UNIV. OF TORONTO LIBRARY aaa Re te a an - fies of —) —_ —s 1 - f r : ‘ Yun ; ra ‘ 1 A } 7 I 1 i y ' 7 a { i ~~ ie Lor r Ca: oe | ae ao NATURAL HISTORY ie JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM INDEX FOR VOLUME XIX Published from October to May, by THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK CITY I919 An illustrated magazine devoted to the advancement of Natural His- tory, the recording of scientific research, exploration, and discovery, and the development of museum exhibition and museum influence in education. Contributors are men eminent in these fields, including the scientific staff, explorers, and members of the American Museum NATURAL HISTORY IS SENT TO ALL CLASSES OF MUSEUM MEMBERS AS ONE OF THE PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERSHIP CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX JANUARY TUL GPLGTAS TRET SELL eS Pes, Se Ss cy Cn EIU Sen CRE SGU ces tne en JOHN BURROUGHS MNSGOOTEMMUDRE GE TEC UaUIE SLING <0 %0. fe .Uer sss mich ctclevs . cus/e ors alelt wis eats © = HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN PaCS UE ET CER ENAYA CL OTN UT les col ally) <-) sow dc raw, «0.8 s cneher eats, « cssele Slevciaie clei 50.8 ROBERT E. PEARY DEES Escrrat aE EESTI Cet Ss circle at sae ns Gie,0) ene esanetove SME tm Soe Wielsuelle, Bie, aie se CARL E, AKELEY Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt..................000202 eee DAvID STARR JORDAN Rocnevelt wthemuanon Abundant Wife. oo... ce ce ee ee ess Hanae GIFFORD PINCHOT A Series of Photographs Suggestive of the Varied Achievements and Interests of Theodore Roose- velt—Explorer, Faunal Naturalist, Soldier, Statesman, Writer, and Friend of Man......... Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End?........................ EDWIN GRANT CONKLIN ‘Wald iute Conservation along the Gulf Coast......5.........-2 cece eee T. GILBERT PEARSON DINRREIOURTONTCHE UV ater) GITGS, Of LiOUISIAN A ocr< oe tarsni one) ey ave! ol afeliei ole favre tohjetayenvaue G. T. W. PATRICK PENimeee ITCH OCU Vices, <7=.0 ORE = we we eos 0s FS eos hele suelencione Slecsue we HERBERT J. SPINDEN ere IN EM TIMMNESCUTECLITI Awe Pe cs) cto = Se eco r=) ones SiS)a Ss are ole latesle 8 rere oe) os) wages Sj oleae TOWNSEND WHELEN tiar Saini? LSTRING Cie ta SS Ge SEIS Nee oan ne ae seer ola ae en ee ©. JuDSON HERRICK BC PECIONSOPerMelISh NAtUEALISES, 2... ccc eve eee ee cine nw ce sees T. D. A. COOKERELL Nelson’s “Wild Animals of North America’: A Review...................+ JOEL ASAPH ALLEN RUMMeNONaUeMOLONts2) Al REVIEW. 23 cee eee scl cic co ls scope ele we eels s BARRINGTON MOORE Midd. Win 2 Denisa IDVOl es bedeead aScarcot Garth oe 5 eS rion. Dic teenebEe nD orc MARY GREIG Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the American Museum for 1918............ FRANK E. Lutz A New Director for the British Museum..... Te Buch Ca OE OE RCE DIE Re OE IEee Pare koi cicada eng era eos Ge Clinilicme Thc. Foe odebeeeheeutco dab ace coo as nc Olo oidd SiG oc rmIicton reas R. D. O. JOHNSON Saas a a a eres Fe Tera GL NOReNGNS cherie oncvSoe livers te Lore. « ebohs¥feriehe uenetohey aretssetenets APRIL— May Mowmmeauererortusheries: im ‘the Northwest. . .).5 0 2. eis ce ce we ces wets oe ee eee HuGnH M. SMITH PePrRMSTUPINIG TPM eee eee eo Pey te che as ars cis) sosvavs ls .ce (al Wieob\ = Moyele euevs oe, 0 2 eee DAVID STARR JORDAN PWR O GME ING SSANCLUATICS.. <.ccs co 0c cere eels So eo he ce ee Se Resins need JOHN M. CLARKE Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation................--++2«+e-+-++--+--+..-ALFRED M. BAILEY La aide VT, & San elo Ged bee An bls SB thc, Shee ee ene cnn Gieic DEE ea Iennemnc Scr OI ROorrEbaO rcrmirncrc Thomas Jefferson’s Contributions to Natural History.......-....-....--5250008 JOHN S. PATTON SN LORIOUR OLMATGNCH sIFOu ENLOn sci sass fic le mie Fees oe cet eieeere mice LUDLOW GRISCOM Menkervine Onr Natural mesources, of Supar. 20. ew cw tcc eae ne E. F. PHILLIPS npn ror tie Enman WACES «ccs sc no occ we pyr wines aie Qe nic atelee WILLIAM K. GREGORY MaTPMEEPICEATHO VV ITIDN ALD IINPOY-HNGs 620 sc ces ws es eases sie ce ela cle cies alae Enos A. MILus PRESS OCR TTT STE Wan COL AUBIN =o oie oe: s-0, 9s wie e, wis ele ecsels vole oles « wiels sie ieie HERBERT P. WHITLOCK Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Science and Education........... CHARLES F. HERM Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture.............. S. BRECK PARKMAN TROWBRIDGE SUC MEPIETERERTTEREE Leta Sis ie Sia Tew ee ie one ron crete lous, boys er ard. 'aucy iow or st aeytas Imre ydewefarsi ne ees CHARLES R. KNIGHT Zoological Statuary at the National Oapital...........-..--- 222+ es ee eee nss R. W. SHUFELDT Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming...................+5-- FRANK COLLINS BAKER Saad Gh ine nis ae Ge 1 he gee mee OE gs Odin ae ania Ai o Genome cobb om Gm Omricus PERGRLEeLLOMM FOIE UnTOUPHSs cae sett oe win cies wee elo sciele sole © ale ajo see saree lelniaieieim esis) viele 3.018 «1s Reply to Mr. Burroughs by Dr. W. D. Matthew. ...... 0. sss eeccec terres e eee e ere c ects eens ts he gin 8 GES CaconGedeit tc Oe IGG ID > RIOR CIGD bg OnoiC CHRO Carr cho aontiog rar incomes Cac ne irnCT es DECEMBER A Geographer at the Front and at the Peace Conference. ..............5- DOUGLAS W. JOHNSON ue OH tres Of Ort FeiCO. soc dxels cee ce eee vee ee ve sec cen vost eleltaisic A. K. LOBECK “Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children”................-.+++--- HERMANN HAGEDORN Sculptures of the Late Theodore Roosevelt............0e cee s ccs we crea FRANK OWEN PAYNE SOMME Cie EEG ES ISOM. 1's ices sc cre slew as ks ole ewes ena cwaes ....0, GORDON HEWITT BOUIGU POL sesMbaMST ANG ELIN VOLK: oe cc os ce os cieiesd mo ols 20s sf 0 eels we ersl eis aum THOMAS BARBOUR UG ELONOCADIGMEOHILIOM EOL NG@LULSLIAE.s 6. © cere sce sve are wie tee sine is 6 eee G, CLYDE FISHER SELLE ULHEY Cl Site UNARMED ete ees eluic cle wus cas cwivividlvpiciersie mes cle cee tee nae elt T. D. A. COCKERELL Bird Photographs of Unusual Distinction..... Be A ee ener. so or ois SR Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees...........------.eseee eee: HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN Photographs of Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia.......-...-. 502s 00s see serene L. OC. READ ier OL ATs: A ae OCihin asewist siccis sans Pn ep en ei aie tonnes ee GEORGE LANGFORD CLBaLaie a, NATIONGI ATES a0 > alandiawists © c cine sie olers 5 aro ereicce is lain: Pk vote De HERBERT J. SPINDEN iii 73 104 113 115 117 131 141 152 155 163 170 182 183 193 205 211 216 222 227 245 264 273 292 301 309 322 325 331 334 337 341 347 349 351 367 370 373 383 397 405 All 416 421 427 437 441 cs oi eo 471 479 ke OOM Sea) AH toe io os eee od Org org or on O11 Series of Photographs from the First Exhibition of American Textiles, Costumes, and MechaniCal® SETOCCSSCS cere oe ere eee aie ee eee acl enol = eee co oc tee od lene atom 631 “Old Tramp” among, the Plorida Keys-.--.-... 32-272 - - sein cine sr CHARLES T. SIMPSON 657 Tatad Animals and Plants aa ee AE BOS oO ee ea rien c.f a Ne WILLARD G. VAN NAME 665 isi Malinda UC ee @ Shee ante Sepe mde odes Hoo eos ocr Koocknoome somite GEORGE F. ARPS 671 The ‘Intelligence of Negro Recruits. ...-.--- +--+ +++ eee eee eee eee eee eee eee M. R. TRABUE 680 SURE ah pl ewe, Gah ENS Sie we Doar cme GonuUecoeboncnotobss uot ec Louis R. SULLIVAN 687 Nomad Awana nde ClisalieAtLOD oe ee ee ee ee es ne es ees HERBERT LANG 697 (CORPS RGD) Ie Bit a ee eto HOt Hes Moe ao oens fons Se araacm@encimcenc WILLIAM J. LAVARRE 715 Birdy anda, WilderMmess: - 22s) done ciclo cs eee meee ie nine iene = mathainibiess orci ete, ene oe eR LAN BROOK Swix The New York State Wild Life Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt............ CHARLES C. ADAMS 726 Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz Museum..................-.-.+.-..-.....-JOHN T. NICHOLS 730 Scientific Zodlogical Publications Of the; American. MnSeUllw. o-). sie 4 tee FRANK E. Lutz 731 A Region too Alkaline NOLO Scag Kaan eens Sac Oboe aancoUOne nom ooc atau E. W. NELSON 734 United States Biolopicall SurvGya Ol cosas pers se telat ae ata eae a a radia) aed eteta sole als (oo > etatetal ee 735 Tatest Conservation News trom) the, Pacific Coast. s.:..0 52. s.cs bee Sone we es oe eee 736 Wiliamebrewster> In Memoriamece a-tociicke sie oe oie ciel > oo iets cl tel caca eyes FRANK M. CHAPMAN 738 Hanest. COnSeELyatiOnein eNews WOEK. SbabC ce rere yao ete oie pena fal tence oeelahisnetis/fon ave feyep stented 739 AGReis eta hie, dade ere ago Poke Onno Useoc ComoUote Coe Gee CODES Ooms Sc D. MATTHEW 741 RG EOS oe ee Pa a ee epee here, was or She tach Sead oha aye pete Sef oe ERD ane Pema aera os errant 745 ILLUSTRATIONS Adirondacks, New York State Forest Preserves in Knot, eggs of, 74; on nest, 74; with chick, 75 the, 84-103 Lewis and Clark, memorial bronze, 404 African monkey groups, 222—26 Liguus fasciatus, shells of, 664 Alabama, scenes, 192, 200-201 Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia, 614—20 Altar of Liberty, New York, 154 Louisiana, birds, 44—56, 57—72 American Museum public lecture hall, 505 Map, Adirondack forest preserves, 87; distribu- American textiles, costumes, and mechanical proc- esses, 631-54 Animal painting and sculpture, 460—69 Aquiculture, studies in, 478—88 Arctic scenes, 77—83 Army intelligence tests, 671-78 Assyrian sculpture, examples of, 448—58 Baker, city of, 250-51; United States Naval Ob- servatory station at, 263 Bees, 416—20 Belgium, Her Majesty, Queen of, 746 Bird Photographs of unusual distinction, 583—97 Birds, Gulf Coast, 40-43; of Louisiana, 44-72; knot, 74-75; four-footed hoactzin, 162—68; of the Gaspé sanctuaries, 374-81: stormy petrels. 340; whale, 360; on the Hawaiian reservation, 382-95; pelicans, 734 Bison, American, 333, 552-65 Bonaventure cliffs, 372 Bourlon Wood, 725 British Guiana, scenes in, 714—22 Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta, 554-55 Burroughs, John, scenes about home, 570—82 Camouflage for ships, 359 Catskills, New York State Preserve in, 84-103 Chiriquian pottery, 144-50 Cinemaphotographs, of chick embryo, 443—45; hydroid, 447 College of Fisheries, 368-69 Colorado Rockies, flora of, 170—81 Cré-Magnon frieze of six horses, of Celtic horse, 450 Desert life group in Brooklyn Museum, 123 Diagrams, of intellectual tests of Negro recruits, 680-84; Pygmy stature, 688; Pygmy distri- bution, 690: stature of man, 695 Drawing and notes by Alexander Wilson, 366 Eclipse, total solar, of 1918, 244-71 Elk horns of Lewis and Clark Expedition, 408 Elm tree, Honor Grove, 747 Fisher, G. Clyde, addressing school children, 505 Florida Everg! ades, 194, 196 Food exhibit for family of five, 336—39 Food values, diagrams of, 338—39 Forest, European devastated, 98 Forest fire sentinel, 334 Forest preserves of New York, 84-103 Frog, Nicaragua, 346 Gaspé bird sanctuaries, views of, 374-81 Georgia, scenes, 195, 197—99, 203 Grand Cafion, model in American Museum, 498—99 Greenland, plant life of Northwest, 272-91 Groups in American Museum, African monkey, 222-26; blue shark, 353; timber wolves, 237 Gulf coast, birds of, 40-43 Hawaiian reservation, views of, 382—95 Hoactzin, 162-68 Honor Grove, map of, 747 Human culture, diagrams. 134—35. 138—39 Human head, evolution of, 422—25 Aya boulengeri, 346; haunt of, 346 Indian peace medal, 113 Indians, Poh-we-ka of the Tewa, 357 Klamath Lake Reservation, 734 of University of Washington, 450: painting iv tion of Pygmy and short races of man, 690; Gaspé bird sanctuaries, 373; path of total eclipse of sun, 1918, 248-49; physiographic diagram of the western theater of the World War, 518; Porto Rico, 528; ‘Save the Red- woods,” 604; distribution of the Pygmy and short races of man, 690; Honor Grove, 747 Marine camouflage, 359 Mastodon jawbones, 407 Medal presented to H. R. H. Prince of Wales, 748 Microphotograph of a hydroid, 447 Monkeys, chain myth, 216-17, 220; Museum groups of, 222-26 Museo Nacional de Chile, Santiago, 121 Mustangs of the Plains, 106—7 Nature's mobilization, 206-8; diagram showing succession of five species, 209 Nicaragua, frog, 346; scene, 346 Notre Dame, portals of, opp. p. 367 Panama, scenes, 308-321 Peking, armistice scenes, 229-32 Peru, scenes, 185—89 Plant life of Northwest Greenland, 27 Porto Rico. scenes in, 522—39 Portraits, Boulenger, G. A., 566; Brewster. Wil- liam, 738; Camp, Charles L., 354; Ekblaw, W. Elmer, 273; Garman, Samuel, 730; Her- mann, Adam, 741; Lucas, Frederic A., 130; Nelson, Edward W., 330; Poh-we-ka, 357; Roosevelt, Theodore, 4, 26, sons of, 31; Yerkes, R. M., 670 Pottery, Chiriquian, 144—50 Puget Sound Biological Station, 500 Pygmy, jaws, 694; group in American Museum, 696; photographs of, 698—713; skulls, 686 Redwoods of California, 598-613, 737; map, 604 Roosevelt, Quentin, 31; grave of, 32 Roosevelt, Theodore, 4—34; sons of, 31: sculptures of the late, 510, 543-51; Wild Life Forest Experiment Station, 727, 729; memorial flag, 744 Sailing crafts, 213-14 Seasonal faunal and floral rotation 206-9 Selborne, England, 569 Sequoias, 598-613, 737 Shark, blue, 353 Skulls of Negroid Pygmies, 686 Snail shells, 664 Snow crystals, 436—40 Southeastern United States scenic features, 192— 203 Sun, total eclipse of, 244-71 Textile Exhibition, 631—54 Trees, at timber-line, 426-35; Sequoias, 737 University of Washington, 368—69, 500 2-91 in Illinois, 598-613, Wasp, African, 343—44 Wild Life Forest Experiment Station at Syracuse, 727, 729 Wilson, Alexander, 396; notes and drawings by, 366 Wolves, timber, habitat group, 237 World War. famous strategie positions, 517—21 Zoélogical Sculpture, 448-77 INDEX OF VOLUME XIX Names of contributors are set in small capitals Académie des Sciences, 233 Accessions Anthropology, 235 Astronomy, 351 Library, 239, 358 Ornithology, 753 Paleontology, 495 ApAMS, CHARLES C., The New York State Wild Life Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt, 726—29 Adams, Edward D., 113, 261, 264, 351 Adventures in Beaver Stream Camp, 115 Ailuropus melanoleucus, 753 AKELEY, CARL E., Theodore Roosevelt and Africa, 12-14 Akeley, Carl E., 120, 228, 466, 756 Albert, S. A.S., Prince of Monaco, 233 ALLEN, JOEL ASAPH, Nelson’s Wid Animals of North America, review, 330-33 Allen, J. A., 348, 502 Allen, James Lane, 396—403, 494 American Anthropological Society, 120 American Association for the Advancement of Science, seventy-first meeting of, 117, 756 American Association of Museums, annual meet- ing, 504 American Camp Directors’ Association, 501 American Forestry Association, 235 American Geographical Society, 227, 511, 513 ~ American Indian Poetry, 301-7 American Journal of Science, 502 American Medical Association, 751 American Ornithologists’ Union, 228, 754 American Scenic and Historic Preservation So- ciety, 236 American Society of Mammalogists, 502 Andrews, Roy C., 229, 355, 360 An “Old Tramp” among the Florida Keys, 657—64 Antelope, Mongolian, 355 Anthony, H. E., 733 Anticlines in the Big Horn Basin, 125 Archzxology and ethnology, bureau of, 752 Arges marmoratus, 349 Arizona, University of, 500 Army Intelligence Tests, The, 671-79 aa eronce F., The Army Intelligence Tests, 71-7 Art, Creating a National, 622-30; Dawn of, 621 Art Motives in Snow Crystals, 436—40 Atkinson, George F., 233 Audubon Societies, National Association of, 122 Auk, great, 753 in Mexico, BAILEY, ALFRED M., Notes on Our Hawaiian Res- ervation, 382—95; Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana, 44—56 BAKER, FRANK COLLINS, Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming, 478-88 Baker, George F., 239 Banks, Nathan, 342 BARBOUR, THOMAS, Boulenger, Work, 566—67 Barnes, Wm., 342 BECK, ee H., Recollections of Travel in Peru, the Man and His 183-91 Beebe, C. William, 163, 352, 355, 755 Bees, 416-20 Belgium, royal family of, visited Museu Bequaert, J., 342 Beutenmiiller, William, 341 Big Horn Basin, Wyoming, 125 Billy the Boy Naturalist, 115 Biological Surveys of States, 735-36 Bird Photographs of Unusual Distinction, 583-— 97; Sanctuaries, The New Gaspé, 372-81; _ _ Protection, 123 Birds, and a Wilderness, 723-25; collection from northwestern Peru, 753; hoactzin, 162-69; of the Hawaiian Reservation, 382-95; of Louisiana, 44-56; Royal Society for the Pro- tection of, 228; whale, 359 Bison, The Coming Back of the, 552-65 Blaschke, Frederick, 697 Block, Otto, 360 Boas, Franz, 733 Boerker, R. H. D., 334 Boulenger, the Man and His Work, 566-67 Boyle, Howarth, 10 Brewster, William, 356: In Memoriam, 738—39 BRIDGMAN, HERBERT L., Four Years in the White North, review, 73-83 Bridgman, Herbert L., 228 BRIGHAM, EpwarpD M., The Hoactzin—Only Sur- vivor of an Ancient Order of Four-footed Birds, 162—69 British Columbia, 614-20 British Guiana, 714—22 British Museum, A New Director for the, 347—48 Britton, N. L., 352, 502 Brooklyn Museum, Desert Life Group in the, 122 BrRooKs, ALLAN, Birds and a Wilderness, 723-25 Brown, Barnum, 733 Brussels, Museum of Natural History of, 117 Bureau of the Associated Mountaineering Clubs, 501 BURROUGHS, JOHN, Letter from, 491 Burroughs, John, 227; Fie'd and Study, review, 571-82; series of bird photographs in honor of, 583-97, 755 BUTLER, ALBERT E., Notes by a Collector in the Colorado Rockies, 170-81 Butler, Albert E., 237 BUTLER, HowarpD RUSSELL, Corona, 264-71 Butler, Howard Russell, 262, 351 Theodore Roosevelt, 4-7; A Painting the Solar Caldwell, Harry R., 355 Camp, Charles L., 354, 731 Campbell, W. W., 751 Carnegie Institution, marine research of the, 356; of Washington, 497 CHAPMAN, FRANK M., Memoriam, 738—39 Chapman, Frank Mi 9) EES 53.08 Cherrie, George K., 9, 221, _360, 756 Chicago, botanical garden, 54 Children’s Museum of Boston: 754 China Monuments Society, 228; rh B55 Chinese encyclopedia, a, 355 Chiriquians, Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient, 141—51 Chlorophora tinctoria, 238 Christman, Erwin S., 731 Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Sci- ence and Education, 441—47 CLARKE, JOHN M., The New Gaspé Bird Sanctu- aries, 372-81 Clarkin, Franklin, 495 Classical Association (England) The, 494 COCKERELL, T. D. A., Recollections of English William Brewster: In academic work Naturalists, 325-29; The Love of Nature, 570—82 Cockerell, T. D. A., 342 Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory, 496 Coleman, Laurence V., 756 College of Fisheries in the Northwest, New, 367— 69 Colorado Rockies, Notes by a Collector in, 170-81 Coming Back of the Bison, The, 552—65 CONKLIN, EDWIN GRANT, Has Progressive Evolu- tion Come to an End? 35-39 Conserving Our Natural Resources of Sugar, 416— 9 Cook, JAMES H., 110 Creating a National Art, 622-30 CURTIS, WINTERTON C., The Method and Knowl- edge of Science, 155-61 Wild Horses of the Plains, 104— Dawn of Art, The, 621 Dean, Bashford, 353 De Booy, Theodore, 233 Destruction of Yellowstone Park Elk, 743 Dixon, H. H., 238 Dollo, Louis, 755 Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, 115 Dunbar, U. S. J., 235 Dwight, Jonathan, 346 Egret destruction, 122 EKBLAW, W. ELMER, The Plant Life of North- west Greenland, 272—91 I INDEX OF El Dorado, A Real, 714-22 Elephants, destruction of, in South Africa, 749 Elk, Destruction of, Yellowstone Park, 743 Elliot Medal, 753 English Naturalists, Recollections of, 325-29 Entomological Society of America, 125 Entomology, Bureau of, at Washington, 352 Evolution of the Human Face, The, 421—25 Expeditions, Abyssinia, 752; Africa, 752; British Imperial Antarctic, 752; Rasmussen's Second Thule, 496; Second Asiatic, 229 Far Away and Long Ago, 500 Farrand, Livingston, 352 Felt, HE. P., 342 Fertility of devastated territory Field and Study, 571 FIsHER, G. CLYDE, The Honorable Position of Naturalist, 568—69 Fisher, G. Clyde, 227, 504 Fisheries, New College of, 367-69; United States Bureau of, 753 Fisheries of the North Sea, The, 496 Fishes, Color patterns of, 497; The Senses of, 322-24 Fish, Salmon, 370; Climbing, 349-51 Fishskins, tanning and preparation of, 753 Five Land Features of Porto Rico: A Story of Cause and Effect, 522—40 Flexner, Simon, 121 Florida, descriptive works on the flora of, 238; snails, 657-64 Florida Keys, An “Old Tramp” among the, 657— 64 Food for a Family of Five, 336—39 Forest Conservation in New York State, 84-103; 739—40 Four Years in the White North, review, 73-83 Fowler, A., 750 Fox, William Henry, 750 Fresh-water farming, 478—88 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, 331 Fustic wood, 238 in France, 124 Garman, Samuel, of the Agassiz Museum, 730 Geographer at the Front and at the Peace Con- ference, A, 511-521 Geography, importance of teaching, 233 Glacier, Llewellyn, 614—20 Gleason, Henry Allan, 352 Goddard, Pliny E., 120, 756 Granger, Walter, 733, 756 Graves, Henry S., 119 GREELY, A. W., Russian Explorations of the Si- berian Ocean in 1918, 182 Greenland, Plant Life of Northwest, 272—91 GREGORY, WILLIAM K., The Evolution of the Hu- man Face, 421—25 Gregory, William K., 348, 731, 755 GREIG, MARY, Food for a Family of Five, 336—39 GRISCOM, LuDLOW, War Impressions of French Bird Life, 411-15 Group, blue shark, 353 Guatemala, reconstruction of, 238 GUDGER, E. W., The Myth of the Monkey Chain, 216-21 Gudger, E. W., 125, 239 HAGEDORN, HERMANN, Theodore Roosevelt's Let- ters to His Children, 541—42 Hale, George Ellery, 749 Handbook of Travel, 236 Harmer, Sidney Frederick, 347 HARPER, ROLAND M., Some Vanishing Scenic Features of the Southeastern United States, 192-204 Harper, R. M., 236 Harriman, William Averell, 239 Has Frogressiye Evolution Come to an End? 35— Hawkins, Eugene D., 501 Heligoland, 749 Heller, Edmund, 752 HERM, CHARLES F., Cinema-microscopy an Essen- tial to Modern Science and Education, 441— 47 Hermann, Adam, 741—42 HEERBIOK, C. JuDSON, The Senses of Fishes, 322— 4 Hewitt, C. Gorpon, The Coming Back of the Bison, 552-65 Hewitt, C. Gordon, 228 VOLUME XIX Hildburgh, W. L., 239 Hoactzin—Only Survivor of an Ancient Order of Four-footed Birds, The, 162—69 Honorable Position of Naturalist, The, 568-69 Hornaday, W. T., 228, 553 Howard, L. O., 352 Hrdlitka, Ale¥, 119 Hubbs, Carl L., 345 Human Culture, 13i1—40 Hutchinson, Horace F., 239 Hygiene, public, 751 Hyla boulengeri, 346 Hypelate trifoliata, 662 Illinois, museum of the University of, 352 Indians, Chiriquians, 141-51; Misskito, Sumu, 120 Indian, costume of chief, 235; Peace Medal, 113— 14; poetry, American, 301—7 “Tnquiry,’’ American organization known as the, 227 Intelligence of Negro Recruits, The, 680—85 International, Bird Protection, 123; hydrographic and fishery investigation, 753; Research Council, 750, 751 International Journal The, 120 Island Animals and Plants, 665—69 120; of American Linguistics, Jacobi, Abraham, 745 Jardin des Plantes, a new, 352 Jefferson, Thomas, 405—410 JOHNSON, DouGcuAs W., A Geographer at the Front and at the Peace Conference, 511—21 JOHNSON, R. D. O., The Climbing Fish, 349-51 Jonas, Coloman, 237 JORDAN, DAviIp STARR, Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt, 15--16; The Red Salmon, 370-71 Juilliard, Augustus D., 493 Keen, W. W., 495 Kelly, Richard B., 239 Kentucky Warbler, The, 396 Klamath Lake Reservation, 734 KNIGHT, CHARLES R., Wild Life in Art, 460—69 Knight, Charles R., 755 Kouznetsov, A. K., 495 Kroeber, A. L., 133 Lafayette National Park, Mount Desert Island, Maine, 121 Lambe, Lawrence M., 351 LANG, HERBERT, Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization, 696-713 LANGFORD, GEORGE, The Dawn of Art, 621 Lankester, Sir E. Ray, 750 LAVARRE, WILLIAM J., A Real El Dorado, 714— 22 LeConte Memorial Lectures, 500 Lectures at the American Museum, 504 Leng, Chas. W., 341 Letter from John Burroughs, A, 491 Lewis and Clark, Expedition, 113; morial to, 754 Liguus, 657-64 Lincoln Highway, Delaware, 502 Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia, 614-20 Lopeck, A. K., Five Land Features of Porto Rico: A Story of Cause and Effect, 522—40 Lobeck, A. K., 357 Longley, William H., 497 Louvain, library of the University of, 493 Lowie, RoperT H., Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of Measurements, 110—12 Lucas, F. A., The Remaking of a Museum Collec- tion, 222—26 Lueas, F. A., 360, 504, 679 Lumber, method of drying, 124 Lutz, FRANK E., Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the American Museum, 340-46; 731-33 Lutz, Frank E., 125 MacCallum, G. A., 341; W. G., 341 MacCurpy, GEORGE GRANT. Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient Chiriquians, 141—51 MacMillan, Donald B., 73 MecDunnough, J., 342 MelIlhenny, E. A., 45—46 Mahogany, monographs on, 238 Malheur Lake Reservation, 734 Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, 496 bronze me- INDEX OF VOLUME XIX wr MarTrHew, W. D., Honor to Adam Hermann, 741-42 Matthew, W. D., 491, 503, 732, 733 Medal, University of Paris World War, 747 Megnalonyx jeffersonii, 406 Mell, C. D., 238 Members, 125, 239, 361, 506, 756 Mendenhall, C. E., 749 Metchnikoff, Elie, 779 Method and the Knowledge of Science, The, 155— 61 Metropolitan Museum of Art, exhibition of plant forms in design, 503 Mexican government bureau of archeology and ethnology, 752 Michigan, public parks, 236 Miller, Gerrit S., 754 Miller, Leo E., 9, 221 MILLs, ENOS a The Wars of the Wind at Tim- ber-line, 426-35 Miner, Roy W., 504 Mineral Deposits of South America, The, 753 Minerals, International Control of, 750 Mintorn,. Hy, O47 MITCHELL, S. A., The Total Solar Eclipse of 1918, 244-63 Mitchell, S. A., 264 Mogridge, Mrs. E. S., 347 Molina, Enrique, 503 Mona Island Declared a Forest Reserve, 743 Monograph of the Pheasants, 755 “Monographs on Experimental Biology,’ 495 Montana, University of, 500 MooRE, BARRINGTON, Our National Forests, re- view, 334-35 Moore, Barrington, 239 Moore, Clarence B., 120 Morgan, Lewis Henry, 120 Mosorre, FRANCES E., Sight Conservation Classes in New York Schools, 116 Murals in hall of the Age of Man, 755 Murphy, Robert Cushman, 122, 359, 340, 345 Murrill, William Alphonso, 115 Museo Nacional de Chile, 121 Museum Collection, The Remaking of a, 2 Mutchler, Andrew J., 341 Myth of the Monkey Chain, The, 216—21 22-26 Academy of Sciences, 118, 750, 751; Councils, Federation of, 118; Parks Associa- tion, 497; Research Council, 352 NATURAL HISTORY, a bi-monthly, 745 Natural History of Selborne, 566, 569 Nature, fiftieth anniversary, 747 Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient Chi- riquians, 141—51 Nature, The Love of, 570-82 Nature’s Mobilization, 205-10 NEEDHAM, JAMES G., Peace Conditions, Negro, progress in education of, 751 NELSON, N. C., Human Culture, 131—40 NELSON, E. W., Region too Alkaline for Crops, 734-35 New Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries, The, 372-81 New York, Academy of Sciences, 511; Aquarium, 352; Botanical Garden, 356; Forest Con- servation in, 84—103; ‘Schools, Sight Con- servation Classes in, 116; State College of Forestry, 501; State Wild Life Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt, 726-29; Zoological Park, 228 Nichols, Hobart, 237 NICHOLS, J. T., Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz Museum, 730 Nichols, J. T., 345 Noble, G. K., 239, 345 Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization, National, 152-54 696-713 Notes, 117-25, 227-39, 351-61, 493-506, 745— 758 Notes by a Collector in the. Colorado Rockies, 170-81 Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation, 382—95 Oberlin College, 752 Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana, 44—56 Observatory. Leander MeCormick. 264; States Naval, 264; Yerkes, 271 Okapi, 754 Olsen, Chris. E., 341 Opisthocomus hoazin, 163 United OsBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees, 598-613; Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist, 8-10 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 119, 348, 351, 352, 502, 504) Wale foo, vol, Too, Tb6 Osborn, Mrs. Henry Fairfield, 358 Osler, Sir William, 745 Ottawa Naturalist, 361 Our Centrifugal Society, 292-300 Our National Forests, review, 334—35 Oxystyla, 657, 660— 61 Pacific Coast, Latest Conservation News from, 736—37 Painting the Solar Corona, 264—71 Palos Forest Preserve, 754 Panama, Unknown, 308-21 Panda, giant, 753 PAPE, F. A. G., Yachting in the Seven Seas, 211— 15 Paris, University of, 747 PATRICK, G. T. W., Our Centrifugal Society, 300 PATTON, JOHN S., Thomas Jefferson’s Contribu- tions to Natural History, 404—10 Patton, John S., 494 PAYNE, FRANK OWEN, Sculptures of Theodore Roosevelt, 543-51 Peace Conditions, 152—54 Pearson, Sir Arthur, 233 PEARSON, TT. GILBERT, Wild Life Conservation along the Gulf Coast, 40—43 PEARY, ROBERT E., Roosevelt—The Friend of Man, 11 Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt, Peru, Recollections of Travel in, 183—91 Peters, W. B., 237 Pheasant Farms in China, 354 Puiuuips, E. F., Conserving Our Natural Re- sources of Sugar, 416-20 Pickering, Edward Charles, 236 PINCHOT, GIFFORD, Roosevelt, the Man of Abun- dant Life, 17-18 Plant Life of Northwest Greenland, The, 272—91 Plant Materials of Decorative Gardening, 503 Plautus impennis, 753 Porto Rico, Five Land Features of: Cause and Effect, 522—40 Potocki, Count, game preserve, 749 Potter, Frederick, 239 PRATT, GEORGE D., Forest Conservation in New York, 84—103 Primates, hall of, in American Museum, 235 Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of Measurement, 110-12 Prion, 359 Pygmy Races of Man, The, 686—95 Pygmies of Central Africa, 697-713 292— the Late 15-16 A Story of Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Sciences, 750 Quest of the Ancestry of Man, 489-90 Rafinesque, C. S., 749 Rasmussen's Second Thule Expedition, 496 READ, L. C., Photographs of Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia, with Field Notes, 614—20 Recollections of English Naturalists, 325-29 Recollections of Travel in Peru, 183-91 Red Cross societies, league of, 745, 746 Region too Alkaline for Crops, 734—35 Reply to Mr. Burroughs by Dr. W. D. Matthew, 491-93 Ridgway, Robert, 228 Ridsdale, Percival S., 235 Rockefeller hee ety 745, 746 Roosevelt, Kermit, 9 Roosevelt, Memorial Bird Fountain, 496; Memo- rial Day at American Museum, 756; Memo- rial Exposition at Columbia University, 352; Permanent National Committee, 234; —The Friend of Man, 11; The Man of Abundant Life, 17-18; Theodore, 4—7, 352; Theodore, and Africa, 12-14; National Park, 118; Sculptures of the Late Theodore, 543-51; Theodore, “Letters to His Children,” 541—42; Theodore, Naturalist, 8-10; Neandross’ bust of, 756; New York State Wild Life Memorial to Theodore, 726-29; Tree planted by John Burroughs, 756 Russian Explorations of the 1918, 182 Siberian Ocean in IV INDEX OF VOLUME XIX St. Dunstan’s Hostel for Blinded Soldiers, 233 Sakurai, Joji, 228 Salmon, The Red, 370-71 Sanford, L. C., 753 Sargeant, Anna, 235 Sartiaux, Félix, 358 Schmidt, Karl P., 239 Science, the Method and Knowledge of, 155-61 Scientific American Monthly, 747 Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Is'ands, 754 Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the American Museum, 340-6; 731-33 Sculpture, Zodlogical, 448-77 Sea lion and the fishing industry, 124 Seals on Pribilof Islands, 124 Selborne, England, 568 Selous, Captain F. C., 494; 752 Senses of Fishes, The, 322—24 Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees, 598-613 Seton, Ernest Thompson, 331 Shark, blue, 353 SHELFORD. VICTOR E., 205-10 Sherwood, George H., 504 SHUFELDT, R. W., Zodlogical Statuary at the Na- tional Capital, 470—77 Sight Conservation Classes in New York Schools, 116 - Signposts indicating watering places in deserts, 752 Srvrpson, CHARLES T., An “Old Tramp” among the Florida Keys, 657—64 Sleeper, Governor, of Michigan, 236 Small, John Kunkel, 199, 238 SmMitrH, HucH M., New College of Fisheries in the Northwest, 367—69 Smithsonian Institution, 495 Snow crystals, 436—40 Solar Corona, Painting the, 264-71 Solar Eclipse of 1918, 244-63 Some Vanishing Scenic Features eastern United States, 192—204 Spalding, Volney M., 233 Spier, Leslie, 133 SPINDEN, HERBERT J., American Indian Poetry, 301-7; Creating a National Art, 622-30; Series of Photographs from the First Exhibi- tion of American Textiles, Costumes, and Mechanical Processes. 631—54 Spinden, Herbert J., 120, 504 Sternberg, C. H., 351 Stoll, Frederick H., 235 Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming, 478-88 Sturtevant, A. H., 342 SuLLIvan, Louris R., The Pygmy Races of Man, 686-95 Sun. total eclipse of, 496 Swietenia mahagoni, 238; macrophylla, 238 Virgin Nature’s Mobilization, of the South- Telescope, the second largest in the world, 122 _. Textile Exhibition at the American Museum, 631— 54 Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, re- view, 541-42 Thomas Jefferson’s Contributions to Natural His- tory, 404-10 Tokyo, Institute of Physical and Chemical Re- search in, 228 Torre, Carlos de la, 733 TRABUE, M. R., The Intelligence of Negro Re- eruits, 680-85 Trees, artistic roadside planting of, 356; Con- servation of, 736; in “Honor Grove” of Central Park, 746; Sequoia, 598-613 Tropical Research Station in British Guiana, 352 TROWBRIDGE, S. BRECK PARKMAN, Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture, 448— 59 Trustees, meetings, 228, 239 United States Forest Service, 753 Unknown Panama, 308-21 VAN NAME, WILLARD G., Island Plants, 665-69 Victoria Naturalist, 124 Virginia deer, 754 Animals and Walcott, Charles D., 749 War, ‘death rate in, 751 War Impressions of French Bird Life, 411-15 Ward, Herbert, 752 Warren Mastodon, 496 Wars of the Wind at Timber-line, The, 426—35 Whale, model of killer. 360 Whaling industry on Long Island, relies of, 591 Wheeler, W. M., 352 WHELEN. TOWNSEND, Unknown Panama, 308-21 White, Gilbert, 568 WHITLOCK. HERBERT P., Crystals, 436—40 Wild Animals of North America, review, 330—33 Wild Horses of the Plains, 104-114 Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast, 40-43 Wild Life in Art, 460—69 Williston, Samuel Wendell, 755 Wilson, Alexander, 396—403 Wilson, President, 118, 227 Winter Botany, 503 WISSLER, CLARK, An Indian Peace Medal, 113-14 Wissler, Clark, 120, 750 Wolves, timber. 237 Woodcraft League of America, 501 Art Motives in Snow Yachting in the Seven Seas, 211-15 Yellowstone Park, Elk, 743; museum, 752 Yueca House National Monument, 749 Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture, 448-59; Statuary at the National Capital, 470-77 Zoological Society of London, 125 NATURAL HIS TORY Pe wOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- Mem OF PUBLIC EMUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM JANUARY, 1919 VOLUME XIX, NUMBER 1 NATURAL HISTORY VoLtuME XIX CONTENTS FOR JANUARY NUMBER 1 Frontispiece, Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), at his home at Oyster. Bay. sc). ) cs «hve elenepeiere eet cate sence iene ee ett eee 4 Copyrighted photogr aph by Underwood and Underwood Micodore Roosevelt. -..cu.api sine o cero see Se eee JOHN BuRROUGHS 5 A memorial and an appreciation iMheodore Roosevelt. Naburalist Sec. . 4 er ose one Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN 9 His affiliation with the American Museum of Natural History Rooseyelt—_Lhe Hiriend ote Manw. 29.0 2-72 ce eee ee Rospert KE. PEARY 11 RooseveltiandsA tricasan coc. oc 2 ix cele eee eres oe CarRL EK. AKELEY 12 Reminiscences of big game hunting with Roosevelt Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt........... DAVID STARR JORDAN 15 Roosevelt, the Man of Abundant Life................. GIFFORD PINCHOT 17 A Series of Photographs Suggestive of the Varied Achievements and Inter- ests of Theodore Roosevelt — Explorer, Faunal Naturalist, Soldier, Statesman, Writer, and eiiriendtot Mant 20 (45.2 2cen se ao eee i Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End?..... Epwin Grant ConKLIN 35 The future may hold no race of super-men, but it is likely to present a super-state and a super-civilization Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast....... T. Gi“BERT PEARSON 41 The progress of bird protection among the southern states through the work of the National Association of Audubon Societies, federal and state government action, and the interest of individuals Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana.........2 ALFRED M. BAILEY 45 With illustrations of terns, pelicans, skimmers, herons, ducks, and geese, from photographs by A. M. Bailey and others Series of Duotone Reproductions Showing the Protected Bird Life of Our Louisiana Coast...............ALFRED M. BAILEY 57 “Four Years in the White North,’ A Review...... HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN 73 With illustrations from the book reviewed Forest Conservationsim New oe) oko ses) oe eee eee GEORGE D. Pratr 85 The state owns and protects about half of its vital forest land, maintaining a thoroughly organized forest service Illustrated with photographs of scenes in the Adirondacks Wild-Poorses-of theablaing*: oases erin s eee JAMES H. Cook 104 Tales of the mustangs by a famous Indian scout Photographs of a descendant of the mustangs by Harold J. Cook Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of Measurementzercrisc ok Onc alee Bee ee ee ato Rospert H. Lowie 110 An Indian: Peace“Medal tantra ee eee CLARK WISSLER 113 A relic of the Lewis and Clark Expedition dug up in Idaho With a photograph of the medal Billy the Boy Naturalist --Aghevieweror ese ern G. CLYDE FisHER 115 The true story of a naturalist’s boyhood in Virginia Review of Captain Dugmore’s “Adventures in Beaver stream. Camp’ 2. 2 ioe... 3) ee ee JoHN T. Nicnous 115 Sight Conservation Classes in New York Schools..... Frances E. Moscrie 116 INOteS 2. Sivek. Ss Sicha oie cee ee Oe ee een SiG MARY CYNTHIA DICKERSON, Editor Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NaturaL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of membership. Entered as second-class matter February 23, 1917, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. A THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBERSHIP For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- erosity of friends. More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes of membership are: Peete eee. Gow Ue CCCs 850,000 Peeueiamenbounder . . . 2. . « « »« » « 25,000 PenORitbeSeNCIACLOT . . “x4. =. «= + « . 10,000 Peete Sw ~~ 000 Pee Se etl Nw 500 MeemeeNtemIner ee ee Re 100 Sustaining Member. .*. .. . . . annually 25 Mooawal Member. . . . . . . . annually 10 Associate Member (nonresident) . . . annually 3 Full information regarding membership may be obtained from the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM Naturat History, recording popularly the latest activities in natural science and exploration, is published monthly from October to May, inclusive, by the American Museum of Natural History. The subscription price is Two Dollars a year. Naturat History is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of member- ship. 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Price lists and complete data may be obtained from the Librarian. 4 i Courtesy of Underwood and Underwooc HIS FORCE SEEMED TO INCARNATE THE SOUL OF AMERICA The energy and latent action, the rational thought, the controlled will, the moral force—that was Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919 ) He denied himself all things that weaken. He gave his life to work and to whatever circumstances brought in the way of private and public duty and private and public fellowship. ‘‘Work, duty, and fellowship’’—he preached them and lived them with the zeal a prophet, and they pretty much make the message he leaves us: ‘‘work” and “duty,’”’ the basis of moral force in man or nation, the iron qualities on which the United States were founded; ‘fellowship,’ a key to an understanding our neighbor and a melting pot for class differences. He believed in the ‘‘joy”’ of life also, but not merely the old primeval heritage, and never pleasure sought as such, but. instead, that achievement which comes as a by-product of work faithfully done, lack of self-seeking, trust in the good in one’s fellow men, and knowl of nature 4 7 i NATURAL VOLUME XIX JANUARY, 1919 s 4 HISTORY NUMBER 1 Theodore Roosevelt’ HIS AMERICANISM REACHED IN TO THE MARROW OF HIS BONES By JOHN EVER before in my life has it been so hard for me to accept the death of any man as it has been for me to accept the death of Theodore Roosevelt. I think I must have unconsciously felt that his power to live was unconquerable. Such un- bounded energy and vitality impressed one like the perennial forces of nature. I cannot associate the thought of death with him. He always seemed to have an unlimited reserve of health and power. Apparently he cared no more for the bullet which that would-be assassin shot into his breast a few years ago than for a fleabite. From his ranch days in Montana to the past year or two I saw and was with him many times in many places. In the Yellowstone Park in the spring of 1903, in his retreat in the woods of Virginia during the last term of his presidency, at Oyster Bay at various times, in Washington at the White House, and at my place on the Hudson, I have felt the arousing and stimu- lating impact of his wonderful per- sonality. When he came into the room it was as if a strong wind had blown the door open. You felt his radiant energy before he got halfway up the stairs. When we went birding together it was ostensibly as teacher and pupil, but it often turned out that the teacher got as many lessons as he gave. 'This article, in part, was read before the BURROUGHS Early in May, during the last term of his presidency, he asked me to go with him to his retreat in the woods of Virginia, called “Pine Knot,” and help him name his birds. Together we iden- tified more than seventy-five species of birds and wild fowl. He knew them all but two, and I knew them all but two. He taught me Bewick’s wren and one of the rarer warblers, and I taught him the swamp sparrow and the pine war- bler. A few days before he had seen Lincoln’s sparrow in an old weedy field. On Sunday after church, he took me there and we loitered around for an hour, but the sparrow did not appear. Had he found this bird again, he would have been one ahead of me. The one subject I do know, and ought to know, is the birds. It has been one of the main studies of a long life. He knew the subject as well as I did, while he knew with the same thoroughness scores of other subjects of which I am entirely ignorant. He was a naturalist on the broadest grounds, uniting much technical know]l- edge with knowledge of the daily lives and habits of all forms of wild life. He probably knew tenfold more natural history than all the presidents who had preceded him, and, I think one is safe in saying, more human history also. In the Yellowstone Park when I was with him, he carried no gun, but one Roosevelt Memorial Meeting at the Century Club, New York City, February 9, by Major George Haven Putnam » 6 NATURAL day as we were riding along, he saw a live mouse on the ground beside the road. He instantly jumped out of the sleigh and caught the mouse in his hands; and that afternoon he skinned it and prepared it in the approved taxi- dermist’s way, and sent it to the United States National Museum in Washing- ton. It proved to be a species new to the Park. In looking over the many letters I have had from him, first and last, I find that the greater number of them are taken up with the discussion of natural history problems, such as Darwin’s the- ory of natural selection, “sports,” pro- tective coloration. He would not allow himself, nor would he permit others to dogmatize about nature. He knew how infinitely various are her moods and ways, and not infrequently did he take me to task for being too sweeping in my statements. When, in the early part of the last decade, while he was President, there was a serious outbreak of nature-faking in books and in various weekly and monthly periodicals, Roosevelt joined me and others in a crusade against the fakers and wielded the “big stick” with deadly effect. He detected a sham natu- ralist as quickly as he did a trading politician. Roosevelt was much amused by the change that had come over the spirit of that terrible beast, the grizzly bear in Yellowstone Park. In a letter to me he comments as follows: WHITE House, WASHINGTON A t 12, 1904 DEAR Oom JOHN, Sone ie I think that nothing is more amusing and interesting than the development of the changes made in wild beast character by the wholly unprecedented course of things in the Yellowstone Park. I have just had a let- ter from Buffalo Jones, describing his ex- periences in trying to get tin cans off the feet of the bears in the Yellowstone Park. There are lots of tin cans in the garbage heaps which the bears muss over, and it has now become fairly common for a bear to HISTORY get his paw so caught in a tin can that he cannot get it off and of course great pain and injury follow. Buffalo Jones was sent with another scout to capture, tie up and cure these bears. He roped two and got the can off of one, but the other tore himself loose, can and all, and escaped... . Think of the grizzly bear of the early Rocky Mountain hunters and explorers, and then think of the fact that part of the recog- nized duties of the scouts in the Yellowstone Park at this moment is to catch this same grizzly bear and remove tin cans from the bear’s paws in the bear’s interest! The grounds of the White House are lovely now, and the most decorative birds in them are some red-headed woodpeckers. Give my regards to Mrs. Burroughs. How I wish I could see you at Slabsides! But of course this summer there is no chance of that. Always yours, [Signed | THEODORE ROOSEVELT. Roosevelt was a many-sided man and every side was like an electric battery. Such versatility, such vitality, such thoroughness, such copiousness, have rarely been united in one man. He was not only a full man, he was also a ready man and an exact man. He could bring all his vast resources of power and knowledge to bear upon a given subject instantly. Courageous, confident, self-assertive, he was yet singularly tender and sym- pathetic. He was an autocratic demo- erat. “Hail fellow well met” with teamsters, mechanics, and cowboys, he could meet kings and emperors on their own ground. A lover of big-game hunt- ing, he was a naturalist before he was a sportsman. His Americanism reached in to the marrow of his bones. I could never get him interested in that other great Amer- ican,—one more strictly of the people than he was—Walt Whitman. Whit- man’s democracy was too rank and un- relieved to attract him. The Roose- veltian strenuousness and austerity and high social ideals stood in the way. THEODORE ROOSEVELT Roosevelt combined and harmonized opposite qualities. Never have I known such good-fellowship joined to such austerity, such moral courage to such physical courage, such prodigious pow- ers of memory united with such pow- ers of original thought. He could face a charging lion, or a grizzly bear, as coolly as he could an angry poli- tician. There was always something immi- nent about him, like an avalanche that the sound of your voice might loosen. The word demanded by the occasion was instantly on his lips, whether it were to give pleasure or pain. In his presence one felt that the day of judg- ment might come at any moment. No easy tolerance with him, but you could always count on the just word, the square deal, and tolerance of your opin- ion if it were well founded. The charge that he was an impulsive man has no foundation; it was a wrong interpretation of his power of quick de- cision. His singleness of purpose and the vitality and alertness of each of his ~ enabled him to decide where others hesitate and stumble. The emphasis and the sharp- ness of his yea and nay, were those of a man who always knew his own mind and knew it instantly. What seemed rashness in him was only the action of a mind of extraordinary quickness and precision. His uncompromising charac- ter made him many enemies, but with- out it he would not have been the Roosevelt who stamped himself so deeply upon the hearts and the history of his countrymen. When I think of his death amid these great days when such tremendous world events are fast becoming history, and recall what a part he could have played in them, and would gladly have played, had his health permitted, I realize with new poignancy what a loss the world has suffered in his passing! A pall seems to settle upon the very sky. The world is bleaker and colder for his ab- sence from it. We shall not look upon his like again. Farewell! great Soul, farewell! many sides quickly The warm human fellowship about the camp fire, where our thoughts turned to great adventures, and our tongues uttered intimate words of home and friends and the great adventure which is life Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons Roosevelt in South America on the expedition which explored and mapped the ‘River of Doubt,’’ now the Rio Téodoro.—Roosevelt’s books covering his explorations and his observa- tions on animal life were written in the field, which in large measure accounts for their ac- curacy and vividness. (He is here shown protected from fever-carrying insects by gloves and a mosquito net helmet) — aaa Courtesy of C harles Scribner's Sons The canoes of Roosevelt and Colonel Rondon on the “River of Doubt” at the junction of a large tributary, the Bandeira ~ Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist PERSONAL AFFILIATION WITH THE AMERICAN MUSEUM—SERIOUS AND SINCERE PURPOSE AS EXPLORER AND NATURALIST By HENRY OOSEVELT spent the first years of his hfe and the last years as a naturalist, and it chanced that he was in close touch with the American Museum at both ends of his wonderful career. In the range of his hfe as a naturalist, as an observer, traveler, explorer, writer, and last but not least, a biological philosopher, as in the range of his work over the vast fields of history, of government, and of international relations, his service was stupendous; and now that we are able to look at his hfe as a whole, we realize that he was not one man, but many great men, many personalities, com- bined and harmonized into one,—all impelled by indomitable will and de- termination, all inspired by idealism, all warmed and humanized by the most loving and sympathetic temperament. This manifold ability and multiple nature came out in the course of his plans for a great expedition to South America, projected in the spring of 1915 and executed between October, 1915, and June, 1914. He had selected an unknown and particularly dangerous region, where the native tribes had never been thoroughly subdued by the Brazilian Government. He marked out this region as his first choice for a South American expedition, but I sent word to him through Dr. Frank M. Chapman, who was representing us in these plans, that I would never consent to his going to this particular region under the American Museum flag; that I would not even assume part of the re- sponsibility for what might happen in ease he did not return alive. With a smile he sent back a characteristic word: “I have already lived and en- FATREIELD OSBORN joyed as much of life as any nine other men I know; I have had my full share, and if it is necessary for me to leave my remains in South America, I am quite ready to do so.” Although more pru- dent plans prevailed, and we finally determined upon a route which resulted in the discovery of the Rio Roosevelt, yet the exposure, the excessively moist chmate, and the dearth of food, cloth- ing, and supplies, very nearly cost Theodore Roosevelt his life. It was Roosevelt’s warm sentiment for his native city and the survival of the memories of his boyhood education as an ornithologist, so delightfully de- scribed by himself in the pages of the JOURNAL,! which brought him back into relation with the American Museum, after he had, by means of his two years in Africa, completed his magnificent service to our National Museum at Washington immediately on leaving the presidency. _In planning the South American journey, as in planning that to Africa, he prepared with the utmost intelli- gence and thoroughness for what he knew would be a hazardous trip, even after all precautions had been taken. With the trained assistance of his son Kermit Roosevelt, with the South American experience and stalwart cour- age of Mr. George K. Cherrie, and with the devoted and most intelligent com- panionship of Colonel Candido Mariano da Silva Rondon and Mr. Leo E. Miller, this expedition developed into the most important that has ever gone from North into South America. Asa result of this expedition through Para- 1 “My Life as a Naturalist,” AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, May, 19158. 10 NATURAL FAVSLORY guay and the wilderness of Brazil, more than 450 mammal and 1375 bird speci- mens were added to the American Mu- seum’s collections, in addition to the geographic results which aroused such a chorus of discussion and diversity of opinion. Roosevelt was so impressed with the importance of continuing this exploration, that on his return he per- sonally contributed $2000 from his lt- erary earnings, to send his companion naturalists back to the field. The Mu- seum accordingly sent Messrs. Leo E. Miller and Howarth Boyle to Colombia and Bolivia, and Mr. Cherrie to the marshes of Paraguay, to continue the work of the first Roosevelt Expedition. An American statesman, who should have known better, has recently charac- terized Roosevelt as “one who knew a little about more things than anyone else in this country.” This gives an entirely false impression of Roosevelt’s mind. His mind was quite of a con- trary order; for what Roosevelt did know, he knew thoroughly; he went to the very bottom of things, 1f possible ; and no one was more conscientious or modest than he where his knowledge was limited or merely that of the intel- ligent layman. His thorough research in preparing for the African and South American expeditions was not that of the amateur or of the sportsman, but of the trained naturalist who desires to learn as much as possible from previous students and explorers. During his preparation for the African expedition, I sent him from the rich stores of the American Museum and Osborn libraries all the books relating to the mammal life of Africa. These books went in in- stallments, five or six a week; as each installment was returned, another lot was sent. Thus in the course of a few weeks he had read all that had been written about the great mammals of Africa from Sclater to Selous. He knew not only the genera and species, but the localities where particular spe- cies and subspecies were to be found. I remember at a conference with Afri- can great game hunters at Oyster Bay, where were assembled at luncheon all the Americans that he could muster who had actually explored in Africa, a question arose regarding the locality of a particular subspecies, Grévy’s zebra (Equus grevyi foai). Roosevelt went to the map, pointed out directly the particular and only spot where this sub- species could be found, and said that he did not think the expedition could pos- sibly get down in that direction. This was but one instance among hundreds not only of his marvelous memory but also of his thoroughness of prepara- tion. We shall have a memorial of Theo- dore Roosevelt, the Naturalist, in the American Museum of Natural History. He honored the institution by his pres- ence ; he loved it and gave his inspiring touch to many branches of its activity during the closing years of his life. In the intervals of politics, of pressing duties of every kind, he would repair here for keen and concentrated discus- sions on animal coloration, or geo- eraphic distribution, or the history of human races, or the evolution of some group of animals, or, perchance, the furtherance of some expedition. What the Roosevelt memorial shall be it is premature to say, except that it will certainly be a memorial to the beautiful and courageous aspect of his manifold character and life as a naturalist. This memorial will be such as to remind the boys and girls of all future generations of Americans of the spirit of love, of zeal, and of intelligence with which they should approach nature in any of its wonderful aspects. Wy = -+ i —~ = > — Ve! os LS: —— f if | i LenS ap" S M4 oN 2 2 4 A — > = = Y} “afl SS } v Roosevelt — The Friend of Man By ROBERT Rear Admiral, United States Navy, Ee Pane tetired; President, Aérial League of America; Chairman, National Aérial Coast Patrol Commission SORROWING nation pays meet tribute to the passing of the greatest American of his time— Theodore Roosevelt. The one outstanding feature of the complex character of Roosevelt, the man of many parts, was his friendship for man in the abstract—and when this friendship took concrete form for the individual, it became, for its recipient, a tower of strength as fortifying and as impregnable as Gibraltar. The friendship of Theodore Roose- velt was indeed a most precious posses- sion. Whenever and wherever extended, it had the effect of a superlative super- incentive to greater deeds—a step by step advancement, onward and upward, never permitting a retrogression. I make the following statement with- out fear of successful contradiction, that no other single personality in this great world of ours today has gathered from such a multitude, from all quar- ters, kinds, and conditions of life, the utmost in spontaneous affection that has been accorded him during his years of contact with a world’s people. Thousands upon thousands, in all parts of the world, became his friend through the magnetic personality of his written words, which have reached to the uttermost extremes of enlightened civilization all over the globe. Inestimable tribute should be paid to Colonel Roosevelt’s memory for the ad- vice and support, given when President of the United States, to the Peary Arc- tic Club Expedition to the North Polar Regions which resulted in reaching the Pole April 6, 1909. In 1912, at the annual dinner of the Explorers’ Club, I ventured the proph- ecy that in a few years the polar regions would be reconnoitered and explored through the air. That prophecy is about to be consummated. The great war has forced the devel- opment of the science of aéronautics and aircraft to that point where no por- tion of the globe exists today that can- not be visited and explored by either plane or dirigible. It is indeed a fit- ting tribute to Colonel Roosevelt’s ear- nest support of aéronautics, at all times, that the Bartlett Arctic Expedition, promulgated and organized through the efforts of the Aéro Club of America, should be known as “The Roosevelt Memorial Expedition.” Colonel Roosevelt was a veteran sup- In 1897, when he was Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he used his influence to secure the nec- porter of aéronautics. essary appropriation needed by Profes- sor Langley to continue his plans for aviation. Colonel responsible for giving the United States Army an aéroplane before any other In 1907 he approved the ordering of a biplane and a diri- Roosevelt was also nation had one. gible. Scientific results of inestimable value to the United States and to the whole world are directly traceable to Roose- velt’s friendship for man. 11 Theodore Roosevelt and Africa THE MAN WHO FELT THE ATTRACTION OF LIFE IN THE SILENT PLACES AND THE WIDE WASTE SPACES OF THE EARTH By CARL E. AKELEY ROM field naturalists who knew Roosevelt he always received profound and unstinted admira- tion; they knew that his greatest pleas- ure lay in seeing and learning; that he found infinite joy in studying wild ani- mal life in its native haunts; that he had the observing eye and keen mind of the ideal naturalist. His expedition to Africa had been definitely planned in his mind several years before it actually came about. I had returned from an expedition to Africa late in 1907, and recall the em- phasis of his words at the White House one day as he said to me, “When I am through with this job, I am going to Africa.” I met him in Africa in 1912 on the Uasin Gishu Plateau. It was morning and our American Museum Expedition was marching toward the N’Zoia River, when one of the boys called my atten- tion to a safari two miles or so to the south. With the thought that it might possibly be the Roosevelt Expedition, I sent a runner to make inquiry, while we proceeded to the banks of the river and made camp. The runner soon re- turned, stating that he had met a run- ner halfway, that it was the Roosevelt party, and that they were going into camp on the edge of the marsh not far from where we had seen them. When our camp was made, we started out on our horses in the direction of the marsh, but when about halfway met the Colonel with Kermit, and two others of his party. We all returned to our camp and a good part of the afternoon was spent making arrangements for an ele- phant hunt for the next day. Within an hour or two after leaving 12 camp in the morning, we picked up the trail of a small herd of elephants, and as they were easily tracked through the grass, we moved very rapidly. At about eleven o’clock, while we were following the trail quite casually, someone in ad- vance heard a sound which resulted in our coming to a standstill. We made a short detour to the left; and a few min- utes later were looking at a small band of cows and calves enjoying their mid- day siesta under a clump of bush. We advanced under cover of a large ant hill to within about fifty yards, from which point we looked them over carefully and decided which were valuable for our scientific purpose. I indicated the particular cow that I wanted the Colonel to shoot for the American Museum group. Of course at this distance from the elephants we could speak only in lowest whispers and every move was guarded. I waited for the Colonel to take a shot, expecting him to do this from behind the ant hill where we were afforded a splendid pro- tection against a charge, but he started forward toward the elephants and I, with Kermit, was obliged to follow closely. My impulse was to tell him that I wanted him to shoot the cow and not “take her alive!” He continued to go steadily forward, however, intend- ing to get so close that there could be no doubt of the effectiveness of his shot ; but the elephants suddenly began moving in our direction, at which he promptly fired. This did not stop their advance, but rather accelerated it in- stead, so that quick action was neces- sary. -When we got through we had four dead elephants. All of the party, except the Colonel THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND AFRICA 13 and myself, returned to camp to send out tools, equipment, and men, prepara- tory to taking care of the great skins and skeletons of the four elephants. He and I sat down under a tree with our luncheon, and for two or three hours we conversed of intimate things. For a number of months the Colonel had seen no one from home except the mem- bers of his own party. We were fresh from the United States and there was much to talk of. He spoke much of his family, of Mrs. Roosevelt, and his sons and daughters. It was then that I learned to love Roosevelt. It is not an easy thing to give expres- sion to the thoughts that come to my mind of this man who has so recently passed beyond our range of vision. What I feel most is that whereas Roose- velt is gone, his influence seems greater than ever. Many of us will feel, with respect to the things that Roosevelt wanted us to do and which we never seemed to have time to do, that now we have time for nothing else. As to Africa, perhaps no man in modern times has gotten so much out of the “Dark Continent” as did Roosevelt. In the “Foreword” of his African Game Trails he describes Africa in two pages with a vividness others have failed to give in volumes. And no single sen- tence of it consists of word and phrase merely: every bit of it stands for the man’s own personal experience and his own intense thinking and feeling. I wish that the African hall of the Amer- ican Museum might be done asa me- morial to Theodore Roosevelt. I would have this Foreword on a bronze tablet at the entrance : Africa1—In the Words of Roosevelt “T speak of Africa and golden joys”; the joy of wandering through lonely lands; the joy of hunting the mighty and terrible lords of the wil- derness, the cunning, the wary, and the grim. In these greatest of the world’s great hunting-grounds there are mountain peaks whose snows are dazzling under the equatorial sun; swamps where the slime oozes and bubbles and festers in the steaming heat; lakes like seas; skies that burn above deserts where the iron desola- tion is shrouded from view by the wavering mockery of the mirage ; vast grassy plains where palms and thorn- trees fringe the dwindling streams; mighty rivers rushing out of the heart of the continent through the sadness of endless marshes; forests of gorgeous beauty, where death broods in the dark and silent depths. There are regions as healthful as the northland, and other regions, ra- diant with bright-hued flowers, birds and butterflies, odorous with sweet and heavy scents, but treacherous in their beauty, and sinister to human hfe. On the land and in the water there are dread brutes that feed on the flesh of man; and among the lower things that crawl, and fly, and sting, and bite, he finds swarming foes far more evil and deadly than any beast or reptile; foes that lall his crops and his cattle, foes before which he himself perishes in his hun- dreds of thousands. The dark-skinned races that live in the land vary widely. Some are warlike, cattle-owning nomads; some till the soil and live in thatched huts shaped like beehives; some are fisher- folk; some are ape-like naked sav- ages, who dwell in the woods and prey on creatures not much wilder or lower than themselves. The land teems with beasts of the chase, infinite in number and incred- ible in variety. It holds the fiercest beasts of ravin, and the fleetest and most timid of those beings that live in undying fear of talon and fang. It holds the largest and the smallest of hoofed animals. It holds the mightiest creatures that tread the earth or swim in its rivers; it also 1 Quoted from the Foreword of African Game Trails, through the courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons. 14 NATURAL, HISTORY holds distant kinsfolk of these same creatures, no bigger than wood- chucks, which dwell in crannies of the rocks, and in the tree tops. There are antelope smaller than hares, and antelope larger than oxen. There are creatures which are the embodi- ments of grace; and others whose huge ungainliness is like that of a shape in a nightmare. The plains are alive with droves of strange and beautiful animals whose like is not known elsewhere; and with others even stranger that show both in form and temper something of the fantas- tic and the grotesque. It is a never- ending pleasure to gaze at the great herds of buck as they move to and fro in their myriads; as they stand for their noontide rest in the quiver- ing heat haze; as the long files come down to drink at the watering- places; as they feed and fight and rest and make love. The hunter who wanders through these lands sees sights which ever afterward remain fixed in his mind. He sees the monstrous river-horse snorting and plunging beside the boat ; the giraffe looking over the tree tops at the nearing horseman; the ostrich fleeing at a speed that none may rival; the snarling leopard and coiled python, with their lethal beauty; the zebras, barking in the moonlight, as the laden caravan passes on its night march through a thirsty land. In after years there shall come to him memories of the lion’s charge; of the gray bulk of the elephant, close at hand in the sombre woodland; of the buffalo, his sullen eyes lowering from under his helmet of horn; of the rhinoceros, truculent and stupid, standing in the bright sunlight on the empty plain. These things can be told. But there are no words that can tell the hidden spirit of the wilderness, that can reveal its mystery, its melan- choly, and its charm. ‘There is de- light in the hardy life of the open, in long rides rifle in hand, in the thrill of the fight with dangerous game. Apart from this, yet mingled with it, is the strong attraction of the silent places, of the large tropic moons, and the splendor of the new stars; where the wanderer sees the awful glory of sunrise and sunset in the wide waste spaces of the earth, unworn of man, and changed only by the slow change of the ages through time everlasting. if r ZA N =a Zi iN mA) oa SS) SPIE ate TAS Dr rs cr) {7} Cy << ‘49 - Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt By DAVID OOSEVELT entered Harvard College in 1876 at the age of eighteen, hoping to become a naturalist, having already made a con- siderable collection of birds, besides many observations as to their habits. His eyesight being defective, however, and not connecting well with magnify- ing glasses, his early ambition was dis- couraged by his teachers to whom the chief range of study lay within the field of the microscope. They overlooked the fact that besides primordial slime and determinant chromosomes, there were also in the world grizzly bears, tigers, elephants and trout, as well as song birds and rattlesnakes,—all of which yield profound interest and are alike worthy of study. So, being discouraged as to work along his chosen line, and in his love of outdoor science, the young naturalist turned to political philosophy, his sec- ondary interests lying in history and politics. He then closed up his private cabinet, giving his stuffed bird skins (through Professor Baird of the Smith- sonian) tome. These I transferred to the University of Indiana where they are now in a befitting glass case in Owen Hall, each skin nicely prepared and correctly labeled in the crude boyish handwriting which the distin- guished collector never outgrew. Long after all this, I once took occa- sion to remind Mr. Roosevelt that “they spoiled a good naturalist” in making him a statesman. But the naturalist was never submerged in the exigencies of statesmanship. During an automobile drive in 1912 across the Santa Clara Val- ley, Roosevelt displayed a keen interest in the sparrows and warblers of the thickets along the road. These he could call by their first names and mostly by their second. Once in the Yosemite with John Muir, henotedelements in bird and squirrel life which had escaped even his keen-eyed and sympathetic companion. STARR JORDAN In our exploration of Hawaii in 1901, my colleague, Dr. Barton W. Ever- mann, and I came across a very beauti- ful fish, the Kalikali, golden yellow with broad crossbands of deep crimson. This then bore the name of Serranus brighamt given it by its discoverer, Alvin Seale. But the species was no Serranus; and it was moreover plainly the type of anew genus. This we called Rooseveltia, 1 honor of “Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist” and in recogni- tion of his services in the promotion of zoological research. With this compli- ment he was “delighted.” “Who would not be?” he said. In the various natural history ex- plorations undertaken by me—and by others during his administration as President of the United States—we could always count on intelligent and effective sympathy. In so far as scien- tific appointments rested with him he gave them careful and conscientious consideration. Indeed, during his ad- ministration, governmental science reached its high-water mark. In 1905 I was preparing for an exploration of the deep seas around Japan by means of the Fish Commission steamer “Al]- batross.” While I was talking this mat- ter over with Roosevelt he said, pound- ing the table with his fist: “It was to help along things like this, Dr. Jordan, that I took this job!” The story of Roosevelt’s relation to Tutuila in Samoa has never been told, and though scientific only in part, it may be related here.! The three islands of Samoa were held for a period of years under the joint protectorate of Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. The general result was unsatisfactory, a condition due mainly to the petty intrigues of German agents. In Stevenson’s words, “There was a fresh conspiracy every day,” and a good account of this situa- 1 This incident is republished by courtesy of The New Republic—THE EDITOR. 153 16 NATURAL HISTORY tion was given by “R. L. 8.” in A Foot- note to History. England at last exchanged her rights here for certain advantages elsewhere, and the islands themselves were di- vided, Upolu, the center of population, and Savaii, the largest of the group, going to Germany, while Tutuila, with its magnificent harbor at Pago Pago, and little Manua went to the United States. The native Tutuilans took the matter seriously and were much pleased with the new arrangement. The two chieftains, Mauga and Paa Vei, then caused to be drawn up an elaborate document formally deeding the sover- eignty of their island to the United States. Now, in the etiquette of the South Seas, to receive a present without acknowledgment is a flagrant insult, but the people saw the United States occupy the island and erect docks, storehouses, and residences without a word of thanks. When I went to Samoa in 1902, I found the inhabitants of Tutuila much worked up over the matter. Tuamanua, chief of the tiny outlying island, was in a state which, on a larger scale, would be called rebellion. I went before the little congress at Pago Pago and ex- plained to the people that the United States did not wish to take away any of their rights. It had paid the owners for the land occupied as well as for all service required. It had, moreover, through the governor, Captain (later Rear Admiral) Uriel Sebree, taken great pains to safeguard the interests of the people in their relations to trad- ers in copra, the dried meat of the cocoanut which is the principal export of that region. I also called attention to the fact that in the interest of the people the President had sent Professor Vernon Kellogg (of Stanford Univer- sity) and me to study the fisheries of the islands to find out all the kinds and what they were good for. I had myself furnished them with a series of paint- ings of poisonous fishes, some species having in their tissues a_ substance analogous to strychnine, which would produce the dangerous and often fatal disease known as ciguatera. In addi- tion, Professor Kellogg had rendered a material service in teaching them how to get rid of the mosquito and thus to abate their two most dreaded scourges, “dengue” and “elephantiasis,” both dis- eases being produced by minute animal organisms carried from person to per- son by the mosquito. I also called to their minds the sad fact that just about the time their deed of gift was received at Washington, the President of the United States had been assassinated by an insane ruffian. It was probable that in the confusion which followed, the document had been misplaced and the incoming President, always thoughtful about such matters, had possibly never seen it. I would bring the affair to his attention, sure that he would make a courteous re- sponse. This kept the people quiet for the time, and expectant as to the fu- ture. I then sent a statement of facts to the President, and soon after left the is- land; but I read in the press in the fall of 1902 that President Roosevelt had sent a gold watch each to Mauga and Paa Vei, also a flag to the little native police corps or Fitafitas, and that in Pago Pago they had had a “red-letter day of rejoicing.” On returning to Washington I found that the deed of gift had been filed un- der the head of “Docks,” Pago Pago, from the official point of view, being merely the water front of a naval sta- tion. Fear of precedent had prevented acknowledgment. McKinley's advisers emphasized this point but Roosevelt characteristically did not care a straw for precedent. He did what a natural man should do. /Ze made it right with the people. He said afterward to me in regard to it, “It always pays for a nation to be a gentle- man.” Roosevelt, the Man of Abundant Life ' By E who loved Roosevelt have not lost him. The quali- ties we treasured in hin, his loyalty, his genial kindness, his unwearied thoughtfulness for others, the generosity which made him prefer his friends in honor to himself, his tenderness with children, his quick de- light in living, and the firm soundness of his life’s foundations, are potent with us yet. The broad human sym- pathy which bound to him the millions who never saw his face, his clean cour- age and self-forgetful devotion to his country, the tremendous sanity of his grasp on the problems of the nation and the world, and the superb simpli- city and directness of his life and thought still live as the inspiration and the basis for the new and better world which is to come. The people loved Roosevelt because he was like them. In him the common qualities were lifted to a higher tension and a greater power, but they were still the same. What he did plain men un- derstood and would have liked to do. The people loved him because his thoughts, though loftier, were yet within their reach, and his motives were always clear in their sight. They knew his purposes were always right. To millions he was the image of their better selves. 1 Address at Roosevelt Memorial Meeting, Sunday, February 9. Metropolitan le ORD: SEN CLE. OT Roosevelt was the greatest preacher of righteousness in modern times. Deeply religious beneath the surface, he made right living seem the natural thing, and there was no man beyond the reach of his preaching and example. In the sight of all men, he lived the things he taught, and millions followed him because he was the clear exemplar of his teaching. Unless we may except his Conserva- tion Policies? Roosevelt’s greatest serv- ice during his presidency was the in- spiration he gave young men. ‘T'o them he was the leader in all they hoped to be and do for the common good. The generation which was entering man- hood while he was President will carry with it to the grave the impress of his leadership and personality. To the boys of America he was all they hoped to be—a hunter, a rider, a sportsman, eager for the tang of dan- ger, keen and confident, and utterly unafraid. There was no part of his example but was good for boys to fol- low. Roosevelt, half boy till his life’s end, yet the manliest of men, of a fine- ness his best friends best understood, was their ideal, and will not cease to be because he has passed on. To him the unforgivable sin, and there was but one, was betrayal of the interests of his country. The man who Opera House, Philadelphia, afternoon of *The name of Gifford Pinchot is closely connected with the work in conservation accomplished by Roosevelt, who states the high value he placed on Mr. Pinchot’s services in the chapter on ‘The Natural Resources of the Nation” in his Autobiography (p. 429): “Gifford Pinchot is the man to whom the nation owes most for what has been accomplished as regards the preservation of the natural resources of our country. He led, and indeed, during its most vital period embodied, the fight for the preservation through use of our forests. He played one of the leading parts in the effort to maké the national Government the chief instrument in developing the irrigation of the arid West. .. .” The story of the forestry work of the Roosevelt administration is one of great historical interest. It includes the training of foresters at a newly opened forest school at Yale, the development of our present Forest Service with trained foresters in control of the public lands, the great increase by Executive Order of the area of the national forests, and their opening to settlers under regulation, the calling of the first meeting of governors in this country (May, 1908), and the appointment of a National Con- servation Commission with the purpose of making an inventory of all the resources of the nation. Gifford Pinchot was chairman of this commission. All of this work from 1901 to 1909 formed the basis of the country’s present practical enlightenment on conservation—THer EDITOR. ig 18 NATURAL HISTORY sinned that sin he neither forgave nor forgot. For opposition to himself he cared but little; enemies he had in plenty, but they cast no shadow on his soul. He was a gallant and a cheerful fighter, willing, as he often said, to be beaten for any cause that was worth fighting for, and whether in defeat or victory, never unbalanced and never dismayed. Roosevelt lived intensely in his fam- . ily life. The doer of great things him- self, and the occasion of great accom- plishment in others, what he did was not done alone. It is but right that we should recognize the part played by the strong and gentle, wise and lov- ing woman, whose hand was so rarely seen yet still more rarely absent in all that was best in her great husband's finest living and most memorable achievements. The greatest of executives, he trans- formed the machinery of government with the flame of his own spirit. He was his own hardest taskmaster, and always unwilling to ask of his men the thing he was not ready to do himself. He was our leader because he was the better man. He worked more hours, at higher speed, with wider vision. He trusted us, and gave each man his head. Always eager to recognize good work and give due credit for it, always ready with an excuse for the man who hon- estly tried and failed, he had nothing but scorn and contempt for the man who never tried at all. Filled with the joy and the spice of living, afraid neither of life nor of death, thankful for sunshine or rain, never sorry for himself, never asking odds of any man or any situation, he used the powers he had as only his great soul could use them—powers seldom if ever before assembled in one indi- vidual, but nearly all of them dupli- cated, one here, one there, within the knowledge of us all. It was the use his soul made of his body and his mind that was the essence of his greatness. The greatest of his victories was his last, his victory over the indifference of a people long misled. He was the first to see the need for it. To gain it he seemed to throw away his future. In the event he won results and earned a name which will live while the knowl- edge of America’s part in the Great War still endures. He was the leader of the people be- cause his courage and. his soundness made him so. More than any man of his time, he was loved by those who ought to love him, and hated by those who ought to hate him. His ideals, his purposes, his points of view, his hos- tilities, and his enthusiasms were such as every man could entertain and un- derstand. It was only in. the applica- tion of them that he rose to heights bevond the reach of all the rest of us. What explains his power? Life is the answer. Life at its warmest and fullest and -freest, at its utmost in vigor, at its sanest in purpose and re- straint, at its cleanest and clearest,— life tremendous in volume, unbounded in scope, yet controlled and guided with a disciplined power which made him, as few men have ever been, the captain of his soul. Alert, glad, without mean- ness and without fear, free from ar- rogance and affectation, with few hesi- tations and few regrets, slow to prom- ise but ardent to perform, delighting in difficulties, welcoming danger, sensi- tive to the touch of every phase of human existence, yet dominated by standards more severely set for himself than for any others, sustained by a breadth of knowledge and of sympathy and by an endurance, both physical and mental, which belonged to him alone, Roosevelt lived with a com- pleteness that lesser men can never know. In Roosevelt above all the men of his time, the promise of the Master was fulfilled—“T came that ye might have life, and that ye might have it more abundantly.” is x & aA Photograph by Kermit Roosevelt Roosevelt and Carl BE, Akeley elephant hunting on the Uasin Gishu Plateau, British East Africa it fell from Roosevelt's shot, is one in the group now in Roosevelt, while on his African Expedition, United States National Museum and the The elephant shown here, lying where , Museum’s elephant studio. preparation in the Americar in the hunted and shot elephants for permanent exhibition University of California ana Ss, (x3 SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS SUGGESTIVE OF IED ACHIEVEMENTS AND INTERESTS OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT LORER, NATURALIST, SOLDIER. STATESMAN, THE VAR EXP WRITER. AND FRIEND OF MAN ed ei A, we! Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood ROOSEVELT AND YOSEMITE The man who had a broad vision of things spiritual.—In an address on nations and _ their future (‘Biological Analogies,’ delivered at Oxford University, 1910), he points out that there are many ominous signs to warn the nations that their growth approaches the fate of the law of death of nations. He makes clear that the all-important factor is national character, that there promises a great future for the civilizations which have expanded in the course of their development, but that if it does not come, we must at least all carry forward the torch which men mighty of heart have handed on from civilization to civilization throughout recorded time 20 Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood ON A HUNTING TRIP IN COLORADO, 1905 “Tt is an incalculable added pleasure to anyone’s sense of happiness if he or she grows to know, even slightly or imperfectly, how to read and enjoy the wonder-book of nature. All hunters should be nature-lovers. It is to be hoped that . .. from now on the hunter will stand foremost in working for the preservation and perpetuation of the wild life, whether big or little.’—From Pastimes of an American Hunter. The invitation to get out into the western country on hunting trips for a few weeks each year came to Roosevelt neither from the delights of natural history and sportsmanship alone, nor alone from interest in conservation problems; he especially gloried in remembering the heroic part played by the pioneers, and by the nation in handling early problems of statehood: nh In all the history of mankind there is nothing that quite parallels the way in which our people have filled a vacant continent with self-governing commonwealths, knit into one nation. . . . It is a record of men who greatly dared and greatly did; a record of endless feats of arms, of victory after victory and ceaseless strife waged against wild man and wild nature. ... The old iron days have gone. ... Let us see to it that, while we take advantage of every gentler We need the positive virtues of resolu- and more humanizing tendency of the age, we yet preserve the iron quality. always be done, and tion, of courage, of indomitable will, of power to do without shrinking the rough work that must to persevere. . . .’—From address at the Quarter-Centennial Celebration of Statehood in Colorado 2] With John Burroughs in Yellowstone Park, 1903.—They are on their way to the big geyser region, Roosevelt, in accordance with his habit from a boy on such occasions, sitting with the driver of the sleigh. Roosevelt was especially interested in the big game and would go entirely alone on long twenty-mile tramps for the pleasure of creeping up unawares on a band of elk or mountain sheep and eating his luncheon while he studied them. Burroughs says, in telling their experiences and laughter when racing on skis down some of the hills: ‘‘The spirit of the boy was in the air about the Cafion of the Yellowstone, and the biggest boy of us all was President Roosevelt.’’ It was on this trip that Mr. Burroughs first came to know of Roosevelt’s great natural history knowledge and of his trained powers of observation: ‘Born observers are about as rare as born poets. Plenty of men can see straight and report straight what they see; but the men who see what others miss, who see quickly and surely, who have the detective eye, like Sherlock Holmes, who ‘get the drop,’ so to speak, on every object, who see minutely and who see whole, are rare indeed. President Rooseve’t comes as near fulfilling this ideal as any man I have known.’’—From Camping and TVramping with Roosevelt, by John Burroughs Portraits of two bird lovers in the Yellowstone. He lived thus in the wilderness, he followed the elk and the antelope, he listened to bird songs as though there were nothing else in the world. But he emerged after a few days into a world of people, polities, and speeches again, and waged anew and strenuously the fight for a high type of national service 99 Courtesy of Brown Bros Roosevelt with a group of East Side children.—-Roosevelt believed in the doctrine of will for a I man, and he had a conscience, and he helped New York grow a legislative conscience, beginning even before the day when he knew Jacob Riis and How the Other Half Lives. The following is one of the truest things Mr. Riis says of him in Rooseveit, the Citizen: ‘“‘The fact is he is a perfectly logical product of a certain course of conduct deliberately entered upon and faithfully adhered to all through life, as all of us are who have any character worth mentioning.”’” New York’s East Side gave genuine reverence to this character of Roosevelt which fearlessly righted wrongs in tenements and playgrounds, in liquor and police laws. He believed in the good in his fellow men, and his trust was never more fully justified than in his work on New York’s East Side ¢ RB ] An inspiration back of Pear vor} It is ea to det o1 courage and hardihood no man n America Was more ‘ é great explorer. Also with his love of wander ne | ience standing in positions of great personal responsibilit none ! loneliness and responsibility of the life of the explorer He r rt he explore nd the die as to these qualities in his Introduction to Peary’s Nea sf P fp OS ae ¥ | 3 e d Lae: Courtesy of Brown Bros. BESIDE * GRIZZLY GIANT,” ONE OF THE SEQUOIAS HE PROTECTED Theodore Roosevelt in California at the time of his administration (at the 1 ft stands Governor Pardee, at the right in order, John Muir r. Butler, of Columbia; Secretary Loeb; and EI ident Wheeler, of Berkeley) .— We can realize the delight that it was for John Muir to show his beloved Yosemite and Sequoi inons and forests to a man of Roosevelt's appreciation and power of observation. Th y spent three days at this time tramping and eamping together, sleeping in the open, between trunks of giant Sequoias—as Roosevelt said later “in a great solemn cathedral, far vaster and more beautiful than any built by the hand of man.” Roosevelt's initial work in conservation of natural resource ,, especially of forests, will go down in history as the greatest constructive legislation ever established by an executive in the United States. On the sixteenth of January, 1919, ten days after the death of Theodore Roosevelt, a Dill designating the California giant redwood district as “Roosevelt National Park,’ passed the Senate of the United States unani- mously. He said, in 1903, the Sequoias should be pre ed because they are “‘the only things of their kind in the world,” ‘“‘monuments of themselves’—they now stand majestic monuments for him 24 NAPE nc path? i WENA s.. Am! ) ) ) SARA Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood AT WASHINGTON IN 1905 ‘I do solemnly swear that 1 will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. And thus I swear.” When Roosevelt became President in 1901 he was the youngest man who had ever taken the oath His inter est in natural history immediately recalled the administration of Thomas Jefferson; but he so far outstripped his pre decessor that his seven and one half years in Washington marked a golden age for zoology, for exploration, and con servation, a time when scientific expeditions and publications were instigated and encouraged, and naturalists and explorers from all over the world were welcome guests at the White Houss As to statesmanship, a man of great constructive imagination was at the helm He studied the problems of the nation and the psychology of men. He made himself accessible to every man from every section of the country He learned their points of view, their interests. He worked with an insatiable desire to understand the thought and feel ing of all ranks. Then, like the great synthetic scientist, the true leader, he marshalled all his data before him, formu lated conclusions, and led the people where it was best for the good of the counts ind themselves that they should go 3ut the greatest thing that Roosevelt did as President was to bring back to the mind of each man in the country a realization that the government is in truth “for the people, of the people, and by the people” > - s Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood ROOSEVELT, THE THINKER AND WRITER.—HE PREACHES READABLENESS IN SCIENTIFIC WRITINGS Theodore Roosevelt wrote plain prose, bu first characteristic = riting. cle ness Ther cs ] er yth obscure about the rot ny m¢ t t was in his own mind about what he thought. And the t re leas jun out t Seti t of his cite our actio Whether te of t comm - 1 tin it ( I i iS P es in the gr tints of the ge ] no Otherwise no profit will come of the for writings are useless unless they are read nd they « not’ be 1 re idable.”’ From this as a theme he eulogizes “‘the l or scientific writer, and drives away the buga- the technical writer often stigmatizes the ‘‘read- reat scientists have wr n interestingly, and these few have usually felt sooner or later t time will come when the mighty sweep oti modern by scientific men with the gift of expression, at the service of Indeed, I believe that re ady science has owed more than a Itivatec t suspects to the unconscious of some of its representatives [for instance, in regard to evolutio1 where their had 1] a ripple, Darwin and Huxley suc- in € ) ] ug! f age ... 1 believe that the chief I tion « 1 simp one that what Darwin and Huxl wrote was ntorestiionte Photographs by Herbert K. Job SIMPLE DELIGHTS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE FIELD encounter each other face to face in a Louisiana napped the photograph lt created the Louisiana In the picture above—Roosevelt and a young heron , Bird Preserve. Mr. Herbert K. Job also was a member of the party and s At the request of the National Association of Audubon Societies Roosevelt Bird Preserves by Executive Order in 1904 and 1905 It was in 1915 that he made this tour of the islands with Mr. Job Between March 14, 1903, and March 4, 1909, of his administration, he estab lished by Executive Order fifty-one National Bird Reservations, ritories from Porto Rico to Hawaii and Alaska The photograph belou One does not need to be the beaches of our Gulf Coast where great sea turtles | eggs under the sand distributed in seventeen states and ter a bo In vears to enjo 1 tour of discovery over uve roamed wher! i! vas still and deposited their OG 101} 9jOUIO du109 A\1ep } UT ‘“OTyRonpoa ul uLoOs YQolry eh SUOT ol} IM Of . 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C Poa \ Ps * - . ‘ > * AIC = . 7 -MOT “UOLSTA nq ‘4I9 AQSOOY [ [ng t ‘udipenbg O10 ysuiig 1 1 : S oat} UYU SSOT) J ay} UOM OFT “A[np* pue <« i Il L ‘q[a.Aasoo “uOLjoR Ul MM youe )9}RIOIADP SUM K MON ‘T “ON ul JUNJOA Su UOISSI UOM JeABSOOY PLB Upory (ydoabojoyd ayy UL WYBVLL 07 1{9] ULO4LT) 1I1SAaSO00u" BAYOGOSHL AO SNOS Courtesy of Underuood and Underwood QUENTIN ROOSEVELT SLEEPS ON FRENCH SOIL Quentin Roosevelt was shot down while fighting at odds with enemy aéroplanes over the German lines in the Chateau-Thierry region. He was buried with military honors by German airmen near the spot where his machine fell. Much was expected of him, but he gave more. His sacrifice is to America as a symbol of the soul of democracy, of the country’s young manhood offered to the cause of liberty. Quentin visited France in 1909. A letter written to an old teacher at that time shows his boyish interest in flying (he was eleven years old): ‘‘We were at Rheims and saw all the aéroplanes flying, and saw Curtiss who won the Gordon Bennett cup for swiftest flight. You don’t know how pretty it was to see all the aéroplanes sailing at a time. At one time there were four aéroplanes in the air. It was the prettiest thing I ever saw. The best one was a monoplane called the ‘Antoinette,’ which looks like a great big bird in the air. It does not wiggle at all, and goes very fast. It is awfully pretty turning.’ And at the close of the letter, “Tell S that I am sending him a model of an aeroplane that winds up with a rubber band. They work quite well. I haye one which ean fly a hundred yards, and goes higher than my head.” When he was in training at Mineola, he often chose the air above his home at Sagamore Hill to practice his most startling maneuvers, his father never being sure until afterward that the army plane which had so thrilled them was Quentin’s. When the news of the boy’s probable death came from France, Roosevelt, who had been sorrowing that he could not personally be on the western battlefront, dauntlessly gave answer: “Quentin’s mother and I are very glad that he got to the Front and had a chance to render some service to his country, and to show the stuff there was in him before his fate befell him” 99 C3 pes THE HOME AT OYSTER BAY AND AEROPLANES WHICH DROPPED WREATHS OF MOURNING ts is told, and we realize that his spoken and written words | his vivid experience as boy ix Thos o know the S aut ° 1: “I would order them [young meI to wor young man that he wealth owes t ‘ S 1 t he ans owes his to his State . . . I would preach the 0 ol ) d to the wealth the doctrine of unremunera work.” “Of course hat we have a right to expect of rik ( S s n ¢ a good American mar N nces are strong wont ( es good deal of a boy. He a coward or a g, S or g work hard and play har ust be clean-minded and clean-lived, and able to hoid his 0 all circumstances and “In life as in a tt t fo shirk, but hit the line In such plainly t é m<é generations of Americans. Among all his messages perl g ( é sent which civilization is having to s gy st que Strenuous Life ‘In speaking to d di s most Ame the American chara: doct g tr strenuous life, the 1 ind st s ( ( which comes... to fror g ) s! Dy 0 t and who out of these I S with the nation g great part in the wor! ¢ selves is we shall meet them well or i The t tiet tur ooms befor s the fate nations. . .. If we shrink from th: i ntest here men must win a of their at the risk of all they hold dear, then the boldez i stronger peoples by, and for themselves the domination of the or Let Ss shrink iron moral or within or without the natio1 rs led ‘ : ertain that the strife is for it is igh hard and dangerous ends ine irae — ‘ ¢; vin t roa national ) S I ol to pe Tr st ion t ture A it d at cess tol if 1s i " our 12 trite e G ‘solg umosg fo fisajunop jo UOTYRZ 10 puv URULNEY OAO O} Sos out out sy oy} Ssaequino LO[PL YSOLtoAa {[O.1ns oyM Uvut AWOY G10 ONIMNOOTYSAAO 11SAS53S00U" Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End? LIMITS OF PHYSICAL AND INTELLECTUAL EVOLUTION OF MAN—THE FUTURE MAY HOLD NO RACE OF SUPER-MEN, BUT IT IS LIKELY. TO PRESENT A SUPER-STATE AND A SUPER-CIVILIZATION By EDWIN GR Ad. CORTE LEN Professor of Biology, Princeton University HE term “evolution” is used in several senses. When considered in its larger aspects, as for ex- ample with respect to the increasing complexity of organization in the suc- cession of life forms upon the earth, we are dealing with what may be called progressive organization or organic progress. When considered from the standpoint of increasing diversification, as shown in the appearance of varieties and species which are no more complex in organization than the forms from which they sprung and which may be even less complex, we have a type of evolution which is not progressive and which may be called speciation or di- versification. A third aspect of evolu- tion is that which deals with increasing adaptation to conditions of life and which may be called progressive adap- tation; this may or may not be asso- ciated with progressive organization or with speciation. Organization, of whatever kind, means differentiation and integration, specialization and codperation, diversity and harmony. Progressive evolution invariably and inevitably means in- creasing differentiation and integration. In the long history of life upon the earth, organisms have varied in every possible way, they may be said to have made millions and millions of experi- ments in finding the path of progressive evolution, and in every instance this path has been in the direction of greater specialization and codperation. Millions of years ago unicellular organisms reached the utmost limits of the differentiations which were possible within a single cell. Thereafter a new path had to be found if further ad- vance in organization was to occur. This new path was found in the direc- tion of multicellularity. Multicellular forms did not arise by the coming to- gether of separate cells, as is sometimes assumed, but rather by the failure of cells to divide completely; when the original cell divided, the products no longer moved apart as separate and complete individuals but remained at- tached to one another, and instead of restoring all missing parts as each cell did when it became a separate and com- plete individual, the initial differences between cell products were preserved and increased at successive divisions. In this way entire cells became new units of differentiation and at the same time all the cells remained bound together into a unit of a higher order. A wholly similar process of differen- tiation by cell formation takes place in the development of the egg; if cell formation is stopped in this case, differ- entiations never go beyond a stage comparable with those of the unicel- lular organism, and if the different cells fail to stick together they generally lose many of their differentiations and revert to the simpler organization of the egg. Whenever a complex protozoan divides, it goes back in organization to a more primitive condition, and after division it starts to differentiate over again; and so successive generations of protozoans make little or no advance in organization. But when the cells of a multicellular animal or plant divide they do not go back to the stage of differentiation of the egg but preserve the differentiations which they have al- - » oe 36 NATURAL HISTORY ready attained and continue to augment them during the process of develop- ment. In multicellular organisms this increasing differentiation of the cells is made possible by the close union and interdependence of the cells, whereas in the unicellular forms the very inde- pendence of the cells prevents increas- ing differentiation. In a manner wholly similar to the case of the one-celled forms multicel- lular organisms reach a stage of differ- entiation beyond which they cannot go within the limits of a single body. The very nature of differentiation signi- fies hmitations in certain directions in order to secure further development in other directions. If a creature have wings it cannot also have hands (ex- cept in the case of the angels) ; if it have limbs for running it cannot also have limbs for swimming; if it have enormous strength it cannot also have great delicacy of movement. Thus while certain animals are differentiated in one direction and others in another, no one animal can be differentiated in all directions. In man differentiation has gone farthest in the structures and functions of the brain. In many other respects man is relatively undifferen- tiated; his hmbs, hands and feet, his teeth and alimentary tract are far less highly differentiated than are these organs in many other animals, but his brain is much more highly differenti- ated. This very fact of a highly spe- cialized nervous system and a general- ized condition of many other organs has led to the wonderful intellectual and social evolution of man and has made possible not only the rational con- trol of his own evolution but also the control of his environment. Path of Social Evolution Just as the multicellular condition permits a higher degree of organization than is possible in the unicellular, so the union of multicellular organisms into a unit of a higher order opens up a new path of evolution and progress. But here also, as in the former instance, the principles of progressive evolution are increasing differentiation and inte- gration. In this way biological colonies or societies are formed, and in various animal societies one can trace the stages of social evolution from a condition in which all the individuals are much alike and the bond of union between them is a very loose one, to such soci- eties as those of ants, bees, and termites in which the differentiations and inte- erations of individuals have gone much further even than in human society. We do not know whether progressive evolution of such animal societies has already reached its limits in colonies of ants and termites, but we do know that further evolution, if it occurs, must involve a still greater degree of differ- entiation and integration of individuals or of colonies. Path of Intellectual Evolution Meanwhile man has entered upon a new path of evolution, namely, the in- tellectual and ethical, and just as there was a great forward movement when the path of multicellularity was taken, and again when social organizations took the place of solitary individuals, so human advances in the path of in- telligence and morality are perhaps the most significant in the whole range of organic evolution. Here, as in the cases of physical and social evolution, the factors or elements out of which the new organization is builded are present in the lowest and simplest forms of life, but it is only by the progressive differ- entiation and integration of these fac- tors that progress is achieved. The elements out of which the psychie faculties of man have been developed are present in all organisms, even in germ cells, in the form of sensitivity, tropisms, reflexes, organic memory, and a few other factors; in more complex animals these take the form of special senses, instincts, emotions and as- HAS PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION COME TO AN END? 37 sociative memory; and in the highest animals, and especially in man, they blossom forth as intelligence, reason, will, and consciousness. All stages of this development may be seen in various animals below man and also in the de- velopment of the human personality from the germ cells. No one knows whether human beings have already reached the limits of de- velopment of their intellectual, rational, and volitional powers. It is customary to assume that there is no limit to the possibilities of development in this di- rection, and certainly in the knowledge of and control over natural phenomena the most striking progress is now being made, chiefly, however, by codéperative effort. But this is not the question in- volved when we ask whether man has already reached the highest possible de- velopment of his intellectual and ra- tional powers. There is good evidence that no recent human beings have sur- passed in such powers many men of the ancient Greek race or many other indi- viduals who have appeared in the past. Perhaps the intellectual evolution of man has already reached its climax in these greatest personages of history, so that even in the distant future there may never appear greater geniuses than Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, than Shakespeare, Newton and Darwin. Path of Rational Codperation Finally, a new path of evolution has been found by man in rational codpera- tion, that is in the further development of human society on a basis of intelli- gence rather than of instinct. Certainly in this direction the limits of human evolution have not been reached; in- deed, it may be said that the rational evolution of society has barely begun. It is a notable fact that the social evolu- tion of man is going forward at a very much more rapid rate than his physical or intellectual evolution. In bodily structure and in intel- lectual capacity man has changed but little since the beginnings of recorded history, but in social organization the most enormous advances have been made, and changes are still going on at a rate which is amazing if not alarm- ing. The chief causes for this differ- ence in the rate of physical and social evolution are to be found in the fact that individual experiences are more quickly and permanently impressed upon the intellect than upon the body or the instincts, and especially in the fact that through intelligent society past ex- periences are transmitted to future gen- erations, each generation, as it were, standing upon the shoulders of the preceding one, whereas the physical man begins his development anew in each generation from the germ cells, and if he inherits any bodily features due to the experiences of his ancestors, a thing which seems most doubtful, they are very few and rare. Progress Has Ceased in Many Lines There is no probability that future evolution will develop more complex animal or plant cells than those which now exist or have existed in the past ;4 there is little likelihood that more com- plex multicellular forms than those which have lived or are now living will ever be evolved, for apparently the limits of complexity within a single cell or body have already been reached. Doubtless," both cells and bodies will continue to undergo changes which on the whole will lead to better adaptations to existing conditions, but such changes probably will be relatively slight as compared with the great evolutionary 1 Among animals no new phyla have appeared since the vertebrates in the Silurian, or perhaps even earlier; no new classes since the mammals in the Triassic and the birds in the Jurassic. In the evolution of animals only about fourteen times in the whole history of life have new phyletic paths been found and several of these were blind alleys which led nowhere. The climax of the progressive evolution of fishes was probably reached in the Devonian, of amphibians in the Permian, of rep- tiles in the Mesozoic. In all these classes the for- mation of new species has been going on more or less continuously, but progressive evolution in the sense of increasing complexity of organization has reached or passed its climax. 38 NATURAL HISTORY advances of the past ; protozoa will still remain protozoa and man will still be man. There is no evidence and little proba- bility that a higher animal than man will ever appear on this planet. To a larger extent than in the case of any other creature man controls his destiny, and even if the human race should be- come extinct, from what other existing group of organisms is it conceivable that a higher type could arise? ‘There are other animals which in certain re- spects are more highly developed physi- cally, there are social insects which in some regards are more highly developed socially, but no other animal approaches man in intellect and probably none will ever surpass him in the combination of physical, intellectual, and social ca- pacity. Furthermore, there is no present reason for supposing that in the future man will be more highly organized physically or will be endowed with greater intellectual capacity than have been many individual men of the past or present, though in both body and mind he will probably become better adjusted to conditions of life. It is conceivable that further evolution of the brain of man may occur, just as it is possible to conceive of a further evolu- tion of the neck of the giraffe or of the trunk of the elephant, but there is a limit to increasing specialization beyond which it is not practicable to go. It is doubtful whether the brain of man could undergo much further differentia- tion without introducing disharmonies within the organism or with the en- vironment, and the facts that since the beginnings of human records there does not appear to have been any appre- ciable growth of the brain in size or complexity, and that since the ancient Greeks there has been no appreciable increase in the intellectual capacity of man, plainly indicate that the possible limits of evolution in this direction have been reached. The most that can be hoped for by the scientist is that the standards of races as a whole may more nearly approach the best individual standards which now exist, and under a wise system of eugenics and education this improvement can be effected. Paths of Future Progress On the other hand, there is good eyi- dence that in social organization and in cooperative efforts the limits of human evolution have not been reached. The future may produce no super-men but it is hkely to produce a super-state and a super-civilization. Progressive evolution, then, has pro- ceeded along several lines and not along a single one; it may be represented, not by a ladder, but by a branching tree in which growth has ceased in certain branches but is still going on in others. In man there have been three main lines or branches of evolution,—physi- eal, intellectual, and social,—but in all lines progress has meant increas- ing differentiation and integration. Furthermore, the directing and regu- lating principles may be the same in all of these lines; it may be, for example, the survival of the fittest, but there are many kinds of fitness. Physically, the fittest is the most viable ; intellectually, it is the most rational; socially, it is the most ethical. These three lines are not necessarily antagonistic, as Huxley supposed, but all three may and do cooperate in such a way that each strengthens the other. Least of all is there any justification for the views of Bernhardi and other biological mili- tarists that the most powerful, com- bative, and dominating are the fittest socially. Darwin himself long ago pro- tested against this mistaken conception of natural selection and showed that in social evolution the most ethical is the most fit. But while these different lines of evolution are not necessarily antago- nistic, it is important to remember that all life processes, including evolution, HAS PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION COME TO AN END? 39 are balanced as it were between con- tending forces. Life itself as well as evolution, is a continual adjustment of internal conditions to external condi- tions, a balance between constructive and destructive processes, a combina- tion of differentiation and integration, of variation and inheritance, of the needs of the individual and of those of the species. And in addition to these conflicting relations we find in man the opposition of instinct and intelligence, of emotion and reason, of selfishness and altruism, of individual freedom and social codperation. The past evolution of man has oc- eurred almost entirely without con- scious human guidance; but with the appearance of intellect and the capacity of profiting by experience, a new and great opportunity and responsibility have been given man of directing rationally and ethically his own evo- lution. More than anything else, that which distinguishes human society from that of other animals is just this ability to control instincts and emotions by intelligence and reason. Those who maintain that racial, national, and class antagonisms are inevitable because they are instinctive, and that wars can never cease because man is a fighting animal, really deny that mankind can ever learn by experience; they look backward to the instinctive origins and not forward to the rational organiza- tion of society. We shall never cease to have instincts, but unless these are balanced and controlled by reason, human society will revert to the level of the pack, or herd, or hive. The foundations of human society are laid in gregarious instincts, but upon these foundations human intelligence has erected that enormous structure which we call civilization. Can there be any doubt that, if the evolution of human society continues in the future, it will bring into one organization larger and ever larger numbers of men until perhaps it may finally include the whole human species, and that it will at the same time lead to greater specialization and more inti- mate codperation of all its members? As the union of many cells into one body, the union of many persons into one colony, the union of many colonies into one nation have marked great ad- vances in evolution, so, let us hope, the union of many nations into one league may mark the next great step in human progress. Finally, with the development of in- telligence and of rational society we reach in human evolution the highest stage of organization which has ever been attained and, so far as we can now see, the highest attainable, for we have here not merely the differentiations of the human bodyand the countless differ- entiations of human society but much more we have the control over environ- ment and the forces of nature which makes man the most powerful and speedy of all living things whether on land, in water, or in the air; which gives him a keenness and range of sen- sation that are unparalleled elsewhere, and which practically extends his nerve connections to all parts of the earth. Man has indeed by means of intelli- gence added to his own personal powers the powers of nature. His evolution is no longer limited to his body but takes in the whole of his environment. This new path of progressive evolu- tion is in all respects the most im- portant which has ever yet been dis- covered by organisms. The course of from smaller and simpler units to larger and more com- plex ones until now, by means of rational codperation, we have govern- mental units which include as much as one fourth of the entire human species, we are on the eve of bringing together into some form of league or federation all the nations of the world, and we are in process of annexing to our own per- sonal powers the illimitable forces of the universe. progress has led ‘ ¢ Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey THEIR INTERESTS ARE SAFEGUARDED BY UNCLE SAM Now and then a ery is heard that birds are injurious to man’s interests and should be killed. For ex- ample, this last summer great pressure was brought to bear on the United States Food Administration to destroy all the pelicans in the Gulf Coast region, especially those on the coasts of Florida and Texas, because of the claim that they “existed by millions’ and were daily eating ‘hundreds of thousands of dol- lars’ worth of food fish.’ The Food Administration asked the writer to investigate this. With the kind co- operation of State Fish Commissioner Woods, of Texas, Conservation Commissioner Alexander, of Louisi- ana, and Shellfish Commissioner Williams, of Florida, I was able to cruise the coasts of these states and visit all the breeding colonies of pelicans. We counted and estimated their numbers, and gathered quan- tities of the food which the adult and young alike disgorged in the writer’s presence. At the conclusion of the investigation it was found that only about 65,000 adult pelicans were inhabiting the Gulf Coast of the United States in the summer of 1918, and that more than 95 per cent of their food during the month of June consisted of menhaden—fish never used for human consumption 40) Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey Brown pelican flying above its home colony on the United States Bird Reservation locally known as ‘“Mud Lumps,” at the mouth of the Mississippi River Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast FLORIDA, ALABAMA, MISSISSIPPI, LOUISIANA, AND TEXAS IN BIRD PROTECTION, THE FIRST WITH SHAME, LOUISIANA A NATIONAL By T. GILBERT MISSISSIPPI A NATIONAL PRIDE PEARSON Secretary of the National Association of Audubon Socicties O area of like extent in the United States is so memorable from the standpoint of wild life conservation as that region which we may designate as the Gulf Coast. Beginning with the mouth of the Rio Grande, this area sweeps north- ward, eastward, and then southward for fourteen hundred miles until we reach the far-famed bird islands of the Dry Tortugas off the south end of Florida. This region, with its shallow seas, islands, sand beaches,and extensive marshes, has for ages been the abode of innumerable water birds that have long attracted the avarice of mankind. Thirty years ago, when bird killing for the feather trade was at its height, one could have found a dozen vessels at once cruising the Florida coast in quest of the vast assemblages of gulls, terns, egrets, and shore birds which at that time inhabited the lands and coral reefs. Similar killing mangrove is- went on elsewhere along the Gulf Coast at that The egging also flourished in those and even later days. In 1904, Mr. Frank M. Miller, of New Orleans, reported that five thou- sand eggs had just been broken on one time. business of the Louisiana islands inhabited by in order that all the eggs gathered the next fresh ones. sea birds, morning might be For years cargoes of eggs taken in this manner were supplied to New Orleans. He stated further that at least fifty thou- that taken and manufacture of glue. from the to Texas, there extend vast salt marshes varying the markets. of Oo were sand eggs year used in the Along the Louisiana coast westward Mississippi River in width from five to thirty miles. This extensive domain, which the land has as yet. only partly reclaimed from the sea, is the winter home of myriads this recion 41 of ducks and geese. To 42 NATURAL HISTORY were attracted thousands of hunters, who, until recent years, shot unre- stricted the wild fowl that gathered here in winter to feed and rest. The markets of the Louisiana cities were open to the sale of the bodies of these birds, and enormous numbers were shipped to northern markets. The first serious attempts to protect the wild life of the Gulf Coast were made by the National Association of Audubon Societies. As far back as 1902 these societies were conducting campaigns of education and seeking to arouse among the people of that region an interest in conserving their wild bird hfe. These efforts have continued through the years, hut have produced little effect in much of the territory, and pronounced hostility has been encountered in many regions. Thus on July 14, 1905, Guy Bradley, the Association’s warden near Cape Sable, Florida, was shot by plume hunters and the birds in the colony he guarded were destroyed. Later, up in Charlotte Harbor, Florida, on No- vember 30, 1908, Columbus G. Mce- Leod, another Audubon warden, was killed and the boat in which his body fell was sunk with sandbags. The Association has worked system- atically for the establishment of state game warden systems in the various states bordering on the Gulf, but with only moderate success. In 1913 the legislature of Florida finally enacted a law providing for a state game war- den and deputies. Two years later the law was repealed. Florida stands today as the Rip Van Winkle state in the matter of wild hfe conservation. The state’s efforts to protect its wild life have been practically nil. To the westward hes Alabama with a short coastline, and inhabited by comparatively few shore birds. The subject of bird and game _ protection was taken up by the Honorable John H. Wallace, in February, 1907, and since that date this active officer has done much to conserve the bird life for his state. Passing on to Mississippi, we find the only state in the Union, aside from Florida, that makes no declared effort through state officers to enforce its laws for the protection of wild life. Two years ago the legislature passed a bill to establish a game commission, but the courts declared it unconstitu- tional, and Mississippi hunters kept merrily on as heretofore, killing very much when and where they pleased. In regard to Louisiana the story is a long one, if one should undertake to tell it all. Mr. Frank Miller, backed by the National Association of Audu- bon Societies, secured the establish- ment of a number of Federal bird reservations off the coast, and in July, 1908, induced the legislature to create a “Board of Commissioners for the Protection of Birds, Game and Fish.” He was appointed chairman of the board, and undertook the great work of conserving the wild life of his state. In due time his political life came to an end. Under the leadership of the present game commissioner, the Hon- orable L. M. Alexander, Louisiana has made notable strides in the protection of its wild life, and considering the conditions which he found when en- tering office, about six years ago, no state in the Union can equal his record. During the winter Louisiana con- tains more wild waterfowl than any other two states in the Union, and here also there are surely as many gun- ners to the square foot as can be found anywhere on this continent. Yet Mr. Alexander has secured the enactment of reasonable and necessary conservation laws and he enforces them with a tact and wisdom that are most stimulating. Aside from the Government bird res- ervations, the Audubon Societies’ is- lands, and the work of the Louisiana Game Commission, mention should be made of the three large tracts of marsh- land set aside as bird refuges. One of WILD LIFE CONSERVATION these, Marsh Island, 77,000 acres in extent, was purchased by Mrs. Russell Sage, and set aside as a bird sanctuary. This was in 1912. Two years later the Rockefeller Foundation purchased a tract of 86,000 acres a few miles to the west of it, sanctuary and declared it to be a bird for all time. Mr. Edward A. Mellhenny, who was responsible for both of these purchases, together with Charles Willis Ward, bought and set aside another reservation of 57,000 acres of marshland. These three tracts, earefully guarded at all times, consti- tute the most important refuges for wild life in the southern states. Thus time a slaughter pen for wild life second only Louisiana, at one to the state of Florida, is today occupy- ing an enviable position among the states that are intelligently conserving their wild life. There remains but one state along the Gulf Coast to mention, that is Texas. From the standpoint of the sea-bird life, which consists of gulls, terns, herons, and pelicans, this region is today not an important one, for the bird life that was once abundant has been reduced to extremely small pro- T ALONG THE GULF COAST 43 portions, and the state has done little to stay the hand of the gunners. Few birds along the Gulf Coast are now killed for the feather trade, with the exception of the egrets. Thanks to the wardens of the Audubon Societies and the Louisiana conservation guards, egoing as a business is a thing of the past, and as we have already seen, the killing of ducks in their winter haven, Louisiana, is now carefully regulated. It was shown that one more silly prejudice against our wild life was without foundation when, this summer, the food of the brown pelican Was Inves- tigated at the request of the United States Food Administration (for de- tails see page 40). As I sailed along parts of the Gulf Coast where twenty years found by tens of thousands and saw how scarce, in many regions, they are today, I was impressed anew with the possibility of ago water birds were destruction which man may work with the helpless wild life of a country, and [ felt again how tremendously impor- tant it is that the present generation should do all within its power to save the remnant of the wild life along our beautiful southern coast. Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, secretary of the practical investigation of the food of the brown pelican details regarding the rec results of the investigation by Mr. National ent demand of fishermen for the Pe arson, see pag ‘fred M. Bailey Societies, Photograph by dubon rapl page extermination of the brown peli making a 61) ans,and the Association of Au with photog For compart 10 2m *| Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey The Cabot terns (Sterna ice s acuflavida) are smaller than the royal terns, more slender and graceful, and of ef a disposition with one another. They are beautiful birds with silver- pearl wings, eyes of piercing blackness, crests of jet, and dark bills tipped with yellow—truly little “doves” of the sea. These terns have been especially persecuted in the past by the feather hunters and had become almost extinct when Louisiana, in conjunction with the Federal Government, the National Association of Audu- bon Societies, and various private individuals interested in bird protection, undertook to conserve the state’s bird life on an exten scale. Bird refuges have now been established throughout Louisiana and on the outlying islands, and a state board of comm oners! has been inaugurated to promote the protec- tion of wild life. During the winter Louisiana is a,haven for more water birds than any other two states of the Union, and in recent years she has occupied the enviable position of being one of the most con ntious protectors of her feathered guests 1 See note at bottom of following page. 44 Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana’ By ALFRED Oar 57.6 lel by Oh’ Of the Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans OUISIANA is so situated geo- graphically and has conditions so favorable for bird life that she stands foremost among the bird states of the Union. The great hordes of wild fowl from the frozen North, using the Mississippi Valley as a migra- tion route, find a place of refuge and a source of food supply that have no equal in any other state, and each spring when these winter guests again return to their nesting grounds at the North, veritable “snow fields” of white- winged terns and other beautiful sea 1 Tilustrations from a series of remarkable bird photographs by E. and Alfred M. Bailey. Note.—This state board is at present under the leadership of Mr. M. L. Public sentiment has a great deal to do with enforcing laws, and work. Game laws are not sufficient. birds arrive from farther south to take their places as her summer residents. In years gone by, this state was the slaughter ground of the plume and wing hunters, but today Louisiana has under her protection more than three hundred thousand acres of land and salt marsh given over entirely as places of refuge for wild life. Wardens patrol these areas continually, so that the large numbers of waterfowl shall be un- molested. Among early attempts at conserva- ~ tion in Louisiana was that of Mr. E. A. A. Mellhenny, Stanley C. Arthur, Alexander, and is doing a good eS S the State Department of Conservation and the Louisiana State Museum have been conducting an edu- cational campaign by means of motion pictures and exhibits of wild life showing economic and esthetic values. In a state so cut up with waterways and impassable swamps, it would be very difficult to pro- tect all places desired without this aid from the people as a whole. To carry on the work the department has eighteen patrol boats and a force of more than one hundred men. The men chosen for the work are those who chance to have their homes in the area to be protected. They are therefore familiar with the conditions of the region and are able to be on hand at all times. 45 46 NATURAL HISTORY Mellhenny, the well-known sportsman and conservationist, When he started his famous Avery Island heronry. This wonderful bird paradise is on a little pond of scarcely two acres, which was made by damming a small creek. Nest- ing places were provided by planting serub willow and buttonbush. In the swamps near by, Mr. McIlhenny cap- tured eight snowy herons, or egrets, a species which was at that time nearly extinct in this state because of the ravages of the plume hunters. During the summer and fall months he kept these egrets in captivity along the edge of his little pond. He visited them daily and they soon grew tame. When the other birds started their return south Mr. MclIlhenny gave his pets their lib- erty. They stayed around the pond for several days and then joined the others on their southern journey. In the spring, however, five birds returned and two pairs built their nests in the scrubby trees and reared their young in safety. That fall eleven of them migrated to their southern home; nine returned in the spring, and several young were raised. To increase the number of egrets Mr. Mcllhenny resorted to many experi- ments. As the little blue herons lay egos similar to those of the egrets and as their young are also white, he trans- ferred egrets’ eggs to the herons’ nests. When the egrets missed their eggs, they again laid, so that two broods were ob- tained in place of one. From that time on these snowy herons increased rapidly. Other species joined them until today the little pond has a wealth of bird life that can be equaled by few other places of similar size. I had heard of this little haven for birds many times and expected to find a wild, inaccessible swamp, but con- trary to my expectations, I found the heronry snuggling at the foot of the rolling hills of Avery, a most unnatural place for birds,—for there is a factory within one hundred yards, with busy factory folk hurrying to and fro, and a railroad runs along the edge of the pond, the birds nesting within thirty feet of it. Indeed, the birds do not even rise as the trains go by. And these are the same birds that go out daily to feed in the swamps and there will not allow man to approach closer than several hundred yards. Such is the response of birds to protection ! On the great wild fowl refuges of Louisiana a development of natural colonies is going on under the protec- tion afforded. These areas are care- fully guarded and thousands of black mallards and other summer birds breed here each year. The last stand of the roseate spoonbill in Louisiana is in the western part of the state at Cameron Parish, truly a wonderful sight in June when we visited it—and yet pitiful. We traveled along the Intercoastal Canal to Black Bayou, a weird, beauti- ful stream with its gnarled, moss-hung eypresses, and paddled down the little side stream in pirogues. We counted 287 spoonbills clustered in the tops of the cypress trees, their pink colors showing against the green with all the freshness of peach blossoms in spring- time. These few birds are all that are left of the large colonies which once gave color to the southern swamps. The year 1917 was very dry, and the spoonbills did not nest along the bayou, but they were building during our visit, and it is reported they had a very successful season. Their warden was formerly a market shooter and alli- gator hunter—yet he efficiently pro- tected the birds, and although he could neither read nor write, he could obey orders. One day some men came down from a town near by to “shoot out” the birds as they had been accustomed to do. As they were approaching, the warden paddled up in his pirogue, shoved his gun in the ribs of the near- est man, and then asked their business. They “allowed” they were going to kill Lt ydeasojoyd siqjy JO punorsa10; 94} Ul aonds ay} UL pajguNod aq und sjusoa poyoony AL Mau UVAaIY !UOTe}EP PLOAT OF [[aYs a suia} Sunok oy} [[vus AIOA UAT AL ‘“syuU MLS) ~UMOATS-[[A ) sn UL May. sieapuaedt uey yayyoods SI, SAUNA A10Y} Ul PalIvA SH 4st oY} PUL PsTJJOW A[SNOLIVA OAV SS50 OYT, “SuUYRQNOUL suAN} 9yV) SJUZInd YO puv ‘puLs d9Inq 9 UO 10 YId MOT]RYS vu ye ‘Ajuo 33 \ t 0} SV 4qnop ysBe_ 9Yy} JOU VARY OF Woes Spalq 91} 104 ‘parq dayjourn 107 punoy oq und voNndS OU Woas P[NOM JL RY} a9 Ie70) 8 SNYSL TWAOY GNV LOSVO S3HL AO DNNOA ANMOG SHL fiapog W Pally fiq YddDLLO0Y I Photograph by Stanley C. Arthur The skimmer (Rynehops nigra) is perhaps the most interesting species breeding on the shell keys of Louisiana. Great bands of these solemnly dressed birds stalk gravely along the shell and then rise and wing away with a peculiar erratic flight, swinging here and there, and calling out monotonously. They are very conspicuous against the ground and show up plainly on the nest, but sometimes in flight the whole flock will disappear from view, for their wings are margined with white and may blend with the colors of the sky ? Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey The young skimmer when crouching in the sands looks not unlike a young tern. It has the upper and lower mandibles of about the same length (compare with adult skimmer above). These birds nest in large colonies on all the “outside’’ islands of the Gulf Coast, choosing the exposed beaches as the proper place to deposit their three or four protectively mottled eggs in a mere scoop in the sand 48 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WATER BIRDS OF LOUISIANA 49 a few birds, but Buck thought other- wise and proceeded to read the law to them. He said that he had been com- missioned to ‘“run-hell-out-of” anyone coming in there, and he was going to do it. Under the circumstances, the men decided to leave the birds unmo- lested. In the last few years I have observed a great increase in numbers of the wild fowl which swarm along the Gulf Coast, and all the men living in that region say the same. In fact, the geese and ducks were in such hordes in 1917 that they inflicted serious loss on the rice farms of Cameron Parish. The ground was white with thousands of snow geese, and clouds of ducks poured into the fields. It is a sight that makes a bird lover happy—even though the rice farmer does not ap- preciate the beauty of it. The great “pastures” of the gulf, wide-stretching prairies, are the feeding grounds of a multitude of blue geese, Canadas, and white-fronted geese. I witnessed a flight of blue geese that I shall never forget—and yet the old-timers of Louisiana say there are relatively only a few of the blue geese left today. I rode on horseback late one after- noon to some fresh-water ponds near one of the Cheniers (an oak-grown ridge), and awaited the coming of the birds to their evening resting place. Before my arrival, one flock of geese had already settled, and I could hear their calls a long time before the birds came into view. When within one hun- dred yards of this great decoy flock, I dismounted and crawled along the edge of the little pool where I could watch them. Their white heads loomed up conspicuously against the dark back- ground, the sprinkling of snow geese marking the size of the flock, so that I could tell how far it extended, even where I could no longer see the darker birds. They “talked” continually, and moved about from one grassplot to another. Soon from afar I heard the echoing call of another flock of blue geese, a call from apparently all directions, clear and resonant, carrying far across the waste lands. In the gray distance, vague, wavy forms appeared, great V- shaped masses, wedging their way surely and confidently with little V’s trail- ing from the ends of the first great band, and weaving shadowy, intricate lines across the dim lit sky. The answering calls of the birds on the ground made a perfect bedlam, as flock after flock of calling birds circled out of the sky and joined the resting throng. There seemed to be from a dozen to fifteen flocks in a company, and as one company settled with mili- tary precision, another company would swirl in out of the grayness, while still another great horde could be heard off in the distance. I watched this con- tinual arrival of geese for more than an hour, until it grew too dark to see, and then I still lingered for the sheer joy of hearing all those wild voices. In the morning I saw the birds as they were leaving for the day, and again they seemed to fly in great com- panies, their long V-shaped flocks trail- ing across the sky as far as the eye could see, These great flocks of blue geese as- semble each winter on the _ wide- stretching prairies and the burned salt marshes along the Gulf Coast to feed on the tender shoots of the new grass. There are always a few white-headed patriarchs in the vast band which stand sentinel-like, and watch for possible disturbers. When alarmed the geese rise up in a cloud, like so many gigan- tic mosquitoes, and circle off a few hundred yards. They feed during the day and at night prefer to rest in the numerous lagoons that dot the marshland. Each day great hordes arise from the feeding grounds, circle around, and then head for the shell banks to “gravel.” ‘Hell Hole” is their favorite resort, and this “ CRS ake SAIS xh, Photograph by E. A. MeIlhenny The blue geese (Chen caerulescens) are conspicuous among the waterfowl for their pure white heads. These geese breed in the Hudson Bay country and migrate to the southern United States during the winter months. Great flocks assemble each year along the Gulf Coast to feed on the ten- der shoots of the new grass and to “‘gravel’’ on the shell banks. The mouth of the Mississippi and the region around South West Pass of Vermilion Bay are the greatest blue goose sections of Louisiana ane Photograph by BE. A. McIlhenny Occasionally the stock raisers of the western part of Louisiana complain that the geese injure their pasture lands, for these birds settle down in great flocks to guzzle in the mud, digging thou- sands of small lagoons across the fields. They are great “‘talkers’? when flying in bands or when collected together at night, but a few white-headed patriarchs always stand as sentinels to give an alarm at the approach of any intruder. The blue geese associate freely with ducks and other species of geese (especially the snow geese), from which they .differ little in habits D0 Photographs by Alfred M. Bailey MISSISSIPPI ‘‘MUD LUMPS” AND THEIR SUMMER RESIDENTS Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) nest on the different islands along the Louisiana Gulf Coast, and the largest colony in the country is found on the “Mud Lumps” of the Mississippi Delta. Through the faint blue haze of the gulf one sees what appears to be wooded hills with an outspread city at their foot. On nearer approach this resolves itself into a fifteen-foot mound of mud and a row of pelicans. The soft mud underneath the tenacious river bottom of the Mississippi Delta forces up bumps in the latter and then bursts through as a mud ‘“‘voleano,”’ forming small mud islands. The “dumps” most thickly inhabited by pelicans are found off the mouth of Pass 4 Outre, where at least 50,000 birds come each year to raise their young. The outermost islands are occupied first; then, as larger numbers of birds arrive, the islands toward the shore are gradually filled up, until finally all the islands are covered with families of awkward parents and downy white youngsters. Three chalk- white eggs are laid in a rather neatly made grass nest, although on some of the mud lumps which are devoid of vegetation the nests are merely a pile of sticks clumsily thrown together. The pelican nests are at times subject to raids by raccoons; in one instance nearly one thousand nests on Grand Cochere Island were destroyed by these animals in six weeks . ee Photograph by E. A. MecIlhenny YOUNG ANHINGAS, OR “SNAKE BIRDS,” AT HOME The anhingas (Anhinga anhinga) hide their nests in secluded spots directly over the water, frequently selecting the cypresses which abound in the swamps and ponds of Louisiana. The adult birds are wonderful divers and swimmers and when frightened tumble precipitously into the water. In fishing, the anhingas do not drop on to their prey, as do the gulls, for instance, but pursue their victim under the water as it tries to hasten out of harm’s way. They swim under water for long distances with only the head and lithe neck above the surface, looking not unlike some strange water serpent—in fact, they are commonly known as ‘“‘snake birds.” The young are covered for the first few weeks with a buff-colored down. They have the peculiar habit (as can be seen in the photograph) of drawing themselves up from the nest by placing their bills over a convenient branch or the edge of the nest. If the young are approached, they merely cling tenaciously to the nest, and when thrown into the water are quite helpless. For the most part anhingas eat small fish, but they will take any of the small creatures of the ponds, even young alligators and small terrapins. The adults feed the young by regurgitation The roseate spoonbills and bayous near the Gulf considerable size, and lay (Ajaia ajaja) nest Coast. The birds their three or four among the dwell near eg h t the old birds pass through their spring molt, after whic carmine and white, in marked contrast The beautiful little snowy egrets throughout the G trade until now the species ulf region, but they have 1s on the verge I are Tale ot ¢ Photo rraph by EB. A. dense moss-hung ecypresses by together on flat nests built wit gs about the first of June. Previous hey are arrayed in a plumage < with the dark green of the cypress Photograph by E. A tta candidissima cand issima ) were one n before the hunters of “aigrettes’’ for the xtinction. The snowy egrets start ting late es and ponds Mr. MelIther building their nests in remote marshes or on the margins of ‘Avery Heronry” with eight of these egrets on have become much attached its protection to their nestiz g plac a little y e, andr nd irtificially prepared for them rn to the heronr vear after F Mellhenny the lagoons h sticks of to nesting, of beautiful Melthe nny e common millinery in March iny started The birds ir to enjoy Photograph by E.-A. Mclthe nny The Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis) is the most common wader in the South. This long-necked and long-legged bird, with its beautiful colors—and its harsh squawks—nests in various heronries throughout the state and on many of the mangrove islands bordering the gulf. Being very pugnacious, it is almost a pest in some of the heronries, for it tends to drive out the more gentle snowy egret used to be their great slaughter ground, from which fact it derived its name; for the old-timers would say, “If you want to give the geese hell, go to the gravel hole!” Now the birds may gravel in safety. For “Hell Hole” is included among the protected areas. But if the geese are numerous, there is no word to describe the numbers of ducks that these sanctuaries. Yet even with such num- bers during migration, spread them over the country, as at other times of the year, and we have only too few. Off the Louisiana coast are the fa- mous breeding islands of the birds. A few years ago the boatmen plundered the colonies as they pleased, taking the egos and killing the beautiful terns for their wings. scarce as to be almost extinct in this region, but now the birds are swarming once again on these shell keys, the thousands of flashing wings lending their beauty and breaking the monotony of the wide stretches of salt marsh and shimmering gulf. 54 sometimes crowd Some species became so It would be hard to estimate the number of breeding birds on the islands for their habits are so varied. Close in among the salt grasses are the fork- tailed Forster’s terns. These active lit- tle fellows build their nests on the dead grass piled high by the tide; and the black-headed laughing gulls and least terns find comradeship with them. Too numerous to count are the Cabot, royal, and Caspian terns nesting on the outer shell keys. The Cabot tern is my favorite, for he is more fearless, more unconcerned, and seems to take better care of his young- sters than the cther species. When we approached the Cabots, they stretched their necks to full length, with crest erect, and protested at the tops of their voices. If we came too near, they rose and drifted gracefully away, and then circled in from behind and fluttered down to protect their babies from the hot sun. One tern I watched did her best to coax her little one over the rim of the beach toward the water’s edge. She would go ahead a few steps, teasing OBSERVATIONS ON THE WATER BIRDS OF LOUISIANA 55 and scolding, and then go back again as though out of patience with the way- ward offspring. Terns are ideal birds to study and photograph from a blind. They sail back to their eggs within a few feet of the photographer almost before he has had time to conceal himself. At first The adults of the little blue herons (Florida and easily mistaken for the adult and see page 67). The herons are and most inaccessible places. The species is still they are very suspicious and stand at “attention,” their caution and devote themselves to their but they soon lose domest ic duties. Skimmers, too, nest on these islands by the thousands. These grotesque birds ] ] KeEVS, stalk solemnly along the shell flocks of them black CC lors oleaming whole together, their in striking con- trast with the sea and the sky, and their white underparts blending harmoni- coerulea) are dark blue, young of the snowy egrets. All stages of plumage are found young, the birds of mixed colors being timorous and secl ously with the light shell of the ground, so that their elongated form and bill seem all the more out of proportion. The their from their habit of skimming the water for food. be seen skimmers recelve name Whole strings of them may their lower They darting along, mandibles cleaving the surface. Mellhenny young are white Photograph by BE. A but their between the known loc ally as crazy | erons or ; calico birds : IS1Vé é nd their rookeries ire wavs l wildest abundant in different parts of Louisiana are particularly and | believe they are more or less nocturnal active at dusk for | have seen them about at all hours of the night. fellows their The voune are fuzzy little and have a habit of “taking to heels” lmme diate] the VY see anyone, but 1 ] thev crouch down when cornered and depend upon their oTa\ coloration to protect them. They can mal little rit ) the Q: nd in no time by using } 56 NATURAL HISTORY their feet and breast, and when so crouching they will allow one even to step on them. Then there are the clumsy-looking pelicans which have so aroused the wrath of the fishermen recently along the Gulf Coast. The largest colony of brown pelicans in the country is at the mouth of the Mississippi River on the United States Bird Reservation locally called “Mud Lumps.” These lumps themselves are of geologic interest be- cause of their peculiar formation, being squeezed up from under the river bottom by pressure beneath. Here fifty thousand pelicans nest with their thou- sands of downy young and make the “lumps” one of the most interesting places in the world. The young when first hatched re- semble little black India-rubber balls, and are extremely sensitive to the sun and therefore constantly sheltered by their parents. In a few days the white down appears and the rookery is then white as a cotton field. As soon as the youngsters are able to paddle about, they keep their parents busy fishing in order to satisfy their enormous appe- tites. Then there is a continuous ar- rival of old birds from afar; a long string of birds flying with methodically timed strokes,—a few strong beats and then a coast, each bird following the wing strokes of the leader and all scal- ing so close to the water that it seems they must strike the surface at every beat. And what excitement there is among the young when the old birds ar- rive! The white fellows follow after with anxious begging cries; the parent bird opens wide her bill and disgorges the fish, while the youngster antici- pates its arrival by thrusting his head down the old bird’s throat. It is amus- ing to see a heavy young one, weighing more than the adult, feeding this way, and the more they receive the more they beg. They flop their wobbly wings and jerk their heads back and forth, blink- ing their eyes, and staggering about. They often receive so many fish that the tail of the last remains in sight, and when an extra large fish is taken, its course can be followed down the skinny neck. Often they become so gorged that they sprawl over on their breasts, or flop over on their backs with feet extended in the air. At first when I walked around the rookery, I thought these stuffed fellows were dying, but when they were straightened out, they immediately disgorged and _ started paddling away. Those birds large enough to travel take to the water im- mediately on the approach of danger, and they gather in large flocks as they drift idly on the quiet water and wait until their rookery is undisturbed again. Besides the birds which make up the vast colonies, there are many other in- teresting species nesting in this state. The ibis, the awkward wood stork, and the beautiful roseate spoonbill are found in different parts. The anhingas choose the cypress, hiding their nests among the dense curtains of moss, and darting away at the first approach of danger. What wonderful divers they are, and how interesting their young! (See page 52.) Louisiana is not a state of greatly diversified scenery, but she offers a beautiful contrast when compared with other states of the Union. The placid lagoons are bordered with huge ey- presses and wide-stretching live oaks, all clothed with a drapery of Spanish moss. ‘The swamps are often a jungle of tropical luxuriance, impassable be- cause of the clinging vines. The low- lands have their fascination with their beaches and wind-blown trees, their wave-beaten palmettos, and inviting waters. As a natural bird paradise, the state of Louisiana is admirably adapted to become a haven of refuge, which will be able gradually to send its feathered folk throughout the country to gladden the hearts of the thousands who wander out of doors. A SERIES OF DUOTONE REPRODUCTIONS SHOWING THE PROTECTED BIRD LIFE OF OUR LOUISIANA COAST BY ALFRED M. BAILEY Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey GRACEFUL FOLLOWERS OF BOATS AT SEA The laughing gulls (Larus atricilia) fish far out at sea, where their cries may be heard early and late as they follow the boats for the trails of refuse. The prolonged call of the flock is the most peculiar of gull cries and not unlike harsh, derisive laughter. Fast fliers, light of wing, and keen of vision, they sail with mar- velously controlled movements in graceful, clear-cut figures which make them a delight to the eye. 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KV ‘@ fiq ydvs00,0Ud re St, uol0utyxe 0} AjIvou pojung sureq ‘ssuryy PUM ut Aynveq jo oodrad 9[qey Taour ey} = pred pitq 94} pue sjueuI -euio0 ALOUI[[1W i0y purwep ut yonuur e0u0 ere sound ,,99}01918,, ayeoyep ‘suo, ou, ‘emIOY ~I18Y} 9YeUL Ayjeusn Aoyy Gory ur sdmeas 9} jo Auojouom Avid ey} YjIM 4seajzu0o qyueliaq Be sul -yYVur =ssey = yoRlq Assojs pue ‘sata pateysn[-plos ‘ede und oyIyM Ady ‘govid JO spillq aie sjoisa AMOUS aUL ‘Sdlayzvoy yoou pure sjsaro It9qy} sutyoor9 pue . s-en cree = F. A. Lucas 222 Additions and reorganizations in the American Museum’s hall of Primates With photographs of some of the Museum’s Primate groups IN GGG Dare ree ce ae He Ue li a wes, kgs RR RL a Or, Sean aor are See oo oo 2 Mary CYNTHIA DICKERSON, Editor Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NaturAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of membership. Entered as second-class matter February 23, 1917, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBERSHIP For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- erosity of friends. More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes of membership are: eee hs |. lw ek SS eee. ~. $50,000 mpeami@rnounder . . . . . « . « . « 25,000 memeetiane benefactor . . . . .:. . *. ~«. 10,000 eS a 6 06) RS EO OR 500 8 a rr 100 Sustaining Member. . . . . . . annually 25 manGeieMmember., “. . . . . .* . annually 10 Associate Member (nonresident) . . . annually 3 Full information regarding membership may be obtained from the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM Naturat History, recording popularly the latest activities in natural science and exploration, is published monthly from October to May, inclusive, by the American Museum of Natural History. The subscription price is Two Dollars a year. NAtTuRAL History is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of member- ship. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the Museum. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS A large number of popular publications on natural history, based on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of these publications will be found in the Appendix to Narurat H1s- tory. Price lists and full information may be obtained by address- ing the Librarian of the Museum. SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the inside back cover of Naturat History. Price lists and complete data may be obtained from the Librarian. Photograph by Champlain Studios FREDERIC AUGUSTUS LUCAS Director of the American Museum of Natural History ofore coming to the American Museum as director, in 1911, Dr. Lucas had many years of museum service as cure tor-in-chief of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and as curator of the Division of Compar tive natomy of the United States National Museum. He has given his labors not alone to the technical branches of zodlogy, but he h also furthered by his writings and his museum policies the broader fields of popular scientific education ee “The Remaking a Museum Collection,’ page NATURAL VOLUME XIX FEBRUARY, 1919 HISTORY NUMBER 2 Human Culture ITS PROBABLE PLACE OF ORIGIN ON THE EARTH AND ITS MODE OF DISTRIBUTION The time is ripe for organized interpretative work in world archwology, and such interpretation is of interest and importance, not only to students of anthropology, but also to the students of everything else that is human By . i eS 82 NELSON With illustrations from original diagrams by the Author HE origin of human culture is a question which has challenged the thought and imagination of man since long before the days of writ- ing. Nearly every people, whether of high or low attainments, possess myths and legends to account for the principal inventions and technical processes of which they make use. Prehistoric man evidently recognized that such ordinary things as hammerstones and houses and domestic hearth-fires had not always been ; that, in short, somebody invented them or brought them from else- where, and the person who accom- plished such a feat for the general en- hancement of human life was usually immortalized as a culture-hero. Our best known and classic example is doubtless the Greek story of Prome- theus, who, with the aid of Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, went up to heaven to light his torch at the chariot of the sun and thus brought down fire as a gift to man. The implication is that Prometheus literally stole the sacred flame and for this crime he was duly punished. But the gods had been outwitted ; and though they raged, they were doomed, for with the help of fire, man proceeded to make himself master of the earth. To the iconoclastic scientist of the last few decades such explanations have too often been only mere nonsense. We are still trying to explain the many gifts which our rude predecessors have left us to enjoy; and our explanations, partial and imperfect as yet, are at best written in terse technical language which only the specialist is supposed to understand. But some day when the matter-of-fact investigator has finished the skeletal structure of his thought on the subject of human cul- ture a gifted imagination will arise to clothe it and make it live. Of such poetic nature is undoubtedly much of the lore, like the Prometheus story, which has come down to us from the ancient East. Originally based at least in part on sound observation, it was adapted so that all who saw and heard might understand, each according to his capacity. We of the West with our cut-and-dried views on every subject have all too commonly insisted on literal interpretation where only sug- gestion to encourage original thought was intended. And what now of our modern expla- nation of human culture? We of the present generation think that we have done much in building the aéroplane : 131 : but in the process which we call cul- ture history, the making of a simple pointed stick for digging edible roots out of the ground, was hardly less im- portant. If now we should attempt to name all the discoveries and inventions which he between these two extremes we should be astonished at how much was really accomplished before our own day. We need not, however, go to such lengths here but we may properly ask when and where the more important inventions were made. When did man actually first make use of fire? Where were our numerous domesticated plants and animals first brought under con- trol? What people made the first loom, the first potter’s wheel, the first flint knife? The answer to these and sim- ilar questions is not yet recorded in books, nor is it handed down in reliable form as oral tradition. The material for the answer is scattered all over the world, even in places where we should not have expected men to congregate. For the most part the data lie buried in ruins located on the desert and on the plain as well as in the forest and among mountain fastnesses; they oc- cur in mounds and in cemeteries, in caves and in rock-shelters and even in peat bogs and the muddy depths of lake bottoms. The fact of these occurrences of the record of early human life and activity has become known largely through accident and it is only of late that we have begun honestly to admit their significance and to go deliberately in search of them. Where this search will ultimately lead we do not precisely know. But with respect to the time and place of origin of many of the fundamental ele- ments which go to make up what we term human culture a definite opinion is slowly gaining ground. Briefly stated this opinion is, first, that the most widely distributed inventions like fire-making and flint-chipping are the oldest ; and, second, that because these inventions are so nearly identical in NATURAL HISTORY widely separated parts of the world, they had probably a common center of origin. This center of origin is not yet definitely located but we know at any rate that it lies much nearer the cen- ter of the earth’s land formation than it does to any one of the various con- tinental extremities. In other words, it lies nearer to the meeting place of Europe, Asia, and Africa (a great tra- ditional center of origin, it is well to recall) than it does to the Cape of Good Hope, or to the far away island of Tasmania, or to the still more dis- tant Cape Horn. The whole question is one of pro- found interest and importance, not only to students of anthropology, but also to the students of everything else that is human. The subject is here approached from the point of view of several years’ archeological work done under the aus- pices of the American Museum in the Pueblo region of the Southwest. Cer- tain conclusions developed from this investigation are of such a nature that they seem to throw light not only on the archeological problem presented by the whole American continent but on the problem presented by the entire world. Discovery in the American Southwest of the Apparent Law of Distri- bution of Human Cultures In 1912 the writer began archzologi- cal investigation in a hitherto unex- plored section of the Pueblo area known as the Galisteo basin, directly south of and adjacent to the city of Santa Fé, New Mexico. The region, which was abandoned by native settlers finally toward the end of the eighteenth cen- tury, comprises about twelve hundred square miles and contains upward of one hundred ruins, about sixty of which are small, even insignificant, while the remaining forty attain, some of them, the size of respectable towns. After having spent a whole season sampling seven of the larger settlements, it be- came apparent that in addition to being HUMAN CULTURE the repositories of important materials for Museum exhibition purposes, the set- tlements, as a group, presented a very definite chronological problem. The ruins themselves showed some evidence of difference in age, and the broken pottery which lay strewn over their surfaces was particularly eloquent, there being a variety of styles, some of which were obviously not contemporary. In certain of the most recently vacated settlements one such style was soon eliminated as of early historic date, being always found in association with bones of the horse and other domestic animals of European origin. At the end of the second field season in 1914, through the discovery of occasional superposed ruins and also through find- ing a stratified refuse heap of consid- erable height, the time order of all the more distinctively local pottery styles— five or six in all—was determined, and it became possible at once to indicate with certainty the relative ages of the different ruins. This principle of ceramic stratifica- tion seemed capable of extension to the remainder of the Pueblo area and, after the contemplated excavations were fin- ished in the Galisteo region, the better part of two field seasons was devoted specifically to that type of work. De- cisive results were not immediately forthcoming, partly because refuse heaps turned out to be absent in some localities; but with the assistance of Professor Kroeber and Mr. Spier, also of the American Museum staff, other methods of determining the time se- quence of pottery styles were worked out, and at the present moment the general chronologic order of the most important prehistoric centers of Pueblo settlement is tolerably clear. In connection with this stratigraphic work the writer had occasion, in 1917, to travel from Santa Fé for about 350 miles southeastwardly to the town of Pecos in Texas with a view to learning how far the Pueblo culture had for- 133 merly extended in that direction. A variety of observations was made; but we are here concerned with one only and one which was not at first recog- nized as of any special importance. Santa Fé is situated on the extreme edge of the present Pueblo habitat and so, In wandering about the outskirts, one finds fragments of pottery repre- senting all the six successive styles or types characteristic of the various ruins of the vicinity, including the modern style (No. 6, Figure on page 134) which came into general vogue about 1680. This modern ware ceases, roughly speaking, about twenty miles south of the city. About twenty or twenty-five miles farther on, beyond the southern limits of the Galisteo basin, the next preceding style (No. 5, in vogue between 1540 and 1680) dis- appears. Fifty miles farther out the next preceding style (No. 4) drops off. Eighty miles onward the next preceding style (No. 3) runs out, and somewhat more than one hundred miles beyond that, pottery and other indications of former Pueblo life cease altogether. Such archeological evidence as remains beyond this limit is clearly assignable to nomadic peoples. The type of pottery found in the outer Pueblo zone is not, as might have been expected, comparable with style No. 2 of the central area near Santa Fe, but is in part a mixture of the styles num- bered 1 and 2. And, what is most in- teresting, there are associated with this pottery and certain other distinct Pueblo features several nomadic traits such as small temporary dwellings, mor- tars for grinding foodstuffs in place of the genuine metate, and so on. In other words, this zone clearly marks an ancient transition belt connecting the hunting tribes and the agricultural tribes. At first this zonal arrangement caused little wonder. It was regarded simply as the accidental result of suc- cessive advances into the Pueblo terri- tory on the part of the nomadic tribes 154 (Apache and Comanche) localized on the southeastern border—an invasion which was brought to a standstill close to Santa Fé in modern times. A some- what similar dropping off of the va- rious stratigraphically determined ce- ramic levels was recognized as taking place also in a northwesterly direction, the outer border being located on the shores of the Great Salt Lake in Utah. 3ut on this line, too, there had steady encroachment of nomadic tribes such as the Ute and Navaho. Gradually, however, it was been recog- bana “NOMADIC CULTURE ree - NATURAL HISTORY nized that a very similar cultural ladder could be descended in a southwesterly direction where several tribes still live a hybrid Pueblo-Nomad kind of life. On the northeast, no very marked zon- ing has taken place because here a high mountain range has served to ward off invasion and the Pueblo tribes have been left nestling against its near base from the earliest times to the present. The outstanding facts of this geo- eraphical distribution of Pueblo pottery may be represented diagrammatically as in the Figure below. And if we ~ Diagrammatic presentation of the geographic distribution of six successive styles of Pueblo pottery. the inner circle are to be found every one of the six styles, style except the modern occurs, ancient ware is to be found. manufacture. In the next circle every next to the last zone in which only the most illimitable The distance from the center to the outer zone represents several hundred miles. foreign area into which no Pueblo pottery Within including the one still in process of and so on out to the The last zone is the has penetrated HUMAN CULTURE make a sectional representation of the same phenomenon, to show the time or- der, we obtain a pyramidal structure as shown in the Figure below. Obviously the vertical and horizontal arrange- ments of the pottery series are identi- cal. That is, in digging down through our refuse heaps in the surviving high center of development in order to dis- cover the historical sequence of pottery styles, we encounter these styles in the same order in which they lie zoned out geographically. Our diagram of course does a certain amount of violence to the facts, but of that we may give account later. ‘The aim at present is merely to clarify the general situation. The first conclusion regarding this strange parallelism was, as has been stated, that it was a mere coincidence, an accident due to nomadic invasion. But some contemplation has led to the conviction that while certain fea- tures of the Pueblo phenom- enon may be accidental, cer- tain other features are not so. Thus even if the Nomads had re- mained quietly on the original Pueblo border we should s LATE PREH No.6 EARLY HISTORIC No.5 No.4 EARLY PREHISTORIC No. 3 ov region (No. 0), the transitional zone (No. 1), and the present high center of pure Pueblo development (No. 6), which in that case might to- day have extended over the zones num- bered 2 to 5. The relative positions of phases 0, 1, and 6 would have remained the same in our two diagrams. Briefly, wherever we are able to distinguish a culture center we are bound to have, first, an inner area of pure development, second, a surrounding zone more or less affected by traits “borrowed” from neighboring centers, and third, beyond that, the distinctively foreign area which may itself break up into any number of separate culture centers. In dealing with this Pueblo problem we might have obtained our key to the historic order of the ruins in the Galis- teo basin by determining the zonal order of pottery distribution instead of by searching the refuse heaps for the localized culture levels. And if there is something fixed and necessary about this zonal order, then it would seem to follow that we have here a prin- ciple of wider ap- plication ISTORIC still have in the had the PURE PU EBLO study of nomadic No.2 culture a ee ! TRANSITION LEVEL l ' No.} 1 | | 1 ' ee Pec P A ie eer be ee NOMADIC LEVEL No.0 Sectional view (along the A-B line) of the preceding diagram to show the relation between the geographic distribution and the historic order of development of the six recognized styles of Pueblo pottery. By digging down through the stratified débris levels, within the limits of the modern Pueblo habitat, the various successive pottery styles were encountered in the same order in which they were found in traveling radially from this place out to the extreme limit of former Pueblo influence. Roughly speaking, the older the pottery the deeper it is buried and the farther it has spread. This diagram and the preceding illustrate cultural distribution within a single limited area; but the order observed appears to hold true in a measure for all culture areas and for culture as a whole in its distribution throughout the world. This wider application is illustrated by the diagrams on pages 138 and 139 156 history. By means of this principle we may be able without turning a spadeful of earth to throw considerable light on a number of historical prob- lems, great and small, which have not yet been illuminated by the application of thorough-going archeological meth- ods. Space limitations forbid elabora- tion in this place but one or two appli- cations may be at least suggestive. Application of Apparent Law of Dis- tribution to the American Continent First, let us shift our point of obser- vation from the Southwest to Middle America, that is, southern Mexico, Cen- tral America, and northern South America. Here we find ourselves, as it were, on the summit of aboriginal New World achievement. From this summit, if we look northward over what is to- day tolerably well known terrain, we see a series of more or less distinctly marked culture zones occupying succes- sively lower and lower levels; and if we then look southward we perceive a nearly corresponding series of zones in that direction. Thus matching the Pueblo culture on the north we have the so-called Calchaqui culture on the south, in northwestern Argentina. On comparing these two widely separated centers we find not only a general similarity in fundamentals but actual identity in the case of several specific traits. Beyond this zone we observe a transi- tion belt inhabited by tribes who have adopted the rudiments of agriculture but who still retain many features of the hunting type of life. This belt in the north would include all of the east- ern two thirds of the United States. Still farther out comes a broad _ belt inhabited by non-agricultural tribes, that is, nomads who have developed a comparatively high type of hunting culture and who, whether roaming or stationary, are in possession of the northwestern United States together with most of Canada to the north and NATURAL HISTORY most of the vast interior portion to the south, in particular the Pampean re- gions of Argentina. Finally, on the extreme margin of the continent, along the Arctic shore on the north and in Tierra del Fuego on the south, we have remnants of two somewhat unevenly specialized centers which, however, from the pot of view of Middle Amer- ica, we may properly group together and classify as a low type of hunting culture. Complete justification of all the pre- ceding assertions would require lengthy discussion. Still, the only point here insisted upon is the general pyramidal character of our continental phenome- non, and that no one can deny. In the former case of the Southwest, we were obliged to admit the Pueblo pyramid to have been produced perhaps in part by the accident of nomadic encroachment. In the present case of America as a whole, our pyramid is the result of ex- actly the opposite tendency: archzo- logical investigations clearly show the higher continental cultures to have been steadily encroaching on the lower. Nevertheless, in both cases the pyrami- dal condition remains and for that rea- son the writer is convinced that it is not an accident but is instead an almost axiomatic fact. In attempting now. to offer an expla- nation of the visibly corresponding cul- ture zones of North and South Amer- ica, we are not required to deny the influence either of environment and psychic unity on the one hand or of re- cent trait transmission by borrowing on the other. We may insist, however, that none of these explanations is en- tirely adequate; and that instead—on the basis of analogy with our demon- strated Pueblo phenomenon — these zones correspond for the much simpler reason of being actually surviving parts of one and the same culture center which formerly extended over all the in- tervening area. Each pair of segments in turn, beginning with the Eskimo- HUMAN CULTURE Fuegian, has been separated and the connection obscured by the superim- posed development of a higher culture. The archeological test of this hy- pothesis is easily applied. All that is necessary is a careful determination of the various culture strata to be found beneath the topmost layer of our great pyramid. If the zonal arrangement pointed out for the continent at large has any real historical significance, then we should find in Middle America a corresponding stratigraphic arrange- ment. And, already, sufficient has been accomplished in this direction to assure us that the final result will come out virtually as indicated. This should mean, briefly, that the earliest culture wave to sweep into the New World was of the hunting type and approximately on a level with that of the Fuegian tribes of today. In the course of time this culture came to characterize the entire con- tinent, but was displaced by higher developments in the narrow confines of Middle America at a compara- tively early date, possibly long before the original primitive phase had reached its present marginal positions in Tierra del Fuego and Greenland. On some such basis it seems possible also to rec- oncile a good deal of conflicting anthro- pological opinion regarding early man in the New World. For while all agree as to the generally primitive character of Eskimo-Fuegian culture, some main- tain that it is not at all ancient. If now we can show this type of culture to lie at the bottom of Middle American developments we shall probably at the same time establish for it a very re- spectable geologic antiquity. Application to the World as a Whole The pyramidal idea, proved for the Southwest and indicated as probable for the American continent, seems true also in a general way for the world at large. Unfortunately, the earth’s land formations and their climatic provinces 137 are not so disposed that we can give an adequate demonstration of the geo- graphical aspect of culture distribution by simply laying down a series of con- centric circles. Still, the idea to be conveyed may perhaps be made more directly intelligible by such procedure, even at the risk of doing absolute vio- lence to some of the facts we are con- sidering. The best that can be done is to present a map of the inhabited world on a Bering Strait projection and with that point as a center describe our cir- cles in a partly arbitrary fashion. (See illustration, page 138.) The zones thus indicated might be variously named. Perhaps our ethno- logical terminology will serve best and we may begin on the extreme border and repeat inward toward the Bering Strait center, in succession: lower hunt- ers, higher hunters, pastoral nomads, sedentary agriculturists, and indus- trialists. It is not, of course, contended that this simple distribution scheme is literally true in all of its details, but merely that it is more true than false or, in other words, that it is fundamen- tally true. The most primitive cultures do fall within the outer zone, as the most complex fall within the inner circle, and whether we approach this inner circle from Tasmania or South Africa or Tierra del Fuego, we do en- counter the advanced cultures in ap- proximately the order indicated.1 We have, lastly, to look at this hori- zontal phenomenon in its vertical as- pect. Each of our most primitive cul- tures, surviving here and there on the margins of the Old as well as of the New World, shows such striking simi- larity to one phase or another of the ancient Paleolithic culture of western Europe that few students have failed to note the fact. And the notion of possi- 1It will perhaps be pointed out that a corre- sponding series of zones should be plotted within our inner circle of high development, grading down in reverse order toward the Arctic Ocean. But the circumpolar phenomenon has been left out purposely in the present broad treatment, first, for the sake of clearness, and second, because it is, after all, a feature due largely to environmental conditions. An nil NORTH AMERICA Ni | | il h | os wl “(| | | OUTH AMERICA Diagrammatic presentation of the general geographic distribution thro monly recognized culture stages at the time of the discovery of America. three continental land masses crossed by them is not to be taken literally given zones on any one of the throughout, nor is even the order of names to be considered hard a1 Accurately drawn, the zones should not be indicated example, the “pastoral zone”’ is all but nonexistent. CULTURAL Mi Hl | STR\ pm AFRICA ont ughout the world of the com- The indicated position of the id fast. In South America, for by true circles but by something like isothermal lines which would actually eliminate most of North America and a good part of northern Asia from the central area as now constituted. The idea to be conveyed by the above rigid diagram is simply this, that the world’s most advanced cultures are at home within the central area and that, as we travel out from this center toward any one of the land mass extremities, we find ourselves descending a cultural pyramid; and, finally, that the arly alike the cultures for the distantly separated land masses f the native tribes of Tasmania, South Africa, and are almost the same; whereas by ccntrast the cul- three farther out we go the cruder and more ne become. In other words, the cultural attainments 0 Tierra del Fuego, although very far apart in space, tures characterizing the central area are highly differentiated. ble historic connection thus engendered is greatly strengthened by a considera- tion of the archeological data for the world at large. In the case of America, for example, we discover at once that the resemblance in question was formerly closer than it is today. Briefly stated, our Eskimo and Fuegian cultures, especially the former, show strong Magdalenian! affinities. For the continent at large, however, 1 Various European culture levels of Paleolithic time, determined by the character of the stone and other implements used by early man, and thought to range backward from a few thousand to 400,- 000 and more years, are in their order counting backward from modern and Neolithic as follows: Magdalenian, Solutrean, Aurignacian, Mousterian, Acheulian, Chellean, Strepyan, ete. 138 the Solutrean flint technique is typical and has been typical, it seems, through- out nearly the whole known history of American developments. Only here and there, for instance along the Ar- gentine coast, on the isle of Cuba, and in the Ozark and Mammoth Cave re- gions, have we obtained more or less distinct traces of chipped stone arti- facts which in type and technique re- semble the Aurignacian and Mousterian products. Whether we shall ever be able to isolate definitely something cor- responding to the Acheulian and Chel- lean phases remains to be seen; but when we stop to consider the relatively enormous time interval covered by the HUMAN CULTURE coup-de-poing type! of implement and when we bear in mind also its nearly complete distribution over the Old World, it becomes obviously hazardous to exclude its occurrence from the New World. Most likely we shall some day re- verse the balance of American opinion against the genuine antiquity of the scattered finds already made in the drift of the Delaware and Ohio basins. But even if this should come to pass, it is probable that the various phases of Paleolithic culture as we know them at their best in western Europe can never be brought out into sharp relief in America. That is to say, we shall never be able to obtain clear and detailed stratifications, because the best part of the New World was so far away from the center of origin that the earliest cul- ture waves had spent themselves before they arrived here. No attempt can here be made to fix this center of origin or even to suggest that it ever can be identified with any particular locality. All that can be 1 The coup-de-poing type of implement resembles a large crudely made spear point and is the oldest implement recognized as intentionally made by early man. PR: GEOLOGIC /, TIME: ' VIMITS EE PANIES => STARA an ! npU' c= 139 stated at present is that seemingly the oldest archeological data known have hitherto been found within the limits of our inner circle, which also marks our present center of high development. Our oldest cultural remains have thus far been found in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, but for various reasons, theoretic and practical, it seems prob- able that still older remains might be found farther to the east, roughly speak- ing in central or southern Asia. But, wherever the first real inventions were made, it would be preposterous to sup- pose that all other inventions, even the most primitive and fundamental, were made in that same place. Throughout nearly all of culture history, conditions were probably much as they are today: there were a num- ber of culminating centers and the dominant one may at times have been difficult to recognize; but at any rate no particular center retained perma- nent sway. As within historic times, every particular culture phenomenon probably refined itself to the point of stagnation and ultimately fell an easy prey to any vigorous barbarian group. In principle there is no difference be- Zo : A possible explanation of how the zonal similarities for the separate continents came about is illustrated by a sectional view along the generalized A-B diameter of the preceding diagram. The view is taken along this A-B diameter but it should actually follow a line running through western and southern Europe as well as southern and eastern Asia. and is a repetition of the first two illustrations, with simply a change of text. The diagram is largely self-explanatory The only real modifi- cation occurs in the sectional portion where the pyramid has been inverted in order to indicate the passage of time while the normally associated groups of inventions and practices traveled from the center of origin out toward the margin of the inhabited world. Only the relatively crude cultures have arrived on this outer margin, where it is said they are not very ancient; but in the center of high development these same crude cultures lie stratigraphically very deep or, in other words, are decidedly ancient. For that reason it is assumed as likely that most of the world’s great culture stages first arose in the central area and spread from there as successive waves in all directions 140 tween the decline of the Pueblo culture and the fall of Rome. With all these limitations and _ pre- cautions in mind we may conclude our semi-speculative survey of human cul- ture with a diagrammatic presentation of what seems to be the essential his- toric and geographic factors involved. The elements of this diagram have al- ready been set forth in connection with the Pueblo phenomenon. The zonal schematization we may leave un- modified, but the sectional presentation, reared in the form of a steplike pyra- mid, although apparently correct, is actually faulty, as was stated. The constructional error in question was not so obvious, however, in the case of the minor Pueblo pyramid as it will be in the case of our great world pyramid. Briefly stated, the difficulty hinges on the fact that no single in- vention and much less any whole cul- tural complex, wherever it originated, could spread all over the inhabited world in the twinkling of an eye. If we grant, for the sake of argument, that density of population and consequent specialization along various lines of ac- tivity first came to a head somewhere near the meeting place of Europe, Asia, and Africa, it is obvious that it would take a considerable period of time for even the most adaptable sort of inven- tion to reach, let us say, Tasmania and Tierra del Fuego. As is plainly evident, very few of the advanced ideas concretely realized in the central area of high development ever reached the outermost zones; and, regarding those which did arrive there, we are constantly being told that they occur only superficially, whereas, in the inner area, the corresponding primitive forms lie stratigraphically deep. This signifies undoubtedly that millenniums of time passed while the various succes- sive adaptations in culture spread over the world. To represent the fact dia- grammatically we have simply to break the horizontal division lines of our ter- NATURAL HISTORY raced pyramid in the middle and then raise up both of the outer ends. This in effect inverts our old pyramid and en- ables us at the same time to combine the time and space diagrams into one. The result is indicated in the Figure on page 139. This paper is an attempt to present the large and complex subject of human culture in its simplest possible terms. The explanation is not finished. Actual inspection of details would immediately bring out numerous difficulties and weaknesses. It is* nots cot veourse argued, for instance, that the surviving cultures as we view them today, from the central to the extreme zone, will give us an exact picture of human cul- tural development. All the while since differentiation set in, these zones have reacted on one another. That is, a few traits have flowed perhaps both in and out on horizontal lines in addition to the many traits which welled up as it were from below. But ina general and at the same time in the most profound way, the outer zone has unquestionably pre- served for us the really ancient culture. We may properly conclude with some- thing in the nature of a prophecy. The signs of the times are auspicious. Events of the last few years have brought it about that men, in planning the future, have to think in world terms or fail. There is a sense in which the same is true also in connection with reconstruction of the world’s past. If, after a century of exploratory work in archeology, we still continue over local minutie to the exclusion of everything else, we shall ultimately become so bur- dened with endlessly duplicated detail facts that no man can master them and the wasteful procedure will break down of its own weight. If, on the other hand, we simply dare to see our prob- lem whole, then surely many of our present minor difficulties will fade away of themselves. The time is ripe for organized interpretative work. Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient Chiriquians By GEORGE Given hai CU rh DY Assistant Professor of Prehistoric Archeology and Curator of the Anthropological Collection, Yale University HE age of the cave artist was the age preéminent of funda- mentals in art. It was then that the arts of sculpture in the round and in relief, of engraving, and paint- ing were born and first flourished. This troglodyte art was remarkable for its realism, especially throughout its earlier phases. It dealt with life forms, for the most part those of animals useful to man. Its beginnings and its realis- tie character were due in a measure at least to the necessity of controlling the food supply. With the final retreat of the conti- nental glaciers and the disappearance of the reindeer and the mammoth from western Europe, cave art suffered an eclipse. The Paleolithic period was followed by a more practical if less artistic age, the Neolithic. While the men of the New Stone age contributed in their turn to art progress, it was in other directions, notably through the far-reaching discovery of the ceramic art. In any discussion therefore of Neo- lithie art, ceramic art plays an impor- tant role. This is true not only of pre- historic Europe but also of prehistoric America. Since many of the orna- mental designs that have had such a vogue in historic time had already taken shape before the dawn of history, their origin is to be sought for in pre- historic records. Since the problem in Europe is more complex than that in America, I have chosen some prehis- toric American examples, which seem to illustrate the principles that control the origin and evolution of ornament in art. These prove that Neolithic art, like cave art, reflected almost exclu- sively man’s zodlogic environment ; they also indicate that man’s attitude toward this environment had changed some- what, the change being measured by the extent to which realism was replaced by conventionalism, and the ex-voto by the totem. During the earlier as well as the later Stone age, man must have taken a certain delight in the beauty of animal forms independent of their real or sup- posed influence upon his fortunes; his ability to reproduce the chief features of the animal forms which interested him most no doubt gave him added sat- isfaction. The examples chosen all come from a single restricted culture area, namely the province of Chiriqui on the Pacific coast of Panama, and have been se- lected principally from the unrivaled collection of Chiriquian antiquities in Peabody Museum of Yale University. The specimens belong to the late Stone age, or, to be more exact, the transition from the Neolithic to the age of metals. They are almost wholly from the field of ceramic art and date from a time when the use of the potter’s wheel was still unknown in America. The pottery of ancient Chiriqui is divisible into a number of rather dis- tinct groups depending on the nature of the paste and slip, the form and fin- ish, the presence or absence of paint, and above all the character of the orna- ment; whether in the round, in relief, incised, or in color; and if in color, the method of producing the design. An outstanding feature of ancient Chiriquian pottery is the association of a given animal with a given kind of ceramic product. The next and chief 141 142 phenomenon is the proliferation of a whole series of decorative motives grouped about a single animal form and presumably derived from it. If this be true, then Chiriqui affords some striking proofs of the way ornamental designs have arisen and of the prepon- derating influence of conventionalism in their evolution. A knowledge of the folklore of the ancient Chiriquians might throw hght on why the artist made so much of cer- tain animals while ignoring others. This choice might well have been influ- enced by various considerations such as totemism, tradition, comeliness, or even the mere coincidence of similarity be- tween some artificial product and some well-known animal form. 'The favorite models were the animals common to the region in question, those whose pecu- harities of form and of habit were not beyond the reach of common knowl- edge. While the artist often produced figures with mixed attributes, their component parts are always referable to living local forms rather than to fabu- lous creatures. The largest group of ware is charac- terized by a distinct kind of paste and slip, the absence of paint, a remarkable purity of form and finish, and orna- mentation in the round or in relief. The ornamentation dominant is taken from the armadillo. or they may not hatch until one year from the following May if conditions are unfa- The cause delays or vorable. of these dormancies are often simple. The decay or rupture of an outer covering most monly produces. de- com- velopment. The cession of animals is well illustrated on a Chicago vacant lot. The area chosen for study with water in spring and with grass and weeds in summer. In a small part of it the water was permanent in all but the driest The parts which did not dry up afforded a place in which the larvee of the tiger salamander could develop to maturity. The tiger salamander comes out of the soil seasonal sue- was covered seasons. A small The seasonal succession in animal life is well illustrated in such a spot as this with its marked differences in temperature, vegetation, and moisture. For the order in which some of the animals appear in this lot see the following chart cause cessation of development are numer- ous, including temperature, moisture, light, oxygen, evaporation, quantity of food, or ab- sence of any one of many necessary food constituents. The reproductive bodies of the large gela- tin-secreting bryozoan which grows to be 1 When all conditions are favorable for develop- ment some animals fail to develop. Their life his- tories appear to be adjusted to the annual rhythm of conditions. The state in which an animal is when development does not take place although conditions are favorable for it, is called dormancy. as soon as the frost is gone, sometimes as early as the end of February or the first of March. The eggs are laid in March and early April and the adults burrow into the mud by the middle of April and are not seen again until the frost leaves the ground the following spring. The eggs hatch and such larve as find wa- ter which is permanent until the end of sum- mer probably reach maturity. By that time the young are sometimes able to lead a ter- restrial life. The spring pond cyclops (Cyclops viridis americanus) occurs only in ponds or parts NATURE’S MOBILIZATION Cyclops Copepod Temporary Pond Flat Worm Young Grasshopper Succession of five of the species—salamander, cyclops, fairy shrimp, red copepod, and flatworm—in a temporary pond on a vacant Chicago lot, from early March to June. The length of the animal's body (plus the arrow where present) indicates the dates between which adults of the given species may be found. The appearance of the grasshopper, a dry land form, is synchronous with the pond’s drying up. Disorders in mobilization are not so likely to occur under such natural conditions as under the condi- tions to be found on agricultural land where great disorders frequently arise, especially among insect species which feed on the agricultural crops The well- of ponds which dry up in summer. fairy shrimp (2Lubranchipus) is a known example of an animal with eggs show- ing “dormancy.” The local distribution of the fairy shrimp is likely to differ each spring. It is modified by the rainfall of the preceding seasons. When the rainfall of the preceding summer has been great, this and some other temporary pond species are found only in the smallest and highest (above ground water) ponds. Following dry: sea- sons they are found in ponds which do not usually dry, but which were dry the preced- ing summer. Their eggs must be dried and frozen before they will hatch. Their distri- bution, following the seasons of different rainfall, suggests that some definite degree of drying must be attained to insure hatch- ing, also that the eggs may be blown about by the wind. One autumn, about 1900, there was early freezing and cold weather followed by warm weather of a very springlike char- acter in December. It was observed that the fairy shrimps hatched during this period of warm weather. Cold weather came on soon after and most of these that had hatched died before depositing eggs, and for several years thereafter the species was very scarce in the vicinity of Chicago. The fairy shrimp is found most commonly in grassy ponds, possibly because the forested ponds do not dry sufficiently in summer. The minute red copepod of spring ponds appears to require a less definite amount of drying than the fairy shrimp, although it is found with it as a rule. It is found also where the fairy shrimp does not occur, and becomes adult a little later and disappears soon afterward. The temporary pond planarian, or flat- worm (as observed by Prof. C. M. Child’), shows very special adjustments to the pecu- liar seasonal rhythm of temporary ponds. When the animals first appear, soon after the ice melts, they are mostly only 2-3 mm. in length and commonly light in color. They grow rapidly and soon the dorsal surface be- comes very deeply pigmented, so that they appear almost black. They are very active 1 Biological Bulletin, Vol. XXV. 210 and move more rapidly than most fresh-water planarians. During this period they will eat meat and will gather in large numbers on pieces placed in the water. In about four weeks they attain a length of 12-15 mm., their movements gradually become slower, they cease to take food, become light gray in color, and the food-taking organs disap- pear. Within a few days after these changes they begin to divide. As the worms creep about, the extreme posterior end adheres to the substratum and the rest of the animal pulls away and leaves it behind as a small fragment which becomes more or less spheri- cal and within a few moments is covered with a slime which adheres to the underlying surface and hardens into a cyst. This pro- cess of division is repeated, often several times within a few moments, so that as the animal moves across a containing vessel it may leave behind it a series of such pieces. Under natural conditions the encysted pieces remain quiescent during the summer and the following winter; in early spring they emerge from the cysts as minute, very active worms which begin to feed. Com- plete drying under ordinary outdoor con- ditions is fatal to them; they survive among the moist vegetation of not-too-dry pond bottoms. By the time the planarians have disap- peared, grasshoppers and spiders have begun to appear. At the same time other land ani- mals begin to move about the pond margin. The tarnished plant-bugs, which emerge from hibernation and lay eggs in early April, reach the adult stage in June and are to be found all summer. Adult sawflies emerge from pupe that have passed the winter and their larve are on the young grasses in June. NATURAL HISTORY The buffalo tree hoppers hatch from eggs laid in the fall and are found in the adult stage throughout the rest of the summer. These examples illustrate some of the various peculiarities of life histories adjusted to the same climatic rhythm. The collection and arrangement of the en- tire fauna of this Chicago vacant lot showed the same thing! as the animals just dis- cussed, but proved much less satisfactory than was expected, owing to a lack of knowl- edge of life histories and an inability to identify young stages of insects. Disorders in seasonal mobilization on such a vacant lot are far fewer than the disorders among insects under agricultural conditions where nature’s usual sequence of plants is replaced by corn or wheat. Disorders of mobilization may occur under the stimulus of peculiar weather conditions, most easily in the closely set fields of agri- cultural conditions and results are such as we have noted for the “green-bug” in the wheat. This is only one type of disorder observable in agriculture. Others may re- sult from failures to spray at the right time, which mean greatly decreased production, wormy apples, spotted pears, expensive bread, and wormy beans. As yet we know so little in this complicated field, that ade- quate prediction of insect pests can hardly be accomplished. But its importance is such that we can well afford to struggle through its complications into the light of a knowledge which will make reasonably ac- curate prediction of the rise of pests far surer than now. This means a careful ex- perimental study of the conditions of such factors as temperature, moisture, and light, under which development can begin, and the rate at which it can continue. +Adult and juvenile spiders are among the best animals for such study. In the seasonal order, we start with the spring running spiders (Pardosa modica) in April, and we end the season with striped garden spiders (Argiope trifasciata), which appear as adults late in the season only. Where our collections proved at all complete it was shown that the juvenile individuals follow the adults of the early spring species and both precede and follow the species which mature late in the season. Nearly all species are adjusted to the seasonal rhythm of the habitat in which they live. Thus Dictyna sublata appears as adult in May and June when eggs are laid, and juvenile forms char- acterize the late summer and autumn. The striped garden spider deposits eggs in October and passes the winter in the juvenile form. The large jump- ing spider (Phidippus podagrosus) reaches ma- turity in July, when eggs are deposited, and young occur in both fall and spring. These differences usually represent an innate adjustment of the life eycle to seasonal rhythm, not readily broken up. It is to be expected that Dictyna will deposit eggs to better advantage, and that the young hatch bet- ter in May than in November, which is the breed- ing time of the common funnel-web spider (A gelena nevia). It is further to be expected that the young stages of some spiders will not go on with development until cooled for a considerable period. Perhaps one of the most interesting questions con- cerning the whole matter of succession of spiders is to be found in the fact that all these spider life histories involve about the same periods of activity and rest. The rest period falls in different stages of the life history in different species. (For a detailed discussion of this matter, with table show- ing seasonal succession of adult spiders, see the Author’s paper, ‘‘Physiological Problems in the Life-Histories of Animals, with Particular Ref- erence to Their Seasonal Appearance,’ in Ameri- can Naturalist, Vol. UII, pp. 129 to 154.) Yachting in the Seven Seas STRANGE SAILING CRAFT, EVOLVED IN DAYS OF PIRACY AND SLAVERY FASTER THAN THE SPEEDIEST YACHTS OF OUR MODERN BUILDERS By RtevAr Gee AS eBay Of. eke! Gai: Illustrations from original drawings by the Author INCE the dawn of time, man has gazed upon the mystic deep from shore and hilltop with an unconquerable longing to master the vastnesses beyond that elusive horizon which forever beckons like a Fata Morgana. There is but a single exception to this universal marine Wanderlust and that is found in some far southern parts where the dull-witted aborigines never have gone be- yond the occasional construction of boats of reeds or bark with which to cross the smaller streams. This lack of enterprise might be attributed to scarcity of suitable building material, the forests of Oceania being pre- ponderately of hard woods, were it not for the example set by the people of the North. The inhabitants of the tropics, on the other hand, were the first to overcome the difficul- ties of floating on the water, and from this to go on to the construction of vessels de- signed to ride swiftly over the waves in all sorts of weather. The northerners were handicapped by their inhospitable coasts and rigorous climate, so that all fine lines in boat building had to be sacrificed to the un- wieldiness and roundness of form which make for safety. The first purely floating structure, made of reeds or hide or similar handy substance, determined by the locality in which it oe- curred, was generally a one-man affair, pro- pelled by paddling with the hands. This form of boat is best represented today by the Irish coble or the bladder boats of India and Mesopotamia, kindred rudimentary con- trivances still being used in the enormous estuaries of Indian, Burmese, Siamese, and Indo-Chinese rivers. Boats of this character are made of a piece of soft wood about eight feet long, slightly bent upward and _hol- lowed out to a certain degree. They serve not only to float upon the water, but they slide readily and without much effort over the flat oozy mud banks where to gain a footing would be impossible without sinking to the waist or farther. Upon reflection it seems quite extraordi- nary that it took many generations before propulsion by paddle became common. It is not meant to convey the notion that odd pieces of wood or the like were not used in early times for this purpose, but the paddle as we know it today, of graceful line and light workman-lke build, was slow to come into vogue, as was also the discovery that more than one would add greatly to the speed attainable. The use of a number of paddles involved the construction of an elon- gated oval boat instead of a round one, and this was not really feasible until man had learned the use of fire and sharp-edged tools, enabling him to fell and hollow out large trees. In this art of wood-shaping craft the Burmese excel all others. One need only coutemplate the keel of one of their enor- - mous but graceful boats to learn this fact. It requires skill of the very highest sort to take a tree trunk, often more than seventy feet in length, trim it, and fashion it into a thing of beautiful outline, with a proper “sheer” to it, the bow and stern rising pro- portionately above the “waist,” while the center itself is artificially pressed and flat- tened out to accommodate the broad-bilge frame timbers which go to make the stability and carrying capacity of every well-con- structed vessel. The full-powered paddle capacity at its maximum of course could be evolved only in localities where suitable tim- ber of great bulk and straight growth could be obtained, as on the Pacific slope of North America, in some of the larger islands of the Pacific, in certain parts of South America, and along the larger rivers of Africa. We find the oar brought to greatest perfection in the northern part of the Old World, in the viking ships, the galleys of the Mediterra- nean, and the great clumsy craft of the Middle Kingdom. An immense stride forward in ocean in- tercommunication was made when man first learned to utilize the wind as a means of pro- pulsion. The deterrent factor, it seems, was not so much the lack of knowledge of the wind’s power—for that must have been uni- versally evident at an early date—as of the proper means by which to apply and control it. O1OM ‘106 [uo {qyjed ajop “snp YW) jo oqny jByuOoZtoYy « Lb “SRIOUITO OM] O18 paryy of} sop sodo. Aye Painting the Solar Corona By HOWARD RUSSELL BUTLER, NA Illustrations from drawings which give the artist’s records made at the time of the eclipse and explain his method of work: also from the artist’s paintings of the phenomena of the eclipse, color plate opposite, and frontispiece in color ‘Total Eclipse of the Sun, June 8, 1918,” opposite page 245 N May, 1918, I received an invitation from Mr. Edward D. Adams, well known as a patron of science and art, to accompany him to Baker, Ore- gon, where the United States Naval Observatory had established its station for observing the total solar eclipse of June 8, 1918. Professor S. A. Mitchell, director of the Leander McCormick Observatory of the University of Vir- ginia, and Mr. Adams had agreed that a painting of the corona might be made which would have both scientific and artistic interest. Many drawings and countless photo- graphs (some colored by hand) have been made of solar coronas, but I was told that no record existed of any painting actually made from direct observation. The invitation was there- fore accepted as a unique opportunity. As a portrait painter I have usually asked for ten or twelve sittings of two hours each: now I was asked to render my subject in 112 seconds. The method of procedure therefore became all-im- portant. The first step was to study the re- ports in astronomical and popular works of previous eclipses and thus familiarize myself with all attempts to describe or record the form and color of the corona and prominences. Of these attempts there are a great num- ber. They describe an outer corona, varying in extension from a fraction of a diameter of the moon to many diam- eters, the color usually being described as pearly and variously tinged ; an inner corona, more brilliant than the for- mer; and the prominences of incan- descent hydrogen, variously described 264 as red, ruby colored, pink, and blood- red. In addition to these, my picture would have to show the dark surface of the moon, and the sky with whatever color value it chanced to have at the moment of observation. As regards the shape and the exten- sion of the outer corona, a theory exists that it varies inversely in size as the combined area of sun spots, and this seemed to be confirmed by about twenty drawings of previous eclipses, which I made from photographs and prints and reduced to the same scale. Thus in the eclipse of 1900, when sun spots were at a minimum, the corona exhibited wide extensions, having inter- esting shapes, two of which became known as the “Angel Wing” and the “Herring Tail” extensions. As the number and size of sun spots seem to vary quite regularly, so that the maxi- mum is reached about every eleven years, and as we were hear a maximum period, wide extensions of the outer corona were not to be looked for. We expected about three fourths of a diam- eter on each side and this is about what we saw. All reports of the so-called “inner corona” agree that the part nearest to the sun is very brilhant and this inner corona is usually described as whitish in color. The transition from this inner portion to the far less brilhant outer part is quite abrupt, but one of the questions on which there seems to be a difference of opinion concerns an abso- lute demarcation between the inner and the outer coronas. I found none. As regards the prominences—while often discernible with the naked eye, it ee on ie mal Details of the hydrogen prominences, June 8, 1918, including the “ Eagle Prominence.” In outline this prominence looks like an eagle alighting on the top of a cliff a* oe ao a PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA is necessary to have a good glass to get the details of shape and to study the color rightly. The Naval Observatory put at my disposal a fine pair of Zeiss binoculars, which proved of the greatest value. I realized in advance that my hardest task would be to portray these prominences in their proper color and brilliancy. According to Professor Mitchell, I was to expect them to have a color not unlike that of the hydrogen line Ha in the spectrum, possibly slightly modified by the much fainter bluish line; and ample opportunity to study these lines in the spectro- scope was given to me. How best to render this color in paint and to give it its luminous character was the problem. tealizing that this would necessarily be the brightest tone in the picture and that it would have to stand out bril- liantly against the tone of the inner corona, also bright, I set to work to produce the brightest possible red ; that is, the one which stood highest in a scale of values of which varnished ivory black was zero and the best lead white (commercially known as silver white) was 100. I tried French pastels and rater colors, the latter over Whatman paper, but ultimately found that I could do best with oil paint. The process of obtaining this red de- cided upon for the final picture, but which takes more time than I had at Baker, was to prepare a hard surface of silver white, well dried, to paint over that a thin coating of zine white tinged with orange cadmium, and, when that was perfectly dry, to glaze it richly with rose madder or garance rose doré. This gave the tone with its fiery quality, but alas, its value, while the highest that I could get, was down to from 65 to 70 in the black and white scale. The highest value obtained by mixing wet colors at Baker was about 60. Granting this to be the highest note that I could have in my picture, I next addressed myself to the lowest. Would 265 this be the sky or the dark surface of the moon? Regarding the color and value of the clear sky during solar eclipses, there were varying opinions. Many drawings show the moon as black against a sky represented by a medium gray. These I believed to be incorrect and found them so. The moon, having a less luminous quality than the sky and surrounded by the brilliancy of the corona, should appear slightly darker by optical illusion. The sky value was at any rate the safer note to work from and, except for the slight variation al- luded to in the moon, it would surely be the darkest value in the picture. Assuming then a sky value of say 25 and a prominence red value of say 60, the total variation in values would thus be limited to 35 points—surely a small range with which to reproduce so bril- liant a phenomenon. The method of working finally adopted may be called a shorthand method. It was to have a sheet of white cardboard on the easel with a series of concentric circles and radii drawn upon it in advance. One of these circles was to have the same diameter as the photo- graphs of the moon to be taken in the sixty-five-foot camera, namely, seven and three-eighths inches. There was to be an inner circle of half this diameter and outer circles whose diameters were respectively one and one half, two, and two and one half times that of the inner circle. I expected to use the seven and three-eighths inch diameter, and did actually use it, but I was thus prepared, in case of an unexpectedly extended corona, to reduce the scale to one half and get everything on the cardboard. In front and beneath my cardboard was a finished sample picture of a corona, painted in advance as I expected it would appear, and my plan was to indi- cate by initials at points on my card- board the variations of color from this picture ; thus b was to mean a variation toward blue from the sample picture, 266 and y more toward yellow. I wrote out the procedure as follows and tacked it alongside the easel. Practice enabled me to allot a certain number of seconds to each item. Procedure Seconds Note value and color of sky. . . . 10 Draw value line on moon. . . . . 10 Note colors of:moon, «= =~ . = = J0 Draw outline of corona . . . . . 20 Use Zeiss binoculars . . ee aU Record positions of prominences. peo lll) Note color and value of prominences . 10 Note colors and values of corona, etc. . 20 110 Then my plan was to paint a first picture from this resulting memoran- dum, while the impression was vivid, and as soon as there was sufficient light to proceed by. Several methods of still further shortening the process naturally pre- sented themselves, which can best be understood by a simple diagram. Thus let the vertical axis (Fig. 1) represent values in the black and white scale and the horizontal axis distances in terms of lunar radii. Then a simple stroke A at 65 gives the value of the prominence, and the added expression ry means “rose very strong with a tinge of yel- low.” The line B represents the values of the corona. Any distinction between an inner and outer corona could benoted by a quick fall, as at b, in the line. Two tangents were drawn in advance on my cardboard for use as vertical axes. The line C would show the moon to be light in the center and dark on the edges, in this case tinged with green and brown. After the actual experience, I cannot think of a better plan than this one. The observation station was inthe Fair Grounds at Baker, about a mile and a half from the center of the town. It was surrounded by a wall and low buildings, which insured privacy. A grand stand ran north and south with a double door opening from the top aisle. This door, intended as an exit or fire escape, opened upon a platform with flights of NATURAL HISTORY steps descending both ways. This plat- form was assigned to me and on it I erected a strong easel and shelves ex- tending to right and left and making an angle with each other. Wind guards and braces were added. The platform faced west and, as the sun at the time of the eclipse was to be about 12° south of west, the position could not have been better. It had also a great advan- tage in being so high up that I could look over the surrounding walls and low buildings and get a fine view of the valley and of the Elk Horn Range in the direction of northwest along the line of the approaching shadow. By keeping the north half of the door into the grand stand closed and boring a small hole through the door, an excel- lent camera obscura was obtained, the image of the sun appearing on a tilted white covered board on the inner side of the door. I had been advised and had determined not to look at the sun for a considerable time before totality so as to avoid what is known as retina- fatigue, which is certain to result from looking at the brilliant crescent. The camera obscura gave all the informa- tion wanted as to the diminishing cres- cent and yet left me free to watch for the approaching shadow. As the day drew near drills were in- stituted, eight or ten of which I at- tended; each time I went through the procedure as outlined, drawing an imaginary eclipse. The counter, a naval officer, called each minute from five before to one before, and then gave the call, “thirty seconds.” The word “oo” was given by Mr. J. C. Ham- mond, astronomer of the Naval Obser- vatory. (On the occasion itself this word was given, of course, from ac- tual observation of the eclipse.) The counter then called seconds from 1 to 112, when the performance would sup- posedly be over. These drills were in- valuable. At first contact, June 8, 2.47 P.M., all was ready, but the sky was so cloudy PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA oo lor) ~2 Fio J TOTAL SOLARECLIFSE ZUNE 8, 19/8, BAKER, OHE- SHORT-HAND METHOD OF FECORLING YALVES&— SKY VALUE Two diagrams combined, one illustrating the artist’s shorthand method of recording during the few seconds of the eclipse the brightness of the colors in the corona, the other a method of noting the depth of shadow on different areas of the moon's disk. One diagram consists of the two perpendicular lines, or axes, and the curve B. The vertical axis represents a scale for measuring the brightness of a color, considering ivory black as zero and silver white as 100. Distance on the horizontal axis measures distance on the sky beyond the moon’s edge measured in radii of the moon (‘“1R” equals a distance of one radius or half the moon’s diameter from the moon’s edge). This horizontal axis is drawn through 30 on the brightness scale, that being the estimated brightness value of the sky during the eclipse. A curve drawn between the axes shows the variation in brightness of the corona at any given point, beginning at the inner edge of the corona and passing outward to the dark sky; that is, the color in the inner corona close to the moon is 60 on the scale (or in other words the tone of the inner corona is about three fifths as bright as silver white). From the curve drawn down- ward from 60 we see that the corona at 1R (one radius distant from the moon’s edge) had fallen to a brightness of about 40, and slightly beyond the length of 2R it disappears, blending with the sky. The line A is the artist’s shorthand to indicate that the prominences had a brightness value of 65 and “ry is a quick way of recording it if they were ‘‘very rosy, tinged with yellow.” These two axes were drawn on the cardboards on which the eclipse was to be drawn, in advance, on two sides of the circle of the moon (see Figure 2), being represented as tangents to the moon’s circle (see right hand and upper left hand of figure). By means of the curves drawn in on these axes with great speed during the eclipse, we can read off the brightness of the corona’s colors at any distance from the moon. The line C in the other diagram (the moon's disk at the left) is a shorthand way of indicating that the moon was lighter in the center than at the edges and that these edges were darker than the sky. The “Br.” and “Gr.’’ indicate a tinge of brown and green respectively that few of the eighteen members of the party expected any good results. A gloom more dense than the cloud over- hung the spirits of the camp. But at half past three the clouds had grown decidedly thinner, and at ten minutes of four a large area of blue sky ap- peared to the right of the sun. Then the sky cleared so rapidly that all hopes were revived, in the belief that when totality would take place at 4.03.52 the sun would be found in an absolutely clear sky. Standing with the sun back over my left shoulder—it was at an elevation of about 45°—I looked at the diminish- ing crescent on the face of the camera obscura until the eall “one minute” was heard. Then, turning my eyes to the northwest, I gazed at the north end of 268 NATURAL HISTORY FIG, 2 TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSk TUNE 8. 19/8. BAKER, ORE. ¢ CRIGINA L DRAWING AGN / hy SQ 4 This is a reproduction of the actuai original sketch, made at the time of the eclipse, on a card- board on which the radial lines, circles, and tangents had been prepared in advance. This is the artist’s record, not only of the general outlines of clouds and corona, but also of the colors which are indicated by initials or words (underscored when the color is intense), and of the brightness of the various parts of the corona, indicated by numbers and by curves such as are ex- plained in the preceding figure. The artist had painted previously a picture of the way in which he ‘expected’ the eclipse to appear and no time was wasted putting in colors or tones which were approximately correct in the prepared sketch the Elk Horn Range and the inter- vening valley. Roosters were crowing loudly on the neighboring farm; a greemsh pallor overspread the land- scape—but it was not very dark. To the northwest, however, the sky was growing dark. The last half minute seemed long. My eyes were fixed on the sky line. Suddenly the entire range fell to a deep low-valued blue, and simultaneously the lower part of the sky above the range turned to a rich yellow inclining to orange streaked with two horizontal blue-gray clouds. Above me the sky darkened rapidly. For an instant the valley retained its lght green color and then the shadow seemed to rush toward us and all was engulfed as the call “Go” was shouted. The accompanying color illustration of the approaching moon shadow (op- posite page 264) is from a “memory” painting made the next day, the time ten seconds before totality. Turning on my heel, I looked at the corona, blazing steadily in the heavens as if it had always been there. The clear space in the sky had not quite reached the sun. The thin intervening cloud ex- tended to right and left of the sun and stood out with its edges illuminated and sharply defined against a velvety night sky of wonderful bluish violet. Here was a new problem. I had not expected the cloud. I began by draw- ing the outline of the cloud (slightly nearer the sun than it actually was so as to get both cloud and sky well on the PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA 269 TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE! JUNE @. 1918. BAKER. ORE: AMENDED DRAWING BASED ON DRAWINGS, NEGATIVES UND FOS/T/VES. 4 A beat The artist’s original drawing as amended later by reference to photographs made of the corona. S . t=) The details of the polar rays and of the prominences had been left for the cameras to record. Careful drawings of these features and of the variations in shading of the corona resulted in this composite picture on which was based the painting of the corona (see plate opposite page 245). The lines out- lining the corona in this figure may be regarded as contours of luminosity, showing the range and extent of certain degrees of brilliancy around the disk cardboard), then entered the value and color of the sky as 30 bv, and the cloud edges which were higher and silvery. The cloud itself, of varying thicknesses, Was warmer in tone than the sky and played, I estimated, between 30 and 40. The moon was about the same value and much grayer than the sky. I was not conscious of any considerable variations of value in the moon and failed to put in the value line. The blackishness of the moon and the center lighter than the edges were undoubtedly optical illu- sions. Next a quick outline of the corona was made, most attention being paid to the larger rays. Then the bin- oculars (which had been previously adjusted and focused) were used. Two splendid prominences, slightly pinker and lighter than I had expected, ap- peared—one near the top of the sun and the other on the left side below the horizontal. I gave these the highest value which I then thought could be produced by mixing oil paints, viz., 60r. A rose-colored glow stretched along the lower right side of the limb, the value of which was first recorded on the chart aseoUs I recorded two lines of values for the outer corona. I saw no distinct separation of the inner and _ outer coronas. On the upper left exten- sion greenish and yellowish tones were recorded. No time wasted on tones thought to be correct in the sam- ple picture. On the whole the corona was less biue than my sample and it retained briliancy farther out than | expected. Had it been seen against the blue sky it probably would have ex- tended still farther and its disappear- Was 270 NATURAL HISTORY PROMINENCE RED HYDROGEN « CORONA FIC.4 TOTAL ECLIPSE OF SUN JUNE 8 1918, BAKER, ORE. VALUES AS NOTED BY He wa rid. Russe)] Puller A graphie representation of the scale of brightness values of the various colors found in the eclipse phenomena.—Varnished ivory black is taken as zero and the best white lead (silver white) as 100 for the points of reference. The most brilliant shades were found in the prominences which consist for the most part of incandescent hydrogen gas with a color approaching that of the red hydrogen line of the spectrum. By careful painting the brightness of the reds used in portraying the prominences was forced up to 67, and a very fiery quality given to them. The brightness of the sky was pitched at 25, as was the moon, while it was estimated that the clouds ranged from 30 to 40, and the corona from about 30 to 60 anee might have been more gradual. Two of the so-called inner corona were very brilliant, although of course not as high in value as the prom- inences. ‘These were next to the limb and were very neutral as to color. I outhned them and marked them “whitish,” but got one of them in the wrong place. This brought my eyes to the picture for several seconds. About the ninety-fifth second I looked up and was surprised to see that the pink glow had lengthened out and risen in value. This change was due to the motion of the moon, which had by that time un- covered a magnificent solar eruption, but I had no time to take up the glasses. I outlined this glow, its value fully up to 60, which I entered afterward. Fig- ure 2 is a reproduction of the original drawing. Toward the end I re-outlined the corona, indicating rapidly the polar rays, for the accurate drawing of which, as well as for that of the promi- sections nences, I intended to rely on the photo- graphs. These rays were decidedly apparent. Suddenly I was blinded by the first of the “Baily’s Beads,” or the first glimpse of the solar crescent broken by the rough hmb of the moon. It looked like a miniature sun radi- ating in all directions. And all was over. Thanks to the privacy of the grounds and the consideration shown me I was able to proceed at once with my first oil sketch, and for two hours worked uninterruptedly. The next day, June 9, I painted the picture of the approach- ing moon shadow over the Elk Horn Range as I remembered it and also a second oil of the corona. While disappointed in not seeing the corona in a cloudless sky, the thin veil had its advantage from the artist’s standpoint. It added mystery and the effect was picturesque. The brilliant corona burned through the thin veil as if it were not there. Probably only the PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA outside edges of the corona were af- fected. On the tenth the photographic nega- tives were shown to me. Those of the sixty-five-foot camera were seven and three eighths inches in diameter, the others considerably smaller. I now saw, in minute detail, the two prominences which I had recorded and the mighty eyclone which had been increasingly re- vealed as the eclipse neared its end, be- cause of the direction of the moon’s motion. We are told that this group of prominences was forty-six thousand miles high. There were many other minor prominences. I now made careful drawings of these prominences from the negatives and of the variations in shading of the sur- rounding corona. Many arches were found springing over the prominences, and a few rifts or dark channels radi- ating from the limb but never coming very close to it. The negatives showed very clearly the hairy polar rays, not always radial in direction, and the be- ginning of a wing springing from the upper right-hand limb of the sun. By careful process painting, as al- ready described, I have been able to force up the value of the prominence reds, which appear in Figures 3 and 4 at about 67. I also concluded to reduce the value of the clear sky from 30 to (at Faw 25, thus obtaining a range of 42 points instead of 30, an increase in the ratio of 7 to 5. In this new scale the other values take their proportional places. Thus a value of 35 (30+ 5) in Figure 1 becomes 32 (25+7) in Figure 3. In Figure 3 the corona lines, derived from the drawing and many photo- graphs, may be regarded as a sort of composite, suggesting contours of lumi- nosity very much as contours of eleva- tion appear on a map. Three paintings were made, the first immediately after the eclipse, the sec- ond on the succeeding day,and the third after all data had been secured. This final painting is the one reproduced in conjunction with this article. Returning with Professor Mitchell, we stopped at Williams Bay, Wisconsin, and I had the great pleasure and ad- vantage of discussing the problems of the final picture with Professor E. E. Barnard and Dr. E.. B. Frost, of the Yerkes Observatory. They also showed me excellent photographs taken at one of the Yerkes stations and spectroscopic photographs of the prominences taken at the Yerkes Observatory (at the time of totality at the Green River Station), apparently identical as to drawing with those taken at the Baker Station. I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to these eminent astronomers. Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan WILD FLOWERS ‘‘FROM GREENLAND’S ICY MOUNTAIN” of the Arctic—poppies with nodding buds and ornamental There are about 120 species of flow- and where the Smith Sound Eskimos Between lonely rocks and wild crags grow the flower gardens leaves. the small white clustered Draba flowers, and green heads of Arctic timothy. ering plants—and probably “‘new’’ species waiting to be discovered—in the ice-free 1 live, along the northwestern coast of Greenland between Humboldt Glacier on the north and Melville Bay on the south—a strip made narrow by the ice cap above and the iceberg-studded sound below. Long months pass when the botanist has few specimens to work with, however. Not until the ice breaks out and midsummer is at hand are many flowers in bloom. There is no spring in the Arctic like ours, or rather, there is only our spring, and no summer. All the plants awake together and hasten to their fruitage as if to make the most of the few weeks of comparative warmth. With equal suddenness at the end of summer, the vegetation is caught in full activity, and stiffened as it stands, with seeds half formed, or perhaps with buds, or open flowers The Plant Life of Northwest Greenland By W. of I}linois; EW people of our pleasant south- land even dream that under the shadow of the North Pole, al- most a thousand miles within the Arc- tic circle, more than hun- dred species of flowering plants flourish and maintain them- selvesagainst the frigid conditions of their” far northern home. Yet, in the coun- try of the Smith Sound Eskimo, a narrow belt of ice-free land be- tween the gleam- one ing ice cap and the iceberg- studded sound, from Cape York to Humboldt Glacier, nists have al- ready recorded bota- 120 species, and the list is no ELMER Research Associate, American Museum of Natural History ; EK BLA W Research Fellow in Geology, University and Geologist and Botanist on the Crocker Land Expedition, 1913-1917 unchangeable, the gleaming glaciers, cold and immobile, suggest no possible refuge for flowers, no likely niche for But in summer when he enters little O( eS ferns or grasses. some bay, or up one of the deep fiords and sets his foot upon the land, he finds that Greenland is not so cold, nor so bleak, nor so barren as he imagined. Every little crevice in the rocks is foot- hold for fern or glowing flower, every lit- tle pocket of soil some refuge for a bit of verdant turf, and every little slope or ledge shelter for wil- low, heather, or smiling poppy. How can they doubt yet incom- grow and_ blos- plete. No tall PAUtsaraDN by Donald B Mackfitan som and fruit trees or branch- The botanist of the Crocker Land Expedition at In the short ing shrubs, no North Star Bay summer, when trailing vines or waist-high grasses give character to the landscape, but the rocky slopes and ledges are dotted in summer with bril- liant blossoms or carpeted with low, soft growths of grass or sedge. When the explorer from the south- land approaches the rock-bound, glacier- ribboned coasts of Greenland, his first impression is one of bleakness and bar- renness. The frowning cliffs, stern and the snow begins to disappear only in mid-June, and killing frosts come in mid-August; when the warmest noonday has never a temperature higher than sixty degrees and often blanket the whole land with snow, even in mid-July? It is because the plants that hold their homes under these rigorous conditions storms are adapted to make the most of the twenty-four hour sunlight that shines 273 at4 upon them, to survive the blanket of snow if it last not too long. ‘They are the frontiersmen of the plant world, hardy, inured to difficult conditions, tenacious of life in the most desperate struggles for existence. The climate of northwest Greenland is insular in character, much milder than most lands so far north, and than many lands much farther south, be- cause the strong tides and currents in Smith Sound keep open water along the shore, or not far away, usually throughout the year; and open water means warmer, moister air. This milder, moister climate of northwest Greenland is naturally the principal reason why the vegetation is relatively so luxuri- ant; but the reason the flowering plants succeed so well is beeause in addition, during the short summer season, the sun shines every day all of the twenty- four hours, and gives them opportunity to use every hour of their active life. Yet, even with this favorable milder chmate and the continuous sunlight, the vegetation could not survive if it were not fitted to endure the long frozen period, cold and dry, the de- structive changes from warmth to al- most blighting cold. In response to these conditions the plants are usually low creeping or tufted forms with tough, hard tissue, and are nearly all perennials, so that if fruiting cannot take place every year the species will not perish. Some of the plants that constitute the vegetation of northwest Greenland are widely and generally distributed. It would be hard to find a place where the purple saxifrage (Saxifraga opposi- tifolia) does not grow or the Arctic poppy (Papaver radicatum) does not flourish. The alpine chickweed of the north (Cerastium alpinum) and the Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) are common. ‘The pretty little Arctic heather (Cassiope tetragona) and the mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia) are perhaps the most numerous of the NATURAL HISTORY plants of the region, for they seem to be able to grow almost everywhere. Many others occur all along the coast and one expects to see them wherever one lands. But many plants are found widely scattered. Of several species I found a single station or collecting place. An- drosace septentrionalis, a delicate, in- conspicuous little flower, never before recorded from Greenland, I found growing on a little gravel slope just west of Borup Lodge, our headquarters house. In 1898 my good friend, Sim- mons, the noted Swedish botanist, when traveling along this coast with Sver- drup’s expedition, visited the delta on which, later (1913), our house was built, and must have passed over the very path beside which I found this little plant, and also a beautiful, luxu- riantly growing fern, Dryopteris fra- - grans. That these two plants eluded his careful, critical search, illustrates how easily even a specialist may fail to notice some of the small plants of the Far North. As a further illustration of how a plant may escape discovery, I like to cite my own experience at North Star Bay. Throughout the summer of 1914 I lived at the little mission station there, studying carefully the vegetation of the large area of ice-free land that lies about Wolstenholm Sound. Only a few feet from the front door of the station les a small bog, in which I col- lected numerous plants, and helped my good colleague, Dr. M. C. Tanquary, to collect insects and plankton. Through- out the summer I thought I observed carefully every plant that grew in the bog, yet in 1916, when I again spent the summer at North Star Bay, I found there, growing in profusion, and in full bloom, the little red-stemmed, red- leaved Montia lamprospermum, which I had eagerly sought in 1914 without success. In passing, I may state that nowhere in the region did I find so satisfactory NLOYWY SHL NI ADOTO0S LNVId AO AGNLS YOS ALINOLYOddO a place to study the plants as at North Star Bay. Within half a mile of the station I found eighty plants; the habi- tats are so varied, and the general con- ditions so favorable, that it is a bota- nist’s paradise. It is also a splendid place in which to make a careful study of the and much- discussed much-worked-over Drabe. for I] think every northern form of this genus is almost found there in abundance, and in con- fusing variation. The study of plant association and Photograph by Donald B. Greenland arnica The yellow flowers of the like small sunflowers of temperate climes, but they are lowly in stature like all other Arctic flowers. Arnica alpina) look 276 NATURAL HISTORY plant societies in this region is fasci- nating. A slight change in the quan- tity of some one factor,—it may be one of the primary components of the habi- tats, or one of the secondary,— produces a change in the vegetation that is all the more easily recognized because of the simplicity of the association or the society. The struggle for survival in the North is not one so much of compe- tition between the plants for light or foed, as it is one against the climatic Generally speaking, there is no crowding of indi- vidual plants as there is in regions of denser vegetation. Light and room enough there are conditions. for all that can with- stand and survive the stern climatic condi- tions. Among the groups of plants that may be read- ily distinguished are the luxuriant grasses (A lope curus, Poa, etec.). and the scurvy (( ‘ochlearia officinalis re association of the cliffs and slopes where the numerous Arctic birds nest ; the sedge (Carex ) and the cotton (Briophorum polysta- erass erass chium), association of seepage-water swales ; and the heathlike asso- ciation, on warm, airy, sunny slopes, of cat’s- eMill ; UOT (Antennaria al- paw pina), arnica (Arnica alpina), and reed-bent In the lower right-hand corner of the photograph appear a few glossy, oval leaves of the Arctic willow (Salix arctica). This most common and tallest of the ‘‘trees’’ of Greenland never attains a height of more than three inches, although its branches may spread over several square feet of ground. Stems of Arctic willows more than fifty years old, as proved by the number of their rings of wood, may Another willow species (Salix It grows one inch be no thicker than a man’s thumb. herbacea) must be the smallest tree of the world. tall and has two leaves and one tiny furry catkin each summer. The botanist in Greenland finds many interesting plant problems for his consideration, especially that of distribution grass (Calamagrostis). Many other similar dis- tinctive groups help to form as interesting a vegetation as one finds anywhere, even al- though the number of species is not so large, tives of the roses, sometimes cover and beautify whole acres of dry Arctic slope. Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan Cheery cinquefoils with saffron-centered flowers measuring an inch wide (Potentilla Vahliana), rela To make so astonish- ing a showing of flowers in the short two months of summer, even with perennial stems and the pro tected position of the plants closely hugging the ground, there must be a minimum of interruption from summer snowstorms and frosts. at the North, all with yellow flowers. nalis) belongs to the cress family The Crocker Land Expedition found a half dozen species of cinquefoils The plant known in the North as “‘scurvy grass” (a family represented by sixteen species in northwestern Greenland). (Cochlearia offici- It is used as a preventive for a disease which has brought death to the ranks of so many Arctic expedi tions. meat diet and the interrelationships not so com- plex as in that of more favored lands. Of northwest Greenland it can hardly the forest The tallest tree does not three from the the view, then, is not be said that one cannot see for the trees. rise more than inches ground ; appre- ciably obstructed by the forests. This tallest tree is the Arctic willow (Salix arctica), and it is the commonest. AI- though it grows so low, it often spreads over about a square yard or more of ground. Some of these trees, of which the trunk is not thicker than thumb, are more than fifty years old, one’s as I determined by counting the rings of growth. The soft, fuzzy catkins on these trees above the eround farther than the trees themselves, and tempt the swiftly flying, nervous Arctic rise bumblebees as few others of the flowers ean. Another willow (Salix herbacea) is about as tiny a tree as one can im- agine. It rarely grows more than an The Eskimos also sometimes eat the Cochlearia as a sort of salad, a pleasant variation from their inch high, and has but two little leaves and a tiny catkin each summer. No smaller tree grows anywhere, I am sure. The dwarf birch (Betula has been recorded from the neighborhood nana ) of our lodge, but I was unable to find it, even after the most careful search where it was supposed to grow. To the lover of rhododendrons, the little Lapland form which flourishes on the warm, sunny, well watered slopes, is most interesting. Its pretty little rose-purple, plumelike blossoms star basalt North Star Bay, first cousins to the gorgeous forms that color the ledges of the Ap- palachians. rocks about the brown Two northern species of the cranberry family (Myrtillus uligi- Vac nium Vitis-[dea ) bear OSA and numerous little pink bell-shaped flow- ers, sweet and delicate as lilies of the valley; but they rarely set fruit, except on the warmest slopes where the sum- mer snows melt as fast as they fall. 9 wil Kearsen Steppe, North Star the Arctic, grading to bog at the foot. frosts continually nip the growing ends of the plants. show for a few days stretches of warm autumn killing frosts begin to come, such slopes may Such slopes are Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw 3ay, looking over Wolstenholm Sound,—a typical heath slope of rarely bright green, for frequent summer In late July and early August when the coloring, the browns of mosses and the yellows of diminutive willows The curlewberry (Hmpetrum nigrum) grows in a few favored spots, where its pretty, purple, velvet flowers make it conspicuous, but it bears few berries. The Eskimos like to use it and the fra- grant branches of the heather (Cassio pe tetragona) to make outdoor fires over which to boil their tea or coffee. The so-called Arctic heather (Cas- siope tetragona) is one of the prettiest flowers of the northland, and it grows almost everywhere. Its dainty, cream- white bells color some of the rocky slopes. This, and Dryas integrifolia, a starry blossom of the same hue, are perhaps the most numerous of the con- spicuous Arctic flowers. These two flowers begin blooming early, and con- tinue until August comes with its frosts and freezes. A group of pretty flowers usually found on rocky ledges that the ptarmi- gan is wont to frequent, is that com- posed of the northern arnica (Arnica alpina), a smiling, bright, golden-face, not unlike a diminutive Kansas sun- flower; the woolly cat’s-paw (Anten- naria alpina), smaller than its cousins of the far southland, but otherwise quite lke them; the dainty pink and white shinleaf (Pyrola rotundifolia), ts thick, glossy leaves and fair blos- 1 278 soms seemingly modeled from wax; the modest and lonely httle bluebell (Cam- panula uniflora) rising blue and gen- tian-like on its fragile stem; and with them a strikingly beautiful, dark pur- ple grass (Trisetum spicatum), of which the plumed tufts are noticeable rods away. This group of plants often includes one or another of the other sun-loving plants of the dry slopes, but they are not so definitely confined to the one habitat. The lousewort, or beefsteak family, numbers at least three representatives. Of these Pedicularis hirsuta grows everywhere along the coast. Its first cousin, Pedicularis lanata, a much pret- tier rose-red cluster of flowers, is not so generally distributed, but at Life- boat Cove, north of Etah, its bright dot the At Etah grows Pedicularis capitata, a plumelike, golden cluster; it has been found no- where else in Greenland. Bluebells ((Mertensia maritima) J found in profusion at but one place, the little Eskimo village at Sonntag Bay, and there the delta of a small moun- tain torrent was carpeted with them. On the same delta I found the most abundant growth of Statice maritima, a beautiful, dark pink globelet of florets. blossoms moors. THE PLANT LIFE OF NORTHWEST GREENLAND Of the cinquefoils (Potentille), of the rose family, I found six species, all and But Vahl’s cinquefoil is the cheeriest of them all, for its with their saffron centers, profuse-flowering golden. inch-wide blossoms shine from every dry slope. The early purple saxifrage (Sazi- fraga oppositifolia) ushers in a succes- sion of ten of the family, of which none is so beautiful as the leader. It is the earliest of Arctic flowers to burst into bloom; often purple pennants of its gorgeous blooms even border the snow- drifts. Sixteen species of the cress family inhabit the region. Nearly all of them are white-flowered. but one notable ex- ception is the purple rocket ( Hespe ris pallasw) , sweet with the odor of plum blossoms, the only fragrant flower in the North. The Drabe comprise ten of the sixteen cress species. It is to this _* A It was surprising to find that edible mushrooms grow abu siderable size, some nearly as large as a dinner plate, and were On a9 family too, that scurvy grass (Coch- officinalis ) that far- famed. reputed preventive of the dread learia belongs, disease, scurvy, which has decimated so many Arctic expeditions. It tastes bitter, like cress. Few of the Arctic plants are eaten by the Eskimo, but they occasionally eat this scurvy grass; more often though, they digyna, a round-leaved plant, sour like gather Oxyria our sheep sorrel. Buttercups, Waxy golden anc bright, varied. Most of them are yellow, but one tiny white are numerous and form (Batrachium grows in the ponds, its starlike little flowers floating on the paucistamineum ) water during The favorite flower of many explorers is the about two weeks of midsummer. dainty pink Silene acaulis that grows in dense clumps on gravelly slopes, but I could not help feeling that its hard stems were too stiff. The Alpine chick- Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw They delicious when cooked. ndantly at Etah. attain con The climate of the coast of northwest Greenland is far milder than would be expected for the latitude, because strong tides and currents keep open water in Smith Sound not far from the land usually all the year through. This open water produces a moister air and thus accounts in large measure for the relatively luxuriant vegetation of the Smith Sound region Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw Even before the snow melted away, the plants on southern slopes at North Star Bay were budded for blossoming. slopes of course more nearly perpendicularly. cutting winds, the temperature of the soil may rise rapidly. On land that is level the rays from the low Arctic sun strike only obliquely, but they strike the Therefore, if the slope be southern and thus protected from Under the influence of this warmth and of the moisture of the fogs so frequent in summer, the low shallow-rooted plants of the Arctic flourish weed cheerfully everywhere, seemingly undaunted by the most un- favorable conditions. One of its near cousins (Melandrium triflorum), an Arctic catehfly, is found nowhere but in Greenland. The dandelion, so despised in the southland, merits more respect and con- sideration in the northland. Besides the bright, golden forms, closely re- sembling ours, a white-flowered form erows (Tararacum arctogenum) with pink border grows in profusion about Etah, and grows nowhere else in the world, so far as known. It would attract atten- tion anywhere as a pretty flower. It is to the sunny-faced Arctic poppy, however, that the explorer is always ready to give the highest praise. To the farthest northland that man has yet attained, this fragile, but hardy little blossom, has preceded him. On the 3s Soe Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw The tundra in general view appears barren and monotonous, but reveals variety and beauty of detail when studied close at hand. warm sunny slopes is the andromeda The most characteristic plant of the heath-forming association that grows on (Cassiope tetragona) with white bell-shaped flowers. forms a continuous carpet (as shown in the background in the photograph). berry (Empetrum nigrum) growing with it on the protected slopes of deep fiords 280 In places it Rarely one finds the curlew- species of plants within a radius of one half mile. country, as to work. At one time, he experienced for several days the narrowly plenty. or sledge journeys to points along the sound. escaped drowning when the ice gave way fected largely through the continued struggle of his North Star Bay he faced starvation, while only 130 Throughout the summer the party was on extremely Photograph by E. O. Hovey At North Star Bay, in the summer of 1914, the botanist of the Crocker Land Expedition found eighty Every day he made long tramps over the rough interior except In March he had led one of the advance parties across Ellesmere Land ready for the Crocker Land search over the sea ice, but had been obliged to return to Etah because of badly frozen feet. ward, in April, he proceeded to North Star Bay to engage in a botanical survey. This year of 1914 was one of misfortune After- Misfortune followed him. agonizing pain of ‘‘snow blindness.’ At another, he under him, his sledge and dogs—rescue being ef- big white king dog. And for several weeks here miles away at Etah, but unobtainable, was food always hungry, and always short rations, watching the point on the horizon where a relief ship might appear. The photograph shows Dundas Mountain, 700 feet above sea level, and at the right about one mile from exploration (See AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL its base, the buildings of Thule Station, a base for for May, 1918, page 391) most lonely and desolate coasts it greets him all summer long whenever he travels there. Along the icebound sea- shores, upon the bleakest plateaus, in every lonely valley, wherever a crevice in the rocks or a pocket in the cliffs gives it foothold, it is sure to establish itself. fields of it Etah, and about our headquarters house Great flamed about it grew abundantly. No great, green meadows or pastures carpet any part of the far northland, but on the sunny slopes where some of the numerous Arctic birds have formed a rich guano soil, the turf becomes thick and soft. The frequent frosts that come through the Summer, sear the delicate tips of the grasses so that Danish they never appear verdant; a real green slope, therefore, is a rarity in the Far North. The most lush-growing grass is the misnamed Arctic timothy (A/lope- curus alpinus) upon which the Eskimos depend for padding to place between stockings and boot-soles and their under the skins of their bed platforms, and for disheloths or towels with which to wipe dry their few pots and pans. Many blue grasses grow in Greenland, villages, Ien- but about the Eskimo tucky blue orass (Poa pratensis) , tall and thick, is the most common form. In a few of the shallower ponds along the coast grows the beautiful little Pleu- ropogo) sabini, unique in its genus. Pretty, plum) eotton grasses ( Hrio- 281 282 phorum polystachium and EB. Scheuch- zert) wave their white tassels along the banks of the streams and pools and in the wet swales; graceful little rushes and reeds (Juncus and Luzula) grow with the numerous sedges (Carex) to form mats of turf where no grass grows; harsh scouring rushes (Hquise- tum arvense and #. variegatum) form mats on some of the flatter stream beds, and a yellow-green club moss (Lycopo- dium selago) dots the upland swales; all of these help to create variety in the Arctic vegetation. Mats of mountain avens on crescent-shaped areas of earth resulting from the disintegration of the rock. This disintegration has been ac- complished through the action of overlying snow, drifted by fierce blasts of wind down the fiords. The hardy little Dryas (its flowers are shown on the opposite page) is probably the most com- mon plant in Greenland. It is absent from few places where there is any vegetation at all, main- taining a foothold even on plains of bare rock débris. It flowers by the middle of June and continues to blossom throughout the short summer NATURAL HISTORY Rather unexpected, but none the less welcome, four diminutive ferns that grow on the rock ledges carry one back in memory to the southland. Cystop- teris fragilis, the commonest fern of the North, grows abundant and luxu- riant in moist crevices on the steep cliffs. Aspidium fragrans, rigid but beautiful bronze-green, is a sweet smell- ing fern found on sunny shelves. Two little woodsias, Woodsia glabella, a Lil- liputian form scarce an inch high, and Woodsia_ silvensis, not much larger, complete the lst of ferns. To end the account of the vegetation of the northland without mentioning the large, edible mushrooms at Etah would be to leave the list incomplete. They are of a species probably not hitherto known. Some of them grow as large as dinner plates. They could stand for days, unspoiled and untouched by insects, and still be almost as good to eat as when fresh. Dr. Hunt and I gathered many, cooked them, and ate them. We considered them excellent. The plants and flowers of northwest Greenland have hardly*two months in which to grow. As soon as the snow melts, the first flowers begin to appear, usually only a few days before June first. At that time the midnight sun is a month and a half high and gives almost as much heat at midnight as at noonday. Even so, frequent summer snows and cloudy weather often retard the development of the plants so that they cannot blossom before the killing frosts begin to come in early August while yet the midnight sun graces the northern sky. In mid-July even, the little willow leaves begin to turn yel- low, and a week or two later the autum- nal golds, and tans, and browns indi- cate that the season of growth is ended. The flora of Greenland is a mixture of European and American forms. Many interesting problems present themselves in the occurrence and dis- tribution of many of these forms, and much work has been done toward their SS — Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw At the time when the ptarmigan were courting on warm, dry, Arctic slopes where the snow had melted early, the. botanist could always be certain of finding a particular association of small, low, sun-loving Among these were the yellow arnica, white woolly heads of “everlasting’’ or ‘‘cat’s-paw,’’ waxen pyrolas, and fragile, solitary bluebells (see page 278) Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan The white starlike flowers of the little mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia) are found on the inland plateaus and moraines which otherwise would be quite bleak and desolate This small representative of the rose family seems to be able to maintain itself everywhere and its multitudes of flowers often give color to the whole mountain-side solution. 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Elmer Ektlaw A BARE AND BLEAK LAND, EVEN WHEN ICE FREE Along a narrow stream at North Star Bay (picture above), the heath and moor are finely car- peted with the pretty Polar rhododendron, with creeping cranberry, and with Arctic willow At this walrus hunting camp on Sonntag Bay (middle photograph) the tanist collected three species of plants which he found nowhere else along the whole North Greenland Coast. Many plants of the North are thus restricted in distribution On Arctie slopes soil-flow streams move slowly, like veritable ‘‘glaciers’’ of rock and soil (photograph at bottom of page). They present conspicuous scalloped fronts, covered in this case with cranberry, and the very edge of the advancing soil is outlined in northern heather OSs be) vente 3 ‘ Photograph by E. O. Hovey In many places at North Star Bay, in July, bright orange lichens, brilliant as flowers, adorn the rocks and give the dominant tone to the landscape. Lichens and mosses | ly make up the flora of the coldest Arctic tundra, tending to be distributed in different local areas. The crevice in the rocks indicated in the photo- graph by the pocketknife opens below into the nest of a snow bunting, which each summer comes from south- ern regions to make its home in this far northern spot miles from water, 989 - a os. Like the crimson poppies of Flanders Fields, these yellow poppies grew where have been wrought heroic deeds which live in history. The golden Arctic poppy (Papaver radicatum) for a few weeks in summer greets the botanist with good cheer wherever he may wander. He has known Greenland during the long Arctic night as a stern land of bleakness and desolation. But some day in summer when he enters one of the forbidding fiords, shutting out a view of the ice cap above and the icebergs on the sound outside, he concludes that Greenland after all is not a grim, barren spot. For every little crevice in the rocks is foothold for some fern or g'owing flower, every little pocket of soil refuge for a bit of verdant turf, and every little slope or ledge shelter for willow, heather, or smiling poppy Photograph by E. O. Hovey There were about seventy-five poppies in this gleaming mat of yellow on the bare shingle flats (North Star Bay). In favorable localities they are so abundant that it is no exaggeration to speak of ‘‘fields of poppies.’ These northern pioneers in no way lack in beauty of hue or of texture when compared with the golden poppies of California. Many Arctic species bloom profusely. Draba plants may be rounded out into spheres wholly yellow or white with the multitudes of flowers 290 MacMillan How bleak and drear and lonely is the general landscape of the coast lands! This is at the head of Port Foulke, two miles southwest of Etah, where the ground is made up of the barren rock of an ancient seabeach. The Hayes Expedition of 1860-61 had its winter quarters here. The grave (see the center of the photograph) is that of August Sonntag, an explorer-scientist who lost his life in the ice of Smith Sound in December, 1860, ile a member of this pedition. > he served as astronomer with Kane, the first American explorer, on his expedition of 1853-55. The cl > lab at the head of the grave, bearing the inscription, still stands against the weather AF pet 4 Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan brilliant flowers of their pic- Helping to gather poppies at Etah in June.—The Eskimos d it in the f plant life than of birds and animals 991 turesque country, but are on the whole. of course, far less observant of Our Centrifugal Society Is our current expansive philosophy of life, based upon liberty, equality, and self-expression, a safe and sufficient guide for the development of a high social order? Should it not be balanced by the unifying and integrating forces which come from self-restraint and control, moderation, and the limitation of desires ? These may lead to a far higher self-realization By UR present reconstruction pe- riod differs fundamentally from other such periods fol- lowing other great wars. It is not quite safe, therefore, to rest in any easy assurance that in a few years all will be well, since a period of painful recon- struction must follow every great war. It is becoming evident now to all cf us that we are confronted, not merely with a political and economic reconstruction, but with a radical social reconstruction. Long before the war it had come to be believed that society was on the sick list, needing drastic treatment, if not a major operation. We had become painfully conscious of certain social “evils,” and our attention was fixed more and more upon certain loudly ad- vertised “cures” for these evils. Among these evils were the unequal distribu- tion of wealth and opportunity, the constant clashes between labor and capital, the unjust exclusion of women from political and economic privileges, the alcohol evil, social diseases, poverty, crime,and the falling birth rate. Among the proposed “cures” were the further extension of democracy, socialism, syndicalism, votes for women, national prohibition, and codperation. Then came the war, and at once our attention was focused upon this as the worst evil of all. That such an awful calamity could suddenly befall the world increased still further our dis- trust in our whole social system, and we began at once to search for some cure for this further evil, and hoped to find it ina League of Nations, international agreements, and the self-determination of peoples. 292 Cass OWE Professor of Philosophy, PeASD Role 1K State University of Iowa The Spark of Divinity in the Human Mind It is characteristic of our age to be peculiarly sensitive to its evils. This sickening feeling that the world is in a very bad way and needs redemption is illustrated in the book written by Al- fred Russel Wallace shortly before his death, in which he bewailed the de- generacy of the times, dwelling upon the prevalence of poverty and crime, and frightful social diseases, and social injustice, in a note almost of despair. Certainly it is a hopeful sign that we have become so sensitive to injustice, so conscious of social evils, so intolerant of wrong doing, so repelled by the hor- rors of war, that our own era, which is really clean and wholesome and peace- ful and righteous as compared with past periods in human history, seems to us so imperfect. There is thus at any rate this element of hope in the situation that there must be some spark of divinity in the human mind, since we compare the present, not with the real past, but always with the ideal fu- ture. Conscious Control of Man's Future— Will it be Intelligent and Beneficial? The special characteristic of our time is therefore not the presence of evils, of which to be sure there are quite enough, but the peculiar consciousness of them and the resolute will to cure them,—a will so persistent and so determined that it is certain that the twentieth cen- tury will see profound changes in our social order. But it does not follow necessarily that these changes will be OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY beneficial. They will be experimental. This is the first time in history that man has conscicusly and with de- termined purpose entered upon the task of directing his own fortunes. Hith- erto he has been a puppet in the hands of cosmic forces: evolution, climate, the struggle for existence, the industrial revolution wrought by mechanical in- ventions and the discovery of coal, iron and petroleum, and finally, the retro- active influences of the American and Pacific frontiers. Now the period of conscious control has come. But is this conscious control to be in- telligent control, or is it to be the kind which the newly rich suddenly acquire over their material surroundings? So far as we can see at present, the era of intelligent control lies far in the fu- ture, and the control which is to mark the twentieth century will spring from an impulsive idealism characterized by a keen sensitiveness to our present so- cial evils rather than by a comprehen- sive grasp of the whole social situation. We are to enter upon the deliberate at- tempt at social reconstruction but with a kind of adolescent impetuousness and a fatuous, almost fanatical faith in the magic of certain social symbols to cure social evils. This is, no doubt, a neces- sary stage in the progress of social con- trol, but it is not without its dangers. We have gained the power to remodel our social order. Have we gained the necessary poise, the scientific, historical, and psychological knowledge that will make our meddling safe ? There is, in all the discussion of evils and the cures for them, a singular dis- regard of the psychological and histori- eal factors of the situation, and a strange forgetfulness of the fact that however important social and political readjustments may be, the world can- not be made over as long as the human material, the minds and bodies of men, remains the same. Therelatively greater importance of education, of physical and mental health, of racial integrity, 293 of universal intelligence and self-con- trol, is overlooked. The Present Philosophical Basis of Social Reconstruction But my purpose in this article is to call attention to the philosophical basis of the reconstruction movements of the day. Underlying all these movements is the philosophy of the full, free and abundant life; of self-expression; of self-determination ; of self-realization ; of freedom from every kind of autoc- racy or class rule or oppression or re- pression ; of equality of opportunity ; of freedom for self-development and cul- ture ; of complete liberty to realize one’s own inner needs and one’s own per- sonality; of escape from all old and cramping conventions and institutions ; of naturalness, initiative, power, will, and efficiency. These are our ideals and to most of us they are so obvious that they seem to need no discussion. They have found expression in our current drama and fiction, in our moving pictures, in our books and magazines, and in all our plans for social reform. We have come to take them quite for granted. Is Self-expression an Obsession ? Perhaps it may be worth while to ex- amine these ideas with a little care. As ideals they are obviously good. This may pass unchallenged. But it is not self-evident that they are the highest ideals, nor is it self-evident that they are alone sufficient as a foundation for social welfare. It seems rather that the present age is merely obsessed with these ideas, just as other epochs of his- tory like that of the ancient Hebrews, or that of Greece and Rome, or that of the Middle Ages, were obsessed with a wholly different set of ideas. For instance, in the Middle Ages, poverty, chastity, and obedience were the monastic virtues, and every am- bitious boy aspired to be a monk. We look in vain now for many ardent devo- 294 tees of poverty, chastity, or obedience. Our attitude toward these medieval ideas is one of humorous superiority, not perhaps fully justified by the rela- tive differences in the two civilizations as measured by such standards as social stability or the development of the tine arts, such as architecture, painting, and poetry. Still another set of ideas ruled in the best period of Grecian civilization, like- wise wholly different from ours. These were temperance in the sense of bal- ance and moderation, measure, limita- tion, order, form, harmony, symmetry, and beauty. Francis Galton perhaps spoke with some exaggeration when he said that the average intelligence of the Athenian race was at least two grades above our own. But while we may smile at the ideals of the monks, we must take very seriously those of the Greeks as long as we are still using as models so many of their masterpieces of political philosophy, poetry, sculpture, architecture, eloquence, and literature. It is all a matter of historical perspec- tive. Some future period may smile at our child-like devotion to liberty, equality and fraternity, or self-expres- sion, or the full, free and abundant life, to the neglect of many other equally important ideas. Is the Philosophy of Expansion a Safe Philosophy of Life? In all our discussion now about so- cial reconstruction and a new social or- der, is it not a little peculiar that the ideas which we are trying so hard to realize in this new social order,—lib- erty, equality, efficiency, opportunity, self-expression, and self-determination, —are just the ones that already mark this period when compared with other past periods and past civilizations? We may be deficient in these virtues, but we have them in profuse abundance as compared with other times, and we have them in excess as compared with other virtues, such as love of beauty and of NATURAL HISTORY symmetry, proportion, moderation, measure, and limitation of desires. Is it safe to enter so passionately upon the remodeling of our social institutions with our eyes fixed so exclusively upon any one circle of ideas ? Self-expression is perhaps the best single term defining our present day philosophy of life—or, possibly, self- realization, or initiative, or energy. The keynote of modern painting, music, and poetry is expression, and that of modern sculpture is energy. In our educational systems our aim is to de- velop all the latent energies and possi- bilities of the child. He must express himself, bring out the full richness of his personality, give full scope to his in- dividuality, develop to the utmost his genius and his talent. When manhood and womanhood are attained, old social conventions must not stand in the way of this inner need of self-realization and self-expression. Our laws must be remade and our social institutions re- constructed so that each individual may enjoy his full rights and come into pos- session of his full share of the world’s goods. It would be a shame if others had superfluous wealth while any lacked the means of self-development and self-culture. This is the expansive philosophy of the age, the centrifugal motive in so- ciety, moving from within outward. But the ancient Greeks thought it bet- ter to draw from without inward, to observe limits and measure, to strive for inward poise and harmony. This is the centripetal motive in society, the unify- ing and integrating tendency. Germany's Experiment in Self-expres- sion It would be interesting to attempt an evaluation of these two methods. When Plato was unable to find the definition of justice in the case of the individual, he solved the difficulty by examining the idea as magnified in the state. So just recently we have had an instructive OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 295 example of the trial of this philosophy of self-expression in the case of a great state. Germany five years ago had a deep longing for self-expression. She felt that she must expand, bring out the full richness of her personality, de- velop to the utmost her genius and her culture, give full scope to her peculiar individuality. Old international con- ventions and treaties between states must not stand in the way of her inner need of self-realization and self-expres- sion. Old laws must be reinterpreted so that she might have her full share of the world’s goods. It would be a shame if other nations had superfluous colo- nies while she lacked the sphere of self- development. But Germany made the unhappy dis- covery that there were other peoples who also desired self-expression, who also had a personality to conserve, a “mission” to fulfill. Five years ago self-realization was within Germany’s grasp. She had valuable traditions of education and science, of art and phi- losophy. She had great wealth, vast in- dustries, and a fruitful commerce, and she had the friendship and the respect of the world. Self-realization in the larger sense she could have had through the practice of the Greek virtues and the minding of her own business. Limitations and Dangers of the Cen- trifugal Motive It is important to understand the meaning and value of this new idea of the full and exuberant life. Its value we all recognize. Its limitations per- haps we do not realize. To many in the present day it seems like the very word of promise. It emancipates us— so we think—from all the narrow and cramping and dwarfing and galling re- strictions of the past and sets us free to enjoy, to live, to breathe deeply, to de- velop as we please. It emancipated our slaves. It is emancipating our women. It will emancipate our laborers. If this new gospel of energy, of affirmation, of spontaneity, of self-expression, does not work well in the case of nations, there must be—so we imagine—some error in the analogy, for as regards the indi- vidual it is the very evangel of our modern era. If there is any one idea prevalent now it is that there is some- thing intrinsically sound and helpful in this renouncing of old authorities and traditions in favor cf our primal in- stincts. Instinct, impulse, nature, the spiritual lfe—to dampen these, to dampen this inner need of self-expres- sion, this demand for joy, is the only sin. This modern gospel of self-expres- sion takes innumerable forms. With Nietzsche it is the will to power, gained through tragic suffering and pain. In Christianity it is the triumphant reali- zation of an essentially divine and spiritual individual life revealing itself in the typical modern expansive vir- tues—faith, hope, and charity. In Bergson it appears as the exaltation of instinct and primal creative impulse. In Goethe it is pictured as salvation through successive forms of objective experience. In Browning it is seen in the wild joy of living, in buoyant faith, optimism, and love. Even in the mod- ern mystic it is no longer passive rest- ing in God’s encompassing arms, but, as in Jean Christophe, an intoxication with the madness and fury of living. In the modern psychological novei it is the coming into some mysterious larger and fuller life through the conflict of motives and through rich subjective ex- perience. In the modern drama, some- times nothing but the experience of sin itself will bring it to complete fruition. In all these forms of self-expression, the common motive is the centrifugal motive, marked by a craving for excite- ment, impatience with restraint, a longing for freedom and expansion, for the enhancement of life, for the intensi- fication of consciousness. With this note dominant in our mod- ern life and literature, it is foolish to 296 JATURAL speak of social or racial or national de- cadence. Clearly, the world is not suf- fering from age and decadence. It has the virile enthusiasm of youth, but with it also the defects of youth, an almost childish impetuosity and imprudence, a tendency toward no remoter end than the mere intensification of the momen- tary mood of joy and strength. “Tnner Check” What is lacking in all these forms of self-expression is the “inner check,” the motive of restraint and reserve, the discipline of the wise man who looks beyond the present.t In Platonic phrase, it is “justice,” the justice which the young man owes to his coming years, the justice which each generation owes to the next, the justice which each individual to society. Every young man is free to live the full and abundant life up to the point of not in- fringing upon the strength and in- tegrity of his coming manhood. Hvery generation is free to live the full and abundant life up to the point of not in- fringing upon the health and happiness Need of the owes of the next generation. Every indi- vidual is free to live the full and abundant life up to the point of not infringing upon the full and abundant life of all the others in the group. But the limitations come quickly and fast. Therefore, restraint is necessary ; and will be increasingly necessary. There is no error here in the anal- ogy between the nation and the in- dividual. Germany complained before the war that she was fettered by a surrounding iron ring. To be fettered by an iron ring is painful. She longed for expansion. But the world has had a wholesome lesson from the war. Hereafter expansive nations will under- stand that they must do their expand- ing within their own borders. The days of territorial expansion are gone by. And it is to be feared that there 1 Compare Paul Elmer More, Platonism, ter V. Chap- HST ORY will soon be a limit to economic and commercial expansion. In fact per- haps the virtues of the future will be not expansion, not self-expression, but self-control and limitation. And can we be sure that these latter may not be the surer road to peace and happiness ? Possibly there is a higher kind of self- realization than that found through self-expression. Self-realization may in- deed be the highest goal of human en- deavor, but the self to be realized may be the larger self of our collective be- ing, including succeeding generations. This is nothing, of course, save the age-old antagonism between liberty and justice. It is merely the habit of our modern thought that we have become so enraptured with the first of these that we have overlooked the vital im- portance of the second. Of course, we hear a great deal now about justice, but it is social justice that we have in mind, that glorious social state in which each class shall enjoy all the fullness and richness of life that any other class en- joys. It is not at all that kind of jus- tice which Plato taught us, consisting not in having, but in doing one’s full share. Plato understood, as all the older teachers did, that the centripetal forces in society must balance the cen- trifugal forces, if we expect stabilty in our social hfe. With Plato justice was the centripetal integrating principle. It was realized when every class, and every individual, performed its fune- tion in the state—in plain terms, did its duty. It was a socialistic state, but evidently the fundamental purpose was different from that of our modern so- cialistic state, in which the attention is focused more upon our rights than upon our duties. Socialism as it exists In theory today involves, unfortunately, no radical change in our current spiritual ideals. It accepts without much question the philosophy of the full and abundant life, and proposes usually a series of ad- ministrative and industrial changes, OUR. CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 297 which it is hoped will do away with cer- tain evils of the time, such as inequality of wealth and opportunity, and the selfish exploitation of the laboring classes. The emphasis in all these modern movements is put upon getting one’s full share of the good things of the world—food, clothing, wealth, leisure, and opportunity—to the end al- ways of comfort, happiness, self-expres- sion, self-realization, self-development. The ancient socialistic state, on the other hand, was one in which the atten- tion was focused, not on the individual benefits to be enjoyed, but on the loyal part in the whole undertaking which each was to play to the end of having a healthy and permanent society. And they well understood that in the long run the individual found his greatest happiness, his highest good, when he fixed his attention on the permanence, stability and health of the social group. A social group in which the human units focus their attention upon getting each his full share will not bring to its members as full and abundant a life as a group in which the attention is fixed upon doing each his full part. Our modern conception of the per- fect state is one in which certain “evils,” such as poverty, inequality, in- temperance, clashes between classes, and wars between states, are to be ab- sent. Poverty is to be abolished, not by self-denial and a limitation of de- sires, but by the increase of wealth through efficiency, scientific manage- ment and new mechanical inventions, and by new Jaws regulating the pro- duction and distribution of wealth. War between nations is to be abol- ished, not by curbing our instincts of pugnacity, not by education in re- straining our expansive desires, but by some new political contrivance such as a League of Nations. Intemperance is to be done away with, not by making men strong to resist temptation, but by an act of legislation removing the oc- casion of temptation. Disease is to be abolished, not by assisting nature in providing powers of resistance to dis- ease, but by devices to protect men from the causes of disease. Inequality between the sexes is to be removed, not by fostering respect for womanhood and motherhood, but by votes for women and political privileges. I would not be understood as belit- tling the absolute value of democracy, and socialism, and feminism, and pro- hibition, and a League of Nations; but we oyer-emphasize their total relative value for social welfare, even if we consider only the welfare of the present generation. No society will survive without the integrating motive—the presence of justice in the Platonic sense. The world is stirred today by powerful centrifugal forces. Like a wheel, it will fly into pieces unless it is held together by equally powerful centripetal forces. These integrating forces are measure, self-control, obedi- ence, respect for law and authority, restraint, limitation of desires, the feel- ing of obligation. As one writer has said, we have a superabundance of vital energy ; What we need is vital control. The finishing touch has finally been given to our philosophy of expansion by Freud, who has shown us that the repression of our instincts and desires is dangerous. Why, yes,—dangerous now and then for the individual, but singularly wholesome for society! It is really very naive, this discussion about the danger of inhibiting our natural impulses. Freud might have read in a certain ancient writing of a certain wise teacher who said, “If any man will come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and fol- low me.” The great cry now is for equality of opportunity. But opportunity for what? If pressed for an answer, we say opportunity for self-development. Really it is opportunity for advance- ment, for wealth, for power. We seem to be blind to the existence of other 298 higher and more enduring values. The society which we picture for the future is always built on the Chautauqua plan. What we think we want is physical comfort, leisure for self-improvement, peace and quiet in which we may work, freedom from interference and escape from fear; but actually hfe is some- thing very different. Our socialistic so- ciety of the future pictures man as sur- rounded by comforts, working six hours a day and “enjoying” ten hours of leisure which he is supposed to spend in self-development; and when all this happens it is assumed that he will be happy and contented and peaceful. A very little knowledge of human psychology ought to dispel this dream. Life is anything but a Chautauqua gathering. Life is a struggle and must have the zest of struggle. There are values higher than comfort and leisure and material goods, and other virtues which we need to emphasize more than faith, hope, and charity. In an age of despair and depression for the masses of people such as the beginning of the Christian era, the expansive, outward and upward-looking Christian virtues were like a great light from Heaven. In a vital, expansive, centrifugal period like the present it may be necessary for us to return to the integrating and har- monizing virtues of the Greeks,—wis- dom, temperance, moderation, and re- straint; and it may be necessary for us to revise our list of highest values and in place of wealth, leisure, lberty, equality, and opportunity, write for a while conservation, limitation, integra- tion. The great things of life, wisdom and art and literature and heroes, have sprung from periods of storm and stress. It is such periods that have given birth to opportunity; but it was not opportunity for self-development, but opportunity for self-control, yes, even for heroism and for love. To be sure, we hear much about love, but it has come to take the forms of sympathy and charity. Of both of NATURAL HISTORY these we have a great and abundant measure. What we are trying to do in all these modern forms of social re- construction is to hit upon some social or political device by which we may live the full and exuberant life and allow our neighbor to do the same. There never was so much world-wide sympathy for the neighbor who does not live the full and exuberant life as there is now. We love and sympathize with every op- pressed class and every down-trodden man. We are taught to love our neigh- bor, and we have learned to love him with such intensity that we allow no one to exploit him but ourselves. As Professor Babbitt says, “Our twentieth century civilization is a singular mix- ture of altruism and high explosives.” We love our neighbor and we wish him every joy. In his need we shower him with charitable gifts. If others abuse him, we are ready to fight for him; but our conception of love does not quite extend to the notion of limiting our own desires for our neighbor’s good. It does not quite suffice to check the megalomania of our capitalistic classes, nor persuade them voluntarily to bear their just proportion of public taxes, nor teach them willingly to share their profits with their workers. It does not quite suffice to lead our laboring classes, when once they find power in their hands, to use this power in accordance with reason and moderation. It is owing to accidental reasons that the necessity for restraint and limita- tion has not been laid upon us in recent times. The discovery of America, the industrial revolution, the Pacific fron- tier—all these have opened to us a new world which has allowed the human spirit an indefinite expansion foreign to its long history. There has been for a short period in human history little need of the “inner check,” and it has been almost forgotten. To be sure, this wild display of cen- trifugal forces has brought no essen- tially valuable human product, no great OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 299 literature or art, no Grecian temples, no Gothic cathedrals, no Shakespearian drama; nor has it brought peace among men, nor physical stamina of race, nor freedom from vice and misery and crime, nor justice, nor reverence. In the midst of plenty, it has not abolished greed, nor graft, nor strife. But these defects have been little noticed, and meanwhile there has been stirred within us only a desire for still more rapid expansion. Only lately have the first signs ap- peared to teach us that limitation be- longs to the nature of things and can- not be escaped. In the crushing de- feat of Germany, the first emphatic “No” has been spoken to this cult of universal expansion. The whole world has awakened to its senses and recorded its ancient and instinctive protest against that ultimate injustice which flows from the theory of limitless ex- pansion in the case of nations but it has not thought of applying this to the in- dividual. Our little world is getting filled up and the need for the practice of re- straint and the limitation of our de- sires increases yearly. The rapid growth in the population of Europe and its still more rapid increase in the Americas, makes self-control and self- denial increasingly necessary if social order is not to give way to anarchy. A Whole Civilization Might Collapse in an Attempted Readjustment to New Moral Values Nietzsche was well aware that the full and exuberant life which he preached involved a “trans-valuation of all values.” But the trans-valuation of moral values is a hazardous business. It is life itself which has determined these values, and they cannot be re- voked by the mere will of heralds of revolt. The values which they would revalue represent the residual experi- ence of long ages of human life and so- ciety, during which mankind has dis- covered that there are certain rules of conduct which are necessary if men will live in social relations in peace and se- curity. The trans-valuation of these old racial values has been attempted many times and always something unpleasant happened. These unpleasant happen- ings may be deferred for many years. They may light upon one’s mother, one’s family, one’s children. They may affect society or posterity—but they happen. One would think that many of our hasty writers of recent fiction and drama regard our old rules of conduct, our moral codes, as the arbitrary pro- nouncements of some external au- thority, God, or the king, or parents, or the Church. We always think of our laws as being “handed down,” and we resent having our laws handed down. We want to make them. But what we for- get is that we have made them and that it has taken centuries—ages, to do it. The critical importance of such ques- tions as wars between nations, the equitable distribution of wealth and op- portunity, political justice toward our women, intemperance, has blinded us to other problems which affect the very existence of society, namely, social or- der and social stability, and physical and racial health. And since the whole world at present is in a very radical and iconoclastic mood, halting at no thorough-going change in political and social institutions, it has become vital that we shall turn our thoughts to these other problems. What are to be the elements of order, the centripetal forces in the new so- ciety? The forces working toward chaos and anarchy are many. Any newspaper page reveals them. The in- tense individualism inherent in all modern thought, the disintegration of states and of old established political programs, the constantly growing lack of respect and reverence for old insti- tutions, in fact the suspicion of any- thing that is old and established, the powerful influence of modern fiction 500 and the modern drama, the loss of the religious faith with which our moral sanctions have been closely associated, and the pragmatic philosophies of all kinds that rule in the present—these are some of the forces working against social integration. This is not to say that any of the old ideas or these old institutions are perfect, or holy, or even good. It is only that the obedience to laws, the restraint and self-control which are necessary for social order, have been in the human brain associated with these things. A wholly new set of motives for social or- der is perhaps conceivable, resting upon none of these old institutions, but the human brain changes slowly, and an entire civilization might collapse in the process of a crude and reckless attempt at readjustment. The disintegrating forces in society are many, and apparently increasing. It is necessary, if our civilization is to be saved, to turn our attention very seri- ously, and at once, to the integrating forces, to the forces which look to social stability, to law and order. In the past there have been three great institutions which have acted as powerful forces of integration—the State, the Church, and the Family— the integrating power of these institu- tions depending not merely on external sanctions, but on the powerful motive of personal loyalty and allegiance. Since in the new society we have prob- ably to look forward to the constantly decreasing authority of these three in- stitutions, it is of the gravest impor- tance to inquire what is to take their place. In particular we must inquire what is to take the place of nationalism in the new order. When the state is small and its emblems are ever present to the senses, or when it is unified by art and religion, as in ancient Athens, or when the very existence of the state is threatened by rival states, as in the re- cent war, then social integration within the state is relatively perfect. Then the NATURAL HISTORY group spirit, the community spirit, keeps the group itself a healthy organic unit, the members of the group all loyally, willingly, eagerly performing severally their proper functions. Then justice prevails within the group, laws are obeyed and order is preserved. A League of Nations, to prevent that form of social suicide which a modern war has become, seems, as it truly is, a ereat step forward in human progress, but in the long history of human de- velopment social integration and social order within a state have depended to a large extent on the menace of danger to the state from without. When that menace shall be withdrawn, social in- tegration within each state will be in- creasingly difficult. The spirit of nationalism at the mo- ment, to be sure, burns brightly, but the whole trend of the time is toward internationalism, due to the community of world interests in international labor movements, international commerce, banking, science and education. The trend of events, therefore, forces us to believe that loyalty neither to the state, nor to the church, nor to the family, is going to be a powerful in- tegrating force in the new society. The vital things now are labor unions, workingmen’s councils, women’s fed- erated clubs, manufacturers’ unions, trusts, and combinations, and countless other self-protective organizations and combinations of every sort. The old loyalty to the state and the church and the family has been in large measure replaced by loyalty to these countless social groups; but unfortunately there is no promise that loyalty to these eroups is going to be in any sense a principle of social integration. On the contrary, it appears often to be a source of social strife. The discussion of this problem in its positive aspects does not he within the purpose of this article. Possibly a solu- tion is not to be found in any political, economic, or social readjustments, but only in a change in human ideals. American Indian Poetry By HERBERT J.SPINDEN HE myths and songs of the American Indians are part of our national heritage along with the hills and plains that were wrested from their creators. These pieces of unwritten literature, first transcribed into strange hooks and symbols by ethnologists and then translated into direct and unvarnished English, are sources of inspiration for our poets as potential as the Mabinogion or the tales of Merlin in the literature of Wales and England. They are products of the environment that we have made our own and they express deep human feelings in relation to that environ- ment. When Longfellow wrote Hiawatha he took the name and character of his hero from the Iroquois, the incidents of his story from the myths of the Ojibwa, and he cast these materials into the poetic mold of the Norse saga of the Old World. But writers of today are prepared to keep closer to the sources and to consult native pieces m transla- tion. Ina recently published book! we find an interesting anthology of Amer- ican Indian poetry and a presentation of “interpretations” in the spirit of this poetry. While this book presents much that is new to the public, it leaves un- visited many pleasant fields known to special seekers. There are tender or tremendous pic- tures drawn in the simple words of many Indian poems. For instance there is something we understand in this one: The Sioux women pass to and fro wailing as they gather up their wounded men The voice of their weeping comes back to us. The Path On the songs and chants Boni and 1 George W. Cronyn, Editor. Rainbow. An anthology of from the Indians of North America. Liveright, New York, 1918. But it is something of a shock to be told that this is not a Song of Compas- sion, but a Hymn of Hate. More ap- pealing to us in its psychology is this song of love-hurt that comes from the same tribe: Although he said it still I am filled with longing When I think of him. Or this from the Northwest Coast: My child says: Look around at the waves,— Then she fools me with unripe salmon-berries. Or this from the Kiowa of the open spaces where the winds ride with loosened rein at night: That wind, that wind Shakes my tipi, shakes my tipi, And sings a song for me, And sings a song for me. And what a striking phrase is contained in the following Navaho song to the magpie: The Magpie! The Magpie! Here underneath In the white of his wings are the footsteps of morning. ! It dawns! It dawns! The simple and direct matter con- tained in the poems quoted above does not offer great difficulties in transla- tion. Even more sustained efforts like the following passage from the Iroquois Book of Rites? can be rendered in a natural and straightforward manner, although the construction of English varies widely from that of Iroquois, as may be seen at a glance. The trans- lation runs exactly across from line to line: *Horatio Hale, The Iroquois Book of Rites (Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Litera- ture. Number II.), p. 153. Philadelphia, 1883. 301 o02 NATURAL HISTORY Haihhaih! Jiyathontek! Niyonkha! Haihhaih! Tejoskawayenton. Haihhaih! Skahentakenyon. Hai! Shatyherarta— Hotyiwisahongwe Hai! Kayaneengoha. Netikenen honen Nene kenyoiwatatye— Kayaneengowane. Woe! woe! Hearken ye! We are diminished! Woe! woe! The cleared land has become a thicket. Woe! woe! The clear places are deserted. Woe! They are in their graves— They who established it— Woe! The great League. Yet they declared It should endure— The great League. Hai! Wakaiwakayonnheha. Hai! Woe! Their work has grown old. Woe! Netho watyongwententhe. Thus we are become miserable. There is a class of Indian composi- tions midway between the emotional outburst of the short songs and the long ceremonial pieces that are blocks in a great philosophical structure. Among the Eskimo, for instance, we find col- loquial poems full of excellent charac- ter drawing and understandable humor. It would be difficult to improve upon the matter of these verses in which Savdlat and Pulangit-Sissok pay their respects to each other in terms of raillery.! SAVDLAT SPEAKS: The South shore, O yes, the South shore I know it; Once I lived there and met Pulangit-Sissok, A fat fellow who lived on halibut, O yes, I know him. Those South-shore folks can’t talk ; They don’t know how to pronounce our language ; Truly they are dull fellows; They don’t even talk alike; Some have one accent, some another; Nobody can understand them ; They can scarcely understand each other. PULANGIT-SISSOK SPEAKS: O yes, Savdlat and I are old acquaintances ; He wished me extremely well at times; Once I know he wished I was the best boat- man on the shore; It was a rough day and I in merey took his boat in tow; Ha! ha! Savdlat, thou didst ery most pitiful; Thou wast awfully afeared ; 1D. G. Brinton. American Aboriginal Poetry (Proceedings, Numismatic and Antiquarian So- ciety of Philadelphia, 1887-1889), pp. 21-22. In truth, thou wast nearly upset; And hadst to keep hold of my boat strings, And give me part of thy load. O yes, Savdlat and I are old acquaintances. Very different in feeling but of equal merit as a sustained effort is a love poem of the Tewa Indians of New Mexico.? My little breath, under the willows by the water side we used to sit And there the yellow cottonwood bird came and sang. That I remember and therefore I weep. Under the growing corn we used to sit, And there the little leaf bird came and sang. That I remember and therefore I weep. There on the meadow of yellow flowers we used to walk Oh, my little breath! Oh, my little heart! There on the meadow of blue flowers we used to walk. Alas! how long ago that we two walked in that pleasant way. Then everything was happy, but, alas! how long ago. There on the meadow of crimson flowers we used to walk. Oh, my little breath, now I go there alone in sorrow. The religious poems that are found especially well developed among the Pawnee, the Navaho, and the Pueblo tribes of the Southwest may have been inspired, in part at least, by the ancient literary products of Mexico and Central America. Unfortunately the anthology 2H. J. Spinden, Home Songs of the Tewa In- dians (AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, Vol. XV, February, 1915), p. 78. AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY before us gives no examples of Aztecan or Mayan poetry and only one piece from Peru. I will therefore sketch briefly the best products of literature in these re- gions where something close to the drama was developed in connection with spectacular ceremonies and where specially composed verses were recited on oceasions of great rejoicing or solemnity. To begin with Peru, there are names for four different sorts of plays among the Incas, covering the range from tragedy to farce. Sir Clements Markham has given us the Inca drama of Apu Ollantay in two states, literal and literary. But this drama is so much like the drama of Europe in form that doubts have been cast on its authenticity. It surely con- tains native material, modified some- what by European influences. In one scene the chorus sings the following harvest song that has an allegorical reference to the love plot in the play. Tuyallay—my little tuya—is the name of a small finch, and Nusta means princess.* Thou must not feed, O Tuyallay, In Nusta’s field, O Tuyallay, Thou must not rob, O Tuyallay, The harvest maize, O Tuyallay, The grains are white, O Tuyallay, So sweet for food, O Tuyallay, The fruit is sweet, O Tuyallay, The leaves are green O Tuyallay, But the trap is set, O Tuyallay. The lime is there, O Tuyallay. We'll cut thy claws, O Tuyallay, To seize thee quick, O Tuyallay, Ask Piscaca, O Tuyallay, ‘Sir Clements Markham, The Incas of Peru, pp. 353-354. New York, 1910. 303 Nailed on a branch, O Tuyallay, Where is her heart, O Tuyallay? Where her plumes, O Tuyallay ? She is cut up, O Tuyallay, For stealing grain, O Tuyallay. See the fate, O Tuyallay, Of robber birds, O Tuyallay. More ponderous and impressive are hymns to Uira-cocha, the unknowable, all-powerful and ever-benevolent Su- preme Being of the Incas. I quote* but a portion of one of these: O Uira-cocha! Lord of the universe, Whether thou art male, Whether thou art female, Lord of reproduction, Whatsoever thou mayest be, O Lord of divination, Where art thou? Thou mayest be above, Thou mayest be below, Or perhaps around Thy splendid throne and sceptre. Oh hear me! From the sky above, In which thou mayest be, From the sea beneath, In which thou mayest be, Creator of the world, Maker of all men; Lord of all Lords, My eyes fail me For longing to see thee; For the sole desire to know thee. The literary remains from Central America are scanty, especially those containing verse. Bishop Landa tells us that in northern Yucatan dramatic representations took place on prepared stages or platforms. In Mayan cities that flourished in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. we find the ruined re- mains of courts surrounded by stepped walls. These probably served as amphi- theaters. Of the poems recited by the Aztecs on gala occasions we have fragments that make us realize the world’s loss in the destruction of this literature.* The 2 Tdem, p. 100. 2 Daniel G. Brinton, Ancient Nahuatl Poetry (Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Litera- ture, Number VII.) Philadelphia, 1887. 304 NATURAL HISTORY sixty songs of King Nezahualcoyotl were held by the Aztecs as examples of the poetic art at its best. They ad- mirably expressed the philosophy of eat, drink, and be merry. Nezahualcoyotl is addressed in these words by a brother poet : And thou, beloved companion, enjoy the beauty of these flowers, rejoice with me, cast out fears, for if pleasure ends with life, so also does pain. A responsibility above mere pleasure was recognized, however, in subsequent lhnes, and a permanence for good deeds as contrasted with human vanities. I fear no oblivion for thy just deeds, stand- ing as thou dost in thy place appointed by the Supreme Lord of All, who governs all things. Poetry was flowery speech to the Az- tecs and the symbolism of flowers is re- peated in lovely phrases. For instance: Weeping, I, the singer, weave my song of flowers of sadness . . I array myself with the jewels of saddest flowers; in my hands are the weeping flow- ers of war; I lift my voice in sad songs; I offer a new and worthy song which is beauti- ful and melodious; I weave songs fresh as the dew of flowers . .. Let my soul be draped in various flowers ; let it be intoxicated by them . The divine flowers of dawn blossom FOTiM 6 s O youths, here there are skilled men in the flowers of shields, in the flowers of the pend- ent eagle plumes, the yellow flowers which they grasp; they pour forth noble songs, noble flowers; they make payment with their blood, with their bare breasts; they seek the bloody field of war. And you, O friends, put on your black paint, for war, for the path of victory; let us lay hands on our Commentary.—I. The ‘‘Yellow-Faced One” is a descriptive name of the Fire God who had many other names. Tzommolco was a temple to this god in Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) and Tete- mocan is probably a second name for the same building. The question “shall I affront you” means ‘‘shall I withhold from you the prescribed sacrifice.’ It is a formula that is often used. The plural ‘‘my fathers’’ may have been addressed to the several priests in charge of the ceremony who were regarded as representatives and impersona- tors of the god. II. Mecatlan was possibly a temple of music; at any rate the ‘‘yucca tree booms” refers to the beating of the drums which were made of the hollow trunk of the yucca. The next name, Chiue- yocan, may be translated “Place of Eight-ness,”’ —but even then the term is cryptic enough. It shields, and raise aloft our strength and courage. The religious chants preserved by Sahagun are written in archaic Na- huatl. The phrases must have sounded as strangely in the ears of the common Indian of those days as the verses of Chaucer do in our ears today—perhaps more so. Even when carefully trans- lated these chants are unintelligible to persons ignorant of Aztecan beliefs and usages. Therefore I have found it wise to follow this chant with a fairly de- tailed explanation. SONG OF THE YELLOW-FACED ONE? I. In Tzommolco, my fathers, shall I affront you? In Tetemocan shall I affront you? Ls In the temple of Mecatlan, O, my Lords, the yucea tree booms. In Chiueyocan, the House of Disguises, the masquerade has come down. III. In Tzommolco they have begun to sing In Tzommolco they have begun to sing Why come they not hither Why come they not hither. IV. In Tzommolco human beings shall be given The Sun has come up! Human beings shall be given. V. In Tzommolco now ceases the song Without effort he has grown rich, to lordship he has attained, It is miraculous, his being pardoned. VI. O little woman utter the speech Lady of the House of Mist utter the speech abroad. 1 Eduard Seler, Die religidsen Gesange der alten Mexikaner. was possibly a temple where dancers donned their animal masks and other ceremonial regalia. III. and IV. These stanzas relate the pro- gression of the ceremony and call the priests to a sacrificial rite with human victims. The Fire God appears to have been the same as the Sun God and the sacrifice was made at sunrise. V. These words refer to the rewards given by the Fire God to the person on whose vow or petition the ceremony had _ been - called. This divinity was also God of Wealth and Honors. He was pleased by worship and he heaped sudden wealth and high rank upon his worshipers. VI. The last stanza doubtless has some esoteric connection with the preceding stanzas. The person referred to is possibly a mountain goddess connected in some mythical way with the Fire God. Possibly she is requested to herald his fame and powers. == ee AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY This Aztecan chant takes up events in succession and gives enough detail to indicate this succession to anyone fa- miliar with the words and the religious background. It must be evident to the reader that the feeling of mystery and illusion gained from the first perusal largely disappears when we are in pos- session of even a portion of the facts and formule known to the creators. In the absence of this knowledge we get an emotional reaction, it is true. Our in- telligence, that naturally strives to make sense out of words, is teased and thwarted. The religious poems of the Pueblo Indians, of the Navaho, Pawnee, and Omaha, are filled with formule and with more or less esoteric and priestly phrases that the Indians call “high words.” For instance, the repetition of a prayer to the four directions and to the above and the below is a formula of universality. The association with these world points of special colors, hunting animals, game animals, birds, ete.,.is a pictographic device probably taken over by the northern tribes from the highly developed cosmology of Mexico. The greater gods of the northern Indians lack, in general, the definite charac- terizations that we find in Mexico. They are formless powers that move in clouds and floods. But there are lesser gods who are commonly personifications of animals, plants, ete. Of course, the names of these gods can never have as- sociations for us of the same sort that they do for the original Americans. Indian invocations often carry a dreadful sincerity and give a sense of impending divinity. The argument is consistently made through objective reality to subjective ideality. Note how the Sia appeal through the eye and ear to the reasoning mind that would know the Makers of Storms: Cover my earth mother four times with many flowers. Let the heavens be covered with the banked up clouds. 305 Let the earth be covered with fog; cover the earth with rains. Great waters, rains, cover the earth. Lightning cover the earth. Let thunder be heard over the earth; let thunder be heard; Let thunder be heard over the six regions of the earth. To these Indians the esthetic arts are useful and filled with magic. Their songs are prayers for rain as are like- wise the designs they paint on pottery or weave on cloth. They live immersed in beauty, but it is the beauty that does, not the beauty that seems. While the Navaho god created he sang as fol- lows: In old age wandering on the trail of beauty. For them I make. To form them fair, for them I labor. For them I make. In these words is expressed the philoso- phy that beauty is truth and perfection in use and being. The question soon asked by a person skilled in the use of words on reading American Indian verse is this: “How much of the effect is real and how much is adventitious?” Someone has some- where observed that when you learn a new language you acquire a new soul. Words are not merely the carriers of thought, they are also to a large extent the molds of thought. New sets of words involve new ways of thinking be- cause they establish new associations be- tween objects and ideas. Literal trans- lation may put into the language of the second part some original quality of the language of the first part, but more often it puts in a new and picturesque something that comes from mere con- trast between two systems of word or- der and word association. Language makes possible the trans- ference of ideas from one human mind to another only because articulated sounds—or graphie symbols that substi- tute for them in writing—rest upon a social basis of common acceptance for the word and common experience for the meaning. But just as the art of 306 Weaving varies from one place. to another because tools, materials, and ideas of construction vary, so the art of presenting thought in sounds or pre- serving it in sound symbols, is modified and limited by the mechanical possibil- ties and suggestions inherent in the particular language. Textile design, properly speaking, must follow the lines of construction. Poetry is design in words and in any particular language it must also adjust itself to construc- tion. The device of rhyme, for in- stance, is not always possible. Rhythm of one kind or another is usually pres- ent because primitive peems are usually sung. Accent is common in polysyl- labic languages but the primitive singer does not hold himself strictly to these accents. Syllables may be slurred, lengthened, reduplicated, ete., to meet the requirements of the singing voice. Repetition often gives rise to stanza forms especially when there is an or- derly variation combined with the repe- tition. Thus in an extempore song of virtues in a funeral ceremony a qualify- ing phrase may vary between set phrases. For example: She is dead, the generous one, My daughter is dead, dead! She is dead, the loving one, My daughter is dead, dead! In the translation of poetry there are the prose and the poetical methods. The prose method is to translate simply the thought, and the natural tendency of the followers of this method is to translate the thought into English which is devoid of any emotional quality. The poetic method is to translate the thought as directly as possible into words of emotional quality. - The diffi- culty with this method is that it is hard to match emotional qualities between languages. Moreover, the persons who naturally prefer it have subjective rather than objective interests. Amer- ican Indian languages are rich in terms that single out details of the outside NATURAL HISTORY world and in classifications of the states of matter but they are weak in words that present or qualify the subjective world and the states of mind. Yet, far from being materialistic, the Indians recognized a persistent duality in na- ture and each thing had its soul. Some anthropologists, especially Frank Cushing, Alice Fletcher, Wash- ington Matthews, and Jeremiah Cur- tin, have treated Indian songs and myths in literary fashion. But they have worked from native texts and so have not gone far astray on the funda- mental meanings of the original words. The criticism of their translations hes not so much in denotation as connota- tion. An English word may have ap- proximately the same meaning as an Indian word and yet have entirely dif- ferent associations. They have given a poetic quality where there should be a poetic quality—but perhaps they have endowed the rose with the fragrance of the violet. When it comes to a second remove such as is seen in the “interpretation” of Indian verse we are on still more doubtful ground. Even the most pre- tentious interpreters of Indian modes of thought make mistakes. For in- stance, one might place greater faith in the emotional and intuitive judgments of Mary Austin if the poem chosen by her to represent the quintessence of In- dian art were not a flagrant fraud long since exposed. The epithalamium of Tiakens was written by a French stu- dent of languages named Parisot when scarcely twenty years of age. The dar- ing youth fabricated the grammar, vocabulary, and texts of a language which he declared to be that of the now extinct Taensa tribe and was suc- cessful in deceiving the world for seyv- eral years. Of course what the interpreters want are new themes and freshened expres- sions. They can get these by imitating the objectivity of Indian poetry that pictures causes and circumstances and AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY lets the mind of the hearer or reader interpret for itself. Sometimes the word association or the sentence struc- ture in a foreign language can be trans- ferred legitimately into English. For instance, in a song given above let us take the Tewa terms p’in’e and hae, the diminutive forms of p’in and ha, that mean “heart” and “breath.” These terms of endearment are different from the ones we use in English but are un- derstandable because we ourselves make use of the affectionate diminutive (as in little mother, motherkin, ete.) and we associate the heart and the breath with love and life. The exotic quality that exhales from Burton’s translation of the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments is partly due to peculiar similes and recurring phrases that strike forcibly upon our western imaginations. To eastern readers these are conventions pure and simple and the signs of real excellence something entirely different. A translation that is first and last the carrying over of a thought and all its associations from one language to an- other, is essentially a new creation. A human mind must intervene and re- ceive the terms and construction of the language of the first part and give out not the form but the content of the message in terms and constructions of the language of the second part. Poets who attain the grotesque by half trans- lations make an unfair use of Indian verses. Constance Lindsay Skinner, in the terminal essay to The Path On the Rainbow, unconsciously makes clear that her reaction to Indian verse is in- volved and subjective and that she sees only through the eyes of the English language albeit sympathetically. She says: “The Indian water-song is poetry to me because of a memory:—an old chief, his hair grayed and his broad brown face deep-lined by a hundred and ten years, his sightless eves—almost hidden under sagging, crinkled lids— 307 raised to the wet air.” After all it is the subjective of our own culture rather than the subjective of Indian culture that is stirred by Indian poems. I believe that the study of primitive American poetry should have a whole- some and stimulating effect upon mod- ern American literature. It is open, sincere, and inspiring, and it has an engaging quality of directness and sim- plicity. There is today, however, a pseudo- primitive school that in painting, sculp- ture, music, dancing, and poetry affects the mold but ignores the content of art that is genuinely primitive. The work of this school lacks communal accept- ance, undivided purpose, and innate sincerity, and is essentially individual- istic and revolutionary.. Nevertheless, good may come out of such efforts if only the public learn sufficient dis- crimination to select gold from dross. Real primitive art has behind it a tradi- tion of untold centuries while pseudo- primitive art can boast only a doubtful present. If a choice were to be made between the atavistic muse of Dr. Frank Gordon that sings: By south-way, east-way, shore-land place, Men come, Boats come, Float fast, Handsome. Man-who-Paints, much-talker, he much- walked Easterly, south also, All-time stalked— ... and the untutored savage of the Painted Desert whose immemorial gods of cloud and bush have taught him to say: May their roads home be on the trail of peace, Happily may they all return. In beauty I walk, With beauty before me, I walk, With beauty behind me, I walk, With beauty above and about me, I walk, It is finished in beauty, It is finished in beauty. What would the verdict be ? ‘ 4 at ERE: A NUT PALM BESIDE THE JUNGLE TRAIL The nut palm is one of the most common of Panamanian palms. About every fifth palm has a family of opossums occupying the hollow center where the branches start. The photograph also shows typical second growth jungle about as high as it ever gets 308 Unknown Panama’ By TOWNSEND WHELEN Lieutenant Colonel, United States Army BELIEVE it will surprise most Americans, and perhaps a few of our field naturalists, to learn that right at the back door of the Panama Canal lies an almost unknown jungle wilderness, unmapped and _ practically uninhabited in the interior except for a few very primitive Indians. Virtually the entire eastern portion of the republic of Panama lying between the Canal and Colombia, roughly three hundred miles long by from fifty to one hundred miles wide, is unknown, and the published maps of this coun- try. except for the seacoast and the lo- cation of half a dozen small towns, are all faked. It was my good fortune to spend the entire dry seasons (December to June) of 1916 and 1917 exploring a part of this country. We found it necessary to know something of that portion of it nearest the Canal, and it fell to my lot, assisted by Companies E and H, 29th United States Infantry, to make a preliminary exploration with a view to planning and expediting its accurate mapping by the Engineer Corps. The coasts of Panama are all ac- curately charted. In the vicinity of the city of Panama are a few fair-sized towns on the larger rivers, and their location, as well as the general course of the rivers on which they lie, is indi- eated with fair accuracy on existing maps. Some of the mountain ranges which can be seen from the sea have also been set down. The re- mainder is unknown. Moreover, it will of necessity remain so. The Panamanian is not a pioneer. Ex- ploration does not appeal to him and, in fact, he dreads the jungle at his back door. No guides to this coun- try can be procured. The Indians of the interior are hostile to the invasion of the country by the whites. There are no roads or trails, and practically no navigable rivers, back packing be- ing the only practical means of trans- portation. Even maps are not availa- ble, and probably it will be very many years before they become so, owing to the necessarily confidential nature of such accurate maps as exist, because of their connection with the defense of the Panama Canal. It is because this little piece of jun- gle probably will remain virgin and unspoiled for many years that I think it ought to be brought to the attention of our field naturalists. It is so easily accessible, and yet only the borders of it have been scratched by the scientist. No one yet knows what is in the in- terior, what secrets it contains, what new fauna and flora its exploration will reveal. In the Canal Zone, which extends five miles to either side of the Canal, prac- tically all of the jungle forest has long since been cut off, and in its place has grown up a dense, impenetrable sec- ond growth of small trees, palms, creepers, thorns, and coarse grass. The casual visitor to the Canal never sees the real jungle, nor dreams of its ex- istence. In fact not 5 per cent of the inhabitants of the Canal Zone and the cities near by have ever seen the virgin jungle. To them the second growth is the jungle, uninteresting, impossible, terrifying. But if one cuts his way through this tangled growth for about five miles in from the Canal he comes to the real jungle, standing up like a gigantic wall of green verdure. Once in it all is different, even the very climate itself. 1 The illustrations are from photographs by the Author. 309 310 Here one can wander at will, unim- peded by thorns and creepers. It is even easier traveling here than in the woods of our own Northeast, because as a rule there is much less “down” timber. It is like a new world, a world that one has not even read about. From the blazing sun and sweltering heat of the second growth one enters what is almost an underground world, cool and balmy. Everywhere the giant trees go up limbless for from one hun- dred to two hundred feet, and then spread out their verdure, literally hiding the sky. Beautiful slender palms grow in great profusion in the semi- darkness forming the lower growth, impeding one’s view but not one’s Scarcely ever can one see more than fifty yards, and never does the explorer get an extended view, even from the tops of the highest mountains. When I first entered the jungle it was with an indescribable feeling of awe and wonder, and this feeling has never left me; nay, it persists, drawing me, calling me to come back, more insistent even than the “Call of the North.” That part of the jungle in which my most intensive exploration was con- ducted lies to the east of the city of Colon, between: there and the town of Nombre de Dios, and extending from the Caribbean coast inland to the head- waters of the Chagres River system. Between the Chagres basin and the Caribbean coast rises the cordillera of Cerro Bruja, a mountain range that starts about ten miles east of Colon, and rises steadily, culminating in the peak of Cerro Bruja (3200 feet) about fifteen miles south of the town of Porto Bello. East of Cerro Bruja peak the Rio Piedras rises almost in the basin of the Chagres, flows north around the base of Cerro Bruja, then west, and empties into the sea halfway between Colon and Porto Bello. The Piedras is one of the largest rivers of Panama, but you will not find it on any map, even its mouth having been mistaken progress. NATURAL HISTORY for a lagoon of the sea when the coast line was charted. The Rio Grande, figuring largely on existing maps, is an insignificant little stream, several miles long, really un- worthy of aname. Beyond the valley of the upper Piedras rises a really impos- ing range of mountains called Cerro Saximo, culminating in a peak some- where south of Nombre de Dios, which must attain an altitude of from six thousand to eight thousand feet. I think I am the only one who has ever viewed this range, as it seems to be in- visible from any place where there is any trace of human beings, and its presence is barely noted on only one old map, with no indication as to its alti- tude. Beyond Saximo neither I nor anyone else knows what. There are rumors that the interior beyond is inhabited by Indians of the San Blas (Cuna-Cuna) tribe, and that they are very hostile to invasion of their country by whites. Today one can enter the jungle ten miles east of the city of Colon, and travel eastward through this jungle wilderness for more than three hundred miles, and except for a few marks of my machete, he will not see the trace of a civilized being. In January, 1916, I established a base camp at the end of the extreme northeastern arm of Gatun Lake, and from there extended my explorations. Trails were cut for about fifteen miles into the jungle, and other base camps were established from time to time. Sketch maps were made of the sur- rounding jungle, the work being done by Companies E and H, 29th United States Infantry, which companies I commanded from time to time. The extended exploration, however, could not be done in this way. The difficul- ties attending the supply of a large number of men in a country without trails or horse feed made the work very slow. So I was forced to fall back on the most primitive of all methods of O a — > S ao Zz Oo a oc ke Zz < Le z Lt = o>) N ul = Zz < a = O Oo LL O oO = } } . In all eight drawings the abbreviations are as follows: f, frontal; pf, prefontal; po.f, postfrontal; po, postorbital; 1, lacrymal; n, nasal; ma, maxillary; pmax, premaxillary; j, jugal (cheek); pa, parietal; 8q, squamosal. 422 Stage 6—Head of a prim- itive Primate Notharctus of Eocene age, Wyoming. The lacrymal (1) is pushed to the inner wall of the orbit. A new rim behind the orbit is formed by outgrowths from the frontal (f) and cheekbone (jugal, 7) Stage 7—Head of an Old World monkey (ma- caque), showing the for- ward direction of the orbits, the retreat of the lacrymal bone to the inner wall of the orbit, the formation of a bony partition behind the or- bit, the beginning of the expansion of the brain case and of the shorten- ing of the face Stage S—Head of a man, showing the final stage of evolution. The _ lac- rymal bone remains much as it was in the preced- ing stage, but the eyes are now directed wholly forward, the brain case is greatly expanded and the face extremely short- ened and deepened 9 -v 424 iferous rocks, were the descendants of certain very progressive “lobe-finned” or rhipidistian fishes, which had begun to use their fore and hind paddles as limbs, crawling about the margins of pools and swamps, and developing such incipient lungs as are found in the lungfishes of the present day. In these transitional creatures the gills were probably used only in the larval aquatic stage and gradually disappeared in the adults. Consequently the numerous skin-bones covering the gill-chamber in fishes and called the opercular series (op, Stage 1) disappeared, along with the gills themselves, so that in the old- est known four-footed animals (Stage 2) there is a great notch at the back of the skull on each side, representing the outer part of the primitive gill- chamber. Thus, after an interval of millions of vears during the emergence of the four-footed vertebrates from fishes, the rocks reveal to us the second great stage of this lhne of evolution, repre- sented by the reptiles and amphibians of the Coal Measures and succeeding In these animals (Stage 2) we find the same ring of five bones around the orbit which was first developed in the fishes, but now the several elements of this series are more differentiated one from the other. The lacrymal bone (1), at the lower front corner of the orbit, is pierced by a duct correspond- ing to our tear duct, which it is be- heved is a modified remnant of the lateral line canal. The jugal (7) or bone beneath the orbit now suggests the beginning of the zygomatic arch or cheek bone of higher types. At this stage the lacrymal extends from the orbit to the nostril, and the maxilla (mx) or upper jaw bone is a slender element which is widely separated from the nasal (7) by the lacrymal. In the third stage (Stage 3), repre- sented in certain reptiles from the Per- mian of Texas, the lacrymal is re- ages. NATURAL HISTORY stricted through the upgrowth of the maxilla, which acquires a wide contact with the nasal. Here, also, we have the beginning of the temporal fossa or opening for the jaw muscles behind the orbit. The fourth stage (Stage 4) is repre- sented by the mammal-lke reptiles of the Triassic age found in South Africa. In these wonderful saurians there is a surprising mixture of mammalian and reptilian characteristics. The region around the eye is very mammal-lke. The upper jaw bone is much larger than in earlier stages and the lacrymal is still more restricted. The zygomatic arch is extremely mammal-hke in form and so is the temporal fossa. The fifth stage, which was attained in the latter half of the Mesozoic era or Age of Reptiles, is preserved even at the present time in the opossum (Stage 5), one of the most primitive of exist- ing mammals. In this stage the upper jaw bone (maxilla) has grown upward around the laerymal, which is now further restricted. As compared with the ancestral reptiles the greatest changes in this region in primitive mammals are the loss of the prefrontal, which exposes the frontal, and of the postorbital, which makes the orbit widely continuous with the temporal fossa. The stout zygomatic arch is now fully mammalhan in form. The sixth stage is found in the very ancient Primates from the Eocene of Wyoming, here represented by Votharc- tus osborni (Stage 6). The lacrymal has now greatly dwindled and with- drawn to the inner wall of the orbit as in many existing Primates, this reduc- tion and retreat within the orbit being probably associated with the reduction of the parts of the nasal cavity which the lacrymal covers. The orbit is now guarded in the rear by a bony rim, which is, however, by no means the same as that in reptiles (Stages 2-5), since it is now formed, not by the THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN FACE original postorbital bone (po), which has been lost, but by a new bony out- growth or postorbital process from the frontal. bone, which meets a similar new extension from the jugal. At this stage the face is somewhat shorter than it was in primitive mammals and reptiles, but the eyes still look out- ward. The seventh stage (Stage 7) is pre- served in the monkeys, especially those of the Old World, such as the macaque. These have advanced widely beyond the primitive Primates in the fact that the orbit is now shut off from the tem- poral fossa by a new partition growing out from the above-mentioned post- orbital process of the frontal and jugal bones. This great change is associated partly with the forward pointing of the orbits, which also causes the lacrymal bone to be pressed tightly against the inner wall of the eve. The large open- ing of the lacrymal canal or tear duct is now between the lacrymal and the upper jawbone or maxilla. The bony face is shortened and deepened and the whole brain case is expanded. The final or human stage (Stage 8) presents only an emphasis of the fea- tures already noted (Stage 7) in the monkeys, and is already attained in the higher anthropoid apes (see drawing on this page). The eyes now look directly forward, the brain case is enormously expanded and the face greatly short- ened and deepened. The position and characters of the lacrymal are essen- tially the same as in the preceding stage except that the tear duct is still larger. The series as a whole shows the dom- inating parts played in this evolution at first by the loss of the opercular bones following the loss of the gills; secondly, by the development of a tem- poral fossa and of a zygomatic arch in connection with the more efficient functioning of the jaws; thirdly, by the forward shifting of the orbits to obtain better vision; fourthly, by the final expansion of the brain case; and fifthly, by the retraction of the jaws beneath the brain ease. Thus in the course of many millions of years the lowly head of the Devo- nian fish has been refashioned into the voluminous brain and forward- looking face of man. case Forepart of the skull of a young chimpanzee showing subhuman character of the bones around the orbit, especially the lacrymal (as, alisphenoid; pl, palatine; other abbreviations as on page 422). Thus in the higher anthropoid apes, as in man, the lowly head of the Devonian fish has been refashioned. during the course of many millions of years, into the large brain case and the very different forward-looking face WEATHERED OUTPOSTS OF THE FOREST Glassy spicules of ice and sharp unworn sand grains grind at the windward side of the trunks, sometimes eating almost to the heart. On the leeward side the trees put forth their toughened branches and needles. The limber pines stand alone and take the punishment of the winds in unpro- tected spots where their neighbors, the spruces, cannot live 426 A snowstorm at timber-line.—The snowfall along the continental divide in Colorado is one of the heaviest of the country. west and tributaries of the Platte on the east. In the immediate vicinity of Longs Peak it feeds the Grand River on the “Eternal snow” lies all along the Front Range and from its border there flows a sheet of icy water during the summer days The Wars of the Wind at Timber-line THE FOREST RANKS IN THE DRY WIND-SWEPT HIGH ALTITUDES OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS ARE BEING DRIVEN DOWN THE SLOPES By ENOS A. MILLS Illustrations from photographs by the Author OR ages the high, dry, winter wind had blown out of the west across the Continental Divide. Down the eastern slope these winds swept roaring against the ragged, bat- tered upper ranks of the forest at tim- ber-line. At one place in the Rocky Mountain National Park they came down across a wide treeless moorland between two lateral moraines of huge size. They dashed so fiercely against the forest front that the aggressive trees had never been allowed to do more than peep over the edge of the in- clined moor. Again and again an ad- venturous seedling had dared the tree- less space only to be blown to pieces before it could get a good roothold. One day far up a mountain-side a cliff crashed and fell. The ice had at last wedged it off. It plunged and rolled down a steep slope with great leaps, and went to pieces. A few of the pieces tumbled far out on this moor. The largest stone formed a small wind- break a few hundred feet in advance of the forest’s wind-battered edge. In due time a few daring seeds sought to start a tree outpost in this shelter. They succeeded. In a close cluster they grew up. When they rose above the upper surface of the rock the terrific winter wind cut them off with sand blasts and the cutting edges of glassy sleet. New trees from time to time found a foothold to the leeward of the stone’s pioneer tree cluster. Thus a line of trees gradually extended in a 427 425 long wind-battered row, thick as a hedge, to the front ranks of the forest. The wind did not allow a tree to start or a limb to extend beyond the shel- tered edges of the stone. The timber-line of which this wind- row was a part stretches along the east- ern or Atlantic slope of the high Con- tinental Divide for hundreds of miles. The Engelmann spruce and the Arctic willow represent the tree growth in the moister places, while it falls to the lot of some variety of the limber pine to maintain the forest front on the dry wind slopes and rock ridges. Timber-line, like the shore line of the sea, bends and curves. Here a mountain-side canon causes it to sweep back like a bay of the sea, and there it thrusts itself out around a peninsula- like headland. In places the topog- raphy causes it to extend for a mile or more in a straight line. Next it comes to an end upon an out-cropping of barren rock which offers it no soil; and in places a drift of “eternal snow” holds it at bay; while on slopes and ridges the dry and devitalizing winds say, “Thus far and no farther.” The winds and gales that strike and beat and break against the front ranks of the forest, roar as intensely as a storming sea upon the shore, and with all its terrible eloquence. Wind is the strongest factor in the life of these timber-line trees. This is shown in their attitudes and shapes. Standing trees are tilted toward the east, the vinelike, crawling trees are headed east, and those standing with banners and pennants of long, tattered limbs and foliage, extend their arms only toward the east. All proclaim, “Out of the west come the forces that direct us.” At timber-line, wind, the sculptor, has carved for himself a thou- sand graphic tree statues that proclaim his presence and his power. The stone on the moor continued to shelter the windrow at timber-line. Each winter around the stone the vio- NATURAL HISTORY. lent winds raged, and pounded it al- most incessantly. During the summer months the wind rarely blew. ‘Then brilliant flowers stood thickly in a green and snowdrift-dotted Alpine scene. But with the coming of autumn the wind again came pouring out of the west across the peak-broken heights. Through the long winter it commonly blew from the same quarter. As it poured around the stormward corners of the stone, the wind gradu- ally blew the earth away. ‘Then along the stormward front of the stone it connected these corner erosions with a channel. Finally it began to under- mine this immovable wind-defying piece of granite. Hach spring and summer the water from the winter snows and from the rains carried for- ward the eroding, undermining work of the wind. Occasionally an accident came to a tree or two in the windrow and a slight opening was left, between the grizzled edges of which a man might squeeze through. One day a bowlder rolled down and smashed a larger opening. But most of the trees in this long, nar- oO row hedge interlaced still more closely with new limbs. The wind did not al- low them to extend their tops upward or their arms outward beyond the line determined and sheltered by the stone. Each winter the hundreds of tiny ad- venturous twigs that had during sum- mer grown beyond the side or the top lines were clipped off by the wind. A long, long time the stone re- mained. Upon it many a white ptar- migan alighted; upon it, too, the crested noisy jay, the quiet camp-bird, and the curious magpie often sat to look upon the scene. Around it lived the bighorn sheep. Beside it a grizzly once dug for a chipmunk. On the wide moor here and there a partly embedded rock fragment. shel- tered a tiny persistent tree. Here and there a bowlder that had rolled down from one of the moraines sheltered sasspaisd SdUOZ eB SUIpL ‘asi d “Sossoul oq UT] MOU p IuOSpuy{ YU t [tos J } puy sé UURL oul( Lay sty Avul sqnays 1 dn & } Suour samoy ayy Ju 901] 94 IJIOA yp d a} atop] OAC CA Ly OP UM }10U aroddn LOYTV } Suoje asanod snonurs vB ut sdoams ‘uoRUOZ 4 q al u 4 Sou BSTOY} B SR YR 3 p op jo } Jeu ‘aoueuTmMOId AYOOL 10 9uUv] JdeMS-pUIM B WOLZ OPIS S,UIRJUNOM 9} UMOP UBALAp AOU oy} Jo auo st Y 41334 00911 30 3GNLILIV NV Lv ‘OGVYO100 ‘4V3d SDNOT NO 430 somewhat larger growing trees. 447 draw tube. The interior of the tubes must be dead black, so as not to cause reflections. The difficult problem in cinema-microscopy is the illumination. Sunlight would be ideal for the pur- pose, but because of the uncertainties of its availability recourse must be had to artificial hghts, of which the electric arc lamp is the most useful. Arc lamps are made to work with al- most any current, direct or alternating, from 4 to 60 amperes or upward, giv- ing a light that varies correspondingly from 300 to 10,000 candle power. The most useful lamps for the purpose un- der consideration are the smaller types taking 10 amperes or less. The Bausch and Lomb 10-ampere lamp is very well adapted for cinema- microscopy. It is a hand-fed are ren- dering about 1506 candle power; the carbons are regulated by milled heads which work very smoothly, and despite constant attention necessary to keep the are in reliable working condition, this lamp has proved perfectly satis- factory. The arc is adjustable to dif- ferent heights on a suitable pillar, and can be tilted if required. most Microphotograph of a hydroid, Gonothyrwa (enlargement about 100 diameters), showing growth in branching colonies, also two kinds of members appearance) and reproduction polyps of the colony, feeding polyps (flower-like in A MASTERPIECE OF ASSYRIAN LOW RELIEF This and the examples of Assyrian sculpture following, from copyrighted photographs of the originals in the British Museum, are reproduced through the courtesy of W. A. Mansell §° Co., of London The foundation for low relief was laid from twenty to thirty thousand years or more ago, before historic times, in southern France, by the Cré-Magnon race. Their sculptures on the walls of caves, in low or in high relief, or in drawings incised or painted, challenge our admiration today by firmness of touch and sureness of line, and by what some of us in this twentieth century A.D. should take to heart—the restraint which cautions against unnecessary detail. Low relief in relation to architecture had its foundation in early historic times as a develop- ment in Egyptian art.. Egyptians discovered that conventionalism and simplicity even to the extent of stiffness of the lines and figures brought harmony of the sculpture with the building. They, however, did not use animal sculpture to a great extent, whereas the Assyrians did; there- fore, the direct line of tradition of architectonic principles in animal sculpture comes to us by way of the Assyrians—for instance, through the beautiful sculptured friezes of Nineveh. The above low relief of the head of a horse is a masterpiece in which ac- curacy of drawing is combined with simplicity of modeling A group of wild asses from the Palace of Nineveh Zoological Sculpture in Relation to Architecture With especial reference to development from the Cré-Magnons through Eqypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, and France.—Whether in high or low relief or in the round, the posture as well as the planes, the lights and the shades, should carry the lines of the architecture.—A vast future for modern architecture lies in the lessons of the past on animal sculpture By 8S. BRECK PARK HE recent discovery of animal paintings and sculptures on the walls of western France and the Pyrenees writes the caverns in south- the prologue of the history of art and at the same time makes an important contribution to the science of zodlogy. These works of art, executed in the Aurignacian and Magdalenian periods, that is, about twenty or thirty thousand years ago, give striking evidence of the high state of intellectual development of the Cré-Magnon race to whom their creation is attributed. Their value to science consists in the truthful and ac- curate representation of a great num- ber of animals. some of them lone since Appointed by Roosevelt when he was President, incorporator, vice president, and trustee American ston, Architects, New York City. feAN TR OOW BRA DG He extinct in Europe, such as the mam- moth, the horse, the cave bear, the wolf. the reindeer, the rhinoceros, and espe- cially the bison, whose majestic and im- posing form seems particularly to have appealed to the fancy of the artists. Their artistic qualities challenge un- qualified admiration. Paintings, incised drawings, sculptures in low or in high relief abound, and all are characterized by firmness of touch, sureness of line and by admirable restraint in the omis- sion of unnecessary detail. Prehistoric sculpture had for its background the bold and rugged rock walls of the caverns and shelters. and never erred in too great refinement of as chairman of the National Council of Fine Arts Academy in Rome; member Trowbridge and Living $49 here: Spe" 4 2 From “Men of the Old Stone Age” through courtesy of the Author and Charles Scribner’s Sons Part of a frieze of six horses, each horse relief seven feet long, found sculptured in the limestone under the sheltering cliff at Cap-Blane (in Dordogne, France). Cré-Magnon artists invented low relief— a conventional method of representation of the round in a series of very flat planes by a proportionate re- duction of thickness. Their subjects were many European animals now extinct, especial predilection being shown for mammoth, bison, reindeer, and wild horse. To view their work today, in comparison with modern sculpture, is to recognize the ‘“‘unity of purpose, the sincerity, the restraint, the appreciation of plane and shadow combined with truthful and accurate delineation,” which place it not as an effort of savages but as a work of true art by a highly developed human race From “Men of the Old Stone Age” through courtesy of the Author and Charles Scribner's Sons From the Cré-Magnon painting of the Celtic horse from the ceiling of Altamira, in northern Spain~ This ceiling of ancient paintings, now so famous throughout the world, was discovered in 1879 by the little daughter of the Spanish archeologist, Sautuola, who was hunting flints on the cavern floor. The paintings are polychromes, ochreous brown in color, the outlines etched in the stone, given strong contour lines in black, and often a second series in red. On the Altamira ceiling the paintings are placed in groups, often on bosses of the limestone, the Cré-Magnon artist having had sufficient creative genius thus to adapt his work to the surface of the rock. (This painting of the Celtic horse may be seen in color as as mural in the American Museum and is reproduced in color in the American Museum Journal for De- cember, 1912, in connection with articles by Professor H. F. Osborn and Dr. Clark Wissler) 450 (Above) The Wounded Lioness from Nineveh —This Assyrian relief is remarkable not only for truthful drawing and modeling but for the suppression of every unnecessary detail and the emphasis of every part neces- sary to the impression of unbeaten courage which the artist wished to convey Below) A beautifully composed group of wild asses from the frieze of Nineveh. Compare the drawing of the heads of these animals with the sculptured Cré-Magnon horse on the opposite page $51 CN ere seeneantiAsttharetere: 9'~ Nineveh, the groups of which are conspicuous for their excellence in com- Part of a frieze in the Palace of Their work proves Among the Assyrians we find first in historic times animal sculpture as such. had love and knowledge of animal life and that they sought to express the characters of the wild Assyrian sculptures followed rather closely in artistic quality the cave sculptures of Cro-Magnon man, separation in time and the entire lack of knowledge of the early artists position. that they beasts. notwithstanding 15,900 or more years’ among the Assyrians Here at least six planes of surface are expressed Another group from the frieze in the Palace of Nineveh. in the slight projection. No country has ever equaled Assyria in the amount of animal sculpture used as a decorative feature in building, although to the Greeks belongs the credit of bringing such work to its highest expression — = aaa a i ew Lions from the same Nineveh frieze. The conventional treatment of the mane recalls the cuneiform in scriptions. The spirit of conventionalism in Assyrian seulpture connected with architecture passed on as a heritage to medizval architecture, but the development there entered the fie!d of human figure representation All the figures of this frieze, in their treatment of detail, show ver) stinct architectonic qualities in that they harmonize perfectly with their architectural setting HAAANIN WOYS SLVOD GIIM 4O dNOYD GASOdWOO ATINAILNVAE V ccP erngotd oY JO ouLId 9} SUM4RIOIA JNOYIIM possatdxo St pRol] oy} JO Suruang oy} LO Aavssaoeu yydep ypny ayy asnrooq pnd ‘Surjapou pur SUIMUvAIpP Sy JO JUNOVIR UO {| uo JOU ‘ADUG}STXO UL Sjoljad {10 UIPLOBAYXO }SOUL OY} JO DUO SI AAOP[NOYS SI AVAO YoOuqg Sulyoo, ssvu avy} JO aaiunsy ayy HSASNIN WOYS SASSV ATIM SAO dNOUD V 156 NATURAL HISTORY detail. Whether in flat or low relief or whether in bold relief, as in the case of a frieze of six horses, each seven feet long, carved on the wall of the rock shelter at Cap-Blanc, on the River Beune in Dordogne, these sculptures always show the unity of purpose, the sincerity, the restraint, the apprecia- tion of plane and shadow combined with truthful and accurate delineation, which characterize all the work of the Cr6-Magnon artists and place them not among the primitive efforts of savages but in the realm of true art. It is a far cry from the Magdalenian art to that of the present day, but one cannot look upon the former without feeling that both are inspired by the same impulse and that underlying both are the same basic principles, so that we may justly attribute to the Cro- Magnon race the inauguration of the great traditions of art which have come down to us through the ages. After a long gap of approximately fifteen thousand years, sterile in art as far as our knowledge goes, we come into the more familiar ground of his- toric times. As the architecture of Eeypt developed and finally crystallized into a definite style, sculptural decora- tion necessarily followed the general trend and became highly convention- alized. In order to produce unity, harmony of line, of surface, and of hght and shadow in their architecture, Egyptian artists discovered that in their sculp- ture simplicity of modeling, firmness of outline and restfulness, even. stiffness of pose, were essential, and to them we owe the tradition of those architectonic qualities which are so necessary to make of sculpture an integral part of a building. Although there are many very beauti- ful examples of animal seulpture in Egypt. they are generally found grouped with human figures, and are more or subordinate or incidental to the In Assyria, however, less scenes presented, we find once again after many thou- sand years a return to the use of ani- mals as the principal motive of wall decoration. Like their forerunners of Magdalenian times, love and knowledge of nature led the Assyrian artists to express the emotions and characters of the wild beasts. With no possibility of any knowledge of even the existence of the earlier art and with a separation of about fifteen thousand years between them, it is interesting to note how closely in artistic quality, in the es- sence of characterization, the Assyrian sculptures resemble the Cro-Magnon. The lon hunt from the palace in Nineveh is but one of many groups adorning the palace walls which dis- play not only great artistic quality in the individual figures but also a very marked ability in composition as well; and “the wounded lioness,” one of these individual sculptures, is one of the most exquisite sculptures in exis- tence, in which sincerity and simplicity are the salient characteristics and which, as an expression of unbroken courage and unconquered spirit, is un- rivaled. All these animal figures are necessarily stylized, or conventionalized to the degree necessary to conform to the architectural setting, but in artistic feeling and in technique, as well as in truthful interpretation, they are un- surpassed. As in Egypt conventionalism made possible the depiction of mythological forms such as the gryphon and the sphinx, so in Assyrian caryatid figures, where required for the portals of the palace, conventionalism permitted the use of the great bulls with human heads. In the use of animal sculpture as a decorative feature of architecture, no country has equaled Assyria. “Another recent discovery has added one more chapter to the history of art and illustrates again the principles laid down by our Cro-Magnon forerunners. No enumeration of the great animal sculptures of the past would be com- ZOOLOGICAL SCULPTURE IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE .457 plete without at least a mention of the sculptured bulls of Crete. To find, however, the highest expres- sion of architectural animal sculpture we must, of turn to As the Parthenon has no equal in its architectural perfection, so the sculp- ture which adorns it is unparalleled in its beauty. As we should expect, there is a perfect blending of architectural and sculptural detail. The frieze de- picting the Procession from Eleusis at the Panathenaic Festival, with its long line of horsemen, is a perfect illustration of the application of the course, Greece. Detail from the Panathenaic Procession of the Parthenon Frieze. principle of architectonic sculpture. The horses and men are rendered in low rehef, vigorous and clean in line and contour, simple in modeling, restrained in detail, conventional to just the right point, and the proportionate relief of the different parts is preserved with- out confusion or the loss of a necessary shadow. The posture of figure, par- ticularly the horses, though all are supposed to be in motion, is at that point of momentary rest which indi- cates the completion of one movement each and the beginning of the next. giving Among the Greeks, architectonic sculpture reached its highest development. The frieze of which this is a small part is perfect in com- position, posture, drawing, and modeling, and eight distinct planes are shown without confusion 458 the impression of progress to the whole procession without violating the canon that the medium of sculpture precludes the translation of actual movement. The later Greek sculpture fell gradu- ally into a realism which marked its decadence. Rome, however, revived to some extent the early Greek spirit and produced some notable animal sculp- ture. The very beautiful relief which adorns the rostra in the Roman Forum, as a single example, is sufficient to show that the Roman artists were still influ- enced by the early Greek spirit, and understood the necessity of convention- alism in architectural sculpture. Medieval architecture, although abounding in sculpture, has little to offer in the representation of animals if we except the grotesques, but in the use of the human figure it is unsur- passed and teaches a wonderful lesson in architectonic ornament. Quite different in character but equal to the Greek sculpture in its adapta- tion to the lines of its architectural NATURAL HISTORY setting, Gothic figure sculpture; aided by the use of lines of draperies, not only melts into and blends with the mass and the detail of the building, but in the cathedrals and churches is also the means of proclaiming the spiritual and religious feeling of the architecture. The very rigidity of the figures, carried sometimes even to the point of awkwardness, typifies the mysticism and religious fervor of the Nothing could better illustrate the meaning of the “architectonic quality” than the portals of the great French cathedrals. The pose of the figures, the lines of the draperies, the quality of the modeling, the introduc- tion of the crocket-like figures in the arches, all harmonize with and are a part of the architecture. The saints of the portal of the Ca- thedral of Notre Dame in Paris (see Frontispiece) when seen apart appear erotesque, stiff, and uncouth, but in their proper setting, with the straight lines carrying up the vertical lines of the age. Rostra, in the. Forum of Rome—The treatment differs materially from that in the Parthenon frieze. Harmony with the architecture has been preserved, but a decline in the art of relief is notice- able in that there is an attempt to produce the actual roundness of the figures, violating the essential principle of low relief ZOOLOGICAL SCULPTURE IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE 459 architecture, and with the wonderful adaptation of planes and angles, they are the very acme of architectonic art. It is impossible to imagine these fig- ures in a Greek temple or the frieze of the Parthenon on a Gothic church, yet each in its proper place is as near per- fection as the art of man has been able to attain. In later Gothic times the tendency to realism again marked a decline and a decadence; as sculpture became more perfect in the imitation of nature it lost in architectonic quality and, as a result, in power of expression. The Renaissance, in which one may include our own times, has given few great examples of animal sculpture as applied to architecture. For three hun- dred years sculpture has shown a ten- dency to fall more and more into realism with a resultant loss of archi- tectural value. The history of art has been marked both in painting and sculpture by a succession of alternate waves of simplicity and complicated realism. We seem now to be coming to the end of a phase of the latter and there are unmistakable signs of a reac- tion. A number of schools of various de- grees of extravagance have appeared, the eubists and the modernists, but in passing they have rendered an un- doubted service. They have at least notified the world that art is not photo- graphic imitation, and they have broken the spell which seems to have bound us for nearly three centuries— but they, like children groping in the dark, have not found the way. Whether through deficient education or through lack of reasoning power, they have tried to persuade the world that artis- tie expression can be reached without work, that accuracy and skill in de- lineation are unnecessary or harmful ; whereas the exact contrary is true. The whole experience of mankind, the whole history of art from the Cré- Magnons to this day, teaches that there is no short cut, that there is no easiest way. Work, hard work, through years of incessant effort, is necessary to pro- duce the qualities which enable men to great and noble thoughts through the medium of dead immut- able materials. The error into which we have fallen and that into which the modern schools would lead us are the same. Inbothcases: it is due to the neglect of the great tradition which has come down to us in an unbroken line from the Cré6-Magnons, through Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, and France, that, in the art of sculp- ture, as in all art, there must be sin- cerity and truth, accuracy in delinea- tion and fidelity in modeling, and the suppression of every detail unnecessary to expression. The quality of beauty, which is the very essence of art, imples that the subject should always appeal to the higher and not to the baser emotions. Where sculpture, whether of men or animals, is used in architecture, the treatment should be architectonic in order that it may be an integral part of the building. Whether in high or low relief or in the round, the posture as well as the planes, the lights and the shades, should carry the lines of the architecture. These are the lessons of the past. The ability to carry them out depends. upon great technical skill, which can be reached only by infinite pains and a lifetime of labor and study. Advocates of new styles in architec- ture who are constantly crying for new motives might do well to consider the possibilities of animal sculpture. There is a peculiar charm, an appealing pathos, in the expression of human emotions through the medium of the dumb animals, and by an_ endless variety of forms nature has provided a fertile field for the imagination. As far back as the Old Stone Age art sought its inspiration in the forests and plains and left traditions of interpre- tation which experience has shown cannot be “neglected with impunity. express ON VIEW AT THE FIRST EXHIBITION OF ANIMAL PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN THIS COUNTRY This bronze, the black rhinoceros with tick birds on its back, was modeled by James L. Clark in 1914 shortly after his return from a trip with A. Radclyffe Dugmore to Africa, where they followed the big game over the African plains and obtained a famous collection of photographs. Mr. Clark has studied his animals in the field at close range and is interested in them as individuals. He shows in the arrangement of his subjects a familiarity with their inner psychology as well as with their external anatomy. The love of the animal for its own sake marks the true animal painter or sculptor. This rhinoceros bronze (which stands about two feet high) takes on additional interest because it is a duplicate of one which formed the centerpiece on the library table of the late Colonel Roosevelt's trophy room. at Oyster Bay 460 By Grace Mott Johnson Wild Life in Art WORK OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN ARTISTS IN SCULPTURE, PAINT- ING, AND BLACK AND WHITE, DEALING WITH ANIMAL LIFE Bys@H A hiihsS &. K NIGH T Illustrations from the work of Carl Rungius, James L. Clark, Charles Livingston Bull, Carl E. Akeley, and others! ; O the Brooklyn Museum belongs the credit of holding what is probably the first exhibition of animal paint- and therefore regarded by artists and lay- men as a true art expression along the lines selected by the sculptors and painters who By this The purpose of those who I mean an exhibit shown in a picture gallery took part in it. had the exhibition in charge was to include ing and sculpture in this country. Nore.—That our country is young and has, to date, been developing commercially rather than in the arts is evidenced in the lack of local encouragement of art. We have great centers like New York City where the painter or sculptor is recognized, finds some small chance for study, inspiration from the atti- tude of the people to do the best that is in him, and also the very necessary commercial market for his canvases or bronzes. But there is an emphatically disadvantageous situation in this country as a whole for the artist—perhaps particularly for the animal artist. A young artist in America has to go to a great art center like New York to sell his work. His towns- people in the West, or the South, or the North, would seldom think of buying it, or even of holding him in the high esteem his work deserves. As a people we are not yet educated to it. The only art seen in many places is by means of the circuit system of sending pictures from city to city, and these of course do not reach the small towns. Even in New York an artist must hire a place himself if he wishes his work exhibited. The American * For examples of the animal sculptures of A. Phimister Proctor the reader is referred to pp. 470—476 of this magazine; for further illustrations of the work of Carl E. Akeley, to the AMERICAN MusruM JOURNAL for April, 1913, ‘pp. 172—178, and May, 1914, pp. 175-187; for that of Louis Agassiz Fuertes to the JouRNAL for May, 1915, pp. 220-224; and the work of Charles R. Knight is illustrated in the JOURNAL for March, 1914, pp. 82-98. We regret that we have not been able to give a reproduction of - Bruce Horsfall’s “California Condor’ or other of his notable canvases Her ele- phants are studio models rather than wild life, but modeled with a suggestion of movement and force. Miss Grace Mott Johnson approaches the study of large game animals purely as a sculptor. She follows an interesting insistence on the planes of the muscular surfaces 461 462 works having both decorative and realistic character, with the result that many dif- ferent styles of design were presented at the This seems to me a very excel- being that the same time. lent idea, my only regret necessarily limited space forbade the assem- bling of a still larger and more comprehen- sive exhibit. It was with much pleasure, therefore, that I was privileged to spend several hours wandering about the alcoves set apart for the purpose. On first entering the main hall a bronze statuette of a rhinoceros caught my eye. This is the work of James L. Clark, at one time connected with the American Museum of Natural History. Mr. Clark made this NATURAL HISTORY model, which represents a black rhinoceros with several small tick birds on its back, shortly after his return from a collecting trip in Africa in 1913. The character of the great beast is very well expressed and one is impressed by the fact that Mr. Clark loves animals for their own sake and strives to depict not merely their outer form, but their inner psychology as well. This is a most important point and always marks the true animal painter or sculptor as the case may be. Miss Grace Johnson, on the other hand, to judge by her models such as those of elephants and lions has evidently studied modeling in the schools, as her work shows an insistence on the planes of the muscular art museum seldom holds an exhibition of the work of American artists, except perhaps of such men as Whistler and Sargent. It buys mostly foreign pictures or bronzes, yet—and here is the crux of the whole matter of comparison of conditions in America and Europe—not many European paintings or bronzes and never any European wild life art is seen for sale in America, because if there is any cleverness in that kind of work in Europe, it is kept in the particular home town of the artist as a special possession. In Europe artists do not have to flock to the great centers to find encouragement or market for their work. In France and various other European countries there are many art galleries scattered in many towns, and there is a well developed general appreciation of art by the people. It will take time to educate ourselves to a similar spirit in Americ2, but this is what we must accom- plish if art in America is to become at all comparable with art in Europe. Can we doubt that obligation —responsibility for the result—rests upon the great centers, especially upon New York?—C. R. KNIGHT. The famous bronze, ‘The Wounded Comrade,” represents two elephants assisting a wounded bull to a place of safety. its sympathetic treatment make a strong emotional appeal. It is perhaps Mr. Carl E. Akeley’s best known group. The subject of the bronze and Mr. Akeley, noted as a hunter of African elephants, has studied intimately the animals he portrays, and he gives to his sculptures the true form and character of wilderness life, which animals living in captivity do not possess. (An illustrated de- scription of the clay model of ‘‘The Wounded Comrade’’ appeared in the JOURNAL for April, 1913) “Children of the Sage,’’ a canvas showing the pronghorn antelopes in their wilderness home, by Carl Rungius. The artist is a hunter and traveler who has lived much among the western game, painting the animals as he found them in their natural surroundings. This picture sets forth well the life of the pronghorn antelope, one of our most graceful ruminants and once the commonest large animal of the Plains. York Zodlogical Society. Mr. Rungius has been making a large series of paintings of western big game for the New All of these are from sketches and observations in the field and are valuable records of our disappearing North American wild life surfaces,—a good point, but one which may easily be carried too far. She is vastly more interested in this study than in the real char- acter of the animal and I therefore mention her work in this connection as diametrically opposite that of Mr. Clark. She has an ex- cellent eye for general proportion and a certain suggestion of movement in her work, yet I feel that she approaches the subject purely as a sculptor and not as a lover of animal life. Two points of view apparently prevail in any collection of paintings or sculpture con- nected with this subject: one which deals with the animal as a living creature and gives a portrayal of its exact character as is done in a portrait, the other merely re- garding the animal as a piece of color or pattern and treating it accordingly. Both seem logical and I suppose are really cor- related, as in most other fields of artistic endeavor. Mr. Moorepark’s interesting compositions in pastel, for example, show a love of color and decorative line, but the birds themselves are often quite lacking in construction and the finer drawing which should accompany every serious attempt in art. The condor in one of these panels is absolutely grotesque in its proportions, with its huge head and puny body. I fear that work of this sort rather takes for granted the general public’s lack of knowledge on the subject and for this reason, if for no other, the practice is a bad one. Mr. Moorepark evidently has very little interest in his subjects as living entities, which is to be deplored, as no one who regards them merely as spots of color can grasp the full beauty of the living They are so fine, so graceful, and withal so vigorous in line and construction that it seems a pity not to do them full jus- tice. creatures. Mr. Benson’s studies of wild ducks and geese represent the work of an artist who, if I am not mistaken, began life as a figure painter. They show what one would expect, a knowledge of composition and values es- sential in the work of a serious painter. I understand that Mr. Benson has had great success with these pictures, yet they are sometimes trivial in handling and not well enough drawn to be convincing. One panel, for example, presents a flight of swans or geese, but the individuals in the group are so carelessly drawn that their real identity 463 “The Mountaineers,” Copyright by Carl Rungius an oil painting of bighorn sheep, by Carl Rungius, portrays magnificent speci- mens of an animal in many ways the most picturesque of the Rocky Mountain fauna. Mountain sheep are now so nearly extinct that to attain his sketch Mr. Rungius must have spent many difficult weeks or months among the wilds of the Rockies. York Zoological Society is rather a mystery. and in no way adds to the artistie effect. In other pictures the character of the birds is most accurately indicated and one gets an impression of life and atmosphere which is Taken as a whole, the work is interesting and a departure from the more As a This seems unnecessary very charming. hackneyed paintings of game birds. complete contrast with the above, one may mention a drawing of a partridge done by Gerald G. Thayer. This is an elaborately painted work illustrating the value of pro- tective coloration in birds of this species. The picture is unique in its way, as the values of the bird against its background have been most painstakingly indicated, with the result that the creature is almost invis- ible at first sight, so closely does it merge into its surroundings. It was painted under the personal guidance of the artist’s father, Abbott H. Thayer, and exemplifies many of the points so carefully brought out by the celebrated painter in regard to what we now call “camouflage,” or the science of con- cealing an object by means of masses of color artfully distributed over its surface. 464 This canvas is one of the series belonging to the New The picture was loaned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and will repay careful study on the part of the observer. Carl Rungius, rather meagerly represented in this exhibit by his bighorn picture and studies of pronghorn antelope, is a hunter of big game—a man who has lived for months in the mountains of the great West, shooting and painting during a considerable part of each year. All his studies are made in the field, and the animals he depicts are rarely seen in our zodlogical parks where they are represented at best by a few sickly individ- uals not at all comparable with the mag- nificent creatures so ably portrayed by the artist. Mr. Rungius has endured hunger and privation in his search for the various species of big game, and he has been work- ing for some years on a series of pictures for the New York Zoological Society. These pictures, which include the moose, elk, cari- bou, antelope, and musk ox, have all been painted in the true environment from sketches made on the spot, and should prove a valuable record of our rapidly vanishing big game animals. WILD LIFE IN ART LO ratively or realistically, but I can detect no In the work of the artists already referred such intention on the part of Mr. Nadelman. to, a more or less serious attempt has been in the examples of his work definite and withal Rather do I se a trifling with all that made to portray some makes for good art beautiful phase of animal life either deco- A VALUABLE PERMANENT RECORD OF ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS OF AFRICAN BIG GAME This study in bronze (about two feet high) of the African buffalo, by James L. Clark, is an excellent example not only of fine modeling but also of natural pose and expression It is a duplicate of the bronze presented by the members of the African Big Game Club of America to the Nairobi Club, in Selous, the “Great Hunter, True Sportsman, and Gallant Sol One of the most adventuresome lost his life memory of the late frederick Courtenay 1917 who was killed in action in German East Africa, January he liked best to tell was the oct dier of Selous’ experiences and the story ision when he nearly before a charging African buffalo 466 and a generally misdirected energy. The irritating part of it all is that Mr. Nadel- man knows better and he presumes upon our good nature when he presents to us as works of art the distorted lumps of bronze which When work of this sort is excavated from some he is pleased to call animal sculpture. prehistoric grave we are lenient in our judg- ment of it, but there can be no excuse for such monstrosities in our day and time. As a relief from work of this character, let us turn to that of a sincere student and lover of animals, Mr. Carl EH. Akeley. As a hunter, taxidermist, and inventor, Mr. Akeley is well known. He has collected for many years in Africa and his groups of mounted animals in the Field Museum of Natural History, deserve all the praise accorded to them, As Chicago, and elsewhere a sculptor Mr. Akeley is best known by his group “The Wounded Comrade,” which shows a wounded bull elephant being assisted to a place of safety by two companions. The work makes a strong human appeal and the “The Elephant Herd Charging” while less dramatic gives one a sentiment is excellent. good idea of a herd of swiftly moving Mr. Akeley is a close student, a keen observer, and above all a serious- pachyderms. minded man who believes in trying to pre- sent (as does Mr. Rungius) the actual form and seen at their best in captivity. Mr. Charles L. Bull, whose numerous illus- trations are well known to readers of our character of animals seldom current magazines, is a firm believer in the decorative qualities of animal form and color, that of the Japanese is nevertheless original in conception and treatment. His work while based primarily upon Composition is perhaps Mr. Bull’s strongest point, al- though he shows a fine feeling for color in many of his pictures. His work includes a wide range of subjects but the treatment is substantially the same in all. He affects a flat delineation of surfaces which grows rather monotonous at times, although the lack of roundness in his animal forms is not evident to most people. He shows excellent taste in his arrangements of light and dark surfaces and altogether his work occupies a rather unique place in the field of animal art. If one might criticise work of this sort, I should say that the constant reitera- tion of a certain scheme of treatment grows rather tiresome no matter how pleasing it NATURAL HISTORY may be, and makes one long for some totally different conception of the subject at hand. In the work of Bruce Horsfall we find a decided contrast to the flat decorative panels so characteristic of Mr. Bull’s method, and a return to the strictly realistic point of view. Mr. Horsfall is a trained and com- petent painter who, while not primarily a lover of animal life, is nevertheless capable of conveying to our minds some very pleas- ing impressions of animal nature. His “California Condor” is a scholarly piece of work, well painted, well drawn, and withal It depicts the great ungainly bird standing on a rocky ledge, excellent in character. with outstretched wings poised for flight. The sunlight strikes sharply on the gro- tesquely wrinkled head and neck, and casts a strong shadow upon the glaring yellow cliff in the background. The picture is interest- ing and convincing, and illustrates what can be done in the portrayal of a wild creature by a skillful and observing man. It was with great regret that I learned of the untimely death of Mr. Rembrandt Bugatti, shortly after the completion of the “Giraffe,” a bronze model loaned to the Brooklyn exhibition by Mrs. H. P. Whitney. Just how much this talented young man knew or cared about animals I cannot say, but the bronze is certainly the work of a clever sculptor and one who, had he lived, might have made a name for himself along these lines. The ungainly body and long awk- ward legs of the giraffe are nicely indicated, and the modeling itself is thoroughly well done. Miss Anna Hyatt is represented by sev- eral minor pieces which show, nevertheless, her ability to catch and preserve a difficult pose. Her “Jaguar Tearing a Piece of Meat” is well composed and the main action good, but the muscular anatomy of the shoulders is not well understood and the statuette loses something thereby. It is difficult in such a small exhibit to represent adequately the work of any one artist and I very much regret that Miss Hyatt could not have shown at least a small study of her “Joan of Are,” the bronze original of which now occupies a splendid site on Riverside Drive, New York City. tainly Miss Hyatt’s supreme effort thus far, and to my mind the best equestrian statue in this country. The sculptor’s love of horses has stood her in good stead in this This is most cer- x TEE CHARLES LIVINGSTON @Ube, “ PEACOCK AND PANTHER’’—STUDY IN ) ANIMA FORM AND COLOR The work of Charles Livingston Bull. well known to the public. alwavs shows origina lity of conception although often related in treatment to Japanese art His work covers a very wide range of sae jects and is the exponent of his profound belief in the decorative qualities of animal form and color His canvases are recommended to those who wish to analyze fine composition in animal painting and to develop appreciation of fine feeling for color 167 468 Miss Eugénie F. Shonnard at work on the excellent model of Dinah, a young gorilla lately on view at Bronx Park instance and the of the Maid of Orleans is both graceful and statuesque in figure pose. Z. H. Pritchard strikes a new note in his paintings of fishes made on the Tahiti reefs. The artist took no end of trouble to obtain these pictures, actually going below the sur- The results are interesting, yet one feels that Mr. face of the water to observe his effects. Pritchard could have done much more from the art standpoint with his subjects had he been so inclined. The color is interesting but not very convincing as a suggestion of a watery medium. A. P. Proctor, long and favorably known as an animal sculptor, shows several small works which are mostly studies for his large “Buffalo Bull” is the scale model for the heroic statue recently set up bronzes. His on one of the new bridges in Washington, D. C., while his “Princeton Tiger” is also a NATURAL HISTORY carefully wrought statu- ette, one of the buildings at Princeton, New Like all of Mr. Proctor’s work, great care has been later enlarged for Jersey. taken with the superficial finish of the pieces but as a work of art I much prefer the buffalo to tne great feline, the former being much better under- stood in every way. lew men are able to grasp the salient characters of all types of animals with equal facility, and I feel that Mr. Proctor’s feline lack- ing in this regard. His types are rather standing “Puma” for ex- ample (made some years ago) is decidedly off an- atomically, and certainly does not give one the im- pression of a great cat standing in an attitude of attention. ever, much more happy He is, how- in his delineation of the horse, and his “Indian and Horse,’ unfortu- nately not shown here, is a most excellent piece of work. A number of the animals and birds decorating the buildings in the New York Zodlogical Park are the work of Mr. many other large and successful commissions Proctor, and he has exeeuted throughout the country. Mr. Julius Rolshoven contributes a large and ambitious panel in pastel and tempera— “Sun Arrow,” The subject of the panel is an Indian chief and several smaller studies. mounted on a most extraordinary looking horse, which at first sight seems to have stepped from the canvas of some old Dutch painter. The anachronism leaves a bad im- pression on the mind of the spectator and discloses a lack of close study on the part of the artist. Surely no Indian brave ever rode such a horse as this, and where Mr. Rolshoven found him, I can’t imagine. With all its brilliant color and flashy tech- nique the picture leaves one cold and un- impressed. The smaller studies of Indians, however, are very charming in color and decidedly interesting. The small models of birds by Miss Shon nard are very well done and have a certau style and statuesque quality about them most pleasa &t to see. An excellent bust of Dinah (the young gorilla lately on view in Bronx Park s unfortunately not show Ws exnil Eli Harvev has one large and several sma pieces | exhibition. They are all characterized by this serious sculptor’s usual attention to detail and his “Lioness and Cubs” shows very good character inde The large roaring lion ““Menelik” is exeel lent as to attitude but the hind quarters seem small and weak for the general physique ot the grea Heast. Paul Herzel also shows a number of small odels of feline S \ lioness and eubs vy this voung utist s Kes me is beige particula or compositio! ind att tude, but I] innot say as much for tl tiger 11 pvthor moce evi though tl latter did get a e in a school exhibitio1 The action in this group while very violent s decidedly false and unpleasant in concep ion, and the work 1s a VoO0d exan ple ol what not to do in an effort to obtain a dramatic effect. No tiger, I am convineed, would or could assume the attitude shown in this group and the pose of the snake is equally poor. It seems to the writer that all such attempts at super-action are distinctly bad art and should be condemned as such. Barye, the celebrated French sculptor, loved action for its own sake, but he never made the mustake o ove iolIng ne movement ol his i mais i | theretore t} results are ilwavs 11 S o and artist Vir. Herzel Vil S I t! ture stick more closely to actualities in his work and direct his undoubted ability into more realistic and beautitul channels. The very charming little models by Mr. Roth are full of life and action. Mr. Rock well’s fountain and rhino group ve dence ot thoughtful care and study, while Miss Crittenden’s little pastels are charn color. Unfortunately, Mr. Chandler’s screens had been removed before my vis it I fee sure that their brilliant olo ancitul arrangements of fishes and birds are very interesting. he exhibition as a whole is a convinei istratiol t the fact that at last the hide types of Ww the reproat ine works ite as well the us by the gardens in serious stu lerive so m wi n 1 the { ( abo as Ht nh al ot art. Let humerous mu us le ‘ums lar e and he xhibit 6 t10 10 nee ions s throughout arn ana trom Oa I re 1n ed To hat rust the ) apprecl great opportunities ofttered to sho ooloomlcal which art the MAJESTY OF THE POWER OF BRAIN AND BRAWN EVOLVED IN WILD ANIMALS ‘he United States shows its youthfulness in the lack of art works in the cities and towns, and is likely in the coming dec- ade to reveal the advancing years of its civilization by a great development in communal art and architecture. Much of this is certain to be carried out in a record of wild animal life. No nation more than the American people has shown fine sentiment toward the preservation of wild birds and animals, but with all this the big game is rapidly becoming extinct. Zodlogical statuary of the highest order will not only set up before us the greatest beauty and power, out- side of man, that the earth has evolved, but also will preserve in imperishable stone and metal great races which are vanishing from the ranks of life. The giant Bengal tigers by the sculptor, A. Phimister Proctor, which mark the termination of the Sixteenth Street Bridge, crossing Piney Branch, Washington, are examples of the best animal sculpture to be found in our national capital. Washington was laid.out on a predeter- mined plan and therefore possesses generous opportunities for the use of municipal statuary. Such statues as have been erected, however, are largely war memorials, with few zodlogical subjects, al- though a number of lions and more or less conventionalized eagles embellish or disfigure certain public monuments. We value highly as subjects for our statues the Old World species—tigers, lions, elephants—for are not these the forms we know from our ancestry, from our literature and traditions? But notwithstanding this cosmopolitan interest, as Americans we should like to see immortalized our native American fauna, in connection with which the pio- neer history of the United States has developed :7 0 Zoological Statuary at the National Capital By 2s iW. No edt i O09) ck) ial BS) D db Fellow American Ornithologists’ Union, honorary member Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union, member Zoological Society of London, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 3 and many other scientific societies of Europe and America N all modern cities of the civilized nations of the ‘world we find in parks, public places, and buildings, statues which, in the main, are devoted to distinguished per- sonages of one nation or another, to alle- gorical subjects, and to general designs, usually exemplifying the stage of develop- ment attained in that branch of the fine arts at the time of their erection; or else the statues are the materialization of the con- ceptions of some of the noted sculptors of the period. Often these statues are of great merit, lending a peculiar dignity to the city and to a degree tending to exert, through their presence, an elevating and refining in- fluence upon the minds of the members of the community. I have turned my attention recently to a special department of this particular activ- ity, with the view of making a study of the merits of such statues in Washington as are purely of a zodlogical type in design, and of those in which animals have been employed in allegorical pieces or groups.1 It is surprising how very few statues we find in the city of Washington. It is the more to be wondered at because no other city in the world today lends itself better to the exhibition of this branch of art. Washington’s streets and avenues are, in the main, generously laid out, with great width between the broad sidewalks; they are abundantly lit at night by electricity and are ever tidy in appearance; their numerous intersections at common points are often the chosen sites for “circles” or parks of various dimensions. These are admirable locations for statues, pieces, or groups, and are usu- ally available for such purposes. Many of them have already been utilized in this man- ner, and we find, in not a few instances, bronze statues of heroes of our Civil War, commanders of the Federal troops in that animal ‘In pursuing this study I have been assisted in the matter of obtaining data by Col. William W. Harts, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, in charge of public buildings and grounds at the national capital, and by Daniel J. Donovan, sec- retary to the Commissioners of the District of Co- lumbia, to both of whom it affords me pleasure to extend my thanks. With has nothing to do; nor is it my purpose conflict. these the present article to take into consideration those groups in Although they are, in a way, zoological, they are not of which horses form a part. the ferine class which I have in mind for treatment. Taking animals in natural sequence, it may be pointed out that fish and reptiles but rarely enter into sculpture of the class under consideration; still, some nondescript animals of the latter group are to be seen in the great fountain in the Botanical Gar- dens, and a more elaborate representation of a similar form is found in the famous Hinton Perry fountain of the Congressional Library, where we see on the primal base at the foot of Neptune, certain frogs, hawksbill turtles, and an eel-like creature which seems to have been modeled after the famous Japanese shark, Chlamydoselachus anguineus —the oldest existing type of vertebrate, named and described by the late Samuel Garman. The fore-flippers of the turtles (Caretta imbricata) are too long and too narrow for adult examples, and it would appear that the distinguished sculptor of this group selected rather young specimens for his models. As we know, the limbs— especially the forepair—are proportionately much narrower and longer in the subadult animal than in the matured specimen. Among birds, the eagle is the only species that has been selected for representation, so far as I have observed; and that this has been used is doubtless due to the fact that the eagle happens to be the emblem of the United States of America. In no instance known to me is the eagle represented natu- rally in any piece of sculpture, or in any metal reproduction, in the city of Washing- ton,—that is, so far as groups in publie places are concerned. Scores of these birds are to be found, either as single pieces or in groups; but they are all more or less ideal- ized, and performing some feat that makes them appear ridiculous, from whatever view- point we may select. The arrangement and number of the feathers in the wings and tail Illustrations from photographs by the Author 471 a Sa . aN & One of the four concrete lions, modeled by a New York sculptor in 1909, for the Connecticut Avenue Bridge, Washington. This figure is on the southwest end of the bridge and measures nine feet in height and twelve feet long. Here was an opportunity to model the great ‘‘King of Beasts’ so that the majesty of his creation would ap- peal to all observers through generations to come. Instead we have what appear to be “sick lions unwillingly pulled from some passing menagerie, to pose just as death was overtaking them”’ One of a pair of lions on the Columbus Memorial, Washington, modeled by a Chicago sculptor. This also is an in- stance where the sculptured marble brings little pride to American art of the twentieth century $72 ZOOLOGICAL STATUARY AT are invariably incorrect; other parts are not ‘he eagles at the base of the McClellan statue, opposite “The Highlands,” are supporting a heavy wreath in the most unnatural way in due proportion, much less natural. imaginable, and the sight is sufficient to send chills down the spine of any well-in- formed ornithologist. There could not have been a more fitting opportunity to have placed at every angle of the base of this handsome production a fine, adult eagle, in bronze or other suitable metal, of natural size, normal proportions, and perfect in all other respects. There are plenty of live birds in the big, out-door eagle cage at the National Zodlogical Park, not fifteen min- utes’ walk from this McClellan statue, that the sculptor might have selected as models for this work. Indeed, in my opinion, this is one of the purposes for which we keep wild animals confined in zodlogical gardens; at least, it is other to just as important a pur- pose as any serve aS an excuse "THE NATIONAL CAPITAL. 473 for our making life prisoners of these creatures, Speaking of the National Zodlogical Park, here is certainly an opportunity of the first order to introduce some work of the class I am considering. Especially is this true of mammalian sculpture, which at present is not represented there. All of the entrances to this great reservation for the public ex- hibition of captive animals from all parts of the world, are singularly unattractive and primitive in character, and to no little de- gree a disgrace to such a country as ours; this apphes particularly to the main en- trance on the Connecticut Avenue = side. Apart from a few simple signboards placed there, nothing indicates to the visitor that he is about to enter the confines of the National Zoological Park of the United States of America. For example, we find nothing to correspond to the fine lion group at the Girard Avenue entrance to the Zoo- logical Gardens of Philadelphia, or to simi- Lion statue on one of the marble pedestals of the unfinished Grant Memorial in the Botanical Gar- dens, Washington.—Our native big game fauna is large tain goat and sheep, several species of deer, and Strength and beauty and dignity in our municipal or national statuary exterminated it will be as if only tomorrow in the story of the earth’s history antelope, elk, moose, buffalo, musk ox, moun- all the bears. Any of these would appear with ; and so fast are they becoming that all have disappeared 474 lar groups in other parts of the world. Surely it is time that a suitable sum be appropriated for this purpose. Let us trust that, when it does come about, when the pro- posed enterprise can be properly financed, animal statues worthy of the name will be selected by the authorities having this im- portant matter in charge. Personally, I am distinctly opposed to the choosing of non-indigenous animals for pro- jects of this kind. In Washington, foreign animals have been employed altogether too often as subjects for statues of this class. There are lions here, lions there, hons every- where, and several of them very impossible lions at that. We have an unusual number of large mammals in this country, all of which are upon the highroad to extinction ; among these I may mention the antelope, the elk, the buffalo, the musk ox, the moun- tain goat and sheep, several species of deer, and all of the bears. Comparatively speak- ing, the time is not far off when the greater number of these animals will be extermi- nated; we shall know them only through preserved skins, mounted museum specimens, and pictures of various kinds—all of which are more or less perishable in their nature. What would form at this time a desirable addition to the National Zoodlogical Park would be two life-size statues of famous American mammals in bronze, placed upon suitable pedestals at the main entrance on Connecticut Avenue. Perhaps none better could be selected for this particular purpose than an adult, antlered, bull elk, in a char- acteristic pose, upon the one hand, and, on the other, an old, male moose, modeled after as fine a specimen as the northern wilds can furnish. The work should be placed in the hands of a sculptor familiar with the super- ficial or topographical anatomy of these ani- as well as with their characteristic In time, similar statues mals, nature, could be placed at the remaining entrances to this Park, in keeping with their impor- poses in tance and in harmony with their surround- Finally, at suitable points within the Park, another piece or two—perhaps three— could be placed to good advantage. One of these might be an extinct animal form, for example, the ponderous Stegosaurus stenops, the ancient herbivore so successfully mod- eled recently by Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, of the United States National Museum. Personally, I am much averse to sculp- ings. NATURAL HISTORY tural license in the modeling of the animal pieces that are to occupy various salient There excuse for such unscientific and often ghastly points throughout the city. is no work. diture of funds, and publicly perpetuates a bunch of errors in comparative anatomy and practical zoology that can have only an un- desirable effect upon the mind of the popu- lace, old and young, as it passes down the ages to come. Take for example the four concrete lions that occupy the terminating pedestals of the Connecticut Avenue bridge, one upon either hand at the entrances. Here was an unusual opportunity to place It is a miserable, misdirected expen- a couple of pieces that would have been not only a credit to the nation but also a source of inspiration and education to the people for generations to come. But what have we? The sculptures present the ap- pearance of sick lions, unwillingly pulled from some passing menagerie, to pose just as death was overtaking them. No lion liy- ing ever possessed such a form as has been given to any one of these by the sculptor. Their musculature is absolutely incorrect in every particular, and idealism has been car- ried to the point of the ridiculous; they ap- pear like starved, dead lions, with impos- sible muscles, manes, and morphology, bol- stered up in cadaveric poses. Even more impossible leonine pieces are those on the Columbus Memorial, in front of the Union Station. These lions are hideous in their facial expressions, terrible in their unnatural proportions, and passing strange in their superficial anatomy. Muscles are shown that have no existence in nature and are absurd from any point from which we may study or view them. They are pitiable examples of the cheap, American sculptural work of the twentieth century, and they will, in the years to come, furnish food for laughter and ridicule for students of correct lines in animal contours and normal poses of the big carnivores of the present time. No lion ever looked the least bit like the two that confront one on this celebrated Columbus Memorial in Washington, Better lions are those upon the marble pedestals which form a part of the Grant Memorial in the Botanical Gardens, oppo- site the Capitol. This elaborate and long unfinished piece of work was intended to commemorate the deeds of a great Ameri- can military hero; but it stands now as O9NIVYIS PozV[OSt UV UL PYVA 9q AOAOU P[NOD OIYsS[VANyVU OY} WOL] UOIRIAEP Yous ynq ‘ajoyAr ary yeu ST VIM Joy, Jou ‘y AQ OZUOIG UL JSVO PUR Pa[IPOUI BIOM BZIS OLOLOY JO UOSIG UnoouUly INO IOF GIGL Ul AOPVOIg soysruMm1y J ea eR ~ e Bengal tiger on the Sixteenth Street Bridge, Washington (see front view of the same figure, page 470).—This great cat, ten feet long in the bronze, by Proctor, 1911, has been given a pose characteristically feline, and the ana- tomical detail, where indicated, is perfect, giving a result altogether pleasing both to the zodlogist and the artist The Sixteenth Street Bridge is an object of admiration in the eyes of all visitors to Washington, and the bronze tigers of heroic size lend an appreciable dignity and elegance to the highway. It is suggested that at the entrances of the National Zoological Park the addition of life-size statues of American big game, especially of elk and moose, would fill a great present need 476 ZOOLOGICAL STATUARY AT THE NATIONAL CAPITAL v7 though evidence of an ease in forgetting our country’s great among the warriors she has produced in her history and civilization. Apart from their glorifying representa- tives of the mammalian fauna of certain parts of India, the four bronze Bengal tigers on the Sixteenth Street Bridge, crossing Piney Branch, are superb pieces of work. The pose, which is the same in each animal, is full of dignity, natural, and with a certain subtle meaning that is not only characteris- tically feline, but especially appropriate for pieces of this character, occupying, as they do, a prominent position in one of the best Washing- ton is to be congratulated upon this achieve- known avenues of a modern city. ment; and Proctor’s great, tigerine cats will be objects of admiration for all who view them in the ages to come. Proctor was also given the opportunity to model and erect four bronze American bisons at the Street terminals of the Q Bridge (crossing Rock Creek in line of Q Street between Twenty-third and Twenty-fifth streets )—a work which was finished July 22, 1915, or were completed. four years after his bronze tigers It will be at that in his poses, Mr. once observed idealization of animal Proctor does not allow the just principles of conven- tionalism in sculpture and modeling to over- rule what we recognize to be natural. His buffalo represented for the purpose for conception of how the American should be which most he employed it, emphatically stands for this. These four splendid bisons are sculptured or cast so close to nature that their grandeur and naturalness impress all beholders favorably. Their very presence at the entrances to the above-named bridge at once stamps the latter as one of a series of famous spans in the history of American And it is to be fervently hoped when Washington comes enterprises of that character. to repeat such work in other that parts of the city, each achievement will bear the stamp of a similar knowledge of require- ments; that it will prove to be an exposition of all that constitutes a correct conception of zodlogical and anatomical facts as we know them, and that this knowledge will be employed, in any particular instance, to per- petuate the normal and the real in such of our big mammals as we may select for the purpose, especially as these creatures are being as rapidly exterminated upon this con- tinent as they are in the wilds of other parts of the world. Few instances of fish or reptiles in statuary car the base, at the feet of Neptune, in the Washington As shown in the photograp ve! as model ndicated by the great lengt! nd slenderns found [There are iwksbill turtles and frogs on Oo Pe ( ( e Congressional Library, ng specime of the hawks] must have been used = He cS Nae 1) OS Ae ONES mm ec ake! sf acs Ses eR es a ea a Rain . Pidite a Maeeel deka ids ic ae saa See "eh as sal « ANIMAL POPULATION FOUND ON MUD BOTTOM OF ONEIDA LAKE A biological survey of Oneida Lake, New York, illustrates the relation of physical environment to plant and animal life. Six general types of lake bottom could be definitely distinguished: bowlder, gravel, sand, sandy clay, clay, and mud. These different soils support varied types of vegetation, which in turn serve as food for different animal groups, which in their turn serve as food for various species of fish. Although the invertebrates and plants of the lake are not directly of economic interest to man, they are, in their capacity of food supply for the edible fish, of great and hitherto largely unrecognized importance. In the above photograph are assembled the invertebrate animals collected on 768 square inches of mud bottom under eleven feet of water. The animal life here is principally molluscan, snails and finger-nail clams. Caddis fly cases, mostly empty, a few midge larve (Chironomus) and a dragon fly larva (Tetrago- neuria) are also present. [The last-named, unfortunately for the attractiveness of its portrait, has lost four of its legs] 478 Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming By PRANK COLLINS BAKER Curator, Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois HE great war that has but recently come to a close has shown in a most forceful manner the intimate rela- tionship between the food supply and the well-being of the human race. [ood short- age has caused our people more or less will- ingly to economize food supplies and to increase food production, and to submit almost without a murmur to restrictions that in peace times would not have been toler- ated. Perhaps other than this world tragedy could have turned the atten- tion of the nation so intensively to the study of increased crops. Yields of wheat and of corn have risen to unthought-of proportions and the vast number of home gardens at- test the magnificent spirit of the American people in meeting the problems of decreased food supply. And while the land is being made to give up an ever increasing share of its products, the waters are being studied and experi- ments carried on to demonstrate the pos- sibilities of water culture. But the water has received no such careful study as the land; yet there are immense, almost un- known possibilities in the way of food crop productions in our inland lakes and rivers. These possibilities are being realized in some places and extensive and far-reaching studies have been made, principally in the states of Illinois, New York, and Wisconsin. From these studies, and from others carried on by the Federal Bureau of Fisheries, it has been shown that of fish and aquatic food animals can be raised in ponds and streams, artificial and that rival or surpass in value the land crops pro- nothing crops natural, duced from the same area. Much has been done for agriculture through the various agencies organized for the solution of its problems. Aquiculture, or the study of the conditions governing the production of ani- mals and plants living in fresh water, has received no such extended investigation and we are still ignorant of many important facts which are necessary before aquiculture is on the same sound basis as agriculture. Professor 8. A. Forbes, whose early stud- ies of the food of fishes in Illinois waters have been epoch-making, lake to a likens a pond or miniature world. In it all of the processes of life go on al- most independently of the land around it. But within this microcosm all are interde- pendent, the large fish feeding upon the smaller organisms, and these in turn upon those still smaller, and agencies that affect any one group of animals or plants influ- microcosm or ence in a more or of the Furthermore, in studying any one organism in this micro- less marked degree the whole life pond, cosm it is necessary to include all organisms, as well as all physical agencies, that are re- lated to it or that come in contact with it. For example, if we wish to understand the life history of our black bass, one of our most valued food and game fishes, we must not only learn what we can concerning this fish, but also what it feeds upon, what the food supply feeds upon, and finally the gen- eral character of the environment, whether favorable or unfavorable. In other words, a complete natural history survey of the pond life is necessary to understand fully the history and value of this beautiful fish, or of any fish. Realizing the poverty of our knowledge on the subject of fish life as it relates to the food supply and to general ecological conditions, the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University sought to remedy this defect, in a measure, by carry- ing on studies in Oneida Lake, New York’s largest inland lake. Accordingly, Dr. C. C. Adams, of the Department of Forest Zo61- ogy, College of Forestry, established labor- atories on the lake, and the writer was priv- ileged to conduct studies bearing on these 1975, L916; and” 1917. These studies included examinations of the problems during ascertain the kind and quantity of food eaten; an inten- stomach contents of fish to sive study of the animal and plant life of the lake to of the biota to the fish fauna; and quantitative ascertain the relation studies to find out, if possible, the size of the fish that the lake was able to 479 fauna Sand bottom in Oneida Lake is usually found in lagoons and other spots protected from the di- rect action of the waves. In such places the bulrushes flourish and here are found the best condi- tions for the growth of the small clams, snails, and insects which form an important element of the food of fish. This photograph of the sand bottom area of the lagoon east of the steamboat landing, Lower South Bay, was taken from a mud bottom habitat in the foreground where the vegetation is more dense but less favorable for mollusks, and illustrates the close relation between the lake fauna and flora and the type of lake bottom. The lagoon is one of the best habitats for the fila- mentous alge known as Cladophora The invertebrate population of a sixteen-inch square of sand bottom under four feet of water. The bivalve mollusk (Sphwriwm) at the left, the pond snails (Lymnaea) below the center, and small snails (Amnicola) in the lower right-hand corner are in notable predominance. Only five ani- mals other than mollusks were found here, although over the sand bottom as a who'e the latter make up only about 50 per cent of the invertebrate life. The mo!lusks of this lake serve as food especially for the pumpkin seed and the common sucker and indirectly for the bass and pike which eat mollusk-eating fish 480 STUDIES IN AQUICULTURE OR FRESH-WATER FARMING 481 support with the amount of the biota pres- ent. The investigations, in a way, paral- leled those carried on in the study of agri- cultural problems, the environments of the objects studied being quite different. Fully realizing the significance of the fact that the lake is a microcosm, the problem re- solved itself into a study of the relation of the fish fauna to the general physical char- acteristics of the environment, to the biota as a whole, and to the other members of the fish fauna present in the lake. The data for solving such a problem can be obtained only by making an intensive and exhaustive sur- vey of the body of water. To accomplish this result it was decided to select a limited area of known extent and to study this from several angles. Oneida Lake is 21 miles long and more than five miles wide and has a max- imum depth of 55 feet which occurs near the east end of the lake. There are several large bays or indentations which provide ad- mirable localities for habitat studies. One of these, Lower South Bay, situated near the southwest end of the lake, was selected for carrying on the intensive studies planned. This bay is one and five eighths miles long and about a mile wide and contains 881 acres of surface water. It is a compara- tively shallow body of water, ranging from a foot or two in depth at the west end to nineteen feet at the east end where it enters the larger lake. It is protected on the west and south sides by the land which rises more or less abruptly from the shore; on the north a long point and several shallows protect it from the rough water. At the east end, however, it is open to the storms from this direction which have a more or less marked influence upon the bay. In this investigation one of our aims, and perhaps the chief aim, was to ascertain as definitely as possible the actual amount, nu- merically, of animal life that lived on the bottom or on the vegetation at this time of the year (July). To accomplish this result dredges were constructed to take up a por- tion of the bottom measuring approximately four inches square or sixteen square inches. On a rocky shore a number of bowlders were carefully removed from the water and all of the life, both animal and vegetal, was re- moved to vials to be sorted and counted later. Vegetation was carefully taken from the water and the attached moved. animals re- To minimize the liability of error a large number of samples were collected (up- ward of 800). When sorted and identified this material gave a clear idea of the rela- tion of animals to the different kinds of bottom, to the vegetation, and to each other. A feature of the investigation worthy of mention is the fact that more than twenty- five specialists, many of them in the front rank of America’s biologists, cobperated in the identification of the different groups of animals and plants. In this way only can results of a dependable character be ob- tained. To support a large plant and animal pop- ulation a body of water must provide varied and suitable conditions, and these are found in Oneida Lake in Detailed studies indicate that there are three primary types or kinds of these habitats which are The first includes the headlands or points and some portions of the abundance. more or less distinct. shore which are shallow and have been swept clean of fine sand and clay, leaving the stones and small bowlders as a rocky pave- ment, the stones ranging in size from large gravel to huge bowlders several feet in di- ameter. This type of habitat affords lodg- ment for many in the sand or gravel between the stones, for a mussels which live multitude of snails which live on the rocks, and for crawfish, insect larve, and leeches which live on, under, and between the rocks. The vegetation of such habitats consists of water willow and bulrush. The second kind of habitat sheltered bays and in other partly protected is found in spots where the force of the waves is some- what arrested. The bottom is composed of fine sand; the vegetation is abundant, con- sisting of pickerel weed, bulrush, swamp reed, the water lilies, and a few pondweeds (Potamogeton). loosestrife, bur Many mussels live here, but the most important life is made up of small clams, snails, in- sects, and other small animals which form such a large proportion of the food of fish. The third kind of habitat is found in the well protected bays, where there is a mass of vegetation consisting of submerged plants such as pondweeds, hornworts, milfoils, water lilies, and the emergent plants such as pick- The bot- tom is usually of fine clay or mud. erel weeds, cat-tails, and bur reeds. Many fragile snails as well as insect larve inhabit this kind of habitat which provides excellent food for fish and other aquatic animals. 482 The striking feature of the plant life in many habitats, which was constantly forced upon our attention, was the presence of large quantities of the water plants known as filamentous alge, which covered the bot- tom as well as the higher plants like a thick blanket, and greatly modified the natural character of the bottom. It seems probable that the great wealth of animal life in parts of this lake is largely due to the presence of this lowly plant, which provides a rich food supply for the invertebrate animals. In the bays and the shallow areas border- ing the shores of this beautiful lake, the floor is carpeted with a great variety of plants, many of which, like the feathery water milfoil (Myriophyllum), form minia- ture aquatic forests. The rocks, the plants, and the whole bottom in many places are covered with masses of the delicate green water plants, the filamentous alge. Among this wealth of plant growth many kinds of animals live in great abundance. The alge are inhabited by the young or larve of flies, and small jointed worms related to the earthworms. (Olgocheta), whose bodies are as green as the color of the alge which they have eaten. Myriads of little crustaceans, called scuds or water fleas (amphipods and Cladocera), dart about and thousands of fresh-water sow bugs (isopods) crawl over the filmy masses of alge. The little spider-like mites (hydrachnids) ac- tively search the alge and weeds to prey upon the smaller animals. The young or nymphs of dragon flies (Odonata) le in am- bush among the alge or bury themselves in the muddy bottom; the young of May flies, with their feathery gills attached to the out- side of the body, and the caddis fly larve, with their curious houses or cases made of grains of sand, snail shells, bits of sticks, and plants, crawl over the bottom, dragging after them the houses that protect their soft bodies. Water bugs, water boatmen, beetles, both adult and young, and many kinds of snails complete the variety of this wealth of animal life on the bottom. The rocky shores afford good foraging ground for many snails, with which are as- sociated the young of May flies (Heza- genia), the flat, disklike larve of a beetle (Psephenus), the spiral caddis fly (Heli- copsyche), that resembles a snail, and other small animals, such as worms and leeches. The stones on many points are covered with NATURAL HISTORY sponges which look like patches of green vel- vet through the water. The higher plants afford resting places as well as foraging grounds for many snails, aphids or plant lice, some beetles, and numerous hydras. The study of this rich storehouse of ani- mal life by the unit- area method brought out many facts of interest and importance concerning the distribution of life in this body of water. habitats and the animal and plant life show a corresponding variation. Dividing the bay into three areas, each separated by a con- tour line at 6, 12, and 18 feet, we find that the greatest development of invertebrate life occurs within the six foot contour. Of the 1164 acres of bottom examined in Lower South Bay and vicinity, 205. acres occur be- tween the shore and the six-foot contour and 959 acres lie beyond this line in deeper water. Careful computations indicate that 88 per cent of the total individual animal life lives in water six feet or less in depth, and that but 12 per cent lives in the deeper water of the area surveyed. When reduced to actual figures, which in a measure are difficult to comprehend, the result shows that upward of 6786 million individuals live in 205 acres in water six feet or less in depth, while but one million individuals live in 959 acres in water deeper than six feet. When we consider this animal life in re- lation to acres the results are clearer and can better be compared with acreage pro- ductions of land crops. To the acre, the in- vertebrate animals within the six-foot con- tour number 33 million individuals, while be- yond this line in deeper water the life per acre is but one million individuals, the shal- lower water being 33 times as productive of life as the deeper acres of the bay. These figures, of course, do not include the plank- ton, or floating population, only those ani- mals that cling to some support, the bottom or the vegetation. The addition of this pop- ulation would greatly increase the numerical results, but it was only with the bottom fauna that these studies were concerned. The population of the 6-12 and 12—18-foot contours does not show such a marked drop in individuals, the water deeper than 12 feet containing 59 per cent of the population of the deeper areas. When we remember that fish life, as well as other aquatic vertebrate life, is more abundant in water six feet or less in depth, and that here the greater number There are several diverse 7 ’ MULT On the clay and sandy-bottomed portion of Lower South Bay of Oneida Lake the shore is bordered with the typical growth of cat-tails, surrounded on the lake side by American bulrushes. The lake here is only about one foot and a half to four feet deep and well protected from waves, which have a marked effect on vegetation. In all parts of the bay large quantities of vegetable débris are found floating in the water and covering the bottom. Even the ‘‘dust-fine detritus” is probably a valuable source of food for many of the mollusks and crustaceans, as well as for the bottom mud-eating fish. The bay, with its abundance of vegetation, affords excellent breeding grounds for the fish of the lake, particularly those species which build nests, such as black bass and rock bass \_— —— - = . % ' * : ww » wf Animals collected Caddis fly larva A fresh-water sow b ig 0 orm These I I mo only su m r mollusks increa 1 rec € The south side of Lower South Bay illustrates the vegetation on sandy clay bottoms, particularly the cat-tails along the shore. These are not found on sand. SBordering the cat-tails on the lake side grow the ever present bulrushes. From the point of view of animal population the most important vegetation in this area is composed of submerged plants and especially the algae which coat the bot- tom and other plants, and which float in filamentous masses. The alge supply the most valuable vegetable food of the invertebrates of the lake Invertebrates supplied by one hundred square feet of surface on a log five feet under water. The principal forms are the snails (Bythinia and Amnicola) and the scuds (Hyalella knickerbockeri). ie latter crustaceans are eaten by fishes and frogs, and are also useful scavengers. was notab The latt t ten by fist d frogs, 1 ] ful scavenger It wa table that the sunken log which served as a home for these animals was covered with a thick coating of filamentous alge and this undoubtedly supplied their chief source of food 484 Lower South Bay of Oneida Lake looking west from Short Point.—This shows a transition from the shallow bowldery point in the foreground, with its scanty vegetation of water willow, to the protected bay in the background with its sandy or clay bottom and its abundant vegetation of cat- tail, willow, lake bulrush, water lilies, pickerel weed, and a number of pond weeds In general, bowlders and gravel cover the floor of exposed points, while shallow bays have sandy bottoms and those of the deeper bays and the main floor of the pond are composed of clay and mud. $v far the greater part of plant and animal life of the lake feet deep; is found where the water is less than six below a depth of twelve feet there is little or no vegetation Invertebrates yielded by approximately 768 square inches of mud bottom under ten feet of water illustrating the marked falling off in numbers witl nerea 1 dey espe illy of mollusks Finger nail clams Pisidium), snail shells {mnicola), the larve of midges Chironomus), and the nymphs of May flies (Hexagenia) are the principal animals; the caddis fly cases (on the left) are practi i all empt The larve are of great importance in tl 00 ip] of most of the larger species n the iKé neluding other nymphs and larva the May flies are ¢« s i nckere The " els whi were taken in this area are not shown in the photogra 486 NATURAL HISTORY A rocky wind-swept shore devoid of vegetation.—From Long Point, north side of Lower South Bay, an exposed gravel bowlder bottom extends into the lake on all sides. Mollusks easily obtain a foothold on the bowlders and among the gravel. Crawfish, insect larve, and leeches also live on, under, and between the rocks, and many small fishes feed hereabouts This group of invertebrates, taken from a small bowlder in water 20 inches deep, consists mostly of insect larve (beetle, caddis. fly and May fly) and of snails (Goniobasis). Bowlder bottoms have the smallest percentage of the plant life of shallow water areas, al- though they afford good feeding grounds for minnows and young fish, even in water only a few inches deep. Most fish vary their food with age, at first taking only the smallest insects and larvie of young fish live and adult fish breed, the sig- nificance of this rich store of animal and plant life in shallow water is at once apparent and the impor- tance of studies in such areas bordering the shores is at once recognized. It is in such situations that fish culture can be carried on most successfully. The kind of bottom was also found to play a large part in the abundance or scarcity of animal life. In Oneida Lake six kinds of bottom are found, depend- ing upon the physical con- dition of the shore: bowl- der, gravel, sand, sandy clay, clay, and mud. Of these different kinds of bottom, sand supported the greatest number of in- dividuals. If the sand bottom be valued at 100 per cent, the relative values of the other kinds of bot- tom, as related to num- ber of individual animals, stand as follows: sandy clay, 87 per cent; clay, 66 per cent; gravel, 57 per cent; mud, 42 per cent; bowlder, 36 per cent. It will be noted, therefore, that not only depth acts as a controlling factor in the density of the fauna, but also the character of the bottom material. One of the chief factors in providing a favorable environment for the de- velopment of animal life is the presence of an abun- dant and varied flora. In Oneida Lake the vegeta- tion fully measures up to the maximum requirements in this respect as has al- ready been indicated. The value of this abundance of vegetation is perhaps not fully realized by many fish STUDIES IN AQUICULTURE OR FRESH-WATER FARMING 48% culturists. It may be said without fear of successful contradiction that when the flora is insufficient or wanting the animal life will be correspondingly rare or There is also another source of food supply which has received little attention by American students of fish culture. the fine covering of the bottom which Dr. C. G. Joh. Petersen, the Danish biologist and fish culturist, has called dust-fine de- tritus. This material is composed of the finely comminuted fragments of vegetation, together with diatoms, desmids, and other biotic material, and is largely used by many of the invertebrate animals and by some fishias food. It is believed by Peter- sen and other Danish workers on fish food problems that this is of greater value than the plankton organisms which are so abun- It is known that marine animals use it to a large extent but its proportionate use by the in- habitants of fresh-water ponds and streams is not definitely known. That it is of some, if not great value, is highly probable. When we consider the sources of food of the invertebrate population of this bay, as well as other bodies of fresh water, we find that the herbivorous animals, those that live on plants and detritus, greatly predominate over the animals that have habits and prey upon the other animals pres- ent. Dividing the population of the area of Lower South Bay into herbivorous and carnivorous animals we find the astound- ing result of 7743 million individuals that feed on plants and detritus million individuals that are In per cents this means that the orous animals make up but cent of the entire population. absent. This is dant in most of our fresh-water lakes. carnivorous against 25 carnivorous. carniv- 3%49 of 1 per This fact is of great importance, for the herbivorous animals are producers of fish food and the carnivorous animals are food. some food value to fish, it is the great mass of herbivorous animals that is transforming plants and débris into animal flesh, that forms the principal food supply of our food and game fishes. One of the most interesting features of the Oneida Lake investigation was the vari- ety of animal life found on the bottom of Lower South Bay. Seven of the ten phyla of invertebrate animals (the Protozoa are not considered for obvious reasons) are rep- consumers of fish While the carnivorous animals are of resented by twenty-five classes or higher groups, forming a microcosm of large size and great variety. The mollusks, snails and clams, and the insects are about equal in number of species, the mollusks forming 35 per cent of the When the number of individuals of the two groups, entire number of species represented. mollusks and the other associated animals, are compared, it is found that the former are 30 per cent greater in number. This pre- ponderance of mollusks over associated ani- mals has also been noted by students con- Of the 7766 million individuals of invertebrate animals caleulated to be present on the bottom of Lower South Bay and vicinity, 4704 million ducting marine investigations. are mollusks and 3062 million are associated form a large part of the food of such valuable fish as animals. The mollusks or shellfish the sturgeon, sheepshead, suckers, red horse, whitefish, and bullheads. Of the 225 different species of fish inhabit- ing the waters of Illinois and New York, 46 or about one fifth are eaters of shellfish to a Of ali the classes of food, insects are by far the most valu- able, about 40 per cent of the food of all pumpkin — seed, greater or less degree. fishes being of this group of animals. One of the results hoped for in the Oneida Lake investigations was a knowledge of the size of the fish fauna that the natural food To find this it was necessary to know the amount of food eaten in a period of time, as in twenty-four Studies on marine fish (notably the indicated that the digestive canal emptied twenty-four hours. These marine fish, however, are not strictly of the lake could support. hours. plaice ) was onee in comparable with the fresh-water fish in this respect. In 1917,a study of fish caught in trap nets and allowed to remain in these nets for a period of 24, 48, and 72 hours, indicated that the digestive tract might be emptied in . Of the fish caught, 50 per cent had full stomachs in the 24-hour inter- about 24 hours. val, 15 per cent in the 48-hour interval, and all were empty in the 72-hour interval. It is known that the digestive powers of a fish become slower in cold weather, and it that March fish eat is probable between November and about two thirds or less of the amount of food eaten during warmer In the examination of the stomach and intestines of Oneida Lake fish it was found that on the mouths in spring, summer, and fall. 488 average a fish with a full stomach contained about 115 invertebrate animals. If we as- sume that this amount is a daily average, and that fish eat this months of the year, then the invertebrate animal life on the bottom of the 1164 acres amount for nine examined in Lower South Bay and vicinity furnish food for 337,500 Predatory fish like the pike perch consume a large number of fish. is calculated to bottom-feeding fish. By using data from Illinois and New York it was estimated that a single fish of this species will eat 250 to 600 small fish in a year. When we remember that there are hundreds of individuals of the pike perch, as well as other predatory fish, in Oneida Lake, it is at once realized that the number of small fish in this lake must be very great to supply these fish with food. It also follows that a large number of invertebrate animals as well as an abundance of vegetation for the smaller animals to feed upon is neces- sary to provide food for these small fish. It has been shown by these investigations that Oneida Lake meets, in full measure, all of the conditions and requirements favorable to fish and these provide the essentials for a large and varied population of food and game fish. The studies carried on at Oneida Lake and elsewhere have shown that there are great possibilities in the production of animal life of a useful character to man from the fresh- water streams and bodies of water in our country. The recognition of the value of shellfish and other associated animals which SS OER RRS: NATURAL HISTORY form the food of fish, will lead in the not distant future to the artificial introduction of these animals, as well as needed plants, into waters where they were previously want- If the en- vironment and other factors are favorable ing or insufficient in number. there will be no insurmountable difficulties to hinder this procedure. The fresh waters will be cultivated to the extent that the land areas are now worked, as has been the case in parts of Europe, where ponds have been made artificially and stocked with fishes and their shellfish, insects, crustaceans, and the like, food. Food in the form of plants, will be introduced where needed before the fish are planted, paralleling in a way the preparation of the land before the crop is sown. Given a species of fish whose life his- tory and natural history are known, it is comparatively easy to prepare the right kind of habitat and the natural and suitable food. Thus in the course of time we may hope to have a flourishing water culture or aquicul- ture, so that our streams and lakes may be made productive to the same relative degree Water culture has the additional advantage of af- that the fields and forests now are. fording healthful recreation to a degree not shared by any branch of agriculture.* 1Those who may be interested in the details of the studies carried out on Oneida Lake are referred to the following technical papers, pub- lished by the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, N. Y.: Publication No. 4. The Relation of Mollusks to Fish in Oneida Lake. 1916; Publication No. 9. The Productivity of Invertebrate Fish Food on the Bottom of Oneida Lake, with Special Reference to Mollusks. 1918; Circular No. 21. The Relation of Shellfish to Fish in Oneida Lake. 1918. 3etween Dunham and Frenchman islands in the distance lies a sandy shoal where the water is for the most part less than five feet deep. Norcross Point looking northwest On this hard, smooth bottom a greater average number of animals was found than in any other part of the lake. This photograph of Oneida Lake is taken from Quest of the Ancestry of Man WO institutions have recently been founded to investigate the problems of man’s antiquity, human ancestry, and cultural development—the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, founded in Paris in 1910, and the Galton Society, recently es- tablished in the United States with rooms at the American Museum of Natural His- tory. In founding the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine in 1910, the Prince of Monaco ad- dressed the Minister of Public Instruction as follows: 1 “In the course of my laborious life I have often regretted that in the intellectual activi- ties of our epoch a more important place has not been given to the study of the mystery that shrouds the origin of man. The more my mind has been stimulated by scientific study, the more ardently I have desired to see established on methodic foundations the in- vestigations necessary to uncover the fugi- tive traces left by our ancestors in the bosom of the earth during an incalculable succes- sion of centuries. And I thought that the philosophy and ethics of human society would be less uncertain in view of the history of past generations, written in their own remains. “Therefore, when I had finished establish- ing the pursuit of Oceanography in the in- stitutions of Monaco and of Paris, I devoted a part of my effort to the search for means which would further the development of Hu- man Paleontology. And, after the founda- tion of the Museum of Anthropology of Monaco (Musée anthropologique), which was soon enriched with veritable treasures; after the publication of the marvels found in the caverns of Spain; I resolved to establish near some university center a strong founda- tion for studies based on methodic excava- tion. Immediately I made choice of the capi- tal of France, where my earlier foundation, the Oceanographic Institute, had already been so largely developed. “T have selected a site for the building of the Institute of Human Paleontology, and I have selected the first scientists who will ‘Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, Fondation Albert 1°, Prince de Monaco. Statuts, p. 5. Let- ter of His Serene Highness the Prince of Monaco to the Minister of Public Instruction. direct its scientific undertakings; I have also named an Administrative Council who will control its financial resources. “T must add that I do not limit the patri- mony of the new institute to the building to be erected at Paris: the collections which I have installed at Monaco, although destined to remain there so long as my wishes for their conservation are followed, will become a conditional donation on my part to the In- stitute of Human Paleontology, to which I have given, for a working endowment, the sum of sixteen hundred thousand franes. “Being anxious that this foundation should survive me under the most favorable con- ditions for the advancement of Science, I make request to the French Government to recognize it as a public utility and to ap- prove its statutes.” The Institute is directed, from the techni- cal and scientific side, by a “Comité de Per- fectionnement” (Committee of Develop- ment), composed of twelve members, either French or foreigners. The members are chosen without distinction of nationality and without observing any especial proportion in the representation of different countries, from among those scientists best qualified to serve. It is to this body that Henry Fair- field Osborn of the American Museum has recently been elected. The Founder, and, after his decease, the Comité de Perfectionnement, designates— either among its members or outside them— a French scientist to whom it delegates a portion of its powers, and who has the title of Technical Director of the Institute. He receives compensation on account of his re- sponsibilities. The Director is appointed for three years at most and with the possibil- ity of reappointment. The Administrative Council may call upon the Director to at- tend any of their meetings in an advisory capacity. This office has been held since the beginning by Marcellin Boule, who is also head of the paleontology of the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. The Comité de Perfectionnement fixes the program of work to be undertaken upon the recommendations of the Technical Director, presents to the Administrative Council those scientists who may be attached to the Insti- tute and who will form its scientific person- 489 490 nel, assigns to these their undertakings, and decides upon the proper distribution of the results of excavations among those scientific establishments best qualified to receive them. After consultation with the Administrative Council in regard to ways and means, it decides upon the various publications of the Institute and determines the regulations for the laboratories and libraries. Under the original organization the In- stitute selected a number of the most dis- tinguished scientists in France to conduct its explorations and carry on its researches. With a personnel including such experts as Marcellin Boule in paleontology, Verneau in anatomy, and Cartailhac and Breuil in archeology, no surprise can be felt at the brilliant results which are already the fruit of their labors during the few years that have passed since the inception of the Insti- tut de Paléontologie Humaine through the scientific ardor and wise judgment of the Prince of Monaco. Natura History will from time to time publish abstracts and re- ports of the latest work of the Institute. It is not an exaggeration to say that the researches and publications of the eight years elapsing since its foundation mark a new epoch in anthropology. On the anatomi- eal side, Boule in a masterly manner has described the Neanderthaloid characteristics in his monograph on La Chapelle-aux-Saints ; Verneau has studied the skeletal remains of the Cré-Magnon artists in a very complete way, although there is still much to be done on this race; Breuil has covered the marvel- ous field of paleolithic art of France and Spain and has firmly established the connec- tion between the stages of its development and the respective stages of the flint indus- try; the relatively unknown period of the Aurignacian flint culture has been fully studied, and Breuil and Obermaier have con- nected the art of Spain with that of France, and the Aurignacian and “Capsian” culture of Spain with that of Africa. The Galton Society for the Study of the Origin and Evolution of Man held its first meeting in New York on April 17, 1918, NATURAL HISTORY when the object of the Society was outlined and especial emphasis laid on the importance of cooperative effort on the part of special- ists, so that the problems to be considered might be studied from widely diverse lines of approach. In addition to the original charter members, comprising Madison Grant, Henry Fairfield Osborn, John C. Merriam, Edward L. Thorndike, William K. Gregory, Charles B. Davenport, George 8S. Huntington, J. Howard McGregor, and Edwin G. Conklin, there have been added at subsequent meet- Ernest A. Hooton, Gerrit Smith Miller, United States National Museum; Raymond Pearl, United States Food Admin- istration; L. R. Sullivan, American Museum of Natural History; Frederick Tilney, Co- lumbia University; Harris H. Wilder, Smith College; Clark Wissler, American Museum of Natural History; and Nels C. Nelson, Ameri- can Museum of Natural History. Two patrons were elected: Mrs. E. H. Harriman and Mr. M. Taylor Pyne, New York. At the five meetings so far held significant addresses have been contributed by Profes- sor McGregor, Dr. Wissler, Dr. Sullivan, Pro- fessor Davenport, Professor Merriam, and Protessor Huntington; and the opportunity afforded for informal mutual discussion of the problems presented already justifies the hopes of its founders that the Galton Society might constitute a symposium of specialists ings the following fellows: Peabody Museum; qualified to consider the origin and evolution of man from widely different points of view. The Society has resolved to establish a labo- ratory to be known as the Galton Laboratory, in furtherance of its objects, and a com- mittee is now considering plans for this pro- ject. Many of the members are at present engaged in special investigations within the field of the Society’s interests and it is planned that a suitable medium of publica- tion for the scientific and educational docu- ments of the Society shall be secured. A special object of the Society is to encourage the establishment of courses in anthropology in universities, colleges, and other centers of education. A Letter from John Burroughs With a question for the palwontologist on evolution O THE EpiToR OF NATURAL HISTORY: Dr. W. D. Matthew in his admirable little pamphlet on the Dinosaurs! thinks their progenitors in late Paleozoic time were small animals like the modern lizards in size, appearance, and habitat; he adds in a footnote that if “some vast catas- trophe should today blot out all the mam- malian races including man, and the birds, but leave the lizards and other reptiles still surviving, with the lower animals and plants, we might well expect the lizards in the course of geologic periods to evolve into a great and varied land fauna like the Dino- saurs of the Mesozoic Era.” Is not this an astonishing statement? If Mesozoic times could be brought back and the earth, air, and waters be in every way as they were in that era, this might happen but, in my opinion, not otherwise. Does not the evolutionary impulse run its course? Can or will it repeat itself? world today, from surface to center. geologic era had its typical The dinosaurs appeared in different parts of the world in the same era, as Doctor Mat- thew says, and “the cutting off of the Dino- saur dynasty was nearly, if not quite simul- taneous the world over.” These of the primeval world were highly special- ized to meet special conditions, and thes? By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. De- It is another Each life-forms. monsters 1 Dinosaurs. cember, 1915. Reply to Mr. Burroughs HE footnote to which Mr. Burroughs refers came very near being cut out of the printed, as a speculative and fanciful sup- position that had no place in a brief sum- mary of what is known about dinosaurs. It manuscript before it was was left in chiefly because such speculations and I with have for me a certain fascination, thought it others. might be the same way That Mr. Burroughs has picked it out from its lowly position for comment and criticism shows that he, too, finds it of in- terest. conditions can return to the We still have reptiles but they are never again arth. insignificant and eut no figure in the life of the globe. That the huge Brontosaurus, for instance, could ever reappear in the Age of The Age of the dinosaurs covered about nine million years Mammals is unthinkable. and its end is now at least three million years behind us. Can we believe that the life of the different periods was as acci- dental and unrelated as Doctor Matthew's statement would seem to imply? Might not one as well declare that were our deciduous trees and plants and all exo- gens swept away, the mosses and ferns and horsetails and ground pines would again produce the tremendous growth of cryptoga- mous plants that gave us the main part of our coal producing calamites thirty or forty feet high, lycopods sixty to ninety feet high, giant sigillarias, lepido- measures, dendrons, and others? “Amelioration is one of the earth’s words,” Says our poet of the cosmos, Whitman, and it is as true in science as it is in poetry. The and hanging like fruit on the great sidereal tree, earth has developed ripened, and can no more repeat the stages it has passed through, than can any other fruit or growing thing. [Signed] JOHN BurrsuGHs. Riverby, West Park, New York. by Dr. W.D. Matthew From the standpoint of the older con- cepts of cosmic and geologic history his objections are undoubtedly valid. If we believe that the earth has been gradually cooling off during geologic time, the atmos- phere becoming less warm, humid, and with acid cooler, the climate changing from a moist, to the that prevail then undoubtedly one would conclude that result of the loaded carbonic gas, the seas tropical uniform condition cooler, drier, zonal climates today, ultimate supposititious case I raised, it would not be 491 whatever were the 492 the evolution of lizards into a fauna paral- leling the dinosaurs. But these geologic concepts cannot be reconciled with the evidence of glacial periods in the Permian, in the pre-Cambrian, and even farther back in geologic time, nor The geologic theory, which I outlined briefly in the introductory pages of the Dinosaur hand- book, conceives of the physical condition of the earth’s surface as passing through a series of cyclic changes in climate, topog- raphy, and other factors that constitute the physical environment to which life is adapted, but without any very fundamental permanent change during geologic time. The recurring cycles bring about a recurrence of the physical environment sufficiently iden- tical to condition substantially similar adap- tations. It is of course different with the biotic the fauna and flora, which equally condition the trend and scope of evolution of any one group. This has changed in a generally progressive way, since there are certain factors in adaptation and specialization which operate independently of changing physical environment, certain upward steps that, once attained under its stimulus, are retained as advantageous under all circumstances. The physical environ- ment is cyclic, but the biotic evolution moves in a reaching corresponding but higher points with each recurrent cycle of climatic change. with various other lines of evidence. environment, spiral, The physical conditions at the beginning of the Mesozoic when the dinosaurs arose, were much like those of the present day. The earth had just passed through a glacial period, believed to be quite as intense and widespread as that from which we have just emerged. The continents were extended to or even beyond their present limits, arid climates prevailed widely through their in- terior as they do now, and probably cold climates at the poles. The atmospheric and climatie conditions cannot have been very different from what they now are; whether the outlines of the continents were substan- tially the same or not, makes no difference to the problem in hand. The physical en- vironment does substantially correspond at the present time to that under which the dinosaurs arose. The animals and plants are widely dif- ferent. The presence of higher types of ( NATURAL HISTORY vertebrates prevents the lizards or any lower vertebrates from expanding into a varied fauna of large land animals as were the dinosaurs. They are unable to compete with the higher types save in certain special fields to which these last are not well adapted. My supposition involved the removal of this competition by extinction of all higher ver- tebrates, leaving a free field for the lizards such as was open to the lizard-like ancestors of the dinosaurs. It may well be objected that the evolu- tion of the dinosaurs was conditioned by the nature of the vegetation quite as much as by the competing animal types. The higher types of plant life now prevalent would bring about a different trend and scope of evolutionary progress among lizards in our supposititious case than occurred with the dinosaurs. Probably this objection is valid to some extent, and certainly as to any de- tailed correspondence. But I do not think it would prevent a marked general corre- spondence. For the dinosaurs in fact passed through two distinct periods of evolution and expansion, the first in the early Meso- zoic, which culminated in the late Jurassic dinosaurian fauna, and the second in the late Mesozoic culminating in the upper Cretaceous dinosaurs. The first evolution was correlated with a flora lacking the higher plants (angiosperms ) now dominant, but the second with a flora very like that of the present day, the her- baceous perennials being the most significant element lacking. These two dinosaur faunas correspond in a broad way; they include armored and unarmored dinosaurs, bipedal and quadrupedal types, great and small car- nivorous forms, terrestrial and amphibious adaptations; but similar or equivalent adap- tations occur in many cases of different races. There is little correspondence in detail; yet the place they occupied in nature was sub- stantially the same, and there is a great deal of parallelism in their adaptations. We do not find any of the gigantic Sauropoda, Bron- tosaurus and its allies, in this later fauna. But their place as an amphibious adaptation was taken by the wading and swimming trachodonts. The armored dinosaurs of the Cretaceous are like those of the Jurassic only in the fact that they were gigantic and heavily armor-clad. The unarmored her- bivorous dry-land dwellers were even more NOTES contrasted in detail. Only in the carnivo- rous dinosaurs is there any near correspond- ence and relationship. It would seem therefore that the evolution of dinosaurian types of specialization is not tied to the more ancient flora, and that so far as this objection is concerned it would not prevent the lizards from evolving in the absence of higher animal types into a varied fauna of large land animals paralleling the Cretaceous dinosaurs in a broad way, al- though doubtless as different from them in detail as they are from the Jurassic dino- saurs. That they or some other group of lower vertebrates might in the course of further geologic periods give rise to higher types corresponding as to their place in na- ture to birds, mammals and man is conceiv- able, but too speculative for discussion. Their limitations in brain, in circulation of the blood, ete., would first have to be over- come, and so far as paleontology can teach us this is a vastly slower progress than the expansive evolution into large specialized and varied faunal adaptations. Certainly such an expansive evolution of the lizards with their higher competitors re- moved would not cause the huge Bronto- saurus to reappear on earth. But it might —if we accept the modern theory of geo- logic history—bring about the appearance of gigantic wading or amphibious reptiles equally huge and equally innocuous, al- 493 though probably not at all like a Brontosaur in appearance. It would seem equally true that under our modern tenets we must be prepared to be- lieve that were all the higher plants swept out of existence the lower plants would pro- ceed under physical environment sponding to that of the late Paleozoic to evolve into specializations with a broad gen- eral resemblance to the Carboniferous flora. They would not reproduce calamites and sigillarias, but they would produce some- thing to take their place, probably no less gigantic and impressive. This aspect of adaptive evolution receives many illustrations from the fauna and flora of oceanic islands and isolated continents, where, in the absence of certain higher types of animals or plants, certain lower types are evolved and specialized to take their place. The adaptive evolution of marsupials in Australia or of the Tertiary mammals of South America, affords notable instances. Such adaptive parallelism sometimes results in a curiously close imitation or correspond- ence of particular types; more often the correspondence in habits and in position in the economy of nature leads to a resem- blance only in certain parts and a wide dif- ference in other parts of the animal. [Signed] W. D. MATTHEW. American Museum of Natural History, New York City. eorre- Notes Iv is with profound regret that the Amer- ican Museum records the death, on April 25, of one of its Trustees, Augustus D. Juilliard. Mr. Juilliard, who was senior member of A. D. Juilliard and Company, has been before the public for many years as a patron of art and science. He left several bequests to carry on the work in which he has been personally interested, including a gift to the American Museum of one hundred thou- sand dollars. Owrmne to the lateness in publication and especially to the very greatly increased cost of engraving and printing still effective from war times, the American Museum is combining its last two spring issues of NaAtTuRAL History in this number. cause of the prohibitive expense of prepara- Also, be- tion, it will reduce somewhat the number of pages in the three fall issues, and will omit statements of the membership, and advertisement of its pub- lications—exeept in so far as such matter can be carried on the inside cover pages. institution’s work and AN account of the library of the Univer- sity of Louvain and of the sack of the city and the wanton destruction of this ancient collection of manuscripts and books was written and partly printed during the early days of the German oceupation, by Ed. de Moreau, S.J., but it has only recently seen publication after lying hidden from the German police four and a half years. The seripts, ineunabula, and literary, historical, library, with its treasures of manu- and scientific collections which were burned 494 NATURAL 25, 1914, The uni- of March and glorious history. in the incendiary fire had a 2 versity itself was founded in 1425 and in lon the next century ranked as one of the fore- institutions of the In 1913, 2855 students attended the univer- sity and it was reported that the library at that time contained 250 incunabula and be- 120,000 230,000 (M. Moreau quotes the latter figure as too low) scientific Hurope until Revolution. most suppressed during French tween and volumes in addition to a larger number of manu- scripts of ancient and medieval authors. A movement is under way among the world’s universities to rehabilitate the l- om brary, but, as M. Moreau says, “The library of Louvain cannot be restored, for the l- brary was formed day by day in intimate as- sociation with the history of the University, and this history cannot be restored to it.” The Life of Frederick Courtenay Selous, D.S.O., Capt., 25th Royal Fusiliers, who, ac- cording to Roosevelt, was “the greatest of the world’s big-game hunters,” has recently been written by J. G. Millais. Mr. Millais is himself a noted author, artist, and nat- uralist, and brings to his task a personal The volume is enriched with a beautiful set of appreciation of the work of Selous. illustrative drawings. Selous went to Africa at the early age of nineteen, where he resided for the most part until 1897, hunting big game and fighting in the Matebele Wars. His later years he spent lecturing, writing, collecting in Eu- rope and America, and elephant hunting in Africa. In 1915 Selous took part with the Royal Fusiliers in the invasion of German East Africa where he lost his life while lead- ing an attack against the German fort at Behobeho on January 4, 1917. Roosevelt said of him: “No other hunter alive has had the experience of Selous, and, so far as I now recall, no hunter of anything like his experience has ever also possessed his gift of penetrating observation joined to his power of vivid and accurate narration.” The biographer has faithfully scanned the public and private writings of the great hunter, especially his correspondence with Roosevelt, for notes on African natural his- tory. “THE Old and the New Science” was the subject of the presidential Humanities ATS TORY before the Classical Association (England) delivered by Sir William Osler, of at Oxford. Sir William, according to Nature, pointed address regius professor medicine out the necessity of a well-rounded educa- of There is, how- tion in which would be found a union science and the humanities. ever, he pointed out, a marked need of re- vision of the present classical instruction at the English universities which should aim to inspire in the student some of the spirit of the classics rather than to raise up a race of philologists. Sir William also opened at Oxford a loan exhibition of ancient manuscripts and instru- ments illustrating the scientific history of Oxford. Moorish 1067. 1693, and a slide rule dated 1635 which is The earliest were two Persian and astrolabes dated A.D. 977 and There are exhibited a microscope of probably the oldest in existence. Dr. PATTON in his article in this number of HISTORY 405) Thomas Jefferson, the great statesman, who NATURAL (page on was also the advocate of science and friend of naturalists, makes us admire the force of Meriwether Lewis, the young leader of an expedition across the western plains and to the Pacific. Lane Allen (page 397) brings to our understand- mountains James ing and sympathy young Alexander Wilson of the same period of pioneer life in Amer- ica—but we gain no hint of the interlock- ing of the interests and lives of the two young men. If we follow the young nat- uralist and the young explorer only a few years further, with just a matter-of-fact statement of events, our interest is not de- creased: Wilson desired keenly to go as ornithologist on the expedition with Lewis through the unknown West, but his letter to Jefferson and that of naturalist friend, William Bartram, for some unknown reason did not bring response. The expedi- proceeded (1805) and Wilson mained in Philadelphia. Wilson Lewis in his first volume of American Orni- thology (1808) regarding the distribution of the blue jay on the Missouri. his tion re- quoted Lewis returned in honor and became governor of Louisiana. Wilson, at his own expense and difficult expedition to New disease made his most the on alone, through Orleans, southern country which he contracted \ At the last white man’s house, on the border of the which soon was to cause his death. Indian country, he came upon the story of the tragic end of Lewis (1810), who had been murdered there but a few days before and buried beside the common path. He left money from his small store to build a fence about the grave where the legislature of Tennessee erected the monument in 1848. He returned North most enthusiastic and successful in his work; he worked harder than ever. By 1812 he had published five volumes; in 1813 he finished the seventh; he worked indefatigably on the eighth and last volume because he eagerly saw ahead a revision and perfecting of the whole, but died with it incomplete, in August, 1813. RELATIVE to Thomas Jefferson (p. 405) and the all-round man, of which we have even in this day of specialization many re- well for markable examples, it is every specialist to take to heart certain recent letters and editorials in the New York Times. For instance, Dr. W. W. Keen, of Philadelphia, under date of July 31, writes apropos Stewart’s axiom, “No human letters without natural science and no science with- out human letters.” In this connection he gives a brief history of our American Phil- osophical Society of which we as Americans are proud: “The policy of the American Philosophical Society, ‘held at Philadelphia, to promote useful knowledge, is most instructive. Founded by Franklin on the model of the Royal Society, which until a relatively few years ago, embraced both the humanities and science, the American society has ad- hered to the broad original scope, and still embraces both letters and science. Among our members we inelude philologists, his- torians, archeologists, statesmen, lawyers, ete., as well as astronomers, physicists, chemists, physicians, etc. From the ranks of the society have been chosen eight presi- dents of the United States, and Thomas Jefferson was our president during all his eight years as President of the United States, and for ten additional years—a unique record as a society.” THE tooth of a mammoth has been pre- sented to the American Museum by Dr. A. K. Kouznetsov, Director of the Museum of the Russian Geographical Society at Tchita, Siberia. Dr. Kouznetsov, who extended this expression of cordiality through Mr. Frank- lin Clarkin on the occasion of the retirement of American agents from that district, says NOTES 495 in his message that he is the oldest political exile in Siberia, having served a fifty-year sentence, and that he hopes if he survives of all intelli- Bolsheviki he will see in the threatened annihilation by the Russia a democracy patterned after that in America. gentsia Many bones of the mammoth and other extinct animals are found imbedded in the impervious clay in the gold mines of the province (Transbaikalia) of which Tchita is capital. Farther to the north in the proy- ince of Yakutsk the famous discoveries were made of mammoths preserved intact by the One of these mammoths, taken out in 1801, is the well-known skeleton cold in erevices. set up in the zodlogical museum in Petro- grad. Dr. Kouznetsov is of the opinion that it had stood less than two thousand years in the ice. Its skin and long hair were in and its flesh eaten by the dogs of the party. Dr. Kouz- netsov reports that the natives of Yakutsk Province are selling every year two thousand fairly good condition was pounds of mammoth tusks to be used for ivory imitation. THE report for 1918 of the “Explora- tions and Field-Work of the Institution” ! extensive spite of the war, in the fields of anthropol- Smithsonian reveals work, in ogy, archeology, geology, botany, zoology, and astrophysics. The institution is rapidly of the toms, and traditions of the American Indian collecting records languages, cus- tribes. The astrophysical observations at Mount Wilson on the accurate measure- ments of solar radiation have been ¢on- tinued. = Z < S ao uw = < uw os = w O uJ Zz O uJ a < YD Ww om = lon O uJ = = = aa) S oO n and of the ‘uum but also I Mus A members of the nt only and rapidly a valuable 506 SF eae NATURAL founder of St. Dunstan’s Hostel, London, addressed seven hundred New York blind | their friends. This spring a special ourse of travel lectures was arranged for siting soldiers and sailors who were ad- lressed on three occasions by Messrs. Carl I. Akeley, George H. Sherwood, and James Barnes. The small assembly rooms of the Museum have served as meeting places and lecture halls for the New York Academy of Sciences THE following persons were elected mem- bers of the American Museum during the months of April and May: Patron, Mrs. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. Fellow, Mr. S. N. Bonn. Life Members, Mrs. Harotp F. McCor- MICK, MISSES E. M. KITTREDGE, ISOBEL H. LENMAN, Dr. PEARCE. BAILEY, MESSRS. JOHN EpWarD ALDRED, JOSEPH C. Bat.p- WIN, JR.. EDMUND G. BUCKNER, C. L. CaArR- PENTER, WALTER S. CASE, FRANCIS B. CROWNINSHIELD, J. S. CULLINAN, HEYWARD CUTTING, WILLIAM DU PONT, W. CAMERON ForBES, HENRY S. HALL, JR., REYNOLD JAN- FairFax S. LANDSTREET, JOHN M. MoOREHEAD, HOWARD PHIPPS, HERBERT L. Pratt, DANIEL G. REID, FRANCIS BEACH WHITE, WILLIAM WHITMAN and GEORGE Woop. Sustaining Members, Mrs. Cart FEREN- BACH, Mgssrs. R. J. CALDWELL, WALLACE DE WITT, WILLIAM B. GOODWIN, ELON HuUNT- INGTON Hooker, G. B. MCCANN and _ ED- WARD MILLIGAN. NEY, Annual Members, MESDAMES HEZEKIAH A. BRAYTON, S. B. BROWNELL, C. N. EDGE, HERBERT SPENCER GREIMS, CLEMENT ACTON GrRIscoM, H. MHARDINGE, FRANKLIN S&S. HENRY, RoBert I. JENKS, Wo.ucott H. JOHNSON, LEO LORENZ, F. MAurRIcE NEw- TON, JAMES F. SHAW, FAYETTE SMITH, MISSES ANNE HAMPTON BARNES, Mary F. BARTLETT, IDA M. Harris, BESSIE NATHAN, MartHA R. WHITE, REAR ADMIRAL C. McR. WINSLOW, U.S.N., Doctors ALICE G. Bryant, Ropert Goop, THOMAS HOWARD GROSVENOR, SAMUEL SWIFT, FraNcis W. WHitr, J. SHERMAN WIGHT, MESSRS. WIL- LIAM APPLETON AIKEN, HENRY A. ALKER, B. I. ASHMUN, EDWARD S. AVERY, Woop- WARD BABCOCK, CHARLES CHANEY BAKER, Harry 8. BaNnpDLER, C. D. BARNES, ROBT. HIST ORY ; and affiliated organizations, which inelude the Linnean Society of New York, the New York Mineralogical Club, New York En- tomological Society, Torrey Botanical Club, New York Microscopical Society, and the American Ethnological Society. Special lec- tures were arranged by the educational de- partment of the Museum for several of the city’s high schools, the Ethical Culture School, art classes, the School Nature League, and the Boy Scouts. I. Barr, EDwArRD R. Barton, H. C. BECcK- MAN, SIDNEY FORBES BECKWITH, E. R. T. 3ERGGREN, JOHN D. Brown, Howarp SumM- NER CANDEE, HENRY B. CANNON, THEO- DORE W. Cask, C. H. B. CHAPIN, GEORGE CHASE, W. H. CLARK, JAMES LIDE COKER, Henry cS LSS = suopeyg Sug aIAUMOD Pron a) a uyuang 48 Te agua A> Ss a7 /PLQUED ere ag , SOSSNIG & U/GANOTe2 9 nueye[d eyy JO aouvy ay} Jsulndn daoul plnos ayy a1ojeq ‘arejd uado ayy ydams Yorpar acy Aaay[yan Aq Yyorq uajreq ATPAISSBDONS 91oM J ‘{ooarp quourdarose ayy yoru 0} payduroyye ay 94 19AO SPLOT JO [OLJUOD UOTPVALOSGO DATPIOTO OF Surmoys ‘AourN Jo yNos davos nvoyrid oy} Woay ysva Sulyoor] n suoTyVUTIOF ayy dn Suryworq aleyyT = ‘purydn att youordde 0} pry Autous oy} Ory . ANVWY3D S3I1 GNOAIAS OGG OUIBU SIT SULLA SUOTJOV SNOULRY OY} UT 4SOD JRoAG Ye SOT[TY ayy Aq poangdvooa SUM JI pur avVM oy JO Suruursoq oy} ye oSpryy AULA pPazZtos St 10 OY} JO SJUSTMOAOM |[R su que QF O[lyM osu -sod ul qq uo suleid ayy spt d J furnid oy) a sutd[ sour 2 oly wWoarz ,Sdvay 8RIS,, OL SpuNnoUL [ROU OI, ,—"ospry AWILA JO JSat0 OY} WA, JSvoOAOU Suryooy, ‘ureyd stopuriyp oy} JO MOLA q0lYd LVAYD V LV LHOSNOG SVM HOIHM MOOTLNO NV oo FN IE et ai pees one he wees % PANE Be 7 fend or a te: a wit VIEW FROM THE EDGE OF ONE OF THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF PARIS battle the Americans were aided by troops moving and the American line before left distance is visible in the In advancing from this position, —Montsec as seen from the dominating plateau to the west.— The flat plain of the Woévre the middle distance. areas in the wooded plain just beyond the Mihiel crossed the down from the plateau and by observers on the heights who were of St attack able to watch the progress of the COCONUT PALMS, A STRAIGHT ROAD, AND A LEVEL COUNTRY The first as common a sight in Porto Rico as the other two are uncommon. But this photograph is char- acteristic of the limestone plateau in the northwestern part of the island. Coconut palms are universal along the coasts of Porto Rico and may be readily distinguished from their upright relative, the royal palm, by a flex- ible appearance and a thinner trunk. Compare with the royal palms shown on page 531 ART, re . | me pila Rica ee ai a = The port of San Juan is the to islands near by, notably to Saint Thomas. peneplane), broken by the Plata foreground are the notches of the fantastic mooring place for sailing vessels which frequent the coast In the distance and Bayamon rivers, and ply the even sky line of the upland (upper Nearer to the is easily seen. limestone hills which border the coast Five Land Features of Porto Rico: A Story of Cause and Effect By Ae LO BEC K. Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences OR the traveler in a new coun- try, the conditions of travel and the comforts which await him in the places where he stops are often more important in molding his pressions than are the charms of country itself. The traveler Porto Rico from the magnificent auto- mobile route between San Juan and Ponce will return with glowing mem- of pictures of idyllic rugged mountain grandeur, im- the who sees ory landscapes, tumultuous waves on rocky coasts, broad plains ot waving cane, views over the sparkling and Caribbean — sugar far-away with its wealth of exploits in the days of Spanish glory. But the man who steps aside and goes over the native trails or the stops im he smaller towns, although may feel more the romance of his under- taking, will nevertheless, later, prob- ably have his thoughts often tinged with the memory of the inconyen- iences and hardships to which he was subjected. This is true not onlv of Porto Rico, it would be the same any- where. Most of the show places of America, our national parks, our places of scenic interest, are beautiful us according as have seen them in comfort or misery. Porto Rico deserves to make herself hospitably comfortable for the tourist. or otherwise to we She deserves a setting among these other gems of natural beauty. She deserves to be known in all her parts. The charm of her the variety of her features, and the peculiarities of her people place her in a novel position as a retreat for American nature lovers. She can add a distinctly new set of in- terests to those already known in our national parks and monuments. Look at Porto Rico from the tour- ist’s standpoint. What does she have and what does she lack? She has an unexcelled system of automobile roads encircling the scenery, island and crossing it in several places. But she has only two cities, San Juan and Ponce, which provide that degree of comfort to =99 ao 524 which the traveler is accustomed. The ninety-mile ride—a five-hour trip overland from San Juan to Ponce— a comfortable night at the Hotel Melia, and the return next day is the usual itinerary of the tourist. It leaves with him a delightful panorama of things tropical and a good idea of Porto Rican geography. No other towns in the island provide comfortable hotels. At some places like Arecibo, Manati, Mayaguez, and Yauco, the little hotels are reasonably good, but they would never leave a satisfactory impression upon the traveler. Now, what parts of Porto Rico are most worth seeing, what parts will most repay the efforts of visiting, what parts can we look for- ward to as most likely to have, some day, the facilities to attract and en- tertain the tourist bent on study or adventure ? First of all there is the Luquillo National Forest with its virgin tim- ber, open and parklike, its quiet trails, its streams and bold cataracts. From Mameyes to Naguabo is a two- days’ tramp through the mountains, a journey of supreme interest, but at neither end of it are there any real comforts to be found. So the only visitors to this garden spot are the occasional men of science who come prepared for what they find. Some day it will have its little chalets, not very elaborate but at least provided with American beds and facilities for preparing meals. A distinctly different type of coun- try is the bold haystack hill region be- tween Lares and the north coast. Deep sink holes without outlets, streams plunging underground to follow their subterranean channels for many miles, sharp and picturesque limestone cliffs and pinnacles, overgrown with a tangled network of vines and tropical plants, are easily seen by trail; but here again the traveler must be will- ing to accept the hotel accommodations as he finds them and to put up with NATURAL HISTORY annoyances which few are willing to endure. Of even greater interest and _ still more venturesome is the trip to Mona Island, fifty miles to the west of Porto Rico. The trip is made by sailboat from Mayaguez in less than twenty- four hours, but Mona Island is a wild place with only a lighthouse and occa- sionally a little colony of workers who come to extract the guano from the caves. On this little plateau, facing the sea in bold cliffs on all sides, one may see how forbidding nature can be and yet subtly lure one on in quest of strange sights. The jagged limestone surface, devoid of water and covered with a thick growth of cactus, is thor- oughly inhospitable, but there is no reason why some day a little boule- vard trail may not be cut through it and a place constructed to accommodate visitors whose tastes carry them to the unusual and unique places of the earth. A fourth region of exceptional at- tractiveness in Porto Rico is the stretch of the northwest coast in the vicinity of Isabela and Camuy. The bold cliffs, the high sand dunes, the peculiar platforms and reefs at the water’s edge, and the incessant activity of the waves make this place one of sustained interest and life. The waves that roll in upon the coast are some- times ten feet or more in height under the impulse of the steady northeast trade winds. These, then, are some of the attrac- tions of Porto Rico, so different from those of our homeland, and so acces- sible that we can confidently look for- ward to the time when they will be made more hospitable to the stranger. If a certain degree of comfort makes more profitable the time spent in visit- ing and studying a country, so also does a slight previous knowledge of the meaning of the things seen. Land- scape is not unlike music, it is not un- ‘like a written composition, it is not unlike anything else which is organ- Morro Castle and the entrance to San J 1an Harbor.—Th foreground owe to the precipitating action of the sea water their stepped character The city of Guayama is one of covered with the largest towns Caribbean or tl sugar cane front the Government. While is deficient in the di United States e island Broad the northern alluvial s located the ern side irrigation service of the side of the island is abundantly provided with water, the south- in rainfall It consequently draws a large supply for irrigation by means of deep tunnels from the northern side of the watershed where large collecting reservoirs hay e been built The trees show the effect of the incessant heavy trade winds which blow against the north coast of Porto Rico. Along a roadway near San Juan not only have the branches been forced to grow in one direction but the trunks as well show a marked inclination away from the wind A forest of cactus.—The surface of tation of this character. Herds of wild out a difficult living. which they are now subjected. For nent tusks two or three inches long 526 Mona Island, several square miles in area, is densely covered with vege- goats, pigs, and cattle, escaped from domestication, roam over it and eke The animals have taken on characteristics in keeping with the harsh conditions of life to instance, the pigs have apparently reverted to a type of boar with promi- .% PIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO ized. The various parts may give pleasure in themselves. Indeed, ordi- narily, we enjoy hill, valley, stream, cliff, plain, and beach each on its own merits without regard to the fact that they are all only parts of an organized whole and that they are all interre- lated. Some people profess to enjoy music better if they do not under- stand the secret which underlies the composition of its parts. They would rather listen to it in a dreamy and languid way. There may be some people, too, who would rather enjoy scenery in the same way. But obser- vations upon the usual traveler will show him quite eager to know how the features of the earth came to be as they are. Such a knowledge not only awakens in him a much deeper love for the things that he sees, but also this same knowledge helps him to remember these things because it in- troduces a logical and coherent rela- tionship among them. Five different types of land forms make up Porto Rico. Of course, land forms, like everything else in nature, exist in almost infinite variety, but if we confine ourselves to the five most important types, we can obtain a thor- oughly satisfactory picture of the island and have a framework upon which to add any other types we may discover. As we approach Porto Rico by boat from the north we are impressed by the remarkably even sky line over the central part of the island, interrupted only by the notches of the Plata and Bayamon rivers. When we travel into the interior, as on the route between San Juan and Ponce, we find that part of the course lies upon this rolling upland surface. The streams flow in deep gorges below this upland level and when the road runs along the bot- tom of the valley or along the side of the gorge the aspect of the country on all sides is rugged and mountainous, and not until we have climbed out of 527 the valley on to the upland, about two thousand feet above sea level, do we real- ize how level-topped it is. And if in- vestigation is made as to the attitude of the rocks in the road cuts, it is found that this level surface is so not because the rocks lie in level beds, for they are intensely folded and the upland surface apparently “planes” across the beds in- discriminately. Geologists have come to the conclusion that a surface like this which planes across the structure represents an old worn-down land surface, a surface worn down during many ages of time to sea level and then later bodily uplifted to its pres- ent height. It is because of this later uplift that the rivers have had their activity much renewed, and in conse- quence have cut deep gorges or canons below the upland surface. Examples like-this are rather com- mon, too, one of the best known being the upland of southern New England, standing in Massachusetts about one thousand feet above sea level and, like Porto Rico, having deep gorges cut be- low its surface. The name “peneplane” has been assigned to such a land surface, a term which means “almost a plane,” although it must be noted that most uplifted peneplanes are very rugged regions for they have been much dis- sected by streams and only the even sky line beveling their complex strue- ture reveals their true identity. This, then, is the explanation of the upland of Porto Rico, the central rugged por- tion, mountainous in aspect when viewed from below but even-topped when viewed from a distance or from a knoll upon its surface. This is the first of the five important types of land forms in Porto Rico. A second type is exemplified in the two mountain masses, the Luquillo Mountains and the Cordillera Central. They stand as groups of peaks above the upland surface. Their present height is ascribed to the fact that they are made up of harder or more resis- 2F 9AISuayXe ‘Surv | q }ooF puvsnoyy v ILLy}OOF *PpuUBISE OY} JO 4a : I ) yuvydn 10 vuvjdeued «eddr OOLY OFLOT JO SUOLSII OTT d yo0q0T “MV liq sdvyq Ayd oAy oy} MOYS 0f JAvYO—Mojag SUMO} O[} JO JSOUL PUL JOALA} JO SoJNOr JOO OY} SUIMOYS OO OFAOG Jo deux YoIOYG an 070 V | SOLUINW & As: “| WNOW ° Zs 1630910 Mein 3 Ps <— e ‘| OJHIISIT*» Y QTE 66¢ YOU smIyaTs LIVING ISino0d syt JO Ihe asuedxa yeois 3B ydaoxe I ALOJORISHRS jo surpiingq ot} Suipnpoid ysouye ‘sjleay gnoqepuno. pure SuIpurIa AOA a}e}ISsav0u sXa]]vVA poapts-deeqs [[eus jo szequinu ayluyut JsSomye aq} puv UOTpeSsIp WBIAIJS BY} JO 19}9v -IBYD 9PBOLAPUL OUT, “SuOIsaL yeysvoo ay} jo st wed ynu -0009 oY} Se ‘purl -dn 9} Jo uolyey -950A al} UL 9dT} uowmo) vB st wed yesor oy 19.104 -B[ 10 suoed sty jo sjny 33 Aq septs le uo punoaims SOATT JIUMO aT} purldn ayy jo doy ayy 1veu uolyeyUR[d yoo sty, uo «WVONAIOVH,, 43354500 Vv SUMOUY UT ap,, pue® doy 0} surly dsuray YUM SosuRdo P(IM ale |] {wo)) pareadn tod} p SNWN100 IVOISSV1O SXIT SHNNYL HLIM SW1Vd 1VWAOU q ayseM 04 ayy ut sqn pprut oy} ul p JO oapea LOLLIJUL 9 (} UOULWIOD ATOA 0. rd YUM yo ‘(27G Ox Gos In the background rugged haystack hills form the margin of the limestone country. Photograph by Ae K. Lobeck In the fore- ground the underlying formations, mainly volcanic tuffs and shales, give rise to a more flowing topog- raphy, often thickly covered with trees. to serve as a screen to the coffee plants beneath. The forests, however, are not a virgin stand, but are planted Thus, throughout the central upland much of the region that is apparently wild forest is actually planted in coffee and does not at first give to the visitor a true conception of the thorough use that is actually made of it tant rocks which were not worn all the way down to the level of the up- land when the peneplane was formed. These mountains are “residuals” or “monadnocks,” a name derived from Mount Monadnock in southern New England, the type example of such a form. The third distinctive land feature occurs as a rolling lowland belt ten miles or so in width along the north side of the island, and separated from the upland level on the south by an abrupt and rugged escarpment a thou- sand feet or more in height. In origin it is similar to the higher upland— that is, it represents a land surface worn down during long ages of time so as ultimately to form a rolling country. It also is a “peneplane,” and may be called the lower peneplane. It was formed during the period fol- lowing the uplift of the higher pene- plane. Presumably much of the rock was worn away by streams, but it 532 is also conceivable that the pounding of the waves against the north side of the island eventually cut this platform to sea level and that its present eleva- tion is due to a later uplift. A fourth land feature of Porto Rico introduces a new idea—and new rocks. Whereas the rocks underlying all the upland peneplane and the lower pene- plane as well as the two mountain masses are of a complex nature, some- times very much folded, oftentimes quite resistant and apparently of great age, the rocks making up the limestone plateaus and hills on the north and south sides of the island are in reality quite soft, and they lie in almost hori- zontal beds. And moreover, they are abundantly filled with the remains of marine organisms, corals especially, oyster shells a foot long, sharks’ teeth, and parts of crabs and sea urchins. These beds represent accumulations of limestone and chalk, deposited under the sea upon the flanks of the much FIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO older land region, and later the uplift of the old land has brought these newer deposits far above sea level. As a result of this exposure to the rain and to streams the original smooth sur- face has been worn down irregularly in many places to form fantastic hills known as “haystacks.” Elsewhere, be- cause of the solvent nature of the lime- stone, these streams have dissolved out underground courses, a condition which is true of parts of Camuy and Tanama rivers where they flow beneath the limestone plateau between Lares and Arecibo. Finally, there are extensive flat tracts of bottom land, or “playas,” which fringe much of the coast and extend inland along the rivers some- times for many miles. These alluvial plains represent deposits of fine ma- terial carried down by the streams and spread out along the coast either as deltas or alluvial fans as on the south side of the island where the water is quiet, or as a filling of the shallow or 1S) (S) bays which deeply indent the coast on the east and west ends. The seaward margin of these plains is formed by beautiful curving beaches of white sand which swing like ares between the promontories on each side, some- times for a stretch of two or three miles. With their groves of waving coconut palms silhouetted against the ocean and the sky, they add just that touch of picturesqueness which gives so much charm to the coasts of Porto Rico. With these five types of relief fea- tures in mind, the central upland, the mountains rising above it, the lower rolling platform on the north side, the limestone plateaus, and hills, and the flat playa lands, it is comparatively easy to see the different parts of Porto Rico, even in their diversity, as ele- ments of a larger unit. It is possible also to add many new and smaller features, placing them in some definite relation to these five important ones already known. Similarly other obser- Photograph by A. K. Lobeck These miniature erosion forms show characteristics which are found in the larger features of Porto Rico, intricate systems of branching valleys, sharp cuchillo or knife-edge ridges, and very steep slopes, sometimes almost vertical. picture The barefoot boy with his brace of fish provides scale for the DIPPING BEDS IN THE LIMESTONE COUNTRY (UPPER PHOTOGRAPH) The limestone region on the north side of the island of Porto Rico, known technically as the coastal plain, is made up of beds of limestone altogether several hundred feet in thickness, sloping gently northward This view provides a transverse or cross section of the beds in the valley of the Manati toward the sea. differential erosion or the wearing River and shows small sloping terraces in the valley sides formed by away of the less resistant layers 534 A. K. Lobeck OWER PICTURE) bY otographs fa) z < on! a = Ww ac - Z fa) Zz < and = O od = < Oo Oo Sy < O O oc O oa oc O a of ff ond ond < > > Ww > < O Cavey, of town the Around this upland forms the line important t mos g the bein umerou covered with ld fie tobacco obacco th eclo chees bei ee i : Photograph by A. K. Lobeck So-called tidal deltas are formed when the ocean waves break upon the beach to such a height that they pour over the narrow bar into the adjoining lagoon. The sand that is carried over is deposited in the fan- shaped mass which is a miniature delta, but oddly enough it is formed not by a stream entering the ocean but by the ocean entering the stream Photograph by A. K. Lobeck Sand dunes along the beach west of Arecibo.—Where the sand is kept moist by the spray from the waves it has become quite compact and solid through the deposition of lime in its interstices. All stages may be noted from loose sand on the landward side of the dunes to a hard coating over the seaward side, and finally to con- solidated rock at the water’s edge where the waves are continually breaking. Even the flat beach is hard and firm like a pavement, except where loose sand has just drifted upon it 536 FIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO 537 vations such as those upon the location of towns, the agricultural pursuits of the people, the character of the vege- tation, may best be made with the topography as a background. For in- stance, we may note certain geograph- ical facts with regard to each one of these topographical areas. Rugged cliffs mark the limit of the limestone plateau After each rush of the waves the retreating water pours out of the hollows and pound incessantly. On the rolling lower peneplane, be- cause of the greater ease of movement and because of the proximity to ship- ping ports, fruit raising and _ the growing of some sugar cane are prac- tised. The limestone regions of the north and south sides of the island, both the Sa Se i Photograph by A. K. Lobeck against which the waves of the Atlantic irregularities of the rock and, by depositing a thin film of lime around the edge, gradually develops a series of terraces like those of the Mammoth Hot Springs, and for a similar reason. At first they suggest a wave-cut platform uplifted a few feet, but the random disposition of the small terraces and the presence of a thick pinkish origin Because of its elevation and its rugged character the central upland is not densely populated and has prac- tically no large towns. Coffee growing is the chief industry there because it re- quires almost no culture, and because the crop is of small bulk and is easily transported over the rough trails. In the higher mountains the extreme ruggedness and the numerous rock ex- posures preclude practically all agri- cultural pursuits. deposit of lime around the margin of the pockets indicate their true flat plateaus and the dissected haystack hill areas, are usually too dry and bar- ren, because of the subterranean drain- age, to permit the raising of large Locally among the haystack hills there are flat spaces developed upon the more clayey beds of the limestone. The soil is excellent for fruit raising cultivated. For this reason not a little of the north coast region between San Juan and Manati cultivation of crops. and is easily is given over to the 538 NATURAL HISTORY Many of the Americans Porto Rico their home are engaged in this citrus fruits and pineapples. who have made work. By far the lands of Porto Rico are the great alluvial plains or playas. The word “playa” really “shore,” but in Porto Rico it is most valuable means used to designate the whole expanse of flat land bordering the rivers along their Here are the sugar cane lands. Extremely rich, ex- tensive in area, easily cultivated, well lower courses. watered, readily served with roads and small railroads, close to the shipping centers along the coast, they have the ideal combination of desirable attri- butes which have caused the sugar crop of Porto Rico to be worth each year three times the total of all her other exports—made up chiefly of fruits, and tobacco. Each of the great playa lands is a unit in it- self. neighbors by the hilly promontories cottee, Separated more or less from its which extend down from the uplands to the sea, it seems like a little world of its own. The chief town les in its center. Here is located the sugar mill or “central,” to which all of the cane of the neighborhood is brought for grind- ing. The towns of Humacao, Mau- nabo, Yabucoa, Fajardo, and Naguabo near the east coast, are especially rep- resentative in this respect. Intimately related with the topog- raphy, too, is the interesting climate of the country. In a small area Porto Rico offers some striking contrasts. Lying as it does within the tropics The native huts in Lares are typical of the whole island. } pliable bark of the banana tree of which a grove is seen in the right of the picture. during the moments of a torrential downpour. They are usually roofed with the flat It is becoming common, however, especially among the more pretentious individuals, to use corrugated zine or sheet iron, which, however, is not so picturesque, but is more durable and somewhat more satisfactory The general use of the automobile in Porto Rico with the introduction of the common square five-gallon tin containers for gasoline has solved many a native’s problem for weatherboarding, but unfortunately a building sheathed in this convenient material does not appear in this view Growing tobacco under cheesecloth produces leaves of finer and thinner te, more suitable for ci wrappers than those grown in the oper nd the leaves are lso much freer from holes, eesecloth keeps out many biting insects The cloth is stretched over poles and wire yout ten feet ground. Such plantings are extensive and are followed mostly by lar companies, the small pla r being unable to invest in the enormous supply of cloth necessary) A pineapple field in the mestone ountr Oo the orth coast Che iystack hills resulting from the wear ng down of the origina mestone plateau are racteristic of the regior Between the iystacks’’ there are occasional sink oles or depressions without outlet Elsewhere there re broad flat areas opened out upon a more clave laver in the horizont hedded mestor These flat re provide the principal fruit-raising lands of Porto Rico 540 and directly under the belt of trade winds which blow from the northeast, it is subject to their influence which is expressed in opposite ways. Trade winds are recognized as producers of desert conditions. Most of the deserts of the world he in trade-wind zones. Around Porto Rico the islands which are not of sufficient size or height to induce precipitation are very dry and support abundant growths of cactus. This is especially true of the small islands Culebra, Desecheo, and Mona. Even on Porto Rico, the northeast tip of the island has a similar aspect be- cause of the drying influence of the trade winds. But when these winds, with the great quantity of moisture which they have accumulated, are forced to rise over the mountainous in- terior of Porto Rico, their capacity for retaining moisture is diminished and excessively heavy downpours result. From out of the brilliant sky dense cloud masses form with great rapidity over the uplands and throughout most of the year several downpours may be expected every day. But when the winds reach the lower lands of the southern coast they not only have lost a large part of their moisture, but also in their downward journey they have been transformed into dry- ing winds again, with the result that this whole coastal area is almost barren and parts of it experience months and even years without rainfall. There- fore irrigation is essential for the culti- vation of large crops, and in the southwestern corner of the island where there occur the longest periods of drought, considerable areas are densely covered with cactus. The torrential character of the rain- fall over the uplands is a significant factor in the development of the sharp cuchillo, or knife-edge divides, com- mon in the interior. Because of their very steep slopes, often of twenty- five to thirty degrees, and even of forty to forty-five degrees, the valley walls NATURAL HISTORY are pronounced barriers to progress. The average annual rainfall over the uplands is between 80 and 90 inches, or more than twice that of the vicinity of New York. Unlike the precipita- tion of middle latitudes, where the duration is to be measured in hours and even days and the amount in hun- dredths or tenths of an inch, the aver- age duration of a shower in Porto Rico is ten or twelve minutes. ‘There are numerous instances of successive showers which totaled 10 inches rainfall in twelve hours, while amounts of from 4 to 5 inches in twenty-four hours are of frequent occurrence. A record of 23 inches for twenty-four hours, as an ex- ample of an extended period of heavy precipitation, and of 1 inch in nine minutes for a short period, may sug- gest that important consequences must result from the accumulation and run- off of so great a volume of water in so brief a period of time. An interesting phase of the situation is the impervious character of the soil throughout the “oldland portion” of Porto Rico—that is, the region made up of the voleanic rocks. The soil which develops from the decay of these rocks is a red clay or mud, excessively unctu- ous and tenacious, and exasperatingly slippery. It acts as an impervious mantle which prevents the penetration of water into the ground, thus caus- ing it either to accumulate in all of the little pockets and irregularities of the surface, or immediately to run off and flood the streams. The exceed- ingly rapid run-off may be appreciated from the fact that many streams im- mediately rise 15 to 20 feet after heavy showers. In one case, the Plata River, twenty-five minutes after it began to rise, poured over the dam near Comerio in a sheet 15 feet or more in thickness throughout the en- tire length of the dam, about 575 feet, the flood continuing all day at 10 feet above the dam. “Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children” By HERMANN HAGEDORN Poet and Playwright; Author of Boys’ Life of Theodore Roosevelt; Secretary of the Roosevelt Memorial Association O those who were privileged to know Theodore Roosevelt in his intimate relationships, the cries of mingled delight and astonishment that have greeted the volume of letters which he wrote to his children, have themselves brought a shock of surprise. “How perfectly extraordinary,” ex- claims Tom to Dick and Harry, “these letters are tender !” “Amazing,” cries Dick, “he was a real father, a wonderful father! In the midst of that noisy, busy life of his, he actually had time every day for his children.” And Harry gasps helplessly, “Who would ever have imagined it!” All of which goes to show that the most discussed man of his time, the man who filled more newspaper col- umns and more magazine pages and more books than any dozen of his con- temporaries put together was actually unknown to the millions whose hero and idol he was. They thought of him in terms of the Big Stick of the swash- buckler of the cartoons, the Apostle of Strenuosity, the Man-eating Lion, the Thunder-god before whose word parties died and parties came to birth—that was Roosevelt to them. One wonders in bewilderment what these millions im- agined concerning him in his capacity of husband and father. A tyrant un- questionably they thought him, dom- imeering over his family, thundering laws from Sinai, stamping through the house like an elephant trumpeting down the slopes of Kenia. One won- ders what these folks with their estab- lished notion of what “T. R.” ought to be, would have said if they could have seen him on a certain summer’s day during the last year of his life. It was at Sagamore. The day was warm and the youngest grandchild was 1Theodcre Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, edited by Joseph Bucklin Bishop. Sons, New York, 1919. lying in her crib in a shaded corner of the porch, dreamily content. Around the corner from the porte-cochére came the Colonel, espied the baby, and with a chuckle of delight lifted her out of the crib and hugged her, making ab- surd, joyous noises. Suddenly at his back he heard a soft, familiar voice. “Now, Theodore,” pro- tested Mrs. Roosevelt, “do you know what you've done? That baby was per- fectly happy there. Now someone will have to hold her the rest of the after- noon.” “All right,” hold her !”’ And hold her he did, rocking back and forth in his favorite rocking-chair all afternoon, as he carried on his po- litical conferences. To those who knew Theodore Roose- velt in the intimate and friendly at- mosphere of Sagamore Hill, this book of his letters to his children is no rev- elation; but it furnishes perhaps an even keener delight to them than it furnishes to those startled others, since it gives as possibly no other written rec- ord could, a reflection of that wise, warm-hearted human being, so gay, so boyish, so full of tenderness and hu- mor, who was the master, and the per- vasive spirit, of Sagamore. In these letters, the man of the cartoons gives way to the sympathetic father, the playmate without peer, the boy who never grew up. The collection begins with the pe- riod of the Spanish War, although hid- den in some drawer somewhere, there must be similar letters written during his ranching days, for he began send- ing illustrated communications to his children from the time the oldest of them was scarcely more than a year old. The great affairs of this world eried the Colonel. “Ul Charles Scribner's 541 1 542 NATURAL are touched on here and there, but only touched Ol. “Tomorrow the National Conven- tion meets,” he writes to Kermit on June 21, 1904, “and barring a cata- | shall be nominated.” But he seems less interested in the surge of great human currents at Chicago than he does in the little matters of daily life which make the world of his chil- dren. On that same day—the day pre- ceding also the transmission of the famous ultimatum, “We want Perdic- aris alive or Raisuli dead”—he wrote from the White House to each of his four younger children. “The garden here is lovely,” he tells Ethel. “A pair of warbling vireos have built in a linden and sing all the time. The magnolias are in bloom, too, and the jasmine on the porch.” “Blessed Archikins” receives word the same day concerning Bill the Liz- ard. ‘The other day when Mother and I were walking down the steps of the big south porch,” writes his father, “we saw a movement among the honey- suckles and there was Bill the Lizard— your lizard that you brought home from Mount Vernon. We have seen him several times since and he is evi- dently entirely at home here. The White House seems big and empty without any of you children puttering around it, and I think the ushers miss you very much.” But it is “Dear Quentyquee” who re- ceives that day the most weighty com- munication of all. “The other day when out riding what should I see in the road ahead of me but a real B’rer Terrapin and B’rer Rabbit. They were sitting solemnly beside one an- other and looked just as if they had come out of a book; but as my horse walked along B’rer Rabbit went lippity lippity lippity off into the bushes and B’rer Terrapin drew in his head and legs till I passed.” On the day following (while the Convention was opening its delibera- clysm HISTORY tions and the chancelleries of Europe were beginning to mutter and flutter and hold up their metaphorical hands at the implications of the Moroccan ultimatum), the President was writing and elaborately illustrating a letter to Ethel, including among other works of art a picture of a policeman and a squirrel which bore this caption: “A nice policeman feeding a squirrel with bread; I fed two with bread this after- noon.” What after all were presidential nominations and ultimatums in com- parison with matters of such import ? Roosevelt was and remained, among his children’s companions, the best beloved and most eagerly sought after. His sympathetic understanding en- abled him to meet them always on the level of development on which they stood. As they grew he seemed to grow with them. Imperceptibly al- most, as the years go on, the letters deepen, and in place of the stories of lizards and rabbits, come analyses of the relative merits of Japanese and American methods of wrestling and bits of sage advice given almost apol- ogetically concerning studies or ath- letics or the choice of a career. Theodore Jr’s arrival in college drew from the President a series of in- dignant and sympathetic letters con- cerning “the newspaper men, camera creatures and idiots generally” who be- set the path of one whose home ad- dress happened to be the White House. To Kermit he wrote largely of books. Through all the letters runs the delight of living, the joy in beauty of color and sound and fragrance, the quiet content- ment of a happy home. Books will be written without num- ber in the years to come concerning Theodore Roosevelt, and many will tell of the things he did and many will paint or attempt to paint the man that he was. But this book of his own letters to his children will always stand alone, for in it lives and breathes for- ever the very man himself. SCULPTURES OF THE LATE THEODORE ROOSEVELT BY FRANK OWEN PAYNE! THE MAN OF LETTERS Roosevelt Bust, recently executed by John E£ttl This portrait bust is intended to depict Theodore Rooseve he appeared in later life—as the lover of books, the contributing editor, the creative man of letters It the death mask and on one of his best known photographs of recent years ‘Contributor on sculptural subjects to Art and Archeology, International ] Architectural Record. ete THEY GLADLY FOLLOWED WHERE HE LED Bronze statuette by James E. Kelly A sculptor’s portrayal of Theodore Roosevelt as a military leader of his regiment of Roughriders. Roosevelt refused a sitting for this, when urged by the sculptor, after returning from Cuba; but granted it later on learn- ing that the sculptor was the author of ‘“‘Sheridan’s Ride.” For that inspiring bronze was then in his own study: he had seen it one day in Tiffany’s window, when he was just out of Harvard, and had been so im- pressed by its spirit that he sacrificed other things to buy it. Replicas of this portrait of Roosevelt, sent to grammar schools, for the boys of America to see daily, would be well worth the monetary cost A PORTRAIT THAT WILL ALWAYS LIVE “The Senate Bust,” by James RB. Fras r A sculptor’s portrayal of Roosevelt as President of the United States Roosevelt would not ‘waste time” in sittings, so Mr. Fraser did the work at the regular Cabinet meetings His subject was not easy to model, for Roosevelt was absorbed in business of state, his pose never constant, and his expression con- tinually changing The bust which was executed in marble for the United States Senate Chamber is repre- sented with the conventional vesture of the Chief Executive, rather than with the Roughrider garb of the sculptor’s original work. (John Burroughs, after touring and camping through the West with Roosevelt when he was President in 1903, reports that he said all he cared about being reside) was just ‘“‘the big work.” Our California redwoods need the big work o just such a mar THE DEATH MASK By James E. Fraser Immediately after death came, the sculptor who had modeled the living Senate Bust was called to make the last record of the head and features of Theodore Roosevelt. This record, in the white plaster, gives the authoritative form for all sculptures of the future, and without the fire and the spirit, still carries the nobility and heroie sincerity and strength which molded the face of the Roosevelt we knew IN WAR A FIGURE OF UNRIVALED ARDOR AND DARING Roosevelt, in the statuette by Frederick MacMonnies Modeled and executed in MacMonnies’ Paris studio soon after the war with Spain and presented by the sculptor to Roosevelt when he was President. The photograph reproduced here is from the original statue, the property of the Roosevelt family, who have always set high value on it because of its truthful portrayal of Roosevelt’s enthusi- asm. So far as known, this is the only copy in America. Today, at the close of 1919, when the great personal Roosevelt of our time is passing into the Roosevelt of his- Lory and memory, we are beginning to see him in his permanent proportions and are united in desire to do honor to him in great and unique ways. Representative of his ‘‘spirit of youth and swift strength and mounting joy of life,’ an American flag was carried by relays of young American boys from station to station across New York State and through the city of his birth, stars were sewed on by young American girls at each stop, and the completed flag finally brought to his grave at Sagamore Hill AT THE BEGINNING OF HIS CAREER AS STATESMAN Bronze Bust, by PY i Massey Rh nd Within the imposing memorial structure at Niles, Ohio hich marks the birthplace of the I I martyred President McKinley, are portrait busts of the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, and many important men of McK ‘’s administratior Elihu Root, Mark Hanna, John Hay, and thers This Roosevelt portrait stands at the right of that of McKinke and in the expression there seems to be foreshadowed the lread moment vher tl I Kil né or the assassination of McKinley came Mr. Rhind’s work shows the young state n vithout quite the characteristic was soon to look of the man, largely because of lack o tep into the duties and responsibil pl PORTRAIT FROM A FAMILIAR PHOTOGRAPH A medal by Anna Vaughn Hyatt Subscribers to the fund of the Woman's’ Roosevelt Me- morial Association, representa- tive of all political parties and every religious faith, are _ pre- sented with a copy of this medal. The Association has purchased the house in which Theodore Roosevelt was born, at No. 28 East Twentieth Street, New York City, and will make it, together with the house which adjoins it, into a perma- nent memorial, with the aim of continual promulgation of the principles of Americanism On October 27, the anniversary of the birth of Roosevelt, Major General Leonard Wood, in speaking for the Roosevelt Memorial Association, said: “Theodore Roosevelt stood for uni- versal service in war as well as in peace, service for each one wherever he could best serve. Theodore Roose- velt stood for the square deal, one flag, one language, and one loyalty— loyalty to the American people—for industrial justice, for public and _ pri- vate morality, for a strong and vigor- ous America, charitable and _ helpful, ever ready to do her duty to civiliza- tion and humanity, but an America always under the dictates of her own conscience rather than under. the direction of others” FOR ALL TIME A LEADER AMONG AMERICANS The Roosevelt who will always stand for that “intense Americanism” which will make us use our strength not only for ourselves but also for the less fortunate, “well behaved” small nations of the earth. Bust by James EB. Frase r (compare with profile vprew Article X of the League of Nations embodies the intense Americanism Rooseye preached—a promise that the United States, Great Britain, and France, will not abandon the small peoples of the earth, proclaimed free at the Peace Conference in Paris. Never before in all the course of history has any other nation enjoyed the profound admiration given to the people of the United States—because our spirit ‘ ricanism, both in the World War and at the Peace Conference, stood firm as a rock for the rights of others t is the pleasure of the great, as well as their sacred duty, to protect the weak BISON HERD WENDING ITS WAY TO A WATERING PLACE ON THE UPPER MISSOURI In the days when the bison grazed at will over the continent and herds numbering thousands moved together through the hills to their watering places, they made trails which were masterpieces of engineer- ing. Many of these well-worn pathways remain as conspicuous monuments of the bison’s former numbers, and mark out the routes now followed by automobile road or railway. This illustration shows a section of a picture by Bodner, the artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian on his famous trip through central United States in 1832-34 The Coming Back of the Bison By C. GORDON HEWEE® Consulting Zoélogist to the Commission of Conservation, Ottawa HE disappearance of the Ameri- can bison to the verge of exter- mination constitutes one of the greatest and most striking catastrophes to our wild life that have occurred in the experience of modern man. The manner in which the total loss of this magnifi- cent animal as a member of our fauna has been prevented should fill all who are endeavoring to conserve our wild life on this and other continents with confidence and hope. There has always remained in my mind the impression which I received when, as a student of zodlogy, the trag- edy of the American bison was brought home to me by a little colored chart in the Manchester University Museum showing the past and present distribu- tion of this animal and its gradual de- erease in numbers. Frank Evers Beddard’s excellent volume on “Mam- malia” in The Cambridge Natural History had recently been published, and the sad history was summarized in these words: “The Bison of Amer- ica, formerly present in such numbers that the prairies were black with count- less herds, has now diminished to about a thousand head.” Little did I think at that time that I should later become directly interested in the bringing back of the bison. The extent of the destruction of the bison appalls us by its immensity when we consider the character of the animal. It would seem inconceivable that this, the largest of the wild fauna of our continent, should have been reduced within the limits of the last century from countless millions to the point of extermination. Formerly ranging over about one third of the entire continent it has been practically wiped out of ex- istence except for a small band of so- called “wood bison” now to be found in the Athabaska region of Canada. That its disappearance was an inevi- table result of the development of the country does not diminish the character of the tragedy. ‘The bison is the great- est of all our American animals and un- doubtedly the most noble of its family in any part of the world. Now it has practically disappeared from the face of the continent and only by the foresight of the Canadian and United States governments has it been prevented from becoming completely exterminated. The history of its disappearance and the most complete account we have of this noble member of our native fauna have been given in a memoir by Dr. W. T. Hornaday, director of the New York Zoological Park.} Its former range in North America according to Hornaday, was as follows: “Starting almost at tide-water on the Atlantic coast, it extended westward through a vast tract of dense forest, across the Alleghany Mountain system to the prairies along the Mississippi, and southward to the Delta of that great stream. Although the great plains country of the West was the natural home of the species, where it flourished most abundantly, it also wandered south Texas to the burning plains of northeastern Mexico, westward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico, Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake itself.” The vast herds of bison seemed to clothe the prairies in a coat of brown. They were as thick as the leaves in the forest. These immense herds greeted the ad- across 1W. T. Hornaday, The Extermination American Bison, Washington, 1889. of the Si} ii Ww Jamieson Lake is one of several in Buffalo Park. bison, but also as sanctuaries for large numbers of waterfowl. Photograph by C. Gordon Hewitt These serve not only as watering places for the In time the bison ranges should support herds of elk also, of deer, and antelope, natural neighbors which live together in the greatest harmony. The bison, when given a chance by protection against hunters, increases so rapidly that already the problem has arisen as to what disposition should be made of the surplus animals. It is hoped that new ranges will be established and possibly that domestication for commercial purposes may be inaugurated vance guards of civilization and that process spelled their doom. The history of the bison is an illus- tration on the largest possible scale of the history of every species of wild ani- mal when man invades its natural haunts with an unrestrained desire to kill. No part of our wild life can with- stand the destructive influence of man armed with modern guns; the only salvation for any species is the restric- tion by law of the number that may be killed. These considerations, however, had no part in the early days with the bison. It was faced by men armed with powerful firearms who killed without any regard for the future, and. there was a complete absence of any restric- tions on the part of all the governments concerned. ‘The Indians who had al- ways regarded the bison as the source of their meat supply had their point of view entirely changed so far as the number of animals to be killed was con- cerned. ‘Their passion for killing was inflamed by the example of the white hunters with serious economic results when their source of meat was wiped out. dat Various methods of slaughter were followed. ‘The extraordinary stupidity of the animals made them an easy prey for the still-hunters. Still-hunting was conducted on business lines and was highly profitable when more than a hundred animals could be killed from one stand and the robes were worth $2 and $4 each. The practice of hunting on horseback provided an exciting sport and when the hunters, white, half- breed, and Indian, went out in armies the results were disastrous to the herds, particularly as the cows were especially chosen owing to the superior value of their skins. A favorite method em- ployed by the Indians was that of im- pounding or killing the animals in pens into which they were driven. This method was commonly practiced among the Plains-Cree in the South Saskat- chewan country. The terrible scenes that attended these wholesale slaugh- ters of the herds are beyond description. Other methods of slaughter on a large scale were surrounding, decoying, and driving the animals, and all tended to- ward the same end-—complete exter- mination of the herds. As the animals THE COMING BACK OF THE BISON 555 became scarce the half-breeds and In- dians vied with the white hunters in destroying them. Far more bison were destroyed than could utilized. But this could not long continue. No longer did the prairies thunder with the sound of thousands of galloping hoofs: The great herds were driven farther and farther afield. Indians who formerly merely cut out the tongues of their victims, if they teok any part of the carcass at all, now almost starved for want of food. In 1857 the Plains- inhabiting the country around the headwaters of the Qu’Appelle River decided that on account of the rapid destruction of the bison by the white men and half-breeds they would not permit them to hunt in their coun- try or travel through it except for the purpose of trading for their dried meat, pemmican, or robes. Catlin! has given some idea of the enormous numbers of bison that were killed during the first half of the nine- teenth century. In 1832 he stated that 150,000 to 200,000 robes were marketed annually, which meant a slaughter of possibly be Cree Illustrations of the Manners North Ameri- Catlin, and Customs and Conditions of the can Indians, London, 1841. 1 George 2,000,000 or perhaps 3,000,000 bison. was the destruction that he prophesied their extermination within Frémont about the same time also bore witness to the ap- So great eight or ten years. palling destruction. The death knell was struck when the construction of the Union Pacifie Rail- way Omaha in 1866. advent of the first railway the difficul- ties of marketing the results of the slaughter served as a slight check on was begun at Previous to the transcontinental the rate of extermination for, although the bison were being killed out at a rate greatly in excess of their natural in- crease, they would have existed for some years longer than the coming of the railroads and additional swarms of white hunters rendered possible. This railroad divided the original great body of bison into southern and northern That was the beginning of the Although the range of the north- ern herd was about twice as extensive as that of the southern, the latter con- tained probably twice as many bison. Hornaday estimates that in 1871 the southern herd contained 3,000,000 ani- herds. end. mals, although most estimates give a higher total than this. 3ison do not always show respect for a fence; stability. The nine-foot fence at Buffalo Park wire, strengthened with upright wires at one foot twenty-five feet wide is across the preserve. keeps the guard strips permanently broken up A one-horse team, journeying nearly Photograph by OC. Gordon Hewitt consequently the enclosure must be given genuine is composed of fourteen strands of galvanized steel intervals. 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From 1871 to 1872 the wastefulness was prodigious. The were marketed bore no in- dication of the enormous slaughter. In four short years the great southern herd was wiped out of existence, and by 1875 it ceased to exist. By the time the destruction of the northern herd began in earnest, the bison in Canada had already become very scarce. The remnants of our former herds were assiduously hunted by the Indians as they constituted their main supply of food. As Hornaday states: “.. . the herds of British America had been almost totally exterminated by the time the final slaughter of our northern herd was inaugurated by the opening of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1880. The Canadian Pacific Railway played no part whatever in the exter- mination of the Bison in the British Possessions, for that extermination had already taken place. The half-breeds of Manitoba, the Plains-Cree of Qu’ Appelle, and the Blackfeet of the South Saskatchewan country swept bare a great belt of country stretching east and west between the Rocky Mountains and Manitoba. The Canadian Pacific Railway found only bleaching bones in the country through which it passed. The buffalo had disappeared from that entire region before 1879 and left the Blackfeet Indians on the verge of starvation. A few thousand buffaloes still remained in the country around the headwaters of the Battle River, be- tween the North and South Saskat- chewan, but they were surrounded and attacked from all sides, and their num- bers diminished very rapidly until all were killed.” The main part of the northern herd was to be found in the United States. Here the Indians of the northwestern territories were waging a relentless war on the animals. Hornaday computes that the number of bison slaughtered annually by those tribes must have been about 375,000. The destruction of the skins that northern herd began in earnest in 1876 and became universal over the entire range four years later. By this time the annual export of robes from the buffalo country had diminished three fourths. The construction of the Northern Pacific Railway hastened the extermination of the herd. White and Indian hunters killed so long as there were buffaloes to kill. The hunting season which began in 1882 and ended in February, 1883, completed the an- nihilation of the great northern herd and only a few thousand head were left, broken into straggling bands. The last shipment of robes was sent out from the Dakota Territory in 1884. In 1889, Hornaday, on the basis of all available data, estimated that the number of buf- falo running wild and unprotected was 635 animals! Was the destruction of an animal ever so completely brought about? It furnishes what is undoubt- edly the most striking and appalling example of the fate of an animal exist- ing in apparently inexhaustible num- bers, when left exposed to unrestricted slaughter, and should be a serious les- son to the people of this continent and of the world for all time. That in the face of advancing civilization the buf- falo had to go was inevitable. It oc- cupied lands that were to furnish homes and occupation for millions of immigrants and that now produce so large a part of the world’s staple crop. ‘Time, however, will not efface the traces of the bisons’ occupation of the continent. They blazed the trails that later became important highways. As A. B. Hulbert in his Historie High- ~ waus of America has pointed out, the bison selected the route through the Al- leghanies by which the white man en- tered and took possession of the Missis- sippi Valley. They found the best routes across the continent and “human intercourse will move constantly on paths first marked by the buffalo.” It is interesting that the bison found the strategic passageways through the mountains; it is also interesting that THE COMING BACK OF THE BISON they marked out the most practical paths between the heads of our rivers, paths that are closely followed today by the Pennsylvania, Baltimore and Ohio, Chesapeake and Ohio, Wabash, and other great railroads. But there came finally a brighter period in the history of the bison in America. In 1889, when they had reached their lowest level, there were only 256 buffalo in captivity, 200 pro- tected by the United States Govern- ment in the Yellowstone Park, and 635 running wild, of which number 550 were estimated to be in the Athabaska region of the Canadian Northwest Ter- ritories; the whole bison population at that time to be 1091 head. An attempt was now made in the United States to protect the rem- nant and by 1903, according to the cen- sus of the American Bison Society, they had increased to 1753 head. chiefly confined in the national reserva- tions and parks of the United States Government: some were owned by pri- vate individuals. The largest private owner appears to Michael Pablo, of Montana, who had a herd of about 700 animals in 1906, the value of which he fully appreciated. In 1907 the Canadian Government learned that the Pablo herd was for sale and with commendable foresight estimated Was These were have been Indian hunters under cover of wolf skins approaching a herd 559 purchased it, realizing the importance of acquiring so valuable a herd of what had formerly been the most abundant For its reception and maintenance a special na- tional park was established at Wain- Alberta. This reservation area of about 160 miles, the whole of which is enclosed of our large native mammals. wright in covers an square in a special wire fence about 76 miles in length. Judging by the abundance of old bison wallows it evidently formed a favorite place for bison in years gone by. Several lakes, the largest of which Lake, about seven miles long, provide an ample water supply. The difficulties involved in the capture of the Pablo herd of and the transportation of the animals to the Buffalo Park at Wainwright, Alberta, can better be imagined than described. From the date of the receipt of the last animals in 1909 they have increased steadily each year until in 1918 they numbered 3711 head, or more than three times the total number of bison known to be living in North America in 1889. The United States Government also took steps to protect and increase the herds of bison remaining. A national range was established in Mon- tana; and in the Yellowstone National Park national reservations is Jamieson bison bison and other From a sketch by George Catlin 560 the bison were carefully protected, with successful results. There are now eight herds protected by the United States Government com- prising altogether 891 animals. The largest number is contained in the Yel- lowstone National Park, Wyoming, where there were on January 1, 1919, 457 animals. In the Montana National Bison Range there were 242 animals on the same date, and the third largest herd is to be found in the Wichita National Forest and Game Reserve in Oklahoma where there are about 100 bison. The total number of captive bison in the United States in January, 1919, according to a statement kindly fur- nished to me by Mr. M. S. Garretson, secretary of the American Bison So- ciety, was 3048 head. It is estimated that there are also about 70 wild bison, making a total of about 3118 bison in the United States. In Canada the Canadian Govern- ment has bison in three of the national parks. In 1918 the numbers of bison in these reservations were as follows: in Buffalo National Park, Wainwright, Alberta, 3520 animals; in Elk Island Park, Alberta, 183; and in the Rocky Mountains Park, Banff, Alberta, 8; making a total of 3711 head. In ad- dition it is estimated that there are about 500 wild bison, or wood bison, in the Athabaska region where they are now protected. Scattered throughout the Dominion in public and _ private parks there are approximately 40 ad- ditional bison. The total number of bison in Canada at the beginning of 1919, therefore, was about 4250 ani- mils. From the above estimates it will be seen that we have now approximately 7360 bison in the United States and Canada, as compared with 1091 in 1889. These figures show that the bison are coming back, and that they are doing so rapidly. The rapid increase of the bison in our national reservations raises the ques- tion: “What shall we do with our sur- NATURAL HISTORY plus?” Jn the Buffalo Park at Wain- wright, Alberta, this question is becom- ing a serious one as they will soon occupy as much range as is capable of sustain- ing them. The natural answer to this question is to create additional reserva- tions, which policy undoubtedly will be followed, particularly in the United States where much additional range suitable for bison but less suitable for agricultural purposes is available. In addition provision is being made for the donation of surplus animals to municipalities, puble organizations, and institutions. But cannot we go a step farther and consider the desir- ability of encouraging farmers to pur- chase surplus animals from the goy- ernment and to maintain them? Any- one who has visited the bison in our national reservations will agree that if they were maintained in a semidomesti- cated state they could be treated in the same manner as range cattle, pro- vided they were enclosed. The cost of building suitable fencing might prove an obstacle in many cases, but it should not proye insuperable in view of the high price of beef. As a beef animal the value of the bison is well worth the careful consideration of our agricultural authorities. In addition it proyides a robe of proven value in more northerly states and provinces. Not the least of the advantages of the bison over domes- tic cattle is their ability to “rustle” for themselves in winter and under climatic conditions which prove a hard- ship to our introduced cattle. The proposal to utilize the bison in the manner suggested may appear im- practicable, but how many of our ideas as to what was possible and what was impossible have, in the course of time, proved unfounded? The future alone will show. In the meantime all who are interested in the conservation of our wild life will be encouraged to further efforts by the story of the manner in which the bison was rescued from the fate which has befallen less magnificent members of the world’s mammalian fauna. Impounding bison was the wholesale and wasteful method of killing employed by the Assiniboin, Plains-Cree, and other Indian tribes of the Northwest, a method which allowed all members of the tribe, even the women and children,.to be in at the death The pound was constructed of logs and its gate placed under a ledge down which the bison could jump but which was too high for them to climb 1in From this gate a fan-shaped runway sev- eral miles out into the plain was constructed by means of bunches of branches and bushes, known as ‘“‘dead men,” lined up fifty feet apart. Behind these ‘dead men” the Indians hid and frightened back the herd whenever it showed signs of departing from the track After the bison had been stampeded into the pen the tribe gathered around to slay the fright-maddened animals which charged wildly about crushing and tossing one another. Several hundred might be killed by this method in a single foray. The illustration is from a cut (engraved from a photo- graph) in Hind’s Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 eS SN ee ee ae | The Still Hunt,’ from a painting in the National Museum, Washington, | J. H. Moser, 1888.—With the coming of the railroads through the West and an inereased demand for buffalo robes, the butchery of the “‘still hunt’ began Other methods were too slow for the commercial hunter who must kill hundreds of bison in order to realize on pelts worth but from 65 cents to $4 a piece The sti inte! ipproached the herd to within one hundred to two hundred and fift yards and proceeded with great deliberation to shoot down the animals without stampeding them Their leader, usually the oldest cow, was first disposed o and then the others slaughtered one by one Any individual of the herd which attempted to lead off the others was pr ly stopped by the hidden rifle The target a bison is about a foot in diameter but even witl mark of that size and employing a high power rifle, the professional hunters were usually such poor shots that the scored only one death out of about every three hits the other two bullets inflicting broke: legs and collar bones One to two shots a minute could be fired and with good luck a hundred bison killed from one stand so that one hunter was able to account for from one to three thousand head a season 561 69S UOUYVULU AIX Toy} UL OJON, BV oUIBOIG ,O/BING Suruund,, ‘osn OJUL BIBI ABATOAOA Suiproy-yoooaq ory IS a} Jug ‘MOate pur MOG OY} 1OF UY} Poatnbat suM |[LYS a10OUl UBAD SUIIvAIY JO }UIAPU oy} mM M ‘UMOATY} JFL JUNOUT sty UL OAS ¢ udlL MA *‘plduat pur ONS BLOW SUM Te JUS apt. ouy Ut qa -1UB 4So plhoo otk if OS JOU STAN ou WO SULIELY pues Av { TAMOT SIT OF poly OSsuy B ATWO YIM PUR O[plaq JNOYJIM UOpple SVM 4 ‘aanjo { URd SB ‘107 S10 SMOLIR [ILM pay IsIp ofeM OTM * ou Buo0pe sawajuny ayy 4 OL UMO} SOp-o1tivad syt puv ‘sojoy sespeq spt ‘souteyy { JO pooyrlpoxl, oy} Woary yng ‘syUTTIVSsR Arey] UO Wang vp puB Suljloxa Uv SUM YoRqos1oy UO pPaoly Vs q oy} Wor; 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He has been in charge of the collections of amphibians and reptiles, depart- ment of zodlogy, in the British Museum, since 1882, and besides a constant yearly output of technical papers in English and French scientific journals, he is author of works on African fresh-water fishes in four volumes and on the world’s reptiles and amphibians in nine volumes. He is associate, corresponding, or honorary member of most of the great scientific societies of the world, and by his indefatigable personal effort in scientific research he has brought honor to the British Museum for all time r3).9)8) Boulenger, the Man and His Work By THOMAS BARBOUR Associate Curator of Reptiles and Amphibians, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Harvard College OULENGER—what charming memories may _ be awakened by a name! Unfailing candor, erudition, courtesy, a simple dignity, a flaming love for Belgium of his birth and for England the land of his adoption, a son wounded at Gallipoli yet who paused later during the horrors of the campaign on the Euphrates to send his father speci- mens of a favorite genus. Yes, these and many more were the natural flashes of impression which this photograph caused when first I had the pleasure of seeing it. It recalled delightful chats and visits, amazement at the wealth of treas- ures in his care, and cups of tea before a cheery blaze. To be more matter of fact, however, Dr. George Albert Boulenger has had opportunity, by which he has richly profited, to become entirely familiar with most of the fishes, amphibians, and reptiles in the world; probably more familiar than anyone who has ever lived. While the common British custom of not fixing types and of not drawing up descriptions from specifically indicated specimens rather grieves students in this country—yet Dr. Boulenger’s writings have been more widely used and of more general service than those of any Proud to be numbered among the systematists in a day when many seeking an easier highway to recognition speak of them with scorn, he has fared afield as well, and his con- tributions to our knowledge of the habits especially of the European amphibians are well worthy of careful study as examples of painstaking observation, well recorded, and then left entirely unadvertised. They stand in dignified contrast to some of the capitalized “new discoveries’ we oft have dinned into our patient if somewhat skeptical ears, though happily not by American herpetologists. 567 The Honorable Position of Naturalist By (G2 Giliwy ae Assocl HE greatly famed village of Selborne, England, looks much today as it did a century and half ago when Gilbert White was humble curate, naturalist, and fellow Today, as then, it has a picturesque and strag- “lovely landscapes and beechen groves,” and everywhere invit- ing footpaths. Here a path leads across a pasture, through a wicket gate, meandering on beneath the shade of bosky trees, and through undergrowth tangled with dog-rose and meadow- sweet. Yonder on the right hand of the village street footpaths cross the village green, the “Plestor,” with its central sycamore tree, still the focus of village life on summer evenings; and here, most wonderful, a footpath zig- zags up a steep beech-grown hillside, the “Hanger,” curving back and forth upon itself until it reaches the summit and stops at a great “Wis shing Stone.’ And in the “Outlet” back of Gilbert White’s house are many interlacing footpaths which lead about earden, hedge, and meadow. Gilbert White gave to Selborne vil- lage the fame it bears. What he did unusual was to hold a great and true sympathy with nature, in consequence of which he was led to observe, through very many years until he was sure of his facts, and to describe, simply and truthfully, the wild flowers, in- sects, birds, and many other living things of the fields about his native village. He wandered daily through the footpaths of his “Outlet” and the byways of Selborne; he made new paths and planted new trees; with his brother's help he built the steep “Zig- zag, and placed the “Wishing Stone.” F inally, in the Natural History of Sel- citizen there. single street, gling, set in borne, he described the countryside in a way so simple and alluring that everyone who read saw Selborne with its walks and loved it. 568 ate Curator of the Department of Public Education, FISHER American Museum Gilbert White is very much the type of naturalist we need throughout America today. The importance of the position of naturalist has been en- hanced by the war in a new valuation set on all original investigation along scientific lines. Any man, if he be a sincere student in natural history, will be more or less a leader in his local- itv—a leader in study, appreciation, and protection of local birds, of wild flowers or of insects, of woodlands, of scenic beauty. There is in Selborne a suggestion for each village of America. If we walk in the country is it not most often in the middle of the dusty or muddy roadway? Even in New England how often are there paths along the edges of fields where the stone wall is covered with bittersweet and clematis and the chipmunk wanders and the bobwhite calls, or across the meadow where the bobolink starts up from the grass, or across pasture land, through the wood lot, around the hill, along the river— or anywhere except where dread busi- ness takes us? We have no smallest chance to get close eye views of the world of wonderful small hfe forms that call our countryside their home. I venture that one great step toward developing a love and knowledge of na- ture in America would be to make and open up inviting paths over and through the farm land for the use of members of one’s family and for friends: and, for the use of all in the community, similar footpaths and by- ways about the environs of the village. Even the most weary will return again and again to the refreshment of a shaded path to some vantage point of view or rest, and it is by such frequent and leisurely wandering over the same way, until it is as f familiar as the house. the garden, or the village street, that we come to know and appreciate the abundant wild life about us. Photograph by Frank M. Chapman THE HOME OF GILBERT WHITE’S “NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE,”’ 1788 Photographed in the summer of 1919 from the beech-wood hill known as the ‘‘Hanger,’”’ the most beantiful feature of the countryside, remaining unchanged from the eighteenth century until today. Selborne village and countryside, Hampshire County, England, will remain famous as long as the story of English literature is told, for here was written a book, through a long period of twenty years, which was so delightfully readable and so filled with interesting and true observations that it soon gained an assured fame and has since been listed with such classics as Bacon’s Essays, Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, Walton’s The Compleat Angler, and Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress PBO ss i Hie ah a 3 2 < Photograph by Laura Mackay BOOKS AND NATURE and flowers, trees and rocks—can be supple- birds which and thought, or with historic incidents in some interesting part. Thus, enjoyment of life is manifolded in an association and history. Burroughs rates high ‘‘the pleasure of knowledge.” our American nature essayist, re presenting sympathy w ith all phases for good in America through its entrance into the school life of city First-hand observation of the living world—of mented from early years with what others have seen these objects have played of knowledge of nature, literature, The work of John Burroughs, of country life, has become an influence children. Children like Burroughs’ plant and animal stories, and as various teachers have explained, children especially are benefited by the gentle influen¢ of this literature from the woods and hills The Love of Nature’ CONTEMPLATION OF THE BEAUTY AND INCIDENT OF THE NATURAL WORLD BRINGS RENEWED STRENGTH TO THE MIND By Pate A. ©CO-C KER ELD Professor of Zodlogy; University of Colorado MID the disorderly chaos of hu- man affairs even the most vig- orous become weary in time and long for some refuge where the mind may relax and renew its strength. For the tired muscles comes the bene- diction of sleep; but sleep, as we know too well, does not mend a sorrowful heart or relieve the anxious mind. There can be no doubt that William Morris was right when he described our activities as normally governed by two moods, which he called the moods of energy and of idleness. In the mood of energy we must be doing something, or at least pretending to do something ; but in the mood of idleness the mind wanders over pictures of the past, or contemplates that which is beautiful or interesting. The major purpose of art, as distinguished from the obvi- ously utilitarian, is to render the period of contemplation pleasant and fruitful. Thus it may be rescued from mere inanity on the one hand, and cor- ruption on the other. Morris was lecturing on the aims of art when he put forward this theory, but he was also keenly alive to natural beauty and incident, as his writings abundantly show. Powers of observa- tion and description are combined in these charming lines from The Earthly Paradise : “They left the house, and, following up the stream, In the low sun saw the kingfisher gleam *Twixt bank and alder, and the grebe steal out From the high sedge, and, in his restless doubt, Dive down, and rise to see what men were there; They saw the swallow chase high up in air The circling gnats; the shaded dusky pool Broke by the splashing chub; .. . They watched the poppies burn across the grass, And o’er the bindweed’s bells the brown bee pass Still murmuring of his gains... .” Morris had little use for modern science, and might even have been a trifle impatient if we had criticized the last line, on the ground that it was cer- tainly a female bee. Mr. Burroughs is more scientific and less poetical, yet he tells us: “In my excursions into na- ture, science plays a part, but not the leading part; it is like a silent monitor and friend who speaks when spoken to. Or I may say that I carry it in the back of my head and only now and then in the front. I do not go forth as an ornithologist taking note of the birds, nor as a botanist taking note of the flowers, nor as a zodlogist studying the wild creatures, nor as a biologist, peep- ing and prying into the mysteries of life, but as a nature-lover pure and simple, who gathers much through sympathy and observation.” The English naturalist Wallace kept a beautiful garden in the latter years of his life for pure relaxation and en- * John Burroughs, Field and Study, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919. With previously unpublished portraits of John Burroughs, the American naturalist and author, and scenes from his favorite haunts: followed by a series of bird photographs of unusual distinction published in his honor. In connection with the illustrations it is especially a pleasure to be able to quote through the courtesy of the publishers, Houghton Mifflin Company, various brief passages from the writings of Burroughs.—THE EpITor. 571 572 joyment, not for scientific experiments. He was working to the last, but the flowers were for what Morris called the periods of idleness. Happy the man who at ninety years of age, after a life of fruitful labor, can still enjoy nature with the simplicity of a child! Con- trary to the imagination of some, sci- ence is in no sense inimical to this faculty, and it would be easy to recall many scientific men who retained it unimpaired. Even Herbert Spencer found his moment of maximum enjoy- ment in the contemplation of a beauti- ful landscape, with the accidental accompaniment of music. In the case of our nature writers, whatever may have been their original attitude, the problem of art is neces- sarily in the background. Mr. Bur- roughs, when he walks in the woods, cannot altogether forget that he is a reporter. He tries to forget it, and would if possible communicate his feel- ings to others by some process of telepathy: “. . +I try to get language out of the way as far as possible, and to put my mind directly to that of my reader. Hence, when I have been told that my page does not seem like writ- ing, that it offers no resistance, and so on, I feel highly complimented. I would have it fit the mind as water fits the hand. Deliver me from language as such, from fine phrases; in short, from conscious style.” It is this simplicity and directness in Mr. Burroughs’ writings that con- stitute their charm. He is a friendly companion, keen-minded but not too remote from the ordinary level of man- kind. He brings us no astounding revelations, but introduces us to the good company all around us. For some he quickens pleasurable mem- ories, for others reveals a new world. He writes, it would seem, for those who may see the things that he has seen; his book is a species of guidebook, not literature independent of time or place. He is even chary of his words, and does NATURAL HISTORY not tell us so much about the wood- chuck or the warbler that we can form a clear picture of the creatures, never having seen them. Those who read Burroughs, never having lived in the northeastern United States, will wish that the publishers had introduced a series of pictures of the dramatis per- sone. Yet, as he himself well says, literature cannot be merely photo- graphic. When we make literature or art out of things, “. we must invest them with a feeling, an atmosphere, that the literal fact cannot give; we must work some magic upon the facts.” The question is, how much magic, how much of the human element, how much of that element personal and peculiar to the writer? Says Mr. Bur- roughs, “. .. Burns’s ‘Mouse’ is a real mouse, but not the one you catch in a trap; and Shakespeare’s violets— where do they grow save in the magic page of Shakespeare?” Poets through- out the centuries have employed the worn images of antiquity, things once real and immediate ; now chosen rather for their accumulated content of hu- man emotion, like the “blessed word Mesopotamia.” No doubt the highest art is that which is most completely humanized, which expresses most perfectly vital human emotions, connected usually with periods of activity and with the interplay of personalities. It catches the flood of human passions at its height, and preserves for us images of the maximum products of heart and brain. Hence it is often relatively independent of external circumstances, appealing to the facts of nature within rather than without the man. Nature writing cannot be all this, and must not be it, if it is to serve its true purpose. One hesitates to de- clare that its humbler objects are the more vital to our needs, but who can contemplate modern life and not per- ceive the necessity for more healthy THE LOVE OF NATURE simple objectivity, more restful con- templation of beauty and incident? It is an interesting question, how much of the love of nature as shown in the observations of any mature mind is simple and naive. I had, when a child, a delight in bright colors which I no longer possess in its original simple form. The blue of the sky, the red of the rose, produced an intensely pleasur- able sensation which had no relation to previous knowledge or experience. With the years, one necessarily loses his simplicity. Even the unfamiliar reminds us of something; hence the American “robin,” which is no robin, and “primrose,” which is not a prim- rose. This brings us the question: should we cultivate the association of ideas in the young, or leave them to weave un- consciously a web of thought around every familiar object? Certainly, it is possible to go too far in cultivating as- sociation—to hide the real thing under a mass of the débris of the ages, things which have accidentally stuck to it rather than issued from it. One recalls the occasion when Lord Brougham and the Duke of Wellington met and chaffed each other in this wise: “My lord,” said the Duke, “I used to suppose you would be remembered as a statesman, but now I know that you will go down to posterity in the name of a very un- comfortable sort of carriage.” ‘Your grace,’ replied Brougham, “I once thought you would always be known as the hero of a hundred fights, but it ap- pears that you are to be famous for a cumbersome type of boots!” “Damn the boots,” said Wellington, and we rather agree with him. In a certain sense, the United States to the eagle, Scotland to the thistle, Rome to the geese, are all “boots.” Yet when I see a species of woodpecker common in this vicinity, I am likely to think, not of the structure and habits of the family of woodpeckers, the Picide, but of Lewis and Clark and their ever 573 memorable expedition. It is pleasant and profitable to do so, and I often re- mind my students of such associations. Were it possible, however, to develop our ideas of each animal and bird through pure observation we should know and understand it as we do our intimate friends. It is really to the credit of Mr. Burroughs that the ani- mals do not remind him continually of the classical authors or of the poets; or if they do, that he keeps the fact to himself. He tells us what he has seen, and the ideas he associates with each creature are those derived from previ- ous experience with it. But again, life is short and one can- not learn everything at first hand. Those of us who cannot know nature in detail in this way are’ glad to see what Mr. Burroughs has seen, in some meas- ure with his eyes. Much of the pleasure of a woodland ramble comes from ex- pectation, and from appreciation of the meaning of what one sees. If a bird is rare, it is well to know it; if it is high in a tree, one likes to know what it would look like close at hand. I know a lady whose eyesight was de- fective, and to whom a tree was simply a mass of green. When at length she was fitted with glasses, she was greatly astonished to find that it was possible to see the separate leaves. So might one learn to know many animals and birds at a distance, and be surprised to note their finer markings and peculiari- ties of form when seen close at hand. The painted lady butterfly (Pyra- meis cardui) is rare in England, but occasionally visits the country in great numbers from the continent. As a boy in Kent, I had read the interesting life story of this butterfly before there came a certain famous Pyrameis cardui year, and I particularly remem- ber my first capture of the species. My hand trembled, and in my en- thusiasm I insisted on showing the _butterfly to a telegraph boy who came along. The insect was indeed a lovely 574 NATURAL HISTORY felt as I knowing what it d not have c Pi * . *, } -< 4 ' : . 4 * i . he j 4 : F : 4 r é a » 3 : : < eB £ <% j . ' vee : - . ee ee = heceseiatan oe zs Be Sa eR es le a 500 Photograph by Edward A. Mellhenny THE BLUE GOOSE IN ITS WINTER HOME—THE LOUISIANA MARSHES Photograph by Frank Over THE MARSH HAWK ON LONG ISLAND, PHOTOGRAPHED RISING FROM ITS NEST rae ts 4 ui 4 4 ton a9] _ f ' os % Rina Photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman The California condor (adult) in southern California.—Several hundred photographs were taken, show- ing the life history of the California condor. Eight different trips were made back into the mountains to the nest. The old birds became tamer at each visit until, on the last trip, they were photographed at a distance of only a few feet Photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman We recall John Burroughs’ characterization of the late Theodore Roosevelt as an observer “in preémi- nent degree.” He says apropos this power: ‘“‘You may know the true observer, not by the big things he sees, but by the little things; and then not by the things he sees with effort and premeditation, but by the quick, spontaneous action of his mind” 592 Photographs by Arthur A {7len STUDIES IN. NATURE’S EBONY—IN NEW YORK STATE 3ronze grackles have been accused of doing damage in the cornfield, but they feed on cutworms and other insects in summer, and this particular bird, while under observation at arm’s length from a blind, fed its young upon grasshoppers. ‘The great thing in observation is not to be influenced by our preconceived notions, or by what we want to be true, or by our fears, hopes, or any personal element, and to see the thing just as it is. A person who believes in ghosts and apparitions cannot be depended upon to investigate an alleged phenomenon of this sort. . - Above all don't lump to conclusions Be sure the crow is pulling corn instead of probing for grubs, before you kill him From Riverb Today State Conservation Commissions, aiming to keep extant our native races of game birds and to introduce others like the pheasants, are giving the crow an unsavory reputation so far as unselfish respect for the rights of others is concerned. vident y aware ol this objector ble feature in the crow but likes him withal; he gives many a character description of him The crow is always in the p ibliec eve or ear His color gives him a\ ce gives him awa on the earth or in the sky he 18 seen and heard afar. No creature wants hi dy wants his plume, thoug + more perfect and brilliant ebony cannot be found in nature. He night yet the open day is his passion, publicity his PASSILOI He is a Sp} i policeman a I a rood fellow 1 oval triend iI ilarmist a socialist all in one he is never disgruntled, come rair » shine, come heat, come snow , From Field and Study -(1)9 Fa ba Bs) #66 anwar fo sioA, Ul SYSsNOLING—,,e0Yt1oVS-Jpos PUB WSINA}]B OF ‘gpoo [eory4e ‘JatUOF OY} WAT WOLNJOAD UL dB Jo}4V] OT} SB TONUSBUL ‘SM UeUINY INO UL poIpnys oq AVM Sonyvato PIM Jo sKvM ol} Jey ‘Kjauvu ‘ureyzad Ayoad Joy ApJoetA0OD YUIY V PRET UY} e10UL YON Op «oO ‘way JotdasojyUT 10 ‘Heyy Woy; 10 ‘Wey deat uve OYM—‘ainjeu Jo SABM OTL, “‘pley 9oIa 10 YSavuL IoYyJes [BIOS oY} WOLT oy, 0} omd0 9M {IT} qoyyvos ‘paeds a[qipeaour yyIM AB pue ‘hep Jo 9so0jo oy} pavmoy ‘asta AOI} puod pue oye] Ul Sur oq ABUL aM SUI 9UO FQ 49104} PUR O roy} 0} ‘spurq |[Rus Ul sur HLNOS FHL LV 3DNSSY YALNIM GNIS SLSAN NYSHLYON NI Gay¥vay SQYVTIVI ul Spunoas Surpaoy fuuayponw VY pevapay fiq ydvuboi0Yd -OULULL ul pasiorad “SBO10UL oq 7Vyp [MOT PTIM an jo uojye -u0d AOfF potjou B SI SIU “porns -SB S~ AUO[OD 949 jo s us of TI IS ay Wainge 1ijy “MO Auojod 9a} St lay? 0} WOTjUAI4V aTqeqyins pur puod ey} ye puod usals B Of UAINjaL [ILM sou 07 YON oyy 0} UORASIOL To y4 1ayjyy °wo04joq YSivuL 94 Woaures AQ pes.euqns spray ITA VNVISINO NI—SNIG334 SQGYVTIVW fiuuaylyoW “FF peonpa” fq YyYavs6020Ud Photograph by Edward A. MclIlihenny AT THE SOUTH IN WINTER TIME—OUR AMERICAN ROBIN “We never know the precise time the birds leave us in the fall: they do not go suddenly; their departure is like that of an army of occupation in no hurry to be off; they keep going and going, and we hardly know when the last straggler is gone.” (From Pepacton.) A few individual robins remain in sheltered spots in the North. In comparison with English song birds it is said that ours are fewer in number and less famous’ as mu- sicians. surroughs says: “Our birds are more withdrawn than the English,’ with ‘‘notes more plaintive and in- termittent.”’ family The robin comes very near the head of the list of well-known American bird musicians, in the with the thrushes and bluebird. and sharing the honors with the family of mocking bird, brown thrasher, and catbird. He is one of the greatest sources of cheer and companionship in city or country. [t is therefore all the more pity that spring after spring the number returning to the North has been smaller and smaller, owing to destruction of the migrating flocks at the South,—robins shot in thousands for food 596 Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes At the North in winter time, just chickadee.—A view within the window Jee i ae - “ Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes A view without.—‘‘If you would study the winter birds. . you can bring them to your own door—chickadees, nuthatches, downy woodpeckers, brown creepers .. . little waifs from the winter woods that daily or hourly seek the bounty you prepare for them ... The woods and groves seem as barren as deserts, the earth is piled with snow, the trees snap with the coid ... the wonder is that . . . these little adventurers can subsist at all. . . . How much company they are to me! What thoughts and associations they bring!’ From Field and Study 5m enya Freeman Art Co., Eureka, Humboldt County, California THE HERITAGE OF AMERICANS 1 all are in the hands of private capital. We must The northern redwood forests are a heritage for every Ameri purchase sections of this redwood land from the lumber companies who own them, at once before everything has been ley- bled by the ax and fire. For these forests are the greatest the earth has ever seen in all the millions of years of its history The trees tower into the sky between three and four hundred feet and attain a prodigious thickness of trunk; and so an- seen the passing of more than four thousand generations of men cient are they that the largest of them have ” ; : | Freeman Art Co., Eureka, Humboldt County, California The contrast !— Hundreds of thousands of acres of redwoods in California have been cut in the last _ sixty years. especially through waste and fire Each sawmill is a center of incalculable loss not only through the timber removed but Sequoia— the Auld Lang Syne of Trees AN IMMEDIATE WORK FOR EVERY LOVER OF AMERICA IS THE PRESERVATION OF THE REMNANTS OF REDWOOD FORESTS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA By Pre whe PFALRETEUD- OSBORN President of the American Museum of Natural History, Member of the Council of the Save the Redwoods League T was said pithily by John Muir that any fool can destroy trees; they cannot run away from him, and if they could they would still be chased and hunted to their death—as long as fun or a dollar could be got out of them. Speaking of the Sequoias, he contrasted the ability of the Creator to protect their race, as he has done, through millions of years from drought, disease, avalanches, tempests, and floods, with the inability of that same divine power to protect them even for a generation from fools—‘“only Uncle Sam can do that.” If the American Museum, by some magic of power, could hope for large influence in conservation matters, it would vote to save these Sequoia wood- lands. Their venerable and colossal splendor is a heritage for the future America. Many of these trees have lifted their heads to the sunshine of more than a thousand summers, and the largest of them have outlived the passing of four thousand generations of men. Mere matter-of-fact and commercial consideration, moreover, entirely apart from any sentiment re- garding their beauty or their age, 999 NATURAL OUU “in the of and love of coun- them: name should save thrift. and foresight, ef _ys Roosevelt would have said. The destruction has progressed far, and has been especially augmented of late. The most majestic among the manifestations of life on the globe are being cut for—breathe not aloud the uses to which they are being put, lest the recorders of human history laugh! Se- quoias towering more than three hun- dred feet into the sky are being brought to the ground for grape stakes for the vineyards of California; for shingles and railroad ties for the temporary con- venience of a mankind which is slow to evolve beyond aims of immediate per- sonal gain. Do we ask why the burden of saving the redwood forests falls so immedi- ately on the shoulders of the state and national governments—outside of the general reason that state and national governments should look out for the welfare of the people? Uncle Sam owned all this western timber coun- try—yet Uncle Sam was so desirous of giving every man in the free United States his chance, that millions of acres of timber land were sold at two and one half dollars an acre when just one indi- vidual tree of the wide-stretching for- ests was worth at the lowest figure one hundred dollars. Thus the timber went into the hands of private and cor- poration capital—and “nothing could be done about the crazy bargain !”’—at least the sales could not be undone. This was the condition when Muir wrote these words in 1900, and the twenty vears since that time have seen the ranks of the redwoods pushed far- ther and farther back from the sea, by lumbering methods involving frightful waste. Some solution of the problem must now be sought which will return to the government as large a part of the redwood lands left as money for pur- chase can be found, to remain perma- nent possessions of the American people. One of two courses we shall follow. HISTORY Either we shall now, at a goodly ex- penditure of money, save the redwood forests as they stand, or we shall lose them, and after a few years, at an exceedingly greater expenditure of money, try to save a few small muti- lated tracts which may be left, knowing that we have doomed the redwood as a race to an eternal extinction. We rec- ognize the second course as that usually consummated in the forest policy of any new community. Have we not learned the lesson of loss, especially in the East, so that we can apply the prin- ciple to the redwood? We all realize that we long ago passed the day when we could afford to look upon trees as giant weeds to be got rid of by any method, as our forefathers in America looked upon them, or even as imex- haustible gifts of Heaven to be man- aged wastefully. They are one of the few vital assets of the country. If we have not learned the lesson, we shall in this particular instance not merely burden our children with the bond is- sues of an attempted restoration of what we have destroyed, we shall lose the redwoods beyond all possibility of restoration. For in the case of trees such as white pine, black walnut, and others now nearly exterminated, we have not been dealing with species that take half a thousand years to reach ma- turity and two or three times that to attain their greatest nobility of size. One hundred years has been more nearly the maximum—and that has seemed too long to the man who lives for himself only and for today. The species of Sequoias are only two,! the big tree (Sequoia gigantea) and the redwood (Sequoia sempervi- iThe genus Sequoia is not closely related to any other living group of trees, but in former geolog- ieal times, reaching back as far as the Jurassic and Trias, near relatives of our Sequoias were common, with many species scattered widely over the northern lands of the globe. Their fossil re- mains have been discovered in Europe and in va- rious lands bordering the Arctic seas—Siberia, Spitzbergen. Greenland, Canada, and Alaska. The big tree and the redwood are therefore representa- tives of a family whose existence with small varia- tion must be measured in millions of years—they are “the auld lang syne of trees.” SEQUOIA—THE AULD LANG SYNE OF TREES Tens). If we journey — southward through the warm interior valley of California, on our left hand tower the snow-capped Nevada = Moun- tains. These bear in their high altitudes on the seaward slopes the big trees. They Mixed with other conifers in open groves, they stand mas- sive and battered like ruins from an age when life was measured not by single revolutions of the earth around the sun but by thousands and tens of thousands. Fortunately, this species of Sequoia is protected by its very inac- cessibility, from five to eight thousand feet up the mountain slopes.! Sierra are heroic in size. On the right hand as we journey southward through California is) the low verdant Coast Range (one thou- sand to two thousand feet elevation) ; and over its seaward slopes and in its wide moist vallevs are the remnants of the forests of the redwoods. But a very few vears ago they reached from ierth of the California and Oregon boundary line southward ino an unbroken belt of forty miles maximum width, to the southern boundary of Mendocino County, California, then on farther south in isolated small forests as far as the Bay of Monterey—a total distance of nearly five hundred miles, twice the north and south lap of the big trees in the Sierras. These redwoods show striking adap- tation to the depth of soil and amount of moisture, On the steep slopes where the soil is shallow, they do not attain a height of more than 225) feet, with greatest diameter of trunk ten feet, and here they grow in) open stands ‘This is the Sequoia that has been made world fa- mous by the eloquence of John Muir, whose main work was in the Sierra Nevada Mountains; and it is the great scenic feature of Sequoia National Park—one of the first of our national parks, in stituted in 1890, the sume year as Yosemite, and the first to be instituted after the Yellowstone in 1872. The greater number of the remaining big tree groves are now under the protection of the National Park Service. On the other hand, the hig tree, although it has received so mueh more at tention and protection, is not as great an economic asset for the future as the redwood, particularls because it reproduces only by the slow method of seeding and that with great uncertainty, especially in the northern part of its range. 6OL mixed with other trees (especially red fir). At increasingly low altitudes and consequent greater less nore or depth and moisture of soil the red- woods increase in size and predominate the forest more and- more until they form with other hottoms of unmixed Qn flats and in the vallevs where rivers cut close. crowded stands trees, their way through the Coast Range to the Pacific, they make giant redwood fastnesses, many of the trees reaching well hundred feet, fre- quently with a diameter of trunk from above three sitteen to eighteen feet. Many of us have entered these great- est) forests of the world, in) our own northern Califormia. “Architecturally” they consist of lone curving aisles be- tween the giant columns of the trees, sometimes with spacious vistas opening to the sea: and the ground and the dark fluted trunks are patterned with shift- Ing mosaics of sun and shadow. — For long ages they have stood here in the face of the winter rains that down from the northwest. They have been wrapped about by the moisture- laden summer foe that drifts in from sweep the sea and dips low among the green spires. So great is the moisture among the redwoods of the bottom lands that not only are the trees themselves won- ders of growth and verdure, but they are draped with mosses and the ground at their feet is bedded with ferns. It has been said that this tree, from the standpoint of its timber, is “too wood to lives” and certainly history has proved it so sinee the white man. dis- covered its Pacific. The wood has all the qualities to rec- home alone the ommend it for the uses of commerce: it is rich in color and takes a beautiful polish, the eran Is ever ana fine, it 1s firm vet soft and easy to work? it is “This refers especially to the redwoods of the hottom lands. The trees of the slopes are likely to hase wood Jess valuable, more “flinty’ in) ehar- aeter, The redwood tree is the type which has been so disastrously ent and burned over the eoustal flats. until today it represents but a small proportien of the whole redwood area, “soft i > . a vob ah ea Courtesy of Mrs. Edward L. Ayer In Montgomery Grove above Ukiah.—It is hoped and believed that Mendocino County will buy the Montgomery Grove of redwoods. This would make the town of Ukiah the entrance to the great scenic State Highway through the redwood region. Isolation of the United States during the war has emphasized travel within our own boundaries, while rapid development in the ease of motor touring has added a new possibility to such travel for all. Northern Cali- fornia will now find it to the advantage of the many among its population to save its scenic beauty. Meager profits from redwood lumbering for the few lumbermen among its citizens will no longer be considered adequate return for the present desolation and future poverty of the country a ee 2 yen - Courtesy of Mrs. Edward. L. Ayer Luxuriance of growth in a redwood stand near Mendocino.—Sonoma County has taken a step in the right direc- tion in purchasing the Armstrong Grove; Humboldt County has very recently bought up the holdings of operating lumbermen along the State Highwav: Marin County fortunately has been presented with the Muir Redwoods on Mount Tamalpais, by former Congressman William Kent, of San Francisco: but the world has yet to hear from Mendocino and Del Norte counties that their enthusiasm and patriotism have saved valuable sections of local redwoods 602 A SHQUOIA—THE AULD LANG SYNE. OF TREES almost fireproof—and in addition to all these good qualities, it is incom- parably durable. It is said that trees which have lain five hundred years on the damp ground in the forest have been carried to the mill and made into good lumber.t Do we need to ask if our redwood forests are economically worthy of pres- ervation? Or can we question that they should be removed from individ- ual and corporation interests which must perforce look to an immediate gain in order to realize on invest- ments? Under the ownership of state and national governments, experts in forestry can keep them forests while still making them yield a product of timber.? Hundreds of thousands of acres of redwoods have been cut during the last sixty years. San Francisco is largely built of redwood. The whole state is a land of redwood bungalows, paneled and beamed with the choicest grains of the wood,—which is good, except that on an average one half of a tree has been wasted for every one half used, and all the young trees which grew near the mature trees cut have been killed. Especially during the last thirty years, since improved equipment came in, redwood lumbering has pro- ceeded with disastrous speed, and the wood has been used not only for con- struction and finishing. for shingles and grape stakes, but also for a multi- tude of other things, among them tele- graph and electric light poles, paving ‘Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 38, “A Study of the Redwood,”’ 1903. *That this can be done is largely owing to the fact that the redwood is an active dominant type of tree although of such ancient lineage. It sprouts vigorously from the stumps when cut, soon forming great circles of tall young trees. Cireles of mature trees with the central stump no longer in existence are found in the primeval for- est, indicating that this has been the method of growth. It is probable that, if the redwood lands can come under government ownership, such sec- ond-growth forest with proper management can be made to supply a large part of the demand for redwood timber, and the primeval forests be left undisturbed, except as certain trees may need to be removed for the health of the others. 603 blocks, and water tanks. And now re- cently, because of a scarcity of available timber brought about by the war, the United States Railroad Administration authorized the use of redwood for rail- road ties. This, coupled with the build- ing of the roads of the new California State Highway through some of the best of the remaining northern red- woods, started an army of small con- tractors into lumbering operations, with resulting destruction and waste. Such was the condition in the early summer of 1919 when Colonel Graves, chief of the United States Bureau of Forestry, and Secretary Houston, of the Department of Agriculture, visited Humboldt and Del Norte counties and impressed upon the people the irre- parable loss they were sustaining. It was still the situation in July, 1919, when the “Save the Redwoods League” was organized at San Francisco under the spur of interest of various public- spirited men (see page 605). The Redwoods League National in Scope The Redwoods League has the support of the national and state governments, and is national in scope.* Although its Council is made up mainly of influential men from California, it includes also prominent repre- sentatives from the East. One of the first steps of the League was to call the attention of the United States Railroad Administration to the injury to the California State Highway by the cutting of railroad ties along its margin. At once the Administration issued an order that no ties should be purchased from areas which would come within the proposed reservations, or ’'The story of the work and aims of the Red- woods League and of the survey of the northern redwoods which was made under its auspices is told by Mr. Madison Grant, a member of the Coun- cil of the League, in the September issue of the Zoological Society Bulletin of New York—an ar- ticle which carries the interest and conviction of authoritative knowledge. Many of the facts in the accompanying state- ment of the situation of the various groves and forests and of the plans for their conservation are taken from the typewritten Official Report of the Survey madé under Mr. Stephen Tyng Mather, director of National Parks, and from Mr. Grant's article. J24 “SAVE THE REDWOODS” MAP Compi'ed from the 1916 geological map of the Cali- fornia State Mining Bureau, the 1911 forest map of the Caifornia State Board of Forestry, and from data regarding the state highway and approximate eastern limit of redwoods, re- ceived in December, 1919, from Mr. M. B. Pratt, State Forester of -California.. It is unfor- tunate that a 1919 forest map has not been is- sued by the California Board, because the eight years since 1911 have seen appalling destruc- OREGON v2 tion of redwoods, especially bordering the sea All the best redwoods remaining (and they are all owned by lumber companies) are north of San Francisco in the coastal counties of California — Sonoma, Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del Norte. The best trees grow on the bottom lands along the rivers, and those especially adapted for preserva- tion in national or state parks are the Bull Creek and Dvyerville stands (owned mainly by the Pacific Lumber Company) in Humboldt County, and in Del Norte County the Redwood Creek (owned by the A. B. Hammond and Sage Lumber Com- panies), Klamath River, and Smith River stands. The best of the Mendocino and Sonoma redwoods have been cut, some very recently; it is hoped that the various groves left, especially along the motor highway, will be set aside by these counties. Marin County has no redwoods left, except ‘Muir Woods,” on Mount Tamalpais, near San Francisco. If we travel northward on the State Highway from San Rafael, we find the first redwoods just above Ukiah—the small ‘‘Montgomery' grove,” which it is hoped Mendocino County will purchase. Between Ukiah and Bull Creek there are alto- gether about 10,000 acres of redwoods, seattered in groves of a few acres with occasional larger stands of a few hundred acres, most of them badly devastated by lumbering and fire but all worth sav- ing for the sake of the attractiveness of the high- way. For instance, there are 5 acres at Phillips- ville and about 500 acres near Miranda. Along the South Fork of the Eel River the mo- tor highway runs through some extremely fine red- woods which were rapidly being cut for grape stakes and railroad ties until the influence of the “Save the Redwoods League’ was recently brought to bear, and which are still threatened along very many miles of the highway. In fact, between Garberville and Eureka, lumbering operations are more or less in full swing, and the nation’s loss from waste and fire in the forests which are being cut about equals the loss from legitimate uses of the timber. The right bank of the Eel River below its junction with the South Fork resembles devastated France, and the devastation is complete everywhere on the left bank also ex- cept for one fine stand just beyond Bull Creek, which belongs to the Pacific Lumber Company. There is need for immedtate action if the last of these most ancient and heroic trees are to be saved. Who will dedicate a redwood grove to the health and happiness of the American peo- ple? The lumber companies offer every codperation in sell ing for such purpose 41 39 we Slate highway (approximate) ee Laslern linet of redwood (2pprox/mate) = No West Poeific railroad \Terehan /a ble forest p Seale 98 Woodland ond brush 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 O Nonforested area I | i | | | Miles | OO) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70) (80) 90 | | | ! ! Kilometres 604 SEQUOIA—THE AULD within four hundred feet of any state high- way. This is the federal cooperation we should expect and explains that the situation was not previously understood. Situation of the Redwood Forests A survey of the northern redwoods was at once inaugurated by the League, especially with reference to the selection of a suitable area for a national park. The survey (August 5 to August 10) was made by Mr. Stephen Tyng Mather, director of National Parks, and Mr. Madison Grant, accompanied by Mr. Charles Punchard, land- scape engineer of the National Park Service. On the way northward from Ukiah to the junction of the South Fork of the Eel River with its tributary Bull Creek and with the main Eel River, the surveying party passed about ten thousand acres of redwoods (see map). These are in groves of a few acres LANG SYNE OF TREES 605 each with occasional larger stands of a few hundred acres, many of them badly devas- tated by lumbering, most of them pitiful remnants of the original forests, but all of vast importance from the standpoint of the attractiveness of the highway. Northward beyond these scattered groves are more nearly solid stands grouped natu- rally by the drainage of the region into great forests. Prominent are the Bull Creek and Dyerville flats, culminating the north- ward stretch of the South Fork groves, Bull Creek at the west in the triangle between the South Fork and its tributary Bull Creek, the Dyerville forest at the east in the triangle 1 Tt must be understood that one acre of forest even on the most crowded bottom lands means only about three dozen redwoods, 20 inches and more in diameter (known as merchantable timber), with about a dozen additional trees less than 20 inches in diameter. In the mixed forests on the slopes the number of redwoods to the acre may run below 25, inclusive of all sizes. Officers of the Save the Redwoods League are as follows: President, FRANKLIN K. LANE, Secretary of the Department of the Interior Secretary and Treasurer, ROBERT G. SPROUL COUNCIL OF E. C. BRADLEY Former Assistant Secretary of the Interior WILLIAM E. COLBY Past President of the Sierra Club GEORGE M. CORNWALL Publisher, The Timberman, Portland, Oregon WIGGINTON E. CREED President of the Alumni Association, and Re. gent, University of California WILLIAM H. CROCKER Regent of the University of California, Trustee of the California Academy of Sciences FRANK S. DAGGETT : Director, Museum of History, Science and Art, Los Angeles, California JosEPH D. GRANT Trustee of Leland Stanford Junior University, Trustee of the California Academy of Sciences MApIsoN GRANT Chairman, New York Zoological Society HENRY S. GRAVES Forester, Forest Service, Washington, D. C. WILLIS L. JEPSON Professor of Dendrology, University of California THE LEAGUE WILLIAM KENT ; Donor of Muir Woods, California STEPHEN TYNG MATHER Director of National Parks JOHN C. MERRIAM President, Pacific Division, American tion for the Advancement of Science Associa- RALPH P. MERRITT Comptroller, University of California WALTER MULFORD Professor of Forestry, University of California HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN President, American Museum of Natural History, New York CHARLES F, STERN State Superintendent of- Banks, San Francisco, California BENJ. IDE WHEELER President Emeritus, University of California Ray LYMAN WILBUR President, Leland Stanford Junior University CHARLES B. WING Acting Chairman, State Redwood Park Com- mission of California The immediate purposes of the League are stated as follows: 1. To purchase redwood groves by private subseriptions and by county bond issues. 2. To secure a state bond issue to buy the finest redwood groves along state highways. 3. To establish through federal aid a National Redwoods Park. 4. To obtain through state and county aid the protection of timber along the scenic highways now in course of construction throughout California. 5. To encourage the state to purchase cut-over redwood areas for reforestation by natural means, or by replanting where repeated fires have made sprout reproduction impossible. The fee for annual membership in the League is two dollars. It is hoped that through the coGéperation of all organizations and individ- to support the plans proposed. “Membership is an expression of desire uals definitely giving their interest to this project the purposes of the movement may be realized while it is still possible to secure those ancient groves which now invite protection.” is chairman of the Executive Committee. Professor John C. Merriam — n Ww cc e) re < Wi W cc Oo = 4 > oO — Zz x cc =) x = a W a5 ke = of the y of size D a Oo O = fas Ww cc oc W 2 a — Ww W W aE kK z ness of the can convey 608 made by the junction of the South Fork and Eel. Then in order northward along the coast, the Redwood Creek forest, the main the Klamath River groves, and, just south of the Oregon boundary, the Smith River groves (see map). The report of the committee makes it evi- dent that all these forests, or a major part of each, should ultimately be made state or national reservations—national parks or for- The Smith River picturesque with old, weirdly shaped trees, est reserves. tracts are and have good camping sites and good fish- The Redwood Creek stand is similarly picturesque and is especially tropical and ing. fantastic in its luxuriant growths of moss and ferns. In both of these areas the trees are larger and older than elsewhere, less adapted for good timber, and more suitable for park purposes. Choice for Immediate Reservation The Survey would direct the first purchase for park purposes either to the Redwood Creek Forest, or to the more southerly Bull Creek and Dyerville stands, connecting with the groves along the South Fork of the Eel River, 20,000 to 25,000 3ull Creek is deseribed as a acres altogether. magnificent stand of about 10,000 acres, belonging in largest part to the Pacific Lumber Company, and the Dyerville forest has about an equal The Dyerville bounded on the lower right bank of the Eel River by acreage. stand is sharply as the battle fields of France,—an urgent demand upon the observer to save what remains from a similar desolation. On the lower left bank of the Eel, however, is one of the best stands land as devastated examined, about 20,000 acres, belonging also to the Pacific Lumber Company and with the new State Highway traversing it,—al- though it also is bounded beyond by devas- tated territory. If the great expense of this 20,000-acre tract precludes its purchase in the reservation of Bull Creek, Dyerville, and the South Fork areas, the Survey recom- mends its addition to these forests at the earliest date possible. The Money for Purchase That all these redwood lands are under the ownership of Jumber companies means that saving them from the ax will be done only so fast as money can be found for their purchase. The survey committee gives seven NATURAL HISTORY suggestions as to ways by which the money may be raised—outside of direct federal ap- propriation. 1. State taxation 2, County taxation Local taxation 4. Public subscription 5. Donations of money 6. Donations of forest redwood area 7, Exchange where possible of state or fed- eral forests for private forests within the desired area lands within the Action of the state of California is cer- tain to rescue one or more of the large tracts. That of Dyerville Flat, for instance, is espe- cially threatened at present by the opera- tions of the Pacific Lumber Company. It cannot be said that the state of Califor- nia has been wholly indifferent to its red- wood forests heretofore. More than twenty years ago $250,000 was appropriated to buy redwood land near Santa Cruz which remains today a state park. On the other hand, the state must be blamed for the unfortunate work of its Highway Commission in failing to get a right of way wide enough to protect the scenic effects along the roadway. In the future the need for the codperation of a landscape engineer will be understood; also, that the right of way should never average less than three hundred yards. The Commis- sion even went so far in certain areas as to buy only a one-hundred-yard strip of land with the proviso that the owners remove the timber! Anyone who has lived even briefly in Cali- fornia can understand the loyalty of Cali- fornians to their homeland—apart from the influence of the great friendliness of its peo- ple and its prominent commercial position. Surely they may well ask if there is any sun- shine like that which falls on California’s valley meadows, and over her warm foothill slopes, and through the mist-draped red- woods against the sky. These things have profound influence even if we are not con- The public sentiment of the been aroused to the scious of it. whole state has now danger threatening its northern forests, and Governor Stephens, the Legislature, and the people may be trusted for the result. Humboldt County Purchases SOO Acres along the State Highway As to county action there is already, since the formation of the Redwoods League, SHQUOIA—THE AULD LANG SYNE-.OF TREES a definite story to be told. It is a story of activity on the part of the citizens of Hum- boldt County, coupled with personal gen- erosity of two members of the League—as well as a spirit of codperation which in- cluded members of the State Highway Com- mission and all the operating lumbermen, A matter of paramount importance was ac- complished in early September when there was stopped all work of lumbermen directly bordering the highway under construction along the South Fork of the Eel River.1 And now the deeds for the holdings are in the hands of the county. This gives immediate protection, for a part of the distance, to the narrow strip of the forest which contributes so much toward the beauty of the roadway— and also to its popularity through protection from sun and blowing dust. County action has thus proved itself, and county and local money are certain to ac- complish much, but cannot be expected to purchase the great tracts. The area occupied by the redwoods includes relatively small communities of people. It cannot be ex- pected that the local population should carry the heaviest burdens of taxation. Sonoma County had previously purchased one small grove of redwoods, the Armstrong Grove; and it is hoped that Mendocino County will buy the Montgomery Grove. This is situated just beyond Ukiah, on the west side of the State Highway, and if saved will, together with the town, form the motor tourist entrance to the northern redwood region. Certain lumbermen among those owning the land have already made gifts to the state and others are certain to do so, but it is scarcely fair that they should be expected to be more generous than the rest of us. It speaks well for these men, who know the forests and their value, that they have al- ready shown themselves willing to coéperate in a manner advantageous to the Government in any transfer of ownership. What the Redwoods League hopes for is not only gifts ‘There have been many printed reports of the notable meeting held at Eureka, September 6. The small lumbermen who were operating along the Highway, cutting grape stakes and shingles, were brought together, and they agreed to suspend cutting for the sum of $60,000 and to give two- year options on their property. The county gave $30,000 toward the amount, Mr. Mather, $15,000, and Mr. William Kent, $15,000. Mr. Kent had previously proved himself interested in the relation of these trees to the public welfare by presenting to the nation the Muir Woods on Mount Tamalpais. 609 of redwoods from the owners in the proposed reservations, but, especially, gifts of red- woods owned, or purchased, in other areas, which can be exchanged for sections in the proposed reservations. Let All the Nation Contribute Puble money donations of whole United States are among the most hopeful methods for saving the redwoods, and the quickest. subscription and over the But every means must be taken to spread a knowledge of the situation or it will not be possible to catch the thought and heart of the people in the complex condition of national and inter- national affairs today. All the people of the nation are concerned in the matter. So unique are the redwood forests and so especially fitted for recrea- tional purposes that they should become pos- sessions of all the people, looked upon with a sense of ownership by every American. As brought out in the report on the League's survey, in connection with the large expendi- ture necessary, “the resultant benefits from the area preserved will be measured in units more valuable than gold or silver—in health, in joy and pleasure from the -recreational opportunities afforded, and in pride that we have saved these trees from the ax and the circular saw and that they belong to us and ” to our children forever.” As to direct federal appropriation, not- withstanding recognition of the need the process will prove a slow one in the present reconstruction period. Unele Sam has usu- ally designated national parks and forest reserves out of some part of the public do- main; redwood conservation, unfortunately, is a case for purchase. Congressman Clar- ence F, Lea, of California, has presented a resolution to the House of Representatives calling for an investigation of the problem with reference to the establishment of a na- tional redwoods park. The following relative to federal action is quoted from a recent letter from Colonel Graves, chief of the United States Bureau of Forestry: “I regard the movement as of very great importance and one which should be backed up by the entire nation. In many ways the redwoods represent the most remarkable for- ests in the world. They may not be quite as large as the giant trees of the Sierras but, growing as they do in dense continuous A MAY DAY IN THE SIERRAS AT 5500 FEET ELEVATION never made inaccessible by heavy snows are oast Range \ C altitudes of the > low 1€ ] ves 1n 1 TC ichel aa > ué Vee i ograph by George Phot THE DRIVEWAY PASSES THROUGH THE B!G TREE WAWONA” oe 7 fect. ght 22 4000 years old, heig 3000 or ly probat “Wawona” ig trees of Mariposa Grove, 611 NATURAL 612 stands, there is impressiveness which to me makes them unique among all the forests that I have ever seen. “This splendid undertaking is going to be possible only through combined action of the Government, the state, and the public at large. As to the contribution of the Federal Government, it is very likely to be delayed and to come as aid to a project in which the state and the citizens of the nation are al- ready liberally contributing.” What will appeal to the country as the thing to do in the necessity of the case is that we, each and all, shall pur- chase these forests as fast as we can, for our own, with money subscribed in small or large amounts; then, that we shall present them to Uncle Sam so that they may remain forever under his protection. This will be a definite recognition of the unitedness of goy- ernment and people in America, and of the interest and generosity Uncle Sam has always accorded the people in the matter of the country’s natural re- sources. [ am including in this article only photographs of the northern redwoods unmolested by lumbering (with the one exception, page 599). The fright- ful destruction continues. It is not to be wondered at that the people of the northern coast area who see it go- ing on about them and realize that their prosperity, their very existence commercially, depends on the mainte- nance of these forests, have awakened to the waste. But the point is, the country is now awakened, after the many hundreds of thousands of acres are gone, and it is still not too late to save the tens of thousands of acres left. There is now, besides, a definite organization in the Save the Redwoods League to repre- sent the people of the country ana to 1See many full page illustrations in Mr. Grant’s article, Zoological Society Bulletin, September, 1919. HTS ROT handle money or gifts of land to the best advantage. I would put emphasis, therefore, not so much on what is lost, as on what can be saved. There are parts of the northwestern highways where for miles the road is narrowed and blocked with piled grape stakes and shingles, and on either hand the ground is covered with a jumble of treetops, branches, slabs, and bark, which should have gone to the manufacture of some by-product. But also there are stretches where the roadway leads from open sunshine and distant views of green, wooded moun- tain slopes into the giant forest and on through colonnades of trees where the air is cool and fragrant and long beams of sunhght slant down through the green of redwood foliage. Nor would I direct the gaze to the miles of desolate country where eyery- thing has been leveled and only charred stumps of giant trees mark the site of the forests destroyed. Instead I would bring to the imagination the acres of forests still uncut and the potential joy for Americans of today and tomorrow in their possession. The war has made the surface of the earth seem smaller and all the lands nearer and the peoples nearer. If France and England and Belgium and Italy seem not far away from America today, how very close to all other parts of the United States is California! To go to the western coast, to tour through these northern forests is no longer the impossible dream for the many. It will be realized by tens of thousands of people in 1920. The redwoods are not only the “glory of the Coast Range” and the pride of Californians, they are the pride and satisfaction of all Americans. Good luck will surely attend us if we save our Sequoia woodlands. ‘ ov i tf eka, Humboldt CATHEDRAL AISLES—!IN HUMBOLDT COUNTY, CALIFORNIA The sunshine penetrates the roof of green f: above and illumines the aisles between the giant pillars, imparting a effect of architectural grandeur Redwood forests ‘e the planet’s vast cathedrals for the spirit of worship of its peopl Somehow American money will dedicate ese f st cathedrals to the American people 14 613 PROYAOAO YOHRM POOJS ‘SSOa) UALOYJLON OY} YALA AeLy purx ‘qoued ‘vsoA o[LyM—sSSa0q oy} YYwoueq woyVM OY} JO punos oy} 07 SurUo}st] doo[s 0} JUOA OM PUR oUTv. 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AHL The Dawn of Art By GEORGE LANGFORD I N age remote when beasthood was in flower, A race of broad-cheeked, big-boned stalwart men— Vanguard of first full- fledge d humanity — Moved westward from the dark mysterious East And settled near the bounds of southern France, Beneath the shadow of the Pyrenees Where caves and rock-walls served them to defy Chill storm-wrath of the glaciers sweeping down From Seandinavia and the Baltic Sea. Bold spirits, these true pioneers of France, Warriors of Cro-Magnon., II TROGLODYTES—cave men of the Old Stone age— To whom the use of metals was unknown, With flint-tipped dart and hafted paleolith They fought the mammoth and rhinoceros And matched their strength with lion, wolf, and beat Naught but the skins of beasts and gloomy dens Shielded their nakedness, while kindled fires Divine bequest, the Staff of Human Life Guarded their thresholds from fierce prowling brutes And furnished means to thwart the glaciers’ chill— Long-headed, high-browed, of five senses keen, With human attributes deeply ingrained, Hunters of Cr6é-Magnon. Ill ALL praise for those to whom meet praise is due, Whose heritage inborn full well compares With the Athenian Greek true ken of art. How small their means and crude! Grayers of flint For etching work, and pigments black or red Laid over incised lines or bas-relief Carved on the walls and ceilings of their caves. The forms of beasts—not those of men—they drew ; None knew just why. Some mystic awe inspired These ancients to portray their mural work Not at the cavern’s mouth but far within The dark cramped depths befouled with slime and ooze, Where none but bats and owls dared penetrate ; Where kneeling, crouching, lying prone to earth Beneath low roofs, betwixt converging sides, With fat-fed lamps of stone to light the way, Laboriously they scribed each masterpiece With flint-point on the mold-stained limestone walls— Artists of Cré-Magnon. 62] Creating a National Art By HER Bet JS 2 Nepean Assistant Curator, Department of Anthropology, American Museum Nationality develops the essentially intellectual bond of common thought. Because of this common thought there is before the people of America the possibility of evolv- ing an art which will represent a new complex of life, based on a philosophy of logi- cal and mechanical efficiency, political equality, and personal service to society. The art to come which fittingly embodies these things will be our national art. This art must be useful in itself and not a senseless load upon the utilities of the age. nor anempty gratification of vanity. Tt must be beauty in cotton as much as in silk, in copper as much as in gold. It will be joyous Romance and heartfelt Ceremony in our homes and in our streets, in our work and in our play, for the seven days of the week. RUE nationality has always ex- pressed itself in art: we judge the nations of the past by the objects of use and beauty which they created. Likewise by our peculiar art shall the nations of the future judge us. But have we been able, up to the present time, to stamp a clear imprint of our collective individuality—or na- tionality—upon the things that we make and the thoughts that we think ? And, if so, are we content to let the record of our achievement stand for all time on the qualities of form and ornament that now enter into our lives? Most persons, thinking of art only as fine art and knowing the works of Eu- ropean nations where collective indi- viduality is seen in literature, music, costumes, architecture, and many other things, will humbly admit that we have failed to produce in America a mass of works that fittingly embodies our na- tional hopes and ideals. But art is more than fine art and therein lies the promise of our future. We have al- ready laid the ground for coming ex- cellence in ways which few consider. The Length and Breadth of Art Art, in its widest meaning, is man’s expression or embodiment of his ideas of use and beauty in different modes and materials. If the emphasis is laid §22 on use, the product is called utilitarian art; if on beauty, it is called esthetic art. But never are use and beauty en- tirely dissociated, for the utmost de- velopment of usefulness depends upon orderly construction, and the finest expression of beauty is necessarily or- There law and order in common speech as well as in poetry: there are qualities of form which please the eye while they administer to me- chanical excellence, in the canoes, cook- ing pots, and automobiles of everyday life as there are, for instance, in marble statues of all but forgotten gods that we now regard as purely esthetic. Of course these marble statues of an- cient gods originally played an im- portant and useful role in the life of the people to whom they are accredited, although to us they are merely beauti- ful. It was an intensely practical thing for the Greeks to bribe and flatter a god into bestowing his divine favor upon an individual or a city by pledg- ing a statue in his honor, as they be- lieved such means effective. And when to this idea of ensuing benefits were added religious awe, pride of place, and good craftsmanship abetted by competition of fellow workers, the marble monument found a _ quality greater by far than the quality of the man who carved it. Such art is not individual—it is communal. ‘The at- ganic. are \ NATURAL HISTORY tention of the Greek sculptor may have been directed toward the human body as an almost exclusive subject for skillful portrayal not because this is necessarily any more beautiful than the bodies of other animals, or plant growths, or shapes of land and _ sea, but because in the communal under- standing the gods had human forms. Other cultural facts doubtless contrib- uted to this specialization but the re- ligious idea was foremost. If the great florescence of Greek culture had come a thousand years earlier, perhaps Hera would have been represented as a cow, like Hathor of the Egyptians, instead of as a stately woman. Under such conditions Greek art would have had a different scope and interest without a necessary decrease in esthetic quali- ties. In a word, every great expression of art has its roots in communal con- cepts, religious or otherwise, and the artist is at his best when he forgets himself and speaks for his people and his times. The frieze of Phidias was ob- secure architectural decoration wrought with sincerity in a place where the gods could see better than the critics. In the history of dead nations from least to greatest there was never art for art’s sake, but always art for life’s sake. The Creative Civilizations History shows comparatively few great civilizations that gave rise to high and original forms of art but it shows many lesser and derived cultures which were able to develop a considerable de- gree of individuality. Even among the great creative civilizations there are nu- merous features taken from earlier or outside sources. The type civilizations, upon the products of which must be based any statement of what a national art can and should be, are as follows: . Chinese us 1. Assyrian 2. Egyptian 3. Greek ). Mayan 6. Peruvian 7. Christian - - 623 In addition to these, mention may be made of the welter of signs and sym- bols strewn over the Far and the Near East by the great religious tides of Buddhism and Mohammedanism. Then there are the numerous special- ized fields of decorative art spread across all the continents and down the centuries. For instance, there is the realism of Paleolithic art in ancient . France and Spain, and its modern counterpart among the Bushmen of Africa. There are the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron age cultures of Eu- rope and the rich remains of pottery from various archeological provinces in America. Lastly, there are the various “culture areas” of the ethnologists among our present day Indians, South Sea Islanders, and African Negroes. The term national art may, perhaps, be used in connection with these great creative civilizations but it must be ad- mitted that linguistic bounds, which many persons hold to be the bounds of a nation, are exceeded in nearly every instance by cultural bounds. Commu- nity of thought is established more easily within a single language than across several languages, yet there are numerous instances where a single cul- ture covers the field of several lan- guages. A good example is that of the Pueblo Indians of the Southwest, the descendants of the ancient cliff dwell- ers, who speak four distinct languages yet have practically identical religious beliefs, art forms, and social organiza- tions. We naturally think of imperial- ism and military conquest in relation to the spread of culture, but some of the most artistic peoples have been sin- gularly devoid of the military spirit. Religious conversions account for the spread of significant and symbolic art in some instances and in other in- stances there simply has been expansion from the area of high culture into ad- joining areas of low culture, a phenom- enon known to anthropologists as ac- culturation. 624 NATURAL Of the type civilizations already listed the Assyrian, Egyptian, Chinese, and Mayan are primary in features such as the invention of writing, and the development of elaborate religious and social systems strongly reflected in ceramics, textiles, and architecture. But, long before the foundation of these civilizations, must have come the inventions of agriculture which were independently achieved in the New and the Old World and which made possi- ble a great increase in population and stimulated the growth of religious and social orders. The had its base the developed art, religion, and philosophy of the earher civilizations in the classic field. It started from a higher level of positive achievement. Greek art is characterized by a cold, chaste realism which speaks to all peo- ples, but it is singularly weak in orna- ment and is practically devoid of the formal creations arising usually from a belief in beast gods, that are so im- portant in the arts of Asia and the New World. After the militant era of Rome the art of Greece passed into eclipse and was succeeded by the warm art of the Christians, which on the ornamental side drew many of its forms from the Bronze age and Iron age products of northern Europe. The Renaissance was a rebirth of classic form but not of classic spirit, although in the minds of many persons the most satisfying productions of the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries are really the full- blown flowers of Christian symbolism. The political units of modern Ku- rope have distinguishable products but none of them has a really great na- tional art. The mere variation in lan- guages creates a feeling of greater dif- ference than actually exists. After all, language affects only a part of the art products of a country, and, at that, nearly all European languages belong to one great family. Greek efflorescence as ATSTORY The Substance of National Art National art means more than an objective “complex” of design motives, or a mass of monumental sculptures formally related to history, or schools of painting with distinguishable teeh- nique. It means permanent and con- tinuous expression of the ideals and emotions that characterize and unite the members of a large social group. Without this spiritual and intellectual content, art is nothing more than an assemblage of shapes and sounds which react harmoniously on sensory organs that are practically the same for all humanity. Many artistic shapes of universal oc- currence have come about for no other reason than that they express absolute esthetics in line and mass, just as vari- scales in music express absolute harmony in sounds. Among such shapes may be mentioned the fret, spi- ral, and swastika. Geometric art can be understood universally for the sim- ple reason that it has no meaning but, instead, a sensuous appeal. Of course sometimes OUs it can be given a meaning: one hears it said that the swastika is a sign of good luck and that the fret meander represents the endless wander- ing of the soul after death. versal shapes came into being in differ- Those uni- ent parts of the world, as has been said, beeause they embody a simple and fun- damentally artistic relation of lines just as the pentatonic scale embodies a fun- damentally artistic relation of sounds. In one region these shapes may have been given the arbitrary meanings stated above, but such meanings are not inherent in the shapes. Realistic art can be understood uni- versally because it is frankly objective. Of South American Indians might not understand a drawing of an elephant or a walrus, and an Eskimo would probably turn the picture of a palm tree upside down before he recog- nized it as the feather duster of the course CREATING missionary. The first graphic art in the world, that of Paleolithic man, was realistic and rather finely so. But real- istic art may have significance quite beyond the objective fact. To France the fleur-de-lis is more than a flower. Conventionalized art, as it is often called, or formalized figures that have elements of realism and elements of geometric order, are more intellectual than either realistic or geometric art. They are not found among the lowest peoples but only among those who have ceremonies, religious beliefs, and so on,. of fairly dey eloped types, and their sig- nificance is relative, or cultural, rather than absolute. They constitute a posi- tive contribution to the mass of human creations. The esthetic quality of art will take care of itself if only there is a proper field and sufficient time for selection and the survival of the fittest. The eye and the ear are mechanical organs that naturally select shapes and sounds with certain physical characters. More- over, many kinds of construction, es- pecially in textile art, compel a fine quality of order in decoration. Besides this, animal and plant forms and even shapes of land and sea have esthetic qualities which are the direct result of the mechanical forces that operate within or upon them, with the result that finely realistic art reflects organic beauty in nature. But before we can have a really na- tional art we must express or embody a mass of national ideas and emotions in things of everyday life. We have solid ground to build upon and blocks for the building. Politically, the de- mocracy that exists in America today is of a type and quality that has never existed elsewhere in the world. The old religion of rewards and punish- ments is giving place to a new religion of social service. Mechanically, we have wonderful new appliances to save labor and turn the energy of the hand into energy of the mind. In other A NATIONAL ART 6: oO t ay words there is before us the possibility of writing into art a new complex of life, based on a philosophy of logical and mechanical efficiency, political equality, and personal gratification at- tainable only through service to society. The art to come that fittingly embodies these things will be our national art even though it spreads beyond our po- litical limits and proselytes the world. Out of Efficiency Comes Beauty Out of efficiency comes beauty, that is the law not only of human art but also of that greater art seen in the re- finement of all natural forms. Sur- vival in the struggle for life among plants and animals is made possible by the proper correlation of many fune- tions in the body of an organism which is, in effect, a complicated, self-operat- ing machine. When the mechanism is perfect, the lines are good. An esthetic interest resides in shapes modeled for use, The proof of the mechanistic basis of esthetics is manifold. In this connec- tion it is interesting to read a passage from the ancient writings of Plato in which Socrates instructs Protarchus concerning the place of knowledge in the handcraft arts. After saying that little will be left if arithmetic, men- suration, and weighing be taken away from any of these arts, he continues : Socrates. The rest will be only conjee- ture, and the better use of the senses, which is given by experience and exercise, in addi- tion to a certain power of guessing, which is commonly called art and is prove to per- fection by pains and practice. ProTarcHus. That is very certain. Socrates. Music, for instance, is full of this sort of thing as is seen in the har- monizing of sounds, not by rule, but by con- jecture; and this is always the case of flute music, which tries to discover the pitch of notes by a guess, and therefore has a great deal that is uncertain and very little of pure science. After two thousand years these statements come pretty close to the 626 NATURAL truth. But by “the better use of the senses” draftsmen discovered the facts of perspective drawing centuries before demonstration and proof of vanishing points and horizons were made by an English mathematician. Similarly the harmonies of sound were written down in scale music long before Helmholtz and others elaborated the facts that vibrations carry sound, and_ that harmony is due to mathematical cor- respondences between the numbers of vibrations in a given period of time. Some day, science, after gaining a proper understanding of the human eye as a super-delicate keyboard of rods and cones for the testing and selecting of shapes, tones, and colors, will be able to demonstrate exact rules of visual esthetics. In the long history of human art these rules are illustrated by the independent invention of the shapes and color combinations in dif- ferent parts of the world. A> close parallel may be drawn be- tween the life history of the art of a social group of human beings and the life history of plant and animal fami- Both are organic and have a long period of development and a_ shorter period of florescence. In the case of human art the cycle is completed in a few centuries while in plant and animal life it may take geological epochs. Conservative and radical forces operate throughout nature as they do in hu- man art. If we take a given form em- bodying use, which may be a tool, a magical design, a plant, or an animal species, we find it modified, first by a continual refinement leading to a type form that meets the general conditions and requirements of life, second by a continual selection of special forms that meet special conditions. A canoe, for example, is refined until it reaches a shape that moves most readily through the water. Such a shape can- not avoid having an esthetic interest because it is orderly. But while such refinement leads to a type form, it is same lies. HISTORY found that the canoe men have also been introducing changes in shape for sea-going canoes as contrasted with those for river navigation. Usually there is a new factor of mechanical ad- vantage entering into the question. Differentiation in plants and animals is usually along lines of new mechanical advantage. But specialization, while it strength- ens in a special field, weakens in the general field of activity. Thus Palzo- lithic man had at first a stone tool that came to have pretty definite shape and which he used to chop, cut, and drill with. Later special shapes were de- veloped for these special uses but general efficiency was lost in the pro- In other words it was more dif- ficult to chop or cut with the drill form than it was with the original undiffer- entiated tool of all work. In any case esthetic qualities come into a form which is developed by and for use. There is a point of fine balance and after that the quality of esthet- ics In an object becomes a growing danger. Biologists recognize as “end products” many highly — specialized plants and animals which have de- veloped esthetic characters along with their adaptations to narrow conditions. Such esthetic characters are irides- cence and similar bright color effects, and other fantastic cences, and extreme convolution or at- tenuation of the body. Among plants the orchid family shows many example: of extreme specialization in life asso- ciated with strange shapes and colors, and among animals, the many-cham- bered nautilus is analogous. ‘These are about to die, as the sea lilies, trilobites, ammonites, brachiopods, and giant liz- ards have already died through over- specialization, leaving only a few of the more sturdy members to represent the family. The life story of human art on the esthetic side is from strong simple forms associated with use to comph- cess. spines, eXxcres- ‘ cated and flamboyant forms in which the usefulness is largely suppressed. Then comes the end. There is flamboy- ant Greek art, flamboyant Gothic art, flamboyant Mayan art, all showing the same tendencies that parallel the end products of natural history. Out of efficiency comes beauty, and out of beauty comes death. The Art of a Mechanical Age It has never fallen to the lot of any nation to give to the world so many new ideas in processes, machines, and constructions as we of the United States have given in the brief span of our history. Invention has been riot among us ever since the English officer observed that the children on Boston Common breathed in freedom from the very air. Our faculty of doing new ‘things unthought of before, or of doing old things in new ways, is essentially a social phenomenon coming out of the release from traditional restraints. The citizens of the United States of America have shown a collective quality of mind as regards mechanics, which does not owe its origin to any particular line of blood or training. That some- thing “from the very air” infected John Ericsson no less than Robert Ful- ton, and it continues to infect the heterogeneous sons of a hundred Old World nations who come to our shores to build new homes in the sunlight of a new philosophy. The decoration that goes into the lives of people in this mechanical age must be largely produced by ma- chinery ; but it must be given spiritual and intellectual content. We may wink at Homer and take our designs where we will, but we must fill these designs with the spirit of our own times. There is work for great artists, and those who regret they could not learn their trade at the feet of Phidias or Michelangelo need not apply. There are still many persons in America who judge art by three tests CREATING A NATIONAL ART 627 when only one is necessary. For them, a thing to be artistic must be rare and costly as well as beautiful. As a re- sult of this curious kink in apprecia- tion the industrial art of a previous epoch is to these people fine art while that of today is not. An invidious dis- tinction has been fostered in the public mind that objects of art, passing into quantity production, necessarily lose fineness and spirituality and take on a smell of machinery. It is true that to have fine art you must have the scrutinizing care of fine workmen over their product. But there have always been machines and each .age has used the best it could devise. The sculptors of today model in imper- manent materials and then turn the making of the permanent copy over to an artisan operating a power-driven chisel or to a bronze founder who knows the technique of casting metals. There are class distinctions among artists which have come down from the days when princes were patrons and which hardly belong in a democracy. A portrait painter is put on a higher artistic plane (quite aside from the merits of his work) than a maker of costumes who may administer to the same personality for a comparable reward. One kind of art is condemned as regards the higher values of ap- preciation by being called commercial and the other vaunted as noncommer- cial. The distinction is no longer a real one. As to the relations between emotional expression and money, every- one has heard divergent sentiments like the following: ‘No real work of art was ever made for money.” ‘Poor man, his finest efforts were potboilers.” There is a great deal of false senti- ment concerning artists. They are nothing more than specialized workers, like physicians, lawyers, and scientists, and they earn a precarious or magnifi- cent livelihood by a display of individ- ual ability. But there is also splendid romance amid the whir of wheels, or 625 where the cantilevers reach out to join hands across the river. ‘There are men in all walks of hfe who have faith to follow airy voices and logic to prove the impossible easily possible. There are master workmen in mills and fac- tories who, while they recognize the master workmanship of a distant past, see in it only a spur toward greater achievements in the future. Has decorative art a practical value in commercial products? In the naive minds of savages designs are often re- garded as magical devices to bring good and ward off evil, and as con- tinuous prayers to the gods. I lke to think that decorative art is still magi- cal and able to fill dark places with sunshine. But the business man often wants practical value counted out on the table. Suecessful decoration adds distinction to any product. American textile houses during the last four years have learned how to add good decoration to good construction. As a result American silks have sold in Paris, and selling silks in Paris is like selling coal in Newcastle. With such a guarantee of artistic quality, should we not sell to the most discriminating buyers both at home and abroad? Ar- tistic quality in the goods of commerce means a higher proportional value of mind and a lesser value of material in the manufactured article. Where the raw materials have to be imported as in the case of silks, fine pottery, and the like, it behooves the manufacturer to enlarge the proportional value of workmanship in the completed product. Art education in America has until recently been in appreciation rather than in production. The most success- ful artists in textiles and costumes have come out of commercial work- shops rather than art schools. But the schools are better capable of inculeat- ing a sound and fundamental philos- ophy of art than are the workshops. The youth of America should be taught that only the good is beautiful and NATURAL HISTORY that only normal and organic orna- Let the slogan Beauty is as beauty does.” ment deserves praise. be ee Symbols and Loyalties Because man is a herding animal he cannot avoid community — loyalties. There are the family, the tribe, the nation, each based upon a larger and larger idea of codperation. There are also other human associations that fall outside the three already mentioned and that compete with them for a share of loyalty and support. For instance, secret societies and lodges are found among both primitive and_ civilized peoples; there are ceremonial organiza- tions of warriors, hunters, and medi- cine men; there are masons’ and drap- ers’ guilds, granges, trade unions, clubs, and political parties. But as a supreme human group the nation goes far beyond the primitive bond of blood or the selfish bond of common yoeation and develops the essentially intel- lectual bond of common thought. For a civilized people the first of all group loyalties should be loyalty to the nation, and this becomes stronger as symbols are invented to express it. The flag is preéminently a svmbol of nationality, and other symbols are pub- lic buildings and utilities such as high- ways and wide-arching bridges, which give a sense of common ownership stretching beyond narrow acres. And there are many other subtle or direct symbols that unexpectedly yoice widely felt but inarticulate desires. National art brings about social amalgamation whether the means of expression be slogans and rallying songs, monuments, parades, uniforms that put rich and poor in the same rank, or simple ob- jects of use and beauty, such as cos- tumes, flower jars and fountain pens, that build up an understanding of life which is good, true, and of our own times. With common thoughts as warp and weft a strong fabric may be woven which shall become truly beautiful as X CREATING A NATIONAL ART it is embroidered with deeper and deeper emotions. And loyalties that are developed through art, what part may they take in the political life of a people? It is strangely true that loyalty thrives on the very duties and sacrifices that its existence makes practicable. If an organization, great or small, does not demand service of its members it can hardly continue to exist. The success of revolutionary movements in art, politics, or religion is measured by the degree in which the individual is made to feel his submersion in the group. Always there must be symbols, like the carved fishes in the catacombs, to lighten the hours of trial and torment and to record permanently the hours of joy and triumph. The nation is best equipped to exert its full power for progress and production when it can oppose the forces that would under- mine its hold on individual members, by loyalty that is personal, concrete, and pictured in every mind. We hear much of internationalism. Perhaps this means sympathy and a sense of justice among nations and a modus operandi of securing these things. Nationalism divides mankind geographically and develops vertical loyalties that unite different classes of society into an organic whole capable 629 of diversified production. ‘There is, of course, always the danger of conflict between two nations just as there is be- tween two individuals. But if interna- tionalism means a horizontal division of mankind on the basis of class, with the threat of conflict above or below, it can offer no advantage to the world. History indicates that the nation is the largest association of human be- ings capable of having and adequately expressing communal ideas of use and beauty. It may expand far beyond the limits of blood and speech and may, perhaps, even encompass the world. Let there be friendliness between polit- ical units by all means but let there also be refreshing contrasts in thought. A truly national art will express and extend the joys and satisfactions of the people as a whole; it will awaken a consciousness of universal sympathy, and put new purpose and beauty into many lives. The esthetic art will be organic and useful in itself and not a senseless load upon the utilities of the age, nor an empty gratification of vanity, nor a mere sensuous tickling of nerve ends. It will be beauty in cotton as much as in silk, in copper as much as in gold. It will be joyous Romance and heartfelt Ceremony in our homes and in our streets, in our work and in our play for the seven days of the week. POSTSCRIPT SINCE the preceding article was written the first general American exhibition of textiles and costumes, illustrating the splendid ad- vances in industrial decorative art during the last six years, has been held in the halls of the American Museum of Natural History. The exhibition developed the value of first principles in construction and decoration even where commercial and women’s Historical vogue in fabrics clothes is concerned. sources were shown for the machine, for the design, and for the costume. The great roaring machines of today are but the logical extension of mechanical parts and principles known of old, weaving in some form or other is as old as human so- ciety, and there has always been personal adornment forming a basis of the costumer’s art. shuttles and myriad harness strings, bewilder with a multiplicity of detail. The Jacquard looms, with their busy Yet the essen- tial features can nearly all be seen in simple All the types of weaving, as well as many methods machines used by Philippine tribes. of decoration, such as cylinder printing, block printing, warp tie-dyeing, batik, em- broidery, appliqué, and stenciling, are found The among the lesser and earlier nations. 63 NATURAL HISTORY modern designer and artist cannot afford to neglect fields in which the fittest and finest have been determined by centuries of selec- tion. The special contributions of our age are new sources of power to replace the muscles of man, new possibilities of collection and distribution that bring us materials from afar and that send our made products across the limits which divide nations, and, lastly, new horizons of suggestions and inspiration for our ideas that are practicable and profit- able. In five or six years America has come a long way toward developing an adequate ex- pression of her artistic individuality. But this progress has been in the shops rather than in the schools. It has come from a use of facts, not theories, and from an objective study of the relations between form and or- nament, between the technical process and the design. The examples of applied art in the various museum collections have aided in this forward movement. Behind all progress, however, there are hu- man personalities. Always there are some men and women who see with an inner eye the things that may be and then with in- genuity and courage make them the things that are. It is not only to the new artists who have found success that praise should go for the recent advances of American indus- trial art and for the bright hopes of the future. Likewise a tribute should be given to certain definite 1D), Gh Crawford, who established contacts between individuals: M. science and the trade and who wrote, talked, and clarified till the last doubt died; E. W. Fairchild, who put money and enthusi- asm into a program of publicity when the skies were unpropitious; David Aaron, Al- bert Blum, Charles Cheney, Irving E. Han- son, Max Meyer, and Jessie Franklyn Turner, who from the first have joined their faith with ours and whose artistic skill and per- ception have stamped qualities of distine- tion on new products. The problem now broadens to one of gen- eral education-in the public and private schools of America. For the schools will be called upon to supply the industries with craftsmen whose minds and hands have been prepared for efficient service in the present The explorers and the pioneers have They have world. blazed a trail and marked a road. come with an earnest of accomplishment in their hands and an offer of experience and tested success that those who come after may build safely and grandly. The principal exhibitors who codperated with the American Museum of Natu- ral History in the exhibition of Industrial Arts in Textiles and Costumes were as follows: Davip Aaron & Co., INC., embroideries AMERICAN BEAD Co., INC., dress accessories A. BELLER & Co., cloaks and suits EMILE BERNET, tapestry yarns BuLancK & Co., embroideries SIDNEY BLUMENTHAL & Co., INC., velvets Bonwit TELLER & Co., tea gowns and negligees CHENEY BROTHERS, silks Harry COLLINS, costumes B. C. FAULKNER, blouses MARSHALL FIELD & Co., INC., cretonnes A. H. FLANDERS & Co., blouses FUNSTEN Bros. & Co., sealskins JOHNSON, COWDIN & Co., INC., ribbon weaving Orro Kaun, INc., fur garments KEVORKIAN GALLERIES, oriental art H. R. Mauuinson & Co., INc., silks J. A. MiGEL, INc., Jacquard loom Marian Powys, laces RutH REEVES, batiks MartTHa RyTHER, batiks BarBara SrmMonps, hand prints HazeL BuRNHAM SLAUGHTER, batiks Mary TANNAHILL, batiks J. WISE Co., INC., costumes Womens Wear, costume books The Museum gratefully acknowledges the assistance of many of these exhibitors toward the cost of the following photographic insert covering the exhibition. SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS FROM THE FIRST EXHIBITION OF AMERICAN TEXTILES, COSTUMES, AND MECHANICAL PROCESSES HELD AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NOVEMBER 12 TO DECEMBER 1], 11! LEGENDS BY HERBERT J. SPINDEN YOUNG AMERICA IN THE RAIMENT OF OLD PERSIA In former times each nation had its few special styles in dress and there were slow processes of refinement that operated upon these styles. Now dress is cosmopolitan, but cosmopo'itan with an almost personal variation in detail. ‘There are fundamental types that return in the vogue from time to time. and these go back to the old national styles. The wraiths of the past come and go like shadows—or shall we say silhoucttes ? Kevorkian Galleries Proposed Museum Connected with the American MERICA has reason to be vastly proud of her recent progress in expressing beauty through the things of everyday use. The Exhibition of Industrial Art in Textiles and Costumes, covered in part by the series of photographs that accompanies this brief state- ment, disclosed new forces in Amer- ican life. It disclosed a will of the people to work and think together, an ideal of individual satisfaction in the common good, a conception of the nation as the exponent of a philosophy of justice, industry, and well-being, and a recognition of the place of beauty and good craftsman- ship in the things that men and women spend their lives to create. Such emotional forces, engrossing society, are the surest protection against the doctrines of individual or class selfishness. When the na- tional consciousness shall be duly expressed through all the little things that touch life, through gar- ments and dishes and house furnish- ings, the great things will assume a new significance. And in bringing about such a realization what would be more effective than a great Mu- seum of the Passing Today, which would stage kaleidoscopic exposi- tions of those emotional qualities that glorify labor and serve as an educational clearing house of objec- tive teaching in what is good? A museum of commercial arts would, in effect, be a museum of the ethnology of today. It would be en- tirely justifiable from every scien- tific standpoint and would receive public support because of its direct relation to life in its broader aspects and to the special problems of arts and industries. Such a museum need not be involved directly in the A Bokhara Reproduction.— Bonwit Teller d& Co. of Commercial Arts Museum of Natural History competitive activities of commerce. It can reserve for itself a position above criticism as an umpire of the best in construction and decoration and as a teacher of facts and funda- mentals. The great arts into which decora- tion enters, or into which it may enter, involve tremendous values in men and money. Mention need only be made of textiles, costumes, pot- tery, jewelry, and house furnishings. All of these have their foundations set deeply in the arts and crafts of the lesser and earlier nations. It would not be proper to show such arts except in historical perspective and the American Museum of Nat- ural History with its great collec- tions from all times and all parts of the world is best able to furnish such a perspective. Moreover, this public institution has a record of solid achievement in its relation, first to industry, and second to edu- cation. Let us imagine a large section of the American Museum of Natural History given over to the needs and uses of commerce. First there would be halls so arranged that the modern materials could be placed on temporary exhibition without risk or deterioration. Second, there would be more permanent educa- tional collections covering the world range of definite processes. Third, there would be ample provision for classes in design coming from pub- lic or private schools and for profes- sional designers coming from manu- facturing establishments. Fourth, there would be scientific laboratories where special problems relating to fibers, dyes, pottery clays, cabinet woods, and so on, could be studied by experts. shana SD er Bit is 5 3 After the Coptic.—Bonwit Teller & Co. 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By ey sok. atts ubie Baap Dipetecse? | A LE9 spuowlgy DLDQ.Dg ysud 94} WOIy 8}da00¥ OYS AOARJYYM OFJUL JJestey SI 4VYy} Suryjouos ynd 0} uve, ysnu eys ynq—sose oq} [[% JO Toy OY} SI BoIIEMIY AJNveq JO SSUIQ} U] ‘OSN P[IOM MON JO So[dIJ1B 104j}O puv SJeq PUL UO suUdISep julid 0} pasn o10Y OLB BIPUT YSI}IIg WOIy SyxOO[q poomyAvay, SH00148 OILVISV WOYS SLNIYd NVOIYAWV sun, the “RTE Og (aa yk mem aggre under new ay . 41% A and Peru = uu = aa = Se) ca LL a uJ os 2 c a i¢p) uw Zz zZ fe) ke WwW c O a Zz < yD cc Ww a Z = > O cc WW a a fe) O SINGLE AND CUMULATIVE PRINTS FROM CYLINDERS These cylinders must be ground down to exactly the same diameter and in the machine In roller printing of textiles there must be a separate cylinder for each color. the registration must be perfect Tne. Marshall Field & Co., OF9 LOUYNDT "OT UWISTOQMAS IAIIUIIId YIM BdUePIODIB UI AIOJSIY S,P[IOM OY} UL SJUIAS 0} UOTWBIODOP OY} UI S}UEMIO[e 94} PUB S10[09 94} B2¥[91 0) OpeM ueeq BBY qoye UY ‘“A}IOT[duIs JO }UIOd oy} 04 pouyea Udeq OABY VY} SUZISOp UO PUL s10]/09 SNOIUOMALY UO PI] SI SISBydua Aupo, yO sosnolq rB[udod oy} uy NOILONYLSNOO NVOIYAWVY NYSAGOW 4O S3aSN0198 1F9 ‘our ‘bu VL ST00] ulepoul UO UaeS 4VY} OXI] Ar9A A]ppoy B Aq IO ‘PAOMS UOPOOM B So[qmoasar yuyy ,,‘UT 10}v0q,, B AQ YAY OPVUl St SULAvVIM OY} PUB PRA} 4a aI) YIM poddvam yous @ Sl 91jnYs eYT, ‘pooupoad st usisep poyeoyduod vB ‘sproryy divM JoMO[ pu szoddn oY} UoeMJoq poultOy GdRdS OY} UL YJAOJ PUB YouG possud st ayyNYs 94} puL ‘Jep10 opUyOp ul dN pozjl] CAB Sosve, ESOT} UOT PUB ‘poT[BO O1B divM OY} AOJ SAuIIjS SsourBY OY} SU ‘sosvO, JO SJos AURUI SRY Soss9UOYI] O89} OJVAISNI[E 09 uasoyo ejduvxe oulddIiyg Ouy, "9SBOl Avy EY} WOAy SUIOO] UL UODS dA ‘SpAnd peyvAOJ.od oY} JO UOIYdedxe OY} YIM ‘MIOO] pavNbove oy} JO SadIAep [VIyUeSSA el} JAA ‘sqund jo AQWYdy[ NUL puB UOTJOM ZULIOp[IMed JO 9UO SBM Yooyo OY, ‘OISNU seILIvd poder BlOUTId B 8B UFISep ay} AurAaivd tysal papaan.ay Spano paynaojted yo ulna, Juol @ pure [ay puw osor SAS Suruys puis v ‘yyLOJ PuB YoRq UMOrY, 919M sSolyQNYS OY} UOIsIOaId [ROLUBYoaT Bl WILAY ‘UdIRAyeY JO JojUVD BV BUM “OUT ‘es "y ‘ff Aq pojyetedo pus UOIIGIYX® yuddat OF 4B palpRysul ‘H[IS pwRoq sAOJ (4J9, OY JB) Moo] pannbore y HdALOLOYd ANIddIIIHd V GN¥Y WOOT GuYVvNdDOVES Vv hae dete i A SHUTTLES CAUGHT IN FLIGHT The mystery of rapidly moving shuttles, spilling their spider’s thread of color, was solved for this child and for many adults no less interested. In the ribbon being woven on the loom installed by Johnson, Cowdin & Co., the warp threads are black and the design is brought out through the use of four shuttles each with a thread of a different color. The lowermost shuttle is seen in the act of passing between the lifted warp threads and those that have not been lifted. In the Jacquard attachment, which makes possible the weaving of exceedingly complicated designs, there must be a separate, perforated card for every weft thread that crosses the ribbon until the repeat in the pattern is reached. In the case of the ribbon being woven here there were 1200 cards. When the card reaches a certain place it is presscd against a surface of projecting pins. All the pins are pushed back except those that are in position to enter one of the holes in the card. In this way a mechanism is released that determines which warp threads are to be lifted so that the colored weft threads will appear upon the surface to form the pattern. The narrow loom is used among many primitive nations in the weaving of belts and hair bands, which were the first ribbons. In America ribbons with beautiful patterns are fo:nd among various Indian tribes in New Mexico, Arizona, northern Mexico, Guatemala, and Ecuador Johnson, Cowdin & Co., Ine. ‘et ott wae" oi, = Nae TTT, THE GUATEMALAN HUIPIL AS A COSTUME TYPE where the Indian women wear gaily em- sacklike blo ss bat the designs are striking and the colors bril- Three days south from New Orleans lies Gua*emal: broidered huipiles. These are simple, liant. J Woe Co., Ine 643 MOSAICS IN FUR MADE BY THE KORYAK TRIBE OF NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA The Siberian tribes that are dependent upon the reindeer are the world’s most skilful work- ers in fur. Their long coats are provided with a hood and with a high neck piece or collar that ties up under the chin when the hood is raised or is made to lie down flat over the breast when the hood is thrown back. The decoration on these garments is often a patchwork or mosaic of fur in contrasting colors. In the garment shown here it is estimated that there are nearly twenty thousand separate pieces carefully cut and sewed together American Museum of Natural History 644 A COAT FROM SIBERIA AND A WRAP MODELED AFTER IT The natives of Siberia are wonderful makers of fur garments In the specimen shown at the right the material is reindeer skin with the fur turned in and the decoration consists lar ly of medallions of blue and white beads. The essential features of this Siberian coat are followed in the exquisite wrap of the left blue velvet trimmed with fur, reproduced at A. Beller & Co. 645 resident pouches dis- Tne has led to the soldiers the and paid many Bead Co., necklaces dress price American the woman’s the fact that the purchase lovely were to lies in in Ow ly accessories ESS ACCESSORIES 4 d beadwork ar ~ 3 ade I n i le occupation rured be fi rritory. of ass beads Eaue The vogue interest A special | found in it pleasant and profital go 5 of cc ja) Ss op) a) ) uw n =) surrounding and few handful; designs. MODERN a Island by, Manhattan which the Indians made from these beads. aboriginal have gone war years the In for numerous in Indians of abled 346 use 6 A SUGGESTION FROM SIBERIA It is a far cry from prepared fishskin to Fan-Ta-Si silk yet a wonderful fishskin garment from the Amur River in Siberia, decorated by the stencil and appliqué methods, gave form and character to this lovely gown J. Wise Co., Ine 647 alue. that 8 educational vy construction Cheney Brother of great EE YF lies, ape e* Mer has rfection that pe and the design of antholos of color ancy an select All the brilli we may velvets and brocades. ny 2 q A q w = | | bt ° ao) vo =) H 2 ov nH = v - 2 Lo w =) ov ~ nN 4 “4 Ge EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL REPRODUCTION tenaissance of Italy work of ee her and-loom is this true the From the products of the I Particularly wd } wad aA ae te ee er errr ae” shsas BEAL. A MODERN AMERICAN BATIK Batik is a wax paint process making possible etl was used on ancient American pottery as well as on ration on this graceful gown is in the spirit of South Mary Tannahill 649 - s é i z ES fp: 2 A STORY OF ADAPTATION OF DESIGN THROUGH BLOCK PRINTING Above we see a detail of an ancient Peruvian mantle with embroidered figures in soft but brilliant colers and below a commercial use of this design. In the central strip are some of the blocks used in the printing H. R. Mallinson ¢ Oo., Inc. A WOMAN'S DRESS OF THE PLAINS INDIANS The The lines of con- of value to modern Harry Collins 651 The Indian women of the Great Plains wore graceful dresses made from two deerskins. decoration by beadwork and fringes grew naturally out of the construction. struction and decoration of garments as simple as this one contain suggestions dressmakers sat i P ns 23 ae | A COMMUNITY OF INTEREST BETWEEN NEW YORK AND THE PHILIPPINES The Bagobo tribe of the Philippines make hempen jackets which they decorate with beads. A @is- tinguished example showing how suggestions in primitive garments can be applied in the dress of today is seen in this graceful suit of brown cloth with decoration in brown beads. Note how the shape of the Bagobo jacket has been copied, as well as the little pockets, the strings in front that take the place of buttons, and the design that follows the edges and runs down the sleeves A. Beller & Oo, CHILDREN’S DRESSES A distinct field for development is to be found in the hes of children Le ve se ° girls wearing adapt: unusual grown-ups, at lea rta f its phase land or sea, but which appear in primitiy » chords and scale tions of Guatemalan and Philippine models. The colors are p* The romance of de is one that children can understand Children live in a state of make-believe Birds and beasts whicl designs and perform in primitive m ths, appeal stror ontl Geometl of abstract beaut realistic art pictures the things that I 1, d, v formal or art, growing, it does, out of strange religions and philosophies, res ilt fol that have xistene cept in the min of man Ine 654 AMERICAN TEXTILE AND COSTUME EXHIBITION A BLOCK-PRINTED CURTAIN FROM INDIA ; Block printing and hand painting as means of decorating large surfaces in pictographic manner are finely developed in India. In the example we see a medley of more or less realistic details drawn out of all proportion to one another but with fine decorative effect M. D.C. Crawford bs } An “Old Tramp” Among the By CHARLES N days gone by the only way in which a naturalist could visit the Florida Keys was by boat, but since the completion of the extension of the Florida East Coast Railway he can get off the train at Jewfish on Cross Key, tramp to Largo, Long and Windlys islands, Upper and Lower Matacumbe keys, Long, Grassy, Crawl and Vaccas keys, Bahia Honda, Big Pine, Torch, Ramrod, Cudjoe, Sugarloaf and a number of other islands of lesser im- portance, until he finally reaches Key West. By following the track of the railroad he will visit most of the prin- cipal islands of this interesting chain and will cross many miles of the won- derful causeway built across the sea. The stupendous arches carry a single- track railroad and are too narrow for a train and foot passenger to pass, but the company has built wooden cages hung out over the water at regular in- tervals along the viaduct, and the tramp can always reach one of these before the train passes. I have been familiar with the Florida Keys since 1882, having resided in Lower Florida the greater part of the time since that date and from time to time I have made collecting and ex- ploring trips among them. Now, al- though more than threescore and ten, I cannot resist the’ temptation to visit them occasionally in order that I may study their natural history and the geographical distribution of their life. Such a trip I undertook the latter part of October, 1919, running from my home near Miami to Big Pine Key by rail and making that island my head- quarters while I visited the keys near by in a small boat. My outfit consisted tcocotllyu = Florida Keys T SiMe SON of two Suits of khaki—ineluding the one I wore, an old, narrow-brimmed slouch wool hat, the best thing for getting through the thick scrub, socks, a high pair of strong canvas shoes, a coat, toothbrush, and some small sacks for holding snails. Instead of a grip, which is an awkward thing to carry through thick, tangled growth, I put my things into a large sack which I hung over my shoulder. A blanket, mosquito netting, and two-quart water can completed my stock. Fresh water can be obtained on the keys only at the cisterns of the na- tives or at the railroad tanks. Meager as this outfit was, it became a heavy burden when one tramped long dis- tances on the railroad or through the scrub on a hot day. The objects of my trip were to study the distribution of the tropical vegeta- tion, make a list of the butterflies seen, and collect specimens of the large and beautiful arboreal snails belonging to the genera Oxvystyla and Liguus. The snails were once abundant in the ham- mock growth of nearly all the keys but of late years are becoming scarce or are in some cases exterminated. The shells of all are highly polished; those of the genus Oxrystyla are colored with various shades of brown; the Liguus are white, yellow, green, brown, black, orange and scarlet, while a few are tinted with violet or blue. All of our Liguus specimens have been derived from Cuba, having crossed the Florida Strait on floating timber, and are among the most wonderfully painted of any snails on earth. I wanted to observe the ef- fects of the hurricane of early Septem- ber, the one which wrecked Corpus Christi, Texas, and which had _ been Collaborator, United States Department of Agriculture, author of works on mollusks, especially of the West Indies and Florida, and recently of a book on the Florida Keys, their geology, and the geographical distribution of their fauna and flora, entitled In Lower Florida Wilds, published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 657 658 among the most destructive of any recorded in Lower Florida; there were also two or three points in the geology of the keys which I wished to study. The geology of Lower Florida, in- cluding the keys, is simple but inter- esting. During middle Pleistocene time, perhaps, a subsidence of the Flo- ridian area occurred and all that part of the state south of the Caloosahatchee River was carried beneath the sea. A great bed of limestone was formed along what is now the southwest coast ; another, an oolitic, in the Key West re- gion, is the Key West limestone. A somewhat similar formation was laid down along the southeast coast of the mainland which bears the name of the Miami limestone. i TL e Hil aerate te HILT HrHEL UPL x 3 | 22! | | 64 HTT CEE HT PEPEEEEE EEE EEE S DATTA CTar in ees TGF AT Th =) SADA Totes Bt = 29) | | 61 34 Md [| XH LELL I Citta | SS 9 SS Y 17 72 100 | 100 =| Weel Distribution of stature in four groups having line represents one man and is placed opposite the a different average stature—Each short vertical number on the scale (column I) representing his stature. In column II are 100 Andamanese Negritos whose average stature is 149.3 centimeters. Ninety-six of these are short, 4 are medium, and none is tall. Of the 100 Bushmen in column III, 68 are short, 29 are medium, and 3 are tall. In ¢ age stature of 165.3 centimeters, 17 are short, 6 olumn IV, 100 Italians from Sicily have an aver- 1 are medium, and 22 are tall. The Scotch in column V present the other extreme. The average stature is 172.1 centimeters and 64 are to be regarded as tall, while 34 are medium, and only 2 are short 3 THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN ests. The distribution of the Oceanic Ne- gritos is more definitely known. The “Min- copies,” so called, inhabit the Andaman Islands. They are of particular interest because of their long isolation on these is- lands. Another group of Negritos known as the Semang are found in the interior of the Malay Peninsula. Still a third group known as the Aeta are found sporadically in the Philippine Archipelago. More specifically they are found in the Apayao swamp region, in the Ilocos Mountains, in the Zambales Mountains, in the East Luzon Mountains, in the South Luzon Mountains, in the island of Palawan, and in Mindanao. Very re- cently Pygmy Negroid tribes have been dis- covered in the interior of British and Dutch New Guinea. Finally, the South African Bushmen constitute a third group. They oceur sporadically in South Africa, par- ticularly in the region of the Kalahari Desert. But the Negro race is not unique in the production of Pygmy types. The Mongo- loid race includes many groups of very short stature and the Australoid race contains true Pygmies. The Veddah of the island of Cey- lon, south of India, the Sakai and Senoi of the Malay Peninsula, and the Toala of Cele- bes Island are all very short. They belong to the Australoid or pre-Dravidian race. The Indonesians of Mongoloid affinities, while perhaps not true Pygmies, are of very short stature. As representatives of this type we may mention the Bontok, Nabaloi, Kanka- nay, and Ifugao of the Philippines, the Murut, Kalabit, Kayan, Maloh, etc., of the interior of the island of Borneo, the Teng- gerese of Java, the Batak! and Kubu of Sumatra, and possibly some of the mixed tribes of the Malay Peninsula. The Lapps of Norway, Sweden, and Russia form still another group of Mongoloid affinities, but quite different from the Indonesians. The distribution of these groups is indicated ap- proximately on the outline map of page 690. This list includes all of the dwarfed types of living man. It is necésSary to mention, however, that prehistoric dwarfs or Pygmies are reported from Peru, South America, and the Neolithic strata of Switzerland. In both instances the reports are based on a very few speci- ‘The name Batak is used indiscriminately for Philippine Negritos and Sumatran Indonesians, al- though there is no linguistic or physical relation- ship between the two groups. 689 mens. Best known are three skeletons from Schweizerbild, Switzerland. All three are females and it is estimated that they be- longed to individuals 140.8, 145.5, and 151.2 centimeters in height. The male stature corresponding to these would be approxi- mately 151.0, 156.1, and 162.2 centimeters, From the same place we have a male skeleton belonging to an individ- ual approximately 165.6 centimeters tall. Schwerz gives as the average stature of 11 female skeletons the Neolithic of Switzerland, 149.7 centimeters, and of 7 males, 161.6 centimeters. respectively. from It would seem from this that the Neolithic Swiss are not to be classed with the Negroid or Australoid Pygmies in the matter of stature and we shall not consider them further. There are two points of particular in- terest in the distribution of the Pygmies. The first is their discontinuous distribution, oceurring as they do only sporadically over widely separated areas. The second is the fact that wherever they are found today they are occupying the least desirable por- tions of the country. In the Philippines they are confined principally to the moun- tains and swamps; in Central Africa they are found in the forests; in South Africa they inhabit the desert regions; and els2- where in the Malay Peninsula and New Guinea they are inland and mountain-dwell- ing people. Everywhere they are outnum- bered and surrounded by other groups who occupy the more desirable portions of the locality. This fact has given rise to two theories. The first is to the effect that life in an unfavorable environment has been the cause of their short stature. When all things are taken into consideration it would seem that the short stature is the horse and the unfavorable environment the cart and that the Pygmies live in undesirable places because of their short stature. The other theory is that this discontinuous distribu- tion of the Pygmies and the fact that they are always surrounded by one or more racial types are indicative of their early arrival in the regions where they now occur. In fact there are many who advocate them as the most primitive of all the living races of men. To the anatomical side of this theory we shall return shortly, but it may be pointed out here that this apparent strati- fication which oceurs might be of quite re- cent origin. The fact that they are outnum- DISTRIBUTION OF THE PYGMY AND SHORT RACES OF MAN NEGROID PYGMY TYPES Central African Negrillos Central African Negrillos South African Bushmen Andamanese Negritos Semang Negritos “Aeta’’ Philippine Negritos Melanesian Pygmies SJ lf} &] &) bered by other races wherever they are found, would lead to a stratification even if the Pygmies were very recent arrivals in a given locality. Let us now consider briefly the physical characteristics of the Pygmies and see how much they have in common and in what respects they differ from one another, The most striking characteristics shared by all 690 AUSTRALOID PYGMY TYPES Q) Veddah (2) Sakai, Senoi (3) Toala SHORT MONGOLOID TYPES UN Indonesians of the Philippines IN Indonesians of Borneo AY Indonesians of Sumatra A Lapps of Norway the Pygmy groups are short stature, a rather broad nose, dark skin, and hair that is not straight. In Table I is listed the average stature of the Pygmies and some near-Pygmy tribes. For convenience these are grouped geographically and racially. The shortest group of any considerable size so far re- corded is the Mawambi Negrillos described THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN by Czekanowski. They are less than 4 feet 8 inches tall on the average. The Anda- manese, Philippine Negritos, and a few New Guinea tribes are 150 centimeters or well below. The Semang are somewhat taller. Very few African groups have an average stature of less than 150 centi- meters. The South African Bushmen also average more than 150 centimeters in height. The Australoid Pygmies have an average stature very similar to that of the Bushmen. TABLE I AVERAGE STATURE OF THE SHORT RACES OF MEN Stature Group, Locality, ete. (Centi- (Inches) litho 691 In Table II (page 692) the nose form of these races is compared. All of the groups recorded, with the possible exception of the Lapps, have a low, broad nose. We are accustomed to regard this as a Negroid characteristic but such a conception leads to confusion. A low broad nose is a primi- tive character universal in the Negro race, but by no means monopolized by that group. The Australoid type and the Indonesian type both have a low broad nose. The South African Bushmen have probably been the least successful of the liv- ing races of man in developing The nose bridge, very low in other Negroid groups, is a nose. meters) Negrito Pygmies Zambales, Philippine Islands.146.3 57% Reed Bataan, ed at .145.4 57 Barrows Batak, a -150.0 59 “f North Andamanese .....-..- 148.6 58% Census of India South Andamanese .......- 148.2 58% by ss Semang, Malay Peninsula. ..152.0 60 Annandale Mafulu, British New Guinea.155.1 61 Williamson Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea. .144.8 57 Wollaston Toricelli, New Guinea....... 150.9 59% Schlaginhaufen Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea.149.2 58 % Wollaston Pesechem, New Guinea .152.8 60 Van den Broek Morup, New Guinea ....... T50v5. 594% SS a Kamaweka, New Guinea....148.7 58% Seligmann Negrillo Pygmies, Equatorial Africa N’Gali (Ba-Binga) ......-.- 148.0 58 Poutrin M’Bio (Ba-Binga) ........ 155.1 61 ‘* Lobaye (Ba-Binga) ....... 148.6 58% ee Baus (ULE) . 2... =. i. = 152.2 60 - Ssyenl spicy (GCE Galein a eto Orenesoue 149.7 59 Johnston Banwa, (mixed!) .....-----1 159.8 63 Czekanowski CHT) A Gregeranenonclo icone 157.3 62 IMiniilyt 9 on Oa a aCe ee 140.8 55% - South African Bushmen Heikum and Kung ........ 155.3 61 Werner TUE tieacl eg Se cel eseec cree 156.4 61% Seiner DRAO 40 costae so Coen Cee 153.3 6014 ie LUGTginn 2 Soe S Gee mcicmeceoice 152.5 60 si Australoid Pygmies Senoi, Malay Peninsula 152.0 60 Martin Weddah. @eylon .....<..-.-- 153.3 60% Sarasin brothers Toala, Celebes Island ...... 156.1 61% of tf: Indonesian Type Nabaloi, Philippine Islands. .149.1 58% Bean Kankanay, “ « 150.6 59% Barrows Manobo, s oe 151.8 5942 Montano Ifugao, i “. - 155.2 62 Barrows Bontok, - us ae Lob.0 .6L Kroeber Mandaya, « .,153.9 60% Cole Bilaan, - “ i eto as (GL ae Tagbanua, 4s be - »L65.0 61 Barrows Ulu Ayars, Borneo.......-- 155.1 61 Hose and McDougall Kalabit, So bales een 156.1 61% ‘. ut Kayan, Ae Sas CAR RCL COR: 155.0 61 a a Maloh, Seve sae svete crate 158.5 62% aE a Torajda, Celebes Island..... 159.8 63 Sarasin brothers Tomekongka, “ PS eit 156.9 61% He ae Tenggerese, Java ......... 160.0 63 Kohlbrugge Orang Kubu, Sumatra 158.7 62% Hagen Arctie Mongoloid Type THAIS PINON) ie sietete < wiieia on 152.3 60 Mantegazza apps; IeURGI® -¢. 5% ce wens 155.8 61% Anutschin almost flat in the Bushmen. In the African Negrillos and Bushmen the width of the nose is greater than the height (in- dicated by the nasal index being in excess of 100). Ex- cepting the Philippine Negritos, the Oceanic Negritos have a somewhat narrower nose but still much broader than the nose of Europeans and Mongols. With the exception of the Senoi, ac- curate data on the nose of the Australoid Pygmies are want- ing. But from the photographs of these groups it is very evi- dent that they have broad low noses. The Indonesians have a nose which rivals that of the Negro in the ratio of breadth to height. To my mind this does not indicate Negro affini- ties but merely the retention of a primitive character independ- ently in these groups. The head form of Pygmies is also of interest. As a group the Negroes have long narrow heads, but the Pygmy Negritos and Negrillos tend to have a somewhat wider head. This char- acteristic is expressed by the cephalic index which records the width of the head in terms of percentage of the length. In Table III (page 693) we note that the Philippine Negritos and Andamanese have very wide heads. The Semang Ne- gritos and the New Guinea NATURAL HISTORY 692 TABLE II NOSE FORM OF THE SHORT RACES OF THE NASAL INDEX MAN EXPRESSED BY (The nasal index expresses the width of the nose in terms of per- centage of the height of the nose. A large index denotes a broad nose while a small index denotes a narrow nose) Group and Locality pie Author Negrito Pygmies Bataan, Philippine Islands..... 94.7 Montano Zambales, od x 106.0 Reed Batak, 97.0 Barrows North Andamanese 92.5 Census of India South Andamanese............ 88.2 sf os Semang, Malay Peninsula...... 97.0 Annandale Mafulu, British New Guinea.... 83.8 Williamson Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea.... 81.4 Wollaston Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea... 83.9 Van den Broek Pesechem, New Guinea........ 83.2 ee as a Morup, Me ae De tages = 88.1 te es Le Negrillo Pygmies, Equatorial Africa Ni Galt a (Bas Bing ay): aie ceest ete 105.0 Poutrin MEB TOM (GR ane a) eters ces in ote ste eae 105.0 gs Lobaye (Ba-Binga). 106.0 ee ‘BawEwa(pune) esis sictehe aeons 111.0 se Biambutes eich e..c cites 105.8 Johnston Batwa CmMENed))i mcltacesiccuss clones 86.9 Czekanowski IB ea aloes Moyo ich aicl our Gator ake o aah a) ose 86.2 sf Mawambi isis. 91.2 ‘s South African Bushmen Hertkum Jand: Kumi. 2222. oss 102.5 Werner Australoid Pygmies Senoi, Malay Peninsula....... 86.0 Martin Weddaht a CeyJontns.ccaee conics Broad Sarasin brothers Toala, Celebes: Island ..:...... Broad ss ff Indonesian Type Nabaloi, Philippine Islands.... 95.0 Bean Kankanay, a 88.7 Barrows Tfugao, ue 101.9 os Bontok, ole : 99.8 Kroeber Bilaan, Sy oS 90.0 Montano Tagbanua, oe st 93.4 Barrows Kalabitaws Ondeon se cmrenmies Geran 91.5 Hoseand McDougall Maloh, ae ie ey er ei heer 97.4 as SE Menge reresew Java: seiacirees se ce 100.4 Kohlbrugge Orang Kubu, Sumatra ........ 89.0 Hagen Arctic Mongoloid Type TASH teense cea cee nae ee re Medium Deniker coarse black hair. The Aus- traloid Pygmies are character- ized by an abundance of body hair. Negroid Pygmies also differ from the Negroes in general in having the body covered with short downy hair. This character- istic is reported for some Afri- can Negrillos and the Pygmies of New Guinea. The Negroid alo differ from the other Negroes in having a lighter skin color. The Bushmen have a light yel- Some of the Pygmies lowish brown skin. The Ne- grillos and New Guinea Pyg- mies have a skin color much lighter than the neighboring Negroes and in some instances almost yellow. The Andama- nese and Philippine Negritos are described as’ having more often a rather dark brown skin color. The Indonesians show varying shades of yellow-brown pigmentation. Again, the Bush- men and certain Negrillo and also differ proper in Negrito Pygmies from the Negroes having a convex upper lip. I have figured (page 686) three skulls from the collection of the American Museum of Natural History, representing the three main types of Negroid Pygmies. From left to right they are a Congo Pygmy, a South African Bushman, and an Pygmies, for the most part, have somewhat narrower heads. The Australoid Pygmies and the Indonesians also have rather narrow heads. The Lapps have extremely broad heads, While none of the Pygmies have straight hair, their hair form is by no means sim- ilar. The Negritos and Negrillos have typical Negroid hair, closely curled and frizzly. The Bushmen have an extreme type of Negro hair. The hair is much finer and more closely coiled. When stretched slightly it has the appearance of a very fine and closely coiled spring. The Australoid Pyg- mies have either wavy or curly hair. The Indonesians have. straight or very slightly The Lapps have straight waved hair. Andamanese Negrito. These skulls are fairly typical of the groups they represent. In the top view they show a similarity in contour, all presenting an outline more or less rhom- boid in form. This form is in part due to the narrow frontal region and the promi- nence of the parietal eminences. These may be regarded as infantile characteristics. In the front view there are more marked differences. The nasal opening is narrower in the Andamanese skull. The African Pygmy and Bushman skulls have low broad nasal openings and the eye openings are widely separated. The Pygmy and Andama- nese skulls have very high orbits. In profile the skulls show a much more In the African striking individuality. \ THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN Pygmy the face projects beyond the brain case more than in the others. The Bushman face is nearly vertical. The Anda- manese skull is intermediate be- tween the two. All have a more HEAD FORM OF THE 693 TABLE III SHORT THE CEPHALIC RACES OF MAN EXPRESSED BY INDEX (The cephalic index expresses the width of the head in terms of percentage of the length of the head. a wide head and a small index a narrow head) A large index denotes a arn ae NC ar ihalie c or less vertical forehead but Group and Locality Tadex Author this characteristic is most pro- Nesrito Pygmies — ‘ : Bataan, Philippine Islands.....-- 84.7 Montano nounced in the Bushman. In Zambales, “ biur entee es 32.2 Reed all three skulls the mastoid pro- Batak, a eee 81.0 Barrows . . : North Andamanese .......-----: 82.5 Census of India cesses, found just behind the South Andamanese........----- 83.0 “ af ear openings, are small. Semang, Malay Peninsula.....-. V7.9 Annandale The cranial capacity which Mafulu, British New Guinea..... 80.0 Williamson sa - Z Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea......79.4 Wollaston may be taken as an index of Toricelli, New Guinea.......--- TU Schlaginhaufen gross size of the brain, is small Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea. ..83.4 Wollaston . Pesechem, New Guinea......--- 80.5 Van den Broek - ats r . ae all the Py gmy ty DES: The Morup, New Guinea.......---- Se ks oe + = Veddah have the smallest cra- Kamaweka, New Guinea......-- yiztal Seligmann nial capacity so far recorded, Negrillo Pygmies, Equatorial Africa S ee . ay N’Gali (Ba-Binga)......----- +: 78.1 Poutrin 1250 cubic centimeters. The M'Bio Re ae I ye 79.7 “ Bushmen are next in size with Lobaye OY See Srocre cee cerg 81.7 % = 5 — Ba Tua (pure) ..----.---- .78.1 a 9 ra] r 1260 cubic teres he Rampboutew CtCos..-0. aa es ote 79.4 Johnston average cranial capacity of the Batwa (Mixed) 22% foes ee 75.1 Ozekanowski Andamanese is 1269 cubic cen- Baamba .-.------- - 79.8 . WESTIN Dis Hee eatrrete Aig ve se 79.6 “ timeters, of the Philippine Ne- South African Bushmen gritos 1409 eubic centimeters, Seer ane EQUA an ote eles Revocce seep ke 76.3 Werner A Australoi ygmies = Y oT - 25 and of the Semang Negritos Senoi, Malay Peninsula......--- 77.2 Martin 1338 cubic centimeters. The Waddahen Ceylon cence cs cts ctr 75.1 Deniker average cranial capacity of Toala, Gelebes Island..>.-..--.-80:4 Sarasin brothers 3 Indonesian Type Europeans is somewhat above Nabaloi, Philippine Islands...... 78.5 Bean 1500 eubie centimeters. of Kankanay, “ Se ites Bee 81.6 Barrows ; 5 Tfugao, oS Le ea ae 76.9 ES course the small size of these Bontok ti Ta Chae iZ4 Kacher Pygmies must be taken into Bilaan, 80.4 Cole . . * . . Tarbanude 9 9 1) se 81.0 Barrows ns1c ¢ 3 7 - ’ ss : ‘ ate 3 een with Ulu Ayars, Borneo....--------- 74.7 Hose and McDougall eir small cranial capacity. Kalabit, | ae Bo Soe 78.5 i * The Negritos and Negrillos Maloh, Sige ena 028 “a - haw i if a J Tomekongka, Celebes Island.... .81.8 a ; ave ae been very successful in Tenggerese, Java ..----------- 79.7 Kohlbrugge developing a chin. On page Orang Kubu, Sumatra.....- 78.5 Hagen aoe Arctic i pe 694 are shown the lower jaws of aes fongoloid, Type 2 = C Of: 19) 058 cata eae Oo ne aca 37.6 Deniker a Congo Pygmy, an Andama- nese Negrito, a South African Bushman,anda that if the Bushmen are related to the modern European. The first two have poorly developed chins. The Bushman, however, has typically a rather prominent and peculiarly pointed chin. In this respect he is almost as highly specialized as the modern European. No other Negroid group has the chin devel- oped to such an extent as the Bushman. We have seen now that, although the Ne- groid Pygmies have a few characteristics in common, they have, to a very large extent, developed local peculiarities dis- tinguish them from one another. The Bushmen, perhaps, have carried this special- ization the farthest and differ more from the Negrillos and Negritos than do these two from each other. In fact, it seems clear which Negritos and Negrillos, this relationship is a very distant one. The Australoid group, including the Veddah, Senoi, and Toala, are quite different from the Negroid Pyg- mies in several important characters. The Indonesian group of short stature are Mongoloid in their affinities. Many other of Mongoloid affinities have very Among these should be men- groups short stature. tioned certain Siberian tribes, some Ameri- Mexico and South America, So then we have Pygmies can Indians in and the Eskimo. or a tendency to very short stature in three distinet racial types. The Caucasian or European racial type alone has no marked examples of extremely short stature, except 694 as individuals. But the Negritos, Negrillos, Bushmen, and Australoid groups alone are true Pygmies. When considered culturally, most of these Pygmy tribes are undoubtedly very primi- tive. They are all in the hunting stage. Lower jaws of the Negro Pygmy types com- pared with a European jaw.—From above down- ward are the jaws of a Central African Pygmy, an Andamanese Negrito, a South African Bush- man, and a European. Of all Negro types the Bushman alone has succeeded in developing a chin. In this respect the Bushman is almost as highly specialized as the European NATURAL HISTORY This fact has been largely instrumental in their being regarded as primitive anatom- ically and consequently as ancestral to man- Such a theory is due to a confusion of culture and anatomy. There is not necessarily any direct correlation be- tween a primitive culture and a primitive anatomical structure. The two things are distinct and different. While we may have a primitive culture associated with a group having a primitive anatomical structure, the two are not related in the sense of cause and effect but are merely an association. Very few primitive anatomical characters kind as a whole. found in modern man could influence eul- ture to any great extent. At the very outset it seems questionable whether short stature, the most character- istic trait of the Pygmies, is a primitive character. In the figure opposite is plotted the stature of mankind as a whole. Hach small rectangle represents the average stat- ure of one tribe or group of men. The aver- age stature of 514 different groups is used. This should give us a fair idea of the dis- tribution of stature in mankind. From about 150 centimeters to 180 centimeters we have a normal frequency curve with the greatest frequency at 164 to 165 centi- meters. On the other hand, the Negroes, represented by the shaded rectangles, have an irregular distribution of stature with points of greatest frequency at 168 to 169 centimeters, 154 to 155 centimeters, and 148 to 149 centimeters. In other words, the bulk of mankind, and even of the Negroes proper, has a stature decidedly ‘above that of the Pygmies. It is rather difficult to be- lieve that only these few groups have re- tained the primitive form of stature while all the others have specialized in this re- spect. It is very seldom that such a thing occurs within a group. Another proof that excessively short stat- ure is not a primitive trait is found in the fact that the earliest types of man on whom we have any data for this trait were de- cidedly taller than the Pygmies. I refer of course to the Neanderthal race who lived in Europe during the Pleistocene. Their aver- age stature was about 165 centimeters (5 feet 4 inches). Going back still further to Pithecanthropus a type showing certain characters of both the apes and man, we find a femur or thigh bone 45.5 This length of femur cor- erectus, centimeters long. ~ responds to a stature of about 5 feet, 7 In the upper Paleolithic, the Cré-Magnon race had attained a stat- inches, in man. ure well abo The Pygmies do, however, present many They accentuate some of the infantile characteristics of the Negro group. In more than one respect they sug- gest a group whose development in certain particulars has been retarded. primitive traits. 1" THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN ve 6 feet. slightly less so. 695 Taken all together they are no more prim- itive than other Negro groups and perhaps Anatomically it is by no means clear that the Negro race is the most primitive. The brain ||| |79 Certain Australoid and Mongo- loid groups seem, on the whole, to approach more nearly to the generalized type of man- kind. The extremely dark skin, the absence of body hair, the closely curled hair, thick lips, and the form of the caleaneum in Ne- It case infantile in groes are undoubtedly specializations. form. The face is Certainly it seems extremely doubtful peut small in proportion to that the Pygmy types represent an ancestral ‘ | . . . . er “3 |: the brain case (ex- stage in the evolution of mankind. fiat il cept in the case of seems more reasonable to assume that they ' 180 some Negrillos). represent aberrant groups and that short ay s Pp group ear +178 4i\3 stature has developed more than once as a | ; Ez i racial character, than to assume that Zila short stature is a primitive trait and that L! 75 aA \ ||| {II all mankind except the Pygmies are 1 AAA, 7; aberrant in this respect. deen | TININTUNINNNNIININUNNIINEE [172 LUAU se NINN 170 Heat Med it | crew TINIVONNNVIVUNNNVNVNRRENNNGNEVUOVNNVVATITT aie Li UIT TTT ee AHI HUATIAA NAH . HUNUAAUNNNGEEEUTNGEEAOUIL enn LH || | eI ill UINAAUUNGUNUAAGAA AGU GHI rem YY 37 see IMT Pell GY ar Lose RT ||. ge AAA Distribution of stature in man.—Each rectangle repre- _— tsa sents one tribe or group of men and is placed opposite the hao unit on the scale which represents the average stature or as WS body height of that group. This diagram includes 514 147 / tribes or groups of which 106 (shaded) are Negroid. The 146 He Pygmy tribes are together at the bottom of the scale. It 4F9O) has. will be noted that the bulk of mankind, and even of the 44 Ye Negroes proper, has a stature well above 150 centimeters 0 139 i Ul LS43YO4 ODSNOO 3HL NI dWVO AWDAd V SNIMOHS ‘WN3SNW NVOINSWV JHL FR. ities, ink pe Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization * A STUDY OF THE PYGMIES OF CENTRAL AFRICA By HERBERT LANG Assistant Curator of Mammalogy in the American Museum ForREWwoRD—A splendid habitat group representing a Pygmy camp in the Rain Forest of the northeast- ern section of the Belgian Congo has recently been installed in the American Museum of Natural His- tory. The scene depicts a lucky hunter returning with his faithful companion, a hunting dog, to the fam- ily circle consisting of a wife, two children, and an aged mother. There is thus given to the public, always eager for information about primitive types of man, an opportunity to become better acquainted with the Belgian Congo dwarfs, who still manage to eke out their meager existence in the primeval for- ests of Africa. The building of the group was made possible by the fact that the American Museum Congo Expedition, although chiefly zodlogical, had a wide range of activities and gathered during the six years of its stay (1909-1915), material and information necessary for the reproduction of Pygmy life. The group was designed and executed by Mr. Frederick Blaschke under the supervision of Director F. A. Lucas and the direction of the Author. Especially interesting is the fact that the lifelike qualities of the new group are partly the result of the intelligence of the Pygmies themselves. They were the first to contribute to our valuable collection of more than 100 life masks representative of 16 different tribes of Central African races. Mr. James P. Chapin, my only white companion and an excellent linguist, explained to the first Pygmy we saw that we should like to reproduce his face by covering it with a layer of “soft, white mud’ (plaster of Paris). Al- though apparently frightened, the little fellow suggested that before having his eyes and mouth covered with “mud,’’ he would like to see it put on his hand or foot. The completed cast aroused his admira- tion, but he hastened to add that the cold plaster had become so uncomfortably hot when setting that in his mind fear arose that he was to be broiled alive. From then on, however, we had less difficulty in tak- ing casts, and although the tall Negroes invariably became nervous and often trembled during the process, Pygmies submitted with comparative confidence. Emandinia, chief of the Nala Pygmies, in reply to compliments on his equanimity while having his cast taken, said that fear to him was needless. Was not the white man alone, and Emandinia supported by one hundred well-tried archers, six of whom had never missed their mark? These are the bowmen shown in the photograph on page 705; they took aim at me but never re'’eased their arrows. A counterpart of this was my experience with the Logos, when Maruka, an extremely agreeable but shrewd chief, made no objection to having his face cast, although his twelve councilors would not allow it unless they could assist, fully armed with spears, bows, and arrows, as is their custom in war. Much to their satisfaction, I invited them to be present—on condition, however, that five additional casts should accompany their chief’s to America; and as the Museum enlarges its series of exhibitions, reproductions of these men may take their places in scenes representing native Negro life. ROM time immemorial the imagina- tion of poets has enriched the litera- ture of many nations with legends of bearded, benevolent dwarfs, impish moun- tain sprites, and winged fairies, endowed with supernatural power and with passion for love and revenge. Today it is thought that perhaps some of these charming tales had their origin more in truth than in fiction. Homer’s account of Pygmy nations, said by Aristotle to dwell beyond the lakes above Egypt, from which flows the Nile, was apparently not based upon mere fancy. More than two thousand years later, in 1870, Dr. Schweinfurth,! during his mem- orable exploration in what is now the northeastern section of the Belgian Congo, discovered the “Akkas,’ perhaps remnants of that very race renowned in verse, and now known as the Central African Pygmies. For centuries Africa’s black sons have struggled with the horrors of famine, can- 1Georg Schweinfurth. The Heart of Africa, Vol. II, p. 122. New York, 1874. HERBERT LANG. nibalism, war, and slavery, while the white man has slowly evolved civilization. The Mediterranean region and eastern and south- erm portions have been well enough known but the vast area south of the Sahara has only lately received serious attention when European nations have taken a more active interest in their southern neighbors. Thus within the last few decades, the Dark Con- tinent has been forced to surrender one by one its well-guarded mysteries. Colonizing efforts, however, in Central Africa have continually had one great check, more formidable than a Chinese wall: the white man can seldom bear for any length of time the hot, moisture-laden atmosphere or escape the many diseases lurk- ing in the equatorial forests. In West Africa all along the routes of the Cauca- sian’s advance are the silent witnesses of in- domitable life and eager adventure come to tragic termination. To prevent loss of life and to temper the zeal of an administrative staff which forms the pillars of colonization, *The illustrations are from pnotographic studies of Pygmies made by the Author during the American Museum Congo Expedition. 697 ; oy Pen es 698 NATURAL the wise decisions of a responsible govern- ment have now limited the residential period to two White man’s impetus must be the will supply the activity to bring final order years. motive to progress, whereas the Negro from chaos. Northern, southern, and east- ern Africa have in part been made a white man’s country, but the great, steaming equa- torial forests will long remain the st:rong- hold of the Negro race, just as they have been the refuge of the Pygmy. The Origin, Distribution and Classification of Pygmies Dwarfs are far more widely distributed than any of their respective discoverers sup- posed, independent or mixed with a taller element throughout a large part of the world. New Guinea, the Philippines, southern Asia and the ad- joining islands, all these have their typical Pygmy population, the Asiatie and Oceanic branches — called “Negritos,” as differentiated the the “Negrillos.” Distinct traces ot them have been found in Mae- Iver! reports them to have from Africans, many regions and numerous in 6000 been fairly Keypt between and 4000 B.c. In times a race of tiny men dwelt taller men in Switzer- prehistoric together with northern else- land, in France, and Where in Europe. Sergi2 of people from the peninsulas of existing In the south of Italy and in Sardinia nearly records numbers small and adjacent islands southern Europe, even now. 15 per cent of the men are rejected from military ser- they fail to feet 114 inches. vice because measure 5 ‘Arthur Thomas and D. Ran- dall-MacIver. The Ancient Races of the Thebaid, ps Si. Oxford: 1995. “Giuseppe Sergi. Varieta Umane Microcefaliche e Pigme d’Europa. Bullettino della Reale might well Medica di Roma, ancient stories 2 apaelse “little men’”’ who seum helped Lecademia Vol. 19, fase. Photograph of the Expedition. serve to of fairies HISTORY If height alone constitutes the determining factor, dwarfs are nowhere scarce, for south- ern Europe—and now even New York—has diminutive persons, a large population of especially among women, since 4 feet 11 inches (150 em.) is the maximum height ac- cepted by scientists for “Pygmy-dom.” The records of modern African Pygmies prove so heterogeneous that anthropologists have not yet been able to offer a final opin- ion as to their classification, although sep- arating them into various groups. For the sake of expediency three large divisions may be recognized: the South African Bush- men, the Batwa of the Central African Lake Region, and the more widely distrib- uted Pygmies of the West African Rain Forest. (A branch of the latter is the chief concern of this article.) The Bushmen of South Africa are usually set apart from the other Pygmy stock on account of their wide differentiation. How tar this is owing to life in a different they are now restricted to environment—for the arid regions about the Kalahari Desert—or to an intermixture with the Kafirs and Herero, their neighbors, is a question extremely dif- ficult to answer on account of lack of prehistoric evi- If they affiliations with dence. had any the Pygmies it may be assumed other that a separation took place in very early times. As regards the Batwa of the Tanganyika regions, most of them, ac- to clearly show the effects of Kivu and cording Czekanowski,? interbreeding with Negro-s around them. An appar- ently purer stock is to be found in the less populated, voleanic regions where they have lived in practical iso- lation. two Pygmies > Jan Czekanowski. Anthro- se ae pologische-ethnographische Ex- De eee Ost-Afrika. peditionsarbeiten in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Vol. 41, pp. 594-595, 1909. illustrate and \ NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION In the third center, the West African forest, the Pygmies are known by several names, depending on the tribe with which they live, most noted being Schweinfurth’s “Akkas” (the Mangbetu name), or “Tiki- Tiki” (the Azande term), or “Mambuti” (the name given by natives of the Ituri region and now current with Europeans). The question arises whether the Pygmies are merely degenerate types of Negroes and therefore of relatively recent origin, or the earliest type from which all taller African races have evolved, or one entirely distinct and as old as any living race. The first hypothesis finds little actual support although Sir Harry Johnston states! that “British anthropologists seem to be arriv- ing at the conclusion that the Congo Pygmies do not constitute a homogeneous type of Negro clearly marked off from the main stock in the same way as the South African Bushman. They are rather arrested, infan- tile, or degenerate groups of the Nilotice or Bantu Negroes produced by the depressing conditions of the dense forest.” Sir Harry believes “them in the main to be dwindled descendants of the earliest pioneers of the true Negro stock (as compared with the divergent Bushmen ).” Unfortunately nothing positive is known about the epoch when man first invaded Africa, and paleontological evidence from that country is most unsatisfactory. Even the origin of numerous implements and carvings of stone found in Algeria, across the Sudan, Abyssinia, the Congo Basin, and in South Africa, as well as that of the pictographs from Mauretania and South Africa, is much disputed. Granting that the Pygmies were really the first to roam over much of the eastern portion of the African continent, the theory that tall Negroes evolved from them is rather con- tradicted by the distribution of both the true Negro and Pygmy stocks. It seems more plausible to assume that Pygmies sprang up at an early period in Asia, ac- cepted by many authorities as the cradle of primitive man. In the successive migra- tions of the human races remnants of Pygmies could survive to the present day in certain regions where a natural protec- tion favored the preservation of their racial characteristics. 1 Liberia, I1, 1906, pp. 887-888. 699 The third supposition, then, that these African Pygmies are the approximately pure descendants of an extremely ancient race, is perhaps sustained by their morpho- logical characters, and by modern considera- tions of the controlling factors of dispersal. Mammalian distribution may be called upon to furnish an excellent analogy support- ing the fact that they have come to Africa The okapi and water- relatives are in the southern by way of Asia. chevrotain, whose known to have flourished portion of Eurasia in Miocene and Pliocene times, are today among the most typical West African forest mammals, and un- doubtedly came to the continent from the northeast. Antelopes, which have under- gone such a remarkable adaptive radiation in the Ethiopian part of Africa, ranging from the size of a rabbit to that of a bull, have, as generally admitted, also derived their original stock from Eurasia. It has been argued that with the advent in the northeast of the continent of the pastoral Negroes of Hamitie origin, the tiny pioneers were forced to a speedy retreat. The powerful and evi- dently well-organized probably showed such pride in the purity of their stock that they refused to enslave the vanquished for fear of sullying their own race. The Pygmies, thus forced to withdraw farther and farther, finally reached Central Africa. The northeastern or of the West African forest from which the and west in the closest we 99 giants and South Ituri area Pygmies roamed south wooded portion, a few reaching the Atlantic.1 section became the center Personal Experiences with Central African Pygmies So far the most important information about Central African Pygmies has come from explorers and scientists who gained their knowledge either during rather short visits to Africa, or from a few especially fine individuals exported for exhibition pur- poses. The American Museum Congo Expe- dition had penetrated 1400 miles inland to Avakubi, before we finally came across our first Pygmy, who was being unjustly held on 1The earliest mention of West African dwarfs dates from Andrew Battell’s record in 1625, fol- lowed in 1670 by that of Dapper, who speaks of the Bakke-Bakke in the kingdom of the great Makoko, situated, according to de Brazza, in the region where in 1865 Du Chaillu discovered his famous Obongos near the Ogowe River. y00 NATURAL HISTORY a charge of murder to shield an important nember of another tribe; the victim with an arrow through his heart, had been found lead on the forest trail. The prisoner gladly answered questions in return for plenty of food, and the matted hair clipped from his head was shortly added to our col- lections. A few weeks later, a caravan of Ban- daka came to Avakubi with rubber and bundles of rattan. Among them were two groups of about fifteen Pygmies each, who, after we had carried on a long and difficult palaver with them, allowed three of their Joseph, the tall Bantu, belongs to the sturdy race of Bakusu at Stanleyville. Son of a chief, he was a devoted and trustworthy helper, and acted as headman for the American Museum Ex- pedition, playing the part of a peacemaker rather than that of a leader. The short man, Papai, is offspring of a Bantu father, but called a custom he had been returned to his mother’s tribe when a child. Pygmy mother and a always resented being Pygmy, although according to During the long years of the expedition this man made many friends among the natives we met. Once the confidence of Pygmies is gained. their friendly off-hand ways are a pleasant introduc- happy-go-lucky life of these hunting tion to the nomads with the turned women to remain Without to the task of building a shelter; men and two expedition. delay these and in scarcely an hour they had completed op- posite our tents the usual beehive-shaped hut, arranging in shingle fashion the big Phrynium leaves on bent sticks held together with vines. Their rapidity and curious man- ner of working attracted a merry crowd of and members of the that leader of the Pygmies complained bitterly of the annoyance, that morning he and his little band had This incident is typical of the difficulty we had at first porters expedition. No wonder later in the evening the to me and next dis- appeared! in keeping the Pygmies with us long enough to study and understand them. Later we saw several other groups at Ava- kubi and Medje, and three years later, after our return to the forest from the Sudan and Uele plains, we often had hundreds of the small folk about us. The several years of constant contact and friendship which we had had with the natives spoke well for our reputation, of Ngayu, Medje, Niapu, and Nala eagerly helped us obtain some of the rarest mammals. Most surprising was the way in which they secured (Manis gi- and the Pygmies the rare, great scaly anteater gantea), and the aard-vark (Orycteropus), the latter a plains animal not known before With swagger- ing defiance a youngster of only eight or to oceur in the Rain Forest. ten years would enter one of the animal’s narrow burrows, from 8 to 20 feet in length. channel, with his dagger-lke knife drawn, he would grop2 Down into the subterranean for a victim, while we outside expectantly True to the tradi- tion of the fighting quality of his race, he would not let the battle in the dark go against him—and the creeper he held as a signal for assistance and the long, flexible listened and watched. rattan tied to his belt always proved unnec- essary precautions. A lively time would ensue after the animal had been fastened to the rattan, and the crowd without would boisterously begin jerking it from the ill- smelling cavern. The little Pygmy hero, pushing and pulling from behind, would finally emerge amid the cheers of his com- rades. But as usual the witch doctor took as much of the credit as the plucky boy: had he not foreseen the glad event and speci- fied the most propitious time? NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION Physical Distinctions between Pygmies and the Tall Negroes Descriptions, apparently authoritative, too often make us believe that there are striking differences between Central African Pygmies and the tall agricultural Negroes. But when we come to see crowds containing both Pygmies and tall Negroes, most of the so-called “clear-cut” Pygmy features prove to be individual or regional characteristics. From time to time I heard officials of many years’ experience in Central Africa make the sweeping statement that they could pick out a Pygmy from among hundreds of other natives. Sure of proving the contrary, I changed the hairdresses, bark-cloths, amu- lets, and other decorative features of a num- ber of Pygmies and Bantus. Thus in less than ten minutes it became impossible, or at least very puzzling, for these “experts” to make good their boast; the few physical peculiarities there were had escaped their notice. The northeastern portion of the Congo Basin now rivals America as a racial melt- ing pot. The incoming northern elements and the have all called phalie, in which the Pygmy is not a stranger. It is likely that in the future the Pygmy will gradually lose his identity and disap- 3antu, Nubian, and Hamitie races contributed to what might be a forest type, generally brachyce- pear in this melting pot, not even retaining what is supposed to have been his most obvious character—diminutive stature. Looking at Pygmies in numbers, we are impressed by the fact that size alone can- not be the criterion for distinction. Of thirty-three adult males measured, none of them exceeding 4 feet, 11 inches, the aver- age was 4 feet, 8 inches, which, with seven tall Pygmies included, at once rose to 4 feet, chief of the Pygmies of Nala, measured 5 feet, 5 10 inches. Emandinia, the inches, a fair size even for a European. As is the case the world over the women on the whole are shorter than the men, but with the Pygmies the difference is even greater than usual. In not a few instances the striking disparity may be accounted for by the customs prevalent in their inter- marriage with the tall Negroes. Women in these regions constitute the only important treasure, and chiefs of the Bantu tribes have never had any compunctions in adding TOI In the great African forests game animals are few and far between. The experienced Pygmy reads their presence in almost imperceptible traces—a cut leaf or a pebble displaced may be the signal for stealthy pursuit. Climbing trees in his own fashion, he varies his bill of fare with honey of wild bees, a few acrid fruits of rubber vines, and fat young nestlings. Also he traps monkeys, genets, squirrels, and birds in snares skillfully arranged in trees pretty Pygmy girls to their harems. In most of these cases the sons return to the mother’s tribe, whereas the daughters, considered a valuable asset, remain with the agricultural Negroes. These marital relations naturally help to increase the influence and prestige of the Pygmies. On the other hand, it would be “taboo” for a Pygmy to marry a woman of any of his tall friends. It would be too daring to describe as typical these remnants of a race which has not escaped continued mingling with large Each wave of migrants has naturally left its im- neighboring communities. successive print upon the Pygmies, checking certain somatological characters and molding others. As a result of the intermixture which is continually going on, a regional resemblance to the agricultural Negroes is clearly visible in the physiognomy. Human faces the world over may show the most varied expressions and where people of dif- ferent racial characters are welded together slowly, it will always be difficult to present At pres- setting aside a general, all-inclusive descriptions. ent no racial characters M 4 “ N ~ 3 e ‘a ne é gm 4 Permanent assembly camp near the village of Nabodia, an Azande chief at Nala. Along the northern limits of the Rain Forest the Pygmies have already adopted the architectural style of neighboring natives and have com- pletely abandoned the beehive-shaped huts. On this particular occasion every Pygmy had been called in from the hunting camps in the forest, and the photograph shows the most important men and their helpers with whom I made arrangements for assistance in the expedition’s work To celebrate great success in hunting, Pygmies often visit the settlements of the tall Negroes who entertain them according to prevailing customs. In this Makere village they hs selected a shady nook in a banana grove from which they sally forth for an occasional dance, even a mother with her tiny baby (right center) tak- ing part. As a rule Pygmies dance singly, the men and women frequently forming separate groups, but there is little social convention among them ; mat) \ NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION majority of Pygmies from the tall Negroes ean be stated, and it is doubtful if physical traits have at any previous period been more uniformly pronounced. Not all Pygmies are so much smaller in size as to be readily distinguished from other Af- ricans, and in the main they are not shorter legged nor have they longer arms than the forest Negroes. Not all of them are repre- sentative of the strongly prognathous type, and a projecting monkey-like snout, with chin nearly obliterated, is an individual fea- ture with some Bantus in most of these regions. The Pygmies are not the only African race showing the flattened, broad- winged nose, which, lacking a bridge, sets off still more sharply a well-rounded or receding forehead. Their alertness, due to peculiari- ties of hunting in the forest, has impressed upon their physiognomy distinctive features, which, together with a generally long, con- vex upper lip, are sufficiently characteristic —although more often it is scanty attire and lack of body care which distinguish them from the tall Negroes. With good reason others have mentioned the “unsteady eyes with the brutal glare,” causing an un- couth, indeseribably strange expression. Perhaps too much stress has been put by various writers upon the color of the skin, which varies from black to dirty yellowish brown or reddish yellow, these and inter- mediate shades being as common among neighboring tall Negroes as among Pygmies. Forest tribes, however, like the Bandaka, Mobali, Mongelima, Makere, and Medje, as well as those from the plains region, the Mangbetu, Azande, and Abarambo, con- trast with the uniformly dark Nilotics. Pygmies’ lips are dark and the pigmenta- tion often extends to the gums, but the undersurfaces of both hands and feet are as light as in other Negro races. Even al- binos occur, although they seem more nu- merous among the tall Negroes; at Poko, in the Bomokandi district, more than a dozen of them lived within a short distance of the Post. Pygmies are hairier on the body than East African types, but the West African Ne- groes whom we saw, especially part Nu- bians, like the Mangbetu, Azande, and many forest tribes, have even longer beards and mustaches, and more hair on chest and limbs; they also show the oft-mentioned “Janugo” or body down. Undoubtedly hair- 703 iness is more usual with Pygmies, but among all males in these regions it seems to be rather an individual character, as with white men. The scalp hair varies just as in neighboring tribes, forming a thick felt-like cap of kinky black hair or, more rarely, dense patches and small, bare, mean- dering trails. A few Pygmies have hair of a distinctly reddish brown color, a feature not uncommon among the Negroes of the northeastern Congo basin. Habits and Superstitions of the Pygmies; Relations with the Tall Negroes The dusty, unkempt tufts of hair, not more than two inches long, are usually mat- ted, and palm oil is more likely to be used for gustatory delights than to give gloss to the hair. Many Pygmies, however, favor the elaborate common in countries of Mangbetu culture. Illness and death are the sword of Damocles held sus- pended by intense superstition. A shaved head, especially in women, is a sign of despair the cut locks are hairdresses so mourning. In wantonly thrown in the forest trails, and al- though one may walk upon them with im- punity, to pick them up would bring worse grief than that of the bereaved. At all other times, however, a single hair in the possession of an enemy gives him power to turn upon the original owner all the evil that witchcraft holds. No wonder that every particle from the body, a single hair or the parings of a finger nail, is carefully concealed or burned in the forest! speaking of bygone days reckon time by reference to memorable in- cidents in their lives, such as floods, wars, and good fortune, and extent of time, of course, is not calculated in years. The aged, far more numerous among this kindly little people than among other Negroes, are highly respected, and many must be 70 or 80 years old, since in several camps we Pygmies in found four generations happily performing their Throughout the region a beard with even a few grizzled strands entitles one to authority, and near Avakubi the fame of a tottering Pygmy was surely vested in the seven-inch growth framing his wrinkled face. It is marvelous how successfully the Pygmy has fitted himself to the complexity of conditions among the more powerful with strife he has respective duties. Negro races, whom in 704 NATURAL HISTORY somewhat the relations of the scalp-hunting — stood Indian to the home-seeking white man. In Darkest Africa weaklings have always been mercilessly pounced upon and either killed or enslaved. But it must be under- More than any other Negro, the Pygmy, with his freedom un- challenged, proves himself keen, fearless, and full of verve. But mark when he is confronted by a strange adventure. Posing with their trophy, the hero and his friend have listened to the camera shutter’s ominous click. They consider this their lucky day for they rise unharmed from the ordeal of being photographed, more convinced than ever that the white man’s weapons miss their aim Pygmies are the children of the forest, awed by its mysteries, which their own superstitions foster and increase. Numerous dances, carried on as a rule at twilight, serve manifold purposes, most often to do honor to good spirits or to propitiate those believed to be op- posed to them; but whatever the occasion, gayety usually dominates that among the tall basic features in Negro races where cannibalism had become one of the the maintenance of so- ciety—however strange that may sound— men of extraordinary courage and cunning, like the alone or in troops could Pygmies, who be relied on as_ snipers, became in the forest re- gions one of the leading factors of power among the Bantu chiefs. On the other hand, in the open warfare of the plains area, by the very nature of things the Pyg- mies were of little impor- tance. Schweinfurth, Junker, and to the great numbers of dwarfs in for- From reports by Casati as mer years, it is clear that relatively recent invasious of the fertile outskirts of the forest by the Nubian- ized element, the Azande and Mangbetu, must have caused the rapid decima- tion of the tiny people. Old Akenge, the great chief of the southernmost Azande near Poko, proudly related to me how for years, before the advent of the Belgians, instead of hunting game for the usual store of meat, they had cleared the country of Pygmies. Secrecy and si- lence prevailed, and under cover of night they would hang around the camps of the unsuspecting dwarfs strong nets ordinarily des- tined to capture the larger antelope, and suddenly pouncing upon the little fellows, they would drive them into the ambuscade and spear them, entangled and helpless, ike game! The intricate relations of Pygmies with the tall Negroes are much the same everywhere. A super- ficial observer might call The whir of a Pygmy’s arrow is the crowning step in the pursuit of a victim, be it man or beast. In the forest consummate skill does not depend upon shooting at great distances, but on the ability to steal up under the wind, unheard, unseen, and never miss the fleeting chance Even among Pygmies there are only a few who have the patience, daring, and energy for such accomplishment No frenzied display marks the customary dances, where measured steps aré accompanied by weird, reiterated songs 4nd monotonous refrains. The din of the drum, beaten nervously, and of the rattles, shaken with much skill, sounds above the wild outbursts of the leaders who spur their audience to continued efforts Men, women and children show keen delight as they rhythmically move in the dance, but obstreperous youngsters. satisfied only witl in extra wild frolic often break awa from the formal circle 705 706 NATURAL them vassals, but as a matter of fact, they enjoy the independence of the irresponsible. Nobody holds them in high esteem, nor yet treats them with absolute contempt. Their natural vindictiveness and ability both to retaliate and instantly shift to safer places, make Acknow- ledged dexterity and intelligence in outwit- ting the foe are the secrets of their con- tinued existence, for the Negro is inclined to them redoubtable enemies. respect this obscure power as much as he does brute strength. Had they any griey- ances they were mostly settled by a single arrow, successfully forth the revengeful hand. sent from They never cared to feast on their human victims, who among cannibalistic Bantus became the rightful spoils of war. Con- sidering that Pygmies usually adopted the customs of their neighbors, it speaks in their favor that they were the only race in the forest not habitually involved in the terrible practice of cannibalism. True children of the forest, success in the chase satisfied their craving for meat. aq UBS O(N Poxy OU JRYY saaoid sazrd Jo SJSUTSUOD Youre jo } Udsotfo Ue JO Salas HOS BW ‘peauasaouoy Sl Ssaul. 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Aaoso YOO} puv Ajoyeurmtsostpur dn woyy pour om ‘soayeu jo snqrys [8q 11} 94} SUIUIRyLOOSe AT[NJorvd aAoyyW “OOTY ZUR IANO JVI} SNOIXUL OOM OM JN “YsotoyUT puL Aynveq 0} ofa UB YT 60L podser-yjas porntur sry *SUOlJOAT[OD 10F yUNTIODUOJR UB > ‘sjyue0 Ayyy ynoqe yom ‘s ue sseiq ‘KaAvay oy poyd SSoj19UMO O04} Poppe PUB ‘s}UdaD UA} JO ANT[BA 9} OF 4[VS “Wey ayy daay oy pi youd o 0} pasnyea ApIQYS v Ayjwuy yoryo OFSOARTY 9} ‘soajosmoy} SUOULL SUOISSNOSIP ssojpua Jaqyy mL OSTR OYA ‘AUISAT O44 OF P Bl OM «OUT B 1OM | q{ 949 JO 4 Y 94} 03 Avap SUOUBAUOD UdyOIq pry ‘AuLSAT 9) SU ]JOM Se ‘AA Ry] U OS UdAO JOT Y PeMOrIOg ay} JO UMO OY, “NI { s,Auisq 044 uo 4 p [ oy ‘sLoyjRoy JOared por Jo 4yyny paziad A[WSIY B YIM pouty “Jey Mow puBAq SI J ) OSOARTY Fulyooluo B YJIOM JOU SUM ATI J A[USAOTS oYyy Jey IYANOYY “YStsse OF 9.1 ) SIT UL ‘ysoOg ayy jo VSIVYO Ul ‘OLUOTIT “APY “JSIBAL SLIT Jnoqe sz C[ZZ1 J l { poztu BY yey jo sjiiq peszezjey 949 WI ueq WOT SULISvYS UvVY popyulto Jo soyoyed poe yd SI 9 } 0] oul paqd sIyT ‘posotue of joodsert a} PUBRWIUIOD 0} OSB SIY 0} [eNba Usaq GALT JSUUT WOPSIM VsOYyM Joryo plo siya Aq poy, sea ¥B 1} SP. IN Ul AUO[OD aSan, AOA W jisod ¢ : }YSIL 9} Je UBM ayy Aq UIOM 4RY 7 2IGSNYLL t [M goueltodxe uv § IOM ® SI 1S3Y¥O4 ODNOO AHL NI SYHS3T1SMd AWSAd 710 NATURAL exchange for what they took from the plan- tations, but today most Pygmies bring their goods to the villages of the tall Negroes and with little serious altercation barter for mere trifles until darkness puts them to rout. The meat, medicine plants, fibers, and other products of the forest gathered by the Pygmies are gladly exchanged for plantains, manioc, and maize. Plantain cider or palm wine gives them too the ex- hilaration enjoyed in their dances. Honest among themselves, they nevertheless appreci- ate the outwitting others, in complete disregard of principles cleverness involved in of fair play. Primarily hunters, they continually shift camps to obtain the best hunting grounds. The site, old or new, is always cleared in the high-lying, open forest, near one of the numerous clear brooks; huts are either built beforehand, or old ones are satisfy their meager Every new their quickly restored to needs for housing comforts. trail means new joy. Indeed, the nomad’s life is easy, Pygmy women are not fettered hard work at home, and _ household Knives and pieces of bark and as the by articles are few. ‘cloth receive first attention, mother starts on her way she hoists a tiny child astride her waist, where he sits grin- ning with delight although the narrow sup- porting strap mercilessly indents his flesh. Another woman loads on her back bunches of plantains, manioc, and maize, surmounted by a pot, and fastens to her arm a sleeping mat, a calabash, and perhaps an old basket. Mor- tar and pestle, ax, horn, rattle and a drum for merrymaking fall to the share of the boys and girls. In single file they set out, a youth leading, and one or two able-bodied men bringing up the rear. With a dagger tucked in the belt, a quiver of wooden or iron-tipped, poisoned arrows suspended from the shoulder, they thread their way, with bow and two or three arrows in the hand always ready for instant action. Under care of the old, an ember is carried from camp to camp to perpetuate their fire, said to be obtained when strokes of lightning set aflame the gigantic trees—although Pygmies living in the plains are well acquainted with the art of making fire. The silence of the march along the trail is broken by the yelps of the dog, which, raised to be eaten, has become nevertheless a highly prized helper in the daily raids on HISTORY game. Indeed a good hunting dog in some regions is gladly accepted in payment for a wife. The place of the dog in hunting is peculiar. At the time he is started on a fresh scent a large wooden clapper is put around his neck. The noise of this clapper as the dog routs the game gives the master in ambush assurance that his arrow has a chance to hit the mark. If the dog returns to camp with clanking bell, all know from afar the jubilant news. Or should the dog be led astray in the heat of the chase the noise of the clapper makes his recovery easy. In the forest, trapping and still-hunting are methods equally in favor. The slaying of a leopard near our camp on the Nepoko River—a leopard which had brought grief upon the by the chief’s daughter and two other women—justified the Pygmy’s reputation. Suddenly the beat- ing of gongs roused the whole neighborhood and a. throng of exuberant natives outdid themselves to welcome the hero. He hap- village killing . pened to be a master of mimicry and by gesture and a few, clear, short phrases vividly pictured the course of the hunt. Deep in the recesses of the forest, on the trail leading to a brook, the leopard had devoured a small antelope, and then had gained its lair. Our hunter found it asleep on a low-hanging branch in dense foliage. He roused it by the splash of a stone flung into the water. With the whir of an ar- row—and a gigantic leap of the spotted beast—the leopard’s last struggle began. There were a few moaning roars, and then the silence of death betokened Ngalima’s success; danger lurks no more on that path. With the conclusion of the pantomime, the rejoicing and dancing of the crowd con- tinued until late into the night. Although the privilege of chiefs to sit upon a leopard’s hide makes such a trophy theirs by right, our gifts of beads, copper wire, and indigo cloth were considered a fair exchange. The meat, also the lumps of fat, a powerful, rejuvenating medicine greater in value than all else, of course became the hunter’s prize. But what price- less treasure can be hidden in the leopard’s heart which the Pygmy hunter has so eagerly claimed? We were soon to see, for, frantic- ally yelling and dancing about, he waved in his hand the iron point of his own fatal arrow, which had been snapped off from the [TL OUL PaNUIyUOD OF Joofqus gout BV UL SUOVIIBA [B nst{yqd at jOoId BAISUPPUOD YSIUANF P[NOA TOMA “Sottos DATPUAVAUIOD ASAVT vB ou DF | yo [Vieues 9100 a} JNO sutaq s}inaiys0d asayy ysAnoyyy May @ {juo 10y UlRUMAT suaayjyed yous fyeooreyo YIN ping oyl[-yur ue OyUL pspus|q (vVIUAapsDA) jinay 4s UB | vB WoT aotnt ay «, Ue TIM Po ured St Jest oUlet}Xo ay} ye urwmoM vy JO aoevy IL *S8O1G9N 118} 94) ate UBYY S}oeyo OAT} 10 sso] an »1T | sor id or p ) pue Stappnoys ayy ynoqe eis pus vullT ¥v SMOTS 8uO ?d uo paanjgotd UsTIOM OM} BY} JO it posuedsip Ajaje|duio9 UWeyjJo ot ht ar a OUR UBMIOM JO JUXTIULOpR ALBSSoVOU B SUOISAI asad Ul “S[RAM Pods as By 949 8yVT "4.1048 jno A[jBnsn si patjdde uajyo [tO ory oO. my AYULY “paqqeul sy, ‘yoadsad Juy} UL VSVIUBAPL Poploop V GAVTT uoul yy Ul o1v uaMIOM sv puLT ‘saxes YOd ULOpe “ot bsajo15 A[QUaIOYNS “Sasseap uey Inq ‘soumsAq oy} suowe useul jo QSo[TATId DAISN[OXY at[} ST SU a eM YIM pedeip s}et, YSt[Ays JO SUIIBVIM OIL Ua OAV PAL] PUR Asay OY} ISLA 0} Jol WOT NATURAL shaft in the leopard’s struggle. Twice be- fore it had pierced the hearts of enemics, and with the joyful grin of a devil he claimed that no foe of his could escape that magic dart. Pygmies in the Ituri region do not often try to kill elephants with their arrows,— although a single poisoned arrow might fell an elephant. Instead, they eagerly find the site where through their cunning even this mighty beast will meet his fate. A huge section of tree trunk bearing a spear at one end is hoisted to a branch forty feet above the ground. Hidden in the entan- gling maze the lightly balanced truncheon betrays no danger. But a slight touch on the tiny unobtrusive vine connected with the release and stretched across the trail, will send the immense, armed weight crashing down upon the unsuspecting victim. Or they locate the habitual resting places of solitary elephants and report their find to the tall forest Negroes, who then creep up on the tuskers and with a rush drive a broad, sharp-edged spear into the base of the trunk and quick as a flash fall back into the protecting jungle. The death of the elephant ensues from loss of blood within a few hours. But should the wound be slight, Pygmies, loath to abandon the prize, fol- low the victim for days, shooting poisoned arrows in an attempt to blind the great beast, and finally spear him at a propitious moment. In testing their marksmanship a squash seven inches in diameter which I used, aroused their derision, and at a distance of forty yards not one of a dozen volunteers failed to send his wooden arrow through the target. At sixty yards, however, they asked for iron-pointed arrows to withstand the strong wind.1 All Pygmies, however much they may 1 Throughout the practice, a young Pygmy had amused the crowd by mimicking the _ sharp- shooters. When asked to show his skill as a marksman he preferred to imitate the sufferings of an elephant wounded by arrows. With stiff- ened legs, and back in horizontal position, he made his arms serve as forelimbs—sometimes as ears—and with the help of his bow represented che trunk. At moments he was pathetically slow and at other times the eye could hardly follow his movements. Then taking the part of a dui- ker, he drew himself together, arched his back, tripped along for a few paces, and stopped sud- denly, a splendid take-off of their peculiar, ner- vous movements. At twenty yards from the squash target he suddenly stood up and hit the mark, a feat announced with a savage yell and a loud thwack upon his forearm. In the afternoon the little fellow admirably im- HISTORY wander in ‘hunting, have a more or less permanent home near the settlements of agricultural Negroes with whom they are connected. Fifty or a hundred may live to- gether under a leader, benefiting by such unity, although occasional friction is un- avoidable between groups serving under dif- ferent Bantu chiefs. Each man claims one or two wives—three is the exception—and the great fondness for children is shown by the burdening of childless women with the drudgery, whereas mothers are treated with comparative consideration, Old, grizzly-haired men, who held honors as chiefs in their youth, relinquish these honors apparently with no feeling of bitter- ness. They spend much time cheerfully helping to educate the children. The sub- jects of the tales told to the young are the spirits hidden in mysterious forests and the unknown dangers lurking in the jungle; and they encourage their young admirers to make traps, shoot arrows, and to wrestle. Chieftainship among the Pygmies is generally considered hereditary, as among their neighbors, but without doubt the right to the dignity of chief would be of no avail could the claimants not back it with a muscu- lar frame and cunning enough to stamp them as men most capable of keeping the wolf from the door; only thus can they preside over the destinies of these small and scat- tered communities. No time-honored clearing in the center of the village has been set aside for their de- liberations. Nor are there the dignity and order so common with the Bantu, whose auguries, however, the Pygmies use during palavers. Indeed, the Pygmy councils, from which the women are excluded, are only the stormy outbreaks of a vociferous, gesticu- lating crowd. When. the commotion has finally subsided, a few may still dispute the itated an official, taking especial advantage of the latter’s habit of accentuating his instruct ons with peculiar, abrupt gestures. When I asked him to mimic me he grinned happily. During the fore- noon I had taken a number of photographs and my tripod camera was still standing in the shade. Without injury to the instrument he mimicked my every movement with just enough exaggeration to make everyone laugh. Finally he indicated that the ‘“‘evil eye had seen well’’—and now came the climax to the performance. The Pygmy he had pretended to photograph, instead of unconcernedly walking away, dropped to the ground, illustrating the native superstition that the ‘big evil eye” of the camera causes death. A block of salt laid on the ‘‘dead’”’ man’s stomach instantly resuscitated him and the two entertainers walked off joyously, but only after the clown had received a like re- ward. NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION 713 chief’s dictum, which nevertheless is exe- cuted with expedition. Especially is the signal to clear out from camp obeyed with incredible celerity and Not a sign indicates their whereabouts, and more surprising still is the return, when they suddenly swarm in from every side. uncanny — silence. Pygmies have generally been considered shy, and except in a few regions they have been unwilling to come in numbers into gov- ernment stations. In many skirmishes and in actual warfare they often turned the tide of battle for the Bantus by their unfailing aim as snipers. In the palavers ensuing, the tall Negroes were only too glad to un- load on the dwarfs the responsibility for loss of life and wrongdoing. Years of trials finally resulted in better relations between and tribulations have the Pygmies and the administrative officials. Far from being indolent and evasive, they have proved intelligent and willing to give up their nomadie life. that the government extended them freedom and equality with other As soon as they felt convineed 3elgian natives, their villages and _ planta- tions looked in no wise different from those of the tall Negroes. They adopted the ob- long type of hut, had their own blacksmiths, and the women had long ago learned to make and wickerwork, and _ to pottery perform other “household duties”—which include the clearing of roads leading to their settle- ments. From the small, irresponsible human devil that used to roam about aimlessly in the moisture-laden forests of Central Africa to this benevolent little gnome and respon- sive citizen of our day is a mighty stride. Pygmies continually shift their camps in search of the best hunting grounds. The nomad’s life is easy. There are few household goods to be moved. Some of the women carry the supplies of food with the cooking pot, and the sleeping mat; the boys and girls are intrusted with ax, horn, rattle, and drum; while the mother hoists the smallest child astride her waist where he is happy although the supporting strap may mercilessly indent his flesh. Throughout heathen Africa motherhood is regarded as a special blessing. Among people so de- voted to hunting as the Pygmies, sturdy manhood becomes all important; yet even so, girls are wel- comed with greater joy than boys. Women, indeed, are the sole external expression of prosperity and wealth in these regions, and the relatively small number of wives the Pygmies own stamps them as paupers in the eyes of their agricultural neighbors Photograph by H. C. Crampton Mt. Roraima, the highest point of British Guiana, is a sandstone plateau eight miles long rising on perpendicular cliffs, down which tumble numerous cascades from the miniature lakes on its weathered top. British Guiana may be roughly divided into two low belts near the coast, and a mountainous interior for the most part heavily forested—except for certain grassy savannahs such as Shown in the photograph. At the very foot of Roraima rain falls almost every day, accompanied by heavy winds. Here giant trees of the jungle give place to low gnarled forms with ferns and mosses in dripping festoons on every branch Residential section of Georgetown with the governor's “‘palace’’ in the left background. Nearly every house is surrounded by trees and gardens giving the city a forested appearance from a distance. The flatness of the horizon of the coastal plain is noticeable in the skyline. In the foreground can be seen one of the open trenches of the city’s sewerage system along the side of the street Ho A Real El Dorado BRITISH GUIANA POSSESSES NATURAL RESOURCES OF VITAL IMPORTANCE WHICH NOW LIE DORMANT By WILLIAM Illustrations from photographs by HE people of the United States are steadily awakening to the possibilities that are offered them for an increased commerce with South America. Reports come in, now and then, from various places; some of them say that Rio de Janeiro is to be the coming trade center of the continent, while others assert that Buenos Aires will rise more quickly in response to the com- merece of the United States. a straight line from If we draw any part of the Atlantic coast of North America, say from New York, to South America, find that it brings us to one of the three Guianas, either we French, Dutch, or British. These are our nearest South American neighbors. British Guiana is the most westward, and the largest of the three Guianas. It extends along the seacoast for 270 into the interior, and is approximately 90,000 guide in the interior * miles, reaches 500 miles square miles in area. The topography of the country divides it into three natural regions: 1, the low coastal lands of marine alluvium rising gradually from the sea and extending from ten to forty miles inland; 2, sandy and elayey country of sedentary soil, with forests, swamps, and sand dunes, rivers and and traversed by a network of their numerous tributaries in which occur the region, the eastern part of which is forested, many rapids and falls; 3, mountainous and the southwest, an extensive area of flat 1 The forest raises his benah or shed Indian The forest Indian is seldom used as a laborer because of his small stature, but makes an excel- lent river-man and carrier and an indispensable anywhere in wife’s cassava field, and then spends his days in pursuit of tropical game. J. LAVARRE the Author grass lands elevated three thousand feet above sea level. Fach of these natural regions has its own special resources. The coastal belt, swept by the northeast trade winds, is excellent for agricultural and pastoral pursuits. The sec- ond and third belts are covered by an exu- berant primeval forest, and are rich in min- eral resources. On the vast savannahs ex- cellent pasturage and sugar lands may be found. the sritish Gui- Looking at map of the thing about it is the ana, striking network of rivers by which it is traversed. These at present fur- nish the only means of access to the in- terior. The western part of the country is occupied by a cen- flat- mountains tral mass of topped forming a series of terraces and _ pla- Mt. Roraima, the highest of these, about 8500 feet, has a flat, teaus. nearly grass-covered twelve top of square miles. The northwest portion is rich in gold deposits, and recently diamonds have been located in paying quantities along the upper Mazaruni River Nearly the whole of the civilized popula- tion of the colony is located along the coast and on the lower banks of the larger rivers. Here, also, are located the present-day in- The cane, and the making of rum and molasses, the coastal dustries. raising of rice and sugar are the chief occupations of people. Coconuts thrive well on the lands, the bush, makes a small clearing for his It is estimated that 15,000 aborigines are scattered through the Guiana forest, a remnant of the Indians whom the Spanish vainly attempted to enslave. The famous cannibals of the coast, the Caribs who gave their name to the sea, are virtually extinct after years of warfare against the white man. ~“] St 716 The late Colonel Roosevelt in 1915 visited the Tropical Research Station of the New York Zoo- logical Society at Kalacoon and was greatly im- pressed by the possibilities of Guiana, particu- larly its forest resources. The cultivation of rubber is gaining in importance each year. The establishment of experiment plantations proves that Para rubber will grow vigorously in almost any situation outside the flat coastal lands The Botanical Garden in Georgetown contains an experiment station where scientists may come from any part of the world for study of the tropical flora in its natural habitat. The Garden serves also as the main park of Georgetown where the populace promenades on Sundays and holidays. The photograph shows two picturesque travelers’ palms in the Garden especially where the soil is sandy, and a con- siderable expansion of this cultivation is taking place. There are large areas of low- lying lands on which coffee grows splendidly, but the cultivation of this plant has been gradually abandoned through lack of suf- ficient labor. The establishment of experi- NATURAL HISTORY. mental stations has demonstrated that Para vigorously in almost every situation in which it has been tried rubber grows outside the flat coastal region. It is esti- mated that there are 9,000,000 acres of ac- cessible land, the larger part of which is eminently suitable for the cultivation of Para rubber. lLime-growing is still in the experimental stage; this fruit is at present growing excellently on the coast of the Es- sequibo River. There are also large areas of coastal lands that are well adapted to pastoral pursuits, but lack of proper drain- age causes them to be inundated during the rainy seasons, January, February, and May, June, July. Georgetown, the capital and only large city, is situated on the coast at the mouth of the Demerara River in the form of a rect- angle two miles long and one mile deep, and is geometrically laid out in wide streets, running at right angles to each other. When entering the harbor on my last trip to the colony, I was welcomed by the bray- ing of an ass. The memory of that greet- ing voice still lingers with me, and, together with a recollection of open sewers flowing through the streets, it is one of the quaintly uncommonplace experiences that a visitor to the colony may have ere he departs. Being at sea level, the city is protected by a wide sea wall, constructed by Dutch en- gineers during the last few years. Here, in the late afternoon, is the city’s only rendez- vous, and it becomes a promenade where the natives gather and listen to a rather ego- tistic bandmaster conduct his Negro-Hindu band through seldom recognizable variations of well-known compositions. The city boasts of only a few luxuries,— an up-to-date ice plant, necessitated, most probably, by the inhabitants’ ever present desire for strong and cooling drinks, a single track electric street railway, which has to wage a continual battle with a multi- tude of small and heavily laden donkey carts for the right of way, and a large and beau- tiful Botanical Garden and Experiment Station, where the tropical flora grows in lavish variety and abundance and is closely studied by scientists from many lands; it is here that men have learned many of the new things related to tropical vegetation. In 1917 a commodious moving-picture theater was built where one might go three nights a week and look upon heart-rending, blood- A REAL EL eurdling, or dully humorous scenes that had long since ceased to be appreciated in the United States. The sewerage system of the city, as I have hinted, is one of great simplicity. In canals that flow through the streets, the waste of the city is carried to the sea, where at low tide it is emptied. When the tide begins to rise, the canal gates are closed, often caus; ing the canals to overflow into the streets. These canals, varying from small trenches to deep streams, are crossed by arched bridges over each of which there are signboards pro- hibiting fishing,—but either the natives can- not read or they are too hungry to obey an un- enforced law, for coolies, with feet dangling a few inches above the dirty water, may often be seen, sitting on the edge awaiting a bite at their lines. The 60,000 inhabitants of the city make a very cosmopolitan population indeed. Ne- groes from the West Indies compose most of it, with a scattering of native Africans slavery times. India to work on the rice and sugar plantations, are and their descendants, relics of Coolies, indentured from conspicuous everywhere, dressed most often in their native attire, making the tourist feel quite as though he were not in South America but in India. Under this system of indenture these coolies sign themselves into a sort of conventionalized slavery for a pe- riod of five years, for which they are paid, sometimes, seven shillings a week. When this term of labor has expired, they must reside five years longer in the colony in order to be transported back to India at one half fare. By the time they have remained this period, though, all their money has _ been spent, and they usually either become pau- pers or de odd work here and there until they die, many of them from homesickness and disease. Portuguese and Chinese keep the small shops; Chinese keep general stores, but the other liquors. gin shop he is considered well off by his Portuguese specialize in gin and When a Portuguese owns a admirers! Europeans carry on the devel- opment of the colony. Along the coast on either side of George- town are scattered many small settlements among which New Amsterdam, Berbice, and 3artica are the more important. Irom New Amsterdam and Berbice stretch numerous rice and sugar plantations. Bartica, a vil- lage with but one street and twenty inhabi- ~? hams, -~2 DORADO ———— oF we — AL The chief industry of Guiana is the raising of sugar cane on the large plantations of the allu vial coast plain. Transportation is largely by water. Numberless rivers and streams traverse the whole colony while the coastal flats are inter sected by a network of canals and ditches for draining off the excessive rainfall. The lower photograph shows the cane being deposited on a moving belt leading into the grinding room tants, is located at the junction of the Es- sequibo and Mazaruni rivers and is the “Jumping off place” where men, going into the interior for gold and diamonds, depart fare of Georgetown, the capital, port, and only large city of British system, and Market Street is the main thoroug Guiana. This town of about 60,000 inhabi supports a good electric street railway and telephone service. The harbor (to be seen on the extreme right background) is the most important shipping point of northern South America, exporting large quanti I rum, rice, and some gold and diamonds. This picture was taken Sunday morning, which accounts tants is relatively modern, except for its open sewerag deserted appearance of the street he sole industries of the forest region. T whole interior is at s Diamonds are washed vels of river beds by means of the ‘‘long tom” of the placer ot the gold and diamond i Guiana are still in the prospector stage and carried on to a tent by nomadic bands of Negroes (a description of the methods used in diamond mining in British Guiana AMERICAN MUSE JOURNAI now NaTuRAL History) for October, 1918, pp. 499-502 The interior can be reached at present only by the rivers. prevent large boats from making the ascent. Photograph by A. H. Verrill They have many rapids in them which Thus it is impossible to convey the necessary material for mining into the interior, but some day these rapids will be utilized as an enormous source of power for the development of the colony, and especially from civilization. Near here is the penal settlement from which a person may easily escape if he prefer to face the jungle rather than the rock pit. Kalacoon, the biological station, is also within a few miles of the town. Here Colonel Roosevelt spent several sleepless nights while shooting vampire bats with a twenty-two caliber rifle. Situated as it is on the northernmost angle of South America, this country offers an immense economic opportunity to the United States. the best harbors on the continent save for Its capital city has one of the one fact that it has become clogged its mining industries somewhat by a bar of mud brought down by The authorities have made no attempt to dredge the Demerara and Essequibo rivers. it or keep it free; they have, instead, been content with letting ship captains try to evade it, or wait until high tide to permit their ships to pass safely over the obstrue- tion. Every once in a while a ship becomes entangled in the slimy ooze, and its exit or entrance from or to the country is thereby delayed. This harbor presents the difficulty of the Mississippi delta, only in a lesser de- gree; that has been overcome by up-to-date methods,—even more easily could the harbor A wayside Hindu market, though somewhat larger than the parsnip and with much thicker skin featuring cassavas parsnip-like roots and lemons.—Cassavas are Boiled whole or ground into a meal which is baked, to remove the poisonous hydrocyanic acid contained in the juice, they provide the vegetable mainstay of the natives of Guiana of the colony, supplemented by sweet potatoes and Salt fish, rice, and bananas are the other staples a good supply of fresh meat 719 ro (x» last of the stars was placed by litt boy se traveled by children in the hands of received its quota of stars r itS way. Roosevelt Colonel Hill where re : school always e > ap © oa is Ae ie Oo 97 F CES) Fe mn & mrs a = aa) > er Q 6 ee Dag as Cory em mn no sn gu uw al J 1 at Oyster sixty-first Memorial eginning Abbott, of the Roosevelt Samuel Mr. who had supervised the mound of fl rs by b from the journey Committee, Oourtesy of Underwood & Underwood Notes NaturaL History greatly regrets that ow- ing to the printers’ strike in New York City no numbers of the magazine were issued during October, November, and December. The present number, dated December, covers these issues and closes the publication of the 1919 volume. Also, it is regretted that, be- cause of the extraordinary present cost of material and labor, a change of policy is necessary in the issuance of Natura. His- Tory. Announcement has already been made to readers of the magazine that during 1920 it will be issued as a bimonthly, in six num- bers (instead of eight as heretofore), ap- pearing about the first of February, April, June, August, October, and December. It is hoped that by this plan the same stand- ard of quality can be maintained notwith- standing the increased cost of production. A LEAGUE of the Red Cross societies of Great Britain, the United States, France, Italy, and Japan has been founded with headquarters in Geneva. This new Red Cross organization plans to function as an agency for relieving national and interna- tional disasters. It has also projected the formation of an international bureau for coordinating sanitation and knowledge of Sanitation and the prevention of -disease throughout the world. In this capacity it has already been called upon for help by the Supreme Economie Council in Paris. Lieutenant General Sir David Henderson, K. C. B., is director general of the league, and Henry P. Davison, a trustee and treas- urer of the American Museum of Natural History and formerly chairman of the War Council of the American Red Cross, is chair- man of the board of governors. Dr. Richard P. Strong, professor of tropical medicine at Harvard University, has charge of the medical and public health activities of the league. Sir WILLIAM Oster, regius professor of medicine at Oxford University, died on De- cember 29 in his seventy-first year. But a few months previously on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, two volumes of medical essays, contributed by distinguished British and American colleagues and former colleagues, were presented to Sir William, The presentation was made at the Royal So- ciety of Medicine (London). Sir William was a Canadian by birth and held his first professorship at McGill University, but, as he remarked, the list of contributors to the volumes in his honor recalls a “vagrant ca- reer. . . . Toronto, Montreal, London, Ber- lin, and Vienna as a student; Montreal, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Oxford as a teacher.” He was honorary professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins University at the time of his death. Dr. ABRAHAM JACOBI, physician and teacher, died on July 10, 1919. He came to this country from Germany in 1853, after having suffered imprisonment from the Prus- sian government as a result of his partici- pation in the Revolution of 1848. In New York he started a modest practice and in 1857 began lecturing in the College of Physi- cians and Surgeons on the diseases of chil- dren. Later ke taught in Bellevue Hospital College and the University of New York and became clinical professor of pediatries in Columbia University in 1870, retiring as pro- fessor emeritus in 1899 after nearly half a century of instructional work. His contribu- tion to the literature of children’s diseases was large and includes a number of very im- portant treatises. ONE of the most conspicuous phases of re- cent work of the Rockefeller Foundation, which was established in 1913 “to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world,” has been an educational and medi- cal campaign against tuberculosis in France. By spectacular methods of advertising, the propaganda was carried far and wide over the country and many dispensaries and laboratories were established. In the United States the Foundation has demon- strated in two states that it is possible and profitable to get rid of malaria, either by destroying the malarial mosquitoes or, where this is impossible, by curing the human “ear- riers” of the disease. In the case of yellow fever, an attack has been made against the strongholds of the disease in Guatemala, and an expedition was sent to Ecuador for the collection of important information. The 745 The King and Queen of Belgium, during honored New York City by planting a tree in Central Park—a European beech. acta Courtesy of Underwood d& Underwood recent visit of their Majesties to this country, In the photograph taken at the time, the King in the uniform of a Lieutenant General can be seen standing just back of her Majesty. before the tree planting campaign previously begun against the hook- worm has been continued, and the infection surveys were completed in Sao Paulo, Brazil, in Jamaica, and in Guam, while new work was started in Queensland, Australia, and in The China Medical Board of the Rockefeller Foundation is con- Minas Geraes, Brazil. structing thirteen buildings for the Peking Union Medical College. Thirty-two instrue- tors have been appointed on the medical faculty, and laboratory facilities are now 1914 the fund of $22,444,815 has been distributed among rec- ready. Since large ognized agencies for special war service in camp and community welfare, medical- re- search and relief, and humanitarian aid for Armenia, Syria, Belgium, France, Poland, Serbia, and Turkey. Plans for public health and medical education have been laid on broad international lines, and a new School of Hygiene and Public Health has been opened in connection with Johns Hopkins University. The Rockefeller Foundation fortunately has received a large share of the Christmas Day gift by John D. Rockefeller of $100,000,000 for public health and edueca- tion throughout the world. 146 The King and Queen were greeted in the park by 30,000 New York school children A GOLD medal has been presented to Dr. M. E. Conner, chairman of the Rockefeller Foundation Commission to Guayaquil, at a special meeting of the Guayaquil municipal- ity, Mm recognition of his services and success in stamping out yellow fever in that region. Rockefeller Foundation has estab- division of medical education to THE lished a which Dr. Richard M. Pearce, professor of research medicine in the University of Penn- sylvania and member of the medical advisory board to the War Council of the American Red Cross, has been appointed director. THREE trees were planted by distinguished visitors to New York City last fall in the “Honor. Grove” of Central Park where the English elm, set out in 1860 by the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, still stands. On the afternoon of September 9, General Pershing, while attending a gather- ing in the park of 35,000 school children, put the first pin oak as a memorial to the men who lost World War. A month later, on October 3, after addressing a simi- earth around the roots of a their lives in the lar gathering of school children, the King and Queen of Belgium planted a Huropeat faithtul weekly chronicle Sir Norman, i1 beech, and on November 21 the Prince ot his “Valedictory Memories,” records the en Wales set out an elm near the tree which couragement in starting the weekly he re his grandtather planted more than half a ceived fron rious men of the past genera century before. tion, including Mr. Alexander Maemillan, Su Joseph Hooker, Huxley, and Tyndall. This THEIR Majesties the King and Queen of was ten years after the appearance of Dai Belgium, the Crown Prince, and their party win’s O if Species and at about the visited the American Museum of Natural time when science began to take its first hold History on the afternoon of Saturday, in public education in Great Britain. October $f, and were received by Protesso1 William K. Gregory and other members of \ magazine, the Scientific America the scientific staff present. The royal Vontl will succeed the Scientific Ame party visited several of the halls and can Supp ent, which was established in viewed important exhibits, expressing a co) IS76. This monthly will be devoted to eu dial interest in the Museum’s work. rent events in pure science and technology. It will officially represent the National Re On November 6 Ne e celebrated its fit search Council by a special department and tieth anniversary with a Jubilee Number. keep the public informed of the Council's The issue is occupied, for the most part, with activities. A particularly important feature retrospects by noted British scientists of fifty of the new magazine, as it was of its pre years’ progress in various fields of learning, lecessor, is the publication of translations and an appreciation by Dr. H. Deslandres, of complete texts of significant articles ap vice president of the Academy or selences pearing in Toreign si ientific mavazines. of Paris, of the founder and editor, Sir Nor man Lockyer, who still continues his astro THE University of Paris has presented to nomical investigations at fourscore and three the universities of the Allied countries a years. Fifty years have seen vast changes in medal commemorating the achievements i science and scientific education in England, the World War of the men of the respectiv and of these changes Nature has been th institutions. -~ —~. S10 43 NEIGHT 225 A medal, presented to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales by the American Numismatic Society on the occasion of the Prince’s recent visit to the United States The medal was presented to the Prince in a case made of the wood of an elm which his grand- father, King Edward VII, at that time Prince of Wales, planted in Central Park, New York City, in 1860. A limb from this tree is on exhibition in Memorial Hall at the American Museum, through the courtesy of the New York Scenic and Historic Preservation Society and the Commissioner of Parks. The tree has grown to a height of 62 feet and at the time of its planting Central Park was only partly developed, and the whole region west of the park was ‘‘in the country.’’ There were only a few houses and Manhattan Square, now occupied by the American Museum of Natural History, was still in its nat- ural wild state, containing a small lake which contributed its waters to the lake in Central Park 748 NOTES 749 Dr. GEORGE ELLERY HALE, director of the Mount Wilson Observatory, foreign secre- tary of the National “Academy of Sciences, and, during the war, chairman of the National Research Council, now holds the honor of being foreign associate of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Dr. Hale was elected honorary chairman in perpetuity of the National Re- search Council after his resignation as chair- man, in recognition of his services during the war. Dr. CHARLES D. WaALcort, geologist, and secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been elected foreign associate of the Paris Academy of Sciences to fill the vacancy left by the death of Dr. Elie Metchnikoff. Foreign associates are limited to twelve. This distinction has been previously held by five Americans, Benjamin Franklin, Count Rumford, Louis Agassiz, Simon Newcomb, and Alexander Agassiz. A SUITABLE tablet has been erected on the grave at Philadelphia of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, botanist and zoologist. The grave had previously been unmarked. Ra- finesque, born in Turkey, of French and German parentage, made his first trip to the United States in 1802 to collect botanical specimens in Pennsylvania and Delaware. He settled permanently in this country in 1815. Shortly after his emigration he oecu- pied the chair of botany in Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. Rafinesque wrote extensively in English, French, and Italian on his special researches. A DEPARTURE in government recognition of science was evidenced in the appointment of Professor C. E. Mendenhall, of the chair of physics in the University of Wisconsin, as scientific attaché to the United States Em- bassy in London. The appointment, how- ever, was a war measure only and has since lapsed. THE proposal has come from various high scientific quarters to convert Heligoland into a bird sanctuary. The island is only a little rock of about one fourth of a square mile in extent, lying in the North Sea forty miles northwest of the mouth of the Elbe River. Although no birds regularly nest there ex- cept the English sparrow, it is a resting place for myriads of feathered travelers dur- ing the two annual migrations. As the island has been retained by Germany, however, with only the stipulation that the fortress be re- duced, it will remain with that government to make this island, one of the greatest bird migration observatories of the world, a pro- tected reservation. Ar Pilawin, southeastern Russia, the great game preserve of Count Potocki, one of the very few preserves in Russia, has been com- pletely destroyed by the Bolsheviki, accord- ing to a letter from M. Pierre Amédée- Pichot of the French National Society of Acclimatation, printed in the Zoological Society Bulletin, New York. ‘Hundreds of deer, wapiti, European bison, and animals of all sorts were kept in 7000 acres of enclosed forest, which was part of a great tract of 30,000 acres. The place was invaded by 2000 Bolshevik Red Guards, who shot every ani- mal, and left the carcasses to rot on the ground. The palace, its furniture, and col- lections were destroyed, and the servants and keepers of the game were tortured to death.” Destruction of the herd of elephants in the Addo Bush Forest Reserve (South Af- rica) was authorized by the provincial council of the Cape of Good Hope in the summer of 1919. This herd of from 100 to 200 animals was the last remnant of a variety (Elephas africanus capensis) which once ranged over the whole of southern Africa. The variety is characterized by a strongly arched fore- head and enormous ears recorded as 4 ft. 5 in.x4 ft. for a female 8 feet high (in the British Museum). The preserve at Addo Bush near Port Elizabeth has been opened up to agriculture by irrigation projects and the elephants naturally assumed that the im- provements were for their benefit and acted accordingly. To confine the elephants would have required a thirteen-mile fence, costing at least £20,000, and in addition it would have been necessary to provide’a water sup- ply for them. All this makes it appear that African elephants are likely to fare worse than our American bison before the onrush of civilized man because they are so difficult to hold and care for in captivity. THE Yucca House National Monument in the foothills of Sleeping Ute Mountains just NATURAL 750 west of Mesa Verde National Park, Colo- rado, has been established by a proclamation of President Wilson. This tains the ruins of what was once an exten- sive Indian village. Mr. Henry Van Kleeck, of Denver, donated to the Federal Govern- ment the ten acres on which the ruins stand. monument con- Dr. CLARK WISSLER, curator of anthro- pology in the American Museum, has been elected chairman of the Section of Anthro- pology and Psychology of the National Re- search Couneil. Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, the distinguished British zoologist, has just completed fifty years’ editorship of the Quarterly Journal of M icroscopical Science. THE National Academy of Sciences, Wash- ington, has awarded a gold medal to Dr. A. Fowler, professor of astrophysics in the Royal College of Science and secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, in recognition of his researches in astronomy. Mr. WitLttAM HENry Fox, director of the Brooklyn Museum, of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, New York City, has been named a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor by the French Government. International Control of Minerals is the subject of a pamphlet by C. K. Leith, pro- fessor of geology in the University of Wis- consin, issued by the United States Geolog- ical Survey. state the problem rather than to argue for or against it, and His purpose is, apparently, to in its various phases to put emphasis on the imperative need for study of the world mineral situation. The joint organization and systematic distribu- tion of the mineral output of the world, brought about under pressure of war, has illustrated the possibility of international control. There are several fundamental facts in reference to the world’s mineral supply which make it a matter of concern: (1) About one third of the mineral output moves between nations; (2) In most international instances it moves along a few restricted routes to a few centers, for instance, manga- nese is exported from three sources to four or five consuming centers; (3) No country is entirely self-supporting, for example, the United States lacks almost entirely nickel, platinum, and tin, and imports a large part ET SLORY of its aluminum, chrome, magnesium, and potash. Free trade in the metals instead of giving unrestricted opportunity has rather concentrated the materials in a few hands, a fact which at times hinders both national and industrial developments in other coun- tries or localities. The question has accord- ingly arisen as to “the extent to which na- tional interests can and will be subordinated to international interest” and the centralized control of the war maintained. There seems to be official sanction in Great Britain and France for such a control, the aim of which will be to insure an equitable distribution of the may be a world shortage, an adjustment of ship space, minerals of which there and an equality in the use of basic raw ma- terials. An important aspect of the control would also be the part it might possibly play in the maintenance of peace. THE International Research Council was opened at Brussels, July 18, 1919, in the presence of King Albert, by M. Harmignie, minister of science and arts, who welcomed the members to Belgium. Statutes for the Council were agreed upon and its objects out- lined, according to Science, as follows: “(a) To coordinate international efforts in the different branches of science and its applications. (b) To initiate the formation of inter- national associations or unions deemed to be useful to the progress of science. (c) To direct international scientific ac- tion in subjects which do not fall within the province of any existing association. (d) To enter, through the proper chan- nels, into relations with the governments of the countries adhering to the council to ree- ommend the study of questions falling within the competence of the council.” Brussels will be the legal domicile of the Council where it will hold triennial meetings, but the special associations affiliated there- with will probably maintain the custom of meeting successively in different countries. Between the triennial meetings the work of the Council is intrusted to an executive com- mittee of five, consisting for the present of Professor E. Picard (France), Dr. A. Schuster (England), Dr. G. E. Hale (United States), M. Volterra (Italy), and M. Le- cointe (Belgium). The general secretariat will be established at Burlington House, Lon- don, where the Royal Society has set aside a room for its use. All of the nations which remained neutral during the war were unani- mously invited to affiliate with the Council. NOTES Dr. W. W. CAMPBELL, director of the Lick Observatory, headed the American delega- tion to the meeting of the International Re- search Council at Brussels. This delegation included representatives from the National Academy of Sciences, the American Astro- physical Society, the American Mathematical Society, the American Physical Society, the Naval Observatory, and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. As a result of the Brussels meeting two subsidiary societies came into existence, the International As- tronomical and the International Geophysical unions. The American Section of the Geo- physical Union was organized under the Di- vision of Physical Sciences of the National Research Council and, as approved by this Division, will include geodesy, seismology and voleanology, meteorology and aérology, earth and ocean tides and mareology, and terrestrial magnetism. Mr. William Bowie, chief of the division of geodesy of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, was ap- pointed acting chairman of the American Section. ProGRESS in Negro education is reviewed in a recent Bulletin of the United States Department of the Interior by Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, of the Bureau of Education of that department. Negro labor from the South the legislatures of southern states have taken a more active hand in this question, and Texas has even appointed a state supervisor of rural Negro schools. The great illiteracy of the southern Negroes was called to public attention by the examinations of Negro recruits in the late draft. Short terms (frequently only a few weeks), poor schoolhouses, and low salaries Because of the exodus of for teachers, however, will demand corree- tion in many localities before the deplorable state of affairs can be ameliorated to any notable extent. MEDICINE as a determining factor in war was discussed by Dr. Alexander Lambert in his presidential address before the 1919 meet- ing of the American Medical Association. The death rate in the Civil War of killed in action or died of wounds was 33 per thousand and of death by disease 65 per thousand. The American Expeditionary Force lost from wounds in action 31 per thousand and from disease only 11 per thousand. Malaria, which was the great scourge of the Civil War, has become almost negligible, while typhoid, which caused so many deaths in the Spanish American War and 22 per cent of the deaths in the Civil War, with only 0.4 per yas chargeable cent of deaths in the World War. Pneumonia was the most dreaded disease of the recent war and to it are as- cribed 85 per cent of all deaths from disease. The pneumonia, however, was part of a world-wide and beyond control. Dr. Lambert points out that, if the Medical Department is to increase its usefulness, it epidemic requires representatives on the General Staff, for authority must be united with respon- sibility. thority meningitis which caused 4 per cent of deaths The increased morbidity and fatality were owing An example of what lack of au- entails is found in the case of as opposed to 2 per cent in other wars. in this case, Dr. Lambert says, to over- crowding and bad ventilation of barracks, factors outside the control of the Medical Department. THE fact that 34.19 per cent of the late draft in the United rejected from military service on the basis of phys- States was ical inferiority raises serious questions in Dr. J. Howard Beard, of the University of Illinois, ana- lyzes in the Scientific Monthly the principal the field of public hygiene. causes of rejection with a view to their pre- ventability. All in all, the draft demon- strated that, if the country is to conserve its human lives as well as its other natural re- sources, it must turn its collective attention to adequate medical care and instruction in the schools. And, further, parents must be educated to save themselves expense by pay- ing the family doctor a small sum to pre- vent, rather than a large sum to cure, illness in their children. THe decoration of Commander of the Order of the Crown of Belgium was pre- sented to President Henry Fairfield Osborn on November 20 by Colonel Osterrieth, chief of the Belgian Military Mission to the United States, representing the King of Belgium. Two volumes of the scientific re- searches made as a result of the Congo Ex- pedition of the American Museum have been sent to King Albert, inscribed with the fol- lowing legend: “In grateful appreciation of the generous codperation of the Belgian Government in 792 promoting this scientific research, the con- tributions in these two volumes representing the reports of the Belgian Congo Expedi- tion so far as published, have been assembled for presentation to his Majesty, the King of Belgium, by the President and Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History on the occasion of his visit to America.” THE collection of big game trophies made by the late Captain F. C. Selous, D.S.O., who was killed in action during the British cam- paign in East Africa, has been presented by Mrs. Selous to the British Museum (Natural History). Captain Selous hunted during a period of forty years in Africa, Canada, Newfoundland, the southern Carpathians, and Asia Minor, and it is said that the col- lection is one of the largest ever brought together. AN expedition to Africa under Mr. Ed- mund Heller sailed from New York on July 15 for Capetown whence it will proceed to Victoria Falls, from there entering the Bel- gian Congo and traveling eastward to Lake Tanganyika. Mr. H. C. Raven has been delegated by the Smithsonian Institution its representative on the expedition. AN expedition to discover the sources of the Wahi Shebeli River which flows from Abyssinia through Italian Somaliland, left Naples during October. It was under the leadership of Prince Luigi, Duke of the Abruzzi, who was commander in chief of the Italian navy during the war, and has held both farthest north and highest altitude records, the one made in an attempt to reach the North Pole from Franz Josef Land, the other by an ascent of Mt. Austin, India, to a height of 24,000 feet. On a previous expedi- tion to equatorial Africa he scaled Mt. Ru- wenzori, altitude 16,801 feet. THE British Imperial Antarctic Expedi- tion under Mr. John L. Cope plans to leave New Zealand in July on the ship “Terra Nova.” In announcing his expedition Mr. Cope says that it will aim to ascertain the position and extent of mineral deposits in Antarctica, to locate any waters abounding in whales, to investigate the meteorological and magnetic condition in the Ross Sea area and at Cape Ann, and to circumnavigate the Antaretie Continent. NATURAL BDSHO RY THE death is announced of Herbert Ward, British sculptor, traveler, and author. Mr. Ward early went to Africa and was one of the survivors of Stanley’s Emin Pasha Relief Expedition in 1888. He later turned to sculpture and exhibited in Paris many nota- ble bronzes of African natives, some of which are now in the Luxembourg. As sculptor he received the decoration of Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. In 1916 Mr. Ward lec- tured in the United States for the benefit of the work of the American War Relief. Among his books are Five Years with the Congo Cannibals (1890), My Life with Stanley's Rear Guard (1891), and A Voice from the Congo (1910). THE creation of a Mexican government bureau of archeology and ethnology has been announced by the Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento. The bureau will carry on scien- tific investigations of the Mexican aboriginal cultures on the basis of a regional survey of the country. THE erection of signposts, indicating dis- tance and direction of watering places, through the deserts of southern California and Arizona under the direction of the United States Geological Survey has progressed rapidly. The water supply of the region is of strategic importance because it includes about 350 miles of the Mexican frontier. All the watering places of the region have been examined and 635 signs erected. All maps and data have been turned over to the United States Army for incorporation in the progressive military map of the United States. The work will ultimately be extended to all the western arid lands. A COMPREHENSIVE outdoor course in biol- ogy was successfully conducted last summer by the department of zodlogy of Oberlin Col- lege under Professor Lynds Jones. Students of ecology were taken on an automobile trip to the Pacifie Coast of Washington, includ- ing in their route the Yellowstone Park and part of the Columbia River. In the summer of 1920 the department expects to conduct a similar trip through Colorado to the Yosem- ite Park, California. A musEuM of natural history has been founded in Yellowstone National Park by the Department of the Interior. Such NOTES institutions will render important service in the utilization of our national parks as great outdoor universities. THe United States Forest Service reports from California that the aviators who made daily flights over the national forests during the summer and autumn of 1919, discovered many incipient fires and thus prevented great loss. So valuable has this work proved that an air service may ultimately become a permanent part of the forest protection. The Mineral Deposits of South America is the title of a new work by Benjamin L. Miller, professor of geology in Lehigh Uni- versity, and Joseph T. Singewald, Jr., asso- ciate professor of economic geology in Johns Hopkins University. This book is the result of an extended trip by the two authors through South America, together with an ex- haustive study of the literature of South American mineralogy of which they have collected the first extensive bibliography. After an introductory chapter on the eco- nomic geology of the southern continent there follow résumés of the mineral products and topographical and geological deserip- tions of the various countries together with detailed descriptions of localities important mineralogically. The book will serve as a valuable source of information for the mer- chant, investor, or prospector as well as for the student of South American geology. WE learn from Nature that a conference of delegates from the Mediterranean nations met in November at Madrid to consult on and organize a plan for an international hydrographic and fishery investigation, par- ticularly with reference to the life histories of food fishes. immediate call of the organization, provided by the Prince of Monaco, and by Italy, France, and Spain, respectively. of this will be ultimately in French, Spanish, Italian, and English. Four vessels will be at the The re- sults research published PROGRESS in the tanning and preparation of fishskins for commercial leather is re- ported by the Fisheries Service Bulletin. The United States Government Bureau re- ports that samples of the leather made from shark and porpoise hides is much superior to that previously submitted and is soft, pli- 753 able, and strong. The Bureau has developed a special net for catching sharks which ap- pears well adapted to this difficult and some- times dangerous sport. THe United States Bureau of Fisheries has established an experiment laboratory in southern California to study the problem of preserving and canning fishery products. The methods developed will be placed at the disposal of the commercial packers. A GIANT panda (Ailuropus melanoleucus) from eastern Tibet, one of the rarest of ani- mals, has recently been placed on exhibition at the American Museum. The panda was discovered in 1869. In general appearance it resembles a bear and is about the size of our black bear, but it is really a distant rel- ative of the raccoon. The striking black and white coat, short muzzle, and curious black patches about the eyes give it a very ex- traordinary appearance. Almost nothing is known of the animal’s habits, but it is said that it feeds on roots and the young shoots of bamboo. It is believed that the specimen shown at the American Museum is the first brought to this country; the skin was pur- chased from Mr. Joseph Milner, a mission- ary, who had obtained it from some natives of Ta-Chien-lu, Tibet. Mr. Blaschke, sculp- tor in the American Museum preparation department, mounted the specimen. _AN interesting collection of birds, taken in northwestern Peru, has just been received at the American Museum from Mr. Harry Watkins, field representative of the depart- ment of ornithology. Several new forms, including a new genus of ovenbirds (Hylo- cryptus), are described in the December Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Wash- ington by Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator of the department of ornithology at the American Museum. One of the most inter- esting discoveries is a breeding race of the killdeer, a common North American bird, which occasionally reaches extreme northern South America in winter. A VALUABLE specimen of the great auk (Plautus impennis) has recently been added to the collections which are now in the Ameri- can Museum, belonging to Dr. L. C. Sanford, of New Haven, Connecticut. The great auk or garefowl is an extinct bird formerly in- North Atlantic habiting the regions and Tot breeding on small islands off the coast of Iceland, on the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and in the vicinity of Newfoundland. It appeared early in the nineteenth century through persecution by fishermen and sailors, who killed it for food, bait, and feathers. The last few survivors were taken by col- lectors about 1840. eight specimens are preserved in the mu- seums and private collections of the world, and accordingly skins have sold for very large sums. dis- Only about seventy- Bones of the Virginia deer have been found in Indian shell heaps in Nova Scotia by the Canadian Geological Survey, and the identification has been confirmed by Dr. Gerrit S. Miller, of the United States Na- tional Museum. That the Virginia deer ranged so far north, except after its intro- duction into the province in 1888, had not previously been known. OnE of the largest and most beautiful botanical gardens of the world is to be founded in Illinois, just outside the city of Chicago, by the Cook County board of forest preserve commissioners. This garden will be made by converting 2000 acres of the Palos Forest Preserve and so will inherit a natural tree and plant endowment in the green prairies and the wooded ravines along the Des Plaines River. Exotic flowers, shrubs, and trees will gradually be added. THE first living specimen of the okapi to be brought out of the Congo country has been safely delivered to the Zodlogical Gar- den of Antwerp by the Commandant of the district of Bas-Uelé (Belgian Congo). The specimen was captured a day or so after its birth. At first it was fed on canned milk and then on the milk of a zebu cow, but since its arrival in Europe the young animal eats clover and other green plants. The Congo Expedition of the American Museum (1909-15) attempted to bring out an okapi, but the specimen captured died for lack of proper food. THE first part of Volume I of the final re- port of the Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands was published Sep- tember 26 by the New York Academy of Sciences. It contains a history of the Survey by Dr. N. L. Britton; a geological introduc- tion, including a discussion of the major geological features, by Professor C. P. NATURAL HISTORY Berkey, to which is appended a new base map of Porto Rico by Dr. Chester A. Reeds; and an interesting description of the geology of the San Juan District, an area of about five hundred square miles on the northern side of Porto Rico, by Dr. Douglas R. Semmes. The 110 pages of text are supplemented by twenty-six illustrations, four plates, and three maps. The Survey was instituted in 1913 by the New York Academy of Sciences in codpera- tion with the insular government of Porto Rico, the American Museum of Natural His- tory, the New York Botanical Garden, and with the scientific departments of Columbia University and other institutions, for the purpose of prosecuting a thorough and sys- tematic investigation of the natural history of the island of Porto Rico, and subsequently of the Virgin Islands. A large amount of data has been assembled and a great number of specimens collected. Important prelimi- nary papers have been published in the Bul- letin and Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History as well as in other scien- tifie journals. The complete report will contain volumes devoted to anthropology, botany, geology, paleontology and zodlogy. These will give a most exhaustive and valuable account of the natural history resources of the islands. THE American Ornithologists’ Union held its thirty-seventh stated meeting at the American Museum, November 11-14. In connection with the meeting of the or- nithologists and in celebration of the cen- tennial of the expedition to the Rocky Mountains under the command of Major Stephen H. Long, the Museum arranged a special exhibit of specimens, manuscripts, drawings, and published volumes relating to Thomas Say and Titian Ramsay Peale accompanied that ex- pedition which was the first American ex- ploring expedition to which naturalists were officially assigned. Major Long’s journey. THE Children’s Museum of Boston has re- ceived accessions to its endowment fund amounting to $25,000. A branch will be opened in codperation with the Barnard Me- morial in the crowded south end of the city. THE bronze memorial to Lewis and Clark by Charles Keck, sculptor, a photograph of which was shown in the April-May number NOTES 755 of NarurAL History, was dedicated by the city of Charlottesville, Virginia, on Novem- ber 21, 1919. AN expedition to the island of Jamaica for living and extinct mammals, was under- taken in November by Mr. H. E. Anthony, assisted by Mr. Charles Falkenbach, both of the American Museum. No fossil verte- brates, except for a single skull of a marine mammal, were known from this island, but a consideration of the conditions in this and other West Indian islands made it appear highly probable that some land vertebrates formerly existed there, and the geology in- dicated that caves probably existed similar to those in Porto Rico and Cuba from which Mr. Anthony had secured such large and in- teresting collections of fossil mammals, and that they might also yield fossils. Prelimi- nary reports from Mr. Anthony leave no doubt that this forecast has been verified, but the extent and character of the collec- tions remain to be seen. The character of this fauna will be studied with particular interest, as it should throw further light on the sources of the fauna and the manner ‘of its arrival on the islands. The geology of the West Indies indicates that the most probable place for a mainland connection, if the fauna arrived in that manner, is by way of Hayti, Jamaica, and Honduras. Ob- viously, if the animals did arrive in this way, the fauna of Jamaica ought to be more like that of the mainland than those of any of the other islands—more continental in type. On the other hand, if the animals, or rather their ancestors, arrived on the islands through the agency of storms, floating vege- tation, or other accidents of oversea trans- portation, without the aid of any continuous land bridge, then Jamaica, as a rather small and isolated island, should have a more scanty and insular fauna than the larger and more central islands of Cuba and His- paniola, perhaps even more so than Porto Rico. Mr. ALBERT THOMSON, of the department of vertebrate paleontology in the American Museum, assisted by Mr. George Olsen, car- ried on operations during the summer of 1919 in the great fossil quarry at Agate, Nebraska. From the richer part of the quarry a section was selected especially suit- able to be preserved and exhibited at the Museum in the block. This block, showing sixteen skulls and corresponding numbers of skeleton bones within a space of 54%4x8 feet, was skillfully lifted, boxed, and brought to the American Museum without damage. Its weight when boxed was about six thousand pounds. Several other valuable fossil speci- mens were obtained from the quarry and vicinity. A SIGN of the renewed period of inter- change between the American Museum and its scientific colleagues abroad is the gift of a series of skeletal casts of the Neanderthal man of Krapina, Croatia, which comes from the laboratory of Professor Gorjanovié- Kramberger, director of the Geological and Paleontological Department in the Croa- tian Natural History Museum at Zagrab (Agram). These casts have been arranged with the other material dealing with the his- tory of Neanderthal man in the center of the hall of the Age of Man at the American Museum. Mr. Louis L. Mowsray, who was con- nected with the New York Aquarium for a number of years, has lately gone to Miami, Florida, to take charge of a new aqua- rium which is to be erected there. On leaving New York he turned over to the American Museum of Natural History two important collections of marine fishes, made by himself, one from Bermuda and the other from Turk’s Island in the Bahamas. These collections contain several which have never been deseribed, and others which are little known. Turk’s Island is famous for the variety of its fish life but the species which occur there have never before been listed or adequately collected. The fishes from Bermuda are comparatively well known and are of particular interest as perhaps giving some key to the obscure laws which govern the dispersal of marine fishes. A cer- tain similarity between the fish life in Ber- muda and that at South Trinidad Island, which lies well off the Brazilian coast, south of the Equator, should be traced to similar oceanic isolation of each locality. The occurrence in Bermuda and Porto Rico of species not known elsewhere in the West Indies is interesting, and we find that ‘cer- tain fishes of the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantie occur there. It seems incredible that these should not also reach other West Indian islands. Distance is proved to be no species "5G NATO RAT VATSRORY barrier to their dispersal. Possibly, how- ever, there is some effective barrier in the trend of the ocean currents or it may be that, although they reach Bermuda, they are barred from waters farther south where they would meet a keener competition with allied forms. A suRVEY through the Rocky Mountains for study of the nature of the folding of the earth’s crust involved in the elevation of these mountains is reported on by Professor Rollin T. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago, in the Journal of Geology. The line of the survey extended in a slight curve from near Lyons, Colorado, to the Grand Hogback at Glenwood Springs, so as to meet the various ranges at approximately right angles. This section of the Rockies (from the Great Plains to the Uinta Basin) was originally 140 miles in width and has been compressed into 132 miles, a shortening of only 8 miles. The section studied by the Survey was divided into thirteen parts and the thickness of the crust involved in the deformation was calculated for each section, The roots of the Gore Range reach to a depth of 87 miles and of the plateau near Glenwood Springs to 107 miles, very great depths when compared with the crustal deformation of the Pennsylvania Appalachian folds where the maximum depth is only 32 miles. Further comparison of the Colorado Rockies with the Appalachians out the very great amount of volcanic action there has been in the case of the former and the negligible amount in the latter. It is probably true that mountain formation in which there has been involved a. thick shell of the earth’s surface which has necessarily pushed down- ward into the earth great depths has always been accompanied by much outpouring of lava; and that the reverse has been true in the case of the deformation, however intense, of a thin shell which has pushed its roots but a few miles downward instead of several scores of miles. A theoretical division might be made of the earth’s mountain ranges into thin-shell, shallow-rooted mountains which have had little volcanic eruption—the Alps, the Jura, Seandinavian chain, Scottish High- lands, Brazil range, and thick-shell, deep-rooted mountains with very great lava output—Colorado Rockies, Cascade Range, western Andes, and the Abyssinian Moun- brings etc. ; tains. A TOPOGRAPHIC mapping of the repub- lics of Santo Domingo and Haiti has been undertaken under the supervision of the United States Geological Survey through appropriations made by the respective gov- It is also reported by the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences that Cuba and Porto Rico are expected to join in the work. A Division of West Indian Surveys has been created for this emergency and Lieutenant Colonel Glenn S. Smith placed in charge. Survey parties have already begun work in the Dominican Republic. ernments. AN exchange of professors between the University of Chile and the University of California has been officially ratified by the government of Chile through its Minister of Public Instruction, Pablo Ramirez. This is the first definite step in a plan by which the University of California will become a center for exchanges of professors with the leading Hispanie countries of the world and for study of the historic and contemporary problems of these countries. Dr. Charles E. Chapman, associate professor of Hispanic- American history in the University of Cali- fornia, will be the first exchange professor. THOSE mammals of Australia which are now or in the past have been in the New York Zoological Park are the subject of a well illustrated paper! by W. H. D. Le Souef, director of the Zoological Gardens, Mel- bourne. The Australian mammalian fauna, with its dingo, kangaroos, wallabies, koala, bandicoot, wombat, Tasmanian wolf, Tas- manian devil, and platypus, is the most pecu- liar found on any continent, and is always of interest to the general visitor at any zoological garden. The New York Zoological Park has a representative collection of Aus- tralian mammals for which the paper by Mr. Le Souef will serve as an excellent guide. A SCIENTIFIC application of micro-cinema- tography, similar in some ways to that dis- cussed by Mr. Charles Herm in a previous number of Narurat History, is presented by Professor Herbert F. Moore, in Iron Age. Professor Moore has designed a micro-ci- nematograph which is attached to a metal testing machine. With this he is able to take views of the change in microscopical 1Zoologica, Scientific Contributions of the New York Zoological Society, January, 1919. NOTES structure of the metals undergoing tests and then use these photographs for study and lectures. THE publication of a work on the oste- ology of reptiles, left in manuscript by the late Samuel Wendell Williston, professor of paleontology in the University of Chicago, has been intrusted to Dr. William K. Gregory of the American Museum. Dr. W. K. GreGorRY has in press two im- portant monographs in the Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, one describing the Eocene lemuroid Primates, the group of animals from which the later monkeys, apes, and man evolved, the other, a comparative study of the lachrymal bone in the Mammalia. Dr. Louis Doo, of the Royal Museum in Brussels, who is one of the senior paleon- tologists of Europe, is engaged, it is re- ported, in the preparation of a monograph on the fossil reptiles of the Congo. He has already published a number of special papers in this field. THE second award of the Elliot Medal for the leading publication in zodlogy or paleon- tology was made by the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, to Mr. William Beebe, curator of birds at the New York Zoological Park, in recognition of his Mono- graph of the Pheasants. Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn of the American Museum presented Mr. Beebe to the Academy. In speaking of the Monograph Professor Os- born said in part: “This is a profound study of the living pheasants in their natural environment in various parts of eastern Asia. There are nineteen groups of these birds: eighteen were successfully hunted with camera, with field-glasses, and when necessary for identi- fication, with the shotgun. The journey oc- cupied seventeen months, extended over twenty countries, and resulted in a rare abundance of material, both literary—con- cerning the life histories of birds—and pic- torial, photographs and sketches. The jour- ney extended over 52,000 miles; it ended in the great museums of London, of Tring, of Paris, and of Berlin, for the purpose of studying the type collections. Thus the order of the work was from nature to the museum and to man, rather than from man and the museum to nature. ToT “The Monograph covers the blood par- tridges, the tragopans, the impeyans, the gold and silver pheasants, the peacocks, the jun- gle fowl, and the history of the ancestry of our domestic fowls. It has important bear- ings on the Darwinian theories of protective coloration and of sexual selection, and on the De Vries theory of mutation. The full- and female characters, the changes of plumage from chick to adult, the songs, courtships, battles, nests, and eggs of nearly one hundred species are in- cluded and systematically described. The illustrations are by leading American and British artists. The haunts of the pheasants are shown in the author’s photographs rang- ing from the slopes of the Himalayan snow- peaks, 16,000 feet above the sea, to the tropical seashores of Java.” grown male To the four great murals by Charles R. Knight in the hall of the Age of Man at the American Museum has now been added a fifth, representing the Pleistocene life of northeastern North America, with its char- giant beaver, deer, moose, and tapir, the remains of which are found along with those of the mastodon in the peat bogs and later cave deposits of the North Atlan- tic States. A sixth mural painting by Mr. Knight, above the western archway of the hall, represents the Cro-Magnon race of man, the artist of the prehistoric cave paintings and sculptures of France and Spain and the forerunner in western Europe of the higher modern types of man among acteristi¢ whom civilization arose. Dr. PLiny E. Gopparp, curator of eth- nology in the American Museum, has been elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. THE seventy-second meeting of the Amer- ican Association for the Advancement of Science met in St. Louis December 29 to January 3 under the presidency of Dr. Si- mon Flexner. The retiring president, Pro- fessor John M. Coulter, delivered his address on the “Evolution of Botanical Research” and President Flexner gave a lecture, com- plimentary to the members of the associa- tion and affiliated societies and the citizens of St. Louis, on “Present Medical Research.” mended, among other things, that in con- Problems in The Association recom- 758 nection with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the British, French, and Italian equivalents of the American As- sociation be invited to send delegates to the meeting to be held next year in Chicago. The Association also indorsed and com- mended the general purposes of the Save the Redwoods League. Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the United States Bureau of Ento- mology, was elected president for the ensu- ing year. ON Roosevelt Day, October 27, a number of lecture reminiscences were delivered at the American Museum in conjunction with the National Association of Audubon So- cieties. Addresses on various aspects of Roosevelt’s interests in natural history were delivered by President Henry Fairfield Os- born, of the American Museum, Mr. T. Gil- bert Pearson, secretary of the National Association of Audubon Societies, Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator of ornithology in the American Museum, Mr. George K. Cherrie, representative of the American Museum on the Roosevelt Expedition to South America, Mr. Carl E. Akeley, and Mr. Ernest Thomp- son Seton. THE New York Times’ “Review of Books” reports the activity of John Burroughs in the memorial exercises in honor of Theodore Roosevelt. He journeyed from his home to Garden City, Long Island, to plant a “Roose- SINCE the last issue of NaTurRAL History the following persons have been elected members of the American Musum: Patrons, Mrs. Davin J. KELLEY and Mr. W. B. DICKERMAN. Life Members, MESDAMES H. ROSWELL BATES, CARLOS DE HEREDIA, BELLA C. LAN- DAUER, JAY C. Morss, J. D. ROCKEFELLER, JR., GARDINER SHERMAN, THAW, MISSES CHARLOTTE L. ANDREWS, THEODORA WIL- BOUR, GEN. THoMAS L. WatTSON, CoOL. S. HERBERT WOLFE, Magor Hunter S. Mars- TON, Likut. FREDERICK TRUBEE DAVISON, Dr.. FELIPE GarcIA CANIZARES, THE Hon. JULIEN STEVENS ULMAN, Messrs. A. M. ANDERSON, JOHN ASPINWALL, FREDERIC BARNARD, E. D. CHurcH, Epear B. Davis, Harry VALLETTE Day, D. GrorGe Dery, CLARENCE DILLON, [RENEE DU PONT, EUGENE G. Foster, AUSTEN G.. Fox, WALTER D. NATURAL HISTORY velt tree” in the gardens of the Country Life Press, selecting a sugar maple and _ set- ting it near the evergreen tree which John Muir planted several years ago. Mr. Bur- roughs is spending the winter in southern California. THROUGH the courtesy of Miss Josephine M. Stricker, who acted as Theodore Roose- velt’s secretary during the years 1916 to 1919, Natural History has become ac- quainted with Roosevelt’s early refusal and final acquiescence to Sigurd Neandross’ re- quest—seconded by Mr. Anthony Fiala—for sittings for a portrait bust (reproduced as frontispiece, page 510). Unfortunately the bust was never completed because of Roose- velt’s sickness; in fact, the sculpture is so true to hfe in certain views as it stands, that it very perceptibly portrays the low state of health and somewhat troubled con- dition of mind of the great American in the last year of his life and the fourth of the heart-rending years of the war. Mr. LAURENCE V. COLEMAN has returned to the American Museum as chief of the de- partment of preparation. Since Mr. Cole- man’s connection with the department of public health of the American Museum in 1915-16 he has been studying zodlogy at Yale, Harvard, and Woods Hole and has given nine months’ service in the United States Army as chemist. GELSHENEN, AUGUSTUS HEMENWAyY, WALTER HINCHMAN, ALFRED O. Hoyt, Exias M.. JOHNSON, FreLix E. KAHN, THEO. N. Vath MarsSTERS, WM. MAxweE.LuL, DUNLEVY MIL- BANK, FRANcIS L. MircHett, E. VirGin NEAL, FRANK G. OrmMsBy, C. P. PERIN, CARL H. PFoRZHEIMER, F. L. RopEwALp, H. E. SARGENT, WALTER SELIGMAN, Stuart C. SQuIER, STEVENSON TAYLoR, INGLIS M. UP- PERCU, THEO. N. VAIL, C. BLAINE WARNER, Buarr S. WILLIAMS, EMIL WINTER, and SAMUEL ZEMURRAY. Sustaining Members, Mrs. J. F. OD. Lanier, Miss Anira Buiss, Messrs. JOHN V. Bacor, Jr., Francis D. Bartow, Epwarp H. Cuark, J. S. Douenas, LavurENcE H. Henpricks, M. L. MorGeNTHAv, CLARENCE M. Roor, E. C. SmirH, and Casimir I. STRALEM. Annual Members, MeESDAMES T. R. AL- NOTES 759 MOND, F. HuntTINGTON Bascock, JACQuES Bain, WiLLiAM T. BLopGerr, GrorGE G. Bourne, M. T. CaMPBELL, O. B. Coates, STURGIS COFFIN, CLARK Davis, GEORGE B. pg Lone, Farman R. Dick, RuGer Donono, CuHas. Dovugiass, GrorGeE W. FLEMING, AN- son R. Fiower, A. V. Fraser, Ropert A. GARDINER, Marion B. B. LANGzErTEL, Frep- ERIC E. Lewis, Frances B. Mason, Junius S. Morean, JAMES Moses, J. O. H. Pirney, J. ErNEsT RicHArDS, H. SCHWEITZER, FRED- ERIC SHONNARD, A. RirreR SHuUMWay, Henry Siticocks, H. G. Srmon, Rosweiu SKEEL, Jr., GerpDA STEIN, WiLuiAm E. S. STRONG, CorRNELIUS Tiers, RicHarD TJADER, R. A. WALKER, Misses ELLEN Louise ADEE, KATHERINE M. Barnes, ANNIE W. Bonn, Emity Bucu, ELEANoRE Cross, ANNA S. GOTBERG, AVAH W. HuGHEs, Mary BERNICE JENKINS, Hope Lewis, ALice R. Perers, IsaBEL M. PrTerS, Carotins M, Puarr, CuaRA A. REED, ALICE Low Sanp, BELLE THOMSON, ALICE WILSON WiLcox, Major H. P. ERSKINE, Major JoHN W. LovELAND, Capt. A. P. Simmonps, Likur. HERBERT Scour, U.S.N.R.F.. THe Rev. Ovyrus TOWNSEND Brapy, THE Hon. GrorGE A. CARDEN, Doctors Lawrason Brown, PaBio F. CatmMa, Henry H. Covent, ANNIE S. DaNtEL, Henry E. Hate, Marius E. Jouns- TON, CHARLES C, Lirs, Geo. M. MacKekr, MARSHALL WittiAM McDurrir, Joun P. Munn, JoHN H. Nowan, J. H. O’ConnELL, G. W. RicHarpson, Wm. BENHAM Snow, WALTER R. STEINER, MaLcoum H. TALLMAN, FANEUIL SuypAmM WEIssE, Messrs. Wo. CRITTENDEN ADAMS, PauL W. ALEXANDER, J. Roy ALLEN, Puinie ALLEN, Morris Am- DUR, ALEXANDER L. ANDERSON, CHARLES LEE ANDREWS, GEorGE R. Baker, CHRIS BaMBacu, Louis H. Barker, Istpor Baum- GART, WM. N. Beacu, W. GepNey Bearry, JAMES H. BeNepict, Epwin H. BLASHFIELD, Moses D. Buirzer, Grorce T. Bowpor, LAWRENCE J. BreNnGue, HENRY MorGan BrooKFIELD, C. FreD BUECHNER, JOSEPH E. BuLKLEY, Harry I. Carsar, ArtHur L. Carns, JoHN Jay CHAPMAN, ©. T. CHENE- VERT, Louis R. CHENEY, Myron H. Crarx, WILLIAM CLARK, LATHROP ConeatE, C. H. Conner, J. C. Corrrett, E. H. Cranpatt, RicHArRD CRONIN, ANTON Cypra, Gro. C. DEMPsEy, CHarLes H. Ditson, FREDERICK G. Dopp, H. Yate Dowan, F. L. Du Bosque, P. D. Dwicut, Jonn H. EDEN, JR., FRANK- LIN M. Etms, CHarLes Farser, SAMUEL H. FisHeEr, P. H. B. FRELINGHUYSEN, MELVILLE B, Futter, JACOB Meyer GippInc, GEORGE McMurtrige GopLEy, Gustav GoopMANN, Frep W. Gorpon, W. C. GotsHALL, JAMES S. Gross, Georce C. HaigH, ALEXANDER J. HAMMERSLOUGH, WILLIAM B, Harbin, THos. R. Hartiey, Carrott Hayes, J. F. Herne, ANprREW H, HersHey, Ropert CarMeEr Hix, JULIAN HincktEy, Haroip K. Hocuscuitp, Hat Hopes, CHartes L. Horrman, W. Roger Hunt, CourtNey Hype, Sranuey M. Isaacs, FrepERIcK D. Ives, JoHN PERCIVAL JEFFERSON, Percy H. JENNINGS, FRANcts C. JONES, OTTo Kaun, JosepH F, KeEuurr, JOHN KirRKPATRICK, CHARLES KLINGEN- STEIN, J. C. KRAEMER, JR., JULIUS G. Ku- GELMAN, WM. B. LarKIN, GEorGeE Bacon LESTER, RicHarp LOUNSBERY, CHRISTOPHER M. LowTHeEr, GEorGE LowtHeEr, IsraEL Lup- LOW, SAMUEL LustTBapER, JR., W. J. TURNER LyncH, ArtHUR C. Mack, KENNETH K. MACKENZIE, BERNHARD Marcuse, FRANCIS R. Masters, HENry Forpes McCrerry, Ros- ERT McKEtvy, THos. P. McKenna, ANDREW D. MeEtLoy, J. Epwarp Meyer, EMANUEL MILLER, FREDERIC P. Moore, Gro. T. Mor- TIMER, S. L. MuNSON, JoHN G. NEESER, IsI- DORE NEUGASS, WALTER M. NongEs, Wm. P. NortHruP, Gitt N. Oakes, JuLIusS OPPEN- HEIMER, RAYMOND OrTEIG, Epwarp S. PAINE, WAINWRIGHT ParIsH, Husert TEM- PLETON Parson, LiNcoLN R. Preasopy, F. CurTIS PERKINS, Jr., L. H. PERLMAN, JOHN J. PHELAN, Livincston Pratt, B. F. QUACKINBUSH, EvAN RANDOLPH, RoBErT R. REED, Henry R. REISCHMANN, THos. A. REYNOLDS, WILLIAM L. RicH, Jr., CHARLES A. RicHarps, Kingman Norr Rosins, Ep- WIN M. Rocers, Gustavus A. Rogers, Cuar- ENCE G. RoTHscHILD, WILLIAM A. SANBORN, CarL SCHAETZER, JACK W. SCHIFFER, WIL- LIAM D, ScHouie, J. ScHULLINGER, ALFRED F’, SELIGSBERG, J. NELSON SHREVE, WILLIAM R. SIDENBERG, THEO. A. Srmon, C. Haronp SmiruH, ALFRED T. STANLEY, FRED M. STEIN, GLENN STEWartT, Puiwip B, Stewart, FREpD- ERICK A. STOKES, ALFRED W. STONE, ArR- THUR HAYS SuLzBERGER, ROBERT EGERTON Swartwout, DaNnreL G. TENNEY, AMBROSE G. Topp, J. M. Town.ey, J. HeENry Towns- END, JOHN C. TRAVIS, GARDINER TROWBRIDGE, KINSLEY TWINING, ALBERT ULMANN, LEO WEILL, BULKELEY WELLS, JOHN C. WET- MORE, FRANK WHITNEY, WILLIAM WIESE, JAMES D. Witurams, LAmbLaw WILLIAMS, H. A. Witson, Lee J. Worre, Oris F. Woop, HeNry R. WorTHINGTON, and HENRY ZUCKERMAN. 760 Associate Members, MESDAMES J. GILBERT 3URTON, T.A.JANVIER, A.G. LANGFORD, JOHN W. PHELPS, A. P. Taytor, Misses ELiza FRANCES ANDREWS, BETSEY BEAN, Mary A. BootH, ROSAMOND P. COFFIN, CAROLINE J. Hircucock, Mary 8. Houmes, ELizaBEeTH Mapeira, AGNES McDOoNELL, LovuIsE KLEIN Minter, Cuara A. Prasze, RutH L. PHIL- LIPS, CAROLINE GRAY SOULE, CLEONA C. SPROUL, ELISABETH W. STONE, E. GRACE WHITE, THE HON. CHARLES H. ALLEN, THE Hon. EDWIN F. Lyrorp, THE Hon. CHASE S. OsBorN, Professors O. M. Batu, Gro. E. BEYER, FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI, J. H. Bretz, GEORGE ALEXANDER Buist, WEBSTER CHES- TER, T. D. A. COCKERELL, CHARLES WRIGHT Dopcr, ELoN Howarp Eaton, Simon H. GAGE, GroRGE E, Hate, GILBERT D. Harris, THomas M. His, Jas.-S. Hinz, N. L. Hurr, J. GLADDEN Hutton, A. G. LEONARD, EARLE G. LINSLEY, Homer P. LittTLe, HaNns- FoRD M. MacCurpy, SHIRLEY P. MILLER, FRANK 8S. Mints, C. A. Moorrs, Henry F. NACHTRIEB, WILLIAM PETERSON, CHARLES ScHUCHERT, Mary A. WiLLcox, Ira A. WIL- LIAMS, Doctors F. Bascom, R. BENNETT BEAN, FREDERICK BENTLEY, Louis B. BisHop, J. CHESTER BRADLEY, J. BRAUN- NAGEL, EDWarD C. Briees, H. S. Brops, CHas. C. Brownine, LutTHER BuRBANK, HERMAN BurGIN, C. E. CauM, W. C. CoKEr, JOSEPH D. Conpit, R. D. CRawForp, WHIT- MAN Cross, CHARLES A. DEWEY, CHas. R. DRAKE, CHARLES REDWAY DryYkER, GEORGE C. EmMBopy, Justus WaTsoN Fouisom, Don- ALD J. FRICK, MELVIN RANDOLPH GILMORE, U. S. Grant, LELAND Grices, PHILIP B. HavuLey, J. CuLvER HaArTZELL, WILLIAM FREDERICK Howat, GEORGE Davip HUBBARD, IvarR JANSON, HE. E. Just, J. H. KELLOGe, ABRAM T. KERR, BENJAMIN F. KINGSBURY, ADOLPH KoeEnic, W. J. G. LAND, FRANK R. LILLIE, JAMES W. LOWBER, CLARA S. LupD- Low, Marcus W. Lyon, Jr., T. H. McHar- TON, EpMuND B. MontTGOMERY, ROBERT OrtTON Moopy, Susan P. NIcHOLs, J. PEASE Norton, HENRY LESLIE OSBORN, FREDERICK J. Pack, G. H. ParKrr, EpirH M. PatcuH, J. T. PaTrEerRsoN, A. S. PEARSE, RAYMOND J. Poot, H. D. Reep, ALBERT M. REESE, Ep- WARD REYNOLDS, DELANCEY ROCHESTER, RayMonpd C. Rusu, M. CHARLOTTE SCHAE- FER, ADELINE F. SCHIVELY, Mary ALICE SCHIVELY, SoLoN SHEpDD, HERVEY Woop- BURN SHIMER, HENRY SKINNER, CHARLES D. Situ, F. D. SNyprer, CLINTON R. STAUFFER, BERNARD C. STEINER, P. E. Stuart, JoE H. NATURAL HISTORY Topp, CHAS. Epwarp Tucker, Henry E. Urrer, Epa R. WALKER, Stuart WELLER, R. WERNIGK, CHARLES BRANCH WILSON, J. Howarp WILsoN, Messrs. Brniy ANDREWS, Orta L. Ayrs, FreLIx BassBace, Gero. B. Bapeer, J. L. Bett, ArTtTHUR BARNEVELD BIBBINS, FRANK S. Bieter, E. L. Buack- SHEAR, EpGAR C. BRADLEY, Epwin T. Brew- STER, WILEY Brirron, FRED E. Brooks, ERNEST B. Brown, Water H. BucHERr, Stewart H. BurNHAM, VERDI BurTCH, KERMIT CHRISTENSEN, W. A. CLARK, JR., RaMON GaANDIA CORDOVA, CHARLES H. CRAMER, NORMAN CrRIDDLE, Marcus HELE Datu, Henry E. Davies, SAMUEL HOFFMAN DERICKSON, E. T. DUMBLE, WILLARD A. Euior, H. G. FarrHorn, Epwarp A. FEATH- ERSTONE, WM. L. W. Fietp, ArtHur H. FLEMING, FREEMAN A. Ford, Mark FRAN- cis, L. S. Frierson, T. E. Gippon, W. W. GRANT, HENRY WALDO GREENOUGH, JOHN W. Hancock, T. L. HankKINSON, EH. CC HARDER, GEORGE HARRINGTON, NorvVIN TRENT HARRIS, KENNETH L. HArRTSHORN, HERBERT M. W. Haven, Morcan HeEsBarD, Geo. A. Hero, J. P. HERRING, RICHARD CHARLES HiLus, Howarp A. Howe, RicHarp LEDYARD HUBBARD, CARL HYNE, WALTER F’, JAHNCKE, WILLIAM KELLY, HENRY KERR, WARREN KNaAus, Epwarp Q. KNIGHT, GEORGE LANG- FORD, RicHarD K. LEBLOND, FRANK LeEy- ERETT, J. T. LuoypD, Cart F. Loms, EDGAR OpELL Lovett, Gro. E. MarsH, M. C. MarsH, Epwin J. MARSHALL, JOHN W. MARSHALL, Gro. C. Matson, S. W. Mc- CALLIE, HirAM DryER McCasKey, Wo. C. MILLS, WARNER J. Morse, W. D. MurpPHy, ArTHUR H. Norton, GEORGE E. OSTERHOUT, Wm. ParFritt, D. C. PARMAN, GEORGE H. PERKINS, JOHN W. PHILLIPS, LAURENCE E. Porr, LEwis RapDcLIFFE, J. B. RAILSBACK, L. C. ReaD, JAMES A. G. REHN, G. BRINTON Roperts, JOSEPH M. RoGers, JOHN G. ROTHERMEL, JOHN HALL SAGE, HUBERT ScHMiIpT, CHARLES SCHUNEMAN, FREDERICK E. SEARS, C. W. SHANNON, CHARLES CUTLER SHarp, C. A. SHARPE, HENRY S. SHARPE, DELAVAN SMITH, CHARLES H. STERNBERG, GEORGE R. STETSON, FRANK STONE, LUCIUS S. Storrs, Louis N. Srort, P. A. TETRAULT, ABRAM OWEN THOMAS, Howarp V. THOMAS, J. K. Urmston, L. R. WALDRON, ALBERT P. WeEIss, WM. D. WHEELWRIGHT, B. F. WHIPPLE, HaroLtp O. WHITNALL, E. B. WIL- LIAMSON, Herrick E. WILSON, CHas. D. Woops, JOHN 8. WriGHT, and CARL ZAPFFE. _ Natural history N3 v.19 Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY