unnecessary, and the University department of zodél- ogy, consequently, has only a relatively small, although under the conditions ample, teaching collection. In the personal experience of the writer, the Museum material is espe- cially valuable in connection with a class in second-year zoélogy (to which a year of general biology and elementary zoology is prerequisite), a full year course in straight zodlogy, in which all the animal phyla, beginning with Pro- tozoa and ending with mammals, are studied in lecture room, textbook, and laboratory. As a regular part of this course four visits to the Museum are made during the year. The first of these occurs after the Protozoa, sponges, ceelenterates, and flatworms have been studied, and is devoted to these groups as presented in the Darwin hall of the Museum. The students, having previ- ously studied these forms in the labora- tory, the Museum visit affords a valuable review, and in the case of a considerable number of forms which it is not practica- ble to study in the laboratory, enlarged models serve to elucidate their structure which otherwise would be known to the student only through descriptions and illustrations in books. Many persons are deficient in the ability to visualize or form any adequate image of structure in three dimensions from study of flat diagrams and pictures; in such cases THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL these solid models prove to be most helpful. As examples, may be cited the glass models of certain Radiolaria which show, in the clearest manner, not only the silicious skeleton but the protoplasmic structure, central capsule, and other structural detail. As a matter of fact the classes study prepared slides of radio- larian skeletons and stained total mounts and sections in the laboratory, but the beautiful tridimensional models, many of which are marvels of delicacy, give a new interest to the subject. The enlarged model of a portion of a mille- pore colony also illustrates the structure of a type which it is quite impossible to study satisfactorily from actual pre- ~ served material. The models showing the embryonic development of a stone coral, and others illustrating the method of secretion of the corallum and its relations to the soft parts in various corals are also studied with profit. Another series illustrating the essentials of structure of the various types of sponges, a group notoriously difficult to work out (with the exception of the simple calcareous forms), is in prepara- tion and will prove very helpful. A second session in the Darwin hall some weeks later is devoted to the study of the various worms, Rotifera, mol- lusks, and echinoderms. In the spring term the life groups of lower vertebrates — the hagfishes, lam- preys, lungfishes, the various ganoids [Who could forget the group of spoon- bill sturgeons?], and the especially beau- tiful amphibian exhibits, the frog pool and the home of the hellbenders, are visited, and these are among the finest zodlogical preparations in the Museum. Attention is given to some of the more important fossil fishes such as the cladoselachid sharks with their primi- tive lateral fins, and the armored THE AMERICAN MUSEUM AND COLLEGE ZOOLOGY Amphibia or stegocephalians, so note- worthy in the evolutionary history of land vertebrates. Near the end of the college year a fourth Museum excursion is made, this time to the collections illustrating the morphology and evolution of the higher vertebrates — the reptiles, birds and mammals. The halls of fossil reptiles and mammals. contain perhaps the rarest treasures of the Museum. Only a small number of these exhibits are considered with the college classes, but a few of the more important, notably the chief types of dinosaurs, the various orders of extinct marine reptiles with their remarkable adaptations to aquatic life, and the ancient toothed birds are examined. Of course, the famous gal- lery of avian life groups is visited. Among the exhibits of recent mam- mals, the whale gallery must be men- tioned, as the adaptation of these creatures to fishlike habit is shown in many features which may be instruc- tively compared with those of the swimming ichthyosaurs among the ex- tinct reptiles. The exhibits of the evolution of the horse and of the ele- phants are also worth careful study; indeed, as material for the historic illustration of organic evolution, the teeth and feet of the horses rank among the classic examples. Instances of adap- tation, in color, form and what not, are to be seen literally in almost every Museum case. As for species variation, special installations have been made to illustrate this in molluscan shells, birds and small mammals. Recently models have been made to illustrate the Mende- lian principle in heredity in the classic case of the pea, and other models of a similar sort are in preparation. In enumerating the aids to zodlogical 539 study offered by the Museum, mention must be made of the special guide leaflets to various groups published from time to time. A number of these, as for example the one on the “Evolution of the Horse” are more than mere guides, are indeed excellent brief monographs, and are recommended to the students for careful reading. Regarding the matter of guidebooks, the writer has sometimes wondered whether, in addition to the special guide leaflets, something in the nature of a general “students’ guidebook” to the zoological exhibits might be practicable — a sort of systematic index to the more important illustrations of the structure, mode of life, and evolution of all the chief groups of animals, living and fossil. Columbia University, owing to its relative proximity to the Museum and to the close relations between the scientific staffs of the two institutions, perhaps has enjoyed the benefits of the Museum somewhat more fully than have some of the other colleges in the city, but classes from other institutions, notably from New York University, the College of the City of New York and Hunter College, utilize the Museum in essentially the same manner as do the Columbia classes; and as for secondary and high school classes in zoélogy, any frequent Museum visitor must realize the extent to which these younger students avail themselves of its re- sources. The writer feels sure that the zoédlogy teachers of the city, whether engaged in high school, college, or university instruction, are unanimous in their appreciation of the fact that the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History gives New York a great and unique advantage in zodlogical education. 48010} oY} JO oSpo U19Yy}I0U OY} SB Ie] Se PIBMY NOS SoAOUT 4I ‘yySnoip jenuue oy} Jo yovoidde oy} 3yY = “ATIN OVI AA PY} WO ‘10qQ0}90G 03 Judy ‘uosees Aurei oy} Zutmp seal ‘yeuueaes pue seddojs Jo puoj ‘prezznq posutM-pol oy], , ore §]Ss010} UNJoUIe yy pue OFU0H oY} ssoloe preMY NOS UOT}eIsIu yUonbesqns s}r . QYBOIPUL SMOIIe OY], “JoquiIejdeg 0} Ye; WOIJ PUNO] SI yt OIOYA ‘vIqeIy UJEy}NOS pue ‘eruissfqy ur ‘uepng 94} ur ‘10yenbe ey} jo yysou AyUO ynq ‘eJeq} YseuU JOU SeOp YA01S Pel]]oq-o71YA oY} ‘BOLIFY YING 07 S}UBZISIA JoUTUINS OY} Jo CUO SI qT YSnoyITy GQUuYVZZNG GAONIM-Gay wolves J=AZUS Q3177399-3LIHM 7 =) aSueyuaquiy = SSS = Buey Suipeeug Ey ec] SS =j/ yse40j jo wapuog — SSS = —" == |= === —_f- BOlivnda Migration of Birds in Africa By JAMES P. CHAPIN have been written on the travels of birds deal especially with those of the North Temperate and Arctic regions, and these migrations are beyond a doubt the most striking; but it is well known that certain species in the Southern Hemisphere have similar instincts. In the Argentine, in South Africa, and in Australia there are land birds that withdraw to the northward during the cold season; and some of the oceanic birds nesting on the islands of the southern seas migrate in the same direction. One among them, Wilson’s petrel, is common even in our northerly latitude in July. Within the tropics, however, the compara- tively uniform temperature throughout the year would seem to favor the development of sedentary habits, and this is generally agreed to be the case. Nevertheless there is some change of season even close to the equator, where the continued heat and damp trade winds produce a moist and sultry zone known as the “equatorial calm belt,’ the “doldrums” of sailors. As a result of the inclination of the earth’s axis, this belt is farthest north in July, and farthest south in January, hence at latitudes of five to twenty degrees there is a regular alterna- tion of rainy and dry seasons of four to seven months each, and nearer the equator it is apt to rain throughout the year. To these conditions West Africa owes its great rain forest, covering most of the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and the middle of the Congo basin. This forest is a factor of prime importance in the distribution of African birds; and the traveler in tropical Africa, almost without reflection, classifies them as water birds, forest birds, and plains or savannah birds. There are, to be sure, also mountain birds, but African mountain ranges are never long and high enough to act as effectual barriers. To a savannah bird, on the other hand, this great forest, hundreds of miles wide, is a real obstruction, while the true bird of the forest seldom ventures far from its shade, and may even show a strong dislike for second growth. These forest birds, enjoying a perpetual rainy season, certainly have LS many fascinating volumes that little reason to migrate, and indeed seldom do so. It is among the birds of ‘‘bushveldt”’ and plains, where drought reigns for part of the year, that we find the .migratory instinct better developed. Some of these even cross the wide forest region on their journeys. While considering the conditions in the equatorial region, we must not lose sight of those in South Africa. These conditions are admirably summed up in Mr. W. L. Sclater’s paper on The Migration of Birds in South Africa, read in 1905 before the British Association in Johannesburg. Of the 814 species known from that region, 76 are migrants from Europe and Asia, 21 are “African migrants,” coming in summer to South Africa, where most of them nest, and 49 others — “partial migrants’’ — are somewhat migratory, but are fairly numer- ous at all times of year in that territory. The 36 “island breeders” —all sea birds nesting on oceanic islands — are found on the South African coasts in winter. Mr. Sclater’s object was to stimulate the interest of South Africans, and to secure further information. Scores of white storks, banded in Germany, have been found in South Africa, where a few of this species sometimes remain throughout the year, but do not breed. The European bee eater does actually nest occasionally in South Africa, and the purple and gray herons, of the same species as in Europe, do so regularly. Still more needed were observations from farther north, in central Africa, to show where the South African migrants “wintered.” We find this already stated in 1892, in Charles Dixon’s volume on The Migration of Birds. The fact that certain northern species, for example: Bonaparte’s sandpiper, the eastern golden plover, the turnstone, the eared grebe, and the quail, were supposed to breed also in the Southern Hemisphere, led him to postu- late a ‘‘neutral zone,” not only in central Africa, but probably in Brazil and the Malay Archipelago as well, where certain species would be found throughout the year, yet never breeding; for some would go north to nest during the northern summer, and the remainder at the opposite season repair to the 541 542 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL southward to take advantage of the summer there. The study of such questions necessitates long residence in a country. During our five and a half years together in the Belgian Congo, Mr. Herbert Lang and I enjoyed a golden opportunity for observations on the - periodic movements of the birds, especially since we were always within a few degrees of the equator. Here, as in South Africa, in addition to the Palearctic migrants, of which about one hundred and fifty kinds visit Africa, there was also a large number of African migrants, some of which breed south of the equator, but the greater number north of it. It is worthy of mention that certain of the “northern migrants” are much more com- mon in South Africa, than in the central parts, over which they pass hurriedly. It is surprising, too, how early some of them come south: we have seen white storks back in the Congo on July 18, and it is about a week later than this that the common sand- piper and European swift arrive. The two latter spend by far the greater part of their year in Africa, where they remain until April. The greater number of the northern mi- grants arrives in central Africa in September and October, and includes many of the birds most familiar to Europeans, of which we can mention here only a few more: black terns, two species of snipe and many other shore birds, three species of harrier, the honey buzzard, kestrels, osprey, cuckoo, roller, swallow, sand martin, house martin, spotted and pied flycatcher, whinchat, nightingale, redstart, willow warbler, shrikes, wagtails, tree pipit, and oriole. We made also a rough classification of migrants in the field. In the Uele District, for example, just on the northeastern border of the forest, this included about fifty-five northern migrants, and thirty-five regular African migrants, not counting birds of irregular occurrence — “partial migrants” — whose numbers are difficult to fix definitely. These were not the same birds that Sclater had reported as leaving South Africa in the winter, for most of them came to this district, just north of the forest, to spend the dry season, which falls approximately in the same months (December to April) as the summer in South Africa. Of all the species cited by Selater as African or partial mi- grants, only ten were noted by us as at all - migratory in the Uele. This reappearance of certain birds at stated seasons is well known to the black inhabitants of the northeastern Congo, who speak of such birds, in Bangala, the trade dialect, as Ndeke na gala, meaning literally “birds of the dry season.” There are a few, however, that come here to spend the rainy season, or parts of it. Great regularity is shown by the African migrants in their arrival and departure. They do not await the annual burning of the grass, but generally make their appearance earlier, nor do they all come and go together. Each species has its own calendar. This we were able to verify during the three dry seasons spent at the northern edge of the forest. i Even such observations as these need confirmation and completion from other regions by other observers; only in this way — can definite results be secured. Great assistance can be drawn from books and -— papers containing records of various species with dates. The notes of von -Heuglin on birds of the upper Nile region have proved especially helpful, and the articles in the Ibis by Mr. G. L. Bates, who has lived so many years in the southern Kamerun, are full of valuable information. Mr. Sclater, in South Africa, and other observers in many different parts of the continent, have pub- lished notes of extreme interest, for they enable us to draw definite conclusions from our own experience. The key to the problem is a knowledge of the seasons at which each species is on the move. : We have now proceeded far enough with this task to be able to point out, in some of these African migrations, where the birds breed, when and how far they go afterward, and in a general way what weather they encounter in the various regions. One of the migrants which visits South Africa in summer, but, unlike most of its comrades, does not nest there, is the white- bellied stork (Abdimia abdimii). We found this bird to be one of the few of Sclater’s African migrants that is also transient in the upper Congo. There are two seasons when it is seen — often in great flocks, which circle in a huge vortex high overhead. These are: (1) March and April, (2) October and November. Notice how all this fits nicely together. Looking through the literature, we find that storks of this species have been 3 a % v MIGRATION OF BIRDS IN AFRICA discovered nesting only north of the forest belt, from northern Nigeria to Abyssinia, and Aden in southern Arabia, southward to British East Africa. In this area they are found from March to September, building nests in colonies on trees or even on roofs, like the white stork of Europe. Then comes the great migration already noticed, which obliges numbers of them to cross the Congo forest, where they can find food only in the scattered clearings made by man. Others avoid the forest by going through East Africa, and many reach Cape Colony, their wanderings thus tak- ing them farther south of the equator than their breeding range lies north of it. They nest, then, during the rainy season to the north, and enjoy the rainy months, or sum- mer, in southern Africa. One of the common birds to invade the Congo every year in late October, and which I took at first for a visitor from Asia, is the white-necked bee eater (Aerops albicollis). Abundant, not only in the more open dis- tricts but also about clearings in the forest, these bee eaters often gather in large noisy flocks, especially toward evening. At this season they even extend out into the savan- nah country south of the forest, but do not breed. Bates reports that they spend the months from November to April in the Kamerun, and there are records at this season from as far west as Senegal. In the northeastern Congo they remain regularly till early June, and I have known them to stay in the Uele till as late as June 15. The breeding range of the species, to which they now betake themselves, extends from the Sudan to Abyssinia and southern Ara- bia, southward in Africa to Uganda. To this territory they are confined through most of the rainy season — that is from July to September—after which they again return southward, and many cross the equator. The northern limit of the breeding range is close to latitude 20° N., the southern edge of the “winter”. range about lati- tude 10° S. Those which stay in the forested territory do not suffer from drought, and south of this they find the rainy season in progress. The white-necked bee eater is not held back by the Congo forest; but the greater number of the Sudanese birds which come south to the Uele for the dry season do not 543 usually go beyond the border of the savannah. It is often said that birds in the tropics prefer to breed in the rainy season, but this rule has many exceptions. Among these birds visiting the Uele in the dry season, a number nest regularly —for example, a large bustard (Otis denhami), a nocturnal plover (Oedicnemus senegalenis), a wattled lapwing (Lobivanellus senegallus), a buzzard (Buteo auguralis), a gray hornbill (Lophoceros nasutus), a hoopoe (Upupa senegalensis) a beautiful kingfisher (Halcyon senegalensis), the standard-winged nightjar (Macrodipteryx macrodipterus) and a sunbird (Hedydipna platura). Others do not nest while in the Uele. As an example of this we may take the red- winged buzzard (Butastur rufipennis), a bird of prey feeding mainly on grasshoppers — often captured on the wing before an advanc- ing bush fire, which attracts many other birds, such as kites, swallows, and beautiful rosy bee eaters. This buzzard is common in the Uele from November to the end of March, and has been collected at the same season as far west as northern Kamerun. To breed, however, it goes northward in April to the White Nile, as far as Khartoum, where Mr. A. L. Butler has observed that it disappears in October. So far the migrants considered have all been birds that nest north of the equator. One of the best instances of a species which breeds south of the equator and migrates north to the Sudan is the pennant-winged nightjar (Cosmetornis vexillarius). The male is a striking bird with long narrow plumes waving out behind its broad wings, and we found that both males and females cross the forest belt each year in February and March, after which they become common in the savannah country to the northward. In July and August however, they take their departure again, without having laid eggs, and at this season they are again to be seen at dusk about villages in the forest, or aroused from their slumbers in the daytime, on the ground in clearings or open swampy spots. They are on their way south, for they breed in September, October, and November, from Angola and Lake Tangan- yika to Damaraland and the Transvaal. Many of Sclater’s South African migrants may be compared with this bird, though they range for the most part, while breeding, farther south, and do not travel so far northward. qysn3ny pue yore] U9eMjJoq YVUUBARS UI9YIIOU OY} JISIA puw “yJaq 4Ssa10J AUTeI peosq oY} sso1o AueUT ‘Areniqo] Ul preayyiou sursejyg *(uosees Aurer Ajreo 8Yy}) JequIaAON 0} Joquieydeg woiy ‘YeuUBABS UIOYINOS OY} UI ATUO S3Zo sjr Av] 0} sosooyo selyysIU posurm-jueUUEd ey? ynq ‘1oyenbe oy} jo YyJIoU eov{d yoo} Zursou ‘soseo Surpeooid very} [[e UT FFe ; puokeq Bjosuy pue pueyesekyy 0} ‘ysar0J [eIIOJeNba oy} []e ssoioe ‘preMy}NOs 9y} 07 93ueI 9Y} Spue}xe 7 ‘paspey ore SunoX s}I 90u0 Wey JNq ‘SBolIyy Teordo} Jo UOT}OeS UIVYIIOU PLIe VIOUI VY} OF PozLI}SeI SI 19] 89 90q poyoou-o}IyM oY} ‘1equieydeg 07 Ajn¢ w0I; ‘UOSees Furpsesq spt Fung YVCFLHOIN GSONIM-LNVNN3d ec eF es eee e © o © abil \ pre beereeet tateest °. a tte Se ae. Se eae Ree ses 08-8 SA pS ee Sa Jes a — =< VVV agohd Sais ll | y ¥31V39 3398 GSYOSN-3LIHM asuey vaquiMm aSuey Suipeeug FJ 3S2404 jo uapuog —— MIGRATION OF BIRDS IN AFRICA All of these birds cited as examples are common and conspicuous, easily observed, and could not have passed unnoticed had they been resident throughout the year. The white-bellied stork, white-necked bee eater, red-winged buzzard, and pennant- winged nightjar offer four clear-cut examples of migration within the tropics. Some of the species, however, which we found to be migratory in the Uele, are distributed over all the more open parts of Africa, and to judge from the dates at which they have been taken in various regions do not migrate north and south in this way. The common yellow-billed kite (Milvus egyptius) is a perplexing case. In the forest belt it is never common; the carrion insects, and other weak prey on which it feeds are not easy for it to find; but a stray indi- vidual may be seen in almost any month. On rare occasions large flocks are seen passing over. In the Ituri we have noticed them going southward in August. In the savannah districts just north and south of the forest belt they are very abundant in the dry season, but practically absent in the rainy months. As these seasons alternate to the north and south, we might jump to the conclusion that the kites simply migrate across the forest like the pennant-winged nightjar. Such does not appear to be the case, however, for in many parts farther removed from the equator, both north and south, they are found through- out the year. Moreover, at the very limits of their range, they are present only in the summer (rainy season). At the same period then, when they increase in numbers just north of the forest, they are likewise invading South Africa in flocks, and conversely, at the season when they gather about grass fires just south of the forest they are also increasing in numbers in Senegal and visiting the islands of the eastern Mediterranean. Their movements thus seem to be correlated from north to south, but no large body of kites migrates from South to North Africa, and they nest everywhere save in the equa- torial forest. ‘ The cattle heron (Bubulcus ibis) is another bird of wide distribution, from southern Europe and central Asia to South Africa and Madagascar. But the cattle herons of the northeastern Congo act like northern migrants, arriving in late October and Novem- ber, when, according to plumage and other indications, they have finished nesting. 545 Toward January they are rare, as though they had continued farther south, but by April they are again numerous, and vanish regularly before the middle of May, after some of them have assumed the buff plumes of the nuptial dress. Bates also writes that they are seen in the Kamerun in November and in May. These birds must breed in Africa, farther north; but others of the species are known to breed in the south, where they are not con- sidered migratory. This is a case like those which caused Dixon to suspect a neutral zone of “winter- ing” or non breeding birds in central Africa. But in some instances at least, as the quail and bittern, the South African birds have been found to be distinct from the European, subspecifically at least. As far as I have seen, there is no such neutral zone in the Congo. If such a zone did exist, in the case of the cattle heron, it would have to be south of the equator, but the cattle herons of South Africa are not known to migrate at all. Migration, then, although less charac- teristic of birds in the tropics, does take place not only among birds of temperate South Africa, but also even among many that nest within ten degrees of the equator. These movements are regular, like those of more northern birds, and are probably due to variation in the food supply, governed of course by seasonal changes — here rains and drought rather than heat and cold. In the case of the pennant-winged nightjar, the migration may insure a bountiful diet of winged termites (a favorite food of this and many other birds), since these insects fly in the greatest numbers toward the beginning of the rainy season. But whatever its causes, we have still a great deal to learn of the simple facts of bird migration on the great African continent. Seasonal journeys, even in the north- eastern Congo, are by no means restricted to birds. In the Ituri District several species of butterflies are seen traveling northward in enormous numbers at definite seasons, and the common yellow-necked fruit bat (Eidolon heluwm) seems to have some similar habit. In the northeastern Uele even the elephants go northward into the savannah during the rainy months, and retire again to the border of the forest on the approach of the dry season. Museum Notes Srnce the last issue of the Journat the fol- lowing persons have become members of the Museum: Benefactor, Dr. James DouG.as. Life Members, Dr. Ina Ors Tracy, and Messrs. 8S. Prentiss Batpwin, Henry McC. Banos, Louis J. Exret, Joun H. Love, M. Taytor Pyne, Frntey J. SHeparp, Irvine K. Taytor, and A. VAN CorTLANDT. Sustaining Members, Mrs. H. B. Duryna, Mrs. Isaac N. SeniaMan, and Mrs. P. A. VALENTINE. Annual Members, Mrs. J. K. Burke, Mrs. R. L. Fowxer, Jr., Mrs. Toomas PowELu Fowier, Mrs. G. Maurice HECKSCHER, Mrs. C. R. Hupson, Mrs. WALTER LEwI- soHn, Mrs. Danret Gray Rem, Mrs. E. 8. Reynat, Mrs. C. L. F. Rosryson, Mrs. Francis Rocers, Mrs. Wo. N. Saaw, Mrs. A. F. Scuaurriter, Mrs. Henry W. SaGe, Mrs. C. M. Rooms, Mrs. Epwin THORNE, Mrs. J. W. THorne, Mrs. MAXIMILIAN Tocu, Mrs. Cuas. Weiss, Misses Rosie BeRNHEIMER, and K. C. Rockwoop, Dr. J. R. Fasricrus, Dr. Max WALLERSTEIN, and Messrs. Junius Ocus ADLER, CopLEY Amory, Jr., Henry pe Forest Batpwin, Henry 8. Bowers, Joun McE. Bowman, Newcomsp Carton, LeEopotp DermuTs, Max ErsmMan, Epwin FRANKENSTEIN, WIL- wiAM H. GELSHENEN, ALBERT GOLDMAN, RupotpH GuITERMAN, THEO. MHETZLER, Grorce Ciay HouusTerR, ELKAN HoLzMAn, Francis T. Homer, Epwin C. JoHNSTON. Rosert B. Know.es, Frank E. Law, Wi1- uiaAM M. Lyspranp, Victor K. McE.Heny, Jn., Ropert J. Maspacu, Georce O. May, Paut Pret, A. W. Poprer, AuGusTe RicHarp, Monroe D. Ropinson, ALFRED ROELKER, Jr., Witt1am J. Roomp, CHapmMan Ropss, Epwarp L. Rosenretp, Henry ScHABrEr, A. H. Scuerer, Cart SepMan, Artuur L. So.tomon, Victor Sutrro, Roperick Terry, Jn., Cuas. WANNINGER, Louis WATJEN, Emit Weit, THzopore WeRNeER, and M. A. WESENDONCK. In connection with the death of Mr. Seth Low on September 17, 1916, the trustees of the American Museum at their recent meeting unanimously adopted the following resolution: In the death of Mr. Seth Low, the American Museum has lost one of the most distinguished 546 of the many public-spirited and large-minded citizens who have served the interests of the. institution during the past half century. Mr. Low’s name followed that of Abram 8. Hewitt, as a former mayor of the city, who gave of his valuable time and experience to the upbuild- ing of our great institution. As president of Columbia University in 1901, he was the first great educator to recognize that the Univer- sity should not duplicate the work of the Museum, but should send its students here for their advanced practical studies and re- searches, in several fields of natural history. He first served the Museum on the East Asiatic Com- mittee, with Messrs. Hill, Harriman, Dodge, and Schiff. Elected a trustee May 5, 1905, he served on the Nominating Committee, the Jesup Memorial Committee, the Executive Committee, the Committee on the Museum for the Blind, the Committee on Investiga- tion of Museum Administration, and the Auditing Committee. To each he gave his valuable time and rare judgment in publie affairs. During the eleven years of his life as trustee, he never hesitated when oppor- tunity offered to show his intense interest in the public welfare, and his faith in the great public educational work which the Museum is undertaking. A new guide book dealing with all the scientific museums of Greater New York and entitled A Guide to the Nature Treasures of New York City, has just been published by the American Museum. It is designed to pro- vide under one cover and without necessita- ting undue expenditure of time, an indication of the city’s resources along natural history lines, at the same time entering into sufficient detail to arouse interest in the exhibits and to enable the student of any particular branch or subject to know what he may find and where. The book is profusely illustrated and pro- vided also with maps, plans, and full diree- tions for transit. It deals with the American Museum of Natural History, the New York Botanical Garden, the New York Zodélogical Park, the New York Aquarium, the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute, the Children’s Museum, Brooklyn, and the Brooklyn Bo- tanic Garden, and has been prepared by Mr. This union has led to the training of many men who are fast becoming eminent ps, ae ae ba, Aiea a. re —. an" ee eo a ee 4 2 z s, 7 “* . a uy J MUSEUM NOTES George N. Pindar, of the American Museum, with the courteous collaboration of the direc- tors and staffs of this and the other institu- tions concerned. The cover of the book has been designed by Mr. Albert Operti of the American Museum. As a result of Dr. Frank M. Chapman’s expedition to South America, material was obtained at Chimborazo for a large panoramic faunal group of that region. With the assist- ance of Mr. George K. Cherrie a splendid collection of birds was obtained on the table- land at an altitude of one hundred and twenty-five thousand feet. A trip from Lake Titicaca to Cuzco, down the valley of the Urubamba, was taken under the joint auspices of the American Museum, Yale University, and the National Geographic Society, for the purpose of making an orni- thological survey of this region. At Men- doza, in the Argentine, Dr. Chapman made connection with Messrs. Leo Miller and Howarth Boyle, who had been two years in the field securing a superb collection consist- ing of nine thousand birds and fifteen hundred mammals. Material was obtained at Men- doza for a group of rheas of the western Argentine plains. From Rio, in Brazil, a short trip was made to the Organ Moun- tains, where a collection of three hundred and fifty birds was secured. In appreciation of his valuable services in bringing together the superb collection of North American woods forming the Jesup Col- ection, and also of his scientific contributions to silviculture, a bronze bust of Professor Charles 8. Sargent has been ordered by the trustees to be placed in the forestry hall of the American Museum. The bust is to be executed by the well-known sculptor 8. C. Pietro, to whom is to be attributed the bust of John Burroughs— a copy of which, now in the bird hall, was presented to the Museum by,Mr. Henry Ford. A bust of John Muir, by the same artist, presented to the Museum by_Mrs. E. H. Harriman, will occupy a posi- tion in the forestry hall as a companion to the bust of Professor Sargent. Mr. Cuartes Rosert Knicut will hold an exhibition of his models and paintings of modern animals in the west assembly hall of the American Museum from December 15 to January 15; also at the same time a first 547 view of his new mural decoration of prehis- toric animals, in the hall of the age of man on the fourth floor. This mural, nine feet by fifty feet in size, shows a herd of reindeer and a herd of mammoths—two of the most notable animals of the period when the cave man flourished. The canvas has been exe- cuted with unusual power. Mr. Roy CuapMan ANDREWS, in charge of the American Museum’s Asiatic zodlogical expedition, writing from Li-chiang fu, Yun- nan Province, China, on October 7, reports the expedition as on the way to the Thibetan frontier, in the neighborhood of which col- lecting will be done until snow fills the passes. Owing to unfavorable reports from Kiu- chau the expedition will confine operations to Yunnan Province, where the high Thibetan fauna in the north and the tropical Burma and Tonking fauna in the south promise rich re- sults. Except for the little work done by the Anderson expedition in 1875, this province is practically a new field zoélogically, and at the time of writing, after twenty days continuous riding into the interior, the Museum expedi- tion was encamped in country where no other zoologist had ever been and where the indi- cations for collecting were exceedingly favor- able. A fine series of tupaia and two panda skins were obtained in the first three days among 112 specimens, and serow, goral, wapiti, bear, and leopard were reported in varying numbers on a neighboring mountain, eighteen thousand feet high. All members of the expedition were reported well. Pror. Henry Farrrretp Ossorn, chair- man of the Local Committee, has appointed the following Honorary Reception Committee of the City of New York, in connection with the meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science: His Honor, JoHN Purroy MitrcHe., Ermer ELLSworTH Brown, NicnHotas Murray BuvrtieEr, ANDREW CARNEGIE, JOSEPH H. Cunoatn, R. Fuuton Curtine, CLEVELAND H. Dopaez, Henry C. Frick, JAmMzEs B. Forp, A. Barton HepspurN, GrorcE G. Herr, ArcHEeR M. HuntTINGTON, WALTER B. James, V. EvERIT Macy, Emerson McMituin, Sipney Ep- waRD Mezes, Mrs. Henry FAtrRFIELD Ossorn, M. I. Puprn, THEODORE ROOSEVELT, Mrs. WitLarD D. Straicut, Mrs. FREDER- ick Ferris THompson, and Freperic C, WALCOTT. 548 The opening general session of the Ameri- ean Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in the Auditorium of the Museum on the evening of Tuesday, Decem- ber 26, at 8 o’clock. Dr. Charles R. Van Hise, President of the University of Wiscon- sin, will preside, and Dr. William Wallace Campbell, Director of Lick Observatory, will give the address of the retiring president, on “The Nebule.”’ From 9.30 to 11:00 o’clock in the hall of the age of man, the Honorary Reception Com- mittee will tender a general reception to Presidents Campbell and Van Hise and the members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of affiliated societies. TuHRovuGH the generosity of Messrs. Ales- sandro and Ernesto_G. Fabbri, of New York City, with the codperation of the department of ichthyology of the American Museum, the JourNnaL for this month is able to publish the color plate accompanying the article “The Problem of Bright-colored Fishes.’ The plate was designed from specimens in the Museum and aims to show the brilliant color- ations of certain fishes which live in the pro- tection of coral reefs. A series of one hundred picture stamps illustrating some of the more interesting exhibits, and a souvenir album to contain them has just been published by the American Museum and may be obtained at the door. It is hoped that these stamps, besides furnish- ing visitors with a souvenir of the Museum, will have value as an educational medium especially for children. The album, which contains places for inserting all the stamps, with a printed legend under each place, is sold with the first set of ten stamps for fifteen cents. Succeeding sets of ten stamps cost each ten cents and each stamp is to be placed over its appropriate legend in the book. The pictures have been well chosen and the text carefully prepared and phrased in simple language which children can understand. Ir 1s of interest to all scientists of the New World that the Argentine Society of Natural Sciences of Buenos Aires, which publishes the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL review, Physis, is planning a series of national reunions to take place every two years, each time in a different city of the Argentine. It is intended that these reunions shall be simi- lar in character to those of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, and the French and American associations; they will be the first assemblies of their kind to convene in South America. The first. reunion was held at Tucuman in the last week of November, 1916, in commemoration of the first centenary of the declaration of independence of the Argentine Republie in 1816. Tucuman is an important northern city, with a population of more than one hundred thousand, and with a University and natural history museum. The environ- ment gave opportunities for interesting field — excursions for the different sections during the meeting. Professor Angel Gallardo, di- rector of the Museum of Buenos Aires, was president of this first national reunion, with the Minister of Public Instruction, president. of honor. The papers which were presented, are to be bound in one volume with the re- port of the session. By purchase from Don Pedro Jose Roderi- guez, through Mr. Luis Geronimo Martinez,. of Brooklyn, the Museum’s anthropological department has acquired a large collection of pottery figures and heads, taken from a. series of mounds at Las Matas, near Maracay, Venezuela. These mounds, of which there are about thirty, each ten or twelve feet high and two or three hundred feet long, are near the banks of Lake Valencia, the site of a village probably belonging to lake-dwelling Indians. They contain pottery and urn burials and appear to afford an excellent opportunity for stratigraphical investigation, with a view to obtaining a cross section of the ancient history of Venezuela. Mr. Ernest IncErsoun, of the National Association of Audubon Societies, has re- cently completed and published a complete index to Bird Lore, the illustrated bimonthly magazine, edited by Dr. Frank M. Chapman, and devoted to bird study and bird protec- tion. INDEX OF VOLUME XVI Names of contributors are set in small capitals Accessions Anthropology, 139, 479, 480 Archeology, 336, 480. Entomology, 211, 411. Herpetology, 336 Ichthyology, 138, 212, 335, 480 Library, 209, 267, 475 Mammalogy, 139, 211, 212, 268, 475, 478 Mineralogy, 140 Ornithology, 137, 211 Paleontology, 212, 476 Africa, Pioneer Photography in, 155-166 Akeley, Carl E., 211, 268, 335, 478, 479 Albino Deer, 211 Allen, J. A., 137 American Association for Advancement of Science, 76, 268, 474, 547, 548 American Chemical Society, 475 American Game Protective and Propagation As- sociation, 410 American Indian Saddles, 497-500 American Museum and College Zoélogy, The, 537-539 American Scenic and Historic Preservation So- ciety, 76, 201, 411 Anprews, Roy Cuapman, The Asiatic Zodlogical Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History, 105-106 Andrews, Roy Chapman, 334, 411 Annual Report, 334 Anthony, H. E., 476, 479 Ape, Fossil, 212 Appointments, 136, 334, 411 Argentine Society Natural Science, 548 Armor, Primitive, 479 Asiatic Zoélogical Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History, 105-106, 208, All Azande Chief, 480 Aztec Ruins, 265 Balearic Islands, 139 Bat, Brown, 412 Bate, Dorothea, 139 Bear, American, 476 Beebe, William C., 73 Bird, Protective Laws and their Enforcement, 329-333 Birds, Are They Decreasing or Increasing, 199— 200; Fossil, 475; Guide leafiet, 411; Migra- tion of, in Africa, 541-545; of Shakespeare, 268; Uncle Sam's, 395-402 Blaschke, Frederick, 479 Bondy, Emil C., 336 Boyle, Howarth, 547 Bripeman, Hersert L., Three Polar Expeditions, 1913-1916, 291-294 Brown, Barnum, 74, 139, 209, 412 Bruce Fund, 140 Burnham, John B., Common-sense Law in Game Protection, 533-536 Butler, A. E., 137 Cats, Vagrant in the United States, 326-328 Ceratops, 74 Cuarin, James P., The Migration of Birds in Africa, 541-545 Chapin, James P., 140 Chapman, Frank M., 76, 211, 267, 480, 547 Currin, Greorae K., Stories of South American Birds, 259-264 Cherrie, George K., 140, 267, 547 Chilkat, The Whale House of the, 451—460 Chillingham Bull, 268 Clark, B. Preston, 409, 459 Cuark, James L., Pioneer Photography in Africa, 155-166 Clark, James L., 211, 335, 479 Climatic Variations, Predictions of, 97-103 CocxErRE.LL, T. D. A., Colorado a Million Years Ago, 443-450; Progress, A Drama of Evolu- tion, 183-191 ; Coleoptera, C. H. Roberts Collection of, 211 Cotes, Russreuu J., My Fight with the Devilfish, 217-227 Coles, Russell J., 138 Colobus, 479 Colorado a Million Years Ago, 443-450 Congress, Nineteenth International, of American- ists, 74 Contents, Table of, 3, 79, 143, 215, 271, 339, 415, 483 Coral Reef Group, 267 Coster, Estuer A., Decorative Value of Ameri- can Indian Art, 301-307 Costumes, A Suggested Study of, 465-467 Crampton, Henry E., Porto Rico, 59-70 Cranes, Whooping, 211 Crawrorp, M. D. C., Design and Color in Ancient Fabrics, 417-431; The Loom in the New World, 381-387 Crawford, M. D. C., 409, 411 Crocker Land Expedition, 135, 208, 268, 291, 292, 333, 409, 475; Party, Life of, 121-123 Davis, Leonard M., 212 Davison, Henry P., 136 Dawson, Charles, 412 Day, Ler Garnert, South American Trails, 23- 32: The Ruins of Ancient Petra, 273-286 Dean, Bashford, 137, 140, 335, 480 Denslow, H. C., 76 Design, American, 409 Design and Color in Ancient Fabrics, 417-431 Devilfish, My Fight with, 217-227 Dickerson, M. C., 267, 336 Dinichthys, 140 Dinosaur Hall, 139 Dinosaurs, Cretaceous, 209 Dogs, Hunting, of the Ancients, 403-408 Dyer, F. M., 480 East Africa — Game Garden of the World, 145- 153 Eastman, Cuartes R., Hunting Dogs of the Ancients, 403-408 Eastman, Charles R., 335 Egrets, American, 479 Elaphurus davidianus, 478 Elephant, 485-495 Elliott, Daniel Giraud, 73 Emmons, Georcr T., The Whale House of the Chilkat, 451-460 Evolution, Drama of, 183-191 Exhibitions, 76, 137, 139, 140, 212, 268, 291, 309, 412, 475, 479, 547 Expeditions, 74, 75, 76, 105, 135, 208, 209, 265, 267, 268, 333, 334, 335, 409, 410, 411, 412, 475, 476, 479, 480, 547 Fabbri, Alessandro and Ernesto G., 548 Fairchild, E. W., 409 Falkenback, Charles, 209 Feathers, The Traffic in, 253-258 Federal Treaty for Bird Protection, 410 550 Fretp, Irvine A., A Community of Sea Mussels, 357-366 Fisher, Hon. F. M. B., 73 Fishes, Bibliography of, 137; Bright-colored, The Problem of, 507-511; Sunfish, 212. Flight, Beginnings of, 5-11 Florissant fossils, 443-450 Forestry, New York State College of, 410 Ford, Henry, 547 Fossil Bird, New, 475; Plants, 443-450 Fuertes Louis Agassiz, 211 Game Protection, Common-sense Law in, 533-536 Gavial, Florida, 480 Germs, A Garden of, 295-300 Gifts, 73, 136, 137, 209, 211, 267, 268, 333, 335, 336, 411, 475, 480 Gittam, Artuur L., A Few Observations on Snakes in the Field, 129-135 Gillam, Arthur L., 336 Gopparp, Puiny E., Language as an Index to Ancient Kinships, 197-198 Goddard, Pliny E., 74, 76, 336, 411 Granger, Walter, 211, 412, 474 Grartacap, L. P., Ornamental Uses of Shells, 115- 120 Gregory, William K., 334, 335 Guggenheim, Harry F., 479 Guide Book of Museums of Greater New York, 546 Gulf Stream, The, Off Our Shores, 501-506 Hale, Lectures, 208 Haurer, Ciarence R., The Treatment of Snake Bite, 193-196 Halter, Clarence R., 335, 411 Hare, Varying, 137 Harper, Francis, 138 Harriman, Mrs. E. H., 547 Harrison, Archibald, 211 Heller, Edmund, 208, 334, 411 Heredity and Sex, 229-242 Herm, C. F., The White Rat and Sleeping Sick- ness, 249-250; Why Does the Heart Beat? 473-474 Horses, Celtic, 475; Fossil, 476 Horticultural Society of New York, 412 Hovey, E. O., 135, 208, 268, 333, 409 Human Sacrifice, Pawnee, 49-55 Hontinoron, Evttswortn, Prediction of Climatic Variation, 97-103 Hussakof, Louis H., 137 Indian Art, Decorative Value of, 301-307 Indians, Chilkat, 451-460 Insects, 525-528 Ivory, 485-495 Jonpan, Davip Starr, The Laws of Species Forming, 379-380 Kellogg, L. D., 336 Knight, C. R., 547 Kunz, George F., 243 Kunz on Ivory and the Elephant, 485-495 Krorsen, A. L., The Oldest Town in America and ite People, 81-85 Kroeber, A. L., 74, 139 Lang, Herbert, 140, 479, 480 Language as an Index to Ancient Kinships, 197— INDEX OF VOLUME XVI Men of the Old Stone Age, 137 Lectures, 74, 140, 208, 268, 411, 479, 480 Lepus, 137 Longley, George C., 336 Longman, Beatrice, 335 Loom, in the New World, The, 381-387 Low, Seth, 409, 546, Lowie, Robert H., 74, 476 Lucas, Freperic A., The Beginnings of F 5-11; Sea Cows, Past and Present, 315 Lutz, Frank E., Insects, 525-528; Herter x Sex, 229-242 Lutz, Frank E., 76, 409 McGreeor, J. H., The American Museum College Zoédlogy, 537-539 ea McGregor, J. H., 335. Magic of Jewels and Charms, 243-248 Mammals, Synoptic Series of, 412; E Mammoth, 485-495 Mannhardat, L. Alfred, 335, 411 — Manziga, Chief of the Azande, 480 Matausch, Ignaz, Contributions to Hall Health of, 57; Work of, and Its § to the Museum, 125-127 Marruew, W. D., A Reptilian Aéro: 252; Kunz on Ivory and the El 495; Scourge of the Santa Monica tains, 469-472; The Grim Wolf of Pits, 45-47 Matthew, W. D., 335, 412 Mawson, Sir Douglas, 268 Mayer, ALrrep GoLpsSBOROUGH, Stream Off Our Shores, 501-506 Meap, ©. W., Ancient Peruvian Clo Mead, Charles W., 74 Meetings, 136, 140, 201, 268, 547 | Megatherium, 480 Members, 73, 135, 136, 137, 208, 265, 474, 546 Men of the Old Stone Age, Reviews : Review of, 319-325 of the World, 145-153 Migration of Birds in Africa, 41-545 Miller, Leo, 547 Mills, Ogden, 136, 209, 267, 475 4 Miner, Roy W., The Work of Ignaz M and Its Significance to the Museum, 1: Miner, Roy W., 410 ety > Minerals, 140 a Mirage — A Perplexing Phenomenon, 5 Moccasin Exhibit in the American M ] 314 Monell, Ambrose, 212 Monkeys, African, 479 Monoclonius, 75 Morgan, J. P., 265 Morgan, Memorial Tablet, 335 Morris, Earl H., 76, 265, 409 Muir, John, 547 Museum Groups, 137, 211, 412, 477, 479 Museum Notes, 73-76; 135-140; 208-21 268; 333-336; 409-412; 474-480; Mussels, A Community of Sea, 357-366 Myotis lucifugus, 412 Myotragus, 139 ~~ National Association of Audubon societal National Education Association, 336 j Natural History Museums and the Library, 71- Nelson, N. C., 74, 75, 76, 265, 409 ; New York Zodlogical Society, 73 Nicaragua Expedition, 335, 411 INDEX OF VOLUME XVI Nichols, Hobart, 211 Nicuoits, JoHn TREADWELL, The Problem of Bright-colored Fishes, 507-511 Norton, G. F., 476 Oldest Town in America and Its People, The, 81— 85 Old Stone Age, Men of, 13-21, 137, 319, 325 Oupys, Henry, Are Our Birds Decreasing or In- creasing? 199-200 Oliver, R. W. B., 410 Operti, Albert, 184-188, 476, 547 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 137, 208, 334, 335, 336, 412, 475, 547 Palisades Interstate Park, 201-207 ’ Pan-American Scientific Congress, 74, 75, 76 Pawnee Human Sacrifice to the Morningstar, 49- 55 Prarson, T. Gitsert, Bird Protective Laws and Their Enforcement, 329-333; The Traffic in Feathers, 253-258; Uncle Sam’s Birds, 395-402 Pére David’s Deer, 478 Perkins, George W., 201 Permian reptiles, 139 Peruvian Cloths, Ancient, 389-393 Petra, The Ruins of Ancient, 273-286 Pietro, 8S. C., 547 Pilgrim, Guy, 212 Piltdown Skull, 412 Pindar, George N., 547 Pliohippus, 476 Photography, Color, 139 Polar Expeditions,. Three, 1913-1916, 291-294 Porto Rico, 59-70, 139, 476 Porto Rico, Fossils of, 476 Pottery, Indian, 139, 479, 480 Pratt, George D., 138 Pritchard, Z. H., 212 Prodelphinus plagiodon, 138 . Progress, A Drama of Evolution, 183-191 Pteranodon, 251 Public Health, Contributions to Hall of, by Ignaz Matausch, 57 Public Health Exhibits, 139 Pueblo, Pottery, 479, 480; Ruins, '75, 76, 265, 409 Rancho-la-Brea, Extinct Wolf from Asphalt Deposits of, 45-47 Rasmussen, Knud, 135, 208 Red Deer River, Fossils from, 75 Reeps, Cuester A., A Perplexing Phenomenon — Mirage, 513-524 Reeds, C. A., 74 Reptile Group, Florida, 267, 336 Reptilian Aéronaut, A, 251-252 Rhinelander, Charles E., 335 Rogers, Charles H., 268 Sage, Mrs. Russell, 333 Santa Monica Mountains, Scourge of, 469-472 Sargent, C. S., 547 Sea Cows, Past and Prank. 315-318 Seismograph, 410 Shakespeare, Birds of, 268 Shark, White, 480 Sharks — Man-eaters and Others, 341-355 Shells, Ornamental Uses of, 115-120 Suse woory Grorce H., Natural History Ma. i Seums and the Library, 71-72; Tilefishing in Fifty Fathoms, 433-441 Sherwood, George H., 140 Shiras, Hon. George, 3d., 479 Shoskee, George, 268 551 Sivapithecus indicus, 212 Skinner, Alanson, 74, 139 Sxinner, M. P., The Hoofed Animals of the Yel- lowstone, 87-95 Skinner, M. P., 136 Sleeping Sickness, The White Rat and, 249-250 Situ, G. Exuiot, Men of the Old Stone Age, 319- 325 Snake Bite, Treatment of, 193-196 Snakes in the Field, A Few Observations on, 129— 135 South American Birds, Stories of , 259-264 South American Trails, 23-32 Southwick, Edward B., 411 Smita, Huan M., Sharks — Man-eaters and Others, 341-355 Species Forming, The Laws of, 379-380 Spier, Leslie, 74, 265, 411, 479 Sphenodon, 73, 410 SprnpEN, Hurzert J., The Magic of Jewels and Charms, Review of, 243-248: The Pawnee Human Sacrifice to the Morningstar, 49-55 Spinden, H. J., 74, 76, 334, 411 Stamp Album of Museum Exhibits, 547 Stein, William, 475 Stenoderma rufum, 476 Stephanosaurus, 75 Stokes, F. W., 76 Sullivan, Louis R., 411 Sunfish, ‘‘Elephant-eared,’’ 212 Tanquary, Maurice C., 291, 410 Teachers’ Handbook, 336 Thomas, Ann E., 74, 336 Thomson, Albert, 211, 412 Thorne, Jonathan, Memorial Fund, 74 Tiger, Siberian, 139; Sabre-tooth, 469-472 Tilefishing in Fifty Fathoms, 433-441 Tillotherium, 474 Tomistoma americana, 480 Tower, R. W., The White Rat and Sleeping Sickness, 249-250; Why Does the Heart Beat? 473-474 Trachodon, 75 Trustees, 136 Tuatara, 73 Ursus americanus, 476 Venezuela, Archeology of, 334 Why Does the Heart Beat? 473-474 Williams, J. Leon, Collection, 137 Winans, Walter, 137, 268 Winstow, C.-E. A., Ignaz Matausch, His Contri- butions to the Hall of Public Health, seb: A Garden of Germs, 295-300 Wisster, Crarx, American Indian Saddles, 497— 500; A Suggested Study of Costumes, 465— 467; Men of the Old Stone Age — A Review, 13-21; Moccasin Exhibit in the American Museum, 309-314; The Pawnee Human Sacrifice to the Morningstar, 49-55 Wissler, Clark, 74, 409, 411 Wood, Joseph, Jr., The Ruins of Ancient Petra, 273-286 Wolf, The Grim, of the Tar Pits, 45-47 Yellowstone, Hoofed Animals of. the; 87-95, 136 Zuni Pottery, 479 Zuni, The Oldest Town in America and Its People, 81-85 POPULAR PUBLICATIONS y OF THE a AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY | HANDBOOKS These deal with subjects illustrated by the collections rather than with the objects INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST. By Purny Earte Gopparp, Ph.D. Paper 25 cents; ; cents. NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE PLAINS. By Ciarx WisstER, Ph.D. Pa cloth, 50 cents. ANIMALS OF THE PAST. A popular account of some of the creatures of the Ancient Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Paper, 35 cents. DINOSAURS. By W. D. Martuew, Ph.D. Price, 25 cents. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE LEAFLETS 3 These describe some exhibit, or series of exhibits, of special. 1 ag or importance, deal with the contents of an entire hall. ‘ THE EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. By W. D. Marruew, Ph.D. Price, 20 cents. MAMMOTHS AND MASTODONS. By W. D. Marrtruew, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents, NORTH AMERICAN RUMINANTS. By J. A. Auten, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. THE BATRACHIANS OF THE VICINITY OF NEW YORK CITY. By Raxmone L. Price, 15 cents. THE HABITAT GROUPS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. By Franx M. Cuar { Price, 25 cents. ; HOW TO COLLECT AND PRESERVE INSECTS. By Frank E. Lurz, Ph.D. Price, at THE INSECT GALLS OF THE VICINITY OF NEW YORK CITY. By WILLIAM Brute: Price, 15 cents. OUR COMMON BUTTERFLIES. By Franx E. Lutz, Ph.D., and F. E. Watson. Priel PLANT FORMS IN WAX. By E. C. B. Fassett. Price, 10 cents. i THE BIG TREE ANDITS STORY. Price, 10 cents. TREES AND FORESTRY. By Mary Oynruia Dickerson, B.S. A new edition in co ration. THE ANCIENT BASKET MAKERS OF SOUTHEASTERN UTAH. By GEORGE i. Price, 10 cents. THE INDIANS OF MANHATTAN ISLAND AND VICINITY. By Atanson Suave, 20 cents. THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE INCAS. By Cuarues W. Mean. BB 10 cnt PERUVIAN MUMMIES. By Cuarutes W. Meap. Price, 10 cents. ; THE METEORITES IN THE FOYER OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATU TORY. By Epmunp O71s Hovey, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. THE COLLECTION OF MINERALS. By Louis P. Gratacar, A.M. Price, 5 cents. THE SAGINAW VALLEY COLLECTION. By Haran I. Suir. Price, 10 cents. REPRINTS Important Articles from the American Museum Journal ; THE STORY OF MUSEUM GROUPS. By Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Price, 10 cents. THE GROUND SLOTH GROUP. By W. D. Marruew, Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. ~ THE NEW AFRICAN HALL. By CariE. Axevey. Price, 5 cents. 2 THE ANCESTRY OF THE EDENTATES. By W. D. Marruew, Ph.D. Price, 5 conte . THE SEA WORM GROUP. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. Price, 10 cents. THE WHARF PILE GROUP. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. Price, 5 cents. HEREDITY AND SEX. By Franx E. Lurz, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO THE COLLECTIONS New Edition issued August, 1916, 136 pages, 75 illustrations, many full page. Price 25 cents. KEY TO BUILDING AND COLLECTIONS. Price 5 cents. 552 The American Museum of Natural History Seventy-seventh Street and Central Park West, New York City Open free to the public on every day in the year. The American Museum of Natural History was established in 1869 to promote the Natural Sciences and to diffuse a general knowledge of them among the people. It is dependent upon private subscriptions and the fees from members for procuring needed additions to the collections and for carrying on explorations in America and other parts of the world. The membership fees are, Annual Members...............- $ 10 BADEN. ieee ies Ron Poa be rete $1,000 Sustaining Members (annually)... 25 Associate Benefactors.............. 10,000 Life Members sc.a aye eens so ee. 100 Associate Founders..........22.-.4. 25,000 ReHows : cee eae ns mee. 500 MSCTICIA CHOIR TS 5 1.5 chains ctw ce neck 50,000 Guides for Study of Exhibits are provided on request to members and teachers by the department of public education. Teachers wishing to bring classes should write or telephone the department for an appointment, specifying the collection to be studied. Lectures to classes may also be arranged for. In all cases the best results are obtained with small groups of children. The Museum Library contains more than 60,000 volumes with a good working collection of publications issued by scientific institutions and societies in this country and abroad. The library is open to the public for reference daily — Sundays and holidays excepted — from 9 a. M. to 5 P.M. The Technical Publications of the Museum comprise the Memoirs, Bulletin and Anthropological Papers, the Memoirs and Bulletin edited by J. A. Allen, the Anthropological Papers by Clark Wissler. These publications cover the field and laboratory researches of the institution. The Popular Publications of the Museum comprise the JourNat, edited by Mary Cynthia Dickerson, the Handbooks, Leaflets and General Guide. The following list gives some of the popular publications; complete lists, of both technical and popular publications, may be obtained from the Librarian. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS HANDBOOKS Tue INDIANS OF MANHATTAN ISLAND AND VICINITY. By Alanson Skinner. Price, 20 cents. Nortu AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE Piartns. By Clark P c Wissler, Ph.D. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. sit 2 agg tty tila Wek ani Py tan Leama i INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST. By Pliny Earle Goddard, em p atichgractecox rl « Speomcpe ets sas gee dusty oy Ph.D. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. Tue ProtecTION oF River AND HARBOR WATERS FROM Ran 2 ‘ Rtas Municrpat Wastes. By Charles-Edward Amory ag ony OF —_ Past. By Frederic A. Lucas, Sc.D. Moraine MS! Prick TOccents: aper, 35 cents. \vapaaist oe 2 6 By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. Price, 25 dis) Ph aeaag m Wax. By E. C. B. Fassett... Price, cents. a : Tue Evo.uTtion or THE Horse. By W. D. Matthew, ILLUSTRATED GUIDE LEAFLETS Ph.D. Price,-20.cenis. GENERAL GUIDE TO THE CoLLEcTIONS. New edition Mammorus AND Mastopons. By W.D.Matthew, Ph.D. issued August, 1916. Price, 25 cents. Price, 10 cents. Tue CoLiection or Mrinerats. By Louis P. Grata- © How To CoLtiect AND Preserve Insects. By Frank cap, A.M. Price, 5 cents. E, Lutz, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. NortH AMERICAN Ruminants. By J. A. Allen, Ph.D. Our Common Burrerrites. By Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D., Price, 10 cents. and F. E. Watson. Price, 15 cents. Tue AncreNT Basket MAKERS oF SOUTHEASTERN Tue Bic TREE AnpD 1Ts Story. Price, 10 cents. Uran. By George H. Pepper. Price, 10 cents. REPRINTS Primitive Art. Price, 15 cents. ; Ss Tue Binps oF THe Vicinity or New York City. By THE Ground Stotu Group. By W. D. Matthew, Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. Price, 15 cents. Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. : Peruvian Mummies. By Charles W. Mead. Price, THE WHARF Pitz Group. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. YO cents. Price, 5 cents. Tue Meteorites In THE Foyer oF THE AMERICAN THE SEA Worm Group. By Roy W. Miner, A.B. Museum or Natura History. By Edmund Otis Price, 10 cents. : Hovey, Ph.D. Price, 10 cents. THE ANCESTRY OF THE_EDENTATES. By W. D. Mat- Tae Hasrirat Groups or Norra AMERICAN Birps. thew, Ph.D. Price, 5 cents. By Frank M. Chapman, Sc.D. Second edition issued Herepity anp Sex. By Frank E. Lutz, Ph.D. May, 1916. Price, 25 cents. Price, 10 cents. Pholo by A. G. Mayer MOST NORTHERLY NATURAL GROVE OF PALMETTOS IN AMERICA It is remarkable how abundant and well-conditioned a plant or animal may be at the extreme limit of its range — as seen in the most northerly of the world’s coral reefs off Beaufort, North Carolina; the most northerly appearance of the scallop shell in Provincetown Harbor, Cape Cod; — also as shown in the most northerly growth of palmettos on Smith Island, Cape Fear, North Carolina, where the Gulf Stream flowing close along the shore imparts to this lonely place the last lingering spirit of the tropics See ‘ The Gulf Stream Off Our Shores,”’ p. 501 a it stihy) at — ey Ee Me x i in - La ‘ | — Natural history | N3 At A eS Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY