: S: tt nw. . a8 oy Tes 4 - ® , * vas eh pat ok _ 2 ; , F ws ’ / : : Sas . - A . 7 ‘ j \ 1 - = a . , : 2 \ ‘ a ' F \ : “4 * f \ re \ = A \ ‘ . > \ he ¥ J a . a , . . ~~, - —_ ~ —~_ be 7 5 - 7 oa f sash is Rat aed br — —_ 2 oo NATURAL HISTORY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY EDITED BY MARY CYNTHIA DICKERSON VOLUME ec fo2e O81. Published bimonthly, by THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK CITY 1920 An illustrated magazine devoted to the advancement of natural his- tory, the recording of scientific research, exploration, and discovery, and the development of museum exhibition and museum influence in education. Contributors are men eminent in these fields, including the scientific staff, explorers, and members of the American Museum NATURAL HISTORY IS SENT TO ALL CLASSES OF MUSEUM MEMBERS AS ONE OF THE PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERSHIP CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX -) ANUARY—F'EBRUARY | PSION at a's Sees Oe ee een ke Fe ORES Hersert L. BripGMan Scientific Research as a Public Function........... T. D. A. CocKERELL AeNaocewe: Catastrophe’. .\..2.cswes < free ue he nan Davin StTarR JORDAN A Chapter of History and Natural History in Old ING We MOL Sosa cetera eres inane eee car GEORGE Birp GRINNELL Okefinokee Swamp as a Reservation................. FRANCIS HARPER thier By arehhigse sp icinown CMO wernt. Sc taiacicea coe dees ol ete eee FRANK OVERTON SEXY: -Vearscors Ware walt." et eis aee ae Ses cae Amaprus W. GRraBau Biya sive oll Copeman ie yeas. oh Ae uae cadens een acanvelsenehe W. D. MarraEw Woodetinmnedsto Opallisecs 2. sia cane <5 Bee, 5 doves HerBert P. WuHItTLocK Microscopical Trouble-makers in the Water SIDS) ON A Ac aterpesoh me Cones arene ala CRIS omen enna ae ae Morton CHARLES KAHN The Fountains of Ashokan: A Poem...... Roser UNDERWOOD JOHNSON Hor-the Sake of His Amnecestors’. .054. 20.5... oes Mancoum P. ANDERSON The Needed Art Galleries for New York...... Howarp RussELL BUTLER Meninout, thesAnd yor shivesiolni es. creel ere amie nine cocrennineeean eee PACMAG so LESCTVESis cre cache ae. cee ee A. SS. PEARSE and CiybE B. TERRELL Scientific Zoological Publications of the ANnericam’ A ISeUINs So 5-5 Gye. saie ween eae yeus awe FRANK KE. Lutz ING UGS ey eset ewes Ser crore ee tes oirss dunes gpln cecal shod Sie ooh een HCP lv eG Nees MarcuH—A prin Alaska Can Save the American Eagle.......... WinuiAm T. HorNADAY ihe schoolboy and kas Morestes cay s6 ss ence ee FRANK H. Woop John aviunes ims Y-OSemite sacar caess Bho cheeses WinuiAM FREDERIC Bapk clnewvanhattan: Medical: Schools 0. \2s.s2:eses nee eras GRAHAM Lusk liawrence cA bbott.s =" Roosevelt’... anes « secteaes HAMLIN GARLAND Appheation of Psychological Tests in Army Camps....GrorGE F. Arps inet Ancestors ot the: Sequoias : 2c. sas eee. eee on Epwarp W. Berry AG AOOLO CASE Wily eo) AMNANCA es, se cecns esses Gis ee eee vn ea see 8 H. E. ANTHONY JEG Gea Rg et Re eens rier EN US hia PSO ii Wl ariGh nerds Oe VERNON BAILEY New Plans in Nature Extension Work........... GEORGE H. SHERWOOD PANS HON C eller ES NIN ee ATINOTUC A seceh-ce ect aoo oon 2 ued cues & oMac ke aise ee ew Noe Trials and Tribulations of a Nature Photographer. Ropert B. RockKWELL SoOuviweAmentcanm Eveld:iNotestm.... 25 .. 4.608 seer GEORGE K. CHERRIE Mie sBrowine- EelicAnS.. ca airs lees Rees ome Os Senne ALFRED M. BaILEy Charles Gordon Hiewitt— ln Wemoriaminn 0.4. wacasct-ns. ee. oe Joh irrouch sim: Moyne. bicthuresaaerrc oe loom nee eee across Naturein New York’s Lower Hast Side.............. RuryH E. Crospy Change of Personnel in the United States Forest Service.............. Mihatethesislimesare Ong: 0.2 aeons eee kk eee Water G. HoumMes MAH OMOUGaerotect 1st ANMtiQUIbIES S. ae.) Se oo Ga a cnt se eee lerelivetriee WESICGoptrs ae ahs Sane Rose ina Ore eee 2 las CHARLES W. MeEap Galleries in New York for Fine Arts and Industrial Arts............. Notes ayo} ceur aie he Be? (ese!) ee! (0) Koike Ke710] (6.5610: .0\ 10) mie) O)l eu. 6, eile) 0; (e| ieee ONe 0) @."6. alle, ee) © 0 ese) e) er epeite a lel eheme IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX May—JuNrE The Hall of the Age of Man in the Mtinericany ViUSEUIM sa nae ae eee Henry FatrFreLD OSBORN MiesBirth-oF a Sclence.= = ocsence aes ee WituiaAM Harvey McNamn John Campbell Merriam: New President of the Carnegie PnStitwation 292k ors Se ec eee, oe are el ron W. D. MarrHEew Lafayette National Park at Bar Harbor, Maine........ GEORGE B. Dorr Nature andethec@ ity Ghildiacg:.: teas toe heen ececee Mrs. JOHN I. NorTHROP The Manufacture of Pulp and Paper as an PsNymacerad Vers ole) HAVO HOES Fl eh he ease Pe ocory pean = SEER N Sure. se Hueu P.. Baker ne Wood= pulp: Shontagerns of a2e". 22s a enero Winuarp G. VAN NAME The Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelpitatcert eee hee oer aerate acee tee pn enc W. W. KEEN WnderseanHorms, Of Mikes... stn Nose cet vise eee. CHARLES R. KNIGHT George Walbridge Perkins—1862-1920....... GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ *“ Army Mental Tests’’—A Review............... RicHarp M. Enuiorr iPbarkssand Gardens: of Buenos#AITres:. ren. act F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER Anebmtomoloristiam, Colorados 5.44190. see es a. FRANK E. Lutz ithesPeoplesAlways atsAtientions alc fac sacha aes sit seis hee eee William Dutcher—In Memoriam................. T. GILBERT PEARSON Mhensilver-wingeds sed Birdss ia... «2c asceeeeee anes ALFRED M. BaILEY The Desd: Kagles of Alaska Now Number 8356... 2..25...2225.2--... 25 INCE 2 Sea A ae eS Sr ee nS Bers err ae eee rete PA ae Ae eS SEPTEMBER—OCTOBER New Expedition to Central Asia............. t0Y CHAPMAN ANDREWS InvWoneoha and North China? .3. ...«.2 ss Roy CHapMAN ANDREWS Social Evolution: A Palzontologist’s Viewpoint...... W. D. MattHEw The Stephens Sculptures from Yucatan.......... HERBERT J. SPINDEN After the Eruption of Katmai, Alaska.............. Rospert F. Grices ihe OrecongCavesiye.. 22 sccscer ce es Ge io ett awe aie eee Ira A. WILLIAMS The Water Supply of a Great City....... oer yee ee CHARLES P. BERKEY OunmAmericany Game. Birds)... 55422412 th ooo FRANK M. CHAPMAN Caimanyeuntine in South Americ¢as. . 002.2 oc 35 ALBERT M. REESE The Discovery of the Chinese Takin..... MaucouM PLAYFAIR ANDERSON Mammal Fur under the Microscope......... Leon Aucustus HAUSMAN Riesearchermethe OUCH SOAS. x. 405512 dices oat San oR ee ee Bishessok ihesspanish Main. ..6.'2..... sis.eaeeoe eee JOHN T. NICHOLS The Golden Jubilee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1870-1920.... A Prehistoric Poncho from Nazea, Peru............ CHARLES ‘W. MEAD Anthropology and Geology in the Pan-Pacific Scientifie Congress...... Objects That Symbolize the Common Life in Tibet................... hnreestoedebtorses ays. crack. 4 eS, on Sac oe W. D. MatrHEew A Scientific Record from the New York Zoodlogical Park.............. Weyer’s Cave Exhibit in the American Museum... EpMUND Ot!Is Hovey A Botanical Excursion to the Big Cypress....... JOHN KUNKEL SMALL 305 312 326 327 329 B34 339 349 396 374 379 390 397 406 422 424 428 434 445 449 453 466 467 469 473 479 487 488 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX V MherGypsve Moti an INew? Jersey: o..2 sis ce Meu t's 0 a see a eee « H. B. Weiss 501 Foreign Insects Newly Come to America........... '... FRANK E. Lutz 501 A Case in Point to Prove the Value of Prolonged Research............ 502 ING UES oh acquis 2 roses Sacsauies re! nae) avec abt sgh ensue aealle ened alk sitcom RATS Me oye D038 NOVEMBER—DECEMBER A Winter Journey in Northern China...Maucoum Puayrarr ANDERSON 516 Mite Unicorniancd His hlorme ga sarcastic esis se oh FreperIc A. Lucas 532 Caria cian PIMOS mars st. Aiea toes e Ghia s vie, Abus elas alent W. D. MatrHew 536 MeTele VS muedoel ities fe heer warec cody ceca! oe sexed ete bones Snore Routto H. Beck 545 Unusualekhotorraphs of Mishesseo.0 2.0%. .44-. 250 EKuwIn R. SANBORN 549 From Kayenta to Rainbow Bridge........... CHARLES L. BERNHEIMER 552 Some Plants from Tropical Sea Gardens.......MarsHautu AvERY Howe 560 Backed auncdles-of the Pawnee... .44¢c<.-6 55 +02 see ee CuARK WISSLER 569 The Optimistic Philosophy of a Naturalist........... G. CLYDE FisHErR 572 FGOo1sOle theeh volution of MWMany a2) 20.4. W. D. MarrHEew 574 Sikomy... 2.7. 0.7.2 fat: FRANCIS HARPER 29 In its unusual primeval scenery and the richness of its animal life the Okefinokee is excelled by no spot in the eastern United States With photographs of the swamp and a new map by the Author siheeh arcane sp rines © MOU. oe esc ores eee eytetelens wos eens FRANK OVERTON 42 Photographs of some of Long Island’s amphibian vocalists SIEGbY Sears Ole War WIMISIM cry else Gis) au eons nae oe el AMADEUS W. GrRABAU 59 The long evolutionary history of the mollusks, well recorded in the geologic record, indicates that the evolution of species may proceed by continuous changes in definite directions rather than by natural selection of fortuitous variations With portraits of Darwin, Agassiz, and Hyatt bya g he pilestns ey.b. ters te coast og Stone eee nCae ay oe tacts W. D. MattHew 73 Giant flying reptiles patrolled the Cretaceous seas and hung batlike in high roosts out of reach of the other fierce reptiles of their remote age With a photograph of a newly installed Pteranodon skeleton at the American Museum Wood “urned: ton pals. aos. an eatin erreo eas Herbert P. WHITLocK 82 Microscopical Trouble-Makers in the Water SS Up plyees Sei act sentee Saber oncpeh eee Morton CHARLES KAHN 83 Disagreeable flavors and odors in city water are usually produced by its microscopic plant and animal inhabitants The Fountains of Ashokan: A-Poem....... Rospert UNDERWOOD JOHNSON 9] With a drawing of the great aération fountains of the Catskill water supply system for New York City RorthetSakecombncpeAmeestorss. «acc 25 acta Matcotm P. ANDERSON 92 A story of Chinese life by an explorer and traveler The Needed Art Galleries for New Yerk...... Howarp RusseLt BurLer 100 WithoutathesAndsor divestment: cat neleee ms tee sts ce eee ee oe 102 Brief quotations from Hitting the Dark Trail by Clarence Hawkes Wowace Preserves: s 2 strekeacvo ce eee A. S. PEARSE and CiypE B. TERRELL 103 The development of a suitable habitat for game birds and fish requires scientific study of their life histories and of the aquatic plants among which they live and on which they feed Scientific Zoological Publications of the American Museum. FranxK E. Lurz 107 Summary of work on whales INObeS! eigen, ew hs 2 wie ew ee ee ee ee 109 Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History,-New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $3.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NavTURAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of membership. Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBERSHIP For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Naturai History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- erosity of friends. More than 5300 friends are now enrolled who are thus supporting the work of the Museum. 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Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the Museum. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS A large number of popular publications on natural history, based . on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of these publications with price lists and full information may be obtained by addressing the Librarian of the Museum. SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the inside back cover of NaturAL History. Price lists and complete data may be obtained from the Librarian. Carrara marble at Florence by the American sculptor. Portrait from the bust éreciuted Couper, and installed in one of the niches in Vemorial Hall, American Vuseum of Natural History, in Americal lore! mit ( I I Peat U.S ti iched YO ititude on th nd ited it} I rled meri flax the ocation of the Nort ole April 6,1909 1] igo H 1ece ime ifter t l l ! 8) olar or built on a foundation 7 mor in thi ! ) ) é f different nations NATURAL VOLUME XX JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1920 HISTORY NUMBER 1 Peary By HERBERT EARY’S life was an epic in two parts; the first of preparation, the second of performance. When the tale is fully told, as it should be in the fullness of time, the world, which has made him one of its fore- most and familiar figures, will learn that his was no sudden or erratic as- cent like a rocket in the midnight, but a steady upward advance, that un- broken spiral with constant gradient and constant approach to its culmina- tion. Washington had reached the merid- ian before he assumed command of the Continental Armies, but his field work among the Alleghenies and in the Ohio Valley beyond, his .civil training among the landholders and patricians of the Old Dominion, had given him vision of the future, of the extent and resources of his country, and of the government and institutions necessary for their development. Lincoln had passed his semicentennial before he assumed the great office in which he was to meet death and immortality, bringing to his cares and duties more than a quarter of a century's unbroken and intimate practice among the courts and the politicians of Illinois. And Peary was quite beyond the first flush of young manhood when at thirty he essayed his first adventure from the sheltered Godhavn upon the hitherto untrodden, mysterious ice cap, foretell- ing that quest which was to occupy and crown the remainder of his active life, projected against a background tee hoa G.MeAN which had in it every demand of phys- ical and mental endowment, long and arduous training, so that when in 1891, five years later, this daring young lieutenant of the Navy essayed to take up again the challenge of the implacable North, the human. com- posite was complete. and_ effective. “Poets,” runs the old adage, “‘are born, not made.” Explorers hke Peary are both born and made, or rather, they make themselves by preparation of mind and body which spares nothing, forgets nothing. Maybe I can set forth Peary more clearly, as certainly more easily, by a few word pictures from the gallery of memory which the mood and manner of the man, because of their absolute freedom from accessories or from influences of any incident or en- vironment. Of all the things that Peary was not he was never a poseur, or possessor of the least trace of affec- show tation. So that all these incidents, like so many others which come thronging to the mind unbidden, are simply the unstudied, living expression of the real man—and there could be no other whether among all the comforts of home and the company of family and friends, or solitary and alone, with only his faithful “huskies,” facing all that an Arctic winter might mean, while the ship with all dearest to him was receding from his sight. Perfectly at ease and with every muscle and thought fully controlled, Peary in great trial or in keenest triumph never 0 eat PEARY 7 made a scene. He was always master of himself and the situation. Well do I remember my first sight of the explorer, returned with ac- claim, to which the public, still re- calling the melancholy scenes of Cape Sabine, only languidly responded. It was, on a rainy autumn evening in a rather dingy and dimly lighted, sparsely filled Brooklyn hall, and he was trying to tell his audience some- thing of what he had seen and done; of his winter in a real house at Red Chiff on McCormick Bay, and of his great thousand-mile traverse of the Green- land ice cap, both radical departures as to method and _ objective from former Arctic field work, a complete reversal and contradiction of every- thing which had gone before. The usual perversity of inanimate things possessed the lantern slides so that they utterly failed to appear, yet the lec- ture, “the voice and nothing more,” was all that was necessary to demon- strate that a new era in Arctic ex- ploration had arrived, and that this young officer was only telling the first chapter of what might ultimately be the world’s greatest story. Who knew to what latitude Greenland might not reach, and now that the “great ‘ice” had been conquered, why might not the trail lead to the Pole itself ? Later, a few weeks, came another and “capacity” Brooklyn audience, and the graphic and illuminating slides were there; then the great Academy was twice crowded to the doors, and children now grown will never forget the day they saw on the stage the ever faithful “Mat” clad in skins, the dogs and sledges and the igloo lights glim- mering through the white expanse, as effective a bit of Arctic realism as ever staged. Then began that country-wide tour, to crowded audiences everywhere, which financed the 1892-95 expedi- tion; and through it all, with scientific honors and social attentions, Peary was always the same—concentrated, imperturbable, intent on getting away for the North at the earliest day the next summer. Six years later he was again ready to leave for the North and another as- sault on the forces which had_ baffled him so long. The “Windward,” Lord Northeliffe’s gift, had left New York a day or two before and for Sydney, where he was to join her, and as he, straw-hatted, in a summer suit, swung on a Broadway uptown car for the Grand Central, with his cheery, “Good luck! Take care of yourself,” one would never have believed that was the proper way to say farewell, when it might be the Pole or it might be for- ever. But that was Peary’s way. It was all in the day's work, and it seemed “so like every day” both to him and to Bartlett, even within sight of the goal. Then came that Fourth of July se) Se Photograph by Peary Camp on the shore of Allman Bay in which the ‘“‘Windward”’ wintered, 1898-99. The flag followed him in his travels for fifteen years and finally waved above the sea ice at the Pole. The portrait on the page opposite, from an autographed picture which Peary gave to the writer at Eagle Island in 1911, shows the explorer just after he had been given the thanks of Congress (by special act of March 3, 1911) and promoted to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy. Peary as an explorer was both born and made, or rather, he made him- self by preparation of mind and body, sparing nothing, forgetting nothing Roosevelt turned and, placing his hand in Peary’s, said, “‘I believe in you, Peary, and I believe in your success.’ We who were present cherished the auspicious prophecy, and counted it a good omen that it occurred on the deck of the ice-fighter named for the President of the United States farewell at Oyster Bay when the Presi- dent of the United States boarded the stanch American ice-fighter bearing his name, accompanied by that gallant son who was later to give his life for his country, “over there.” The two men, Peary and Roosevelt, contrasts in some respects, duplicates in others, ap- preciative and sympathetic, each en- joyed the situation to the full; Peary, that he had the opportunity to put be- fore the President’s eyes the men, the ship, and the equipment which meant so much to him and to his country ; and Roosevelt, eager as a boy and with his enthusiasm for adventure and dis- covery aflame, allowed nothing to escape his inquiry and comment. As, after inspection of everything above and below, and, going over the side, he turned and, placing his hand “in Peary’s, said, “I believe in you, Peary, and I believe in your success,” we all counted it a good omen, and cherished his auspicious prophecy. 8 The great naval parade up the Hud- son in October, 1909, a feature of the Tercentennial Celebration, was a_bit- ter, trying day for Peary, but one which showed—what all his friends knew—of what stuff he was made. Some timid souls had even gone so far as to urge him to decline the com- mittee’s invitation to place the “Roose- velt,” bearing the North Pole flag, at the head of the column, but having ac- cepted, nothing could deter or swerve him, and although the faster steamers outfooted her, she kept her place and made the complete journey with colors flying. Occasionally a taunt or chal- lenge would come over from some in- sulting, impertinent crowd of excur- sionists, but Peary ‘would not suffer a word in answer. “It does them more harm than it does us,” he said calmly, as he stood in full view on the quarter- deck. Peary was ever himself, the same in the North or at home, meeting or part- | ‘ | A ] PHAR 9 ing. He met you with a smile and said good-bye with the lighted eye which means “‘We shall meet again.” When he went over the side of the “Falcon” that August morning in 1894, leaving wife and year-old daughter homeward bound in the cabin below, every hand was cordially grasped with a cheery and the stalwart huskies bending to the oars, we soon saw him a mile away, erect in the stern of the boat, her white sail drawing full and signaling to us, “Good luck and safe voyage.” If any one thought of a winter of torture and a year of priva- tion, it was certainly not the com- mander, who remained to face them good-bye, Peary was ever himself, the same in the North or at home, meeting or parting. while all the rest of his party, but one, retreated to home and safety. When the “Diana” Point, that steep, rocky promontory which thrusts itself into the sheltered, land- harbor of Etah, bright August morning in 1899, her company rounded Sunrise locked one saw an erect, blue-clad figure holding an improvised staff from which floated straight out into the glittering sun- light the Stars and Stripes, and none told twice, that Peary and the flag were still there. And when, two after, the eal dralleeemmarna snow pushed her through the needed glasses, or to be years summer storms Way same waters to the anchorage of the “Wind- Courtesy of Brown Brothers He met you with a smile and said good-bye with the lighted eye which means ‘We shall meet again” The silk flag Peary carried on the expedition that reached the North Pole.-—He cached pieces cut from it at various places in the Far North: Numbers » 1 and 2 at Cape Morris Jesup, 3 at Cape Thomas Hubbard, 4 at Cape Columbia, 5 at Peary’s ‘‘Farthest North,’ 87° 6’, and 6, on the ice at the Pole ward,” which had taken Mrs. Peary and little Miss Peary north more than The medal of honor presented to the discoverer of the North Pole by the Peary Arctic Club on the third anniversary of that great event bore the in- scription of five of Peary’s achievements: “The Crossing of Greenland, 1892’; ‘“‘Securing the Great Meteorites, 18977”; “‘Insularity of Green land, 1900; “Farthest North, 19067’; “North Pole, 1909” Duty, honor, country—these made Peary’s liv ing motto Science and patriotism fed the flame of his ambition, and on that eventful day in 1909 when he reached the Pole, it was the flag of America which proclaimed the victory 10 a year before, we made out the flag of our country flying, even before we could see a sign of life on the ship. A month later, when, after cruising among all the Eskimo settlements and gathering equipment for the next spring's attack on the Pole, we had been obliged to desist from an attempt to land Peary and his party at Cape Sabine and to put them ashore in an improvised camp on Herschel Bay, he accompanied the last parting grasp of the hand as the ship's propeller turned, with “Keep your flags up. We'll keep our glasses on you, and when we can see you no longer we shall know that you are safely on your way home.” Maybe these pastels from memory s crowded gallery, although but thumb- nail sketches as it were, will give a clearer and better idea of the real ————— SS ee PHARY aet Peary than more detailed descriptions or refined analysis. Of his personality none could be near and not be con- scious. Grave, calm, and _ perfectly self-contained, yet as far as possible from chilling reserve or bored indif- ference, with a sense of real humor, which, among intimates, could take and make a joke with the best—yet always with a fine and inborn sense of the courtesies and conventions, of the rights of others, and the value of time. Peary rarely in my hearing talked much about himself, his use of the first person singular was sparing to the last degree, and if he discussed the cam- paign, either past or future, it was al- Ways in reference to the immediate business in hand, some matter of de- tail and mutual codperation, in which each should bear a hand and know and understand the work which had been cut out for him. Even when the great prize had been won, and the victory of twenty years achieved, his manner, tempered by repeated repulse and disappointment, did not outwardly change, and no man ever heard from him a boasting or vainglorious word. To define the value and estimate the effect of Peary’s work is not the pres- ent purpose. Nor is it necessary. The scientific societies and authorities of ‘the world without exception or reserva- tion have done that, and probably no other man living or dead has received more emphatic and unanimous recogni- tion and reward of merit. It is proper, however, here to say that no associa- tion, nor appreciation of his effort and endurance gave him more gratification or kindled livelier response than that from the American Museum. Presi- dent Jesup’s support and counsel were strength and inspiration, and the con- fidence and friendship of the officials and staff were a source of unfailing satisfaction. “Duty, honor, country,” the West Point cadets read on the great oriel of their noble chapel, and, unwritten, these were Peary’s living motto. Am- bition urged him on, but science and patriotism fed its flame, and on that eventful April day when he reached the Pole, it was the flag of his country, with him in all his Arctic wanderings, to be above him at the grave, that pro- claimed the victory. Reviewing the causes and recalling the man, both seem simple and harmonious. Blood of France and Britain min- gled in Peary; the waters and islands of Casco Bay and. the hills around trained the athlete, the sailor, and the hunter; the schools and college of his state gave him knowledge of books and men. Florida and Nicaragua gave him the practical and severe disci- pline in his profession, so that when he took the field, actually entered the arena for his life work, there was no joint in his armor, no detail of mental or physical equipment deficient. To complete the picture, to inspire and il- luminate the life, to all this may be added ideal filial, conjugal, and pater- nal relationships, to which more of success than the world will ever know is due. Echoes of “taps” and the volleys followed us out of snow-clad Arlington. Of whom could it more worthily be written in the immortal lyric inscribed on the roadside tablet: “On Fame’s eternal camping ground Their silent tents are spread, And glory guards with solemn round ” The bivouae of the dead AYaLIWaO NOLONITYY 4O SANV17 3HL HDNOYHL AVM SLI GNNOM LYOOSS IVWAVN V HLIM NOSSIVO S3HL SOU], FLO ma ar 0 fisa,Ano; wih d A Vie Gas ; , : oN Ce, may Y v7 4\ : ‘ \ : Se. . vA Dy § Vi, > y j \ py a \ / f ee, al \ Ba NK MI GE) is SE : | \ Rollauy pur edoangy JO Sootoos suitojdxa pun [worpdeisoad yroas ayy Aq UIT RB ULY} BLOUL JOoLIOY} SSOUJIM UL “Flaaw jO pAlVMoL PUB UOUSo00r Snomimvun pur oyeydme 91oul paAtoood MOAB SBY UBUT Ss OLE 0} pejuasoid Useq saALY S[Bpewt JO 909s ou s]quqord puv ‘yAoM s.Atvoq JO aN[VA oyUoyyNV pur YSU oy} peuyop OALY UWONWATaset 10 UONdooXe JNOYIIM P[LOM oT} JO SOTLLOYJNE PUB seyoewos oyu sso.ipupan panbis, liq Ppa 6061 ‘WHdvV 9 ‘210d HLYON 0261-9681 ‘AYWdd NIMG] LYSdOY 1IVYINGV , ’ rysatatityeg eedetase a a) ferctes Scientific Research as a Public Function By clea: A, COCKERELL Professor of Zodlogy, University of Colorado T is a commonplace observation that most of our material progress is due to science. The English naturalist, Wallace, thought that there had been more discovery and invention during the nineteenth century than during all previous centuries. It is certainly true that the whole structure of civilization has been. altered as the result of scientific work, and today the rate of development is greater than ever before. Progress begets progress, and we are perpetually obliged to re- adjust ourselves to new conditions. Whether we approve or object, we have no option if we wish to maintain our place in the world. We are somewhat in the position of the Red Queen in Through the Looking-Glass, who had to run as fast as she could to keep in the same place. During the early part of the nine- teenth century, Malthus attracted much attention by his dismal prophecy of the overcrowding of the world and the prospective lack of the necessities of life. Populations have greatly in- creased since his time, but science has so greatly augmented man’s power to produce wealth, that we have more per capita than in any previous period. Not only this, but we can see ahead to a time when present production will look relatively insignificant. In modern times disease has been partly con- quered, and premature death has been largely prevented. Here again it is a reasonable expectation that some of the most serious diseases will disappear within the lifetime of the youngest persons among us. Along with this progress of science, and partly because of it, democracy has grown apace. The United States 14 has demonstrated to the world that a whole continent can be organized suc- cessfully into a codperative common- wealth. Kings, courts, and nobles have been discovered to be superfluous, and universal public education has proved itself a brilliant success. If we still fight, it is to combat the methods of a bygone age, and within the democratic fold war appears to have been abol- ished. The gains of science and democracy have been enormous. Nevertheléss, we are discontented and unsettled, deeply disappointed with the results of so much intelligent labor. We even look with a kind of envy at the naked savage, living a simple life in the prim- itive forest. He at least knows how to behave, and has little to regret. This is not mere meaningless sentiment, it is actually a fact that the average man is less accurately adjusted to his environ- ment than most wild animals. We have created an enormously complex machinery which we do not know how to operate quite successfully. It has often been said that the remedy for the ills of democracy is more democracy. So also, the remedy for the ills of science is more science. In other words, the scheme of things must be completed, the parts of the machine must be brought to a common level of efficiency. When we look out upon the present world, it appears that material advance has gone far beyond moral progress, and one is apt to wonder whether the former should halt to allow the latter to catch up. Pro- fessor has shown how progress itself is a cause of delinquency, how all the crooks disport themselves in the margin of opportunity which fringes Ross SCIENTIFIC RESHARCH AS A the moving front. But the problem after all is very much like that which confronted our Army in the recent war. It was necessary to advance, but the gains had to be consolidated. The whole organization had to move to- gether, according to a definite plan, or the very successes would have turned into defeats. It requires little investi- gation to determine that the front line of our American civilization is ex- tremely irregular, and that many of the trenches are poorly constructed. We are doing things in a far finer and erander way than the savage, but not doing them so well. The problem of science is the prob- lem of democracy ; it is even at the root of morality. What morality is there, in this world, but to learn where we are, and where we are going, and act accordingly? Good morals must be judged by their results, and not by the intentions of those who practise them. The world resounds with the conflicts between well-meaning persons who might have peace and harmony if they would only stop to use their in- tellects. Take a concrete instance, that of the recent controversy in the steel industry. It apparently never occurred to the leading operators to ascertain the precise effect of their rulings upon the thousands of persons working for them. Neither did it ap- parently occur to the strikers to secure expert testimony, and present to the public a statement of the inescapable objective facts. A skilled physiologist could show the effect of a twelve-hour day, under the conditions of the steel industry, in a manner that could not be gainsaid. Ca) the organism continues along that line, until features are produced which can serve as a basis for selection. If the results of definite development are vio- lently out of harmony with the environ- ment, if by persistent evolution in a given direction the permitted bounds are exceeded, extinction must result, eliminative selection takes place. Thus the progressive development of mili- tarism has at last exceeded the re- stricted boundaries set by a changing age, and so become its own destroyer. So fashions in dress and ornament pro- gress along definite lines until in some directions the changing limits of toler- ation are exceeded and extinction re- sults; selection takes place. This pregressive modification in defi- nite directions without reference to the end results was considered by Shaler and by Hyatt as a manifestation of what they called the “Inertia of Evolu- tion.” ‘Theodore Eimer, the Tiibingen zoologist, and one of the few of that profession who made a serious study of the existing animal life in terms of individual development, adopted the name “orthogenesis” for the principle of definitely directed development by minute continuous modifications in a few directions. But his work never led him to the study of the historic record furnished in paleontology, and so, al- though the credit of formulating the theory is his, its demonstration devolved on Hyatt who independently developed it although he never used the term orthogenesis. Variation is definite; it is progres- sive in determinable directions; it pro- ceeds by minute changes which them- selves have no selective value, but which, because of their continuity and NATURAL HISTORY cumulativeness, produce those features which are either useful or harmful in the struggle for existence. Selection is not a. primary but a secondary factor in evolution, progress is controlled not de- termined by it. That is the lesson taught by the molluscan shell. What makes for orthogenesis? What determines variation in one and not in another direction? There are those who, like Eimer, credit the environ- ment with this function. Hyatt was not one of them; to him, as to many of us, environment is a stimulus, not a creator. Unless the possibility of de- velopment in a certain direction is there, environment is powerless. It may determine which of several direc- tions the organism shall follow in its evolution, but the potentiality of such evolution must be preéxisting. The environment of the galley de- veloped Jean Valjean into a brute, that created by M. Bienvenue made him al- most a saint. Paleontology has dem- onstrated the existence of orthogenetic tendencies in nature, the newer Dar- winism must take account of these, and apply selection to environment. The law of the survival of the fittest can never be repealed, for nature’s laws are immutable. The selection of the fit en- vironment, however, lessens the scope of its activity, by directing evolution into channels which will lead to such degree of fitness as the nature of the individual makes him capable of. Neither environment nor selection will ever produce a silk purse from a sow’s ear, but under the stimulus of the right environment even the ear of the sow will develop its highest capabilities, limited though these may be. Flying Reptiles By AW: Di MAGI THE WV Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History The American Museum has placed on exhibition a fine skeleton of the Pteranodon or giant flying reptile from the chalk formation of western Kansas. It is on the fourth floor, on the west wall of the corridor diagonally opposite the elevator, and is placed between two other fine fossil specimens from the same formation, the great marine lizard, Tylosaurus, below, a giant fish, Portheus, above. The skeleton lacks the outer end of the right wing, the sternum, one hind leg, and some of the neck vertebre, and of the skull only two fragments are preserved. The form of the missing parts is known from other specimens in this Museum and elsewhere, and these parts have been painted on the background in a color nearly as dark as the original bone. been added in a lighter tint. HE skeleton of the new giant flying reptile! at the American Museum, while not the largest of its kind, is of quite impressive di- mensions. The wings, if stretched out in a straight line, would measure 21 feet from tip to tip; in their present curve, about their actual position in flight, they measure 16 feet between the tips. Nothing of the wing mem- branes was preserved in this skeleton; but in other kinds of pterodactyls they have been preserved more or less com- plete, so that it is known that they were thin delicate membranes like the wings of bats. The bat’s wing, how- ever, is extended upon four out of the five fingers stretched out like the ribs of an umbrella. In the pterodactyl only one finger is elongated for a wing, the membrane being stretched between that and the rather long hind legs. The wing finger was the fourth digit, and the remains of the first three digits, reduced to small claws, can easily be recognized on the upper bor- der of the wing. The claws were prob- ably used by the animal to hang itself up to trees or rocks when at rest, much in the same way as bats do with their hind feet. The head is a most extraordinary +A notice of this specimen was published in the AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL for April, 1916, at the time the skeleton was purchased from the finder, Handel T. Martin. The supposed outlines of the wing membranes have part of the animal. All pterodactyls have large but lghtly constructed skulls with a long beak, which in most of them is set with sharp needle-like teeth. The Pteranodon, as its name indicates,” is toothless, with a great, sharp-pointed beak somewhat like that of a stork or a kingfisher, and a very light and delicately constructed skull with an enormous compressed crest stretching backward from it, almost equal to the beak in length. It is sup- posed that this great crest served to balance the weight of air pressure on the beak when flying, and enable the head to be held to the wind without danger of being forced sideways by a sudden gust or a turn in direction. The neck is moderately long and strong, as would be needed to carry the large head, but the body looks absurdly short and small and the tail is a mere httle stub. The backbone between the shoulders is all consolidated into a single piece (called the notarium), just as the backbone between the hip bones is consolidated in most animals into a single piece called the sacrum. The upper end of the shoulder girdle (scapula) is socketed into the side of the notarium, the lower end (coracoid ) into the sternum on the under side of the body. This affords a very strong > Tt is from Pter-(osaurian), a winged lizard or pterodactyl; and the Greek an, without; odon(tes), teeth. 74 NATURAL HISTORY purchase for the wings, stronger even than in birds, which sometimes have the vertebre partly consolidated like a notarium, but never get so far as to have the scapula socketed into it. Nor do the smaller and more primitive pterodactyls have the shoulder blade socketed in this way, although some of them have a notarium. Of course the wing bones of a bird are not ex- tended out so far as those of a ptero- dactyl, a good part of the length of a bird’s wing being made by the feathers. The breastbone or sternum is not so unlike the breastbone of a bird. It is a broad flat plate with a high crest projecting forward and downward in the middle line, to which the principal wing muscle is attached. In this speci- men, unfortunately, the sternum was missing altogether. The ribs are very imperfect, short, and little curved. Probably a_ con- siderable part of the body basket was cartilaginous, so that it has not been preserved as a fossil. The ribs in this specimen were scattered, and no at- tempt has been made to bring them back to their proper articulations. They have merely been placed near to their proper location. The extent and limits of the wing membranes as shown on the specimen are theoretical. No pterodactyl of this group has been found in which they are preserved. ‘They have been found, indeed, more or less perfectly pre- served, in some of the smaller species from the Solenhofen slate of Bavaria, notably the long-tailed Rhampho- rhynchus and the short-tailed Ptero- dactylus, Scaphognathus, ete. But these more ancient kinds of flying reptiles are much smaller and more primitive, and so different from the great Pleranodon in the proportions of skull and other parts that they may have been very different in the wings as well. The best evidence for recon- structing the wings is the form and proportion of the bones and the prob- able purposes to which they could be applied. It is difficult to see how a sufficient width could be obtained for the stretched membrane of the wings unless it were extended down along the sides of the hind legs, as Dr. Williston believed, and not merely along the side of the body, as Dr. Seeley supposed. Then if the membrane was stretched on the outer side of each hind leg, it must also have been stretched between them and up to the tail, in order to take the strain off the legs. It may also be supposed that the membrane stretched from the neck out on each side over the shoulders as far as the “pteroid bone,” as this would have some obvious mechanical advantages. Resemblances of Flying Reptiles to Birds In life all the principal bones of pterodactyls were thin, hollow cylin- ders of an exceptionally hard and flaky quality of bone. Moreover, there are, 1n some of the bones at least, open- ings corresponding to those in birds, which serve to allow air to circulate within the hollow cavity of the bone. This is not the only point in which pterodactyls resemble birds. They have also a much higher type of brain than ordinary reptiles, the cerebellum or hind-brain is large, and, as in birds, the optic lobes are widely separated. It is also probable, in the opinion of some high authorities, that—like birds —they had a rapid circulation of the blood and continuously high body tem- perature, and were far above the rep- tilian stage in this respect. Indeed the high type of brain and the active life of a flying animal could hardly be maintained save through a high type of circulation such as mammals and especially birds possess. Pterodactyls Are Reptiles nevertheless But why call them reptiles? Why are they not a featherless bird*or a cL Sjivd SUISSIUI TOY} I10}SaI IO WY} JoS-a1 0} aLGQvoORAd Jou SBM 4I ynq ‘oejJoTdUIODUL PUR Pdtd}}VOS BTOM SII OY} {SUISSIUL BLOM SSOl PUIY ay} JO euO puv ‘SULA BuO JO Javed ‘[[NyS OY} JO YSOPL “JUT} AayYSI] B UL patojser SFUTM OY} JO SauTTJNO pasoddns oy} puv ‘punoasyouq oy} uo poyuted oue Syied Surlsstm oy, ‘spunod dag-AjuUaM4 UBYY I1OU VFI] UL YSIOM JOU PIP [VUIUB 9Yy IVY YYSNOY, st Jt puv ‘apisvazy puv ulyy AIBA 9IB SsouOg eyL ‘paqunour se sSuts yj Jo diy 0} diy wmoayz jooy Uae}XIS ST puR ‘QTET Ul UIIR (LH “A Aq Sesury uUr9js9M JO YRYO SnovsovjergQ 94} UL pUNOF SseM UOTMVedS SIL, wnasnyy uporiwawp ayy fo Loops ypunof ayy wo payunow spr NOGONVWHS31d ‘311Ld3aY¥ ONIATS LNVIS 4O NOL313xS 76 NATURAL HISTORY hairless bat, since they must admit- tedly have been more like these higher types of animals than like the lowly reptile in the most important aspects of their life and habits? The answer to that turns really upon theories of re- lationship and evolution of the differ- ent races of animals—theories, how- ever, that are so universally accepted and almost unconsciously used that they might better be called principles. Deliberately or unconsciously we have always adjusted or allocated an individual or a race by its affinities, not by its occupation. A “flitter-mouse” (bat) is not a bird, however much like a bird it may look and however little like its terrestrial cousins. A seal or a porpoise is no longer a “fish” the mo- ment you recognize its closer kinship to the terrestrial mammals, although it looks much like a fish and is very different from the four-legged beasts of the land. Classification is all a matter of kinship, of relationship, and always has been, no matter whether you declare your belief in “Darwin- ism” or oppose it as violently as you please. So then with our pterodactyls. They are not birds nor bats, but flying rep- tiles, because, in spite of their resem- blance in habits to the birds and bats, and of the resemblance in proportions and in many adaptive characters that this has brought about, they are not at all related to the birds, but are descended from one group of primi- tive reptiles, while the birds are (more remotely) descended from another group. They form, indeed, a group apart from all other reptiles, but not so far apart that we strain the facts if we call them flying reptiles. The proof of all this, the evidence of re- lationship, lies in the comparison of the bones in pterodactyls, in birds, and in the various kinds of reptiles, especially in such parts and points of construction as are least altered or ob- scured by the changes that have fitted each race to its particular habits of life. There are innumerable points of detail to be compared in this way. Here it is possible only to suggest a few of the broader points in the skele- ton construction that bear on its rela- tionship. First as to the wings: they are modi- fied fore limbs, as in other vertebrates. The wings of insects are different, aris- ing from the back and having nothing to do with the limbs. But whenever a vertebrate forms a wing or flying mem- brane of any sort it supports it on its limbs. Mythical flying vertebrates— dragons, winged bulls and lions, fairies —and angels—would appear to form an exception to this rule: their wings also grow out of the back, like those of insects, independent of the limbs. In real vertebrates, however, such membranes are always — stretched either by the fore and hind limbs or by the fore limbs alone. And in the three groups of vertebrates in which this flying membrane has become so far de- veloped as to make them capable of genuine sustained flight, namely, the birds, the bats, and the pterodactyls, the fore limbs are extended and _ spe- cialized to an extreme degree to carry the greatly extended wing. But the necessary result is attained in the three groups by three distinct methods. (1) In the bird the fore-limb bones are greatly elongated, and, with the first three digits stretched out side by side and quite solidly united together, carry the long wing feathers which ex- tend and outline the form of the wing itself. (2) In the bat there are no feathers, but a thin membrane which is stretched out umbrella-fashion on four long slender digits, the second, third, fourth and fifth. (3) In the ptero- dactyl, as in the bat, there is a thin smooth membrane, but it is stretched upon the fourth digit only, the first, second and third digits being reduced to small claws which lie on the upper border of the wing. } | FLYING REPTILES Hin This specimen, the first discovered pterodactyl skeleton, was described by Collini in 1784 among the curios of the Elector Palatine at Mannheim, Germany. It was recognized by Cuvier as the remains of a flying reptile. It is quite a small animal. The gigantic Pteranodon was not: discovered until 1870 This skeleton of the long-tailed pterodactyl, Rhamphorhynchus, shows the thin leathery wings of these flying reptiles. This rare specimen is one of the treasures of thé Peabody Museum of Yale University. It was found in the lithographic limestone quarries of Bavaria. (After Marsh) ‘ The bat, when at rest, hangs upside down by the claws of the hind feet. The pterodactyl apparently hung right side up by the claws of the fore feet. The bird, instead of hanging, perches upright on a branch or on the ground. The bird and the pterodactyl both share the reptilian character of the articulation of the lower jaw with a separate quadrate bone, not directly with the solid skull. In the bat, as in all other mammals, the lower jaw ar- ticulates directly with the skull. Bats, like all mammals, have three joints on each finger except the first— and this is true of the greatly elon- gated wing fingers as well as of the toes of the hind feet. Birds, lke the group of reptiles to which they are re- lated, have a regularly increasing number of joints in the hind-foot toes (2, 3, 4, 5) but the wing fingers are too much reduced to show this any more. In the pterodactyls, derived from a group of reptiles with the same “formula” of joints in the toes, the fore claw shows 2, 3, 4, and the great wing finger also 4, its claw being lost ; so that it evidently is derived from a series 2, 3, 4, 5. No trace is left of the fifth digit, which should have 3 joints. In the hind foot the series is 2, 3, 4, 5, just as in primitive reptiles. These are a few points outstanding from numerous details in the construc- tion of the skeleton, whereby the ptero- dactyls can be compared with birds, with mammals, and with reptiles. Early Discoveries of Pterodactyls Pterodactyls have been known for more than a century. The earliest published notice of the fossil skeleton was in 1784, by Collini, who was curator of the private museum of curios belonging to the Elector Pala- tine. Collini had no notion, however, that the skeleton had belonged to a flying reptile; he observed that it was clearly not a bird nor a bat; it might perhaps, he thought, be some kind of 78 NATURAL HISTORY amphibian, but he concluded that it was probably the skeleton of some ma- rine animal. It was recognized by Cuvier in 1801 as being a flying rep- tile. Other learned scientists of the time insisted that it was a bat, or a bird, or a flying fish. Cuvier’s descrip- tion and discussion of the animal in his Ossemens Fossiles is a masterpiece of sound scientific argument which, al- though it did not convince all of his contemporaries, has settled the ques- tion for his successors. Many speci- mens, mostly of small kinds, were later described and figured by von Meyer, Wagner, Quenstedt, Plieninger, and other German naturalists, by Owen, Seeley, and others in England, and Winckler in Holland, and by Marsh, Williston, and Eaton in this country. The finest skeletons of these little pterodactyls have been secured from the lithographic limestone of Solen- hofen and other places in Bavyaria. The Munich Museum has a very fine series of these beautiful little fossils, and many more are scattered through various European museums. Only a few are in American museums. One beautiful little skeleton, perfectly pre- served, but no larger than a sparrow, is in the American Museum’s collec- tions. It was obtained in exchange for a hind leg of the huge Brontosaurus sent to the Munich Museum,—one of the least of extinct reptiles in exchange for a part of one of the greatest. Some of the Solenhofen pterodactyls were of larger size, up to two or three feet spread of wings. Some had_ short tails; others, such as the Rhampho- rhynchus, had long slender tails. JO: HENS; ON Henceforth what dream can e’er efface Ashokan’s pure and irised throng? Not Dryads, nor the Dryads’ grace, Not Naiads, nor the Naiads’ song. Like ghosts of cedars, cool and tall— They mount close-clustered row on row— As white as when the moonbeams fall Upon the newly fallen snow. Yet they are not a thing of night, But souls of nymphs that stand by day Poised for a fellowship of flight While with their robes the breezes play. They live in light—not spirits dire That haunt the darkness—not to harm, But like a massed angelic choir With sones of benison and charm. For not of Death their waters speak But Life, these glad Ashokan towers: In heavenly ministry they seek The city’s human weeds and flowers. Ah, could they flash their song and sight To house and hovel as they pass, How urban toil and care and blight Would quaff new beauty with the glass! 1 By permission of the Author and of Yale University Press For the Sake of His Ancestors By MAL COLUM, 22 AN Dan ERS ON POREWORD.—Mr. Malcolm P. Anderson. who lost his life in patriotic service in a California shipyaré in the third year of the war, was an explorer and field collector who had a future of unusual promise. Previous to 1904 when he received his degree from Leland Stanford Junior University, he had tramped thousands of miles while studying the fauna and flora of California and Arizona, and had accompanicd an expedition to Alaska. From 1904 to 1908 he acted as leader, chosen by the London Zodlogical Society, of the Duke of Bedford’s Expedition to Eastern Asia, under the immediate direction of Mr. Oldfield Thomas, mammalogist. In 1909-10 he returned to the work, traveling much in China, in the desert to the north beyond the Great Wall, and in the mountains on the border of Thibet. Later he went on two expeditions to South America. The following is an extract from a letter to the Editor, written by his father, Melville B. Anderson, professor emeritus of English literature at Leland Stanford Junior University, to accompany the manuscript of the Chinese story: “This story of Chinese life by my son, Malcolm P. Anderson, is hardly of a nature to appeal to the jaded taste of readers of our garish story magazines. It is a plain tale plainly told by one who was far more expert with the implements of the field collector than with the pen. If I venture to offer it to you for publication, I do so because I deem it of distinct value for minute fidelity to the facts, the tone, the color, the feeling of the human scene, which is set in a mountainous region of one of the remote provinces of China. With such scenes my son became familiar during long, lonely months and years spent in the wilder parts of that empire while engaged, as head of the Duke of Bedford’s Expedition to Eastern Asia, in making those collections which Mr. Oldfield Thomas has praised as among the best of their kind ‘Doubtless I am no impartial judge, but perhaps you will permit me to say that I find great charm in the somewhat archaic simplicity of the style of this tale—a simplicity which those who knew the author will recognize and esteem as of the essence of the man himself. Let me add that he was not unaware of a certain scanty sufficiency in the evidence offered at the trial for the conviction of the robber and false accuser; and that he had planned an important change in the plot, involving a re- writing of the latter part of the tale. But I cannot bring myself to tamper with what is written. I feel that changes made by another hand would introduce a jarring note. As the little, unpretending narrative stands, there is scarcely a sentence which is not suffused with Chinese atmosphere; at all events these beings breathe an air that is different from ours; yet different as is their moral atmosphere, the tale helps us to realize that they are human equally with ourselves. Therefore it does attain one of the great purposes of art.” T had been market day in Ling-tai-miao, and Lao Fung, the village storekeeper, had made a number of good sales of cloth shoes, and dried persimmons. Now when the winter evening had come, and the shutters were up before the shop, he sat by his table counting his gain. The little old Chinaman was wrapped in a heavily quilted blue gown, the long sleeves of which were rolled back to give him the use of his hands. At his feet burned a charcoal brazier, and on the table stood a rush lamp casting a feeble light on the dusty shelves of merchandise, the piles of brass cash on the table, and on the wrinkled face of Fung. Deftly and quickly the practiced teller arranged the coins in a tier in his left hand, and counted them by fives as he passed them to his right. His task was almost finished when a voice addressed him through the shutters, which alone separated the shop from the street. “Lao Fung, admit your most humble sery- ant, who has come far to speak with you.” The old man was startled, but replied at once, “Who is the gracious speaker?” “T am Han of the mountain-side,’ came the answer. “I come to settle my debt with you before the close of the year.” Fung quietly. drew out his strong box and laid the cash away. Then he went out of 92 rice, the room into the courtyard, where he opened the small door in the bottom of the great gate which formed the main entrance to his house. There entered, bowing, a tall young peasant followed by a little girl of no more than six years. The man was hat- less, and dressed in a faded blue gown. The child wore a dingy, red-flowered jacket, and pantalettes of green that came to her ankles. On her head she had a hood of red. The master of the household, with pro- fuse apologies for his dilapidated establish- ment, led them into his place of business. A long conversation followed, during which Fung eyed the child closely, and appeared to be making up his mind about something. Finally Han came to the real object of his visit. “Honorable Fung,” he said, “my farm has yielded me next to nothing from the last harvest, and I am not able to pay my debt to you in silver, as I agreed to do. During the great rains the mountain sent down a landslide which destroyed much of my land beyond redemption. The burial of my father has taken every ounce of silver I have been able to save for years, and now that the time of settlement has come, I have nothing to offer you but the services of this child, my daughter Ma-wu. She is dutiful, and will be faithful till I am able to purchase her liberty.” FOR THE SAKE OF HIS ANCESTORS S Fung looked at the child again. She was a quick, bright-eyed little person, and seemed to understand what was taking place, yet she showed no fear. “Ts the child strong and in good health?” asked Fung. “What work can she do?’ “She can carry crops from the fields, and fuel of twigs and grass from the hillsides. She can clean the pots in the kitchen. She always does as she is bidden.” “Very well,’ said Fung, “I will take the child on probation, and if after a month I find her satisfactory, I will cancel your debt.” Thus: Han sold his youngest child into slavery, but Han was not a bad man. He simply followed the custom of the Chinese peasantry when hard pressed by debts. Had not his own sister been enslaved in much the same way? Weeks later, Lu, the wife of Fung, sat by her gateway with some of the village gos- sips. Although it was still winter, the after- noon sun had been bright and pleasant, and these women had taken advantage of it to warm themselves and breathe the fresh air. “There comes your new servant child,” said one woman to Lu, looking down the village street. Ma-wu was to be seen com- ing slowly along with a rake in her arms and a large basket of twigs and pine needles on her back. “Yes, but see how slowly the lazy child moves,” responded Lu. “She has been out since noon, and has gathered no more than fuel enough for tonight. I wish Han would take her back and pay his debts in silver.” “Look at the clumsy child!” Ma-wu had stumbled on the rough pave- ment, and overbalanced by her large burden, had fallen, scattering part of the fuel in the street. For a moment the child lay struggling to be free of the heavy basket; then she was helped to her feet by a trav- eler, who came up accompanied by a tall boy. The lad hurried about, gathering up the scattered twigs and replacing them in the basket. a cheering voice: When this was done he said in “T used to gather fuel until I got large enough to help Father at his trade. It was hard work, too, for in our country we don’t have the trees and bushes and tall grass you have here in the mountains. Where do you live, little Lotus Flower?” Ma-wu pointed to the door where the woman sat, and turned to enter as he asked Ww the question. She was too young to know how to answer the boy or thank him, but she felt gratitude, and was happier because these people had been kind to her. As the travelers went up the street, Shan- liang, the innkeeper, stood in his doorway. The father and the son noticed the inn, then commodation for the night. The host was a kindly old man, who, with- paused, entered, and asked for ae- out being avaricious, had gathered enough wealth to place him second to Lao Fung in the estimation of the villagers. Personally he was far more popular than Fung, for the latter was a hard taskmaster and had a reputation for bad temper. Shan-lhang welcomed his guests as they entered. It was polite to show interest in their affairs, so he asked them questions. “Honored guests, where have you come from?” “Today we have tramped from Fen-shien. We have been twenty days in coming from the province of Honan, where is the home of our ancestors.” “And why do you and your son travel?” asked Shan-hang. “You carry no merchan- dise.” “No, we are seeking a new place to settle. I am a smith, and my son is my assistant.” “Then here is the very place for you,” exclaimed the old man. “Our poor village is small, and could give you but little cus- tom, but this road is a highway across the mountains, and is traveled by many mule trains and retinues of officials. Often strangers ask to have their mules shod, and I have to send them away unsatisfied. Now what is honorable name?’ he con- cluded. “My base name is Shu, and my son’s name your is Gan,” answered the traveler. The lad had been looking up at the moun- tains that rose on east and west. Now he spoke for the first time: “What mountains you have here, and what forests! On those heights there must be great trees and wild animals.” “Yes,” replied the innkeeper, “there are The boars hillside wild animals nearer than that. and deer eat our crops on the yonder. “Father,” said the boy, “with the forest near it will be easy to get charcoal for our forge. We can even go on the mountain and make it ourselves.” 94 NATURAL “That is true, and since you like this place so well, we will look about the village tomorrow, and perhaps build our shop here.” So Shu and his son became residents of Ling-tai-miao. They built their shop of sun-baked bricks, selecting a spot at the upper end of the village, a rocky place be- tween the mountain and the river that none other had cared to claim. IE Gan and his assistant, Pang-tze, swept up their smithy after a busy day, and as they finished, these two active young men laid plans for the morning. “Take down the guns, Pang-tze, and make them ready,” said the smith. “There will be no shoeing of mules till next market day, so we may as well go on a hunt.” “I’m out of powder and slugs,” said the tall Pang-tze, “but perhaps we can get some saltpeter from old Fung. What shall we hunt, the deer or the boar?” “Anything we come across,” replied his master. “I have sulphur and charcoal. You get some saltpeter, and we will make powder in plenty.” They spent the evening in preparation, cutting some slugs from a bar of iron, cleaning up their matchlock guns, loading them, and covering the lock of each with the skin of a badger, to keep out the snow. Early morning found them tramping up the steep mountain toward the forest, their guns slung on their backs, and their san- daled feet shod with iron spikes to help them cling to the icy trail. All day they climbed upward through the forest, but no game crossed their path. Near nightfall they made their way to the foot of an overhanging cliff, which gave them shelter. There they lighted a fire and toasted their crude corn cake in the ashes. They slept as they sat, for within their cavern there was no room to lie down. Daylight found them ready to start again, and both hopefully for the day’s hunt. Together they climbed to the high ridge above their camp, and there in the snow they found the tracks of a herd of great wild goats. Stopping in a pass they laid their guns down side by side and stuck two sticks of incense in the snow. These they lit, each tending to his own, and Gan prayed to the spirit of the mountain and the ghosts of HISTORY his ancestors to give them success in the hunt. The long prayer ended, Gan turned to pick up his gun, and found that his in- cense had fallen down and gone out. “Here is a bad omen!” exclaimed he. “What am I to make of that?” “The spirits must be angered at some deed of yours. They do not favor our hunt, and IT fear that this means some ill besides,” answered his companion. “T will leave the hunt here,” said the dis- appointed young man. “Your incense burns still, Pang-tze; you follow the game. I will see you as soon as you return to the village.” With this Gan started off down the moun- tain, but the other strode out along the ridge in the direction the animals had taken. It was afternoon when Gan reached Ling- tai-miao once more. Going straight to the inn he found his old friend Shan-lang. “How has the hunt gone?” inquired the old man. “Badly,” “We have found only a badger for our trouble. While I was praying to the spirits my stick of incense fell, and I left the hunt for fear of spoiling my friend’s chances. Tell me, is there something wrong in the village?” “There is trouble, indeed,” repled the inn- was the answer. keeper. “A few days ago there came a man- I had not room enough for them all, so the lieutenant darin with a large following. and some others went to Lao Fung’s, as his is the largest house. Next morning when they left, they discovered that a valuable robe of snow leopard skin had been stolen. Fung the theft, though not accused. I know nothing of the matter, but the villagers think he is guilty.” “What does he say? Has he any ex- planation?” asked the smith. “No, the cowardly old fellow charges his slave, Ma-wu, with the crime.” “That's outrageous!” exclaimed Gan. “But tell me, what could induce Fung to steal?” “Well, we all know, honest Gan, how bitter he has always been against the man- darins for taking so much and paying so little. So I fancy it rankled when he had to receive this traveler, and feed and attend him, with no chance of payment. Perhaps he decided to reward himself. The whole village knows how avaricious he is.” Just beside the inn door was the booth of . blamed for directly himself is FOR THE SAKE OF HIS ANCESTORS 9 the soothsayer of lLing-tai-miao. It was this man’s business to tell the people where to bury their dead, when to plant their crops —in short, he ordered the affairs of the community by means of necromancy. When the smith left the innkeeper he consulted this worthy, as he had often done before, and told him of the bad omen that had be- fallen. The soothsayer interpreted the sign as Pang-tze had done, and directed Gan to sat- isfy his ancestors by carrying out the plans that their spirits were suggesting to him. The matter uppermost in the young man’s mind was the danger in which Ma-wu stood, so the fortune teller’s words meant to him that he was to champion her. Since that day when he, as a boy, had helped the little slave girl in the street, he had seen her often, and they had been in sympathy, although there had never been much conversation between them. He had seen the child grow into a young woman, and was aware that although she was only a Slave, and had not had even the chances of the other village girls, still her disposi- tion was sweeter than theirs. She was prettier, too, for her outdoor work had given her health, and her regular-featured face bore naturally the dainty rose color that the rest attempted to produce with flower stains. In the early evening Gan went down the long street and into the courtyard of Lao Fung. In the shed that served asa kitchen he found Ma-wu in tears, but still at her work, feeding the fire with bundles of bean stalks, and boiling the rice in the huge kettle. “Ma-wu,” he said in his kindly way, “you work and you ery. Is there something wrong in your heart?” “Master says the soldiers will come tomor- row, and I must go to prison for stealing a leopard skin. Kind smith, I know nothing of the lost skin. Do not let me be taken away. Here at home they are hard and cruel, but there in prison, they say, people suffer from terrible disease, and die of hunger.” For a moment the helpless girl clung to the young man and felt confident that his strong arm could save her. The open- hearted, unconventional mountaineer was touched by this appeal of innocence, and much distressed on the girl’s account. He knew well that nothing could be done with- out money to buy the interest of the officials, but that Ma-wu might feel a little relieved, he said: Cr “Tt is not likely that the runners will come soon, They are never prompt. When they do come I will do all IT ean. I think I know who really stole the robe, and maybe we can get him taken to prison. You know you have many friends.” At this moment the corpulent and _ ill- tempered Lu appeared, and seeing the fire out and the rice but half-cooked, she became enraged and beat the defenseless girl with Gan immediately Anger was in his The mistress, a heavy sash she carried. stepped between the two. eye, but he said not one word. dropping her arm, resorted to her tongue, and delivered a tirade of imprecations against the two young people. Ma-wu was quite used to such treatment, Gan pretended not to hear the old woman, but and turned again to her fire and pot. bowed ceremoniously, and departed without speaking. Arriving at his home the smith found that Pang-tze had returned. The hunter had killed one of the large goats, and had come back for some one to help him earry the flesh home. He brought with him some of the parts most prized by the villagers, among them the heart and lungs. Gan saw this, and formed a plan at once. “T cannot return with you, Pang-tze,” he said, “but you will find others willing to go, just to get a little of the blood or a taste of the meat.” Then after a pause he added, “May I ask a favor of you? I should like the heart and lungs.” “They are yours,” replied Pang-tze. “If you could have remained on the mountain with me the animal would have been half yours, anyway.” “T want to talk with old Fung, and I fear he is in a very ill humor,” said Gan. “Do me the honor to take these morsels to his shop as you go down the street, and tell him I am coming to see him within an hour.” Lao Fung received the messenger with a scowl, but he accepted the whole of the gift, and sent word that Gan should come at once, if he chose. The smith and the storekeeper had never been very friendly, but there had been no quarrel, and as the old man knew nothing of the scene which had just passed in the kitchen, he had no pretext for declining to see his caller. Gan hastened to the usual Fung was counting his eash, but this down store. As 96 NATURAL time it was a light task, as his sales had been small. He put his rushlight on his counter, admitted the young man through the shutters, and replaced the board he had taken down. The unsteady flame, little more than a spark, illuminated only a small part of the room. The time-blackened walls and dusty shelves which Gan knew to be there were invisible. Invisible, too, were the door into the courtyard and the curtain which separated the shop from an inner room. Gan’s purpose was to endeavor to surprise the old man into some sort of admission of guilt in the matter of the stolen skin, but he had not succeeded in planning a method. He must trust to chance for a favorable moment. They seated themselves, and Fung began with profuse thanks for the titbits ihe young man had sent. “Tt is nothing, a mere trifle,’ answered “T did not even kill the beast myself.” “T heard that Gan. “Indeed,” rejoined Fung. you had ascended the sacred heights to hunt.” “Rhatiss true, but wl | returned) vempty- handed. While I was away the spirits told me that some of the village folk were in difficulty. Tell me about that.” Fung started and flushed, and by his un- disguised scowl it was evident that this subject was distasteful to him. He disre- garded the request, and pretended to be interested in hunting. “The villagers say you are the best hunter among them, and that you know where to look for the game in winter and in summer. ' These great wild goats live high up, where the bamboo grass grows, do they not? But tell me, where do the small goats live?” “They inhabit the rocks and bushes lower “At night they seek shelter at the base of the precipices, down,” answered the smith. The deer live lower still, even in the grassy hills. goes for fuel. Now say, Lao Fung, why you have accused the girl falsely of theft.” Fung recognized an anger almost got the better of him. He started to rise; the rushlight, fanned by his motion, burned a little brighter, and Gan Your slave girl sees them when she enemy now, and caught a momentary glimpse of a face in the doorway. It was the face of a strange man, a dissipated, evil face, and one not to be forgotten. Gan felt that his end had been accom- plished with unexpected ease. He had HISTORY probed the man he suspected, and had seen him lose his composure twice. The smith prepared to depart and said, “As I see you have a guest in the house, I will hasten away.” At this thrust the old man instantly glanced over his shoulder at the door, but he said, “There is no guest. You are mis- taken.” : Gan paid no heed, but took down the shutter himself, and with a bow, disap- peared up the street. As he went home he said to himself: “By my mother, the old rascal is guilty of the theft, and the girl is innocent, yet justice will not be done. When did that corrupt old mandarin ever do justice? The girl will lie in prison for months before she gets a trial, and then, of course, she will be clapped in a dungeon and forgotten. But this must not be. buy her lberty, but how is a poor smith to find so much silver? I wonder who the ugly face belongs to? Why was the fellow lis- tening, and why is Fung ashamed of his guest?” He lay restless the greater part of the night, revolving these perplexities. Shan-liang stood at the inn door as usual when Gan came to him in the morning. “The soldiers are here,” said the innkeeper. Money would quickly “They came last night.” “That's evil news, but we cannot hinder them,” answered the young man. “The lazy fellows are not up yet,” con- tinued Shan-Liang, “but you won't have long to wait if you want to speak with them.” “T came to speak with you,” replied Gan. “T am going on a long journey soon, honor- While I am absent I turn my shop over to your management.” “But why do you leave the village?” asked the old man. “Are you going back to the abode of your ancestors?” “No, not there, but—”’ His sentence was not finished, for the noisy soldiers came into the room demanding their breakfast. Gan sat watching the s!ov- enly fellows in their tattered and dirty red jackets with black characters on front and back. He did not like the looks of their faces, for they were low ruffians, limited in their evil deeds only by their cowardice. As they ate they talked loudly about the girl they were to arrest, and some made jokes at her expense till Gan grew angry and left the able Shan-hang. inn. FOR THE SAKE OF HIS ANCESTORS oF He went to his house and took his small store of savings from its hiding place. There were but a few ounces of silver in the shape of small, irregular lumps. When he returned to the inn the soldiers had already gone down to the house of Fung. Gan followed, and on his way bought a large piece of unleavened bread in which he secreted a number of his lumps of silver. The ruffianly soldiers had brought Ma-wu out into the street, and one was holding her by a heavy chain bound round her waist. Blinded by tears, and weak from fright, the poor girl stumbled about as the fellow pulled her from side to side. Most of the gathered there. Some jeered and cursed at the sol- diers, some spoke kindly to the unfortunate villagers were prisoner, but none offered to accompany her to the city, till Gan said: “Mothers of Ling-tai-miao, why does not Though she be but father is as worthy a farmer as the husband of any one one of you go with this maid? a slave in name, her of you.” Just as he said this, Ming-ta, the inn- keeper’s wife, came up. She had heard his reproving words, and replied: “Unselfish Gan, I have made preparations to go. I see I have come just in time.” As they started off down the stony stream bank women wept and shrieked, and men called imprecations after the soldiers, who paid no heed, for they were well used to such scenes. Gan followed a little way, and when they were free of the crowd he handed the bread to. Ma-wu with the caution that she should save it till her arrival, and eat it slowly. He did not tell her of the silver lest the soldiers should overhear. “Tomorrow I start on a long journey,” Gan announced, “But by the second dark of the moon I shall be back. Keep courage, Ma-wu; your innocence is plain to see, and you shall soon be set free.” Then facing the leader of the soldiers he said, “Do not hurry the girl so fast over the rough trail. If you must imprison her, put her in a clean cell away from other prisoners, and I will make you a present.” With that he handed the fellow a string of cash, almost the last of his savings, and saying a kind word of farewell to the slave, stood till her pathetic figure had vanished around the turn. Sadder than he had ever felt before, he returned home, now firmly resolved on his course. As he passed up the street Fung stood in his shop alone, with a black look on his face. He had saved himself from the foul prison, but he had lost a dutiful serv- ant, and he was not happy. JOU The soldiers reached the city with their prisoner after night had come. Extremely tired, and with wet feet and muddy clothing, Ma-wu was at once locked in a low cell, with- The forlorn girl sat upon the cold brick floor and eried softly, till Ming-ta, who had remained in the street, found her way to the bars that out a light, and without furniture. faced the courtyard. “Tnnocent Ma-wu, be comforted,” she said. “See, I have brought you a good soft mat- ting of straw to lay on the sleeping-plat- form, a dogskin for warmth, and a quilt to Eat the bread you have to- night, and tomorrow I will bring you millet cover yourself. gruel.” The girl now calmed herself, and undoing the loaf from the sling in which it still hung on her back, began to eat the dry bread. Presently one of the lumps of silver fell on the floor with a little ring. She groped for it, weighed it on her finger as she had seen her master do, and realizing what it was, saw that Gan had actually made an endeavor to help her. One by one the other pieces appeared, until she had a little heap in her lap. It was enough to keep her in food for a long time, if she did not get too badly cheated in exchanging the silver for cash. Ma-wu began to think of Gan very ten- derly. He was a good man to help a poor girl, and so very kind. Why had her older brother not come to her aid in some way? She did not know how nearly her family had forgotten her. After her food she was somewhat com- forted, and began to feel the need of rest, so she groped about in the darkness till she found the sleeping-platform, spread over it the thick straw mat, laid on this the dog- skin, and drawing the quilt over her, slept. To Ma-wu the night passed as if it were but one minute. She awoke to find the kind Ming-ta at her window bars again. “Ma-wu, here is your gruel,” said that good person. “Take it now while it is hot. I have brought this worthy woman to see you. It was at her hut I spent the night. She is the honorable mother of many sons. You may trust her, and she will take charge of you, for you know I must return to the village.” “Benevolent Ming-ta, you have been as much as a mother to me in my trouble. I grieve to have you leave me, but you must no longer wait on the insignificant slave of Then she spoke to the other what shall I call your neighbor.” woman, “Kind mother, you?” “My name is Hwa-na, and you may call me so, if you like.” “Good Hwa-na,” continued the girl, “can you come daily and bring me food? I have silver to pay you with.” It was arranged that Hwa-na should come every morning, bringing gruel and macaroni, and a little boiled pork and salted turnip. Ma-wu parted with her smallest lump of silver to pay for this food. When Ming-ta had departed a great lone- liness came over the girl, and this lasted for days. The old woman was but little com- fort, and lacked the kindness of the moun- tain villagers. When, after some time, the first piece of silver was spent, Hwa-na came to the bars empty-handed, and complainingly asked for more. Then, before the girl could produce another lump, she added that with- out money no more food could be provided. Yet there was consolation in the old wo- man’s visits, for she sometimes brought little items of news. One time she came with the information that Gan had disappeared from Ling-tai-miao, and that all the villagers were wondering. Ma-wu thought, “He has gone secretly on but she said nothing to the ’ his journey,’ old dame about this. Day by day and week by week the slave girl sat in the corner of her gray cell, and looked through the bars at the soldiers and the civilians coming and going through the courtyard. During this time changes took place in the yamen. The old official received orders from Pekin to move to a distant city. A much younger and more energetic man took his place, and being a Chinaman of more than ordinary sincerity and goodness, he was anxious to make a favorable impression on his people. Therefore he commenced soon to hold court and dispense justice among the many prisoners his predecessor had al- lowed to collect. Some were striped with 8 NATURAL HISTORY the bamboo, some were sentenced to long im- prisonment, and one or two highwaymen were sent to the provincial capital for execu- tion. Not a few were set free, as already having served a sufficient time while await- ing trial. So in time the turn of Ma-wu came. When the slave girl was brought in by her guard the long trial hall was vacant, except for a few soldiers and servants. After a tedious wait, during which Ma-wu trembled with fear and excitement in spite of her de- sire for self-control, the mandarin entered. He was a shrewd-faced little man in a long purple gown adorned on breast and back with two gold-embroidered pelicans, insignia of rank. His cap was tipped with a purple button. Seating himself at the table which stood opposite the door, he eyed the servants critically. Then he noticed Ma-wu, pale and weak from fright and her long imprison- ment. It was so unusual to see a young girl prisoner, that he looked again, and his atten- tion was turned to the business of the day sooner than it might otherwise have been. “Ts this the woman charged with the theft of a leopard skin from a high mandarin?” he asked an attendant. “It is, Excellency.” “Where are the witnesses? We will pro- ceed.” “There are but two, Excellency. They are entering now.” Lao Fung came in and bowed before the His wife, the fat Lu, who fol- The judge did not return their salutation, but mandarin. lowed closely at his heels, did the same. looking sternly at Fung, said: “Tell me about this theft.” Fung recited in many words how the offi- cial had been detained at Ling-tai-miao, and how the robe had been missing the following morning. There was no evidence that any- one had broken in or climbed the wall, so the slave girl was the only one who could be guilty. Lu gave evidence to the same effect. The prisoner was called on to speak for herself, but she could do no more than falter a protestation of innocence. Shan-liang and Ming ta were there, but though convinced that the girl was not guilty, they had no, defense for her. The mandarin case, and said, “The evidence against the was unsatisfied with the girl is weak, but as no one appears in her 7 . FOR THE SAKE OF HIS ANCESTORS 99 defense, the law requires me to imprison her as a suspect. Witnesses, you may go. Sol- diers, remove the prisoner.” The court was adjourned, and the man- darin was about to leave the room when there came the thunder of a deep-toned gong close by. All started in wonder, and the magistrate stood half annoyed, half expectant, while sol- diers ran to stop the intrusion. It was the gong before the yamen gate, hung there to signify that he who rings may obtain immediate justice, but not for dec- ades had its tone been heard. The instru- ment had become but a symbol. The soldiers returned saying, “Excellency, two men stand at the gate, one a prisoner, bound and helpless, the other a strong man who throws us all off, rings, and demands a hearing.” “Admit them both!” cried the judge. “Here justice shall be done as of old.” Then the ringing ceased and there entered Gan, pushing before him a ragged, evil-look- ing man with hands bound and feet hobbled. Gan glanced at Ma-wu with his cheerful smile. She had sunk to the floor, but on her face was a look of happiness and hope, which it was good to see. The smith bowed to the magistrate, and to the company; then seeing that he was ex- pected to speak, he addressed the judge: “Benevolent Excellency, you may well wonder what brings a base smith to intrude on your court in this way. Pursued by the companions of this man in ropes, I was in great haste to gain entrance, but I did not know that my arrival would be so timely. See, I have captured the man who knows all about the leopard skin.” He removed the bandage from the eyes of his prisoner, and turned the man’s face first toward the judge, then toward Fung. The brow of Fung grew troubled. “Stout smith,’ said the magistrate, “we listen; explain your meaning.” “Tilustrious Judge,” continued Gan, “] am the smith of Ling-tai-miae. Like all the vil- lagers, I knew this girl was innocent, and I resolved to ransom her with money. There- fore I went on a long trading journey into distant provinces, and on my return I stopped one night at the town of Pau-chong. There in the inn I overheard this man telling with laughter how Lao Fung had sold him the leopard skin that had been stolen. I recognized his face, for I saw him once at the house of Fung. That night I slept near him and watched, and in the morning I overcame and bound him.” Pointing suddenly at Fung he exclaimed, “There is the real thief! This wretch in the ropes is the King of the Robbers of your own city!” Gan had spoken with such directness and vehemence that his words convinced his hear- ers at once. “Tmprison this Fung!” shouted the judge. “Put him in a wooden collar, and make it tight about his throat. Soldiers, you must know this miserable man whom the smith has brought. Is he the King of Thieves? Answer me!” Reluctantly a spokesman of the soldiers admitted that he knew the chief of thieves, and that this man was he. “Then put him in a dungeon!” commanded. the magistrate. “I will sentence him to- morrow.” ; The two prisoners were hurried away, and the official, turning to Ma-wu, said: “Young woman, you are free to go. The smith has saved you many a day in prison. “Stout and honest smith, your capture of the thieving beggar is worthy of reward. If you wish to enter my service you shall keep my mules shod, and the guns of the troops in repair.” “Great Man,” answered Gan, “I sun my- self in your benevolence, but I am of the mountains and the forest, and the gray walls of the city are hideous to me. Therefore I cannot take your offer. But if you wish to favor me, give this maiden freedom from her bondage to Fung. She has served him well for years, and her work has paid the debt her father owed, thrice over.” A few strokes of the official pen gave Ma-wu her freedom, and the two left the yamen in happiness. The exonerated maiden was received with kindness in the village, and was taken to the house of Ming-ta. One morning before many days had passed, she left the inn clad in a gown of crimson, and seated in a palanquin all decked with crimson cloth. Her four chair-bearers came to a stop close to the smithy door, and the bride slipped out into her new home, amid the sound of loud music and the ap- plause of the villagers, who had gathered to the feast. The Needed Art Galleries for New York By HOWARD RUSS hh BU hE ke President, National Academy Association HE forces of creative art of any country naturally concentrate in its largest and most active metropolis. It is there that the organizations of workers in all the branches of art can best come to- gether and unite their efforts. Individual artists may well pursue their calling in any part of the country, but they must keep in touch with the art center. In this way the city of New York has undeniably served as a center for the art activities of the entire country. It is said that the first art-school was founded in New York by Archibald Robertson about 1792. The New York Academy of the Fine Arts was proposed in 1802 and in- corporated under the name of The Ameri- can Academy of Fine Arts in 1808. The New York Drawing Association was founded in 1825—the National Academy of Design growing out of it in 1826. There have since been organized the American Water Color Association, in 1866; the New York chapter of the American Institute of Archi- teets, in 1867; the Architectural League of New York, in 1881; the New York Water Color Club, in 1890; the National Sculpture Society, in 1893; the National Society of Mural Painters, in 1895; the Society of Illustrators, in 1902; and many others. These organizations have their head- quarters in New York City, but their mem- bership is drawn from all parts of the country. That of the National Academy of Design is scattered through more than thirty states and about ten foreign coun- tries. These organizations are almost ex- elusively of professional workers. From their membership has come and is coming the major part of the original work in the fine arts of this country. Whenever an important exhibition takes place in the eastern, southern, or western section of the United States, the works displayed are very largely drawn from the art organizations of New York City. Thus the exhibitions of Pittsburgh, Chicago, Philadelphia, and St. Louis have counted largely on work by the members of the New York societies. Fre- quently from forty to sixty per cent of the paintings in these exhibitions are executed by members of the National Academy of Design. In the smaller cities the art schools, the art museums, and the exhibitions of cur- rent art are generally combined in one movement and housed in a single building. But in the main art centers these divisions are so important in themselves, that they may better exist as independent movements. The vital, living art of a country is one thing, and the collecting of the art of the past another. The art patron therefore has open before him two channels. He can di- rectly aid the art of his own country by stimulating the best production of living artists and encouraging their exhibitions; or he can bring together permanent exhibi- tions of ancient and foreign and past domestic art in the galleries of a museum. Both lines offer effective aid in awakening an interest in good art throughout the country. Of late the museums have enjoyed great prosperity, and their phenomenal growth has done much to establish standards of ex- cellence, indirectly benefiting native art. But far less attention has been giyen di- rectly to native art. It has not only lacked patronage, but it has lacked the facilities of exhibition, and has had to get along as best it could, so that the fight for bare existence has proved long and _ tedious. The struggle of the National Academy of Design for a home, ever since it was obliged to leave its old location at Twenty-third 1Artist of “‘The Solar Corona,’ a canvas showing the total eclipse of the sun of June 8, 1918, presented to the American Museum by Mr. Edward D. Adams and now on permanent exhibition in the west assembly hall of the Museum building. Mr. Butler is known to readers of NATURAL HISTORY through his article on ‘‘Painting the Solar Corona,” published in the March number (pp. 264-271), 1919. 100 THE NEEDED ART GALLERIES FOR NEW YORK 101 Street and Fourth Avenue in 1896, has thus far been a discouraging one. or more than twenty years it has held its annual exhibitions in the Fifty-seventh Street build- ing. It has been compelled to hold two ex- hibitions each year of the limited space, and yet the walls have had to be Many able artists have because unduly crowded. hesitated to have their works seen under such conditions, and so the exhibitions have suffered in quality. The destruction by fire of these galleries last January again brings this important question to the front. Not only the National Academy, but all the other art societies of the city, are calling for adequate quarters and exhibition spaces. This mutual desire has led to the formation of the National Academy Association, a union of ten societies, headed by the Academy, and having for its one great object the erection in this city of a hand- shall be both an orna- and a home for all the art. But thus far the this building have been some edifice which ment to the city forces of native efforts to fruitless, and the anomalous condition exists today that the city which is the center of the creative art of the country has no suffi- secure cient place from which the influence of that art can radiate. A great exhibition building, with per- manent quarters for these organizations, and adequate galleries in which displays ‘an be made of the annual output of the studios, such as appear in the Salons of Paris and the galleries of the Royal Acad- emy of London, is needed. The city has a right to be proud of its commanding posi- Why, then, should there not be a movement to crystal- tion in the realm of creative art. lize that position and give it a proper set- ting, so that New York may be acknowl- edged by the entire country as the home of native art, just as the entire country now thinks of it as the home of the great Metro- politan Museum? It seems to me that here is an oppor- tunity which might be welcomed by one or more enlightened citizens who realize the value of living art and the services of the living artist to the community, to come for- ward and provide the needed building,—a home center of American art,—thus at once encouraging the artist, enriching the city, and erecting to his or their own fame an enduring monument. . A small section (somewhat to the right of the middle) of a copyrighted sketch for an Indian mural by Mr. Will S. Taylor. This is a panel twelve by sixty feet, designed for the north wall of the North Pacific Hall of the American Museum, which will take its place between a series of eight murals on the west wall showing industries and eight on the east showing ceremonial life. The panel presents the Indians of southern British Columbia at play—those at the left are gambling with a sort of “Button! Button! Who's got the button?” game, while the man in the foreground at the right has just thrown his spear through a hoop Without the Aid of Eyesight It is with the permission of Author and of publishers, Henry Holt & Company, that we give the following brief quotations from Hitting the Dark Trail, by Clarence Hawkes HEN little by little the meaning of all my years of blindness was made If I had should plain to me. sight, I ... learning of nature from reading her always re- tained my have gone on great book without ever stopping to think what the things that I saw meant. I must haye gone on hunting and trapping, fishing and camping, without ever having gathered together or arranged my knowledge. Pa I had lost my eyesight in the deep woods, with a gun This then was my way out. in my hand, in the very hour of despoiling nature. I about and tell the American boys and girls all these intensely would turn I would show them the life of field and forest from the side of the hunted. I would try to get the attitude of all my little furred and feathered friends, and put it into books. interesting things. . I would teach chil- dren not only to know and love the birds and squirrels, but also to care for them, and to help them in their unequal struggle. . “Living as I do in a country village, with the world of nature all about me, I am still able to do much very effective nature study, and to gather a few interesting facts each year. My home faces upon the broadest and most beautiful street in the world, which is flanked by From that happy day in March when the four rows of enormous elms. first bluebird perches upon the tiptop branch of one of these trees and greets me with his sweet little ‘Cheerily,’ until he flies away in the Autumn, one of the last of the song birds to leave, this wonderful street is an aviary of no mean order. I pach year without going out of my street to iden- tify more than fifty species of birds. At the back of my house is a small orchard which am able is a favorite nesting place of the birds, and here I discover a few more species that do not ordinarily frequent the street. In com- pany with some one who has good eyes, with an opera glass and a bird book, I pass many happy hours silver-footed ments of Summertime go by... . while the mo- “It would surprise one of the uninitiated to know how much I can observe of the out-of- doors, either in field or forest, or on lakes and streams, wholly by myself without the aid of eyes. My hearing for the slight sounds of nature is so keen, and my senses are so quick to detect new clues either by sound or scent, that I am just as apt to discover the new and wonderful things as are my see- ing friends who accompany me. In the Spring I hear more wild geese go over than does any one else in the vicinity, because my catch their stirring water slogan. To the trained ear pars are unconsciously keyed to every rustle and every snapping twig in the forest means something, and all these slight sounds tell their own story. “T would not need to ask anyone to iden- The steady trot, trot, trot, of a fox is no more tify many of these sounds for me. like the uneven hopping of a rabbit than the A bird and squirrel never rustle the leaves of a tree galloping of a horse is like his trot. in the same way. The scratching of small squirrel feet down the bark of a tree is as unlike the similar slight sound made by a woodpecker traveling up the bark as can be imagined. “The bird language also I probably un- derstand much better than a man with sight ever could, for all the little intonations are so clear to me. Happiness, fear and alarm, querulousness, good spirits or pain, all are conveyed by my little friends in a language Only it takes the ear to hear, and the heart to understand as plain as the spoken word. these things.” : Courtesy of Ernest Harold Baynes During the hard winter even sturdy blue jays appreciated the friendliness of their human neighbors 102 Aquatic Preserves By ‘Acs; PEA RSH and Ci YD bBo ER he NLY during the last few years have sportsmen and those interested com- mercially in aquatic resources come to realize that results from water crops de- pend on intelligent planting and care just as much as from crops raised on land. A hun- dred years ago the United States was rich in game, fish, and fowl. Herds of bison roamed over the western prairies; elk and beaver were being killed and trapped in the suburbs of Chicago by the Indians. Nobody spoke of conserving anything. A hundred years hence there will be no “wild” country except in deserts and national parks. The advance of civilization gives increasing in- terest to preserves for all those who love animals. The vegetation is the dominant factor in It furnishes food for Without this fundamental resource the game will not be present. like to stand shoulder deep and feed on succulent water plants; any aquatic preserve. birds, fishes, and other animals. Moose ducks dive for the luscious wild celery—the recent work of Me- Atee shows that wild ducks feed on a wide variety of aquatic plants; in Wisconsin more than 20. per cent of the sunfish’s food consists of aquatic vegetation. In addition to such direct contributions to the food resources of wild animals, the aquatic plants do a still greater service by supporting a host of small vegetable eaters, such as insect larve, crustaceans, and snails. These are eagerly sought by many animals which feed in the water. Water plants 1The senior author, Dr. A. S. Pearse, is associate professor of zodlogy at the preserves becomes of the utmost importance. game fish, and even of many of the larger mammals, the pond and stream vegetation is a paramount factor in their conservation, for it is from the aquatic plants that directly or indirectly they gain their food also furnish shelter for many animals—par- ticularly for immature forms, Several years ago the junior author of this article began a study of aquatic preserves with the purpose of learning how to make homes for fishes and attractive, natural birds. This work has been continued with increasing success and patronage up to the present time—the clients being found mostly among game clubs, owners of large estates, It has been ° necessary to study the stomach contents of fishes and of the year; to spend long hours in the field trying and conservation commissions. birds at various seasons to discover just what makes certain habitats more “attractive” than others; to glean from the literature on the subject hints which would help to make the work a success. Many mistakes have been made and some phases of the work are still far from satisfying, but— we have learned! At present a permanent staff of employees is maintained. The men collect aquatic plants in the open season and are kept busy trapping in the winter. Wild duck’s nest on a planted game preserve, Oconomowoc, Wiscon- sin.—As wild life is more and more restricted to limited areas with the in- creasing settlement of the country, the scientific care of public and private In the case of waterfowl and University of Wis- consin; the junior author, Mr. Clyde B. Terrell of Oshkosh, Wisconsin, who took the photographs used in this article, is a specialist on the development of attractive places for birds, game, and fish 103 104 At first the keeping and transporting of the propagative material caused us trouble. Wild rice seed gives its highest germination test if kept damp, and will not grow at all if allowed to become entirely dry. The seeds of most aquatic plants will not keep indoors in bins as do ordinary farm and garden seeds, but will do best if stored in bags beneath the ice in a lake or stream—where they must of course be kept below frost. They will also keep well if placed in loosely filled, wet sacks, laid flat on cakes of ice, A foot of sawdust is sufficient to keep the seed cool in hot weather and four feet will prevent it The lst given below states the particular value of and covered with damp sawdust. from freezing during the winter. each plant and the proper time for planting.1 The problem presented for solution by the owner of a preserve is usually the increase of production—of fishes, of wild fowl, or of both. Fortunately the general principles in- NATURAL HISTORY We believe that it consists primarily in provid- fishes and waterfowl are much the same. ing an abundance and variety of aquatic vegetation. This view has been supported by extensive plantings in Michigan, Tennes- see, Texas, New York, and other localities. Recently in Wisconsin the Chippewa River was dammed, and Lake Wissota, a beautiful body of water fifteen miles long, came into being. This lake by the judicious use of the proper aquatic plants has been advanced several years ahead of what it would be if Fishes have increased in numbers rapidly and ducks succession had been left to “nature.” are becoming more abundant. In putting out aquatic crops one must much care as would be taken when sowing seeds on land. Wild rice will not It xe= quires some current or change of water, but does best in sheltered bays or sloughs where the plants are not disturbed by swift cur- exercise as do well in a landlocked Jake. volved in providing attractive homes for rents or the wash of waves. If plantings 1 THE PLANT—Its Value WHERE TO PLANT WHAT TO PLANT WHEN TO PLANT No. U.S. So. & Canada LWASE Wip Cetery (Vallisneria spiralis) —Unfailing 1% to 12 ft. fresh or slightly brackish Winter buds-Tubers March 1—June 25 May 15—|May 15— attraction for canvasbacks, redheads, bluebills. | Plants oe Best fishing where it grows, provides food, shelter, Mab gh cand. rear July 25 _|Aug. 10 keeps water fresh and clear insuring more fish anwacill Ande) to 7 : ¢ = reaching maturity. Submerged. einerateribest Seeds Sept. 15—Nov. 1 Duck Potato or Wapato (Sagittaria latifolia) | : —Exceptionally attractive to practically all vari- | sehallow Moa 2 Tubers Mar. 15-=|Rebaas== eties of waterfowl. Handsome decorative plant. | geen: marshy mud- or series as | Aug 1 Dark green arrow-shaped leaves, white and yellow ae diac ey Plants y &- flowers. Grows rapidly. hSSB: Wiip Rice (Zizania aquatica)—Exceptionally | Sheltered waters, | aay Sept. 15—June 15 fine attraction for mallards, teal, pintails, black | not salty to taste, | seeds hen not frozen duc: Betee vie Forms Btiractive clumps and 14 ee eee deep. ackgrounds for water gardens. Early giant with visible outlet. ae variety best. z | Prefers rich soft soil Plants Apr. 15—June 15 Saco Ponp PuLant (Potamogeton pectinatus)— | Tubers and Apr. 1— |Feb. 1— Submerged plant. Seed size of wheat. Tubers _ 1 to 6 feet fresh cr Roots July 1 |July 15 and tender vegetation attract practically all wild | brackish water ducks, especially teal. Food and shelter for fish. | Seeds Aug. 15 to Nov. 1 BROADLEAF POND PLANT (Potamogeton natans) 1 to 8 feet fresh 2 —Good for fish ponds. Desirable wild fowl at- water. Fairly rich | Roots Apr. 1—July 15 traction. Submerged. bottom | Baw Nee Ponp PLant (Potamogeton crispus) | Fresh or brackish Roots Apr. 15—July 15 —Floating leaf. Attracts black duck, mallards, water. 1 to 4% x teal, etc. Fish usually found around it. feet deep Seeds Aug. 15—Nov. 1 DucxmeEaT (Lemna)—Attracts both wild ducks| Small ponds, g es : | Mey = ae. ie and fish. Floats, not attached by roots, therefore | ditches or bays Submerged Variety | Aug. wa eRe: will grow over either poor or rich bottom. where practically Plants | May 15—|May 15— no waves Floating Variety Aug.10 |Sept. 1 | Fresh water; 1 to | Buxrvusu (Scirpus)—Cover and food for water- | 4 feet deep. Grows Raots | Apre—Apr gas fowl. Backgrounds or clumps for water gardens. one rich or sandy : | July 15 |Aug.1 soi Witp Duck Mutter (Echinochloa crus-galli) Land around edge | Apr. 1—|Mar. 1— —Food and cover for domesticated and wild water- | of water. Land out Seeds pane 20 [Aug “al fowl, quail and other birds. Desirable background. | of water in summer ae 3 See iC Spee Re CO eee ema iet ponds, Water Mirtroi (Myriophyllum)—Excellent Quie . Dat | : plant for fish ponds and aquariums. Attracts steams, tainly) iol Plants Apr. 15—July 15 many waterfowl. fresh water (Continued on opposite page) AQUATIC PRESERVES are made at the mouth of a stream, the spread against the current will be very slow, but those toward the _ head- waters will soon prop- agate downstream. Proper bottom is of course necessary, and wild rice does best in soft dark mud. Seeds or tubers are more likely to be- come established if not planted among a dense growth of other vegetation, which, like weeds in a garden, may choke out the plantings. When it is desired to make plantings in places where there is thick vegetation, it is best to rake out spots in which to sow the The surrounding growth will protect the planting from waves, swift currents, and A variety of seeds. the depredations of animals. aquatic plants is desirable in a preserve, be- cause the season of production and of “at- tractiveness” for fish and fowl is prolonged. mals must be protected bers. Still waters; float- and destroy wild celery. 105 A game preserve in the eastern United States, showing planted pickerel weed, water lilies, and sedges.—To understand just what will make a habi- tat most attractive to the desired wild visitors requires extensive study of their food habits, of the vegetation which will successfully flourish on a given pond bottom, and of the enemies from which both the plants and ani- Plants must often be given protection for a time after they are put out. deer may devour an entire planting before it has had a chance to become established. The carp, which fishermen have well named the “water hog,’ may root over an area of bottom, devouring seedlings in great num- Muskrats and snapping turtles cut off Cattle or It is usually de- Coontatt (Ceratophyllum demersum)—Desir- | ing plant; will grow Pl June 1—!|June- 1— able submerged plant for waterfowl and fish. over either rich or ao Sept. 1 |Sept. 15 poor soil Fresh water ponds, Etopea (Anacharis)—Submerged plant. Es- streams or bays. 1 pecially good for fish ponds, aquariums, domesti- to 8 feet deep. Plants May 1—|May i eated and wild waterfowl. Rapid grower. Quiet or slow cur- Aug. 1 |Sept.1 rent Fresh or slightly | " Musxerass (Chara)—Attracts wild ducks. | brackish water con- Plants Recommended for fish ponds. taining lime (indi- cated by shells) (with odgonia) May 1—Oct. 15 Shallow fresh wa- PicKEREL WEED (Pontederia)—Duck food. A Roots or sg ©»--| ter, 1 to 3 feet deep; a May 1—July 1 handsome ornamental plant. Purple flowers. fairly rich soil Plants : Shallow streams, Water Cress (Radicula nasturtium-aquaticum) springs, fountains. M 1—_IM 1 —Duck food. Green all winter in unfrozen. 1 to 8 in. water re- Plants A Be 15 |o Guts 15 streams. Salads. Ornamental. maining open in iiss ty [Ae oe winter Wipcrton Grass (Ruppia maritima)—Sub- Slightly brackish Roots or =z or saline water. 1 Bees May June merged wild duck food. to bifeceideep Plants Eet Grass (Zostera marina)—Good duck and | Shallow salt wa- Roots or eee brant attraction for salt water. ter, bays, etc. Plants ge 208 ue: Tubers and Plants Water Linies—Attract waterfowl. Provide zh ; Tubers or Plants Apr. 15—|Mar. 1— food and shelter for fish. Ornamental. Hand- |! to 5 feet quiet, all varieties Tule 1 Gi aut pamnenlowerds warm fresh water. : = Fairly rich soil Apr. 15—|Mar. 1— American Lotus (Nelumbo lutea). 5 Seeds July 1 |Aug. 1 White (Nymphea odorata). | Seeds 1 to 3 feet Aenae orcs Start earlier inside Yellow (Nuphar advena). deep - Yellow = and transplant Banana (Castalia mexicana). e = Aug. 15—Oct. 1 CANES, Qui~LworT (Arundo donax)—Provide | ;, ‘ os 7 cover and shelter. Grow 5 to 8 ft. high. Clumps |“? to 2 feet. fresh Roots Apr. 1—July 1 look well in water gardens. water 106 NATURAL HISTORY The wapato, or duck potato (Sagittaria lati- folia), is an ornamental plant which grows rap- idly wherever introduced. It is a favorite food of wild ducks and of muskrats sirable to make large plantings in several places in a tract. This increases the chance that the crop will become established. Large browsing animals and carp may be kept away from a small bed by using wire netting. Carp may be kept down by drain- ing or seining. Muskrats and turtles can be trapped. Although vegetation is the matter of chief importance in establishing and maintaining a preserve, there are other factors which are essential. There must be some good rich bottom “soil” and some bare bottom. For most fishes and for all ducks the fauna of the bottom mud and the aquatic vege- tation is a much more important source of food than that furnished by the plankton (the small organisms swimming in the water itself). Plant growths in themselves enrich the bottom after a time, but in small ponds it is sometimes well to use fertilizers. In Germany and China the yield of fishes from a small pond has been increased by adding manure. We are loath to admit it, but there may be too much vegetation. The fishes which do best in weed-choked ponds and swamps are the mud minnow, stickleback, and bull- head—all of little value to man. The best game fishes cruise along the borderline be- tween the shore vegetation and open water. Many of our most desirable fishes require bare bottom for spawning. These facts and others make it safe to say that it is wise to’ have some bare bottom and some open water in any preserve. Sandy or stony “bars” are particularly useful, and in a pond may be introduced artificially by hauling a few loads from a gravel pit. In a small body of water where fish or ducks of the same species are kept year after year, the stock may become infected with parasites to such an extent as to be of no value. There are small lakes in New York where most of the worth-while fishes are “grubby.” A trout hatchery in Wisconsin which has almost ideal physical conditions (pure spring water and fine stream bed) is of little value because it is infested with enormous numbers of parasitic crustaceans which kill the trout by attacking their gills. In order to prevent a too abundant growth of aquatic vegetation and lessen danger from parasites, many hatcheries “rotate” their ponds. In regular order they are drained and allowed to le idle over winter, so that they may “freeze out.” One final point in regard to restricted fishing in preserves. Many times people wonder why the fishing is “not what it used to be when I was a boy,” although fishing has always been limited strictly to “sports- ’ men’s methods.” Angling, if practiced alone, will cause the game fishes to decrease and allow others to increase disproportionately. A body of water can support only a certain number of fishes. To keep a balance be- tween the species it is usually desirable to allow supervised seining or fishing by other means to keep down fishes like the carp, sucker, dagfish, and gar, which seldom take a hook. ee ee Scientific Zoological Publications of the American Museum SUMMARY OF WORK ON WHALES By) Rh AON Ee ewe NE of the most curious of whales is the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps. Although very rare in this part of the world, a large individual of this species became stranded a year or so ago at Long Beach, Long Island, and its skeleton was soon after added to the great collection of cetacean material which Mr. Roy C. Andrews has made for this Museum. The specimen was a female and very for- tunately contained a full-grown fetus which was preserved in alcohol for future study. When whales are launched into the world they are almost like small models of their gigantic parents; tunity for some intensive studies of the an- atomy of this animal, studies which could be carried out far more effectively on a fetus forty-four inches long than on an adult carcass of many tons’ weight. The foetal specimen was accordingly intrusted to Prof. H. von W. Schulte, then of the de- partment of anatomy, Columbia University, and his associates, who are cooperating with Mr. Andrews in a series of studies on ceta- so here was an oppor- cean anatomy. Adaptation and Construction in Whales Out of the great mass of special observa- tions recorded in a paper! by Dr. Schulte and Dr. M. de Forest Smith, of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia Uni- versity, we may select for present notice only a few of the more general facts, such as exemplify the marvelous construction of whales, a construction which enables these highly transformed descendants of land- living mammals to move in the ocean with great power, endurance, and speed, and even to descend to surprising depths. Concerning the outer mantle of muscle covering the fore part of the body, the anatomists conclude that its great development serves not so much in moving the flipper as in maintaining pres- 1 Schulte, H. von W., and Smith, M. de Forest. 1918. The External Characters, Skeletal Muscles, and Peripheral Nerves of Kogia breviceps (Blain- ville). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 2, pp. 7-72. {Review furnished by Dr. William K. Gregory. ] panniculus, or sure upon the body cavities so as to prevent their distension by air pressure from within when the animal rises from deep water. Beneath the panniculus was found, as in other whales, an arrangement of the mus- culature of the fore limb which is a special modification of the normal mammalian type, But adaptation for swimming and diving has as shown in the accompanying figure. progressed so far that certain of the normal muscles of the fore limb (such as the bi- ceps, the pronators and the supinators) have been lost or much reduced, while others, such as the deltoids and the extensors and flexors of the hand, have been greatly in- creased. The tail being the principal organ of lo- comotion, the musculature of this region is much developed, especially along the high The strong muscles of the under side of the body play an im- portant part in regulating the pressure of the water against the viscera in diving. So thoroughly has adaptation impressed it- self upon construction that the arrangement of the spinal nerves and their numerous branches loses much of its normal malian intricacy and, especially toward the rear of the body, takes on a_ secondarily simplified segmental pattern which is super- ficially suggestive of the arrangement of spines of the backbone. mam- these nerves in fishes. On the Anatomy of the Pygmy Whale A paper? by Dr. J. D. Kernan, depart- ment of anatomy, Columbia University, and Dr. H. von W. Schulte is partly a confirma- tion and extension of the accounts of Ben- ham and le Danois of the anatomy of Kogia, their material, however, being adult, while Doctors Kernan and Schulte deal with the fetal After considering the form and function of the many curious organs of the respiratory tract and viscera, the authors conclude their specimen already mentioned. 2Kernan, J. D., Jr., and Schulte, H. von W. 1918. Memoranda upon the Anatomy of the Respiratory Tract, Foregut, and Thoracic Vis- cera of a Fetal Kogia breviceps. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 8, pp. 231-67. [Review furnished by Dr. William K. Gregory. ] 107 108 NATURAL HISTORY peretal base Sor lower [au Side view of the skull of Cuvier’s whale (Ziphius cavirostris), showing some remarkable struc- tural adaptations to resist the pressure of the water and the twists and strains upon the prolonged rostrum, caused by the powerful forward thrust of the body in swimming and diving. The back part of the skull (occiput) forms a wide, firm base (which could be seen best, of course, in a view of the skull from underneath instead of from the side) which receives not only the backward thrusts trans- mitted through the rostrum, but also the forward thrusts upon the condyles coming from the backbone. The upper part of the skull is braced by a massive transverse crest formed by the supra-occipital, parietals, nasals, maxille, and premaxille#; these bones are piled up into a sort of wide dome through which passes the vertically placed tube leading to the nostril at the summit. The premaxille and maxille thus not only form the upper part of the rostrum but are prolonged backward and upward on to this dome in order to support the massive “‘case’’ or spermaceti organ, which is a specialized part of the nose paper with a section on the auditory appa- ratus, containing the following interesting paragraphs: “The auditory apparatus of Kogia, as in other Cetacea, has thus been modified from an apparatus designed to receive air-borne sounds to one designed to receive water- borne sounds. The external meatus has been practically closed, the drum membrane fixed, and the ossicles rendered immovable by the fusion of the malleus to the os tympanum. Denker has thoroughly demonstrated that vibration of the ossicular chain is impos- sible. The water-borne sounds are evidently transmitted to the apparatus through the solid tissues of the head. This method of hearing is all the more efficient cochlear on account of the closing off of sounds borne through air, in accordance with the well-known clinical fact that bone condue- tion is increased where the function of the middle ear is diminished. “The manner in which the sounds are transmitted to the cochlea is disputed. Some authorities maintain that the vibra- tions are transmitted to the air in the tym- panum, and thence to the cochlea through the fenestra ovalis. Others say that the sound waves reach the receptive organs in the cochlea directly through the walls of the periotic bone. In this connection, it is im- portant to recall that the os tympanum and the periotic are nowhere in contact with the other bones of the skull and that they are surrounded by numerous cells capable of distension with air. So it seems necessary to suppose that sound waves must reach the in- ternal ear through a cushion of air imme- diately related to the periotic, though not necessarily that contained in the tympanum alone. “The large relative size of the cochlear division of the periotic argues an active hearing function. On the other hand, the comparatively small size of the semicircular canals is what we should expect in an ani- mal living in the water where little active balancing would be called for.” Architectural Features of the Whale Skull Dr. Kernan has made a most thorough and detailed study1 of two skulls of the 1 Kernan, J. D.. Jr., 1918. The Skull of Ziphius cavirostris. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 11, pp. 349-94, Pls. XX to XXXII. [Review furnished by Dr. W. K. Gregory.] = NOTES 109 curiously specialized whale, Ziphius caviros- tris, the one being that of a young adult female, the other that of a fetus. The most interesting part of this paper for the general reader is the discussion of the architectural features of the skull, which enable it to re- sist various physical forces acting upon it in life. “Three classes of forces may be thought of as acting upon the skull of cetaceans: water pressure; the vertical and lateral twists and strains upon the prolonged rostrum; and those incident to propulsion, due to the resistance of the water in front and the thrust of the vertebral column upon the condyles behind.” (See page opposite. ) The New York Aquarium Guide Book HE New York Aquarium has re- cently published under the authorship of Dr. C. H. Townsend, the director, a new Guide, attractively illustrated with photographs of many of the animals on exhibition. An introduction gives a_ brief history of the Aquarium, which is the larg- est in the world, and some interesting notes on the problems of maintaining and trans- porting fishes from tropical or northern, fresh or marine habitats. Strangely enough, showy tropical species are more easily cared for than local fresh or marine species. The importance of the tempera- ture factor limits the life of many species in the Aquarium. Fishes from cold waters can exist only in winter in the Aquarium, as it is impossible in summer to keep the tem- perature of the water low enough. The con- verse is equally true. Limitations of space prevent the housing of more than about two hundred species in the building at any time. The Guide gives brief accounts of about 150 of the most common aquarium fishes, both marine and fresh water, with such factors as range, economic importance, value for sport, and interesting habits. As the species are all arranged by families in the accepted scientific order, an excellent idea of their relationships can be obtained. The remainder of the book deals with turtles, alligators, frogs, salamanders, marine mam- mals, and invertebrates, on the same plan, although owing to the difficulty of providing proper habitats in the Aquarium, the num- ber of species exhibited is necessarily much smaller. The Mosquito Hatching Exhibit in connection with the invertebrates has proved particularly attractive to visitors. A chap- ter on “Balanced Aquaria,” and another on the “Care of Small Aquatic Animals,” the latter contributed by Ida M. Mellen, present brief summaries of experience of value to all amateurs.—LUDLOW GRISCOM. A COMMITTEE has been appointed by the friends and relatives of the late Dr. Henry Marcus Leipziger to found a memorial for him. The plan is to conduct annual lectures upon important subjects, and $10,000 of the desired $50,000 has already been pledged for the purpose. Dr. C. GorpoN HeEwirt, consulting zodlo- gist of the Canadian Conservation Commis- sion, died at Ottawa on February 29, in his thirty-fifth year. Dr. Hewitt was one of the foremost champions of wild life conservation in North America. He will be remembered in that connection by readers of NATURAL History for his account of the “Coming Notes Back of the Bison” in the December, 1919, number. He had been engaged for the last four years in the preparation of a book on the conservation of wild life in Canada which was completed shortly before his death and which will appear posthumously. Dr. Hewitt’s services in connection with the ratification of the treaty between the United States and Canada for the protection of migratory birds were invaluable and brought recognition in 1918 from the British Royal Society for the Protection of Birds with the award of their gold medal. THE American Museum through its de- partment of ichthyology has received from 110 Dr. David Starr Jordan a gift of three slabs of diatomaceous earth containing fossilized fishes. Dr. HERBERT J. SPINDEN, of the American Museum, has been elected a corresponding member of the Society of Americanists of Paris. THE Lalande prize in astronomy of the Academy of Sciences of Paris has been awarded to Dr. V. M. Slipher, director of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona. Dr. HueH P. BAKeEr, dean of the New York State College of Forestry, has resigned from that institution to become secretary of the American Paper and Pulp Association. In his letter of resignation Dr. Baker stated that he accepted his new position as an op- portunity to carry the profession of forestry into a great industry. Dr., JACQUES LOEB, head of the depart- ment of experimental biology at the Rocke- feller Institute, was elected president of the American Society of Naturalists at their annual meeting in Princeton. Mr. FELIx M. WarpurG, chairman of the Joint Distribution Committee of Funds for Jewish War Sufferers, and a trustee of the American Museum, has been notified by the Polish Minister of the award to him of a medal in recognition of his services in the relief of Poland. OwiInG to the delayed date of printing this issue of Natural History we are able to include the following item: The late Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary was awarded the first medal to be given by Kane Lodge, 454 F. & A. M., at the cen- tenary celebration of Elisha Kent Kane’s birth, attended by many dis- tinguished explorers on March 30. The gold medal, which bears the seal of the Lodge and portrays an Arctic scene, was accepted by which was Peary’s sixteen-year-old son. It is the first of a series to be presented “to those who by predominant achievement have added to the knowledge of mankind in those parts of the earth’s surface previously unexplored or undeveloped.” THE Agassiz Medal of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, for re- NATURAL HISTORY search in oceanography, was awarded in 1919 to 8S. A. 8. Albert I, Prince of Monaco. PRESIDENT HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN, of the American Museum, and Mrs. Osborn were recent visitors at Hilo, island of Ha- wall, whence President Osborn journeyed to the active volcano, Kilauea, in company with Dr. Thomas A. Jaggar, director of the Ha- walian Volcano Observatory, and to the great forest reserve near Pahoa. From Hilo Professor and Mrs. Osborn will go to the island of Maui and perhaps also to Kauai and Niihau where primitive Hawaiian com- munities still maintain something of their ancient ways. Mr. Roy CHAPMAN ANDREWS, of the American Museum, has returned after an absence of years. Mr. An- drews was in charge of the Second Asiatic Zoological Expedition which the Museum sent out in 1918 to carry on zoological work A large collection of mammals was obtained, among which are holding the world’s record for size, elk, moose, antelope, nearly two in North China and Mongolia. mountain sheep goral, wild boar, tiger, and serow, as well as more than a thousand small mammals. ProFressor T. D. A. COCKERELL in a re- cent number of Science tells of Darwin’s He was a most faithful and persistent worker, and in addi- method of investigation. tion he constantly sought the codperation of friends and correspondents among his. con- The Origin of Species reveals by its acknowledgments the great number who helped him. He directed and unified the experiments of others, acting as leader temporaries. of an interrelated group, and thus his work has both the breadth and the accurateness that one man alone could not attain. In this respect Darwin worked under conditions different from those which confront pres- ent-day biological scientists, whose work is delegated to but one department of an in- stitution, and the question may well be asked if we are not overdoing individualism. SEVERAL of the microscopical trouble mak- ers possible to our water supply, mentioned by Dr. Kahn in this number of NATURAL History, are to be seen among the glass models in the Darwin hall at the American Museum. These include Synura uvela (page 83) and Volvox globator (p. 85, No. 3 at the NOTES 111 right) which impart respectively the cucum- ber and fishy odors found in reservoir wa- ters, and also Gonium petrocale (p. 85, No. 6 at the right) and the pond-frequenting Stylo- bryon petiolatum. The glass models of ani- maleules, enlarged many hundred diameters, were blown by Mr. H. O. Mueller, of the Museum’s preparation staff, to illustrate the varieties of one-celled animals found abundantly wherever there is water, from the ocean bottom to the moist tissues of plants and animals. Of these the radio- larians which form a siliceous or “glassy” skeletal structure of marvelous symmetry and complexity are particularly fine objects for displaying the technique of the glass blower who must fashion the multitude of minute spicules from plain glass rods and tubes. The models have been made by ref- erence to the actual animals under the mi- croscope. Natural colors have been im- parted either by colored glass or by oil paint applied with the air brush. In this exhibit one may conveniently study the structure of those very minute animals which, for the most part, are too small to be visible to the eye, yet which play such an important role in human health and com- fort. The Birds of Eastern Canada, by Dr. Pp. A. Taverner, has appeared as Memoir 104 of the Geological Survey of Canada. The major portion of the book is occupied with systematic accounts and some natural history notes of the various species, illus- trated with one hundred reproductions in color. In addition, the work contains a bibliography of ornithological literature, and a number of introductory chapters on geographical distribution, migration, and protection, and on various means of at- tracting birds about the house. A NEW monthly magazine, Discovery, has appeared this year in England under the editorship of Dr. A. S. Russell, professor ot chemistry in the University of Sheffield. Discovery aims to record in popular form the “advance made in the chief subjects in which investigations are being actively pur- sued,’ both in the sciences and the humani- ties, by authors who speak with authority in their respective fields. “SAVE the Redwoods Day,” February 27, was the occasion of a conference of the Save the Redwoods League, held in San Francisco in connection with the Pacific Automobile Show, at the Municipal Audi- torium. Dr. G. CiypE FISHER, associate curator of the department of public education, and Dr. F. E. Lutz, associate curator of inver- tebrate zodlogy, will represent the Ameri- can Museum at the annual conference of the American Camp Directors’ Association to be held in May at Greenkill Camp near Kingston, New York. Dr. Lutz will have charge of the insect work, and Dr. Fisher of birds. The work is done in conjunction with the Woodcraft League of America, whose president, Ernest Thompson Seton, will have charge of the camp woodcraft. THE fascination of fishing, and of learn- ing unknown facts, the charm of the sea, and of free life in the open are blended to an unusual degree in a recent book by Zane Grey, Tales of Fishes. The volume deals mostly with the pursuit by rod and line of the largest and gamest salt-water fishes, the tarpon, swordfish and tuna. AN expedition to Jamaica, undertaken jointly by the department of mammalogy and the department of vertebrate palzontol- ogy of the American Museum, under the leadership of Mr. H. E. Anthony, associate curator of mammals, has returned with a great mass of material. The collections, which date back to the Pleistocene era, comprise many hundreds of pounds of bone-bearing breccia found in the caves of Jamaica. THE death is announced from Argentine ot Dr. Francisco P. Moreno, anthropologist, naturalist, explorer, and pioneer in the pro- motion of scientific institutions and _ re- search in that country. Dr. Moreno founded the Anthropological and Archeological Mu- seum of Buenos Aires in 1877 and the La Plata Museum in 1889, and was direc- tor of the latter until 1907. He was well known in Europe, especially in connection with his voluminous labors on the Argen- tine-Chile boundary dispute on which he spent many years. THE second annual meeting of the Ameri- ‘an Society of Mammalogists will be held in New York City, May 3-5, at the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History. 112 Tue Brooklyn Museum Peruvian Littoral Expedition, which sailed last August fo1 Peru under the leadership of Mr. Robert Cushman Murphy, curator of the depart- ment of natural science, has returned to New York. The expedition completed a comprehensive survey of the avifauna of the Peruvian Current and of the coastal islands. Many still and moving pictures were taken of the colonies of pelicans, cor- morants, and other sea birds which nest on the islands. THE Carnegie Corporation of New York has given $5,000,000 to the National Acad- emy of Sciences and the National Research Council for the construction of a suitable building and the endowment of the Council. Dr. Burton E. Livineston, professor of plant physiology in Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, has been elected permanent secre- tary of the American Association for the Advancement of Science to succeed Dr. L. O. Howard, now president of the Associa- tion. THE first number of the Bulletin of the National Research Council appeared in Oc- tober and was devoted to a general discus- sion of the national importance of scientific and industrial research by Professor George Ellery Hale, honorary chairman, the Honor- able Elihu Root, Dr. Henry 8. Pritchett, president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and several notable representatives of large industries, members of the advisory committee of the The Bulletin is to be devoted to illustrations of the possibilities of codper- ative research and of the methods and suc- various branches of science and Couneil. cesses in technology. THE progress of the British Museum (Natural History) since its removal to special buildings in South Kensington in 1882-83 is recorded in a letter to Nature by the director, Dr. S. F. Harmer. At the time of this change it is estimated that the number of specimens in the department of zoology was about 1,400,000. These have increased to 6,000,000 and there has been a proportionate increase in other depart- ments. The Museum has also accomplished much in the way of exhibiting its collec- tions for educational purposes in accord- NATURAL HISTORY ance with a change of view as to the public functions of museums in general. The evolution of animals, geological his- tory, habitat groups, and many other ex- hibits of a general nature have been ar- ranged for the public during the last quarter century. Dr. J. PERcy Moore, of the Federal Bu- reau of Fisheries, investigated last summer in the Palisades Interstate Park an im- portant method of eliminating mosquitoes. Dr. Moore, while a member of a party rep- _resenting the Bureau and the New York State College of Forestry which was study- ing the fish conditions of the park, demon- strated that pools and inlets, the entrances to which were obstructed to fish by the growth and accumulation of plants, harbor great numbers of mosquito larve. When the plants were cleared away and the shore line opened, the fish destroyed the greater number of the larve, as was proved by sub- sequent examination of the water and of the stomach contents of the fish. At the request of Dr. Gustave Strauben- miiller, associate superintendent of the pub- lic schools of New York City, the American Museum, through its department of educa- tion, has inaugurated a series of lectures for student-teachers. The New York Training School for Teachers at One Hundred and Twentieth Street has been made the lecture center upon the suggestion of the principal, Mr. Hugo Newman. THE lecture by Mr. William L. Fin- ley on February 21, at the American Mu- seum, was made doubly interesting by ex- cellent pictures. Views of the ptarmigan, water ouzel, grebe, and chipmunk were par- ticularly fine, and gave evidence of an un- usual ability in the handling of wild life. The water ouzel was shown playing about the rocks and plunging into icy brooks. The grebe, also a brilliant performer under water, covered its eggs carefully with rushes to preserve them from crows, before going off to feed. A ptarmigan, a bird al- most extinct in the United States, allowed Mr. Finley to stroke its back and raise it high enough from its nest to show the eggs. The chipmunk was an acrobat; he gave a “tight-rope performance” on a tent guy, and hauled up and opened paper parcels containing nuts which had been tied to it. ~ NATURAL HISTORY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM MeV hi A PRI ©1920 VOLUME XX, NUMBER 2 NATURAL HISTORY VoLUuME XX CONTENTS POR MARCH-APRIL NUMBER 2 Frontispiece, Portrait of Mr. George H. Sherwood, Curator of Public Edu- cation in the American Museum. Alaska Can Save the American Eagle........... Wiiitiam T. HorNapAy With a photograph of the Brooklyn Museum's bald-headed eagle group, destroyed by fire in 1914 Ther Schoolboy .and- Elis AWonest)..petscte sees its et cuore Frank H. Woop John Mar am Mosemiiese .e 4 tee eee WitittAm FREDERIC BADE With many illustrations of his favorite scenes in the Yosemite Valley, and a portrait of Muir (on page 140) from a photograph of the bronze bust in the American Museum, by Miss Malvina Hoffman “The Manhattan Medical School” ..... SPE ot eg RL oe GRAHAM LUSK lhawrence -AbbObiis. “Rooseveli~..22 1.2 -. eee ee HAMLIN GARLAND A review of the Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt, by one who was his friend and associate in public life Application of Psychological Tests in Army Camps...... GeEorGE F. Arps MhesAnecestorsiofsjhessequoias.;- 2. = os. Joe cere ae Epwarpb W. Berry A HOOlOCISG IM qe) ATMAICAL, =.¢ antoe «mse cuensieet gs techn ee H. EK. ANTHONY The rodents, which have always been the dominant mammals of Jamaica, attained there in ancient times a truly phenomenal size.—Story of hunting the Indian cony With illustrations trom photographs by the Author ROC ke BRNVERS So: bo eeeteme tar sera an cain 5 eee cee surapene von ohne actos eae ete VERNON BAILEY Showing how rock slides often have a slow, glacier-like motion on mountain-sides or down steep valleys New Plans in Nature Extension Work.......-.... GEORGE H. SHERWOOD historre “lrées an America’s... 2. 2. aos Selene ee eee Introducing Mr. James Raymond Simmons’ The Historie Trees of Massachusetts Trials and Tribulations of a Nature Photographer... Roperr B. RocKWELL Hunting with a camera involves all the skill, endurance, and thrills of hunting with a gun and is not accompanied by the destruction of life and beauty SoutheAmeritcane Mield/ Notes. qe. ee ree GEORGE K. CHERRIE ero ware: CliCHMS -. scm eich ea eatencae eee eet at et ALFRED M. BalLEy Charles Gordon Hewitt—In Menagriain Pee es Mir ene Oe Rn John Burrowshs im=Movyine Pictures; .21.. -scc os sce 2 a eee Nature im iNew York sdbower Past Sidé. ...2...22.. 2. RutH EK. Crosspy Change of Personnel in the United States Forest Service............... Wiha thes lind anes) ong. s-an cogent c= ore ato etes oe Water G. HoLMEs As State Should! Protect: ats -Ambiquities 32 .... 222 '4-oee ee eee in laa ISU ST Gy sence ere ocasia caseers Shitke sacpod Seo ee CHARLES W. MEaApD Galleries im New York for Pine Arts and Industrial Arts. .s2 0 20 A letter from Mr. Howard Russell Butler, president of the National Academy Association Notes Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Subseription price, $3.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. Natura History is sent to all members of the Ameri ican Museum as one of the privileges of membership. Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBERSHIP For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- erosity of friends. More than 5300 friends are now enrolled who are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes of membership are: Benetactore, Wage a os ole kk Sa eee = ew POOLO0O Accociate Pounders in.) =" = 3) fae a 4 25,000 Ascociaeubeneractone «4 (fs. 2 Sener. 7+, 2 2ae 10,000 ROM cme te gt tse Petey. eae Sestak css eee ee poe Pan) oe 1,000 HCO Ween e” Sin Bee cee ee cn RE gee Oh Fs 500 teem ber wae he oes Leese siege hs Oo ee 100 Sustaining Member. . . . . . . annually 25 Annual Member "G.u25 ss 20 «. +. 4.- annually 10 Associate Member (nonresident) . . . annually 3 Full information regarding membership may be obtained from the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM Naturat History, recording popularly the latest activities in natural science and exploration, is published bimonthly by the American Museum of Natural History. The subscription price is Three Dollars a year. Narurat History is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of membership. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the Museum. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS A large number of popular publications on natural history, based on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of these publications with price lists and full information may be obtained by addressing the Librarian of the Museum. SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the inside back cover of NaTurAL History. Price lists and complete data may be obtained from the Librarian. LNVLSIG V SV NAAR YO N3YOTIHD TOOHOS WHOA MAN HOS SSANYSCTIM « AYLNNOOD 3H1L,, SV ‘AYOLVYOSV1 V SV SSANSS WNASNW NVOINAWY =lfaise GEORGE H. SHERWOOD Curator of Public Education in the American Museum Mr. Sherwood is a graduate of Brown University and came to the American Museum in November, 1901, as assistant curator of invertebrate zodlegy. In 1906 he was appointed curator of the department of public instruction (now officially designated ‘“‘public education”), following the retirement of Professor Albert S. Bickmore. Mr. Sherwood at this time also assumed adminis- trative duties as assistant treasurer (1906-10) and assistant secretary of the Museum (1906—) to which the greater part of his time is given. Under his direction, the present close relations with the public schools have been developed. The Museum has just published a history of its edu- eational work, prepared by Mr. Sherwood, entitled Free Nature Education. See ‘New Plans in Nature Extension Work,”’ p. 173 NATURAL VOLUME XX MARCH-APRIL, 1920 / HISTORY NUMBER 2 Alaska Can Save the American Eagle THE BIRD OF OUR NATIONAL HISTORY THREATENED WITH EXTINCTION By Weeks eA SE: HeO RNA DAY Director, New York Zoodlogical Park since 1896, and an initial power in the promotion of preserves and laws for the conservation of wild life in America HK American “Bird of Free- dom,” inseparably — associated with the Stars and Stripes since the beginning of the American Repub- lic, today is under attack, and its race will succumb to extermination unless relief arrives at once. And there can be only one adequate relief. The legislative body of Alaska must repeal its bounty law—for to put a price on the heads of the members of a species of wild life, as has been done on the bald eagle through- out Alaskan territory, is the one surest way to exterminate that species. The soldier graves in France record the toll of the many Americans who lost their lives as they fought under the American flag and followed the lead of the American eagle in the great World War. Here in America for the period of the war millions of school children the country over have daily saluted the American flag. Have they been taught about the American Eagle ? Perhaps in our devotion to the “Stars and Stripes,” we have somewhat for- gotten “Old Baldy,” which our fore- fathers chose more than a century ago as the standard bearer of the nation, and which is immortalized in our liter- ature and on our coinage. Its wild bold ranging of cliff and sky typified the liberty the American colonists sought and they adopted the great bird as the emblem of American freedom— yet through the act of Americans the living race of the eagle is today travel- ing the quick road to oblivion! Two vears ago the territorial govern- ment of Alaska was misled by stories of alleged ‘destruction of and game” perpetrated by eagles, to enact a blanket law and offer a bounty of fifty cents a head for eagles, either the golden or white-headed species, through- out the territory. This was in opposi- tion to the practice of the United States Department of Agriculture dur- ing the last twenty-five years. The policy is against paying bounties even on hawks, and this policy is based on the research and experience of more than half a century. The bald eagle, however, is particu- salmon larly a harmless bird in most localities. Living along river margins and the sea- coast, it has small opportunity to feed upon the game animals of more wooded areas. Its favorite fish and in Alaska it feeds on the salmon which die on their spawning beds after spawn- ing. Ags all this surely a share of them may be granted food ‘is salmon die in way as the eagle's lawful prey. Now it is entirely conceivable that in small areas here and there in America, eagles, or bear, and even such gentle creatures as bobolinks, doves, and rob- 117 oe 8 pine ot exten , =S é ae THE AMERICAN EAGLE The bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus) is threatened with extinction in its last retreat, the Territory of Alaska. This highly conspicuous bird has always been handicapped in the struggle to maintain itself against the encroach- ments of man, despite its great strength, unequaled power of flight, and longevity. In Alaska the species has en- countered such great hostility that a price is now on its head and unless the territorial legislature, or Congress, can be prevailed upon to afford protection, its days are numbered. The present situation is entirely the re- sult of misinformation and prejudice, for the eagle feeds largely upon dead fish, especially seaward-bound salmon which after spawning die before they reach open water. Surely, if the public is adequately in- formed, it will not permit one state or territory to nullify the efforts of all the others to preserve from extinction one of the most picturesque representatives of our wild lite and the emblem of the Ameri- can nation. This illustration is from the Brooklyn Museum’s bald-eagle group, destroyed by fire in 1914. The specimens were collected in Virginia by Mr. R. H. Rockwell With appreciation of the courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum in allowing reproduction of this photograph of what was one of its most remarkable groups 118 ‘| | NATURAL HISTORY 119 ins,—even female deer, may become so numerous as to constitute nuisances, re- quiring abatement by systematic and carefully considered measures. — lor such cases New York, for instance, has an admirable wild-animal nuisance law —rarely invoked, however. The neces- sity to kill off a wild surplus in a given locality has long been conceded ; but to sweep a whole province on an extermi- natory basis—by a price on heads, open to every gunner—is quite a different matter. We will admit that the mistake of granting a bounty on the eagle in Alaska was typical of our government which tries to be “all things to all men” and in so doing often burdens or be- reaves the whole continent in order to facilitate the success of an insistent few in a limited locality—whether they be lumbermen, fishermen, or fur farmers. Locally in Alaska there has been reac- tion against the bounty on eagles and the law will eventually be repealed. In the last session of the territorial legis- lature, Senator D. A: Sutherland led a movement designed to do away with it, but was defeated. May Alaska waken so that the repeal will not come too late. When we know the very small total number of living eagles at best, the tale of 5060 slaughtered and paid for up to January 1, 1920, is to Ameri- can ornithologists and wild life pro- tectors, as well as to patriotic citizens of the country, distinctly disconcerting. The Alaskan white-headed eagle is the largest and finest on the continent and everywhere outside of Alaska the species is steadily becoming very scarce. In the Eastern States only a few re- main in place of the many that were here even thirty years ago. Not enough mature birds are caught to keep the zoos supplied. The eagle is a slow breeder, and the population of the spe- cies is continually diminishing. Once the Palisades of the Hudson knew the great bird well, but ere long the slow and majestic sweep of its broad pinions will be looked for there in vain. Civilization is against the eagle. It is robbing it of its lawful prey, and giy- ing it nothing in return. Far too much has this bird of our national history been flouted and neglected. We must honor it more, protect it better, or see it wholly disappear from the land of our fathers. HH The bald eagle and heraldic symbols of the Great Seal of the United States after the new cutting made by the direction of President Roosevelt in 1903.—The original design was drawn by Will Barton, A. M., and adopted in 1782. ‘‘The escutcheon,’’ explained Barton, “is borne on the breast of the American eagle, without any other support, to denote that the United States of America ought to rely on their own virtues”’ The Schoolboy and His Forest’ By PRANK EWE On) The University of the State of New York, Albany, New York HESE: are tive and illuminating words— schoolboy and forest, which un- loose the doors of our memory and our imagination. To what extent of time, place, and circumstance do they not take us! As we meditate on each in its bearing upon our own personal experi- ence, how readily the past becomes present! How vivid seem the pictures that have been long hidden away in the inner recesses of the mind! In considering the first cardinal word of our subject, in these days of “equal rights and equal opportunities” —and let us not forget to add, also, multiphed must turn entirely aside from the lexicog- rapher, and think of the boy as a hu- man being, an animal of the genus ITomo, between the ages of five and twenty-one. This is the entire period that bridges over that eritical time between child- hood and maturity, that weakness, immaturity, and dependence, and ends in strength, vigor, and self- reliance. It is the habit-forming pe- riod, the period of easy and lasting im- pression, the time when the seeds of good or ill may be most readily im- planted and will take deepest root. It is the time when the senses are most alert, when the feelings are most easily aroused and the sensibilities are most readily appealed to, when the intellect is most susceptible of development and the will of training. It is the time when the imagination is most active, can be most readily aroused and easily cultivated. It is a time indeed to see visions and to dream dreams: two Very sugges- responsibilities—we begins in 1 Extracts from address presented by Dr. VYood on April 12, “There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream, The earth, and every common sight, To me did seem Apparelled in celestial light, The glory and the freshness of a dream.” The use that is made of this period will inevitably exert a wide influence on the industries and occupations of life, on the trades and the professions. It will affect the character of the home, the appearance of the landscape; it will enter largely into the lives of the people, into the nature of their dealings, the character of their re- lations; yes, far more, upon it will ul- timately depend the destiny of the nation. If we turn to the encyclopedia or the dictionary for the meaning of for- est, the second key word of our subject, we find it explained in about these words: “a tract of land or of country covered with trees”; and then, if we look farther, we find that a tree is “a woody plant of considerable size with a single trunk.” There is indeed very little to satisfy us in such defini- tions. If we should turn to the woodman or to the manufacturer or dealer in forest products, he would define the word in terms of feet of lumber, tons of pulp, or dollars of profit. The naturalist would think of the forest as a shelter or home for the birds and wild beasts: the artist as that which gives form, eolor, and setting to the landscape, and satisfies ideals of the beautiful and the picturesque; and the lover of nature would regard it as a sacred retreat, a shrine for rest, quiet, and communion. 1920, at the First Annual Forest Week meetings of the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse University. 120 THE SCHOOLBOY AND HIS FOREST The forest should convey to the mind and heart all of these ideas and mean- ings—and more. Before attempting to understand what the forest means, one must know it from actual contact and personal knowledge; one must also see it through the eyes of others, past and present; one should draw upon all sources that I have already mentioned, and also upon the wealth of history and the teachings of tradition, poetry, and song. Away back in early sacred history, in the Levitical law, we find Moses, the lawgiver, forbidding the destruction of trees in laying siege to cities, “Thou shalt not destroy the trees, for the tree of the field is man’s hfe.” In his ma- jJestic “Forest Hymn,” Bryant says: “The groves were God’s first temples, ere man learned To hew the shaft and lay the architrave, And spread the roof above them, ere he framed The lofty vault, to gather and roll back The sound of anthems; in the darkling wood, Amidst the cool and silence, he knelt down, And offered to the Mightiest solemn thanks And supplication.” And notwithstanding the very con- siderable modern neglect and desecra- tion of forests, we still may know that all through the ages, reaching down even to the present moment, trees and forests have been sacred to worship. Some four hundred years ago, Ed- mund Waller in his beautiful poem “On St. James’s Park” sang thus: .“In such green palaces the first kings reign 'd, Slept in their shades, and Angels enter- tain’d; With such old counsellors they did advise, And, by frequenting sacred groves, grew * ” wise. The forest is a unique place for rest and recreation. How many wearied 12] with the tasks of life, with the cares and strifes of daily action are wont to look to the forest for refreshment—as Edwin Markham writes: “Give me green rafters and the quiet hills Where peace will mix a philter for my ills— Rafters of cedar and of sycamore, Where I can stretch out on the floor, And see them peer—the softly stepping sacred shapes— By the still pool where hang the tart wild grapes. There on the hills of summer let me lie On the cool grass in friendship with the sky. Let me he there in love with earth and sun, And wonder up at the light-foot winds that run, Stirring the delicate edges of the trees, And shaking down a music of the seas.” Edward Roland Sill in ‘Forest Home” very tenderly puts into verse this longing for the forest rest, at once so human and yet so exalted. “Oh, Forest-Mother, I have stayed, Too long away from thee; Let me come home for these few hours That from the world are free.” *Twere sweet, I know, to stay; but so *Twere sweetest to depart, Thy cool, still hand upon my face, Thy silence in my heart.” To one of experience and imagina- tion, with acquaintance with the forest, these references and quotations bring out something of the meaning of the word, but to define or describe it, to convey its real meaning in words would be a hopeless and impossible task. The man who knows the meaning of the word is in touch with the forest in its various and varying moods, he feels them, he senses them by day and by night, in summer and in winter, in sun- shine and in storm. He comes to know forest values also—healthful and re- creational, wsthetic and spiritual, as well as commercial and utilitarian. The schoolboy’s forest then must be the forest in which all of these ideals have been implanted and inculcated. They must be felt in their essence and not defined and formalized by words. To the youth as to the people of an- tiquity, the forest is the natural realm of legends, folk lore, myths, and fables. It is peopled with sprites and fairies, tree gods, and divinities; it is the realm of the supernatural, in which is found condensed in figurative and mythical language much of the riches of race experience and the spiritual wealth of past ages. In one of his lectures on ‘Race Power in Literature,” delivered before the Lowell Institute in Boston in 1903, Dr. George Edward Woodberry calls mythology one of the “three tongues of the imagination,” the other two being chivalry and the Scriptures; and then he pictures their importance in this strongly significant language: “It is far more important to know them than to learn French or German, or Latin or Italian, or Greek; they are three branches of that universal lan- guage which, though vainly sought on the lips of men, is found in their minds and hearts. To omit these in educa- tion is to deprive youth of its inheri- tance. It is hke destroying a long de- veloped organ of the body, like putting out the eve or silencing the nerves of hearing. Nor is it enough to look them up in encyclopedias and notes and so obtain a piecemeal information; one must grow familiar with these forms of beauty, forms of honor, forms of rich- ness, have something of the same sense of their reality as that felt by Homer and Virgil, by the singer of ‘Roland’ and the chronicler of ‘Mort d’Arthur,’ by St. Augustine, and St. Thomas.” Thus it is that the schoolboy’s for- est must first of all be a forest of myths and legends; and the riches of the past NAR EAL, HISTORY must be freely drawn upon to provide an abundance of the best which has been handed down from father to son, from generation to generation, and age to age, through all the centuries of the past. After the age of myths and legends and in part contemporary with it, there follows another period in the boy’s life, the spirit of which is depicted in the opening lines of the old familiar song: “Oh the sports of childhood! Roaming through the wildwood” and in the words of Wordsworth, “And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.” It is the period of growth and de- velopment when the forest becomes the natural recreation field for youth, na- ture’s playground, the most fitting place for walks, tramps, sports, and games, the place to hunt wild flowers, to search acquaintance with insects and animals, and to become familiar with all forms and kinds of plant life. Then it is that the schoolboy should come into intimate association and di- rect communion with the trees and for- ests in their manifold forms, shapes, and expressions. This is the time of all times for him to acquire tree knowl- edge and forest lore by observation and objective study. It is the duty and privilege of the school to make the most of all favor- able opportunities to further and en- courage this sort of training in tactful ways, by appropriate means, at oppor- tune times, and to direct and supervise it, bearing in mind that that which ap- pears accidental and incidental in in- struction often proves the most service- able, beneficial, and enduring. Unfortunate is it indeed when, through man’s neghgence, ignorance, wastefulness, and greed in regard to the nation’s forests, the boy is deprived of free association with them; and also THE SCHOOLBOY AND HIS FOREST 12 Ww unfortunate is the boy who, as Cowper Fests and forest preserves, past and pres- says, “Tmmured in cities, still retains His inborn, indistinguishable thirst, Of rural scenes, compensating his loss By supplemental shifts, the best he may. The most unfurnished with the means of life And they that never pass their brick-wall bounds To range the fields, and treat their lungs with air, Yet feel the burning instinct.” Later on in the life of a youth there comes a stage of progress and develop- ment when instruction may assume a formal character, when books and peri- odicals may be drawn upon more freely, when the teacher and the boy can come into sympathetic understanding with- out the living medium of the trees to make the lessons interesting and help- full, Then is a time to give the schoolboy formal lessons in plant life and plant erowth, to give instruction in the care of trees, their the commercial products that come from them, the need of forest protection, and in sim- plified form the aims and some of the principles of forestry. This is a stage when can be used effectively such an incident as narrated by Sir Walter Scott in his tale of a Highland laird, who while on_ his deathbed said to his son, “Jock, when ve hae naething else to do, ye may be aye sticking in a tree; it will be grow- ing, Jock, when ye're sleeping.” Pu- pils should be taught about noted for- uses, ent, should learn names, location, and incidents connected with famous indi- vidual trees in history, especially of our own country, such as the Charter Oak and the Hartford Elm. There comes a time also when it is fitting to consider in somewhat formal trees and from the esthetic standpoint, to study and search out the elements of beauty in them, to learn to appreciate their shape- liness, to make a study of the individ- ual tree as well as the tree mass, to select the finest illustrations of beauti- ful trees to be found in the neighbor- hood, to learn to distinguish at sight trees of different kinds by their special characteristics. The schoolboy needs all of the help and encouragement from sources that he can receive in order to make his forest what it ought-to be. And what is the Schoolboy’s Forest ? It is the forest that is implanted during the boy's school days when the condi- tions are so favorable, when the soil is responsive to culture—the forest that erows with his growth and develops with his development. It is the forest that can be visualized only in his man- hood. It is to be seen then in his home, along the roadsides and in the public parks of his home city, and in the forest preserves of his home state. In a word, the Schoolboy’s Forest is one the seeds of which are sown in the mind and heart of the boy and _ blos- som into full fruitage in the life of the man. manner woods outside John Muir in Yosemite By °W Pi AM FRED ik le@ as AGW) chr MAGINE the Rip Van Winkle be- wilderment of an old Yosemite pioneer like James C. Lamon, if he could wake from his forty-five years’ sleep in the little graveyard near the mouth of Indian Cahon, and come back to his old haunts! During the sixties and seventies the sunny quiet of the valley was hardly broken by the deep monotone of the waterfalls whose music, even for a newcomer, seemed part of the great, sheer-walled silence. But now, at the height of the tourist season, great camps and hotels, crowded with thousands of visitors, shed un- wonted noise and electric glare among the astonished groves and their furred and feathered inhabitants. Old-time trails, grown into highways, resound with the horns of innumerable auto- mobiles, and a railroad delivers its human freight of recreation seekers at a terminal on the edge of the park, twelve miles from the valley. From the end of the sixties until well into the seventies John Muir also made his home in Yosemite, but he lived far enough beyond these decades to see the rising human tide of pleas- ure seekers set Yosemite-ward, and rejoiced in the sight. He used to say that he was moved to write about the beauty and sublimity of the valley only because he wished to incite people to come and see it for themselves. And now that they are coming in ever-in- creasing numbers they in turn are be- ginning to ask questions about the man who described it so alluringly. Where, in the valley, did he live? What was his occupation while there, and how did he go about his studies? Although in the adventurous life of John Muir fact often was more won- derful than fiction, inquirers are some- times obliged to content themselves with the latter. Perhaps it is natural that so picturesque a_ personality should become a magnet for legends. In any case, although he has been gone only five years, one legend is already current in Yosemite Valley. It con- cerns the place of his former habita- tion. There is little doubt that it owes its origin to the desire of local cice- rones to gratify the desire of visitors who wish to see some particular spot that has associations with John Muir. In a secluded, umbrageous tangle of alders and azaleas, on the spit of land formed by the confluence of Tenaya Creek with the Merced, stands what at first glance looks like the remnants of a log cabin. Examination reveals the fact that there never had been a floor or windows; that it was never more than partly roofed and too low for a man to stand comfortably erect, while the opening which should serve as a door is only three feet high. It is all that remains of Lamon’s goat or sheep corral. But the myth-making faculty of the local guide and antiquary has glorified it as “Muir's Lost Cabin,” and as such it has been and is being pointed out to great numbers of eager sight- seers. The adjective “lost” is an im- portant adjunct; it stimulates curiosity by hinting at mystery. But there is no mystery about the two cabins which John Muir erected for himself in Yosemite. The places where they stood are known, although not a vestige of the original structures remains. ~The first he erected late in 1869 near the lower Yosemite Falls. 1 Professor Badé has recent’'y been made president of the Sierra Club. He is editor of the Sierra Ciub Bulletin, and professor of Old Testament literature and Semitic languages at the Pacific School of Re- ligion, Berkeley, California, and is well known for his work as a conservationist. He is president of the California Associated Societies for the Conservation of Wild Life. 124 of $a ogee 7 AT THE ENTRANCE OF YOSEMITE VALLEY scener\ uch yf midst the in ae Ss uw \ wn @ nm co Rn Si @ of that It was from such points of van- tage that Muir studied Yosemite. Especially was it his delight to reach some high ridge during or immedi- ately after a heavy winter storm, in order to see the sunset over a wide extent of snow-covered mountain and forest, to study the wind-blown snow clouds as they swirled from peak to peak, and snow avalanches as they swept down the canons. Just once was he forced to ride on such an aya- lanche. He had spent the whole day, Waist deep in snow, climbing labori- ously up the canon. He had hoped to reach the ridge 3000 feet above be- fore sunset, but when still a few hun- dred feet of his goal, he was suddenly swished, in the space of about a min- ute, down to the bottom of the cafion —fortunately on top instead of buried under the snow. He always spoke of the experience as the most “spiritual” of all his travels, a “flight in a milky way of snow flowers” (Our Na- tional Parks, p. 276) The only photograph ever taken, so far as known, of John Muir’s cabin, his first home in Yosemite.—Un- fortunately the picture shows the roof only, the walls being hidden by~ tall ferns and second growths. The cabin was built of sugar-pine ‘‘shakes,’’ and through one corner flowed and sang a stream of rapid water diverted from Yosemite Creek. Nothing remains of Muir’s cabin today, or of his ‘‘hang-nest,’’ a retreat near his cabin, built high and reached by a ladder. Emerson visited this “hang-nest’? and looked with Muir through its two sky- lights,—one giving a view of South Dome, the opposite, of upper Yosemite Falls. (Photograph by the late George Fiske) 126 To Muir, South Dome, or Half Dome as it is also called (: meadows to a height of 4750 feet above the valley, had no sense him an impression of steadfastness in serene strength—like a god ™ al ~ The quiet waters of Mirror Lake.—This and the many other b early days of John Muir, are now seen and enjoyed by thousands of thing worth while to be discovered in Yosemite all the year round eauties it the right), of the dead stone of Yosemite American oul which about rises it; from: woods instead, it and gave 128 NATURAL HISTORY This cabin was built of sugar-pine shakes and is reputed to have been the handsomest building in the valley. By means of a ditch he made a part of the beaten waters of Yosemite Creek fiow through a corner of the cabin, with just enough current to make it “sing and warble in low sweet tones” as it bick- ered by his bed. He was employed at this time by J. M. Hutchings to construct a sawmill —not, however, for the cutting of liv- ing trees. A few years earlier a severe windstorm, sweeping through the val-- ley, had thrown down a large number of cedars and pines. ‘These, by express permission of the commissioners, Mr. . Hutchings was allowed to convert into building material. It seems important to state these facts since during the Hetch-Hetchy controversy some of Muir’s opponents falsely charged that he had erected a sawmill in Yosemite Valley in order to denude it of its trees. The very site of the old sawmill is still surrounded by pines and incense cedars of great age. At one end of the mill he had built for himself a unique retreat, attached to the gable, which people called “the hang-nest.”. A kind of chicken-ladder led up to this sky parlor, and in writ- ing to his sister he humorously re- marked, “Fortunately the only people I dislike are afraid to enter it.” Ralph Waldo Emerson climbed into it to look over his sketches and botanical collection and came away declaring fervently, “Muir is more wonderful than Thoreau.” We may imagine with what enthusiasm Muir showed Emer- son the sights to be seen from his two skylights on opposite sides of the roof. One opening commanded a view of South Dome, and the corresponding one on the other side made a frame for a living picture of the upper Yosemite Falls. “Here,” we might have heard him say, “nature offers brimming cups in endless variety, served in a grand hall, the sky its ceiling, the mountains its walls, decorated with glorious paintings and enlivened with bands of music ever playing.” This hang-nest and his sugar-pine cabin were the places which he called his first home in Yosemite. There, as the letter of a reminiscent friend re- veals, he might be found under the lamp in the evening reading the writ- ings of Alexander yon Humboldt and Sir Charles Lyell, and the latest bo- tanical works on trees. Through his numerous friends the most important new books of a literary or scientific nature speedily found their way to his cabin where the long winter evenings, especially, were devoted to a wide range of reading and research. In the summer of 1871 he left the employ of J. M. Hutchings, and in December he wrote from his old haunts along the Tuolumne near Lagrange that Mr. Hutchings required the sugar- pine cabin for his sister, and that in consequence he was “homeless again.” “T expected to pass the winter there writing, sketching, ete., and in making exploratory raids back over the moun- tains in the snow. But Mr. Hutchings’ ‘jumping’ my nest, after expressly promising to keep it for me, has broken my pleasant lot of plans, and I am at work making new ones.” In January, 1872, he was back in the valley, “gloriously snow-bound.” He had taken up his quarters at Black's Hotel which stood not far from the massive pedestal of Sentinel Rock. It was during the winter season of this year that two natural phenom- ena occurred which deeply impressed Mr. Muir. The one was a great flood- storm, the other a violent earthquake. Of the former he wrote to his sister Sarah, “We have had the grandest flood that has occurred in three years. More than three hundred falls, averag- ng near three thousand feet in height, sang together in glorious jubilee, be- sides a countless company of silvery arteries gleaming everywhere. A_per- 661 ayi AddeyZy,, ‘p ,2}1UIASO XK SB SSoUAOP[IM B VARY PNOM IN ING OYM PUY ‘SeUTARI dT} UMOP S}]NOYS puv SMIOOG JoJVM PUL ‘teIVM SurmMoy jo yooys quoar SewOdaq A1OYAAIOAD A][VA PUL OPIS-UIRJUNOM JO puUNoOAS oY} SoayOrs ALOAV Ye PotoyVYS Butoq atom Ule{UNOU daAyUA UL 9} Ul JUBSRARIZXO SV Peqllosap oy YORUM ‘SvaITaIG YS oy} JO sulLOyS 1 oy} ul sotids puv ‘samop ‘sy oysofvu oy} Savad Jo spuusnoy} AuvUT TOF POOjS oAVY oAOFT ASTI JJOT PuV JYSIA zB Ad[TVA ay JO S][VM VY PUR ‘(UOTRAVIA JooF QOOF) « ATAOAOD YB YUM -U0) YIU SyredsS JapuNyy oyy :anepuvasas ATOUBLBAB JO SyoRV oY} Topun poase}peun ul Joey OOOL PU ‘0009 PUB “OOOS noy4y ‘soanjdinos x o50R I ASTIVA SHL HDNOYHL «‘AOYSAW SO YSAIY,, YO ‘GSOYH3SW SHL UMAIING QN]O VA.sar_gy ayz fo fisazunogp Y} SMOP poodsoyy 9, 30 NATURAL Yosemite trees under the snows of winter time HTSLORY fect storm of waterfalls, the smallest with a voice that was hearable at a distance of several miles.” The same letter contains a hint of his literary ac- tivity at this time,—“With this mail,” he writes, “I send thirty letters, and the writing of these, together with my glacial studies, has kept me busy.” The earthquake occurred March 26, 1872. “At half-past two o’clock of a moonlit morning,’ Muir wrote, “I was awakened by a tremendous earthquake, and though I had never before en- joyed a storm of this sort, the thrill- ing motion could not be mistaken, and I ran out of my cabin, both glad and frightened, shouting, ‘A noble earth- quake! A noble earthquake! feeling sure I was going to learn something. The shocks were so violent and varied, and succeeded one another so closely, that I had to balance myself carefully in walking as if on the deck of a ship among wayes, and it seemed impossible that the high cliffs of the valley could escape being shattered. In particular, I feared that the sheer-fronted Sentinel Rock, towering above my cabin, would be shaken down, and I took shelter back of a large yellow pine hoping that it might protect me from at least the smaller outbounding bowlders. For a minute or two the shocks became more and more violent—flashing horizontal thrusts mixed with a few twists and battering, explosive, upheaving jolts,— as if nature were wrecking her Yosem- ite temple, and getting ready to build a better one.” It was on this occasion that he saw Eagle Rock on the south wall give way and fall into the valley with a tremendous roar. “I saw it falling,” writes Muir, “in thousands of the great bowlders I had so long been studying, pouring to the valley floor in a free curve luminous from friction, making a terribly sublime spectacle— an arc of glowing passionate fire, fifteen hundred feet span, as true in form and as serene in beauty as a rainbow in the midst of the stupendous roaring rock- . JOHN MUIR IN YOSEMITE 13] storm.” He was thrilled by the phenom- enon for he realized that by a fortu- nate chance he was enabled to witness the formation of a mountain talus, a process about which he had long been speculating. Before the great bowlders had fairly come to rest he was upon the new-born talus, listening to the grating, groan- ing noises with which the rocks were eradually settling into their places. His scientific interest in the phenom- enon made him so attentive to even its slightest effects that all fear was ban- ished and he astounded his terrified fellow residents of Yosemite with his enthusiastic recital of his observations. They were ready to flee to the low- lands, leaving the keys of their prem- ises in his hands, while he prepared to resume his glacial studies, armed with fresh clues to the origin of canon taluses. It was during the spring of this same year that he erected a log cabin for himself in a clump of cornus bushes, near the Royal Arches, on the banks of the Merced. The _ precise locality is to be sought at the point where the Merced approaches closest to the Royal Arches, and in a bold curve swings southward again across the valley. In the same neighborhood Lamon had also built his winter cabin. During the cold season of the year, when the south side of the valley is wrapped in the frosty shadows of its high walls, the sun -shines obliquely against the talus slopes of the north side and generates a grateful warmth. Here, then, was Muir’s second home in Yosemite Valley—one, however, that he seems to have occupied very little after 1874. The survival of Lamon’s ™ im old corral in the immediate neighbor- ° . - hood has led to its identification with this last of Muir’s cabins. ~ ds A subject that more than any other ee oe engaged Muir’s attention during his residence in Yosemite was the question % , oe ‘ile of the valley’s origin. In 1870 we al- Wide, shining, and rainbow waters of Vernal Falls 1 Os Las North Dome and the NATURAL HISTORY sey Merced through th e valley ready find him an advocate of the ole erosion theory. To him, in- deed, belongs the « credit of having been the first to set forth this theory in a carefully reasoned form, supported by a mass of detailed observation. The paper of Wiliam Phipps Blake before the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1867 was based on hasty and inadequate field study. True, Clarence King as early as 1864 observed evidence of glaciation in the valley, but he con- tinued to believe, in common with his chief of the California Geological Sur- y, Josiah D. Whitney, that the valley owed its origin to a great cataclysm. In any case he did not publish his glacial observations until his Mouwn- taineering in the Sierra Nevada ap- peared in the spring of 1872. Then, in the chapter entitled “Around Yosem- ite Walls,” he noted that one viewing the valley in its autumnal aspects “has crowded on him the geological record of mountain work, of granite plateau suddenly rent asunder, of the slow, im- perfect manner in which nature has vainly striven to smooth her rough work and bury the ruins with thou- sands of years’ accumulation of soil and débris.” Professor Whitney maintained that Yosemite Valley had been formed by block-faulting. “. .. the bottom of the valley sank down to an unknown depth, owing to its support being with- drawn from underneath,” wrote Whit- ney. “. .. there is no reason to sup- pose... ,” he asserted, “that glaciers have ever occupied the valley or any portion of it... A more absurd theory was never advanced than that by which it was sought to ascribe to glaciers the sawing out of these ver- tical walls and the rounding of the domes. Even in the higher regions outside of Yosemite he found no evi- dence of ice erosion, for, according to him, “Most of the great cafons and valleys of the Sierra Nevada have re- sulted from aqueous denudation.” JOHN MUIR IN YOSEMITE By “Based on entire ignorance of the whole subject,” was the pungent and dogmatic fashion in which he dis- missed the whole glacial erosion theory from his mind. Let me remind the reader that the man who expressed himself in this positive manner was chief of the California Geological Sur- vey, and the only scientific man of ac- knowledged standing who up to that time had reached so decisive a judg- ment upon the facts. Besides, his con- clusions were set forth in a volume “oublished by authority of the Cali- fornia Legislature.” It required con- siderable courage, knowledge, and interpretative ability to enter the lists against such an antagonist. But Muir accepted the challenge. Whitney’s views, quoted above, as set forth in his Yosemite Guide-Book, probably became known to Muir in 1869, after his first summer in the Sierra. He at once recognized them as contrary to his understanding of the facts, but he took time to make a more careful geological study of the whole Yosemite region. All the time he could snatch from his occupation as sawmill operator and guide was em- ployed in field study and exploration. Sundays, in particular, were devoted to what he calls “Sabbath raids among the mountains.” The intensity of his application to his task and the progress of his studies are interestingly told in a letter of September 8, 1871, to his friend, Mrs. Ezra S. Carr. “You know,” he writes, “that for the last three years I have been ploddingly making observations about this valley and the high mountain region to the east of it, drifting broodingly about and taking in every natural lesson that I was fitted to absorb. In particular the great valley has always kept a place in my mind. What tools did He use? How did He apply them and when? I considered the sky above it and all of its opening canons, and studied the forces that came in by every door that | i Overhanging Rock giving view of Yosemite Falls Oo Courtesy of W. L. Huber Looking eastward from the summit of Mount Hoffmann, Mount Dana on the skyline.—Muir visited Mount Hoffmann (11,000 feet elevation, about seven miles north of Yosemite Falls) during his first summer in the Sierra. the ambition that came to him then to understand better the ‘“‘glorious landscape.” In a volume dedicated to the Sierra Club of California he tells of this visit and In 1871 he camped one night on the summit of Mount Hoffmann with James Cross, of Oxford, England, and a Mr. Maxwell, of San Francisco. Meadows, the loveliest Alpine valley of the Sierra Nevada. about this valley for several years I saw standing open, but I could get no light. Then I said: ‘You are at- tempting what is not possible for you to accomplish. Yosemite is the end of a grand chapter; if you would learn to read it, go commence at the begin- ning” Then I went above to the alphabet valleys of the summits, com- paring cafion with canon, with all their varieties of rock-structure and cleavage and the comparative size and slope of the glaciers and waters which they con- tained; also the grand congregations of rock-creations were present to me, and I studied their forms and sculp- ture. I soon had a key to every Yo- semite rock and perpendicular and sloping wall. The grandeur of these forces and their glorious results over- power me and inhabit my whole being. Waking or sleeping, I have no rest. In dreams I read blurred sheets of glacial writing, or follow lines of cleav- 134 Beyond the summit this photograph shows a portion of the Tuolumne Muir’s glacial studies centered in and age, or struggle with the difficulties of some extraordinary rock-form. Now it is clear that woe is me if I do not drown this tendency towards nervous prostration by constant labor in work- ing up the details of this whole ques- tion. I have been down from the upper rocks only three days and am hungry for exercise already. “Professor [John Daniel] Runkle, president of the Boston Institute of Technology, was here last week, and I preached my glacial theory to him for five days, taking him into the canon of the valley and up among the grand glacier wombs and pathways of the summit. He was fully convinced of the truth of my readings and urged me to write out the glacial system of Yosemite and its tributaries for the Boston Academy of Science. I told him that I meant to write my thoughts for my own use and that I would send JOHN MUIR IN YOSEMITE him the manuscript, and if he and his wise scientific brothers thought it of sufficient interest they might publish The “He is going to send me some instru- ments, and I mean to go over all the glacier basins carefully, working until driven down by the snow. In winter I can make my drawings and maps and write out notes. So you see that for a year or two I will be very busy. ... Some of my friends are badgering me to write for some of the magazines, and I am almost tempted to try it, only I am afraid that this would distract my mind from my work more than the distasteful and depress- ing labor of the mill or of guiding. What do you think about it? “Suppose I should give some of the journals my first thoughts about this glacier work as I go along and after- wards gather them and press them for the Boston wise; or will it be better to hold my wheesht and say it all at a breath?” Fortunately he decided not to hold his “wheesht”1! but wrote out his “first thoughts” which appeared in the New York T'ribune, December 5, 1871. In addition to Mrs. Carr, he also furnished, during the preceding summer, information about his dis- coveries to Clinton L. Merriam and J. D. Runkle. The latter, it seems, turned over the letters to his colleague, Samuel Kneeland, who made a use of them which Muir did not wholly ap- prove, for in October, 1872, he wrote to a friend, “Professor Kneeland .. . gathered some letters I sent to Runkle and that Tribune letter, and hashed them into a compost called a paper for the Boston Historical Society, and gave me credit for all of the smaller sayings and doings and stole the broad- est truth to himself.” Professor Kneeland, however, made some amends in the revised edition of his book, The Wonders of Yosemite Valley (1872) in which he referred to 1A Scotch word for silence. Courtesy of W. L. Huber The needle on the west face of Cathedral Peak, Yosemite National Park Muir as “the presiding genius of the valley, the high priest of this temple of nature,” and pointed out justly that what others had seen on a limited scale, “Muir has examined on a very large scale, having traversed the upper Sierra in all directions, and ascer- tained the existence of a glacier system . whose size and direction had previously been rather guessed at than determined.” About this time Muir came into friendly relation with several scientific men of his time, foremost among them being Asa Gray, John Torrey, and Louis Agassiz. Agassiz was then the world’s leading authority on the subject of glaciers. When Mrs. Carr (see page 133) showed him the “glacial letters” of her Yosemite correspondent, he be- came enthusiastic and declared that Muir’s knowledge of glaciation ex- ceeded that of any one whom he knew. For two more years Muir continued Cathedral Spires.—The spires and domes of Yosemite were carved out during the centuries they lay in darkness under the moving, crushing ice of glaciers. The preglacial landscape was destroyed; Muir delights in emphasizing that the destruction was creation. Just where the glaciers ‘ ‘crushed most de- structively’’ are the most beauty and warm life today,—and even today under other forces, fast or slow, Yosemite’s domes and spires are vanishing away his glacial studies in and about Yo- semite and then published his results, in 1874, in a series of seven remarkable articles in the Overland Monthly. They were illustrated with line draw- ings and have remained the most de- tailed and comprehensive studies! of the glaciation of the Sierra Nevada published thus far. It was unfortu- nate that they were not immediately gathered into the form of a-book so as to be easily accessible to subsequent investigators. But the Mount Shasta region, Nevada, Utah, and Alaska soon began to absorb his interest, and he never managed to revise and prepare them for book publication. During these studious Yosemite years, however, he learned to regard ‘They are now in process of republication in the Sierra Club Bulletin. 136 the surface of the earth almost as a living organism, and he was _ ever keenly interested to trace individual features of the earth’s topography through progressive modifications of form and aspect to the point where the cycle of evolution might be said to have run its course. “Nature,” he said, “is ever at work building and pulling down, creating and destroying, keeping everything whirling and flow- ing, allowing no rest but in rhythmical motion, chasing everything in endless song from one beautiful form into an- other.” So impressed was one great geologist with Muir’s vivid sense of this tendency to change that he felt sure, to use his words, “a popular phys- ical geography by John Muir would usurp the place of the novel in the public brary.” Lu i = Ww io) O o” LL Oo ae O O a — WW Zz = Ze Ww op) a) uJ oc =) = oO — =) O fi og Ww O od aed 1o) The booming, reverberating yet not middle 138 until we reach Sentinel of Yosemite Valley, which thunder of Yosemite Falls can be heard five Courtesy of Underwoot UPPER AND LOWER YOSEMITE FALLS or land Underwood six miles away; it fills the valley, Rock do we see the whole half mile of falling water. Yosemite Falls are near the is the heart of Yosemite National Park EL CAPITAN’S IMPOSING FRONT OF GRANITE, ABOVE THE “RIVER OF MERCY” JOHN MUIR From a bust in bronze by Miss Malvina C. Hoffman, sculptor, which has recently been placed in the woods and forestry hall of the American Museum 140 JOHN MUIR IN YOSEMITE Perhaps we cannot do better than to conclude this sketch with two para- graphs from his notebook of 1871. He had passed a beautiful September day in Yosemite Creek basin, tracing the pathway of an ancient glacier, and de- scribing its gradual death where two freshly polished domes were reflected in two new-born moraine lakes. ‘There night had overtaken him, and accord- ing to his custom he sought repose under the stars, but not before he had paid the following tribute to the beauty of his surroundings: “How softly comes night to the mountains! Shadows grow upon all the landscape; only the Hoffmann Peaks are open to the sun. Down in this hollow it is twilight, and my two domes, more impressive than in broad day, seem to approach me. They are not vast and over-spiritual, like Yosem- ite Tissiack, but comprehensive and companionable, and susceptible of hu- man affinities. The darkness grows, and all their finer sculpture dims. 141 Now the great arches and deep curves sink also, and the whole structure is massed in black against the starry sky. “T have set fire to two pine logs, and the neighboring trees are coming to my charmed circle of light: the two- leaved pine, with sprays and tassels in- numerable, the with the magnificent fronded whorls of shining and the graceful nodding spruce, dripping with cones, and seem- ing yet more spiritual in this camp-fire light. Grandly do my logs give back their light, slow gleaned from suns of a hundred summers, garnered beauti- fully away in dotted cells and in beads of amber gum; and, together with this outgush of light, seem to flow all the other riches of their life, and their liy- ing companions are looking down as if to witness their perfect and beautiful death. But I am weary and must rest. Good-night to my two logs and two lakes, and to my two domes high and black on the sky, with a cluster of stars between.” silver fir, boughs, Sketch of a live oak (not heretofore reproduced) which grew near Muir’s Yosemite cabin. To try to draw the trees and rocks of the high Sierras was his natural instinct. He spent many days sketching on North Dome—‘“‘perched like a fly,’’ he said, on the granite surface—from which nearly } 3 all the valley is visible. outlines—readable only to myself. “T would fain draw everything in sight. Whether these picture-sheets are to vanish like fallen leaves or go But little can I do beyond mere to friends like letters, matters not much; for little can they tell to those who have not themselves seen such wildness, and like a language have learned it. no personal hope or experience has room to be.’ —From My (The drawing is used through the courtesy of Mrs. Emily Pelton Wil- of the past, no fear of the future .... First Summer in the Sierra. No pain here, no dull empty hours, no fear son, of Pasadena, to whom Muir sent it in the seventies) “The Manhattan Medical School” Only a dream today, but its achievement would be an honor to the City and a benefit to the medical culture of the world By GRAHAM LUSK Professor of Physiology, Cornell University Medical College, and Scientific Director of Russell Sage Institute of Pathology HE war in Europe led to a great transfer of the world’s wealth to America. For months before the war our people were considering mili- tary preparedness. There is another form to which our energies should turn and that is our own intellectual preparedness. It is fitting to remember that the best blood of England, France, and Germany has been lost. The younger generation which was to carry on the standards of civilization, of art, science, and ltera- ture, has been in part annihilated. Kipling’s son, Osler’s son, Sir Edward Schaetfer’s son, are dead, and so on by the tens of thousands. It is not financial wealth alone that America possesses. She also has schol- ars who have been trained in England, France, and Germany, who have brought the knowledge of those coun- tries here, and who have by their activ- ities enlarged the scope of the world’s intellectual progress. The process has continued so that the United States now affords training in almost every branch of intellectual world endeavor. But such opportunities fall far short of the necessities of the time. We Americans who know of the movements of the modern educational world should wish to preserve intact the opportunities which have existed in Europe for advanced study and research, and not risk the possibility that these things pass away and _ be- come forgotten, even as Science and Art decayed after the Thirty Years’ War. The project which is to form the argument of this paper is the mobiliza- tion of the medical resources of New York City for the foundation of a great medical school which will be an honor 142 to the city and a benefit to the medical culture of the world. There are three medical schools in New York City, all classified by the American Medical Association as be- longing to the first class. One or two of these could be developed into educa- tional institutions which would be truly worthy of our national greatness. A medical school of the best type is a wel- fare center. It confers its blessings not only upon the hospital patients who have treatment by its distinguished professors, but it also sends forth highly trained men who have to do with the health and often with the morals of the whole community. The public benefits conferred by modern science have been greatly un- derestimated in this country. Medicine ean advance only by the scientific method. A well-known clinician re- cently complained that his students were no longer taught the proper things, that they no longer understood the significance of the heart sounds. On the face of it this seems dreadful. But the truth of the matter is that while the older clinicians thought they knew the significance of the heart sounds, a younger and more critical gen- eration is using all the modern instru- ments at hand and all the intellectual reasoning power it possesses to obtain valid evidence of the significance of the heart sounds, and yet finds itself still groping in the dark. It is in the labora- tories, with their exact methods of analy- sis, that accurate interpretation is to be sought. So a great medical school must be founded on a scientific basis if it is to fulfill its mission in the world. It seems that it would be wise to support the interests devoted to teach- ing medicine in New York .to the “THE MANHATTAN MEDICAL SCHOOL” 143 end that a powerful national influence may be exerted for making the stand- ard of medicine the best in the world. It would require $30,000,000 added to existing resources‘ to create a great Manhattan Medical College. Property worth $60,000,000 would closely ap- proximate the total resources of Colum- bia University today. ‘To the objection that $30,000,000 is too large a sum to be used for such a purpose as the elevation of medical standards in this country, let it be remembered that it is less than one half the cost to the United States of one day of war and scarcely more than the cost of a single battleship. And yet this sum, if prop- erly used, would establish forever an asset of incalculable value for the health and welfare of the people. The budget of the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory is $50,000 a year, a large sum from a princely endowment, and it is only half of one-thousandth part of one per cent of what the American people spend annually for food. It has been estimated that the economic loss to the United States from typhoid fever and malaria amounts to a billion dollars a year. If a New York or Presbyterian hos- pital could be built and substantial laboratories constructed near it, the necessary physical equipment would be provided. A large amount of income should be spent in supporting men of brains. With the low rate of salaries prevailing among the laboratory men it would be easy to guarantee the con- tinuance of their present salaries in any new institution, or at least to protect such laboratory men as accept no out- side fees for their services. There is no question that if the success of this scheme were to depend upon it, the professors in the clinical branches who 1 The existing resources are already respectable. The cost of the new Bellevue Hospital, which is largely used for teaching, is estimated at $8,000,- 000. The combined resources of the New York and Presbyterian hospitals, which both enjoy the benefits of medical college affiliation, are $12,000,- 000. The medical schools themselves own property and endowments not far from $10,000,000. This makes a total of $30,000,000. almost incomes far in excess of their academic are universally in receipt of salaries, would tender their resigna- tions so that such clinical departments as are not properly organized could be reorganized on the basis of the best that the country affords. The should be devoted to pure scientific in- laboratories of such a_ school Permission to do outside work for private pay within university laboratories has wrecked many a prom- Some of the clinical professors, perhaps those asso- ciated with the New York or Pres- byterian hospital, might be kept free from private practise. Others, perhaps those associated with Bellevue Hospital, could be allowed to practise medicine after vestigations. ising scientific career. four hours of service daily in the hospital, but such men should receive little or no salary, al- though their staffs should be full-time men. An exception to these rules might be made in permitting outside work if this were done in the service of the state. The state could then command the service of a body of disinterested experts and this would be of great value in the administration of justice. If a new Manhattan Medical School maintained two clinics in medicine and students were allowed to attend whichever course they chose, an ele- ment of competition now lacking would be introduced. In the same way with the subject of chemistry, one set of men could give a course lasting four months to be followed by a course given by another set of instructors. The same laboratory could be used. Each in- structor would then be free for research work at least six months in the year. The student could choose the course he preferred, the better students, of course, being given the first choice. The venture should be largely in the hands of university men, teaching stud- ents who have had at least a certain amount of university training and it would be a credit and a glory to the city of New York. Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood and Doubleday Page and Company THE BEST KNOWN PORTRAIT OF ROOSEVELT It is thought by some that this portrait of the late Colonel Theodore Roosevelt was his first choice. It chances that NATURAL HisTORY has never included it among the numerous portraits of Roosevelt previous!y published and is glad to present it at this time for the excellence of the portrait itself, and as a record. Mr. Abbott uses it as the frontispiece of his book. Every- one who reads this book will be impressed with the simplicity and sincerity of it, and the vast new matter presentcd; and will appreciate also the author's aim “‘to supply some useful details for the final portrait which wiil be painted by the historians of the future’ 144 Lawrence Abbott's “Roosevelt” By HAMLIN GARLAND Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters AWRENCE ABBOTT’S Impres- sions of Theodore Roosevelt is not correctly named. It is not a series of impressions but an au- thentic, indisputable record. Few men had the opportunity for studying Roosevelt at such close range, in such diverse fields of activity, and from day to day, as the writer of this book en- joyed. There are many to claim friendship with Roosevelt, but few who are as fully entitled to that distinction as Lawrence Abbott of the Outlook. Although unassuming in its title, this book is of such value that it can- not be overlooked by any future his- torian. Without especial distinction of style and almost without construc- tion, it nevertheless tells the reader just what he wishes to know concern- ing certain disputed points of Roose- velt’s career. Its calm statement of fact with regard to the relationship of Taft and Roosevelt, for example, shows the large-minded action of Roosevelt at one stage of the con- troversy. “He was always ready to renew friendly relations with an antagonist,” Abbott writes, “unless they had been broken because of some fundamental vicious streak in his opponent which could not be remedied by any kind of readjustment.” New light is also thrown on the campaign of 1912, and on the Pan- ama project, wherein Roosevelt's ac- tion is still a matter of dispute even among his friends. My own concern about these subjects is that of interest in the character of Roosevelt. Po- litical issues are vital now only by rea- son of his participation in them. In Abbott’s account the reactionaries are 1 Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt. Company, 1919. By Lawrence F. made responsible for the division of the Republican Party in 1912 (ac- cording to material here offered for the first time) and Roosevelt is shown to us in the act of refusing to com- promise in the shghtest degree on the moral question involved in the great struggle in Chicago. This is one of the most important and stirring pas- sages in the book, for it shows Roose- velt in his highest mood as a_po- litical leader. He was a redoubtable warrior, but he was a manly and generous warrior. He was, as the saying goes, a “good sport.” To the man who fought fair he had only praise even if he was worsted by him, but the man who hit below the belt was not forgiven. The question “Who was responsible for the wreck of the Republican Party in 1912?” will be answered according to the reader’s prejudices, no doubt, but Abbott confirms my own convictions in the case by presenting the docu- ments which are needed in the final judgment. In the famous dispute concerning the Guildhall speech Abbott’s testi- mony is again of definitive character. Roosevelt wrote his Guildhall speech during his journey of six or eight weeks in Europe, declares Abbott. “He sought and accepted suggestions as to form and phraseology—this I know, because at his request I read the speech two weeks before it was delivered.” This should dispose of the criticism that it was “a piece of tooseveltian impulsiveness.” In truth it was exactly a characteristic piece of Roosevelt preparation. Impulsive in action, he brooded over his problem with complete concentration before he Doubleday Page and Abbott. Published by 145 146 NALUEAL ETSTORY Courtesy of Doubleday Page and Co. From a photograph of Roosevelt taken in 1912 at his desk in the office of the Outlook acted. His leap was swift but his preparation deliberate. The parts of the book which are of most interest to me, however, are those which touch upon Roosevelt's love of books and of nature. In these he was at his highest and best. They tell of the Roosevelt I knew, the Roosevelt who could write like this: “Across the lonely wastes the sun went down. The sharply channeled chffs turned crimson in the dying hght. All the heavens flamed ruby red and faded to a hundred dim hues of opal, beryl, and amber, pale turquoise and a delicate emerald; and then night fell and darkness shrouded the desert.” This passage recalls to me a talk we once had concerning the beauty and loneliness of the Bad Lands of Da- kota. For a man of infinite and end- less activity, he was singularly con- templative. He had his moments when he was but a mind in the midst of wild scenes, and reacting to wild voices. On most themes his man- ner of writing, while clear and force- ful, is lacking in grace, in charm, but when he wrote of nature, of the wil- derness, his prose was often impas- sioned almost to the point of poetry. Some parts of his book on Africa, and especially certain passages in A Book- lovers Holidays in the Open, have a vibrant rhythm which adds to the truth of his description a lasting musical charm. Abbott’s division of Roosevelt’s personal qualities under the heads of Caution, Courage, Humor, and Gen- tleness, will come as a surprise to many who knew only one side of the man. His courage and his humor most men know, but few know, as Abbott knew, the gentle and chival- rous side of Roosevelt. It is significant and helpful to find the book ending on this note: ‘“Theo- dore Roosevelt's personality was an unsurpassed combination of the unterri- fied fighter of what he believed to be the worst, and the tender-hearted lover of what he believed to be the best in mankind.” And, in another place, Ab- bott says, “There was not a tinge of jealousy in his disposition. He was not a philosopher, he was simply human. He took the hard knocks of hfe not with resignation but with a kind of boyish zest and joy.” In short, Abbott presents in this book the Roosevelt I knew, but with a fullness of observation which was de- nied me. It is a delightful as well as an authoritative record. Application of Psychological Tests in Army Camps' By GEORGE F S. A., Chief Psychological Examiner, Camp Sherman, Ohio Ohio State University; lately Major, U. In considering the subject ‘‘Psychological Tests in Army Camps,” ARPS it is understood that I am here detailing the service rendered by the psychological examining station at Camp Sherman, Ohio. What was done at Sherman is fairly typical, I think, of the procedure and results attained wherever psycho- logical examining stations were in complete operation. So far as this may be the case, I am permitted to speak for the service in all camps where the psychological service was made available.-—THE AUTHOR. F it was important that America dis- cover quickly the best brains among her recruits and assist in placing those competent in positions of leader- ship and responsibility commensurate with the enormous task then confront- ing the nation, if it was important to weed out the relatively “dead” brains that endangered the lives of those engaged in the combatant units of the military service, and rf it was important to increase the efficiency of all extra military organizations en- gaged in promoting military efficiency, then the psychological service, it may pardonably be said, made a valuable contribution to the military arms of the nation. Hundreds of thousands of young men from practically every known oc- cupation poured like a stream of im- mense volume into the various army cantonments, there to be speedily organized into companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. The mul- titude being assembled, the concrete problem of whipping and shaping this huge mass into an effective fighting machine within a few months con- fronted American genius. Obviously the reduction of this mass of men, representing the most diver- gent interests, divergent social stand- ing, divergent occupations, divergent nationalities, into an orderly, dis- ciplined fighting machine, was a plain matter of selecting the best brains for positions of leadership, of selecting men of decision, clear vision, convic- tion, energy, determination,—in short of selecting men unmistakably - pos- sessed of superior intelligence and of unimpeachable integrity. These men to the extent of tens of thousands were indispensable as commissioned and noncommissioned officers. How to select the most intelligent, how to select them quickly and with the minimum of error, were among the immediate pressing problems. Upon the officers, and especially upon the noncommissioned officers, devolved the problem not only of reducing this con- glomerate, inarticulate aggregation of independent, undisciplined American young men into an army of disciplined soldiers, but upon the officers fell also the important work of developing mili- tary morale, stamina, and spirit. These elements, all more or less latent with respect to mass action, considered from the military point of view depend al- most altogether for their development and codrdination upon the commis- sioned and noncommissioned officers. The first and most important service which a psychological examining sta- tion renders consists in furnishing commanding officers with a mental rating of every recruit as soon as pos- sible after his induction into the sery- ice. These ratings are entered on the service records of every soldier and may be consulted by the commanding 1A paper read before the American Psychological Association, 1918. 147 148 officers before selecting noncommis- sioned officers; by the authorities charged with the duty of selecting the best material for the various officers’ training schools; and by officers in balancing organizations—and in many other ways. This procedure consti- tutes a short and practically accurate method of selecting the type of man necessary for the construction of a modern army in record time. It is infinitely superior to the method of rough observation and guess which of necessity prevailed, more or less, prior to the introduction of psychological tests. In speaking of the “guess method” one commanding officer re- marked: “I have given up trying to estimate intelligence by observing ‘an- atomical topography’ and various other phrenological symptoms of mentality.” The standard for admission to any officers’ training school—infantry school of officers, machine-gun school, artillery school, quartermaster school, and signal school—was almost entirely confined at Camp Sherman to candi- dates who were very superior and su- perior men mentally as determined by the intelligence tests. It does not fol- low that all candidates so rated were selected, for the psychological tests are by no means free from error. More- over, there are other very important factors which help to determine a can- didate’s total value to the service; these must be considered in conjunc- tion with the intelligence factor in de- termining fitness for commissioned service. It was the opinion at Sherman that, in view of the supply of superior and very superior men, and, in view of the fact that a noncommissioned officer, under emergency circumstances, may assume direct and independent com- mand, the intelligence qualification for the noncommissioned officer should closely approximate that of the com- missioned officer. There was a distinct trend in this direction in the minds NATURAL HISTORY of certain of the military authorities at Sherman. Had the war continued, it is not unlikely that most interesting developments would have resulted in the division forming when the armis- tice was signed. In one division, at least, it was very probable that the in- telligence curve of the noncommis- sioned officers would have paralleled that of the commissioned officers. These statements gain enormously in significance when we reflect that in “a single organization about fifty non- commissioned officers and first-class privates were sent to the school for il- literates. The consequences of leader- ship of this degree of intelligence do not involve a serious task on the imagi- nation; on the other hand, it may strain considerably the feelings and confidence of those vitally concerned with the welfare of the men com- manded. The second important service ren- dered by the psychological examining station consisted in rating all com- missioned officers below the rank of major in the camp. A number of com- missioned officers requested the exami- nation of their entire commands, in- cluding men of higher rank. This was our recommendation in view of the fact that candidates for the various training schools must have, as a rule, an “A” or “B” (“very superior” or “su- perior’) rating and that promotions into the higher ranks are quite gener- ally made from the lower. There were other reasons, but these appeared sufficient to justify the recommenda- tion. All this is obvious from the pro- cedure in the camp surgeon’s office with respect to the promotion of com- missioned officers into higher grades. For example, a lheutenant up for a cap- taincy appeared before a committee, of which the surgeon was chairman, for examination. This was at first done in- dependently of the intelligence rating. The results of the initial work of the committee showed the very interesting « PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS IN ARMY CAMPS 149 fact that every man promoted had re- ceived an intelligence rating according to the psychological tests of “A” or “B,” and that every officer, with one exception who failed to receive promo- tion had been rated below “B” in in- telligence. Thereafter, the work of the examining committee was con- siderably abbreviated and no candi- date for promotion appeared before the committee in advance of the results of mental examination. A third service by the Camp Sher- man station made possible the conduct of the development battalion schools along lines of accepted modern peda- gogical procedure. A complete plan of procedure and organization was pre- sented to the battalion school officer who at once accepted the plan. The administration of these schools was made possible by memoranda issued by headquarters of the depot brigade. According to this plan, the teachers were selected by means of psychologi- eal tests; the student soldiers were initially classified according to their intelligence ratings, thus securing a fairly uniform tempo of learning for each class. After two or three weeks of actual classroom experience the men were re-classified. The armistice in- terrupted, almost at its inception, what appeared to give promise of being an extremely valuable educational experi- ment, upon which those concerned with the problem of illiteracy and with the Americanization of our foreign population could very profitably be- stow at least one intelligent moment. Fourth.—The psychologists assisted the psychiatrists in eliminating low grade men- tals whom it would be dangerous to retain in any line organization. Frequent assist- ance was extended the division psychiatrist in making a final survey of units about +o leave for overseas. At a later date when the psychological examining stations were more completely or- ganized, the recruits, as they entered the receiving depots, were thoroughly combed so that only an occasional low grade succeeded in getting by the psychiatric and psycho- logical examiners. Thus was the army made mentally as well as physically “fit to fight.” It is obvious from the above that the psychological service played its réle in the all-important problem of selecting the best brains for positions of leadership on the one hand, and, on the other hand, in the elimina- tion from active line duty of the puny, putty brains so well calculated to gum up the military machinery. Fifth.—The commanding officer of the base hospital requested a complete survey of his personnel. This included commissioned men of all grades, all noncommissioned officers, and all enlisted men. The camp adjutant made use of intelligence ratings to a very large degree in assigning enlisted men to base and evacuation hospitals organizing for overseas duty. Siath.—As in the case of the base hos- pital, the commanding officer of the medical department of the depot brigade requested a survey of his organization. Here, as else- where, most of the noncommissioned officers were selected before the psychological work was in full operation, which accounts for the relatively large number of intelligence grades below that of “B.” The value of this survey is indicated by the commanding officer’s com- munication which is fairly typical of the medical attitude. He says: “Tt is now the procedure in this depart- ment to select, as likely men for training with a view to advancement, those who show an intelligence from High Average up, giv- ing proper value, of course, to such other factors as application, personality, physical qualities, etc. It seems sure that this will obviate selection and, later, failure to make good of some who might otherwise creep in.” Seventh.—By request of the division and camp surgeon all members of the army nurse corps and the student army nurses were examined. The Colonel, in making the re- quest, emphasized the very great importance of the intelligence factor in the nurse serv- ice. The tests were of value in organizing the service and in making assignments to places of greater opportunity and respon- sibility. Perhaps it should be emphasized again that the psychological tests lay no direct claim to measurements of such factors as 150 reliability, determination, grit, industry all very important factors in arriving at the total value of any person in the military service. Fighth.—The psychological service was placed at the disposal of the commanding officer of the prison ward and the camp psychiatrist in examining all base hospital prisoners and drug addicts. Intelligence ratings functioned to some extent in de- termining treatment (not medical), and in furnishing assistance as to the ultimate dis- position of these unfortunates. Ninth.—At the earnest solicitation of the commanding officer of the camp of con- scientious objectors the psychological board made a fairly complete mental and sociologi- cal report on each man who classified himself as conscientiously opposed to military sery- ice. While recognizing the existence of the genuine objector, it is preferable to re- main within the bounds of printable English and refrain from comments applicable to a very considerble proportion of this unsavory group. How the psychological ratings functioned in the interpretation, disposition, treatment, and understanding of this motley aggrega- tion of disparate elements can best be por- trayed in a blanket statement of their com- manding officer. He says, “It is not ex- travagant to say that the intelligence rating and survey of each case have been almost invaluable. I do not hesitate to say that without this information I could well be compared in the conduct of my work to a blind man groping in the dark for an un- seen goal.” Tenth—By camp memorandum the entire personnel of the quartermaster department, the remount station, the guards at the Ger- man prison camp, and all other military or- ganizations which had not previously re- quested examination, were surveyed and re- ports forwarded to the proper commanding officers. Eleventh.—All candidates for (1) infantry officers’ school, (2) machine-gun school, (3) artillery school, (4) quartermaster school, and (5) signal school were given psychologi- cal tests and the results used in determining entrance to these various schools. The presi- dent of the examining board makes the following comments: “It is the unanimous opinion of the Board that an intelligence rating is the one most reliable index, in that NATURAL HISTORY a quantitative statement is available and in that rough observation is effectively checked. The psychological rating is, therefore, con- sidered of primary importance.” Twelfth—Camp Sherman had but one officers’ training school, the fourth. The psychological board furnished the command- ing officer at his request an intelligence rat- ing for each man in the school for whom there was no rating. It was the commanding officer’s opinion that the intelligence ratings were of the highest value to the military service; he suggested that the examination be given simultaneously to all units of a division as soon as possible after organiza- tion. Thirteenth.—The division and camp sur- geon of the eighty-fourth division requested a rating of his office personnel, as did likewise his successor. Fourteenth.—The psychological service ex- tended beyond the strictly military organiza- The and the chief medical health officer enlisted this service in the examination of a considerable number of prostitute and questionable women who, as is well known, infest the immediate en- virons of army camps. Many examinations were made in the infirmary where the women were quarantined pending treatment and ultimate disposition; others, fewer in number, were examined in the county jail and in the city bastile. Whenever possible a psychiatric ex- aminer accompanied the psychologist. Was ood, a ri ow Lag Samet + = a ad © MOUNTAIN FOLIAGE ALWAYS DRENCHED IN MIST Jamaica, and to a certain extent of the John Crow Mountains as well, is and mists which constantly sweep over the slopes induce forest trees, and fine trailing ferns eek a The vegetation of the Blue Mountains of very luxuriant and abounds in ferns and mosses. Heavy rair a riotous growth. Epiphytic bromelias lodge on all the larger limbs of the foothold on every tree trunk and on every bank 156 A Zodologist in Jamaica’ Bye bk oh aeAON EOIN YY Associate Curator in Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural Histor) T the time of Gosse, the English nat- uralist who summed up the knowledge on Jamaican zoology about the mid- dle of the last century in that delightful classic, A Naturalists Sojourn in Jamaica, the island of Jamaica could claim for its na- tive mammalian fauna only two species, ex- clusive of bats. These were the so-called Indian cony (Geocapromys brown) and a rice rat (Oryzomys antillarum). Since Gosse, various contributing agencies, among them the introduction of the mongoose, have wiped out completely the rice rat and brought to the verge of extinction the In- dian cony. Such a state of affairs could scarcely be expected to attract a mammal- ogist to Jamaica, nevertheless the plans of the department of mammals of the American Museum of Natural History, as a part of a comprehensive scheme for West Indian re- search, called for an early reconnaissance of the island and disregarded the apparent pov- erty of the fauna, trusting rather to the pre- dictions that could be made on the basis of past work in the Greater Antilles. Exploration in past years on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Porto Rico, as well as on the smaller island of Anguilla, had disclosed the 1 The illustrations are from presence of a fossil fauna much more numer- ous, varied, and interesting, as far as mam- mals are concerned, than the one that is liv- ing there today. On these islands the fos- sils were found in formations from the late Pleistocene into the early Recent epoch, and the animals must therefore have flourished and disappeared before the advent of any man into the West Indies. There are two exceptions, two rodents which lived long enough to be a food item on the menu of the Arawaks, but passed into oblivion together with the Indians at the coming of the Span- lards. These mammals formed a strange assem- blage of curious and ancient ancestries, most of them with their closest relatives to be found back in the Miocene formations of Patagonia; while one of them, a peculiar, long-snouted, insect-eating animal that lived both on Porto Rico and on Cuba, as far as fossil records show, lost its last relative ba in the Eocene beds of North America, mak ing this island survivor outlast his mainla1 kin a matter of 5,000,000 years or mor The greater part of these fossils are rodents and vary in size from ratlike forms, t S of the domestic house rat, to giant gn: rs photographs by the Aut 158 that far exceeded in size any living rodent and attained a weight of perhaps 150 pounds. The largest forms, as well as those most likely to appeal to the popular attention as something very distinct from any mam- mal to be found living today, are ground sloths, ungainly, heavy-limbed edentates, dis- tantly related to the slow-moving sloths of the present day, and like them, feeding on vegetation. The largest of these ground sloths was as large an animal as the black bear, but it had smaller relatives about the size of a fox terrier. The smallest mammals to be found in this fossil complex are insec- tivores, and the Cuban representative was comparable in size to the meadow mouse. Although the first discoveries of fossil West Indian mammals were made in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the rapid ex- tension of knowledge of this fauna did not- come until about the time that the World War burst forth, and research in natural history gave way to the demands of the occasion. Unsuspected additions to the mammal inhabitants of Porto Rico, Santo Domingo, and Cuba at once aroused a dor- mant interest in the West Indies and explo- ration there received a vigorous impetus. The question of the arrival of these mam- mals on the various islands was explained by two different hypotheses. One school of investigators held that the islands must of necessity have been linked to the continental mainland at some time in the Tertiary, when the animals crossed dry-shod to take up what later became an insular abode. On the other hand, the antagonists of this theory maintained that the islands had no main- Jand connection in the Tertiary, but re- ceived their life through fortuitous methods of dispersal, chief among which were float- ing life rafts, great masses of caved-in bank, bearing vegetation and what as yearly come down large rivers like the Orinoco and the Amazon and pass out to sea, carrying various forms of life that may have been trapped on them. The latter school held. that the nature of the island fauna, so far as it was made up of mammals and such forms as were so restricted by not—such quadrupedal locomotion as to need land con- nections for an extended distribution, argued against a land bridge because otherwise one should find more of the elements of a truly continental fauna. years of so many new forms has in a meas- The discovery in recent NATORAL HES LORY ure added fuel to the controversy, for, while the number of forms has been increased greatly so that the life raft theory would seem to be overworked to account for them all, on the other hand the nature of the fauna has acquired a peculiar aspect, namely, that of an assemblage of rodents, insectivores, and edentates only, with none of the domi- nant mainland types from such groups as the ungulates, carnivores, and marsupials. One significant feature, however, that has been indicated by the discovery of closely related forms on adjacent islands, has been the gain- ing in favor of the hypothesis that all of the larger islands at one time in the Tertiary formed an Antillean continent of consider- able extent. In this connection the island of Jamaica might well have been considered to hold the deciding evidence, since its pos- sibilities had not been exploited and since its position, in relation to submarine topog- raphy, would bring it equally well into such an Antillean continent or into an eastward extension of the mainland from Honduras. The more than likely chance that new and in- teresting discoveries awaited the first mam- malogists to make a detailed search for fos- sils led me to plan work on Jamaica as the first resumption of West Indian exploration after my return from military service. With an assistant from the department of vertebrate paleontology of the American Museum, Mr. Charles Falkenbach, I left New York for Jamaica November 19, 1919, and spent four months in as thorough a recon- naissance as such a short period permitted. The results of the trip have been doubly sat- isfactory, first in the acquisition of new and valuable material for the Museum collee- tions, and second in the vindication of the belef that the West Indian fauna has yet many treasures to be unearthed. In the West Indies the main source of all the fossil finds has been the limestone caves. Because of the geological nature of the Greater Antilles, which have extensive areas wholly of limestone, caves are of frequent occurrence, and in times gone by the mam- mals have made use of these caves, either as a daily refuge in which to live, or, in the case of old or diseased individuals, as places into which to crawl and die. Fi- nally a species of owl, closely related to the barn owl of the mainland, has made these caves its home, and as it preyed entirely upon birds, small mammals, and reptiles, the “ BONES PRESERVED IN A CAVE 100,000 YEARS ssil discoveries of the West Indies have come from limestone caves where many {1 and where others crawled away to die. The American Museum } xpedition exam t in fossils was at Balaclava near the center of the island. Here were obtaine 1 , tard limestone formation, ntaining pebbles, shells, and bones (as shown chiseled and worked out with great care in the Museum laboratories. There have alre: new rodent of most unusual size, a large terrapin, and a crocodile. The evidence points to when these animals lived, and the nes have been held in the limestone 100,000 4 * > y fee? : Be “eS A : y 2 “e sy ; ye ra Oe 54 4 IN HIGH ALTITUDES OF JAMAICA The most conspicuous and the most beautiful feature of the environment in the higher parts of the mountains is the tree fern. Many species are known from Jamaica, and all are noteworthy for their clean-cut appearance, which makes them stand out sharply against the jungle background, and also for the vigorous green of their foliage 160 A ZOOLOGIST. IN JAMAICA pellets cast up cover the cave floor in some cases with millions of small and have been the source of a great deal of ma- terial which could have been obtained by no other means. Accordingly the island was mapped out first in respect to the limestone areas, and trips were made into all of the most promising cave regions. We found that many caves must be visited in order to strike upon one that proved to have been so sit- uated that it attracted the sought-for inhabi- tants; thus in all, about seventy caves were examined. As luck would have it, the rich- est cave of the entire trip was located at the very first station visited, Balaclava, a little west of the center of Jamaica, in the parish of St. Elizabeth. Here was encountered, in a very small cave at the base of a limestone cliff, a brec- cia or conglomerate formation made up of earth, pebbles, and bones, all cemented into limestone by the action of water charged with lime, and a mass of valuable material was obtained. The most important mammal found in this formation was a rodent. If one may judge from the limb bones asso- ciated with and apparently belonging to the typically rodent teeth (which alone of all the material is at present sufficiently free of the matrix to allow of examination), this animal possessed a huge, disproportionate body structure, larger than any living rodent, and indeed surpassed in this re- spect by few rodents of any time. Until the material has been worked out of the concealing limestone in which it was col- lected, nothing but conjecture as to its form and relationships may be indulged in, but of its distinctness there can be no doubt. A»- sociated with this large rodent were found a terrapin, larger considerably than the one living on the island today, probably a large tortoise, and fragments of a crocodile. This breccia was found cemented to the side and to the ceiling of the cave, and its posi- tion, taken in conjunction with other evi- dence, points toward the time of its forma- tion as being in the Pleistocene, probably a matter of 100,000 years ago. A like formation was encountered at one other locality on the island, and here also the evidence of antiquity was very strong. Throughout most of the island the caves were of too recent formation to contain such old deposits. For example, along the sea- coast, where the last elevation of the island bones, 161 brought the coastal plains up out of the sea, although the they were invariably of quite recent formation caves were numerous and contained none of the interesting new The latter caves often did yield, however, remains of the extinct rice rat, thus fossils. showing that at no very remote period this small rodent had a widespread distribution and was so common that it formed an impor- tant part of the diet of the barn owl. The reason for its disappearance obviously lies in the advent of the ubiquitous Norway rat and the bloodthirsty mongoose, but the cause of the disappearance of the older, Pleisto- cene mammalia is not so apparent. In numerous localities the records of the former were found. Indian inhabitants The species known as the Jamaica barn owl island for This owl has inhabited certain cayes on the thousands upon thousands of years. swallows its prey whole—mice, small birds, frogs, and lizards—and ejects from its stomach large pellets of the undigested fur, feathers, and bones. These pellets line the cave floors to the depth of a foot or more, often weighing many tons in the aggregate, and serve as a yolume of natural history to the investigator, and an invaluable record of the changing animal life of Jamaica 162 NATURAL These Indians, the Arawaks, were an agricul- tural people, of peaceful disposition but con- tinually harassed by the cannibalistic Caribs who frequently descended upon them from the sea, and who had in fact driven them from the South American mainland to seek a refuge on the islands. Because of their fear of the Caribs it would appear that the Arawaks kept a lookout seaward from the well-concealed caves to be found in many places along the coast. Also it was their practice to bury their dead in caves, and in our excavations it was a common occurrence to turn up human bones. Sometimes, if the cave was an ample one, charcoal and bits of pottery showed that these primitive people had feasted in the caves, either at a time when they were hiding from the enemy Caribs or possibly as a funeral rite. Always to be found in these ashes were the bones of the rodent Geocapromys, and it is from this fact, I was told, that the animal gained the name of Indian cony. It is the one na- tive land mammal living on the island to- day, bats excepted, and until about 1900 it had an extensive distribution and was a favorite food item with the Negroes. Because it has been preyed upon by the mongoose and also constantly hunted, it has been gradually killed off, and at the time of my arrival upon the island I fully expected to learn that it was extinct. At the Institute of Jamaica, in Kingston, however, I found a live one in captivity and was told by Mr. Frank Cundall, the librarian in charge of the Institute, that the species was still to be found in the John Crow Mountains, on the eastern end of the island. I therefore planned a side trip into these mountains to obtain a few specimens for scientific work in the American Museum. Through the cour- tesy of the United Fruit Company we were enabled to spend about ten days on their large plantation at Windsor, near Port An- tonio, and about nine miles from the heart of the John Crow Mountains. The Indian cony is a robust rodent, with a body the size of that of an ordinary house cat, but with a very short tail. exclusively nocturnal. It is almost The local name given to it by the Maroons, those Negroes who live in the Jamaican hinterland and ¢laim descent from the runaway Indian and Negro slaves of centuries gone by, is “grazee,” hav- ing reference to its habits of feeding on grasses and the leaves of low shrubs. It HISTORY seeks shelter for the day under the roots of some large tree or far back under huge lime- stone bowlders, and is found at present only in the roughest situations. We learned that to obtain any specimens and to observe any- thing of the animal in life it would be nec- essary to climb up into the fastnesses of the mountains and spend a night or two “in the bush” while we hunted the cony with dogs. A local magistrate, Mr. Massey, kindly made the necessary arrangements for a hunt, and with five men and numerous small dogs we started for the upper John Crow Mountains. After a long climb up slippery trails we at last came to an opening in the forest where a palm-thatched shelter had been erected for the convenience of hunt- ing parties. It was early afternoon, and there was yet time for some hunting, so we left certain of the men to dispose of the packs, build a fire, and put the shelter in readiness for the night, and with six small dogs struck off into the forest. We were at about 1200 feet elevation on the western slope of the mountains, and al- though the forest was fairly thick it was yet possible for one to leave the trail and work his way through the “bush.” The dogs dis- appeared almost before we were out of sight of camp, some of them going on up the trail ahead and others taking off into the brush at either side of the trail. It was an overcast day, and it had rained several times while we were coming up into the mountains and now, under cover of the primitive for- est, it was very dark and gloomy and there were no bird calls to break the stillness. Be- fore we had gone very far the two natives stopped and loaded their single-barreled shot-guns, first inserting a shell loaded with number six shot, and then dropping down the muzzle a heavy slug of lead which they held in place over the shot by ramming down a wad of paper or leaves. I learned that this was in preparation for wild hogs, which were likely to prove disagreeable customers if they were encountered at close quarters on the trail, The mountains of Jamaica in the wilder, more remote sections, are the haunt of a great many of these feral swine whose ancestors escaped from domestication more than a century ago. The boars grow large tusks and show an inclination to use them, so the natives pay this animal considerable re- spect. As we were crossing a small stream, one “ A ZOOLOGIST IN JAMAICA 162 of the dogs that happened to be following at heel made a sharp swerve to the right and began a diligent search among some bowlders and old logs. His actions had been noted and we waited to see the outcome. Very shortly he set up a wild, excited yelping and began to dig away in a frenzied manner at a large hole that ran back under a huge bowlder. The Negro hunter with us became almost as excited as the dog, and ran back across the stream to help dig out the cony. With his machete he soon cleared away the fallen vegetation, and when the hole was suf- ficiently exposed he was able to pull out a few fragments of limestone that blocked up the entrance and this allowed the dog to get his head and shoulders inside. The dog had been impatiently waiting for this to be done, and as soon as the man’s hands were with- drawn, he plunged into the hole and by dint of much struggling was able to worm himself in until only his tail protruded. Then we heard a faint birdlike chirping in the intervals when the dog drew breath for a fresh outburst of barking, telling that the dog and the cony were face to face, and almost immediately the sound of snarling and worrying. When the hunter heard this, he reached in and seized the dog by the hind leg, dragging him out by sheer strength. The dog had secured a firm grip so that the cony was dragged out into the open, where it was promptly seized by the hunter before the dog could tear it. The cony possesses sufficient vitality to withstand a great deal of mauling, and can put up a good fight. This one had bitten a small piece out of the dog’s nose. Not infre- quently several animals are taken from the one hole, and we put the dog back to see if he could find any more, but he soon backed out with the disgusted expression that showed that the place had no further interest for him, so we moved on. In this case the dog was of rather good size for this type of hunting; generally speaking, the smaller the dog, the more it is prized by the Negroes, because it can enter the holes more easily. Less than a hundred feet down the stream one of the other dogs now gave tongue to a shrill yelping, and dogs and men went pell- mell to give assistance. This hole was a much more difficult proposition than the other, and I did not see how there could be any hope of enlarging it, as it ran under huge blocks of limestone weighing tons. The dogs, only three of which were with us at this moment, were indulging in the wild- est antics at the entrance, scratching franti- cally and lying on their sides in the effort to take up as little room as possible and squeeze into the cavity. From this great display of The Indian cony (Geocapromys brownii) is a heavy-set little rodent with coarse, reddish brown fur of no commercial value. much as if it were a small pig. 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In 1797 the Avery Oak just escaped going into the timbers of ‘Old Ironsides”’ (still lying at anchor off Charleston) for the con- sideration of seventy dollars. This tree antedates the town of Dedham, on whose seal it appears, and still stands four- square against the wind with only a scar from lightning. It is traditionally reported that the first religious meeting of the town was held under its shade A CENTURY OF APPLE BLOSSOMS An apple tree with an age more befitting that of an oak and with a spread of branches equaling that of a giant elm is noteworthy among trees. The apple tree at Marshfield Hills on Cape Cod Bay is more than one hundred years old and presents in spring a sixty-toot ball of white and pink blossoms supported by limbs nearly six feet in girth 178 WITH ASSOCIATIONS IN HISTORY AND LITERATURE The trees of Concord are haunted by connections with the stirring events of 1775 and by the peaceful associa- tions of American literature. Groves and shade trees have from time immemorial been immortalized as the companions of authors who walked or thought, or conversed with nature and friends, beneath the branches. In the house under these elms Louisa May Alcott once lived, and within the deep shade of the pine grove a bowlder informs the visitor that Nathaniel Hawthorne ‘trod daily this path to the hill to formulate as he paced to and fro upon its summit his marvelous romances” ANCIENT OAKS BY THE WAYSIDE INN At Sudbury, west of Boston, is Longfellow’s ‘‘Wayside Inn’’ where “Through the ancient oaks o’erhead, Mysteri- Ous voices moaned and fled.’’ Ancient even in Longfellow’s day, the two oaks—red and white—already dominated the roadside when Washington passed in 1775 on his way to Cambridge to take command of the army, and later when both he and Lafayette stopped at the inn. The poet frequented this famous inn and there found inspiration for his ‘‘Tales of a Wayside Inn.’’ The trees are at least 500 years old; one is now hollow but has been braced from within so that it gives promise of ruling for many years among the numerous descendent oaks sown from its acorns in the surrounding fields 179 PURPLE PASQUE FLOWERS OF A COLORADO SPRING Hunting with a camera requires as much cunning and patience and endurance ing with a gun—a fact which has probably been a potent factor in developing the great inter as hunt- in nature photography in this countr during the last few years. With a camera the true sport man may indulge his delight in the out-of-door world and his interest in the wild animals and native plants of our country without sacrificing life and beauty in the pursuit. Wild flowe are among the daintiest but by no means the easiest subjects to photograph, because time exposures are necessary for fine detail, and careful work to bri out the true color values. See detail study on page 187 180 Ground squirrels are endowed with curiosity and large appetites, which fact makes them excel- lent subjects for the photographer if only he brings a bag of corn. This stocky little Say’s ground squirrel (Callospermophilus lateralis) is commonly mistaken for a chipmunk, which it closely resembles in marking and habits (See also page 189) Trials and Tribulations of a Nature Photographer By kOe. hy Ore kw Babel Member of the Colorado Mountain Club O the casual reader, a_ well-taken “nature photograph” is merely a pic- ture—of no particular significance beyond the subject it depicts, but to the one who has spent strenuous hours in pursuit of elusive outdoor subjects, it represents far more than the image on the paper before him. One must take an actual part in the game and experience its hardships and ac- cidents, as well as the brilliant flashes of good luck and unexpected success, to ap- preciate fully the fact that a really good picture of this kind is the result of patience and persistency conquering disappointment and failure. And to this very fact may be attributed the remarkable increase of in- terest in nature photography which has characterized the last few years in America. For the American sportsman is one who loves God’s great outdoors, who glories in a battle of wits with God’s wild creatures; and the nature photographer is a sportsman who is quick to recognize in photography the possibility of indulging these fancies without sacrificing life and beauty in the pursuit. Nor can he who has spent long, freezing hours in a November duck blind, or dragged his weary limbs over miles of fallen timber after deer or bear, contend that his alone are the hardships; for every obstacle which presents itself to the man with the gun has its counterpart for the man with the lens and plate; and as the value of a trophy on the den wall is measured by the effort that secured it, so is the charm of a good picture dependent upon the reminiscences it calls to mind. One of my first yearnings in the line of na- ture photographs was for a picture of my pug- Tilustrations from photographs by the Author. 18] 182 NATURAL HISTORY These five-weeks-old Rocky Mountain screech owls were prize portrait sitters because of their great glowing yellow eyes and their alert, fear- less manner and comical ultra-dignity, but con- siderable differences of opinion as to pose and settled them and the photographer before this picture could be snapped background had to be between nacious little friends, the sereech owls, and as I had been much in contact with them for nature study and had held many of them in my several years in connection with hands, I anticipated little trouble in ob- taining the coveted portraits. So I took trip after trip and exposed dozens of plates, but the results were uniformly unsatisfac- tory. His “owlship” would not “smile,” or else he persisted in keeping his great yellow eyes tightly closed, or a wandering zephyr blew his soft feathers awry; be the cause what it may, my collection of owl pictures grew amazingly in number, but improved not at all in quality. Until at last—oh, happy hour!—I came upon a nest which I had overlooked on my earlier trips, and brought to light from the hollow tree two wide-eyed, scrappy youngsters, almost fully feathered and ready to tackle in mortal com- bat anything from a mouse to a grizzly bear. We had a regarding questions and back- ground, but in the end, after several heart- breaking races through the dense under- spirited argument of pose, expression, brush and up a couple of trees, and with my two hands covered with scratches and cuts, the owlets agreed (?) with me perfectly on all points under discussion; the exposures were made, and I triumphantly bade them Godspeed, with what eventually proved to be the coveted pictures tucked into my camera case. Among my particular ambitions was one to take a good picture of a nest of young grebes. Now, be it known, a baby grebe takes to the water almost as soon as it leaves the shell in its floating nest, and there- after its moments on terra firma are few and far between. So when the proper time eame for baby grebes I sallied forth with the big camera and plenty of determination. After a seven-mile tramp over a hot, dusty road I at the scene of action—a small, rush-bordered pond—and immediately arrived began operations. I was not long in locat- ing a favorable nest, and judging from a multitude of tiny squeaks, I surmised that After considerable search my eye at last fell upon the youngsters were near at hand. the first one, all submerged except the point of his bill, and looking exactly like a bit of mud. The second one was hauled forth from under a cat-tail stalk; the third one had crawled under a bit of green moss; and so on, until eight tiny striped babies filled my hat with squirming chaos. Standing in the stagnant water to my waist, holding my hat full of prizes in my teeth, and fighting a multitude of mosqui- toes with one hand while I endeavored to set Screech owl nestlings have outlandishly big ‘‘noses’’ and large, ungainly feet, forerunners of th formidable weapons they will wield as adults Pond residents such as the grebes test the persistence and endurance of any man who enters their watery habitat with his desire bent on pictures. The low, floating nest of the American eared grebe is a shaky affair resting on the water and débris of small rush marshes, usually unanchored, and subject to the vagaries of wind and rain. Often the old bird, before leaving the nest, covers the eggs with grass and reeds 18 Young grebes leave the nest for the water very soon after they come out of the shells, so photo- graphing them in their pond home is a labor of hours. The above picture was taken after a lively scramble with the young birds, but unfortunately the photographer, carrying his camera, stepped into a muskrat hole on the way to shore, after which the plates were somewhat the worse for water and the photographer for pond scum, mud, and various minute living things more delectable to grebes and fishes than to picture hunters up the camera with the other was, to say the least, rather engrossing work. The slender legs of the tripod no sooner touched the soft ooze under foot than the camera sank to the surface of the pond, and in my wild scramble to avert a dire calamity my focus- ing cloth dropped into the water and was dragged forth a reeking, ill-smelling mass of green moss and tiny creeping things. At last, the preliminaries being completed, I dumped the babies into the nest, and presto! eight black streaks radiated in eight @i- rections from the nest, with the photogra- pher trying to follow in all eight directions at - once. The Marathon runners think they know what “endurance” really means. to keep eight baby grebes in a nest when those babies hear the call of the wild, and they will readily see what a tame performance a They should try — just once Marathon race is, in comparison. But then, there is a limit to the endurance of even a baby grebe, and at last eight very tired youngsters were safely ensconced in the nest, indifferent to my efforts to pose them. 184 L Oh joyous moment! The dreams of many a winter evening were finally realized! The light was perfect, the background all that could be desired, and the water as smooth as glass. I exposed plate after plate and dreamed of the series of grebe pictures soon to be mine. Finally, my last plate was exposed, the holders stuffed into a hunting- coat pocket, and the tramp to the shore begun, when with a mighty splash I stepped into a muskrat hole and sank out of sight, plate holders and all. My negatives ruined! All my fond hopes blasted! And _ seven miles to more plates! Did I return to take those pictures again? I refuse to answer. The sight of that tall, silent sentinel, the blue heron, has never failed to arouse in my heart a great longing for his portrait, but years of study had satisfied me that he was an impossible subject. Imagine my delight when, upon a visit to a nesting colony of these great birds, I saw high up in a tall cottonwood a full-grown young of the year, whose actions plainly showed that he had not yet mastered the gentle art of flight. TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS OF A NATURE PHOTOGRAPHER 185 A nerve-racking climb under a broiling sun and in the stench of the rookery at last brought me to where I could dislodge the bird from his perch, and with set wings he sailed clumsily to the ground, to be pounced upon immediately by my eager companion. Then began a strenuous test of wits, speed, and endurance, for our new-found friend was wild and clever and quick, and could run like a deer. Our ideas and his regard- ing bird portraiture were entirely at vari- ance, and his opinions were invariably backed up by his actions, so that it be- same necessary to follow him at breakneck speed over two or three hundred yards of burning sand each time he changed his pose. At last, however, he came to the mature conclusion that one bird cannot run down two picture fanatics, and the desired exposures were made, the results of which not only fill my soul with joy to this day, but impress upon me the fact that I should have been a professional foot racer. In direct contrast were the actions of two young black-crowned night herons, which, while they exhibited the modesty that befits all well-reared birds about to be photographed, were so amenable to reason as to allow their photographs to be taken without the usual accompaniment of speed contests. One of the fascinating features of na- ture study lies in the fact that the most unusual experiences with birds and animals frequently occur under the most unexpected circumstances. Many an arduous day of keen disappointment, fruitless search, and stupefying fatigue in the field is immor- talized in the student’s memory by some un- looked-for discovery or delightful glimpse The striped spermophile (Citellus tridecemlineatus pallidus), or ‘gopher,’ is a true prairie dweller, frequenting the arid plains east of the Rocky Mountains and se.dom entering the timbered areas. We may see it almost anywhere in this region as it darts through the grass to one of its ground holes. Remain quiet for a few minutes, and it will soon reappear, with little black eyes peering out inquisitively. The spermophile depends for protection on a burrow two inches in diameter and from fifteen to twenty feet in length; the tunnel descends suddenly at first, but never more than one or two feet below the surface. In the fall, soon after the first few frosty nights, the spermophiles disappear for the winter among their stores of grain and seeds THE SPERMOPHILES HAVE LEARNED THE FINE ART OF POSING When startled, the striped spermophile may ‘“‘freeze,”’ motionless as a tent stake or to within a few yards before the little anim holes, chattering a long drawn ovt “ standing upright on its hind legs, straight and a picket pin for which it might easily be mistaken. One can then approach al will drop on all fours and disappear into one of its numerous chur-r-r-r’”’ in a high key 186 ™ WILD FLOWERS GATHERED AND TAKEN HOME—BUT NOT DESTROYED _ American pasque flowers (Pulsatilla h issima), often known as ‘anemones,’ blossom abundantly in dry soil among the foothills and mountains of Colorad adding their purple to the many brilliant colors which make the spring beautiful in that state. As shown in the photograph, they blossom before their leaves appear. This group of basque flowers was photographed on the low ranges west of Golden, but the species grows as far up as the limit of trees (See also page 180) 188 into the home life of some wild creature, long after the last vestige of hope for suc- cess has departed. Such an experience be- fell the writer one June day. A trip was made to the Barr (Colorade) chain of lakes for the purpose of photo- graphing bird life and comparing its abundance and variety with that of several years previous, at which time the writer had done rather extensive field work in the same locality. The Barr chain of lakes (or, more accurately, ponds) is a series of small rush and cat-tail bordered bodies of water form- ing a part of a large irrigation system, and caused by the seepage of a large reservoir lying at the head of a broad flat valley. The large irrigating canals supplied by the main reservoir form a line of demarcation between the dry, brown, almost desert-like prairie above the ditch and the fertile, bril- liant green fields below, where the magic touch of water has converted the parched plain into an agricultural paradise. The spot chosen for our operations was a rather extensive piece of low, marshy ground, lying between three ponds, where in previous years we had found a wonderfully diversified and abundant bird life, but on this trip our hopes were early dashed away. A few short years had worked sad havoc with this favorite nesting ground. Rates | aq sey Beoee on SS em abbyy 566 Sty JO ,,uR[d poystioyo-Suo, OY} YA BURPLOO UI,, PUB ABYJOU SIY OJ SULYOR URUMLIILTL [[a1oAVy ewo) 0} siraX oy} [Re YSnoaryy yey} edoy oy} YIIA,,) pajyueserd ‘yuoMIdO[oAOp S}t LOF UOTNGIAQUOD B SLOJNGIAQUOD SNOAEUS JO 4ST] SUOT V YIM ‘[RusMOUGYd UI0q SUL UBUILLIIBTT “FT “Of 94el oy ‘aoyyey “M “TIN AQ (,,peoUvAPR oq [[[M SUOlRA9UOS 94 JO ssouIddeYy puB Yy[ReY eYy ‘(962 90nd 908) oy} ooUIS savak AJUOMY OY} UT YIM ‘Satov OOO'OL SBM SJL O[QRIOuU 4souL oy} Suowy { yavd oy} JO JuomIdo[aaop ay} ‘Atavnb sapesyeqd oy} Jo aeseyoaund [eurst4o AUD YOK MON JO sSutdoams Joatjs oy] puUB ‘SLIYSNA) 9UOJS WOAJ ASULUBIIOS 9JSVM oY} ‘ABMGNS YIOK MON IY} JO UOVAVOXE JY} WOAZ 9U04S A[WO 4OU IOF !YIOM yy JO tajdevyo Sueur osye gnuq ‘pasn yoor saeu ay} SBA OSB B SE JoolG YYYSlo-AUIL_T pue petpuny sug aywoddo youeq opim & pue ‘sneeaje[d durvo ‘spjey 943 JO AI0}S 9y2 JsSNne ‘“puNnoasAyd s Avid ‘silvery puv saatip JO WOTjONAsUOD Ss 0} ‘yavd oY} JISIA ey} pu ‘(AUD YIOR —'uuy UlRJUNOW;! IvegG pu _,puNnOISAL|Y,, PUL [dood saiy jveis B d1eY SUIJveID UL peYst|dmov0e useq Sey yey JO vapl ayenbepe Aur ule MON 4090098 [IPAL 06) UWOISSMMIMIOD YyaIvqd o}v4ssejuy sepesyeg oy} jo syutader pue szo,yduied oy} aAOZ pues ysnM 9uGg Mr. Perkins’ chief interest was in the park’s camp system which lay directly in the line of his ideal tor social service. There are more than fifty standardized camps with mess hall and sleeping cabins, equipment for pure water supply and cleanliness, accommodations for swimming and boating and other out-of-door sports. There are Boy Scout. Girl Scout, and Y. W. GC. A. camps, and camps for children from settlement houses and churches, and from such organizations as the Brooklyn Industrial School for Destitute Children. In connection with the camp life there are such educational features as camp libraries, lectures, conceris, motion pictures, and natural history exhibits Mr. Perkins tells of the camps in his own words in Motor Travel Y December, 1918), especially of Camp Globe where more than a thousand tenement children, averaging a stay of two weeks each, are entertained each season by the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor in codperation with the New York Globe. ‘I could go on in- 1 of these children, and how the Commission transports them the longest how they are watched over by kind, intelligent counselors ; how they hike through the woods and learn the calls of the birds: of the food they eat, and the cabins in which they sleep through the still nights; about the lakes in which they swim and the boats in which they ride; the camp fires around which they sing Through his energy and executive ability in building the Interstate Park, Mr. Perkins has prepared a controlling social power for the future definitely —it is my favorite theme—to tell you way over the mountains to thrill them with the auto ride; 300 GHORGH WALBRIDGE PERKINS, 1862-1920 Stevens presided; the present Very Reverend Dean Howard C. Robbins made the invoca- tion; Mr. Perkins, Governor Hughes, Goy- ernor Fort, of New Jersey, and the writer gave addresses. At the close of the cere- monies the United States flag was raised to a salute from the warships in the river.’ An interesting feature of the development of the park was the acquisition of the sites of Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery lying respectively on the southern and northern sides of Popolopen Creek at its intersection with the Hudson River. This is at the ex- treme northern end of the Palisades Inter- state Park about a mile north of Bear Mountain Inn. Some traces of Fort Clin- ton remain; of the works of Fort Montgomery were found in the dense thicket which covered that site, the commission invited Dr. Edward Hage- man Hall and Mr. Reginald Pelham Bolton, the former secretary and the latter a vice president of the American Scenic and His- toric Preservation Society, to make an ar- cheological survey of the fort site. This they did in 1916, having the codperation of the commission’s chief engineer, W. A. Welch, and also of W. A. Calver, a member of the society. Their researches, covering a period of several months, relocated the boun- daries of the fort, which covered an area about a third of a mile square, identified more than half of the breastworks, with their numerous salient and reentrant angles, and by vestiges and evidences too technical to give here in detail accurately plotted the whole outline. In many places they found the actual embrasures of the cannon. Within the fort they identified the foundations of the barracks of the Continental soldiers, the magazine, and other buildings, one of which was probably the headquarters of General George Clinton at the time when he was elected first governor of the state of New York in July, 1776. Palisades Interstate Park Commission has had much of the underbrush of the fort site cleared out so that the old ramparts on the eastern and southern sides along the bluff and when evidences Since this survey, the 1The proceedings are given in full in the two- volume official report entitled The Hudson-Fulton Celebration, 1909, pp. 392-412. See page 404 as to origin of the bill. o01 overlooking the Hudson River and Popolopen Creek may easily be visited. While the Interstate Park em- bodies Mr. Perkins’ most memorable public -alisades work, he had many other public activities during the last twenty years. He was a warm admirer and close friend of Theodore Roosevelt and exerted a directing influence in the organization of the Progressive Party, of whose National Executive Committee he was chairman. During the World War, he was chairman of the Finance Committee of the National War Work of the Men’s Christian Association, and it was largely due Council Young to his consummate leadership that the great raised throughout the United States for welfare work. He belonged to a hundred or more finan- sums were cial, art, civic, educational, scientific, politi- cal, and benevolent organizations, his activi- ties in or sympathy with which were an indication of the wide horizon of his outlook on human affairs. All who came in contact with Mr. Perkins were strikingly impressed with his deep in- sight, his honesty of purpose, and his direct- ness of approach to any subject. His energy and enthusiasm inspired in others the confi- dence he felt himself, and he was always the first to give of his money or time to any object that he endorsed. He himself,” but gave of the best that was in him; and whether his immediate interest Was the Palisades Interstate Park, the National War Work Council of the Young Men’s Christian Association, or the many other ob- “spared not jeets with which he was connected, it always met with more than ordinary success because of the force of the personality behind it. No one disputed his splendid leadership. He in- spired in all who worked for him or with him the feeling that they would receive a just share whether in financial returns or credit for an enterprise: they trusted him. Surely no greater monument exists to the honor of any of our citizens than the Pali- sades Interstate Park, a wonderful tract of land adjacent to the greatest. metropolis of this continent—and its value will increase with the passing years and with the succeed- ing generations. “Army Mental Tests’—A Review’ PART RIDDANCE OF CHANCE IN THE CHOICE OF A VOCATION, THROUGH TESTS OF APTITUDE IN CHILDREN, WILL IN THE FUTURE HELP TO ELIMINATE OCCUPATIONAL “MISFITS” AND INDUSTRIAL. UNREST By RICHARD MP Een neveOenet Associate Professor of Psychology, University of Minnesota HE remarkable success of mental ex- amination methods introduced by psychologists into the United States Army during the war has naturally become a stepping-stone to further achievement in the technique of mental measurement. With the cessation of hostilities the blanket of secrecy which was enforced under the provisions of the Espionage Act in order to secure absolute control over the production and distribution of test materials was im- mediately lifted in favor of a policy of wide- spread publicity. Surplus test blanks and other materials offered for sale by the gov- ernment were eagerly bought by persons anxious to complete intelligence surveys comparable with the findings of the army examiners. The Surgeon General of the army further permitted the publication of a handbook, Army Mental Tests, editorially supervised by Majors Robert M. Yerkes and Clarence S. Yoakum, which reproduced all the test blanks and printed materials employed in the army examining, with minor exceptions where the material was already available. Exhaustive directions for giving the tests, a brief account of the imception and de- velopment of methods, a review of typical results, and some pages on the general significance of the unexpected impetus given intelligence examinations by their military use, complete an indispensable handbook and examiner’s guide. With this book already available, and awaiting the elaborate account of the achievement which it represents to be pub- lished in the autumn by the National Acad- emy of Sciences, it may be worth while to consider some of the wider bearings of the large-scale development of differential psy- chology comprised in the mental test move- ment. “Scientific assignment of human energies in the furtherance of the aims and interests of an industrial democracy can proceed only step by step with the development of a technique for their scientific appraisal. The immense preponderance of chance factors at present determining the choice of voca- tion and occupation results in a deplorable pereentage of misfits. Here is the soil of an unrecognizedly large portion of that con- temporary social disorganization which is at once a taunt to our claim of living in a scientific age and a matter of growing con- cern to all thoughtful persons eager to fore- stall and obviate the dangers of industrial- ism triumphant. Admittedly the newer technology of “hu- man engineering,” as it already functions, for the most part unlabeled, in the fields of business and education, is usually but the servant of arbitrary and traditionally fa- vored procedures and purposes. In the ab- sence of social self-consciousness of the sort that Plato dreamed about, inertia and chance inevitably preponderate in the deter- mination of directions. But only excessive cynicism would refuse to admit that once confidence in methods of sufficient accuracy is justified, wide expansion in the field of their application will follow. Tt should lie within the technical power of a well-advanced differential psychology to discover and measure the relative strengths of vocational and occupational aptitudes and proficiencies in young children. Misfits will become predictable, even those arising from temperament. Then slowly we shall outgrow the notion that there is anything 1Army Mental Tests, compiled and edited by Clarence S. Yoakum and Robert M. Yerkes. Pub- lished with the authorization of the War Department. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1920. 302 “ARMY MENTAL TESTS”—A inherent in the idea of democracy necessi- identity of with tating early school training. And training for all those branches of service,— proper differentiation in the professional, industrial, and artisan,—upon which society depends, we shall make defi- nite progress toward social harmony. This will be achieved as the consequence of in- dividual appropriateness in the placing of men so that their own measure of interest in creative activity of whatever sort is real- ized, without exploitation, to the full benefit of themselves and of society. To prognosticate further about the ulti- mate contribution of differential psychology, so far as it is comprised by the measurement of individual differences in makeup, might conceivably divert attention from its im- REVIEW 303 mediate practicality. The work of the corps of mental examiners in the army, however, demonstrated against any reasonable objec- tion the advantage of supplementing per- with the data of large unsorted sonnel work intelligence examinations, where masses of men must be quickly and effectively organized. For many years it will remain the most extensive survey. Appropriately the examinations most largely used were named, for convenience, the Alpha and Beta examinations, symbolic, let us say, of the long line of development which is to follow the pioneering task, for which not even the tools were at hand when first a group of courageous psychologists apprehended the nation’s need and proposed a technology for meeting it. A further scene in the camp life at the Palisades Interstate Park (see page 300) ~ Aah ee £ oc 8 LOY NEES EI EL THE WORK OF A GREAT LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT, AT BUENOS AIRES Buenos Aires, the largest Spanish-speaking city of the world, was founded in 1541 on the rich pasture land of east central Argentine. Although there are no native forests within many miles, the naturally rich soil and favorable climate have made it possible for a far-seeing government to turn the avenues, squares, and parks of the city into gardens of flowers and trees which bloom throughout the winter. Shady walks and banks of flowers along the water's and spacious ‘oulevards with gardens on either side or down approximately one hundred parks and squares, laid out with has been directed by Senor of native and exotic edge greet the visitor as he approachcs from the sea, the center conduct him through the city. There are forethought and the best skill of the landseape artist. The landscape engineering work Carlos Thays who founded the model Botanical Garden where is assembled a large assortment plants arranged not only for beauty bet for instruction 04 Penguins, in the Buenos Aires Zodlogical Garden, native to the southern part of the continent. The Zodlogical Garden at Palermo Park has been made in recent years one of the most artistic of its kind in the world, and a most delightful retreat for recreation or instruction. It is unusually rich in its display of South American animal life and possesses a notable collection of llamas, guanacos, and anteaters Parks and Gardens of Buenos Aires ' Byte eA SOON 2S" Ral BaN Hak Expert on Exhibits, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Author of numerous bulletins and articles on botanical and agricultural subjects HERE probably is no country in the world, not even excepting our own,} }public in the front rank with nations bidding for the world’s commerce. where civic and. rural progress and, The journey from New York to Buenos development have taken place more rapidly during the last twenty years than in the? South American republic of Argentina. « de Janeiro, and Santos, Brazil. The area of Argentina is as great as all , We arrived at our destination on April 30 of the United States east ofthe Mississippi, g at the beginning of the winter season, but or six times the area of France. From }{ the climate of Buenos Aires is so mild that north to south the range of climate is very { flowers bloom in the open parks throughout the winter, and although it may be chilly at ¢ Aires, by boat, as we made it, is a twenty- five-day run with brief stops at Bahia, Rio great. One may broil in Formosa where condrtions are tropical, or freeze in southern Patagonia where the latitude south corre- trees like plane trees and elms shed their sponds very nearly with that of Moscow, leaves, but palms, araucarias, eucalyptus Russia, in the north. To this great range species, magnolias, and the like, afford con- in latitude should be added the differences stant verdure and shade. | | | | times, frosts very rarely occur. Deciduous in altitude from the broad plains along the The capital of Argentina is one of the shores of the Atlantic westward to the Cor- busiest cities of the world,—a city of beauti- dilleras, some of whose peaks attain the ful business streets, broad avenues, palatial height of 6000 meters or more. The rain- residences, magnificent club houses and fall varies no less than the physical features theaters, delightful parks, and shaded boule- of the land. There are desert areas, vast ards. Its gardens are of unrivaled beauty treeless plains, and immense forest-covered and interest. There are approximately one d . regions. The flora of the Argentine is ex- hundred of these parks and squares varying ceedingly rich in species and the abundance in size from two or three acres to the great of its agricultural products places the Re- Palermo Park which is 2660 acres in extent. 1 Presented at the meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington, January 5, 1920. Illustrated by one hundrcd and fifty stereopticon slides from negatives by the Author. 305 ae SCENES IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN, BUENOS AIRES It is said that the Zodlogical Garden of Buenos Aires is the finest example of landscape America. The aim has been to reproduce as nearly as possible to create throughout the garden beautiful scenes and vistas. Reproductions and rocky caverns, set among shrubs and trees, add to its picturesque scenery. the great out-of-door bird house 306 gardening in South the natural environment of the animals, and also of ancient temples, artificial grottoes, The upper photograph shows PARKS AND GARDENS OF BUENOS AIRES 307 There are no trees save those introduced and planted by man within many miles of Buenos Aires, no hills and no rocks even, and all that has been done to make the city “beautiful and its parks and squares a per- petual delight has been accomplished by a far-seeing civic administration and by well- directed efforts inspired by a keen sense of the beautiful and the pride of intense pa- triotism. Nature has furnished here ideal conditions for plant growth—a rich soil, a temperature ranging between 40 and 90 degrees, and ample rainfall of 34 inches. From this point the work has been carried on under the guidance of the celebrated engineer, Carlos Thays, director general of public parks and founder and director of the Bo- tanical Garden of Buenos Aires. One almost immediately steps from the ship landing at the North Basin into a garden rich in flowers and shrubs and trees interspersed with beautiful monuments and fountains. One of these fountains, at the foot of Calle Cangallo, executed by an Ar- gentine artist, Lola Mora, is particularly handsome. This garden is really Parque Cristobal Colon, Paseo de Julio and Paseo Colon which run into each other. Located along the water front, these walks and plan- tations of flowers and trees create a most favorable impression upon new arrivals and afford a pleasant resort and resting place to those living near by in a most crowded section of the city. An avenue runs through the middle of Cristobal Colon with gardens on either side laid out in the Renaissance style, the whole being designed on the plan of the Champs Elysées at Paris. Passing through these gardens on our way to our hotel on Avenida de Mayo we come to Plaza de Mayo or Plaza Victoria. In our country we would doubtless have named this Independence Square. The independence of Argentina was declared here on May 25, 1810, and this Plaza has been the scene of many demonstrations of historical interest during four generations. It is about four acres in extent and is tastefully Jaid out with walks, flowering plants, and shade trees. The Government Palace, the “White House” of the Republic—where the Presi- dent and his Cabinet have their offices— faces the east side of the Plaza de Mayo; from the opposite side one passes into the magnificent Avenida de Mayo which Jeads straight to the Capitol or Congress Hall, a Avenida de Mayo is one hundred feet wide, with broad mile and a half to the west. pavements bordered with plane trees from Hurope. This is the “show” street of the city and contains many fine buildings, including hotels, club houses, publishing houses, res- taurants, as well as many large retail estab- lishments. At the western extremity of Avenida de Mayo is one of the largest and most beauti- ful squares in the city, upon which the Capitol building fronts, facing east toward the Government House. This plaza contains 17,446 square meters and was laid out in 1910 at a cost of 11,000,000 pesos, gold. It is known as Plaza del Congreso or Congress Square, and is the crowning glory of the efforts of Director Thays in beautifying the city. The hand of the master is clearly manifest in the intelligent selection and ar- tistic grouping of the shrubs and trees, and the pleasing landscape effects that meet the eye. In the newer parts of the city broad and roomy streets are most common but in the older sections many of the streets are quite narrow with sidewalks hardly wide enough for two persons to walk abreast. Such a street is Calle Florida, the most fashionable shopping thoroughfare, which we will now traverse on our way to the great city park, Palermo. Calle Florida has been called the Bond Street of the Argentine. It is lined with elegant shops, and here are located a number of costly buildings, including the famous Jockey Club, whose exterior is of the finest architectural design and whose interior is sumptuous in the extreme. The street is only twenty feet wide. Between four and six o'clock in the afternoon all traffic is sus- pended and the entire street is given over to pedestrians. Leaving Calle Florida at its northern ter- minus we enter Plaza San Martin, in the center of which is the fine equestrian statue of the famous liberator, General San Martin. This square is well provided with shrubs and shade trees. There is here quite a preten- tious piece of rock work that includes a miniature lake and a rustic bridge. A num- ber of fine buildings surround Plaza San Martin, the most conspicuous being the ele- gant Plaza Hotel. 308 NATURAL HISTORY IN PALERMO PARK Among the many parks and shaded boulevards of Buenos Aires the park at Palermo, reached by a three-mile drive from the business center of the city, is the largest and most popular. Palermo Park comprises more than two and one half thousand acres, and contains many bcautiful drives, pathways, and artificial Jakes; it is kept perennially verdant with palms, araucarias, eucalyptus trees, and magnolias and Plaza Lavalle or Liberty Square. Lezama Park is located to the south in one of the most populous parts of the city near the Boca. It has extensive avenues of shade trees, a great va- riety of shrubs, and a large number of beds of choice flowers. Here are many rare plants of botanical interest. Shady groves and open _ play- grounds give pleasing variety to the whole de- sign. A small historical museum contains much to interest the visitor. Plaza Lavalle or Plaza de Libertad, as it is some- times called, is among the prettiest in the city. It is remarkable for the sunken gardens which enter into its plan of con- struction. The Palace of Justice and the Munie- ipal Opera House — or Teatro Colon, which, it is said, is the most beauti- ful theater in all Amer- ica, are on this square. Leaving Plaza San Martin we continue our journey through Calle Alvear, one of the finest avenues in a residential section lined with palatial homes, and soon arrive at Recoleta or Plaza In- tendente Alvear, one of the smaller parks of the city, but filled with in- teresting plant species and differing from other parks visited in its broken or almost hilly surface. There is a small stream with a miniature cascade running through the grounds, affording an From this point we will proceed to Palermo opportunity for the culture of aquatic plants Park by way of Calle Alvear, but before and the building of rustic bridges. leaving the “down town” section of the city, Continuing westward through Avenida Al- let us pay a very brief visit to Lezama Park vear, we soon reach the pride of Buenos PARKS AND GARDENS OF BUENOS AIRES We halt at Avenida Sarmiento where the great park of more Aires, Palermo Park. than two thousand acres opens out on our right. To the left lies the Zoo and, near by, the Fair Grounds of the Rural Society and the Botanical Gardens. Palermo Park is to Buenos Aires what the Bois de Boulogne is to Paris, Central Park to New York, or Golden Gate Park to San contains drives and walks, and a number of small lakes. Many different kinds of trees and shrubs have been planted along the drives and about the minia- ture lakes, and evidently much attention has been given to the development of pleasing Francisco. It many landscape effects. The Avenue of Palms is well known to every Buenos Airen, who here on Sundays and holidays comes out for a walk or a drive. Across Avenida Alvear from Palermo and on the right of Avenida Sarmiento, are the grounds of the Exposition of 1910. The buildings were hghtly constructed for tem- porary service. The main entrance was on Avenida Sarmiento. The great palms about this entrance were transplanted during the Local made a remarkably fine display of ferns, or- chids, and other choice flowers in the Horti- cultural Palace located inside the grounds. period of the Exposition. florists On the same side of the avenue toward Calle Santa Fe, where it is bordered with tall eucalyptus trees, are the permanent fair grounds of the Argentine Rural Society. These grounds cover an area of about forty- five acres, are very prettily laid out, and are equipped with many substantial and attrac- tive buildings for housing the horses and cattle and general exhibits. The reviewing stand is a permanent structure of steel and concrete, and here are held annually, usually in September or October, agricultural and live-stock shows which would compare favor- ably with the best held in this or any other country. The native Argentinian is a great lover of horses and the displays of fine horses of all breeds or classes are especially good. Within the grounds of the Rural Society, at the corner of Plaza Italia and Calle Santa Fe, is located the permanent Agricul- tural Museum. The building constructed for this museum is of excellent design, well lighted and admirably adapted for the dis- play of the large and varied collections of agricultural products that have been 309 gathered here from all parts of the re- public. The object of the museum is to ex- ploit the agricultural resources of the coun- try and afford instruction in matters of agri- cultural interest. The exhibits, numbering more than 20,000 specimens, are attractively installed and well labeled. They are di- vided into six classes, namely: (1) Natural Products—woods or timber, soil, ete., (2) Agricultural Products—cereals, oleaginous, medicinal, narcotic, and textile plants, nuts, tubers, fruits, ete., (3) Animal Products— wool, skins, fur, feathers, honey, ete., (4) Agricultural Industries—flour, wine, alcohol, sugar, dried fruits, ete., (5) Agricultural Machinery and Buildings, (6) Agricultural The details of the exhibits are full of interest and the Statistics and Rural Economy. museum as a whole is worthy of the highest consideration. Jew if any agricultural mu- seums in the world, certainly none in our own country, are more complete or better designed to meet the purposes for which such a museum is intended. Much space is given to the collections of wheat, both the soft and hard varieties. The labels indicate where and by whom each sample was raised, production per hectare, and the value of the crop. Maize or Indian corn stands next to wheat in value as an agricultural product of the Then already an important ¢rop in Argentine. follow oats and linseed. Tobacco is some of the provinces, and peanuts now have a place in the agriculture of the country. The increase in agricultural production during the last twenty-five years has been phenomenal. During this period the acreage under cultivation rose from less than five million to nearly twenty-five million hectares. The average area for the five years 1909-10 to 1913-14 in cereals and flax was 12,685,- 085 hectares or more than thirty-one millon acres. In 1917-18 there were produced 5,973,000 tons of wheat, 4,335,000 tons of maize, 1,100,000 tons of oats, and 568,000 tons of flaxseed. In the forestry exhibit in the Agricultural than 750 varieties Museum there are more represented. Each specimen consists of a section of the entire trunk, one and one half meters long. At 80 cm. from the lower end cut to the center at right angles to its length, including one half the stem or trunk is the circumference. Then for 30 em, there is ce ee ~ Ba oaegs * & * : &, x 5 a wa >» WORK’ OF LANDSCAPE ENGINEERS AT RIO DE JANEIRO Rio de Janeiro, capital of Brazil, unlike Buenos Aires, is set within a magnificent semitropical forest. The celebrated Botanical Garden is filled with hosts of interesting plants from the warm countries, among which enormous bamboos and stately royal palms are the most striking. The South Américan municipalities have profited greatly from their employment of landscape engineers as well as botanists and horticulturists in laying out their gardens, thereby producing pleasing nature retreats as well as scientifically valuable collections 310 NATURAL HISTORY a longitudinal section beyond which the ter- minal portion is cut on an angle or is beveled off. One half of each of these three surfaces is cut smooth or planed, the other half is polished. The of the wood from the rough to the finished condi- The labels accom- appearance tion is thus well shown. panying each specimen give the scientific and common names, the botanical family, the habitat, and its economic uses and value. On a small map attached to each specimen is indicated its distribution in the republic. Many valuable hard woods abound in the timbered regions; the number belonging to Quebracho supphes a the Leguminose is very large. colorado (Schinopsis Balanse) very hard and exceedingly durable wood, be- sides yielding an abundance of excellent tannin, and both the wood and tannin are now important articles of commerce. Across the avenue from the grounds of the Rural Society is the Zoological Garden which was first inaugurated by General Sarmiento in 1874. Fourteen years later the Garden became the property of the city. Under the direction of Seignior Clemente Onelli it has become the most artistic and beautiful garden of its kind in the world and now figures prominently among the de- lightful places of Buenos Aires for recrea- It is open from sun- rise until sunset, and the annual attendance tion and instruction. ranges from one and one half to two mil- Many kinds of trees and shrubs have been planted in this garden and the effort lions. to develop beautiful scenes and yistas has been very successful. It is now well stocked with animals and birds, and Director Onelli has taken pains to surround the different animals with conditions and housings similar to those of their native countries. Just beyond, at the corner of Santa Fe and Plaza Italia, is the Botanical Garden. This garden is a model in its way. It was planned and directed by Dr. Thays, and will stand as an everlasting monument to his knowledge as a scientist and skill as a landscape engineer. Begun in 1892, the grounds were opened to the public six years later, or in 1898. The appearance of the garden in 1910 was a revelation in plant oll growth and bespoke a good soil and adapt- able climate and a skillful gardener. Within its twenty-two acres have been as- sembled plants from all the countries of the world. Some of these are merely curious, like Palo Borracho (Chorisia insignia) and Ombu (Phytolacca dioica) and some are only decorative, but for the most part the plants and trees one sees here have an eco- nomic value or scientific interest. There are groups of medicinal plants, oleaginous spe- cies, and fiber plants; there are narcotic plants, and those valued for their perfume, and so on through all the uses of the vege- table kingdom. There are bits here and there that have been laid out as special gardens—a Roman garden of Pliny’s time and a lovely miniature French garden are conspicuous examples. There are sections devoted to the typical plants of Argentina, of Europe and Asia, of Africa, North America, and Australia. Among those from Australia are eighty or more species of eucalyptus or gum trees. There are collec- tions of palms and bamboos, of cacti, c¢o- niferous plants and grasses, and so on, amounting altogether to more than 3500 species. One stands amazed at the number and variety of plant families installed in so small an area without any evidence of over- crowding or lack of harmony in arrange- ment. There are more than forty markets and market places in Buenos Aires. The great central produce market on the Riachuelo is an enormous three-story building covering several blocks. It is devoted chiefly to wool and hides and, it is said, is the largest mar- ket in the world. There are many meat and fruit markets and the hucksters and corner fruit stands are as common here as in the cities of the United States. The roads beyond the city are usually very poor and country produce is still brought to market on great two-wheeled carts drawn by oxen. The people of Buenos Aires are excessively fond of flowers for home decora- tion and many flower markets have opened up in recent years. So great has this trade become that Buenos Aires has been called the City of Flowers e BSR = Ere SPRINGS SS oo Ue eS TRINIOAD STARKVILLES The expedition’s route through each covering approximately a Rocky Mountain system traversing desert valleys, and mesas—on the mountains one traverses successively belts, west. a central belt lie a series of high, Middle, South, and San Luis “parks. zoncs and the last by state differ slightly oe) Upper Sonoran and Transition. in plant and animal association, parallel eastern and western routes lengthwise of the state, Dr. Colorado.—Colorado may be divided into three main north and south third of the state. the middle, and the Colorado Plateau—a rough region of plateaus, Starting from either side and traveling toward the central the Upper Sonoran, zones to the Arctic-alpine zone on the highest ranges. open plateaus from twenty These are the High Plains on the cast, the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian life Between the higher ranges and extending as to fifty miles wide known as North, The first three are occupied chiefly by Transition and Canadian The northern and southern sections of the although not in gencral zonation. By traveling F. E. Lutz, in charge of the American Museum Expedition, visited representative areas of all major associations and topographic regions An Entomologist in Colorado From hot deserts, through forests, to the wild flowers and the snows of mountain tops.—Field study with special reference to the life zones of the state By PRAN KE; UL Associate Curator of Invertebrate Zoology, HERE does the West begin?” Thinking of the people, we might sincerely answer with the poem that was pinned on the wall of my hotel room in a little Colorado mountain town, and say that it the heart grows warmer and the hand clasp. grows firmer. But where does the West begin in unemo- was where discussion? the in fact,—the Govern- tional scientific Years ago, when nearly fifty years ago, ment, at Washington, published an elaborate West was young— geographical, geological, and biological sur- 3)2 American Museum of Natural History of the territories west of the 100th meridian. Nature, too, seems to have ac- cepted this meridian of round numbers as a convenient boundary line, for she has used it roughly as the limit of abundant rains on the plains. We, then, may say that we have really reached the West crossed into Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, or New Mexico. Much short of that is Kast, except to those of us who learned to look at the sun setting back of the Ap- palachians as the veritable close of day. How little do we know of the West, our vey when we have NATURAL HISTORY 313 West! the tourists who, cut off from spending their Much fun has recently been poked at summers seeing the things that generations have looked at in Europe, have discovered Alps in their own country and architectural monuments of prehistoric Americans—some of the houses possibly made when Rome was in her infancy. But entomologists at least may not throw rocks of ridicule at tourists. We do well to search out the secrets of Central Africa and the wilds of South America, but, when we at the American Mu- seum came to write an account of the geo- graphic distribution of the insects of the West Indies, we found it necessary jirst to learn more of the insects of our own country, particularly of our West. Accordingly, two years ago, we sent an expedition to Arizona to study the fauna of mountains which are isolated by deserts just as the West Indies are mountains isolated by water. Last year we had an expedition to get samples of the fauna from here and there on the plains and the mountains of Colorado.1 Anyone who has traveled or even read good descriptions of regions other than his own, realizes that the plants and animals of one region may differ considerably from If the difference is great and is not merely the effect of environment those of another. (such as the differences between a swamp and a dry hill) the two regions are spoken of as belonging to different life zones, the term “zone” being a relic of the time when it was thought sufficient to speak of the ani- mals of the Torrid Zone, Temperate zones, Florida is clearly not in > as New York, and the New York region is different from Labrador. Not so clearly, perhaps, but truly, the Jow- lying region of Long Island has a different set of animals and plants from that on the and Frigid zones. the same “life zone’ 1We expect to follow this up by obtaining similar samples from other regions in which Wwe hope to find not so much insects new to science (that is easy), but insects that will throw light on the relationships of one faunal region to another and how these relationships came about. In other words, we are engaged in a new survey of the territories west of the 100th meridian. A _ brief sketch of the trip to Colorado is given here as an illustration of this work, work in which we are admittedly getting merely small, scattered samp!cs of the fauna, for the insects of June are widely different from those of September, and those ob- tained by one collector are far from the same as those obtained by another equally good collector who may, by reason of special intercsts, have even unconsciously adopted different collecting methods. Furthermore, as only those who have been on the ground can fully realize, the West is vast. heights of the Adirondacks in the same state. It is also to be noted that the high alti- tudes in one locality tend to have the same set of animals and plants as do the Jower Life zones are defined everywhere in accordance altitudes of more northern localities. with variations in temperature and the dis- tribution of the fluenced by humidity. fauna may be further in- The life zones at the north and high on mountains are known as Boreal. In these there is, in general, suffi- cient humidity to support such life as the low temperatures permit, so that humidity is not so important as temperature. Below the Boreal is the so-called Transition zone, and the zones farther south or at still lower altitudes are called Austral. (See diagram- In the Austral areas there is a great difference in humidity east and west of the 100th meridian. The rainfall west of this line is shght compared with evaporation; east of it the rainfall is abundant, so that the plants and animals of the same altitudes and temperatures east and west may differ more than those of different altitudes and temperatures either east or matic arrangement below 2.) west; or, using the names which have been given to these subdivisions of the Austral areas, the Austroriparian, for differs more from the Lower example, Sonoran than the Lower Sonoran differs from the Upper Sonoran. It was near Dodge City, Kansas, that we crossed the mystical 100th and passed from the humid or Carolinian divi- sion of the eastern Austral to the dry Upper Sonoran of the western Austral. Naturally the change in climate, plants, and meridian division animals is not abrupt, but even occasional glances out of the car window showed that we were getting into a different country. Near Dodge City the prairie becomes sandier and more humpy. The humps tend to be flat- topped, somewhat mesa-like, and a sort of yucca is a common wayside plant in places. Arctic-alpine Hudsonian Canadian 2 Boreal Arid West of 100th meridian Humid East of 100th meridian ae j Sc F Transition , Transition Alleghanian “Upper Sonoran Carolinian Austral < c < : ust ) Lower Sonoran Austroriparian Gulf Strip 314 We reached Lamar on the third of June. It was cold and rainy and some of the in- habitants even asserted that it had snowed the day before. This southeastern corner of Colorado is the lowest part of the state but, while enthusiasm outruns fact when it maintains that Colorado begins where Mt. Washington (6290 feet) leaves off, Lamar has an altitude of 3600 feet. It was too cold, rainy, and windy just then to do much insect collecting, but -I picked up a few specimens among the cotton- woods that bordered the Arkansas River and left the next morning in an automobile stage for Springfield, the seat of Baca County. It took us more than five hours to cover the fifty miles of prairie between Lamar and Springfield. The vegetation, except along the few streams, is of the short-grass type, the kind that makes you wonder how so many cattle manage to thrive on it. For miles around, a conspicuous landmark is the rela- tively high Two Buttes (400 feet above the plains) and they were especially interesting that morning because they were surrounded by what seemed to be a beautiful lake, but which was really a mirage. At Springfield I was lucky in catching a ride to Regnier in an antiquated but effi- cient Maxwell that was used by the mail carrier. JI delivered mail to the boxes on my side of the road while prairie dogs sat bolt upright at their burrows, scolding, and the curious little owls that live in de- serted “dog” burrows blinked at us. Ground squirrels, jack rabbits, and cottontails were also in evidence. “Bull bats’—a might hawk that flies like a bat and makes a noise like a bull—were sleeping on the tops of fence blue quail bobolinks, meadow larks, and lark buntings made merry. posts ; scurried about, while At about supper time we ar- rived at Regnier, which is really the ranch of Dr. Felix Regnier, the post-office being in his kitchen. One of the things in addition to Dr. Regnier’s kind hospitality that attracted me to this region is the fact that the prairie is here cut up into numerous mesas and eafions, offering a wide range of local environments.1 There are dry, level flats with low sparse vegetation, but gay with herbaceous flowers; there are cottonwoods and other luxuriant growths along the streams; the bowlder- 1The Lamar-Regnier region is a part of the Great Plains Division of the Upper Sonoran zone. NATURAL HISTORY strewn slopes of the mesas are covered with cacti; the “rim-rock” of the mesas is e¢edar- fringed; and most interesting of all, are the yuccas, cacti, and other drought-resisting vegetation of the rocky roofs of the mesas. In the canon to the east I found a wide ex- panse of glistening sand teeming with pre- daceous wasps and tiger beetles, digging bees, and other interesting creatures, while in the cafon to the west was a veritable marsh. After returning to Lamar I made short stops at Trinidad, Walsenburg, Alamosa, Monte Vista, and, on June 17, reached the village of South Fork. This is situated in an elbow of the Continental Divide at the junction of two tumbling mountain streams that give rise to the Rio Grande del Norte, the stream that eventually flows so slug- gishly across the desert on the Mexican boundary. The elevation here is about 8200 feet, and the Canadian zone presses strongly on the thin tongue of Transition that ex- tends up the river valley. The Transition is “said to be the foothill zone of Colorado, with its lower limit marked by the edge of the plains on the east and by the approach to desert conditions along the western bases of the mountains and plateaus.”2 The Canadian zone “occupies the middle slopes on the main ranges and extensive areas in the mountain parks and caps all of the higher western plateaus, thus including the larger part of the coniferous forests of the state. Broadly speaking, the Canadian zone is characterized in the mountains of Colorado by extensive forest belts of aspens (Populus tremuloides), lodgepole pines (Pinus mur- rayana), and the lower, heavier part of the Engelmann spruce belt.” At South Fork I secured the kind help of Mr. Million, forest ranger (formerly known as “Sourdough John,” and a one-time ae- quaintance of Jesse James). We packed our camp and collecting outfit in his Dodge and started over the Continental Divide for Pagosa Springs. The first night we camped in the valley of the South Fork of the Rio Grande at about 8500 feet altitude. The chief trees on the hillsides were aspen, Douglas spruce, and Rocky Mountain yellow pine. In the valley were willow, narrow- leaf cottonwood, and blue spruce. The *“ North American Fauna, No. 33. By Merritt Cary. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1911. UPPER SONORAN LIFE ZONE IN COLORADO Climatic areas of somewhat similar temperature and rainfall harbor similar associations of plants and animals and so constitute more or less well-marked “life zones.’’ Colorado, on account of its diversified topography and range of altitude, possesses a greatly varied flora and fauna, representing five out of the total of seven life zones found in North America. These three pictures, taken near Regnier in the southeastern corner of Qolorado, illustrate the characteristic appearance of the so-called Upper Sonoran zone which includes all the basal plain on both sides of the Colorado mountain ranges or nearly one half the total area of the state. From the plains rise the rocky slopes of the mesa (photograph at top), with its juniper-fringed ‘‘rim-rock’’ (middle photograph), and flat desert roof bearing yuccas and cacti (lowest photo- graph). The Upper Sonoran is an arid zone, extending between the Great Plains on the east and the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada on the west. Associated with its drought-resisting vegetation are such small mammals as spermophiles, prairie dogs, and several species of mice and rats, and a varied desert reptile fauna. Junipers (Juniperus monosperma and J. scopulorum) are characteristic, and pifions also grow along the foothills and on the rough country of the south 315 we. i *~ OTHER VIEWS IN THE COLORADO UPPER SONORAN The western slopes of the Colorado Ro kies differ from the high plains of the east in a more arid climate and more deeply erodcd surface. (top and bottom photographs from Mesa Verde and Bondad, respectively ), sheltering cottontails and jack rabbits, is the charactcristic growth of this region, although along the streams are found cottonwoods and willows. The Upper Sonoran zone, in spite of this aridity, is the agricultural land of Colorado and wherever it can be irrigated. it supports valuable grain, beet, potato, and fruit crops. Over the uncultivated arcas range great herds of cattle. Sagebrush feeding on the sparse grass. The Mesa Verde photograph shows typical wild- flower gardens of the Upper Sonoran, and the middle photograph from Wray (northeastern Colorado) a type of sand-hill country like that of Nebraska to the north 316 THE BEGINNING OF THE FOREST—TRANSITION ZONE an area equal to only about one fourth of the state. The Transition country is for the most part too rough and broken for agriculture. The intimate relation between crop zones and The Transition zone on the foothills covers natural life zones is marked in Colorado so that a biological survey is prerequisite to intelligent agricultural pro- jects. The upper scene, at Pagosa Springs (southwestern Colorado), shows the meeting of Upper Sonoran with the Transition above it; the bottom phot uph is from Electric Luke, north of Durans where the Transition Shades into the Canadian still higher; the middle picture illustrates pure Transition near Walsenburg, among the eastern foothills, with cacti, junipers, pinons, and yellow pine 318 NATURAL HISTORY valley floor was rather wide and more or Jess , bright with great masses of blue iris and yellow Thermopsis montana. We may use trees as illustrations of the conditions at this extremely interesting loca- tion, partly because their distribution has been very thoroughly worked out and partly because they are familiar to most of us. The thousand or more species of insects living there have not yet been identified so that we do not know what their evidence will be, but it is clear that this evidence must be carefully collected and just as care- fully used, for the creatures of the slope on which we were camped have distributional ranges quite different from those on the val- ley floor or those on the opposite slope. Fur- thermore, all about there was a tension, the Transition and the Canadian each straining for an increase of its respective area. We next went to a camp at the point where Pass Creek joins the South Fork of the Rio Grande at an elevation of 9425 feet. It was fairly distinct Canadian zone with aspen, balsam fir (Abies lasiocarpa), blue spruce (Picea parryana), and mountain juniper (Juniperus sipcrica). Rocky slopes, be Poy narrow ravines, and extensive open “parks” scored with elk hoofs offered a variety of habitats for our collecting. Although past the middle of June, the nights were cold and the ground was covered with frost in the mornings. Our evening fire was the meeting place of the forest rangers who were working in the vicinity. Many tales of the mountains were told. The rangers were of the opinion that the “yellow” black bears are getting more plentiful, that beaver are increasing, that sheep are driving out the elk. The road up Pass Creek over the Conti- nental Divide and down Wolf Creek had been cleared of snow and was, for the most part, dry. In many places there is space enough between straight up and straight down for only one vehicle. The roof of the continent is here 10,800 feet high. JI chased butterflies over snow- banks and “Sourdough” amused himself picking flowers with one hand while at the same time he made snowballs with the other. The pools of melted snow were musical with frogs. hes, more abundant than _ bees, were pollinating the hundreds of white and yellow flowers. We were here at the upper edge of Hudsonian, and Arctic-alpine was in sight on the mountain crests around the pass. Our next camp was near the foot of the mountains on the Pacific slope for the water of Wolf Creek eventually reaches the Bay of California. Extremes in camping met there that night. On one side of us was a retired business man and his family with an expensive car and two auto tents; on the other was an old-timer who was on his way in a prairie schooner to work in Kansas harvest fields. During the night an Indian came thundering into the camp, not on a pony and with a whoop, but in a noisy Overland. The next day we reached Pa- gosa Springs, where I was sorry to part company with Mr. Million and his stories _of wild Colorado from the time of Lead- ville, Cripple Creek, and Creede to the present. At Pagosa I collected in Transition by going north and in Upper Sonoran by going south. Although differences in latitude, when great enough, determine distributional areas, the factor here was a difference in altitude which merely happened to coincide with north and south. The same was true at the next stop, Durango, and south of it, at Bondad, the conditions were quite similar to those over large areas of the Upper Sonoran in New Mexico, sagebrush plains with scrub oaks, juniper, and pinon on the slopes. Through the kindness of Messrs. French and Clay I spent nearly a week at a Jake north of Durango where I collected through an altitude range of from about 8000 to about 10,500 feet, Transition to Hudsonian. It occurred to me after I had left that I had not wet a line although the guest of a fishing club nor had I touched an artificial “fly’—the natural flies were so interesting. At Mesa Verde I was joined by Mr. Pearce Bailey, Jr., a volunteer assistant. Mesa Verde is developed and protected as a national park under the Department of the Interior because of the cliff-dwellers’ ruins, but fortunately this protection extends to the plants and animals. Before going there I had met the superintendent who regretted that I had no apparatus for taking color- photographs of his “flower gardens.” When I had seen them my regret was as keen as his; luscious blue lupines, silvery Mari- posa lilies (Calochortus), beardtongues (Pentstemon coloradoensis and comarrheus), mallows (Spheralcea coccinea) and sun- flowers (Helianthus petiolaris) set in the gray OLS 1v9q Yorlq pus smoo]q ‘1aaoy SUB. YIIA YNOS YIM 930} st uedse RUBY) Oy JO rope ‘xoy e}Rys ‘SOLLLeqanyq eyy ul spa to } 1SOTY pt uo Sauoz U.TO}SOM au ers ell SO, GS OHARA “AUTGULNyO z O(k OMY 1S “UDLPDUD!) rd) ay} Jo sjsoloz ay — Upipyuvng DIAN uoyy ay Jo IIE 2 IpuRys ¢ Oo. MOWS worf UMODP { Inf puv suodsr Aq p So {no ul toy yxou i AYaryo SNIVLNOOW OGVHO10O9 AHL AWI1O 3AM SV sopts-ureyunour ‘suodse oy} pue opuray M Yydvad ) oy jo os pue peury oy} uo ‘Ko Rudo. AQ ST § you U0z UnDIPHUDYD Pup UDVUUSUDAL | u Ss WE CLIMB STILL HIGHER From the forested Canadian zone into the Hudsonian to timber line The Hudsonian zone as represented in Colorado is relatively narrow—about 1000 fcet in vertical width. The upper two photographs were taken along Pass Creek in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. The bottom comes from a higher altitude still, about 10,800 feet, near Wolf Creek Pass on the Continental Divide. — IN MONGOLIA AND NORTH CHINA | squirrels had been j.-* s eaught in traps. ‘To iY a my rifle had fallen | yi bear, roebuck, wild / boar, musk deer, \ moose, and elk. ‘The forests yielded up their treasures as we had dared not hope they would, and we left them with almost as much regret as we had left the plains. It was late Septem- ber when we returned to Urga. For a month there had been heavy frosts at night and several storms of snow and hail. We knew that any day might plunge us into winter, and although Mongolia is a paradise in sum- mer, its winters are to be avoided. The tem- perature sometimes drops to seventy de- grees below zero and the bitter winds which sweep across the plains make it one of the coldest spots on earth. On October first the specimens were started southward on camel | | | . back, while we left by motor car. Five days later we were in Pe- Mrs. Andrews feeding a white-maned serow.—This animal was cap- ne, ai ras greeting ki end if was 5 eet iS tured when only a few weeks old and became as tame as a domestic the Reverend Harry R. goat. Serows are exceptionally rare in zodlogical gardens and there , Caldwell, who was to is none on exhibition in America. The expedition desired to bring jo me for a trip to this Sa EAC to ube NG York ASU EEN SINE but the Department - of Agriculture at Washington could not permit the animal to be landed ; the northern edge of hasnice of restrictions regarding Asiatic cattle diseases. The serow Shansi Province after is an intermediate stage between the true goats and the antelopes and the Mongohan bighorn is closely related to the so-called Rocky Mountain goat of America | sheep. ; . The hunting grounds are only five sheep; but the region is infested with days’ travel from Peking and many brigands, and since Sir Richard Dane, foreigners have turned longing eyes formerly foreign chief inspector of the toward the mountains which hold the Salt Revenue, and Mr. Charles Colt- . ii BYE man had been driven out by the bandits in 1915, the Chinese govern- ment had refused to grant passports to foreigners who wished to shoot in that region. The brigands cannot waste cartridges at one dollar each so the animals had been allowed to breed unmolested. Nevertheless, not many sheep are there. They are the last survivors of the great herds which once roamed the mountains of all north China. The technical name of the spe- cies is Ovis commosa, and it is one of the group of bighorns known to sports- . men by the Mongolian name “argali.” In size as well as ancestry these are the grandfathers of all the sheep. The largest ram of our Rocky Mountains is a pygmy compared with a full-grown argali. The supreme trophy of a sports- man’s life is the head of a Mongolian ram, for it ean be obtained only by the hardest work. I think it was Rex Beach who said, “Some men can shoot but not climb. Some can climb but not shoot. To get a sheep you must be able to climb and-shoot too.” For its proposed hall of Asiatic life, the Museum badly needed a group of argali. Moreover, we wanted a ram which would fairly represent the spe- cies, and we wanted a very big one. The brigands did not worry us un- duly. Both Mr. Caldwell and I have had considerable experience with Chi- nese bandits and we feel that they are like animals in that if you do not tease them they will not bite. In their case the “not teasing’ imphes carrying nothing that they could readily dis- pose of, especially money. The Chi- nese Foreign Office did not know, of course, where we were going. Our passports were viséed for Shansi, but had the officials suspected our destina- tion orders would haye been issued to prevent us from going into the moun- tains. Our plan was to avoid the main NATURAL HISTORY roads, and strike off into the hills be- fore the authorities knew where we had gone. The plan was successful and we made our camp at the little village of Wu Shi-tu, where we ob- tained two Mongolian hunters. I can- not tell in detail of those glorious days in the mountains. The hunt there is a story in itself. Suffice it to say that we were more successful than we had dared to hope. When we returned to Peking, our carts contained a magnifi- cent ram with the world’s record head, and six other sheep illustrating the stages of horn growth in a splendid way. Moreover, we had obtained three fine wapiti, representing a_ species which will soon be extinct in north China. Besides these, we had seven- teen roebuck, two gorals, and a large series of hares and smaller mammals. One other successful trip to the mountains of central Shansi, this time for wild boar, completed the field work of the Second Asiatic Expedition. It only remained to pack the specimens and to transport them to New York. They safely reached the American Museum, not long after we ourselves arrived there, through the assistance of Mr. A. 8S. Jackson, of Shanghai, passenger agent of the Canadian Pa- cific Ocean Service. It is useless to gather specimens in the field unless they can be brought to the museum in perfect condition, and it was an espe- cial pleasure to find, when the cases were opened, that not a single skin had suffered from the long journey. Mr. Jackson’s aid is only one in- stance of the cordial codperation which we received throughout our work in the Orient. The universal courtesy of the Chinese officials and the resident foreigners was delightful, and on the other hand, it was a source of pride to us that we were representatives of the American Museum of Natural His- tory, whose educational work has won recognition throughout the world. {} 0} 1 La0q VITODNOW NYSHLYON NI GALVOILSSANWOG SHVA NVLASIL Social Evolution: A Palzeontologist’s Viewpoint . By W. DD. a NieAS Te EE Ww: Curator of Vertebrate Palzontology, American Museum N a recent address a well-known newspaper editor is quoted as say- ing: “To me the lack of proof of any improvement of the human mind as far back as history goes is the most impressive proof of the creation of the human mind, against the theory of evo- . lution.” This is a brief reference to what may appear to well-informed and _ fair- minded people a very weighty argu- ment. Especially it might appeal to anyone well versed in history and in classic literature but more superficially acquainted with modern geology and modern evolutionary doctrines. ‘To the paleontologist, on the other hand, evo- lution appears not as a theory at all but as a general law, a matter of fact and record so far as he deals with it. He is so far saturated with evidence of it, so accustomed to seeing its applica- tion to all aspects of hfe that come under his view, that it seems impossible to believe that a reasonable man could question it any more than the laws of physics and chemistry. Yet I think that the statement quoted above, in the sense that its author doubtless meant it, is at all events approximately true, however unacceptable the inference he draws from it. So far as my own reading would lead me, it is accurately true. I cannot see that there is any evidence of the improvement of the human in- tellect in historic time. The Dialogues of Plato appear to be written for minds fully as acute as those of modern stu- dents of philosophy. The perceptive and reasoning powers of the writers of the Bible seem to be on a par with those of modern writers. The accumu- lation of knowledge has of course led 374 to great progress im our acquaintance with facts and the generalizations based on facts. It has involved a still greater progress in material civiliza- tion; and these features of progress have been tremendously accelerated by the invention of printing and improve- ment of means of intercommunication. But in intellectual ability per se I can- not see that there is any conclusive evidence of advancement; and cer- tainly, if there is any, it is not great. There is, however, another aspect of the human mind in which I think there is very clear evidence of progress. This is the moral or ethical as contrasted with the intellectual side. Here, I think, one may see both in precept and in practice, a marked advance, a steady improvement, fairly continuous upon the whole, and resulting in a notable contrast between the standards that we see represented in the writings and ac- tions of early peoples, and those which prevail today. I use the term ‘‘moral qualities” in its broadest sense to in- clude all those inhibitions and re- straits, those actions and thoughts which prefer the ultimate advantage of the individual to his present advantage, which sacrifice a lesser individual bene- fit for a greater race benefit, which tend to the development of social life and more elaborate social organization. Consider the moral standards of the Old Testament as compared with those of today. How would we regard David, “the man after God’s own heart”? An able warrior, no doubt, clever, active, well-meaning, magnetic, a good fellow on the whole, but surely something of a weak brother. How would he meas- ure up with Washington, with Lincoln, with William Pitt? “The righteous NATURAL HISTORY man sweareth an oath and keepeth it even though it be to his own hin- drance.” Surely that is not so remark- able in the modern righteous man as to call for special and rather surprised commendation. “An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.” Are these the ideals of our modern treatment of criminals? Rather, one would say they are the standards that prevail among the criminal classes themselves. Or, take the matter of self-control, of the regulation and management of one’s daily life and habits. How many of the kings and leaders of olden time were able to withstand prosperity, to refrain from indulgences that short- ened their own lives and ruined the prestige of their dynasties in one or two generations? Does not the whole of ancient history leave one with an impression of gorging and feasting without regard for the morrow, of snatching at the pleasures of the mo- ment often at a terrible future cost? Contrast with this the sober regularity of the average civilized man of today, the diligence and abstemiousness of most modern leaders, political or finan- cial. It is useless here to cite examples, but I cannot but be impressed by a marked difference in averages. Take, again, the matter of courage. How many cowards has the recent war provided? Scarcely here and there an individual among the millions of peace- able citizens who have been drafted into an occupation alien to their habits, desperately uncomfortable and infinitely more trying than the sudden shock of an occasional short combat of a few hours. Yet anything approach- ing this degree of courage was the rare and highly praised exception in the olden days. Disorderly flight among the vanquished, utter loss of either discipline or resolute resistance after a few hours’ unsuccessful fighting, was the common result of ancient battles. Such craven cowardice is almost un- known today, and the spirit that has Bye) conquered it is no hardiness or tough- ness of temper, no carelessness of one’s life, but, whether flaunted openly or hidden under a veil of modesty, it is the spirit of self-sacrifice for an ideal, hardly even for national benefit, but rather for the good of humanity and of civilization as each side interprets that good. In another respect the moral im- provement that has taken place is more concretely shown. This hes in the re- straints and self-control, the breadth of view and fairness of temperament that enable large groups of men to combine and codperate in business or politics. The success of such organiza- tions, their practicable size and per- manency, are measured by the deyelop- ment of these moral qualities in those who enter into them. The political and commercial history of different peoples shows very clearly what were their capacities for organization; and the far greater size, complexity, and permanency of such organizations to- day in contrast with the small size of the ancient groups, their loose organi- zation and transitory life, indicate pretty clearly the higher stage of moral standards that we have attained. Read the history of the little peoples of Greece, and see how their short-sighted selfishness, tribal vanity, treachery, and cruelty again and again prevented united action, or destroyed the flimsy unions that were formed. See how the Romans, inferior intellectually, pre- vailed because of their higher capacity for social organization. Note the end- less succession of kaleidoscopic shift- ings of the loose administrative organ- isms of the Eastern empires and even of Egypt, although in the last case they were tied to a fixed spot by the isolated and fertile valley of the Nile which provided the material basis upon which they were founded, and gave a partly real, partly apparent permanency to the succession of governments which controlled it. ane ai Contrast with this the relative per- maneney of modern civilized nations, whose governments have endured, un- changed in essentials, for many cen- turies: the huge populations which they control, their complexity of or- ganization, their growing reliance upon the law-abiding instincts of the people, upon justice and equity rather than upon force. See how clearly this is correlated with high standards of civil- ization, how the forms of good govy- ernment degenerate into corruption, disorder, and military control, and the larger units break up into smaller and ~ looser organizations when entrusted to the hands of inferior races who lack the higher moral or social standards and practice of modern civilized peo- ples. One might cite instances and appli- cations without end, but the above will suffice to illustrate the point I wish to make—that while there is no conclusive evidence of intellectual evolution in the human mind since the dawn of his- . tory, there would seem to have been a very considerable moral or social evo- lution—I use the words interchange- ably—during that period. Now all this is exactly what we should expect on the Darwinian theory. Five thousand years, the most that we can give to such historical records as bear upon the present problem, is too short a time, if measured by the re- corded rate of progress in evolution, to produce any perceptible change in the physical structure of man. And his intellect, based as it is upon the physi- cal structure and complexity of his brain, should show a similarly slow rate of change. The specialist distin- guishes with difficulty between the skull of an extinct horse of the early Pleistocene and that of its modern descendant. Whether we estimate the length of the Pleistocene at 100,000 years or, as high modern authorities in- sist, at a million or more, it is obvious that the evolutionary change in this NATURAL HISTORY race during five thousand years would be imperceptible. And this is equally true of any other race of mammals of which we have a good evolutionary record. By this measure one would not expect to see any appreciable evyo- lutionary change in the brain and in- tellect of man since history began. On the contrary, if a marked and obvious improvement in brain or other physi- cal characters had taken place during that time, it would constitute an ex- ceptional case of abnormally rapid evo- lution, calling for explanation. On the other hand, the moral quali- ties may be viewed as partaking rather of the nature of fixed habits, view- points, instincts, not directly correlated with the complexity of the physical brain structure, and, like other in- stincts and habits, much more variable and more rapidly modifiable than the physical structures of the body and functions directly dependent upon them. Natural selection will seize upon those variations which are most useful for the individual or for the race, and will accumulate them in proportion to the rate at which they can be modified. Obviously the moral qualities of man have for many centuries been at least as important for his social advantage as any intellectual or physical superi- orities for his individual advantage. Because of their being more rapidly improvable, the principal advance has been in these qualities. Indeed, I find it difficult, as a paleontologist, to look upon human history as other than a splendid record and display of the operation of natural selection applied to races instead of individuals, and resulting in social, not in individual, evolution. This process of social evo- lution with its rapid changes leading often to an astonishingly elaborate and perfected organization, is by no means confined to man. It is illustrated again and again, in various stages of its development, throughout the ani- SOCIAL EVOLUTION: A PALHONTOLOGIST’S VIEWPOINT 377 mal kingdom. ‘The traces of its exist- ence in extinct races are naturally ob- scure and difficult to decipher; we are dependent upon observation of living animal societies and inferences as to the evolution of their habits. From observation and comparison of such modern social communities, one may perhaps draw certain conclusions as to the trend and limits of social evolution, and apply them to the future of our own race. (1) Marked tendency to a progres- sive uniformity and fixity of type and habits. In the early stages of social development one may observe a consid- erable flexibility and individual initia- tive, a greater variation in the action of the individual under given condi- tions. In the more elaborated types of social life the individuals of each class appear to think, act, and feel alike and to perform their respective duties in a more uniform and auto- matic way. (2) Although amazingly precise and elaborate social relations are found among lower animals—insects espe- cially—yet the complexity of the com- munity life appears to be limited in many ways by the intelligence of the individual. None of the higher ani- mals has carried social life to the ex- tremes of precision and exact codrdi- nation that we observe among the social insects; in none of them is the individual so far sacrificed for the benefit of the race. Yet the complexity of the social life of the higher animals is in some respects greater—in man it is far more complex. The ultimate result of social evolu- tion would seem to be a precisely ad- justed, uniformly acting organization, working with the automatic accuracy of the complex association of cells of which each individual is composed. The degree of complexity which such an organization can attain before it reaches that precise adjustment de- pends, as I see it, upon the intelligence of the individual units which com- pose it. If this be true, we must conclude that once such a finished social mech- anism has been perfected, its further progress must be relatively slow. While up to this stage its evolution has depended upon the modifying and perfecting of the moral or so- cial instincts, henceforth it must de- pend upon the far slower evolution of a higher physical and intellectual type. From the short perspective of human history this phase of phy- sical and intellectual evolution is so slow as to be negligible. We may fairly say that our present trend of social evolution will tend to advance to a civilization far more complex, far more precise in its adjustment, to con- tinually more uniform group-types of individuals, not appreciably higher in intellect but very much higher in morality; to eliminate more and more completely the criminal, the idle, the selfish individual, the unsocial of every type; and to reach finally the goal of altruistic endeavor. This cannot be reached, however, in a _ generation; such a mechanism involves much higher standards of morality than now exist in the average man, and requires also the elimination of all who fail to measure up to them. But that this process is going on, and has been going on for some thousands of years, I, who read history in the light of paleon- tology and evolution, cannot doubt. Nor have I any doubt as to its ulti- mate outcome, regrettable in some re- spects, desirable in many others, to the individual who, with growing social in- stinets, still retains some of the flex- ibility and impatience of restraint and uniformity that are inherited from his remote forebears of the wild tribes of primitive man. But what will be, will be. We may try to read the future if we will; we cannot alter it. —_— ms as a eats Sopris 22 Jy Re AR PR ae A DETAIL OF THE NUNNERY AT UXMAL The stone faces of forgotten gods, placed one above the other in panels of richest ornament, look out from the walls of ancient Yucatan buildings. The decoration between the panels is scarcely less extravagant. We see great frets applied in fashions that the Greeks never thought of. latticework, and, at interv: little temples in low relief, with roofs of serpents and feathers, above niches in which gods were seated cross-legged. This picture is a detail of the north range of the Quadrangie of the Nunnery at Uxmal 318 An illustration of the Mayan system of recording time.—From an inscription painted on the capstone of a vaulted chamber in one of the buildings of the Nunnery Quadrangle. The date 5 Ymix 19 Kankin at Uxmal is presumably that of 1219 A-p. See description on page 382 The Stephens Sculptures from Yucatan By HERBERT dreisy leo dhs IDI o) 3 Assistant Curator of Anthropology in the American Museum N some old library on a gloomy day have you ever found as treasure trove the wonderful volumes of travel in which John L. Stephens de- seribes the ruined cities of Central America which he was the first to ex- plore? The four volumes, covering two expeditions in 1839 and 1841, are tilled with steel engravings shghtly foxed with time and dampness, even in the best copies. The engravings were made from the camera lucida drawings of Francis Catherwood, corrected by some of the earhest daguerreotype photo- graphs, and they portray faithfully the monuments of Copan and the ruined temples and palaces of Palenque, Ux- mal, Kabah, Labna, Chichen Itza, and humerous other sites of the ancient Mayan civilization. The narrative gives the facts of archeological interest, as well as a moving picture of native life and the vicissitudes of travel. Few persons know that choice ex- amples of Mayan art brought from Yucatan by Stephens have been kept for eighty years on an island halfway up the Hudson. ‘These sculptures are now harbored in the American Museum of Natural History where they have been prepared for exhibition. John Lloyd Stephens was a traveler, a writer of books, and an organizer of steamship nes and railroads. Born in 1805 and graduated from Columbia University, he first sprang into prom- iInence because of travel letters sent back from the Near East to a New York magazine. In 1837 he published two volumes entitled Jncidents of Travel in Egypt, Aratia Petrea, and ihe Holy Land, that are chiefly note- worthy today for their early descrip- tions of Petra, the city on the cross- roads of Arabia where the temples are carved out of the cliffs. In 1838 he published two additional volumes, Jn- cidents of Travel in Greece, Turkey, Russia, and Poland. These books passed through many editions in the United States and England. In 1859 Stephens was sent by Presi- dent Van Buren to negotiate a treaty with the Central American Republic, but this was then disintegrating into the present five republics and Stephens was unable to accomplish his mission. He did, however, carry his explorations far afield and brought forcibly to the attention of the world the remarkable ruins of ancient America, in his two volumes published in 1841, called Jnei- dents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. He made a sec- ond trip to Yucatan for more careful and more detailed study and in 1843 published his last two volumes, Jnci- dents of Travel in Yucatan. This fine grotesque from the Quadrangle of the Nunnery at Uxmal is made up of several stones carefully mortised together by the pin and dowel method. The face is covered with a mask of tur- quoise (made of little pieces of turquoise carefully fitted together with other bright stones and bits of shell over a wooden base). It probably is intended to represent one of the gods. Four of the heads are still in position on the facade of one of the buildings at Uxmal (see page 383), while two heads (of which this is one) have fallen away or been removed In those days travel in tropical America was attended with grave danger to health, because quinine was as yet unknown as a specific for the deadly malaria. Stephens greatly im- paired his strength in these researches. For a number of years afterward he re- sided in New York, organizing the first steamship line between New York and Bremen. Then, with the discovery of gold in California and the necessity of transit across the Isthmus of Panama, he organized the Panama Railroad, 380 being vice president and then president of the company. He went to Bogota and negotiated a concession for this railroad in 1849, and battled with fevers while personally managing the work of building the road. He died in 1852, a martyr to enterprise in the tropics. A statue of him stands in the Canal Zone; there is also a fine me- morial window in his honor in the old Church of St. George on Sixteenth Street in New York City. The collection of choice pieces of THE STEPHENS SCULPTURES FROM YUCATAN carved wood and pottery that Stephens and Catherwood brought back with them was destroyed by the burning of a panoramic exhibition that Cather- wood had arranged in New York. This panoramic exhibition showed the glories of ancient civilizations and bonded Egypt and Central America. The only specimens of Stephens’ collec- tion which were not destroyed at this time were the stone sculptures which fortunately had not yet arrived in New York by ship from Yucatan. These were later given by Stephens to John Church Cruger, of Cruger’s Island, and now from the estate of Mr. Cruger’s daughters they have passed into the possession of the American Museum of Natural History. Cruger’s Island is a wooded, rocky island in the Hudson near the station of Barrytown, opposite the Catskills. It was originally called Magdalen Island, and was bought from the In- dians in 1688 by Colonel Peter Schuy- ler. Later, John Church Cruger, the great-nephew of Colonel Schuyler, built a mansion on this island, and on a rocky hill at its southern extremity made settings for the Mayan sculptures in the walls and broken arches of an imitation of a ruined church. Here the carved blocks of gray limestone from Yucatan showed in startling con- trast against the dark background of lichened slabs from the native ledges. Stephens in his last books laments the loss of a carved lintel beam of sapote wood from Uxmal as well as other specimens destroyed by the con- flagration in New York. I quote his narrative! since it makes reference to the pieces now in the Museum: It was ten feet long, one foot nine inches broad, and ten inches thick, of Sapote wood, enormously heavy and unwieldy. To keep the sculptured side from being chafed and broken, I had it covered with costal or hemp bagging, and stuffed with dry grass to the thickness of six inches. It left Uxmal on 1 Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, Vol. I, p. 179. 381 the shoulders of ten Indians, after many vicissitudes reached this city uninjured, and was deposited in Mr. Catherwood’s Pano- rama. I had referred to it as being in the National Museum at Washington, whither I intended to send it as soon as a collection of large sculptured stones, which I was obliged to leave behind, should arrive; but on the burning of that building, in the gen- eral conflagration of Jerusalem and Thebes, this part of Uxmal was consumed, and with it other beams afterward discovered, much more curious and interesting; as also the whole collection of vases, figures, idols, and other relics gathered upon this journey. The collecting, packing, and transporting of these things had given me more trouble and annoyance than any other circumstance in our journey, and their loss cannot be re- placed; for, being first on the ground, and having all at my choice, I of course selected only those objects which were most curious and valuable; and if I were to go over the whole ground again, I could not find others equal to them. I had the melancholy satis- faction of seeing their ashes exactly as the fire had left them. We seemed doomed to be in the midst of ruins; but in all our ex- plorations there was none so touching as this. In the collection preserved by late arrival that now forms a fitting memorial to John L. Stephens, there are several fine sculptures from Uxmal. One of these comes from the western fagade of the eastern building of the Nunnery Quadrangle. This particular facade is one of the most famous in the Mayan area. It is given in its full extent in an accompanying view, with the Temple of the Magician towering in the background. It served as a basis for the now discarded theory of Viollet- le-Due that Mayan architectural deco- ration represents a survival in stone of a system of log cribbing and lattice- work. The central door is surmounted by three grotesque faces or mask pan- els, and similar ones in vertical series are bent around each of the corners. In the long sections between these mask panels are six ornamental con- structions which certainly resemble cribwork of logs over a background of 382 latticework, and in the center of each of these is a grotesque head represent- ing a face covered with a mask of tur- quoise mosaic and surmounted by a headdress of feathers. The central portion of this sculpture was supported in the wall by a long tenon at the back. Several separate pieces, forming parts of the headdress, were skillfully at- tached to the centerpiece by dowels and dowel pins. It is possible that the crevices in this composite ornament were filled in with plaster, and that the whole was painted in bright colors. The Nunnery Quadrangle at Uxmal is a fine example of Mayan architecture of the Second Empire. In one of the buildings is an inscription painted on the capstone of a vaulted chamber and containing a date in the Mayan system of recording time. This inscrip- tion is given herewith (see page 379). The significant hieroglyphs are the first two in each line: in the upper line is recorded the day 5 Ymix, 19 Kankin, and in the second line we read 18 T'uns, 13 Katuns. In other words, this in- scription records a day Ymix with the number 5, which occurred before the completion of a Tun 18 and a Katun 13. In the long count of the first em- pires this ;date. equals 11.12 i711; According to the most generally ac- cepted correlation this date occurred in the year 1219 A.D. One of the pieces in the present col- lection—a portion of a headdress show- ing a fine series of plumes rising from a death’s head—is figured in connec- tion with Stephens’ first description of the House of the Governor. I quote his description of this famous build- ing : On this third terrace, with its principal doorway facing the range of steps, stands the noble structure of the Casa del Gober- nador. The facade measures three hundred and twenty feet. Away from the region of dreadful rains, and the rank growth of ‘Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, Vol. II, p. 429. NATURAL HISTORY forest which smothers the ruins of Palenque, it stands with all its walls erect, and almost as perfect. as when deserted by its inhabi- tants. The whole building is of stone, plain up to the moulding that runs along the tops of the doorway, and above filled with the same rich, strange, and elaborate sculpture, among which is particularly conspicuous the ornament before referred to as la grecque. There is no rudeness or barbarity in the de- sign or proportions; on the contrary, the whole wears an air of architectural symmetry and grandeur; and as the stranger ascends the steps and casts a bewildered eye along its open and desolate doors, it is hard to be- lieve that he sees before him the work of a race in whose epitaph, as written by his- torians, they are called ignorant of art, and said to have perished in the rudeness of savage life. If it stood at this day on its grand artificial terrace in Hyde Park or the Garden of the Tuileries, it would form a new order, I do not say equaling, but not unworthy to stand side by side with the re- mains of Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman art. Several other pieces also come from the House of the Governor, and form parts of complicated ornaments built up out of separately carved blocks of stone. The subject is a human being with enormous headdress seated over the open jaws of a conventionalized serpent. Fortunately, a similar sculpture is still in place (see illustration on page 384), and in this case the open serpent jaws at the bottom of the decorated zone overlie a background of frets and lat- ticework. Upon these jaws rests a round stool on which a human figure is seated. But the legs and arms that formerly extended out from the wall of the building have been broken off and the face greatly damaged. The head- dress is lofty, and from it proceed enor- mous bunches of feathers which divide at the top and fall symmetrically on either side. The fragments now in the American Museum show the stool, the broken figure (page 385), and sections of headdress which cannot be satisfac- torily pieced together. As in the case dn-qing ey, ‘uwourtsod UL are aq }Udl uod ATU UOTPIOT]Oo WI pearwo Ajayea ul § Ip IMT lo e[qQUlesad volL YIM proy }Isod [vajusao ey} UL soa ‘opRodny SIyy t ul euo st ois IS [BIAS jo d oie 900, yryy pa euL ‘[BuIxy, Jo & NY BV sSulevom ‘(Qge % o uR ARTA URIpPRNe A SIU, UNN 914 oud Jo IWWXN SO ALIO NVAVW LN3ZIONY AHL NI oe] Se + *, oe PS WT HSNO HY ot @ ee ati at aie eel Fe ee en This detail of the House of the Governor at Uxmal shows clearly that the rich facade decorations are made by an incrustation of separately carved stones. The frets are three in one, each on a dif- ferent plane, the lattice background is formed by square stones, each with a cross; the grotesque faces are likewise built up of parts. At the observer’s left are the remains of a human or divine figure with great headdress of feathers, seated over the open mouth of a highly conventionalized ser- pent (if the reader will take the writer’s word for it!). The battered figure that Stephens brought back and the parts of the feather headdress belong to such an assemblage as we see here of the sculptures already described, the larger blocks were set into the wall of the building by long tenons (see illus- tration on page 387) whilesmaller blocks were attached to these by the device of the dowel pin. The material is a hard, blue-gray limestone which weathers well. At Kabah, a ruin deriving much of its fame from a building entirely coy- ered with great stone faces, Stephens discovered a small temple with sculp- tured door jambs and another temple with a finely carved lintel of sapote wood. ‘This lintel was among the pieces destroyed by the conflagration. The stone door jambs were also ex- cavated and form the most remarkable specimens in the Stephens collection. 384 The original account! of the discovery follows: Beyond this was another building, so un- pretending in its appearance compared with the first, that, but for the uncertainty in re- gard to what might be found in every part of these ruins, I should hardly have noticed it. This building had but one doorway, which was nearly choked up; but on passing into it I noticed sculptured on the jambs, nearly buried, a protruding corner of a plume of feathers. This I immediately sup- posed to be a headdress, and that below was a sculptured human figure. This, again, was entirely new. The jambs of all the doors we had hitherto seen were plain. By closer in- spection I found on the opposite jamb a cor- 1 Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, Vol. I, p. 411 THE STEPHENS SCULPTURES FROM YUCATAN 385 responding stone, but entirely buried. The top stone of both was missing, but I found them near by, and determined immediately to excavate the parts that were buried, and carry the whole away; but it was a more difficult business than that of getting out the beams. e Photograph by Robert F. Griggs THROUGH THE ASH The horsetail (2quisetum arvense ) forced its way through great depths of ash. It proved the most important plant for providing cover over the deeply buried conti- nental areas. Observations on its growth in gullies where the surrounding de- posits were too thick to be penetrated, showed that it could push through three feet of ash. The horsetail is especially adapted for oceu- pying extensive areas which otherwise would become shift- ing dunes. Its propagation is by perennial underground runners; it has pointed branches with scaly, teeth- like leaves which readily grow upward toward the light when completely buried, and it is sheathed in a hard epidermal coat of silicified cells which admirably pro tects it against wind-blown sand. The trees of this conti- nental region, as may be noted in the picture, are dead, although they were not overcome by the pumice shower. Presumably their leaves and buds were killed by a hot blast during the eruption, and the roots sub- sequently starved to death. Such hot blasts, sometimes of tornadic violence, are not uncommon in severe erup- tions, and destroy every liv- ing thing. The destruction of an- tecedent vegetation in the very deeply buried region around Mount Katmai itself was so complete that revege- tation by wind- and water- borne seeds has been and will continue to be a slow process indeed, and here the problems of rehabilitation may be worked out in detail. The lupines are the most important pioneers, not only because of their large, heavy seeds which find lodgment when other secds are blown away, but also because of their ability to utilize atmos- pheric nitrogen. In very sheltered spots other seeds have sprouted, especially those of the willow, which will probably form the pio- neer growth over consider- able areas. Out beyond the territory reached by the hot blast and destructive ash shower, rains acidulated by the volcanic fumes (sulphuric acid) did considerable though not permanent damage, de- stroving the seasons crops ik ele a =, _ vue OyepyT pur ‘UoPSUIYSYA ‘“WOSIG JO SUOISAL Surrey Roads oY} SoljAopuNn se YONS VAR] OLUBIIOA JO FursoyjeoM MOS oY UlOIy PeATIOp [HOS JO APTT}AOF OF UIA ATSUO.NS SJSVa}PUOD AYTYAOJUL SJT “AOZI[YAoy ojojdumoo vB paamnbec YSe oy} AOF ‘UOSvES PUODES uv payeoT[dNp eq you pynood 4nq «vod 4say oy peysoarey sem dor any 8 ‘sjtsodep ey} 0} poppe a1AM SAOZI[AOF SNOUdSOAJIN oLOYA\ “pURS ZaARND o[l19js uURY} 194}0q OL9FT] podord MOIS Jo aojAoddns B sv YS ey, ‘seqour sary} ATWO JO oIN}LIS B pourezye yng [MOIS JO stvak AMOF 1ojzv OAr[e [[YS o19M pu [aM dn oUIR) SSurpoes ey, ‘“wWoNdnae oy} aoyye uoOs Avg uUIS[ey 7R WI8 J [B}USULLIed “X({ JUOMUIOAOZ) OY} 4B YSV popeotjUN oY} UL UMOS sem AYjJou Jo yord styL—"(eAoqe Ydvasojoyd) UoyVjeSoA P[O JO YAMOAT JuBIaNXN] oy} YIM Jsvajyuoo days uy shbhiip “q a4aqoy fq ydvwbo,0Yd AYONUL puw AAvoY A[AOULLOZ SBA YOIYM ‘[10S VY} JO UOIpUOD [woIsdyd oY} PaaoduIt OS[e YS IY, ‘SSVIs LOFuU0IS yy «AOZ SUOIIPUOD SUIMOLS 10}}0q SUIVVILD OS PUR SqAOY Ao][VUIS oY} Surmeyjows ‘yo[NUL wv sv UOTJOe st 0} AOYQRA 4YNq ‘[lOs AOOd AXOA BV SUIOT Jesu JO Yor sodop o1uBofoa OYy Jo yard ay} UO Yooye Surzyyaoy AUG OF paynqtayze oq 0F.-90U St Soanysed oY} JO jJUsMIAAOIdUT SIYy, ‘Soov[d owos UL YSB JO saqour AyueM} pojyeajoued ‘(ysopshun) sysoiinumvypy) ,,d0o4 aniq,, VATWwU oy} APoryo ‘dn oULv YOIYA SSVIF oY, “PURIST OY} UO UVES MO2q OAOJOd IOADU PLY SU YONS YIMOAT YSNT & JIM Uod9TT OTOYMAIOAO OTAM YVIPOS,T PUNOAY SuTe}UNOUT oq} WOSveS SUIMOIS Paly} 04} A ‘xvaek puodes oY} Sulanp sjooys Mou dn pues o} uesaq S}OOL plo ayy doep 00) Jou sum YSe oY} o1aYM sSoovi{d AsyJO UL puv YyRIpoy uO YOunuO “FT “d fig ydvahojoyd GO ULI} PIIAOD SUOT OS YSyM YsSe Jo Jospuryq BOY OUF ayeBrjou vd \ posoayssp AyoyO]duo09 YsowupR svVM YOU 3¢ ¢ > OU} SUlpeyzTpIqey. Od JtBjS OF sutdny; pur Rid OU} JSUTAR >| I } 3 OIR TI7RM B puUIM Jo joo ou“, ‘p) ocd \ 10 ot) [ {) o. amt ‘OIG TAIVM PU PULAA 8 1 poos MOF 9UI yy Aq A ; SIA [VUpt i pra ) 1v VIIB OUI] Pur Y UWIOMIOG jO oul] Io B OISVM Ud A Inof F PpIOM oUt fT \OW} p aomydna iT} oOo ) YVIpoy Awseu (Jfol atyy MOT eB IO aanjord sty} Ul JUuUOTR’ v weRaAIU8e)D Ut UOLJRIAGIA plo oy} NG po Avid lied jJuvyrodut | t aE Re) 2h T? 7 Sar 4 ej ie - ie eet Silt aan satis ote a ah. ae ‘ a - nae ds ee ‘ : ED ge RD | | § . f E i a aS a ES SL ee oe wr re i _— a = ae we _ a a = - mee a : ; MS - Se “ fermen —— POE JOOL OYR} 0} Ssul[poeos Suyyiuttoed ‘are eyy JO AjIpIUINny oy} pesRatour PUB PUIM OY] Worf PUNOIS OY} Poplelys see4 oyT, “poe}BAISN[[L [JOM SE s}seaoy OYy Jo WOR 9AT}OO}0Ad OY} Je] PY} JV ‘Spoos TOF ployjooy o[quzyidsoyur uv optaord sopis Suzys s}r ‘do, uO UMOASIOAO ATJAVd St YL YSNOWTW “YRrpoyy avou Yyse uUMOlq-purm Jo aunp @ udaes St ydetsojoyd oy} Ul JYSIC oY} JY “SOUNP GATPRAYSOP GLOW UPAG OJUT YL Suid LO sjsu[q SAYONAJSOpP UL YL Sulattp ‘oormnd asooy oy} du poyord Apyomb pura ay} ‘sjuv[d OU aTOM OLOY} AOAOTOYM OF ‘puNnors OY} JO dORJLUS oY} Suyoojord pue qse 94} UMOP SuIpulq AOF JuasR uv Sv a[quNTVAUL SVM OFT JURTd popeyLosnsea < HSV 4O SANNQ ONILSAIHS younyo “Tea fia ydvihojoy J ikls HARDY PLANTS WHICH FINALLY SUCCUMBED of a power L even as nts between a if ey POR Ae 4 ss eS Eee SSe.5 PM egy , ~~ a Fey iE PRIDEJORnhELCAVES2 The walls of the Oregon Caves are embellished with glistening crystalline limestone,—often with graceful traceries in delicate or bold relief of what seem flower and fruit designs No one can gain even a small idea of the beauty of the caves without seeing them. Photographs give only the form of these decorations, nothing of the color or finish The Oregon Caves were discovered in 1874 by a hunter, Mr. Elijah Davidson, who still lives near by; and since 1909 they have become a much frequented national monument of the United States. They are made up of a succession of marvelously beautiful underground halls with irregular connecting cor- ridors and galleries. Like other limestone caves these have been formed by the erosive and solvent action of water charged with carbon dioxide. The rock dissolved away and the channels were enlarged and ex- tended by underground streams (probably during the Glacial period). Then in turn redeposition of lime carbonate has been slowly effected by saturated waters percolating from above In this way the spec- tacular stalactites and stalagmites of the Oregon Caves have been moided and the successive erystalline coatings laid down on the walls and floors 596 Here the dead, shining columns, like spectral trees, have given the name, ‘Petrified Forest’ The Oregon Caves' REMARKABLE “MARBLE HALLS” OF JOSEPHINE COUNTY By [kA A.W LE LTAMS Geologist, Oregon Bureau of Mines and Geology elorigus succession are, in reality, a g of halls, and these halls, as well as the connecting corridors and avenues, galleries and chambers, are of glitter- ing white marble. This monument is located near the EAR the southwest corner of Oregon in the rugged hills of V the Coast Range is a much frequented national monument, the Oregon Caves. Joaquin Miller some years ago designated this great series of then only partly explored caverns, “the marble halls of Oregon,” and they are generally known by that name at the present time. The appropriateness of this title promptly appeals to every one who visits these caves, for they west edge of Josephine County, Ore- gon, which is separated from the Pa- cific Ocean by Curry County, whose coast line is forty miles to the west- ward. It is less than seven miles from the Oregon-California line, at an alti- i1The presidential proclamation which withdrew the Oregon Caves from private ownership and established them as a national monument is dated July 12, 1909. The monument is administered by the United States Department of Agriculture, and since it is in the Siskiyou National Forest, comes under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service branch of that department. In keeping with sound national policy, reasonable expenditures have been made in each of the last several years, and are still being made, to render this natural wonder accessible to the world. An excellent trail now reaches it from Williams Creek ten miles to the northeast, where there is a suitably equipped summer camp station conveniently reached by automobile over a twenty-seven-mile stretch of fair road from Grants Pass, which is on the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad. From the west and the head of automobile travel there. five miles of trail bring one te the caves by way of the Grants Pass-Crescent City (California) Highway. Plans are now under way for building an automobile thoroughfare direct to the main entrance of the caves, a project to be most highly commended and encouraged, and an entirely feasible one, it would seem, as forest and mountain road construction goes. ao7 398 NATURAL HISTORY tude of approximately four. thousand feet above the sea. Prior to discovery its entrance was doubtless concealed for centuries within the shadows of the sturdy firs and western hemlocks, which, with the celebrated Port Orford cedar and Sitka spruce, chiefly clothe the slopes of the Oregon Coast Range and the summit heights of the connecting range, the Siskiyou Mountains. Because of its location in Josephine County, the Oregon Caves were long called locally and in the literature, The trail to the Oregon Caves.—Prior to the discovery of the caves, less than fifty years ago, the main entrance had lain hidden among the firs and spruces of the Siskiyou forest. Even today the caves are thirty-seven miles from the nearest railway station (Southern Pacific). BORTANS at oe ) ) yOS suo su 1 ol yond Ww LOIS TB | BIVYURBYL t ALY [4B ET | yt € mi « jooT ee yoor TOS pono ynd sea lr tu} 3 \y l l Ora 1 x u 1 ; y ( aed es Ae S 7} A ( 1G : YAS SSOTO DIS 93 ; ‘S10 oube I S}R, } c aN; ; DL) * { Ysty } AVUULOTA ey. ut aINoUys Yoo ey yo uc JOS SSO) DLSO[OIG Wyre SpoOnpsnhbtr LyspBVO oy, pu uUodJOT) Mo out content PLO oll yO WOS ‘at ALIO MHOA MAN OLNI SLONGANOV 3SYHL ALK AX o\ YoOUre APPAAZEN ¥ WPA OAH AEX Sores . yi AAA ER AY RRA ER ARAN Sy) Ms NY IAS SERRE A ZN Pee VAS 0-9) vaqaweig (GIGI) mols. @ uor9a(] ——> See BE NOS e We we KAAAS SS ; g S ‘ ORG SOK d A x\ WD) A i OTOGSS A 2g/H98 3 ‘ tude yA JOSiY \ —adid uasiy Gra NN Matar aN AAA X empoodS Baty Walley } 1 | 4 ee i 1 oe LH V0l id Sa waaeseaseaa sasedss2saeueesessa==2F=f Psy ueneyuepy go yonou0g uiew 429439 xuoug oy f joysnoiog rcpt oot > os sl ee Pel Sey * 9&2 | onqandv NOLOYO 10 - a9diu¥a HOIH in oe uoyeys Suidwing apg yi -. Teta! Bi Seceee Hanes epee ee = te ~""Sunell foaa/ oD . aoiauac UBIL| esplug SIH G98] WioAuesay aolAuag YPIH c 912 13 \29| Jamo 201Avag YSIH apg usiH Us HO ae A CUT-AND-COVER TRENCH TYPE .OF AQUEDUCT The Catskill Aqueduct under construction through country whose elevation made the cut-and-cover type of structure possible.—It is essentially a great trench, with a concrete floor and arched roof, graded so that water will flow of its own accord slowly toward New York City. The finished conduit is 17 feet high by 171% feet wide, inside measure, with walls nowhere less than 12 inches of solid concrete 408 THE CONCRETE CONDUIT SEVENTEEN FEET INSIDE MEASUREMENT An almost completed stretch of cut-and-cover aqueduct.—The concrete conduit has been finished but is still to be covered with earth for protection. This is one of the deeper cuts in rock made for this type of construction. The spot shown is along the west side of the Wallkill Valley near Lake Mohonk. About one half, or more than fifty miles, of the Catskill system is of this eut-and-cover type. The water is delivered from the great storage reservoir at Ashokan to an equalizing reservoir just north of New York City from which it euters the eighteen-mile distribution tunnel. An additional emergency reservoir north of White Plains is also supplied and retains thirty days’ emergency supply 409 110 NATURAL HISTORY ~ & ~“ e -” % ya Wl A BORING RIG FOR THE CATSKILL AQUEDUCT A boring rig exploring the underground conditions on Delancey Street near Allen before construc- tion was begun. The boxes piled on the sidewalk contain drill cores taken from the rock beneath. Interpretation of these borings is depended upon to determine the conditions that will have to be met when the tunnels are constructed. The finished aqueduct passes beneath this point now at a depth of more than 700 feet below the street level Heavy drain on this system made it overflow in the rainy season may cost necessary to build a much larger dam more than to secure a much larger known as the new Croton dam. and amount by developing a new source. many smaller ones for storage reservoirs The capacity of the Croton watershed, in the Croton watershed. There is, how- it could be seen, was being approached ; ever, a limit to the amount of water and even before the later developments that can be recovered economi cally for additional storage were comp rleted, from a given area. ‘To save all of the the city authorities were looking about THH WATHR SUPPLY OF A GREAT CITY for an entirely new supply. Pre- liminary investigations for comparison of the advantages of different possible sources were carried out by a commis- sion of engineers. As a result of these studies the legislature authorized de- velopment of new sources, and in 1905 the newest and most extensive of all the water projects of this or any other city was organized. This is known as the Catskill Water Supply project. Surface waters in the heart of the Catskill Mountains are impounded and brought more than a hundred miles to New York City. The building of the great Olive Bridge dam at Ashokan on the Esopus, where the main storage reservoir with its 130 bil- lion gallons of water is located, the construction of more than fifty miles of tunnels and an equal amount of cut- and-cover aqueduct, with an additional storage reservoir north of White Plains, 411 holding thirty days’ emergency supply, and the making of an equalizing reser- voir just north of the New York City limits and an eighteen-mile distribu- tion tunnel from that point down through the length of the city, with which the mains of the city are now connected, constituted an engineering project of mammoth proportions and difficulty. Skill of the highest order has been required in its construction, and ingenuity has been taxed to the limit in solving some of the problems. Nearly two years were taken in ex- ploration, planning, locating, and relo- cating prospective dams and tunnels and other works; but by midsummer, 1907, actual construction began. The first sod was turned by Mayor George B. McClellan, June 30, in the vicinity of Garrison in the Highlands. Since that time construction has been con- tinuous and the major portion of the Seven hundred feet below the boring rig.—How some of the rock looked in the tunnel beneath Delancey Street. and is cut through by a granite dike. surface of the street The rock is Inwood limestone, showing complicated folding, crumpling, and faulting, This photograph was taken more than 700 feet beneath the AN UNDERGROUND WATERFALL A wet strctch of ground in the tunnel near Jerome out of a big joint in the rock. Of Park reservoir in the Bronx.—Water in large volume poured course there was no chance for a waterfall until the tunnel was driven through. Such occurrences are not common. They e much trouble both in driving the tunnel and in final concreting. This is the underground water which almost everywhere fills the crevices in soil and bed rock after getting a short distance below the surface and is the supply for wells and springs. The flow is frequently very strong, and in the tunnel undcr Rondout Valley more than 1900 gallons of water a minute poured in through similar le s. The water enters along joints or stratification planes or directly from the surface by way of fault planes 412 CRUMPLED ROCK IN THE CITY TUNNEL The most crumpled rock encountered beneath New York City in the eighteen-mile tunnel that completes this end of the Catskill Aqueduct.—The rock is Manhattan schist, the same general type that one may see in Central Park, but this is a rare exhibit of its most complicated structural habit. All of the schist of Manhattan is characterized by remark- able crumpling folds, varying from small plications of a few inches to great arches such as form the major ridges of the island, and indicating a former deformation of the rock of considerable magnitude. Much trouble may be eaperienced in tunnels through folded rocks, if they show marked fracturing, and the engineers had to give eful attention in such situations to geological structure Sac NC iil CONSTRUCTING THE AQUEDUCT TUNNEL More than fifty miles of such tunnels were driven through solid rock for the Catskill Aqueduct. This photograph shows the electric feed wires, ventilation pipes, water and air pipes, haulage tracks, and engineer’s transit platform as they looked. during the construction of the rock-tunnel type of aqueduct. In order to carry the water across valley tunnels were dug under them. These acted as inverted siphons which at times dropped below sea level. The water was also finally delivered in the city by pressure tunnels which were placed from 250 to 700 feet below the surface in order to insure against the danger of disturbing other structures. These miles of tunnel have revealed a great variety of geological information on hitherto very imperfectly known features of the structure of New York THE WATER SUPPLY OF A GREAT CITY project was sufficiently completed late in 1915 to permit the delivery of water directly to the city mains. But the finishing of its various parts and connections and extensions has continued to the present time. The last section to be added is the Schoharie supply on the north side of the Cat- skill divide. A great masonry dam is being built at Gilboa on Schoharie Creek that will impound the water from two hundred and fifty square miles of territory. This water is to be diverted by an eighteen-mile tunnel back through the Catskills beneath the highest mountain peaks of the range and added to the waters of the Esopus, finally reaching Ashokan reservoir, where the whole supply gathers. To complete this last unit will take three or four years more. Altogether perhaps the whole project will have covered twenty years. When it is finished the city will be furnished per- petually with something like 500 mil- lion gallons of water a day from the heart of the Catskill Mountains, water that is so pure that neither filtering nor other treatment is necessary. The bare figures themselves are in- teresting to anyone who appreciates their magnitude and significance, but, in addition, many special problems have been encountered that have an appeal of their own. The nature of some of these problems can be ap- preciated most readily by a little more specific explanation of the nature of the general design, the objects to be attained, and difficulties to be over- come. For example, it became necessary to construct a dam that would hold back 150 billion gallons of water with- out serious loss or danger of collapse. If the water leaks out the whole pro- ject is a failure or if the dam gives way the valley below will be devastated. A place must be found and a design adopted that will accomplish both ends. Thus its location or the choice of dam site is of prime importance. More 415 than a year of exploration preceded its selection. Ksopus Creek, flowing as it does in certain stretches in a narrow rock gorge, looked simple enough, but its present-day course is quite different from its ancient pre-Glacial one. Ex- ploration showed an old channel at one side more than a hundred feet deeper than the new one, completely buried be- neath the glacial drift. In most places this drift filling of the ancient gorge was itself porous and it would be leaky ground on which to locate a dam. Finally, however, at Olive Bridge it was found that the quality was dense and tight and capable of holding water. Here the dam, more than two hundred feet high, has been constructed suc- cessfully. Behind it is held in storage enough water to cover Manhattan Island to a depth of twenty-eight feet. The water in Ashokan reservoir stands at about 590 feet above tide whereas New York City lies almost at sea level. On account of this difference of elevation it should be theoretically possible to construct an aqueduct be- tween the Catskills and the city that would allow the water to flow by gravity in trenches or pipes and deliver itself. This looks simple enough but a little consideration of the problem shows that the Catskill supply lies on the west side of the Hudson Valley, whereas New York City lies on the east side, and to reach the city it would be necessary to cross several large tributary valleys besides the Hudson gorge itself. In addition two consider- able mountain tracts, the Shawangunk range and the Highlands, have to be crossed. It is apparent, therefore, that it would not be possible to build a simple grade aqueduct but that some plan would have to be devised for cross- ing the valleys that are too low and penetrating the mountains that are too high without losing the head of the water. Otherwise it must all be pumped at these discordant points, thus adding to the expense of delivery. po y} pur uo azoyjaey oyjtT B dN gos puv poaouTad ST OUIRAZ UT} )S JUIMIAD OY} Aa}Jy ‘“eWVAL [oo}S OY} pu S]][RM Yoor passul oy} woaMjod oovds aayue oy} SUITLY apIS Oy} LOAO podnod si aJa1ou0D oY} PUL WLOF}RIA B UO UL UNA Wot} OAR OLN}XIUT 9JOLOUOy TTA POpROT S ‘QINJONAYS poystuy oy} OF WaAoF DATS 0} SopRId Joo -dNS YAIOMOTILAT [90}S O[(VAOWOA B SJSat JT UG “pPIe[ Wood ApvorR Sey (,4AOAUL,,) LOO ofotoU0) otf, ‘yonponbe jo ed&y JouUn-yoor 9} JO SurYystuy oy} UL 96 LONGANOV TSNNOAL 3YNSS3AYd AHL ONIHSINIS ‘ a Lt JONAGSUOD OF aTqtssod St JU SR UORUTMARIUOD PUR ddUETEZTEPUT WHOA ¢ SITY “ooRpANS TIUUL oy} UO Woes AyUTRTd eq URO ‘os 0} parc pay [Te ee youuny pr 10 oY} JO S[T[VM Yoor ayy Jo pur Tony soapult pur jJusuvrustod « patnod sem ain} xt ajatou0d oy LAT “TOJVM OY} SOlLtvd }INpuod ojato 20 SR UM YSU 2 yWoous QT St words JO 4 } OJON IUn} O81TNSso : ( oOULL V AVG WV SNOT1VS NOITTIW 00G AYYVO OL LONGANOV NV 7 ) The Spillway.—Arrangements are always made with great care for the overflow of surplus or flood waters. At certain seasons the withdrawal of water for use cannot keep pace with the supply, and unless suitable provision is made for the overflow to escape under controlled and safe conditions, it is likely to endanger the stability of other structures. This spillway is more than two miles distant from the main dam and is constructed of solid concrete and bluestone slabs. The water is carried away in a channel floored with bluestone, set on the rock ledge, escaping finally to Esopus Creek There are several possible methods of accomplishing this result. For example, one may carry the water across on a bridge, just as the old Croton Aque- duct crosses the Harlem River on High Bridge. On account, however, of the size of the conduit required and the width and depth of some of the val- leys to be crossed, this plan was not considered feasible. In the case of smaller supphes and where the valley depressions are not so deep, iron pipes are sometimes used, but no experience is available for work of stich magni- tude as this. It was finally decided to accomplish the same result by the con- struction of tunnels in bed rock be- neath the valleys. Water entering on one side of a valley thus passes beneath the valley and up again to grade on the near side by its own pressure. Wherever the country-side lies at about hydraulic grade (the level of 418 simple surface flow) the cut-and-cover type of construction is used. This is essentially a trench, made as if the water were to flow in it as in a ditch; but the trench is concreted and enclosed so as to make a closed conduit. Inter- vening mountain ridges are penetrated by tunnels at grade. The whole aqueduct, therefore, is made up chiefly of a combination of these types of construction,—the cut- and-cover aqueduct, the grade tunnel where hill or mountain rises across the course, and pressure tunnel beneath valleys and gorges. By this method the Catskill water actually delivers itself to Hill View reservoir on the north line of the city at an elevation of 295 feet above sea level. In its course it flows aleng valley sides and through mountain ranges at grade and beneath valleys and gorges under pressure, but its movement is steady and sure to- EE WALTER SUPPLY OF A GREAT OCILrTy ward its destination, moved by forces costing nothing for endless service. Catskill water leaving the reservoir passes through the acration plant and then flows for several miles in a cut- and-cover aqueduct at grade at about five hundred feet above tide. The first large problem is presented by the neces- sity of crossing the deep and broad Rondout valley. A tunnel beneath the valley was finally constructed, four and one-half miles long, which, to avoid bad conditions, such as buried stream gorges, underground caves, and ab- pormally hard rock, was placed three hundred and fifty feet below sea level. It penetrates twelve different geologi- cal formations and cuts through some of the most difficult ground encoun- tered in the whole line. At one spot so much water poured into the tunnel that it required a pumping capacity of more than one thousand nine hun- dred gallons a minute to keep the tunnel clear enough for construction to proceed. The most spectacular of these pres- sure tunnels is the beneath the Hudson River. Choice of place for crossing the Hudson was a question to which much attention was given. From Storm King Mountain to Breakneck at the northern entrance to the Highlands was finally selected as the best spot be- cause of the quality of rock at that point. When explorations were made, however, it was found practically im- possible to determine by ordinary methods the depth of the gorge and consequently how deep the tunnel would have to be placed. The Hudson gorge is an ancient one that was ca- non-like in its form in pre-Glacial time and has since been partly filled with glacial drift and silt. Because, also, of the depression of the continent, the river has been drowned so that sea water backs up into the Hudson valley. Borings in the middle of the river finally penetrated river silt and bowlders to a depth of 765 feet with- out finding the bottom of the gorge. one 419 Inclined diamond drill holes from the sides of the river, however, indicated that solid granite rock existed entirely the river at 950 feet. An additional set of borings showed that the same rock existed at 1400 feet. It was decided on this information to construct the tunnel beneath the Hud- son at 1100 feet below the surface of the river. This is the deepest section on the whole Catskill Aqueduct. The intervening country is so varied in its geological features that each sue- ceeding section of the line has prob- lems of its own. The aqueduct crosses the Highlands north of Peekskill, passes beneath Croton Lake reservoir, and touches Kensico reservoir north of White Plains, where thirty days’ supply is held in storage. From Hill View reservoir on the north margin of the city the water enters the so-called City Tunnel, a pres- sure tunnel in bed rock eighteen miles long, ending at Fort Green Park in Brooklyn. Twenty-four working shafts were used during its construction, twenty-two of which are still used to connect with the distribution conduits of the city. Because of the danger of disturbing other structures, and as a measure of safety, the tunnel is placed from two hundred and fifty to seven hundred feet below the surface, the deepest portion being on the lower side between the Bowery and the East River and the East River to Brooklyn. In its course it penetrates a great variety of geological conditions and has exposed features that were only imperfectly known before. The maximum supply of water is not yet available but from 250 to 300 mil- lion gallons of water a day can be furnished. As soon as the Schoharie addition is completed on the north side of the Catskills, this water added to ecross beneath aCVOSS that of the Esopus will furnish at least 300 million gallons a day. This amount doubles the water supply of the city and seems to provide for requirements for many years to come. OM? OY. UeeMoq o[suR “1am SUuIpL Ip oY} YIM sutseq (4y ay} UL purys } a) mpanbe ayy Jo TIMOL OY} PUB SULUULSIq puR (ye) toddn ued woe q SMOYS t ‘ST9q(mByo ORs dT, SOjOyd OY, “AOBJAMS JO SolIul aaenbs WoaezAty} A[MVAU SAAAOD B[OYA B SB ALOATOSII O “UISRq YIOAYSASSAY NVYMOHSV 43O VWVYONVWd weddn aud jo str aula} xa au} ye spurs USL wep oy} ye os pllg OGP SUISBQ, o ATLO 1GP eS uur SULA OUTS SIY4 sa0p 4 dq uones Sse JIM Se 0} UMoUuy “SUB YJIM XU 04 V ‘SSO jiund @ oud sa {} 0 M pax Y uMO SU 4t ‘pat ‘So]zZzOu OOOT Jo Aaazeq sry eaoqe Y-A}UAAOS LOJUM [LDS sty} VV NVMOHSV LV LNV1d NOILVYAV AHL Our American Game Birds Especially in review of * The Game Birds of California,’ a volume issued from the University of California Press By: FORA NCKS Mes Fe Ace SMeAe hy Curator of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History AME birds constitute one of our most important assets im bird life. Time was, and that not very long ago, when their value was estimated in what they would sell for as food. But necessity has broad- ened our vision. There has been in- crease in population and correspond- ing decrease in the area available for birds, several million sportsmen are taking the field each year, automobiles and power-boats make every corner of the country accessible, and a dozen other destructive factors are at work. It became apparent, therefore, some time ago to even the most short-sighted and selfish hunter that the game birds of the country would soon be a memory unless radical measures were taken to diminish the number legally killed each year. Even assuming that the laws were observed, they were far from strict enough and were often made in the interest of the hunter rather than for the protection of the hunted. Sports- men who looked to the future of sport, and ornithologists who studied the sit- uation from a broad, scientific view- point, saw that there were two mea- sures of the greatest importance to insure the continued existence of our game birds. These were, first, prohibi- tion of their sale and, second, uniform protective laws based upon scientific principles wherein each species was considered not from a local but from a national or even international stand- point. Under certain conditions game birds constitute a natural and proper source of food; but when the demand so far exceeds the supply that the latter is threatened with early extinction, it is obviously time to stop and take account of stock. In short, we were confronted by the old question of the goose and the golden egg. Fortunately we have de- cided to be content with the egg. In other words, despite the protests of game dealers, hotel and restaurant keepers, epicures and gourmands, we now consider our remaining game birds to be of more value to sportsmen than to market hunters. This decision is based on sound ethics and equally sound economics. The sums the sports- man is willing cheerfully to expend for guides, dogs, boats, transportation, board, and in the maintenance of pri- vate preserves, become, in the aggre- gate, an amount in comparison with which the actual food value of the game pursued is insignificant. And this is wholly aside from the pleasure and benefit derived by the sportsman in the pursuit of game. It is obviously good business, therefore, to protect a capital which pays so high a rate of interest. The sale of wild game is consequently almost universally pro- hibited throughout the country and game birds are thereby conserved pri- marily for sport instead of for food. The elimination of the pothunter, however, by no means solved the prob- lem of game protection. The “game- hog” still remained. But the replace- ment of state by federal regulations, through the passage of a treaty with Canada covering migratory birds, is a guarantee that the preservation of the birds rather than the wishes of the sportsman will be given first considera- 1The Game Birds of California. By Joseph Grinnell, Harold Child Bryant, and Tracy Irwin Storer. Contribution from the University of California; Museum of Vertebrate Zodlogy. University of Cali- fornia Press, Berkeley, 1918. Royal 8vo, 642 pages, 16 colored plates, 94 figs. 422 ae mi d aapun A[uo S9}e]S UI1D}SOM \ : ‘ : f LLOFlTLD ayy NYOdTTVO GNV NIVINOOW FHL oor 634 ; IOP eed we kee” 5 ’ oH SaQiany zisspBby sinory fig Bua } Yq 2 F & T fq 4 wind 947 WoL STIVNO VI / ; { } f OUR AMERICAN GAME BIRDS tion; moreover, the limits placed on the number of birds which may legally be killed in a day acts as a further curb on the thoughtless or selfish hunter. The backbone of this movement, which has occupied the attention of conservationists for years, is public sentiment based on a knowledge of the innumerable facts involved. It was only when the public was sufficiently impressed with the urgent need for stricter game laws, if our game birds were to be saved from extinction, that the passage and enforcement of such laws became possible. This campaign of education has been conducted by the Audubon So- cieties, Game Protective Associations, Federal and State governments, and other educational largely through the issuance of informative publications. One of the most note- worthy volumes among such publica- tions which have thus far appeared is The Game Birds of California. Con- vinced by extended field work that the game birds and mammals of the state were rapidly decreasing, the staff of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, of the University of California, decided that in order to make the game laws effective “the people at large must be apprised of the facts and shown the need for, as well as most effective means of, conserving our game re- Thanks to friends of the Museum interested in the protection of wild life, funds were provided which made possible the production of this admirable volume. Introductory chapters treat of the “Decrease of Game and its Causes,” “The Natural Enemies of Game Birds,” “The Propagation of Game Birds,” and kindred subjects. The greater part of the volume, however, is devoted to detailed biographies of the game birds themselves; that is, of California waterfowl and shore birds (snipes, plovers, ete.), quail and grouse, agencies, sources.” 423 pigeons and doyes. bill, wood ibis, and white-faced glossy The roseate spoon- ibis also are included, although these birds are not commonly ranked as game. Full biographies record what is known of the life history of each spe- cies and a wealth of data concerning its present and past status in Cali- fornia is With birds which have been most hunted the story is invariably one of wholesale slaughter given. those and rapid decrease. It is estimated, for example, that 250,000 ducks were sold in San Fran- cisco markets in the season of 1911-12, but in 1915-16 the number had fallen to 75,000. In 1909=10 company in San Francisco sold more than 20,000 geese, and the rate of de- struction indicated by these figures was continued until the birds became com- paratively rare. It is not alone statis- tics of this kind in which the volume abounds but also authoritative accounts of the habits of the birds monographed which should arouse a keen interest in them and hence in their continued existence. The book makes a further appeal through its well-produced colored illus- trations by Louis Agassiz Fuertes and Allan Brooks, as well as by an attrac- tive format. The authors are scientists, not sportsmen, and they handle their sub- ject from the standpoint of ornitholo- gists rather than from that of the one transfer hunter. The book, therefore, is lack- ing in descriptions of methods of kill- ing birds and stories of the hunt, and the end its authors have in view will probably be better served by the omis- sion of matter of this kind. But, in the reviewer’s opinion, its message would have been stronger if it had dwelt with greater emphasis on the value of game birds as a bond _ be- tween those who pursue them and the marshes, fields, and forests in which they live. Caiman Hunting in South America By ALBERT M. REESE Professor of Zodlogy, West Virginia State University T’ was the writer’s privilege to spend a recent summer at the Tropical Research Station of the New York Zodlogical Society in British Guiana, the main object of the expedition being to collect embryological material of the caiman for researches under the aus- pices of the Carnegie Institution. While the caimans, according to Beebe,! are the only crocodilians repre- sented in British Guiana, at least four species of the genus are found there, the largest of which is the huge, sup- posedly man-eating black caiman, Ca- man niger, confined apparently to the upper reaches of the rivers at some dis- tance from the coast. In the region of the station, about fifty miles inland, caimans are very scarce; the only one seen during the summer was a small one killed by the Indian hunters em- ployed by the station. Along the coast, especially in the region of the Abary River, in the east- ern part of the colony, the smaller species of caiman, rarely reaching a length of seven feet, are so abundant that they may frequently be seen from the car windows of the trains of the Demerara Railroad as these pass over the swamps and rivers. Crocodilians are hunted for various In Florida the alhgator is, or was, hunted chiefly for sport, and for its hide when alligator leather was in vogue. The caiman, since its hide is too heavy and osseous to be useful as leather, is hunted mainly for the sake of its eggs. This source of dan- reasons. ger to the caiman, however, is but shght, as the haunts of this species are off the line, somewhat, of the sports- man-tourist routes. The eggs are col- lected by the natives for two reasons: first, for the purpose of hatching them under artificial conditions to obtain young animals for stuffing as souve- 1 Zoologica, Vol. II, Nos. 7, 8, 9, p. 211, 1919. 424 nirs; second, merely to reduce the number of caimans—or “alligators,” as they are commonly called—which the planters consider a pest on the sugar and rice estates, although the economic status is probably not at all certain. It was the eggs that the writer was particularly anxious to obtain, al- though he was also much interested in the general habits of the animals. As in the case of the writer’s pre- vious experiences in the search for alli- gator eggs in Florida, the first thing to do was to find a native hunter to act as guide and bureau of information, although the information obtained from such people is usually anything but reliable. In Florida, years ago, the best known ’gator hunter was probably Alligator Joe, of Palm Beach. The “Alligator Joe” of Georgetown is a tall gentleman of Hthiopian extrac- tion known as “Professor Pile,’ who is considered the local authority on all matters relating to “alligators.” Bedford's Chinese takin, discovered by Mr. Malcolm P. Anderson in 1910, on the heights of Tai-pei-san, northern China. From a drawing in color by H. Goodchild in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, Vol. II, 1911 THE DISCOVERY OF THE CHINESE TAKIN part of the day had passed and we had done nothing more than locate our game. Crossing back to the point whence we had seen the herd, I took advantage of a few minutes’ rest to question Yang about the habits of the takin. According to him they always go in herds; this herd, he said, con- tained about forty individuals. When alarmed they will stampede, always running down the mountain, but if prevented from doing this they will charge the hunter and prove very dan- gerous. After a long and difficult descent across rock slides where it was hard to keep from setting stones in motion, thus alarming our game, we at length reached the spur where the herd was feeding. It was just a short, forested shoulder terminating in rocks and spires, and dropping off in a great precipice. We had not seen all the animals from above. Just as Yang had told us, there was a large herd of these sandy-hued cattle browsing the bunch grass which grows among the crags. ‘They were so big and seemed so clumsy that it was astonishing to find them there in a situ- ation apparently better suited to the chamois or the mountain goat. First cautioning us not to get into a position where we might be charged, Yang led his men off in one direction, while Smith and Ward followed me in another. We advanced, creeping be- hind rocks and trees, following around the face of a steep cliff until we reached a rock beyond which we could not go without alarming the game. Peering cautiously over this rock, I saw the heads of several animals which were quietly feeding not far away, but I did not choose to shoot at the heads because I wished to preserve the skulls intact. Ward and Smith, who were not 433 armed for such large game, stood be- hind whispering to me to shoot. I think the takin must have heard their voices; at any rate, while I was waiting for the shot I wanted, the animals grew restless and alert. Fearing, therefore, that they would escape me altogether, | at last fired at the largest one, intend- ing to break his spine; but I must have shot high. At this the herd stampeded. Most of them disappeared down slopes in- visible to us, but to our surprise some of them ran down the steep slope of huge broken rocks which lay in front of us, displaying an agility not to be expected in a beast so ungainly. As they bounded from rock to rock I shot four times at them without effect. Then, seeing a large bull running down the caion to my left, I shot again, whereat he turned a double somersault down the steep. But in a trice he was on his feet again and running. We leaped down the talus slope and followed, thinking to come across his body at any moment,-but found noth- ing, although we searched long. We climbed back to where he had rolled, finding the broken bushes and plowed up stones, earth, and snow, but no bloodstains. Amid so many crossing tracks it was impossible to follow any one. We took our way back to camp, de- jected, but before reaching it we heard a shot followed by a great shout. An hour or so later our hunter made his way up the canon to camp to an- nounce that he had followed a large bull to a point in the bamboo thicket below the “cave,” and there had killed him with one shot. The game was secured. With his homemade matchlock the native hunts- man had outdone me and my high- powered rifle. Mammal Fur Under the Microscope The remarkable structural forms seen in the hair shafts of animals.—A department of knowledge not alone of zodlogical significance, but applicable also for standardizing furs and fabrics in the industries By LEON AWG US TS EAU Sat AN Cornell University Zodlogical Laboratory HE microscopic units in the structure of the hair of the various species of mammals present a multitudinous array of diverse forms. These microscopic structures in the hair shaft are so constant in form and in relationship among species and groups, that an accurate knowledge of them and of their interrelationships may contribute toward the solution of many prob- lems, not only in pure zodlogical science, but also in the fields of certain important industries in which animal hairs are em- ployed.1 What are the separate structures, so minute that the unaided eye cannot detect them, that go to make up a hair? The early writers and investigators supposed that the hair was a solid, horny cylinder, transpar- ent, or at least translucent, throughout its length, and devoid of any definite internal structure. From a study of the hair to- day, with our powerful microscopes and modern microscopical equipment, we are able to determine with accuracy that each hair is a complex structure, and made up of well-de- fined elements. The Life Story of a Hair The hair begins its growth as a localized increase in the number of cells of the outer- most layer of the skin, the layer called the epidermis, forming a dense aggregation of cells which elongates downward into the true skin or dermis beneath (see illustration of hair in its natural position as when growing in the skin, page 436). Directly beneath 1 For the industrial applications of the study of mammal hairs, see: Hausman, L. A., “The Microscopic Identification of Commercial Fur Hairs,” Scicntific Monthly, Jan., 1920; “Structural Characteristics of the Hairs of Mammals,’”’ Am. Naturalist, in press. ‘Hairs That Make Fabrics.” Scientific American, Feb. 21, 1920; “Fabrics Un- der the Microscope,” ibidem, in press: ‘‘The De- tection of Imitation Furs,’’ ibidem, in press. 454 this downward-elongating depression of the cells of the epidermis there is formed a dense mass composed of: the cells of the dermis, which ultimately becomes the papilla of the hair. The flask-shaped de- pression becomes lined with cells from the epidermis, and is known as the follicle. All future growth of the hair is confined to the bulbous lower portion of the shaft, where the conversion of cells of the follicle into horny hair-shaft cells is continually in progress during the lifetime of the hair. Mammal hairs are in general either circu- lar or elliptical in cross section. Those which are circular are straight or but slightly curved, while those of elliptical cross section are curly or kinky, the amount of curl being dependent upon the flatness of the ellipse. The General Structure of the Hair Shaft The hair shaft itself is built up of four well-defined structural units (see illustration of greatly magnified hair, page 436) : (1) The medulla or pith, which is com- posed of many shrunken and variously dis- posed cells or chambers, representing dried and horny epithelial structures, and often connected by a filamentous network, which may either completely or only partly fill the medullary column. (2) The cortex, surrounding the medulla, and composed of spindle-shaped cells, coa- lesced into a horny, almost homogeneous, transparent mass, and forming, in those hairs wherein the medullary element is reduced, a large proportion of the hair shaft. (3) The pigment granules, to which the color of the hair is primarily due. In some cases, however, the coloring matter of the hair shaft is diffuse and not granular in form, but in the hair of the greater number of mammals the color results from the dis- tribution within and among the cells of the os }Uaaytp SUNQVNAUBOR XU UR SMOTL[R (77) ip a }S LOZ [NJosn Ay: pure u0y YRAL [ ey} SMOYS jl (a) out Y j suey ‘qd i 2 ay} jo (TL) at YY St VY ‘ ILULRB XO ST 4t ayy jo Ith Satey ou} IV -XO Og o[pprur 984 9 ALOJPORISUYBS OF AOYT ‘(D)) punjs aynandas v Wo AY 7D LOU a)Qnop QnysnlpD Punot D Cae) IDDIS ay? LOPUnN Sr 1G O} - 12 yay uo (gq) UD PUD * CT uv §(abnis 3 ‘aqny yYylr Uayshuny jouovyrippy wn ‘(ff) adoososovU UY} fo IUD YUM LOU DOCOBIDI SBLAOBRBLDDB °C. ROH GES > > ~ a oe ¢ 2 Ey age oO D 2 ei te 5 2 LIRA ee yn Seek ieee = ao (Sits) =) Dias mS S a = (@) Cd), ES} > oO Ss iS + = ty Ro} AS) o oy SEs area oS oF S) for (or ine Bae Olor haere B gt ‘GS 436 MAMMAL FUR UNDER THE MICROSCOPE 437 cortex of minute particles of some pigment. These particles are arranged in the different hairs in fairly definite and characteristic patterns, and may often serve as aids in iden- tification. (4) The cuticle, or outermost integument of the hair shaft. This is composed of thin, transparent, and colorless scales of varying forms and dimensions, arranged in series, sometimes overlapping like the shingles on a roof or the scales on a fish. Fur Hair and Protectiwe Hair Most mammals possess at least two kinds of hair—a short, thick, fine coat next the skin, which is termed the fur hair or the under hair, and a longer, coarser, usually stiffer hair, which overlies the first, and to which has been given the name protective hair, or over hair. It is the first-named hair, the fur hair, which usually forms the greater part of the body covering (see 27 to 88, pages 436-443, in each of which two shafts are shown, the one treated to show the medulla, the other to show the cuticular scales). In the fur hair and protective hair from the same animal the cuticular scales and medullas differ (for example see hair of the European beaver and of the skunk, Nos. 7 and 8, on opposite page), and these char- acters can therefore be used to distinguish the two kinds of hair when only small frag- ments are to be had, or when the hairs have been clipped or dyed, as they frequently are when made up into furs. Some animals, like the duckbill or platypus and the spiny anteater, possess a great many different modifications of these two kinds of hair, each one in most respects quite unlike the others.1 This is rarely the case, however, among other mammals. Of each of these two main kinds of hair there are two varieties: (1) Hair in which there is a_ simple medulla consisting of a relatively small shaft with a single central column or a rod of separate cells (see 85 and 69, page 443). (2) Hair in which there is a compound medulla consisting of a somewhat larger shaft with two, three, or even four longi- tudinal, parallel columns of small, separate medullary cells (see 80 and 81, page 443), showing hairs of the pocket rat and the Cape jumping hare). Hair with compound me- dulla is comparatively rare. A glance at the numerous figures of mag- nified hair shafts presented with this article? shows the existing wide variety in form of the medullas and cuticular scales. These figures indicate the nature of the scales and medullas as they appear one third the distance from the base to the tip of the hair shaft. Here it is that, ordinarily, the medulla reaches its greatest expansion, and the cuticular scales show their forms most fully developed. Farther along in the diree- 1 Hausman, L. A., ‘‘A Micrological Investiga- tion of the Hair Structure of the Monotremata,” American Journal of Anatomy, September, 1920. *For the use of these figures, as well as of sey- eral others in this paper, the author is indebted to the Am. Naturalist, which has kindly allowed their reproduction from his paper, ‘Structural Characteristics of the Hairs of Mammals.” . Description of upper figures on opposite page.—The microscopic anatomy of mammalian hair presents features that are constant for different species and groups. The hair forms accordingly permit of systematic classification and make possible the identification of any given specimen as that of a certain animal, a fact which is of obvious practical importance in the detection of substitutes for commercial furs. These two drawings depict the generalized microscopical structure of a hair in its follicle (at the left) and of the hair shaft (at the right, greatly magnified). After a hair is started, the new growth occurs only at the bulb in its root where there is connection with a blood and nerve supply. Description of lower figures on opposite page.—The form of the scales varies somewhat in different regions of the hair shaft probably because of increasing wear toward the tip. This is well shown in the illustration of the hair of the duckbill (11), the sections taken from near the skin (at the left), midway to the tip (middle), and near the tip. Most animals possess a short thick coat of fine fur hair next the skin and an overlying coat of coarser “protective hair.’”” These two types are figured for the European beaver (7) and the skunk (8). The two large hairs on the left in each instance are the protective hairs, treated to show the cuticular scales and the medulla, respectively; on the right are two fur hairs similarly treated. Figure 27 shows the unusual regularity in geometrical design of the scales on the fur hair of the black lemur. The hair drawn in Fig. 28 was taken from the remains of a mammoth (Elephas primi- genius) found in Alaska. 438 NATURAL. HISTORY The platypes or duckbill of Australia (Orni- thorhynchus anatinus) is a creature which is partly aquatic, partly subaérial, and partly sub- terranean. It is furnished with many different varieties of hair; namely, fine long hair on the chin; the finest hair of the body ahkout the ear; posterior to these, short, stiff hair, rather flat- tened; long, stiff, flattened hair on the under portion of the body; very stiff, almost bristle- like hair on the wrists; and long, soft, dark brown hair on the back. Besides all these different sorts of hair, the platypus also pos- sesses still another type, the fur hair, under- neath the long brown hair of the back. (Draw- ing from Kingsley’s Natural History) tion of the free extremity of the shaft the medulla usually becomes reduced, broken up into fragments, or pinched out altogether. The cuticular scales, hkewise, undergo a pro- gressive alteration of form as the tip of the hair is approached, owing probably to the increasing amount of wear upon their free edges. This is remarkably well illustrated in the hair of the platypus, in which the scales may be very long-and pointed at the base of the hair, reduced to an oval form nudway in the hair’s length, and to flat, even- margined scales toward the tip (see 11 in illustration on page 436). All of the fur, or all of the protective hair, even, of any given individual animal is not of exactly the same diameter: hair varies in this regard considerably, differing in the range of variation among different species of mammals, and a somewhat less range of variation occurs in the averages of the diameters of the hairs of different in- dividuals of the same species. Hence, too much importance cannot be attached to hair magnitudes, except, possibly, when dealt with in large averages, and between Jarge groups, for example, families or genera. In- asmuch as the hair shafts figured here vary in diameter from 6.80 microns to 160.00 microns,! to show them to the same scale, and at the same time to make the smaller hairs of sufficient size to represent clearly the cuticular scales and medulla, was ob- viously impracticable. The arbitrary ex- pedient was therefore adopted of represent- ing all the hairs whose diameters were equal to, or less than, the average diameter of the human head-hair (roughly 51.00 microns) as one standard size; and of representing all those hairs whose diameters were greater than that of the human hair as of another standard size. The latter hairs are repre- sented as being only shghtly larger than the former. In order that an appreciation might be had, however, of both the relative and actual magnitudes of the hairs in the figures, the average diameter of the fur hair of each species is given in microns after the name. Mammal Hairs Identified and Classified by Means of the Cuticular Scales2 A comparison of the various cuticular scales exhibited by mammalian hairs shows that they may readily be assigned to two great groups: (1) Imbricate—Those that lie singly, overlapping about the hair shaft, and (2) Coronal—Those that encircle the shaft as a continuous band with a resemblance in some instances to the shape of a coronet. The simplest form of the imbricate scale is the ovate type, shown in the hair of the yellow-haired porcupine (29). In four other examples of this type, including the prong- horn and True’s white-tailed deer, the scales undergo a diminution in size and an increase 1QOne micron is 1/1000 of a millimeter, or about 1/254000 of an inch. 2 Classification of forms of cuticular scales of the mammalian hair (see pages 439 and 440): I. Imbricate 1. Ovate—F ive varieties, 29 to 33 Acuminate—Three varieties, 34 to 36 Elongate—Five varieties, 37 to 41 4. Crenate—Seven varieties, 42 to 48 5. Flattened— Eight varieties, 49 to 56 II. Coronal 1. Simple 2. Serrate—Five varieties, 59 to 63 3. Dentate—Five varieties, 64 to 68 Two varieties, 57 and 58 | | | ; es of highly magnified h igements of the cuticul PY ell haired porcupine zon pixanthus) 59.50 <294 European mole Talpa pea) 17.00 167 Tibetan sun _ bear thibetianus 30.60 79 True’s white-tailed deez vile traet) 102.00 79 American pronghorn ocapra americana) 102.00 7 Pocket gopher (Geomys 29.10 <186 Rabbit bandicoot (Pera ) 27.20 chloris leucorhina) 12 50 air shafts presented here and on pages 440 and 443 have } 1 ar scales and medulla The meast ments bek ire express 36) x417 saird’s shre Sorex 42) x2 I hairdi) 12.00 20.00 37) x334 10we’s tr shrew { 167] Rey ( Ptilocercus O ontinent pithe us 7 1 15.00 {4 x11 I ( 38) x218 Tree shre Dendroga gp frenata) 32.00 1° x60 I 4 39) x186 Three-toed sloth Brady atus 100 ) pus tridactylus) 27.20 16) x1l04 Peba Ta 10) x857 Giant golden mole mcincta) 76 (Chrusochloris trevelyani) 14.00 17 x79 Perchero 101 41) x385 Golden mole Chruso {8 ) 7 D 1 g esha cat el eh Yee The seales on the hair of the lion (52) are typical of the scutellation scales of the naked mole mouse (56) are characteristic of spines and bristles In the case of bats the she exceptional beauty under the microscope. among the carnivores and rodents The measurements below are expressed in 49) x156_ Restless cavy Cavia 56) x104 Naked mole mouse porcellus) 45.00 Heteroce phalus qlaberya 74200 90) x1l67 Sagouin Hapale peni ae Se ; ‘ s = A i ) f > 6 ‘ - - cillata) 30.00 EXPO G % de ibisit (Lasiurus 51) x192 Opossum Didelphys porealis) 8.50 marsupialis caucae) 25.50 98) x278 Malay vampire bat 2) x108 Lion (Felis leo nyanzae Megaderma trifolium) 18.00 74 / 5 % = T “ys ae - 9) x455 Musky bat (Noctilio } ») Northern sea oI ’ ° = po is) 11.00 I pias stellert) 153.00 : 4 267 Spectral tarsier Tarsius 6U) xoV0 PI J llops (Phyl ops fal- | ) catus) 10.00 8 pl uga (Erinaceus 78) x313 Strand mole rat Bathyer- Sis = s x16 gus maritimus) 15.50 = et : : - F ty ck (Arctomys 79) x52 California sea lion (Zalo- ita LY, phus californianus) 153.50 36) x53 bandicoot SO) x192 Pocket rat (Thomomus ( atoth 5 ebad: nets) 25.50 : : 8 x50 (Proeyon lotor) (81) x222 Cape jumping hare Pe- ; a Ls detes eaffer) 27.20 n beaver (Castor (82) x17] Opossum Didelphus vir S 114 rniana) 40.80 a Oo 0 rea act etl 0.00 mat Ippo hi ri Ohba be fick 444 MAMMAL FUR UNDER THE : 4 s oil of amber and viewed by transmitted light. (92) Fur hair from the gray rabbit (Lepus nutalli mallurus), mounted in oil of amber and viewed by transmitted light cuticular scales of hairs develop in such a way that they are directed away from the skin suggests that they may afford protec- tion cee the intrusion between the hairs —and so on to the skin itself—of foreign Further- more, any such extraneous substances Which bodies, of parasites, and water. may have gained entrance would tend to be worked outward away from the skin to the outer surface of the hair covering, by the motions into which the hair is thrown by the muscles of the body. The technique of microscopical examina- tion of hairs demands, primarily, an ability to manipulate the microscope and the source of the illumination of the object on the stage. Various arrangements of the micro- scope and microscope lamp secure different types (see page 435) of illumination, in order to bring into visibility the various structural parts of the hair (89, 90, 91, and 92 on this page). Photomicrography gives earnest of becoming a valuable aid in the study, not only of the cuticular seales or medullas, but more especially of the pig- ment granules—their shape, color depth, and patterns of arrangement. Photomicrographs of mammal hairs.—(89) Wool from the American Shropshire sheep, showing the imbricate cuticular ; \ photographed by a combination of reflected and transmitted light (see figure at the right on page 435); mounted in air only. (90) Fur hair from the back of the common house mouse (Mus mus- culus), viewed by transmitted light (see middle figure on page 435); hairs mounted in oil of amber. The hair at the left has a simple medulla; that at the right, a compound medulla. Note the enlarged character the medullary cells of the latter and their irregular outline. (91) Fur hair from the civet cat (Arctogalidia scales. This hair was MICROSCOPE A study of the structures and iden- tification characteris- tics of animal hairs, formerly of interest | merely because of its zodlogical — signifi- cance, is rapidly be- ; coming applicable in industrial fields - as , well, and particularly 5 at present in the field of the fur trade, for fi it is now possible so to clip, dye, pull, and otherwise alter furs of certain types that their original appear- ance is entirely lost, and they may be sold under names not their own. Inferior furs, remodeled, may be sold under the names a P. "Ss 2 Ss 5) ey 7 . of of furs much SUIDE LE 4 i in wearing quality, or fusca), mounted in : - in warmth, or in both; as, for example, when rabbit (a fur notably poor in wearing quality) is sold remodeled, as ermine, or remodeled muskrat as seal! Such remodeled furs may often be sold at ten times their legitimate value, warmth and durability considered! The pelts of animals from warmer latitudes, such as the opossum, woodchuck (marmot), raccoon, and certain species of monkeys, are worked up by skilful dressers into products very different from their originals. The names which are given to such remodeled turs are the names of ani- mals of colder latitudes, such as otter, seal, sable, etc., animals which possess furs su- perior to those of the creatures of warmer zones in respect to denseness and softness of the under or fur hair, and to fullness and length of the over or protective hair. Fur- thermore, the dyeing and processing to which the warmer latitude furs are subjected ren- der the hair less durable because more brit- tle. It is clear that there exists a need for some definite criterion by means of which furs, no matter how altered by the dyer and remodeler, can be indubitably identified as to species source. This need the microscopic study of the hair shafts of mammals will help to meet. Professor Henry E. Crampton, of Columbia University and the American Museum of Natural History, has led a series of expeditions to the islands of Polynesia for the study of zoogeography and evolution Research in the South Seas With editorial introduction and a review of a recent study on the land snails of Tahiti? VER since Darwin put forward the theory of Natural Selection as an ex- planation of the way evolution works, scientists everywhere have been weighing it in the balance and searching for a more fully satisfactory explanation. It is recognized that the survival of the fittest according to a selection by nature from among the vari- able members of a race is surely not the whole, in fact, must be but a small part of the story of the cause of evolution and its method of procedure. Thus today whether the aim of a man’s research work purports to be morphological, embryological, cytological, physiological, zoogeographical, or taxonomic, quite cer- tainly the investigator himself has one main hope. He desires to discover evidence along contested evolution problems: whether in any given group of animals or plants eyolu- tion works equally and at random in very many different directions, or along a few definite lines only; whether new species are built up slowly from accumulated small va- riations, or come into existence by leaps— by mutation, as sports; whether evolution is a force ploughing its way in the given group to a definite end in accordance with chemical and physical law and from internal urging, or, if evolution is effected by such a growth force, whether the direction taken by it be controlled by the environment. There are, suffice it to say, various schools of belief among scientists today. An intensive work of investigation by Pro- fessor Henry E. Crampton, of Columbia Uni- versity and the American Museum of Natural History, on the land snails of Tahiti in the 1 Studies on the Variation, Distribution, and Evolution of the Genus Partula. The Species Inhabiting Tahiti. By Henry Edward Crampton. 313 pp., 34 plates, 252 tables, 7 text figures. Publication No. 228 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, January, 1917. 445 View of Taiarapu, the smaller, lower part of By courtesu of the Carnegie Institution Tahiti Island. The islands of Polynesia, resulting from a subsidence of the land, are the tops of mountain ranges, volcanic masses with great radiating systems of contiguous valleys South Seas, is of particular interest, in part because of the unique opportunity for a study of evolution given by these numerous sharply marked-off island species, but pri- marily because of his conclusion after many years’ study of the data that, although each croup of islands has its own group of species, each island its own species different from all others, and even in many eases each of the radiating valleys of each island its form pe- culiar to it, these have not been evolved in any degree by the influence of the environ- ment. We quote him in the matter:t “In a word, the role of the environment is to set the limits to the habitable areas or to bring about the elimination of individuals whose qualities are otherwise determined—that is, by congenital factors.” Professor Crampton had long been con- ducting experimental studies in variation and selection on the saturnid moths. As a check to that work, which necessarily was carried on under the artificial conditions of the lab- 1 “Résumé,” p. 311. 446 By courtesy of the Carnegie Institution Looking into three valleys on the southern side of Tahiti.—The high temperature, large amount of moisture, and low barometer make the many valleys of Tahiti ideal habitats for snails. Each valley may have its form peculiar to it. The tops of the ridges are dry and barren and the snails do not cross from valley to valley RESHARCH IN THH SOUTH SEAS AAG oratory, he inaugurated this parallel study on snails under natural environmental con- ditions. On four of several expeditions made to Polynesia he has reported in a volume brought out by the Carnegie Institu- tion, under the auspices of which three of the four expeditions were made (1907—8—9). The field survey has been Tahiti of the Society Islands, building on the former researches of Professor Alfred G. Mayor,! director of the department of ma- rine biology, Carnegie Institution, Washing- ton, and has also been extended into various of the Cook, Tonga, Samoan, Fiji, and New Zealand islands. As Professor Crampton points out, the snails of the genus Partula ave a most for- tunate biological group in which to study evolution—compared, for instance, with any continental group where there are not geo- graphical barriers sharply marking off the species. In the case of Partula the area of its distribution is comparable in size with the United States, but it is made up of ocean waters with habitable islands (the tops of mountains after subsidence) acting as iso- lated centers of evolution. In the work in Polynesia Professor Crampton collected about 80,000 snails from two hundred of the valleys in the Society Islands. Visitors to the American Museum will be interested in the topographical model of Tahiti, exhibited in the Darwin hall. Shells from the various valleys are suspended above the model in their respective places, presenting graphically a suggestive story of distribution in the south Pacifie. We bring the memoir on Partula to the attention of readers of Natura History in-the following review? by Professor Mayor, of the Carnegie Institution: exhaustive in The present volume deals with snails from Tahiti alone, and the thorough, scholarly, and conservative treatment given the subject renders this work of paramount value to all future students of the variations of Partula. Not alone were variations and distribution of the adult snails studied, but the young contained in the brood pouches of the adults were dissected out, thus throwing light upon the fecundity of each variety and the ratio of elimination of the young before they can reach maturity. Crampton shows that these snails are not ‘Mayer, A. G. “Some Species of Partula from Yahiti—A Study in Variation.” Memoirs Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Vol. XX VI, No. 2, 1902. *By courtesy of Science, N. S., Vol. LI, No. 1319, February 6, 1920. found in the dry lowlands along the shore, nor do they occur in the cold regions of the high peaks of the interior, for a temperature of 55°-60° F. stops their activity. The snails are therefore restricted to the relatively moist deeply wooded troughs of the inter- mediate regions of the valleys, where they are commonly found during the daytime on the undersides of the leaves of the banana, wild plantain, caladium, turmeric, wild gin- ger, and dracena. The ridges between valleys are generally dry, and thus the snail population of each valley is more or less isolated. Crampton finds that these snails descend from the trees and bushes and feed during the night, or on moist days, upon decaying vegetation. The young and adolescent are more active in this feeding reaction than are the adults. It has long been known from Garrett's studies? that the Tahitian species of Partula like the Achatinella of Oahu varied from valley to valley, some forms ranging over a wide area while others are restricted to a single valley, or even to a limited region within a valley. In general, moreover, the farther apart two valleys the wider the diversity between their snails, although this is not always the case. Crampton’s work has the merit of giving precision to our hitherto more or less vague knowledge of the distribution of the eight species of Partula found in Tahiti. He shows conclusively that great changes have occurred since Garrett studied the snails in 1861-84, and that in some cases the spe- cies have spread over wider areas and in the interval have produced some new subspecies or varieties. Thus the fascinating picture of a race in active process of evolution is presented. The details of this process are rendered clear by the excellent photographs of relief maps, and the numerous diagrams which accompany the text. In a brief review such as the present it is not possible to do justice even to some of the more important details of Crampton’s masterly work, but it is interesting to see that according to Garrett, Partula clara was rare and found only in a sector of valleys comprising about one fourth the area of Tahiti, while Crampton found it to be very common and to range over four fifths of the whole island, this dispersal having been ac- complished by migration from the former restricted habitat of the species. There are now seven subspecies, and mutation has oc- curred not only in some of the new valleys the snail has occupied since Garrett’s time but also in the area in which it was found by Garrett. Partula nodosa, which in 1861 was con- fined to Punaruu Valley, has now migrated into six other valleys, and three new va- rieties have arisen in the area into which it has traveled. “Garrett, Andrew: “The Terrestrial Mollusca Inhabiting the Society Islands.” Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, Vol. IX, second series, part 1, 1884. 448 RESHARCH IN THE SOUTH SHAS Nearly one half of Crampton’s volume is devoted to an analysis of the group species Partula otaheitana with its eight subspecies and varieties of primary, secondary, and ter- tiary degree, thus constituting the most complex of the known species of Partula. In Fautaua Valley these snails form an extremely complex colony which stands in parental relation to the diverse colonies of other valleys; for in any one of the latter the shells exhibit one combination or another of the so-called unit characters displayed by the Fautaua group as a whole. In this snail Crampton finds some evidence that in the variety rubescens red and yellow colorations bear a Mendelian relation to each other, red being dominant. On the other hand, in the variety affinis plain color seems to be domi- nant over the banded pattern in Mendelian inheritance. Partula hyalina is peculiar in not being confined to Tahiti, for it is found also in Mangaia and Moki, of the Cook Group, and Rurutu and Tubuai of the Austral Islands, and in marked contrast to this wide dispersal Partula filosa is found only in Pirai Valley, and P. producta in Faarahi Valley and neither one has migrated from these valleys since Garrett's time. Crampton concludes that in the production of new varieties the originative influence of environment seems to be little or nothing, and isolation is a mere condition and not a factor in the differentiation of new forms. This is in accord with the studies of Bartsch 1**Experiments in the Breeding of Cerions.”’ Vol. XIV. 1920. Papers from the Tortugas Lab- oratory, Dept. of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. upon Cerion, for he found that no new ya- rieties were produced in any of the numerous colonies of Bahama cerions which he estab- lished upon the Florida Keys from Ragged Keys near Miami to Tortugas. When, how- ever, these cerions of Bahaman ancestry crossed with the native from Florida, the second generation of the hybrids gave rise to a large number of variations both in form and color. This observation indicates that similar ex- periments should be conducted upon Partula, for it seems possible that new species may result from the breeding of mutations with the parent stock, or of species with species producing fertile hybrids unlike either of the parent stocks. The editorial work on Crampton’s volume reflects the greatest credit upon Mr, William Barnum, the well-known editor of all publi- cations of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. The fifteen colored plates litho- graphed by Hoen are faithful reproductions of the colors and appearance of these snails, and the fact that the book is published upon the best of paper is fortunate, for it will be even more interesting to students a hundred years hence than it is at present. Crampton’s work is of such wide interest and importance, and in the light of Bartsch’s observations, so suggestive of future experi- mental research, that it is hoped these studies may be pursued continuously under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution until final conclusions have been reached through breeding experiments conducted in the field. — ALFRED G. Mayor, Director of the Depart- ment of Marine Biology, Cammegie Institution. An exhibit in the Darwin hall of the American the Society group in the south Pacific. Tahiti has parts, each with the crater of an extinct volcano. Museum:— Model of Tahiti, the largest island of an area of 350 square miles and consists of two It reaches 7500 feet elevation, and is one of the “high” islands of the South Seas in distinction from the low coral atolls. The high peaks of Tahiti are hidden by clouds through the day The model is a suggestive lesson in geographical distribution and evolution: it is constructed after charts, photographs, and observations by the expedition; shells of the snails inhabiting the various valleys are suspended above in their respective places SS Fishes of the Spanish Main By, (OLED NT NCH Oss Associate Curator of Ichthyology, American Museum of Natural History ERHAPS nowhere in the world is there a greater variety of marine fish life than between Florida and the coast of Brazil. The trade-wind eurrent westward along the coast of South America, entering the Caribbean and Gulf to emerge northeastward as the Gulf Stream, binds this whole area together, and gives it a remarkably uniform fish fauna, when one considers the distances involved. It follows that there are certain strategic localities, where if one were to look long and dili- gently enough there would be a chance of meeting with almost every kind of fish of importance of the entire area. Scarcely a student of American marine fishes since the time of Cuvier but has taken new plunder in the form of previously unknown species from the old Spanish Main. Years ago the statement that those waters had been “gone over with a fine-toothed comb” would not have sounded unreasonable, but in spite of the numerous species already known and de- scribed, new ones are continually turning up. My first studies of West Indian fishes were made sixteen or seventeen years ago at a zoological laboratory which Professor Mark, of Harvard University, had just established in Bermuda. There still remain clearly in my memory many species as I saw them there—the schools of snappers skirting the shore, the big-eyed red squirrel fishes, the lizard fishes lying on the sand under the clear water in wait to dart upon their prey, and the long green houndfish (Tylosurus) swimming close to the surface and driving schools of “fry” (Stolephorus) into the air. How dazzling the white limestone roads with their tamarisks! It was midsummer, and low sprawling cedars gave no protection against the sun, more trying for a north- erner than it had been at sea on the equator or in better shaded localities within the tropics. As a result, when at the end of our stay, Mr. Owen Bryant and I under- took a memorable cruise of a few days in an open dory we had lost our ordinarily excellent appetite for rough food. What, if anything, else in the way of provisions we had brought, I do not remember, but there was a large tea box full of dry toast. The day was hot. To be off and on the water was pleasant, skirting the shore at a fair distance, no land in view to seaward, but protected against ocean swell by reefs and shallows. The wind was light and baffling, the helmsman careless, and a sud- den puff hove the dory’s lee rail under and filled the boat one third with sea water,— and behold! the tea box with our store of food floated an instant, then gradually tilted, filled, and settled. On the islet where we made camp by hauling the dory ashore, by great good for- tune a Portuguese boy appeared who knew where milk was to be obtained; otherwise we should probably have gone hungry. This boy was also much interested in our marine investigations and on the morning we set sail again to end our brief cruise, he told us of a strange yellow fish in a fish trap off the shore of the islet, which investigation proved to be one of the sur- geon fishes. These are species with an or- dinarily sheathed, antrorse knife-like spine on the side of the tail, with which they very successfully keep their finny rivals at a proper distance. Gray and blue surgeons we knew of, but not a yellow one. The form of this individual was sufficiently dif- ferent to assure us it was no mere color freak. This, the first unknown fish it had ever been my good fortune to meet, there- upon started for its final destination, the Agassiz Museum in Cambridge, and was later described as Teuthis helioides by Dr. Thomas Barbour. Occasional individuals have since turned up at Bermuda, but I have always felt a sense of proprietorship for this beautiful species, and am _ corre- spondingly pleased to find the American Museum’s first specimen in a Bermuda ecol- lection recently received. The same collection contains another old friend, the ocean pipefish (Siphostoma pe- lagicum), abundant in floating gulf weed fifteen hundred sea miles to the eastward of Bermuda. This slender little pipefish1 seems not to invade, or at least very little, exactly similar gulf weed farther west which is occupied by the mouse fish (Ptero- phryne); in fact, aside from Bermuda, the 1 Nichols, John T., 1910. A Note on Siphostoma pe’agicum-(Osbeck). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXVIII, Art. 14, pp. 155-157. 449 450) NATURAL species is not satisfactorily recorded from the West Indian region. There is no better chance anywhere of learning the laws which govern the distribu- tion of marine fishes than in this West Indian region. A proper study of the sub- ject would be a creditable life work. Dur- ing the last ten years the American Museum has built up a collection which will serve as a basis for such investigation when the man to undertake it arrives. The New York Aquarium has always had a goodly representation of living West Indian fishes: active, changeable, brightly colored pomacentrids, wrasses, parrots, and angels of the reefs, elegant, free swim- © ming snappers and grunts, larger groupers, evil-looking morays (the most degenerate of the shore eels), and many others. In earlier years these fishes of the New York Aqua- rium came almost entirely from Bermuda, more recently for the most part from Key West. By 1910 the American Museum had already acquired a fair series of such forms through the courtesy of the Aquarium, and in that year the writer spent five weeks as Some new fishes from the Spanish Main.—A few of the species collected for the first time, and described in the Bulletin of the American Museum of From top to bottom they (Porto Rico), Stathmonotus tekla Porto Rico, Turks Islands), colesi Natural History between 1910 Doryrhamphus sierra havana (Cuba, Florida, Brazil, (Florida), Guyumnachirus melas, and 1920. and Scorpaena HISTORY the Museum’s representative, a guest of Messrs. Ernesto G. and Alessandro Fabbri, cruising among the Florida Keys. We were well fitted out with collecting equipment and devoted ourselves to obtaining as many as possible of the species of fishes there present, for the Museum’s reference collec- In spite of the short time available, the work was so thoroughly successful that it has not since seemed necessary to make a point of acquiring further large general ¢ol- lections of fishes from the West Indian fauna. tions. Incidental to gathering and caring for this material, considerable knowledge was gained of the many species of fishes making up the complex of this fauna, and attention was first called to the innumerable interest- ing problems involved in their relationships and distribution. Since then each of several hasty trips south into the realm of warm blue water, sunny skies, and drifting sar- gassum, has opened wider vistas for research on such problems. More particularly were the problems comprehended during a month spent at Porto Rico in the summer of 1914, incident to the sur- vey of the island by the New York Acad- of Sciences. Each trip also has yielded discovery of emy valuable new species. On February 24, 1910, the Fabbri ex- pedition secured a little blenny only 19 mm. in length, from a few inches of water on rocky shallows at Sand Key, off Key West Harbor, the second species, and it may be added the second individual also, of the genus Stathmonotus — ever the first having come from the same vicinity. Blennies may be divided two groups, one northern, the other tropical. The strange thing collected, into the ae subarctic, (Florida), Xystaema Gobiesox yuma (both North Carolina) FISHES OF THE SPANISH MAIN about Stathmonotus is that though clearly referable to the first group, it comes from waters occupied by the second. Does this mean that when the last nooks and corners of the Spanish Main have been investigated, we shall have representatives of every known type of marine fish, with the probable ex- ception of those characteristic of the Ant- aretic and north temperate During a short stay in Cuba in 1912, con- Pacific? siderable useful material was obtained in the fish markets, where a varying array of beautiful and interesting fishes is displayed each day. Desirous of “wetting a line” my- self, for which there had been little oppor- tunity, I went fishing one evening from a little pier on a sandy beach near Havana, and almost immediately caught a large-eyed silvery fish about six inches long, one of ihe mojarras. It resembled several closely re- lated species with which I was familiar, more particularly, however, one from the Pacifie, of which there were questionable records from the West Indies. More careful examination showed it to belong, really, to a different genus from any of these and a species as yet undescribed, the genus other- wise represented in our fauna by a single, different, unvarying form. It has been most interesting to have this new mojarra since turn up from Florida, Brazil, Porto Rico, and Turks Islands in the Bahamas, showing that it has a wide distribution and is not uncom- mon, and to speculate on the interesting questions raised as to relationships and evolu- tionary differentiation within the mojarras. Among the shore fishes obtained at Porto Rico in 1914, two were described as new; and two other rather striking forms, a small filefish and an orange-yeilow Hupomacentrus (one of the small gaudy fishes which dart in and out among the intricacies of rock or coral), proved a disappointment as both had been collected a few years before at Ber- muda. The likeness of their species may be but coincidence, or the result of similar care- ful study, rather than wholesale collecting. Backed by other evidence, however, it seems rather to indicate an intimate relation be- tween the fishes of the two islands. When the extent of this relation has been worked out, and determination has been made whether it be caused by comparative pro- pinguity or some environmental similarity, we shall have an interesting sidelight on more general problems. Ad The fish fauna on our West Indian drawn northern limit of the shores may be rather sharply at the capes of the Carolinas. Recent studies made there over several con- secutive summers by Dr. Russell J. Coles! in cooperation with the fish department of this museum, have turned up some extremely their habits and seasonal migrations, and demon- strated that North Carolina, is a veritable fish trap to The West Indian influence is felt considerably farther interesting fishes, thrown light on the bight of Cape Lookout, catch wanderers from the South. north along the coast, and a number of typically southern species occur among those known from within fifty miles of New York City, where they are most commonly moet with in autumn. The latest addition to our list of No. 248 (to is of this sort. It is a cowfish, recorded local fishes, be exact) a small-mouthed, sluggish species, encased in a bony triangular shell, with hornlike spine over each eye, and was captured near Fire Island Inlet about November 1, 1919. The Spanish Main is today a rich field for investigation. If a naturalist who sails its blue waters have knowledge of the common fishes sufficient to pick out at once an unusual one among them, whether it be darting into view for an instant below the clear water of the reef or lying on the slabs of some isiand fish market; if he have understanding of ihe habitats of the different species sufficient to recognize, for instance, varied habits and some peculiar bit of shore or reef as intro- ducing unusual environmental factors; if again he have time and opportunity to fol- low the schools of young fishes which live under the drifting, highly-colored, bubble- like, Portuguese man-of-war or about the sprays of gulf weed far out along the pe- riphery of the Sargasso Sea, or to visit par- ticular isolated islets or ledges where the fishes (to judge from the position on the chart) may furnish evidence for or against a hypothesis in mind—especially if he have alertness always to look out for and to seize stray bits of information drifting within reach, he could scarcely find cruising grounds in the world richer in scientific possibility. _1 Of Danville, Virginia, author of various scien- tific papers on sharks and rays. Mr. Coles is the man who took the late Theodore Roosevelt out into the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and taught him the dangerous sport of devilfish hunting. See AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, Vol. XVI, April, 1916, pp. 217-27. ROBERT W. DE FOREST President of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, since 1915, formerly secretary under the presidency of the late J. Pierpont Morgan, 1904-15). Mr. Henry W. Kent is the present secretary, acting with President de Forest Men of influence and broad vision in New York City, interested in the fine arts not only as such but also from the human standpoint and believing that for all people beauty and refinement are better than the dreary or the squalid,—these men of the past fifty years and again of today have joined with the common people in giving our city the great Metropolitan Museum of Art at Eighty-second Street on Fifth Avenue. It is a’ partnership between private and civic ownership. Every taxpayer may take his family to it with pride, for he helps to support it every year; the man of great wealth may look upon it with what must be an immeasurable satisfaction, for by means of it he has brought relaxation and joy to a multitude of peopl Mr. de Forest was first actively connected with the museum in 1889, but his memory carries well back along the whole story of the institution’s development, through association as a boy with his father-in-law, the first president, John Taylor Johnston AD 492 The Golden Jubilee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1870-1920 WITH A PROPHECY OF THE PEOPLE’S MUSEUM OF THE IMMEDIATE FUTURE “The diffusion of a knowledge of art in its highest forms of beauty will tend directly to humanize, to educate, and refine a practical and laborious people . . . also to show to students and artisans of every branch of industry what the past has accomplished for them to imitate and excel.” —Words of Joseph H. Choate at the dedication of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in 1880. EW YORK CITY has two great mu- seums which stand especially represen- tative of the spirit of America. The Metropolitan Museum of Art is a treasure house of the truth and beauty that has been wrought by the hands of men, past and pres- ent,—according to the original words of its charter, a museum “to encourage and de- velop the study of the fine arts and the ap- plication of arts to manufactures and prac- tical life.’ The American Museum of Natural History treasures and displays nat- ural beauty and the truth of the earth and of created life as man finds it on the earth, and it also codperates with manufactures and practical living. Covering quite different fields, the two mu- seums have neyertheless always been closely allied, primarily in that they exist freely for all people, and in that education is their chief purpose. Both institutions give with- out price not only of their accumulated beauty and knowledge, but also of the inter- est and time of their officials, to whoever asks, be his need or purpose what it may. The two institutions have developed side by their methods of educational work, with lectures and instructors at the centrally located buildings and extension work in the form of loan collections to the city schools and libraries. side also in Also they have traveled the same road in their codperative and partnership relation with the state and city goverrments, so that in their buildings and maintenance they are truly the people’s museums, public in the sense of ownership by all. Likewise the two organizations trace their origin from very humble beginnings and pioneer effort of a group of publie-spirited men—in some instances the same men for the two museums. As we view the institu- tions today, splendidly housed, with vastness of rich possessions, and national, even inter- national, prestige and influence, it is not easy to realize that their beginning was humble, or if so that it was not in a very remote past. They have the development of mature institutions. Some of the European mu- seums with which these American museums must be compared are several centuries old. Our American civilization as marked by free The headpiece portrays a sculptor’s model in limestone of a ram’s head, Ptolemaic peried. a recent gift to the museum and an interesting item of the Fiftieth Anniversary Exhibition. A54 NATURAL HISTORY institutions is about 300 years old. That only fifty years of this time has gone into the building up of New York’s leading mu- seums tells a story of astonishing growth. The American Museum of Natural History, founded in 1869, passed its fiftieth anniver- sary in 1919, deferring a celebration until 1924.1 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, inaugurated in 1870, reached its semicenten- nial one year later than the American Mu- seum and has celebrated its Jubilee during the summer just past. This celebration has been an auspicious occasion, setting off 1920 as a year memo- rable in the museum’s history. For such have been the strides made by the New York- art museum, especially during the period since the beginning of J. Pierpont Morgan’s presidency2 (1904-1913), that it stands to- day the leading art museum in America and even approaches a position as compeer of the greatest museums of the world. The fiftieth anniversary celebration opened On May 18 was the formal unveil- ing at the foot of the grand staircase in the Fifth Avenue halls bearing inscribed the names of the founders The ad- dresses+ of the occasion were delivered by on May 7. of two marble tablets and benefactors of the museum. representatives of the state and city, John H. Finley and Francis D. Gallatin, and by Elihu Root, of the trustees; also by three presidents of art museums, namely, Morris Gray, of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Charles L. Hutchinson, of the Art Institute, Chicago, and Robert W. de Forest, for the home museum, New York. One feature of the celebration, perhaps of greatest human interest, has been the room of the Memorabilia where hang por- traits of the men who have stood back of the museum through the fifty years. No project prospers as has. the Metropolitan Museum of ' Primarily because of conditions due to the war. Also with the hope that in the intervening five years the southern half of the museum build- ing as planned and accepted for the city fifty years ago might then be completed and afford ad- ditional cause for the celebration of a golden jubilce. *And therefore throughout the connection with the museum of the present president, Robert W. de Forest, who was secretary when Mr. Morgan Was president. ‘ *The decorations of the Fifth Avenue hall of the museum were designed for the occasion and carried out by Messrs. McKim, Mead, and White. Architects, of New York City, who gave their scr- vices in honor of the Jubilee. * These addresses have appearcd in the Bulletin of the Metropoitan Museum of Art during the summer months, 1920. Art, even when it has that greatest stimulus, the opportunity which a growing metropolis gives, without hard work on the part of its supporters and a steady holding fast to the ideal in view. We read in the faces that speak from the walls of this gallery the hopes and faith, and always the generosity of the man of imagination. They all live as we pass them in review, even those who do not walk the haunts of men today, for their work embodies the spirit of democratic America and connects inseparably the living future of the museum with its past. The father of Theodore Roosevelt is there ; John Taylor Johnston, man of affairs, was the first president; among the lawyers is Joseph H. Choate; among the business men, of course preeminently J. Pierpont Morgan, but also many others, especially of the pres- ent generation; among the literary men are William Cullen Bryant and George William Curtis; the artists constitute a long list. A vital fact, however, relative to the organiza- tion and after support of the Metropolitan Museum (as also of the American Museum), is that it stands for the interests of many classes, not of the artists alone, or of any other class predominantly, and the money of a large group of men, not of one or two only. The founders included the foremost literary, artistic, educational, and business interests of the time. That William Cullen Bryant, president of the Century Association, poet, journalist, art counselor, and pub- licist, gave the address at the initial meeting for the founding of the museum indicates the breadth of idea on which the institution rests. The great human appeal of the Memora- bilia carries our interest into a semicenten- nial pamphlet just published by the museum, “A Review of Fifty Years’ Development.” Although in statistical and catalogue form, it is not dry reading, and we quickly glean from it a story of growth according to what seems geometrical progression. The first gift was a Roman sarcophagus in 1870, the first purchase 174 paintings® in 1871. By 1875 the collections had reached proportions to have a first guide book printed. In 1886 was separated off from the general administra- *' These were bought without authority of the ‘orporation and paid for with money borrowed jor the purpose by one of the founders. During the present semicentennial exhibition, it has been observed that many paintings scattered through the various galleries were marked as belonging to this purchase of a half century ago. THE GOLDEN JUBILEE 455 tion a department of paintings, classical art was segregated in 1905, then Egyptian art, decorative arts in 1907, arms and armor in 1912, the Far Eastern arts followed, and the department of prints came into being in ONT. The first bequest of money was in 1883. From 1886 on important bequests occur in close succession and increasing amounts; nearly twenty, about a fourth of them reaching or exceeding a million dollars. Most of these noteworthy bequests have come from New York, but the wide appeal of the institution is indicated, as called to the attention of the semicentennial gather- that the largest of all money bequests came from ing by President de Forest, in another state, and one other of more than a million came also from without the state. Munificent gifts of art objects poured in to fill the continually increasing number of new additions to the building—the. second addition in 1894, the fifth in 1910, the sey- enth in 1912, the eighth in 1917—until the building today, although still far from being complete, occupies a distance of four blocks along Fifth Avenue. The items of altruis- tic development especially shine out in the list of statistics: in 1891 the museum first opened its doors on Sundays; in 1907 was the first lending of lantern slides for the 1917 the first exhibition in cooperation children of the city; saw manufacturers’ with the textile industries; 1918 the inaugu- ration of free concerts. In other words, here is depicted the development of a storehouse of the beauty gathered by human thought and handicraft, and its continually growing use for the happiness and need of the dweller, permanent or transient, in New York City. Since the formal opening, the celebration has taken the shape of special semicenten- nial exhibits, which more than 430,000 per- sons have visited in the six months between the opening in May and the closing No- vember 1. So comprehensive has been this greatest exhibition of fine arts ever held in New York City that we have not space even to mention in general terms the main fea- tures or the chief loans. Fortunately, the shipments of Egyptian art, the first since the years of the war, arrived in time to form special attractions in that department. Also in the department classical various purchases made in Europe during the war were here in time to be exhibited. The art collectors of New York City hon- More than one hundred allowed the most valuable works ored the museum as never before. of art! from their homes and private gal- leries to come temporarily under the mu- seum’s care. These were installed alongside the permanent possessions of the institution in their proper places relative to period of art and department. Lovers of rare can- vases, for instance, have had during the sum- mer an enviable opportunity to study more than fourscore paintings from private col- lections representing periods from the thir- teenth to the twentieth century. Words of felicitation haye been sent by the president and trustees of the American Museum of Natural History to the Metro- politan Museum of Art in recognition of the eminence it has attained. Earnest felicita- tions are extended by all its patrons and by all art and science museums of the country. But especially are tendered it the most pro- found respect and the warmest friendliness for its record in education, —for its effort to bring the history, biography, and beauty in its stores to the city’s children, to workers in the industries, to the multitude who need to have knowledge of the part the fine arts can play in the leisure hours of life. In the congested cities of this twentieth century social development has taken on an accelerated speed. Many questions regard- ing man’s interests and behavior which had only moderate importance a half century ago now take on large significance. How the race shall spend its leisure is one of these: there arises a tendency to a new delimitation of human character when for the greater part of a crowded and mixed population the amount of leisure in each twenty-four hours and each seven days increases at leaps and bounds—accompanied by proportionately en- larged incomes to be used in this leisure. We can but wonder what direction the re- leased and accelerated mental and spiritual powers will take. Always the question is, how large a proportion of the race in its instinctive reaching for knowledge and hap- piness will find something better than mere 1A complete list of the loans to the various departments is given in the Bulletin of the Metro- politan Museum of Art, May, pp. 112-19, June, pp. 144-45. 1920. 456 pleasure and the physical comforts of exist- ence; and the responsibility for the answer to this question lies largely today at the doors of the country’s public educational in- stitutions. If we look over our public sources of edu- cation and culture in America which aim to maintain active daily influence through a large part of the year, the museum, more than any other, perhaps, seems to be on the right road to fill the need; it can give pleas- urable enlightenment along the lines of art and science in and for themselves and in relation to industry and the home. The com- bination of civic and private organization and control is particularly in the museum’s ~ favor. The close observer would suggest one step the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the American Museum of Natural History, and all large museums of large cities should take at as early a date as practicable in face of difficulties of operation and finance. They should open their doors at night and advertise the fact largely. With enormous stores of latent energy why keep Why keep behind the times, while other influences like the moving-picture theaters are devel- behind the ideal of accomplishment? oping a social power detrimental to refine- ment and culture which will be difficult to counteract? If there has been no “demand,” that but urges the speedier action when the need is evident. The great mass of the peo- ple work by day. They have no opportunity to visit an institution that closes at five in the afternoon, whereas everyone seeks relaxa- tion and entertainment in the glamor of the evening hours. Our two great museums are so organized and conducted that they are adapted in- herently to take a strong hold on the imagi- nation and affections of the people and to become a cultural force of first magnitude. There is relatively little change necessary to increase a hundred-fold a usefulness already so great—except that each institution, as the years allow, will, possibly, incorporate the modern practical side of its work under the one roof, instead of merely codperating with organizations of applied art and science, as at present. Among the immediate needs, then, in ad- dition to night opening, are an increased staff of instructors in the exhibition halls, a NATURAL HISTORY larger number of popular lectures, and a larger number of motion pictures. Orches- tral music also will probably soon take a con- siderable place in museum development—it has already been inaugurated for stated in- tervals in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It will be one of the strongest of compelling invitations to thousands upon thousands of people when the time comes that it is in- stalled a regular feature, a background of sound, dispelling formality and invigorating thought and conversation among the crowds who stand or wander at pleasure in the great lighted galleries of exhibits. We quote from President de Forest’s semicentennial address in this matter: “What can make more for Americanism in its true sense, for good citi- zenship and neighborliness than our free concerts, the latest of which was attended by more than ten thousand people... great crowds from the east side, west side, and every side—men, women, and children—who are filled with rapture when music combines with its sister arts... .” As to motion pictures in the museum, it may well be argued that their first place is in art and science, releasing in large part the field of dramatic action and portrayal of human character and passion to the greater dignity of the true theater. This refers to art and science in the broadest sense, cover- ing the fine arts, with practical art in all its branches (industrial and decorative), realis- tic living nature on land and sea, expeditions and travel of every character for art or science, pure science, applied science in all its branches (hygiene, modern manufactures, inventions, etc., etc.), and especially a con- vergence of the fields of art and science in a study of man and of the highest mental ac- complishments and ethical conduct of man. The outlook thus over the combined fields of art and science is vast. Moreover, because of the very relation with man’s activity and the advance of civilization these fields are daily widening their borders. To say that they carry intense human interest to all classes is but reasoning in a circle. In these fields and using the tools for edu- cational work already named the great mu- seums of the immediate years to come are undoubtedly destined to reach a goal of su- preme usefulness—“tending directly to hu- manize, educate, and refine a practical and laborious people” as represented in the de- mocracy of America. —THE EpiITor. srereenses — From the painting by Thomas Le Clear THE AUTHOR OF THANATOPSIS, 1794-1878 William Cullen Bryant, American poet, art counselor, publicist, and journalist (editor of the New York Evening Post for nearly fifty years), was chairman at the great meeting for the founding of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, at the Union League Club, Twenty-sixth Street, November, 1869. His address has been much quoted. The following extract was prophetic: “The growth of our city is already wonderfully rapid [this, fifty years ago]; it is ever) spreading itself into the surrounding region, and overwhelming it like an inundation. Now that ou creat railway has been laid from the Atlantic to the Pacific, eastern Asia and western Europe shake hands over our republic. . . . Here will be an aggregation of human life, a concentration of : that ennobles and all that degrades humanity. . . . We must be beforehand with vice in our arrange ments for all that gives grace and cheerfulness to society . . . to the cultivation of the sense of beauty in other words, the perception of order, symmetry, proportion of parts, which is of near kin i the moral sentiments... .’ Portrait from the Memorabilia of the Metropolitan Museum of Art er ee St From the painting by Léon Joseph Florentin Bonnat A MAN OF ENERGY, WILL, AND ENTHUSIASM : All honor Is fiven today to the name of John Tavlor Johnston, who was appointed president ot the Metro- politan Museum of Art at the time of its founding and continued in this capacity throughout the formative period of the institution until 1889. After this he served as “honorary president for life.’ He owned the most important private collection of paintings in New York City in 1870, which he had opened freely to the people. - He was followed in the president's chair in 1889 by the art collector and banker, a generous friend of the museum for thirty years, Henry G. Marquand. The succession following has been Frederick W. Rhine- lander, 1902, J. Pierpont Morgan, 1904, and Robert W. de Forest. 1913. Portrait from the Memorabilia of the Metropolitan Musewm : ane oe a | | George P. Putnam (at the left), years of the Metropolitan Museum. He spoke at the first me George William man who used his powers in support of Lincoln, represented wi early adherents. Portraits from the Memorabiia of the Mctropolitan Museum of Art NRG tse ecco? Tapestry, “September—The Stag Hunt,’ French centennial exhibition This is one of twelve tapestries, decorative woven ar eting (1869), was on the thirteen to draw up plans of organization, and was a member of the first executive committee. Curtis, 1824-92, with a high reputation as author, editor, and lecturer, known th Bryant literary men of art of the Gobelins, the eighteenth cen from seasonal tu designs of original subcommittee of note among 1ed generally the tor about as a museum’s the semi- 1530 459 JOSEPH H. CHOATE, 1832-1917 As lawyer and statesman he was an enthusiastic advocate of the underlying educational idea of the Metropolitan Museum, that art is “the vital and practical inter- est of the working millions,’’—thus when the question first arose relative to Sunday opening (inaugurated in 1891), he urged the need of the people. His high legal knowledge served the insti- tution during all the years of his connection, from the founding in 1870 to his death in 1917—as it did also the American Museum of Natural History. It was he who in 1878 drafted the lease for the Metro- politan Museum by which the city be- came sole owner of the buildings with responsi- bility for their repair, the museum owner of the collec- Early tions with sole right to the use eighteenth century wood sculpture in the Metropolitan Mu- seum—coat of arms of the buildings—a_ partner- ship the agreements of which have not been substantially changed since. The Metropolitan Museum on English limewood has just closed its Fiftieth An- niversary Celebration. There have been special exhibitions and ceremonies commemorating the work of men like Mr. Choate. 3ut far surpassing any special celebration is the museum itself as it stands, open and active every day, with all its departments and avenues of work in full prog- ress—notwithstanding the handicaps all public institutions have shared alike in recent years because of difficult finan- cial conditions due to the World War. It is the free character of these institutions, developed in the same cause and spirit as the American Republic, that makes them capable of close entrance into the life of American citizen ship Portrait of Mr. Choate from the Memorabilia of the Metro po itan Museum of Art 460) Tapestry, ‘‘Im mortality,’ Flem- ish, about 1500. A loan to the ifticth Anniver- sary Exhibition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the summer of 1920 Eastman Johnson (at the left), 1824-1906, portrait painter and delineator of common life in yg anyases, was one of the founders and incorporators of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Richard Morris Hunt, 1829-95, architect of great distinction, also was among the original tors. He was a member of the first executive committee and acted as a trustee from the founding jn 187 until the time of his death. The fountain on Fifth Avenue between. Seventieth and Seventy-first streets executed by Daniel Chester French, was erected to Mr. Hunt’s memory in 1898 by the Municipal Art Society of which he was president, the American Institute of Architects, Architectural League, National Sculpture Society, and Century Association. Portraits from the Memorabilia of the Metropolitan Museun of Art 461 Mr. Morgan became president in 1904 with Robert W. de Forest, secretary, and Edward Robinson, assistant di- rector. A new period in the mu- seum’s history was soon indicated by successive steps of advance— establishment of new classes of membership, creation of the de partment of classical art, or- ganization of educational work with the public schools, and of the expedition to Egypt. A new policy gave New York great loan exhibitions such as the works of Augustus Saint- Gaudens (1908), Hudson-Ful- ton Exhibition (1909), and Whistler Exhibition (1910), and gave student artists great free- dom in time and privilege for copying paintings and sculptures. The Pierpont Morgan Wing, opened in 1918, contains the many colle<- tions he gave J. PIERPONT MORGAN, 1837-1913 Mr. Andrews, distinguished bibliophile, was closely connected with the Mctro- politan Museum frem 1878 until his death in 1920. His great knowledge and love of books turned his interest to the build- ing up of the institution’s art library. He was librarian for many years and later honorary librarian. His annual report in 1881 just after the mu- seum moved into the Central Park building listed 447 books and pamphlets in the library. Today this library covers the literature of archi- tecture, sculpture, painting, etc., so extensively that it serves a large usefulness to many tens of thousand readers annually. Portraits of Mr. Morgan and Mr. Andrews from the Memorabiia of the Metropolitan Museum of Art WILLIAM LORING ANDREWS, 1837-1920 462 ee ee ETT TT RID CARVED WALNUT WOOD, FRENCH, EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY The collections of the Mctropolitan Museum of Art are very rich in carvings in relief and in the round on various kinds of wood and representative of the art ot many countries (see oak carving, French, pp. 457 and 464) 463 EDWARD ROBINSON Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Mr. Robinson became assistant director in 1905, and, on the withdrawal of Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke from the directorship in 1910, accepted the higher position. He had become connected with the museum in 1891 while director of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, taking charge of the work of collecting a complete series of casts, historically arranged, for the department of classical art. Mr. Robinson’s ideal for the Metropolitan Museum he states as educational efficiency, and the work of each department is formulated to meet this ideal. The collections are being built up on a scientific plan and exhibit the masterpieces of different countries and times, not only so as to be attractive and accessible for student artists and visitors, but also in such relation as to teach the history of art. The museum points to the Egyptian galleries as an example of its recent growth and method. From relatively few unrelated objects exhibited in a single corridor, the Egyptian collections have developed until they present a historical sequence through fourteen galleries, covering from 4000 B.C. to 700 A.D. The excavation work of the museum’s expedition in Egypt has been continuously carried on even through the years of the war, to the great enrichment of America’s stores of original Egyptian art The development of the department of arms and armor (1912-20) is also cited. Under efficient organization, with expertly selected purchases and loans of great value, with rich gifts such as the collection of William Henry Riggs, also with exhibits covering the problem of armor as developed during the world war, this gallery of the museum today offers an unparalleled oppor- tunity for study of the various phases of this subject. Educational efficiency within, coupled with codperation in educational and industrial work without, is particularly the policy of all great American museums today. Many of these are relatively of the same age, about fifty years. The demand of the time which brought about the incorporation of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History, gave rise also. for example, to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the Art Institute, Chicago. Through official representatives to the Golden Jubilee of the Metropolitan Museum, 1920, these sister institutions sent messages of greeting and cordial good wishes 464 Sr Chinese vase, Sung Dynasty, loaned for the Fiftieth Anniversary Exhibition. Hard, gray, porcelanous ware (Tz u- chou), covered with white slip and transparent glaze, the slip partly etched away to leave a large floral design LOAN IN CLASSICAL ART Head of a girl, Greek, fourth century B.C That the Fiftieth Anniversary Exhibi- tion of the Metropolitan Museum brought such richness of loans in Gothic, Renais- sance, eighteenth century, and modern art, and but few in classical art, em- phasizes that the art collections of Amer- ica, contrasted with those of England, for instance, are not strong in the classical line—owing to the difficulty there has been in recent times to obtain Greek and Roman works of first quality. This marble head expresses the spirit of Praxiteles in Greek contemporary art, reflecting his style and carrying much of the delicate beauty of his work. The head was evidently part of a _ statue trimmed to its present shape in recent years “And what should be the policies of the Metropolitan Museum in the future, so that our successors, when they come to celebrate its hundredth anniversary, may do so with the same satisfaction with which we celebrate its fiftieth? Strict adherence, in my judgment, to the policies of the past, with difference of emphasis, perhaps, and an open-minded readiness to meet changes in the public sentiment of the future.”’—From address by President Robert W. de Forest Aside from the wonderful technique of Peruvian tapestry, the richness of its color is a marvcl to the modern expert. Interment for a millennium in no way dims the colors, which are mostly from vegetab e dyes, and, although intense, are never displeasing to the eye. The above design, which is typically Peruvian, consists of a repetition of the same geometrical motive arranged in different quarters of a series of truncated rhombs. The preservation of the cloth for such a great length of time is due to the fact that it was buried in the dry, nitrous sand of the Peruvian desert coast where rain seldom falls. This piece is from the collection of Sr. F. G. Estrada, recently purchased for the American Museum A Prehistoric Poncho from Nazca, Peru HE American Museum’s series of prehistoric objects from graves in Nazca, Peru, has just been augmented by the purchase of Sr. F. G. Estrada’s col- lection consisting of 130 specimens, mostly textiles. These comprise broad and narrow ribbons, coca bags, belts, slings, ete. The prize piece of the collection is a tapestry poncho. The warp is of cotton, covered by the weft of vicuhia wool yarns. Aside from the beauty of the Nazca webs their technique never fails to interest and astonish textile manufacturers and experts. A careful examination of one piece of tapes- try in the collection brought to light the fact that it contaimed 330 vicuna weft yarns over 42 cotton warps to the inch. Experts tell me that we seldom put in as many as 100 weft yarns of wool to the inch. Tapestry has been defined as darning on bare warps. As many bobbins are required as there are to be colors in the fabrie. Se- lecting the required color for the first few warps on one side of the loom, the weaver laces it in, then takes another bobbin, and so on across to the other side. In this way the designs are built up, a pick at a time, and not each formed separately. When two areas of different colors come together on 466 parallel warps we see the slit characteristic of tapestry. In this poncho, as in other prehistoric Peruvian textiles, the great charm les in color schemes. In these there is never found an arrangement of colors that offends the artistic eye. The whole scheme of the dec- oration is taken in a high key, but the various shades of red and yellow are so soft and pleasing that we do not at first realize how intense they are. The colors used by these ancient people were mostly made from vegetable substances, and our modern color boxes contain few that match them, as thousands of artists and design students who have worked from these textiles can testify. To copy the poncho under consideration is, In a way, lke painting a brillant sunset from nature. The result probably will be disappointing while in presence of the orig- inal, but will seem to look much better the next day when removed from its proximity. The design is a sort of diamond-shaped figure (truncated rhomb) enclosed in white lines, and by other white lines divided into quarters. Each quarter contains a number of figures which never change in form, al- though their positions and colors and those ANTHROPOLOGY AND GEOLOGY of the quarter in which they occur vary in each succeeding design. This repetition of a design in different of Peruvian schemes is a art. The colors used in the poncho are yellow, greenish yellow, dark buff, carmine-red, dull color characteristie decorative red, brown, old rose, magenta, purple, green, black, and white. The greater part of the Peruvian coast region is a desert where rain is all but un- and textiles buried in the dry, nitrous sand suffer little or no deterioration. After a lapse of one thousand years or more known, they come from these graves as strong in texture and with the colors as bright as the day they were buried with the dead. They are found on the mummy or beside it, with such objects as were prized by the individual in fe and such as it was thought would be useful in a future state. 467 Nazea lies about 220 miles to the south of Lima. The whole valley in which it is situated is hot and dry. The only water is from a small river that is dry part of the year, and sometimes contains no water at all for several About years. the only indig- enous vegetation to be seen is algarroba trees and cotton plants. Notwithstanding these conditions there is abundant evidence that the Nazca Valley supported a large population in prehistoric times. How was food enough obtained to support so many people? that has solved. the least that changed in this region, yet here flourished This is one of the Peruvian puzzles never been There is not evidence conditions have one of the three great culture centers, the others being at Tiahuanaco and Trujillo.— CHARLES W. Meap, Assistant Curator in Anthropology, American Museum, Anthropology and Geology in ie Pan-Pacific Scientific Conference Report by the delegates from the American Museum, Dr. EB. O. Hovey and Dr. Clark Wissler HE first Pan-Pacifie Scientifie Con- ference for the consideration of re- search in the Pacific met in Honolulu August 2-20, 1920, at the invitation of the Pan- Pacific The program and pre- liminary organization were placed in the hands of the National Research Council of the United States and were referred to the Committee on Pacific Exploration, of which Ding ale The mem- bers of this committee, not being able to attend the conference, delegated their re- sponsibilities to Dr. Herbert E. Gregory, of Yale University and director of the Bernice Pauhai Bishop Museum at Honolulu, and Dr. Clark Wissler, of the American Museum and chairman of the Division of Anthro- pology and Psychology of the National Re- Union. C. Merriam is chairman. search Council, as a subcommittee. The plan submitted by this subcommittee was adopte:l by the conference as its scheme of organiza- tion, declaring itself to be international in scope and representing the scientific men of all the nations in and around the Pacific. Sixty delegates were in attendance, repre- senting the Territory of Hawaii, the Philip- pine Islands, Canada, Japan, England, Aus- tralia, New Zealand, and the United States of America. It was proposed that the mem- bers of this conference should constitute a general committee for the formulation of a research program for the Pacific with a view to codrdinating the scientific activities of To facilitate this program a number of sectional committees all the nations concerned. were formed. Geology and its related sciences were rep- resented by the following delegates: E. C. Andrews, chief of the Geological Survey, New South Wales; William Bowie, chief of the of Geodesy, U. S. and Geodetic Washington, D. C.; R. T. Chamberlin, professor of geol- Division Coast Survey, ogy in the University of Chicago; Leo A. Cotton, professor of geology, University of Sydney, Australia; Joseph A. Cushman, di- rector of the Boston Society of Natural History; George R. Davis, geographer, U. 5. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.; Rue H. Finch, seismologist, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawaii; Herbert E. Gregory, professor of geology, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Gilbert Grosvenor, president of the National Geographic Society, Wash- 468 NATURAL ington, D. C.; E. O. Hovey, curator of geology and invertebrate paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York City; T. A. Jaggar, Jr., director, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawaii; G. W. Littlehales, hydrographer, U. S. Hydrographie Office, Washington, D. C.; Miguel S. Maso, seismologist, Philippine Weather Bureau; Fusakichi Omori, pro- fessor of seismology, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan; H. S. Palmer, assistant pro- fessor of geology, University of Hawaii; Ilenry C. Richards, professor of geology, University of Queensland, Australia; Arnold Romberg, seismologist, University of Hawaii; Warren D. Smith, professor of geology, Uni- © versity of Oregon, Eugene, Ore.; C. A. Sussmilch, director, School of Technology, Neweastle, New South Wales; J. Allan Thompson, director of Dominion Museum, Wellington, New Zealand; T. W. Vaughan, geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Wash- ington, D. C.; R. L. Walker, oceanographer, Pearl Harbor, Honolulu; H. S. Washington, geologist, Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.; H. O. Wood, seismolo- gist, National Research Council, Washing- ton, D. C.; N. Yamasaki, professor of geol- ogy, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. The principal prepared addresses under geology and geography were connected with the discussion of the topic “The Framework of the Pacific,” presented by E. C. Andrews, R. T. Chamberlin, F. Omori, and William Bowie; “Ocean Currents and Their Signifi- cance,’ discussed by Paul Bartsch, G. W. Littlehales, G. F. McEwen, and N. Yama- saki; “Volcanism in the Pacific,’ discussed by T. A. Jaggar, Jr., and H. S. Washington ; “Seismology in the Pacific,” disenssed by F. Omori and II. O. Wood; “Mapping the Pa- cific,’ discussed by William Bowie, G. W. Littlehales, and G. R. Davis. Resolutions adopted as an outgrowth of the conferences urged, among other things, the prosecution of geological surveys of critical insular areas in the Pacific Ocean; emphasis was placed upon the importance of cooperation among the different geological workers in the Pacific region, and the estab- lishment of a central scientific bureau for the dissemination of volcanic and seismo- logic studies was earnestly advocated. In anthropology, the sectional committee, in conformity with the policy of the confer- HISTORY ence, undertook the formulation of a plan for the development and coordination of anthropological research in the islands of the Pacific, particularly in Polynesia. Poly- nesia was emphasized because the section received a formal request from the trustees of the Bishop Museum in Honolulu for de- tailed recommendations for the organization of their own investigations in Polynesia, for which funds have recently been provided. It proved impossible to complete the work of the section during the three weeks al- lotted, but provision was made for the final formulation of its recommendations under the direction of the section officers. The conference held daily sessions, giv- ing the entire morning of each day to the principal sciences concerned in Pacifie re- search. These sessions were attended by the whole conference and ‘the discussions freely participated in. One entire morning was given to anthropology, the presiding officer being Dr. Frederick Wood-Jones, of the Uni- versity of Adelaide. The formal presenta- tions were as follows: Clark Wissler, “The Chronological Prob- lem in the Pacific’; A. L. Kroeber, “Peo- ples of the Philippines”; L. R. Sullivan, “The Racial Problem in Polynesia”; A. M. Tozzer, “Race Mixture in the Pacific’; J. F. G. Stokes, “Distribution of Culture Traits in the Pacific as Illustrated in Feather- work”; T. G. Thrum, “Polynesian Archeol- ogy. The anthropological representation in the conference included: United States: Clark Wissler, A. L. Kroeber, A. M. Tozzer, Gerard Fowke, L. R. Sullivan, R. T. Aitken. Territory of Hawaii: W..t. Brigham, J: E.G. Stokes; iG: Thrum. Australian: Frederick Wood-Jones. New Zealand: J. Allan Thompson. Philip- pine Islands: No anthropologist accom- panied the Philippine delegates, but the sub- ject was represented in the section by E. D. Merrill, director of the Philippine Bureau of Science. Japan also sent no anthropolo- gist, but the work of Japanese anthropolo- gists was presented by Dr. N. Yamasaki, professor of geography, Tokyo Imperial University. Dr. K. Kishinouye, the cele- brated Japanese zodlogist, who has made a special study of Japanese sheil heaps, also took a prominent part in the meetings of the section. ” o PE ax C A ae ae TN ae I A ce aS Hr omen wee sey nee) ETS SENT | mere ie ieee Objects That Symbolize the Common Life in Tibet With reference to a new and very valuable collection recently obtained by the American Museum from southern Tibet HOSE who are in the habit of visit- ing the anthropological halls of the American Museum to study the cus- toms of far-away peoples will be glad to learn of a recent valuable accession from Tibet. The collection was made by a medi- cal missionary, the Rev. H. B. Marx, through a period of sixteen years’ residence at a Moravian mission on the southern Tibetan border. The mission buildings are on the Indian side, suffice it to say, not on Tibetan soil, and that Dr. Marx has been able not only to maintain cordial relations with this unfriendly country, but also to bring to- gether a collection of objects representing the common life there, reflects on both the high character of his personality and the gratitude the Tibetans have felt for the medical service he has given. The Tibetans have always borne toward the rest of the Orient excessive exclusive- ness both political and religious, especially during the century and later when elsewhere civilization has been rapidly nineteenth advancing, which leaves them today in the anomalous position of a living but almost fossil race. Even their country, a million miles square and the highest of the globe, with valleys ranging from 12,000 to 17,000 feet above the sea, is little known. From India at the south they have kept a com- manding barrier by the almost unscalable mountains—as well as by their aggressive, suspicious nature and very different social life. Dr. Marx, however, from the mission at Poo, India, was allowed to penetrate distances in different and the collection which he has brought out has been selected with thought considerable diree- tions, for high scientific value in depicting na- tional custom. The tea-drinking habit in Tibet, for in- stance, is suggested in the paraphernalia for 1 Presented through the generosity of Mr. J. P. Morgan, New York City. making “buttered tea”: a low table of red and black lacquer (behind which the Tibetan sits with crossed legs on the floor or on a small woolen rug of Tibetan weaving) ; either a wooden or a china eup for the tea, with a metal saucer-like stand and a cover; the teapot of brass or silver, attractive in shape and elaborately decorated; and the small churn with metal ornamentation. The hot tea is mixed with rancid butter and ground barley into a kind of broth, the so-called buttered tea, or perhaps is com- pounded with a larger amount of barley into small brown cakes. That the cup fits into a covered metal box and the table collapses into a form convenient for transportation intimates the habitually large amount of slow travel there is in Tibet by primitive methods from one remote center of popu- lation to another. China in Tea is imported from The official report of duty covers the entrance of more Most of this is of an inferior quality, compressed into large bricks of weight, enormous amounts. than ten million pounds annually. about five pounds universally used throughout the realm that they have come to be passed as curreney. which are so One can read correctly very much of the life of the Tibetans from these isolated ob- jects. Hobbles, stirrups, and racing harness tell the very considerable part the Tibetan pomes take in and travel; the woolen industry is illustrated from clipping pastime the wool through spinning and weaving to the finished shawl. There are bleeding cups and crude lancets and the like to reveal the primitive state of medicine and surgery; pipes, bags, and boxes explain the large use of tobacco and opium; and there are vari- ous musical instruments, the oboe of the beggars, the primitive guitar and flute, and especially the drum and bell of the noisy music of the Jama festivals. It would be evident from the collection, 469 OLF SOYBO [[VUIS ULLOF OF JUNOWL JosLe, UL 1O—AdUaJSISUOD YIOAq 0} Xojeq punoas sryy our SULLUYS PUB TO}IING PIOURI YQLM Bez JOY SUIXIUL AG opRuUL st ‘yoquy, UL pooyx o[dvys vB . ‘Ray poten g,, ‘JOARITY SuLMp AjoyRs a y (VFO, 949 YR) XO [BJOUL PataAOD BV OJUL SJy voy LOF [MOG 94} “OSTY “AqQUNOD pop}jos AyTUIY, pur AQBtdsoyUL Tey} LAO axyeuT SUvIOqLT, i} ssoummof Mojs ‘suo, ay} Uo uONRaodsuray TOF JUGIMAATOD UWLOF OUT sasduifoo MAELOPISUOD OJUL JNO Spvotds donbovl Youd puv pac Jo a[qu} oy], “YOM [eJour u1o AUR OyRUL JOU OP suRyaK al “UOTPRILOdtaL aseuTt O St JOdRaq at I iL ND I I MD) J I iL [ByUeUIR LAdii NI LISVH ONIMNIYO-VAL IN3AIVASYd AHL SO AAILSADONS ARGS —— . is = ie lager wry ae.’ d {> “i or LAMA COSTUMES WORN IN A CEREMONY FOR “DRIVING OUT THE DEMON” demon dance group depicting the at sor , Which hopes and the sku cyn musicians with drum, ibetan temple (see — n= =< = 71 4 472 NATURAL HISTORY too, that religion plays a large part in the life of Tibet, and that this religion! tends toward sorcery, ritualism, and magic. There are clay idols and the copper molds for making them; there are amulets for pro- tection against sickness, bad dreams, and fears in the dark, or to be worn during what they consider the “dangerous” years of life, a dozen years apart (thirteen, twenty-five, thirty-seven, forty-nine, sixty- one, seventy-three) ; there are nuns’ rosaries carved in shell; a prayer wheel is filled with a sheaf of thin round leaves of paper, each printed with many repetitions of a common prayer, ready to be brought by the whirl- ing of the wheel to the attention of the Merciful One begging him to have the world in mind and help all human kind; there is a prayer stone with its engraved prayers, such as cover the stones in the thousands of prayer walls in Tibet, all addressed to the same Merciful One for the good of man- kind. Sacred relies called “potted lamas” inti- mate the strong barbarous element in a people saturated in the horrible incident to life and death. ‘These objects are made of crushed human bones and clay, referring to the Tibetan custom of disposing of their dead priests by throwing aloft small por- tions of the flesh cut from the body to be caught by the circling birds of prey, and crushing the bones to be mixed with clay ‘The religion of Tibet is a combination of old savage demon worship and modern Buddhism. and pressed by means of metal molds into these relics. The collection contains the powerful lama dagger carried in a ceremonial dance of the lamas called “driving out the demon.” The dancers, called “demon dancers,” represent the warriors of Tibet’s ancient demon wor- ship. There are the lasso used by the warrior to catch the fleeing demon, the iron chain which fetters him, the skeleton club which deals the death blow, and the skull in which is caught the blood to serve as a vigor-giving draft to the warrior. All these objects, together with the masks and the silk and gold-embroidered robes of symbolic colors worn by the officiating lamas in the ceremony, are a part of the new accession. The museum will have under con- sideration the possibility of exhibiting them at some time in the future, with the as- sistance of Dr. Marx, on figures in an an- thropological group, thus portraying one stage in the demon dance just as it takes place in the court of the Tibetan temple. Fortunately for this, the collection contains also the regalia consisting of ornamental apron and breastplate made of carved bones of sainted lamas; and also the very sacred mask of the five skulls, representing slain demons, which is worn by the lama who carries the sacred dagger. This ceremony and many of the others of Tibetan religious festivals performed by the lamas, it is said, present a considerable analogy to various medizeval mystery plays. —THE Eprror. Sacred Tibetan relics molded from clay mixed with the crushed bones of sainted lamas. Such objects, together with prayer wheels, prayer stones, and the like. are suggestive of the large part religion plays in the common life in Tibet,—a combination of ancient demon worship and modern Buddhism Three-toed Horses ' A FOSSIL RECORD.THAT PROVIDES DIRECT EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION By Wi Deas EBV Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum HOSE who are familiar with Macaulay’s Hssays will recall the way in which he makes the review of some book a peg on which to hang a learned and brilliant diseussion of the whole subject to which the book relates. That, in a way, is what I intend to do here—omitting the ad-- jectives—as it is convenient to adopt his method for the present essayette and to use Professor Osborn’s monograph as a text. This memoir is in fact a very elaborate, although by no means a complete account of the three-toed horses of America, very thorough and authoritative, and admirably illustrated. Every described species is re- corded, with the original figures and the essentials of the original description re- figured and redeseribed where there is occa- sion, its geological formation and locality exactly given, and referred to its proper relations as now understood. In addition, a great number of new species or speci- mens are described and figured, much more complete than the fragmentary types on which early studies were based. Diagnoses of the genera are given, and the systematic revision is preceded by an account of the formations in which the various species have been found and their correlation, and an all too brief discussion of the structure of the molar teeth in the three-toed horses. The incompleteness of the memoir consists in its failure to describe or even mention the great bulk of undescribed material, pre- pared and partly studied and identified, in the American Museum and elsewhere. For- eign students quite fail to realize the exist- ence of this unpublished material and the important bearings that it has on problems of migration and distribution. The volume is essentially a record of facts. Professor Osborn has throughout avoided discussion of the theories and conclusions re- lating to the evolution of the horse and cog- nate subjects which he has so luminously and extensively treated elsewhere. It pre- sents the foundation of material evidence 1“The Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene Equidw of North America.” 4 C Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Series TJ, Ng. 1, issued 1918. H. F. Osborn. on which such theories are based, and as such it is invaluable to all future researches in this subject, although too technical for the amateur or superficial student, and not intended for the general reader. What were these three-toed horses any- way? Why are they so important or so in- teresting that literally thousands of scien- tific papers have been written about them and that so busy a man as Professor Oshorn can find time to prepare this elaborate me- moir for the help of future students? Briefly, they are thus important because they afford one of the best records by which to test the truth of the theory of evolution. The theory of evolution—commonly but wrongly called “Darwinism”—is an attempt to explain the present diversity of living beings and their various resemblances and differences in structure as due to their descent from common ancestors and the slow, gradual changes in each race in adaptation to its particular mode of life. The doctrine of natural selection—Darwinism properly so called—gives as the cause of these changes the gradual accumulation through innumerable successive generations, of such minute differences as we find always exist between individuals and tend to be inherited by their offspring. All the evidence for evolution found in the anatomy and structures and habits of animals, in their relationship and distribu- tion, in the growth and development of the individual, in the breeding and selection of domestic animals and of plants, and in the so-called “experimental evolution” which has converted into a science the practical knowl- edge of the breeder, is, after all, indirect evidence. However uniform its inferences, however overwhelming its weight, however perfectly and admirably it explains innum- erable details of structure and habit for which no other reasonable explanation can be found, it would be as nothing if paleon- tology were against it. If the actual re- mains of fossil animals showed that they Teconographic Revision by 473 ATA NATURAL had always been as they are now since they first appeared on the earth, then, indeed, we would have to sweep aside the beautiful theory of evolution with all the exquisite perfection of its explanations of every tiny detail in the complex structure of the higher animals, as an iridescent dream. We would have to say to the anatomist, to the em- bryologist, to the experimental evolutionist : “Oh, yes! Your interpretations and analo- gies and experiments are ingenious and in- teresting, but you can’t prove evolution by them for they are in conflict with the plain facts. The record of what actually has happened shows that species did not come into being that way. They were created in the beginning just as they are.” But the fossil record, this plain, direct, and unalterable record of what did happen during the past history cf the earth, does prove evolution, and wherever it is complete enough, it proves it so directly and con- clusively that it removes it from the category of theories to that of facts. It is, indeed, a very incomplete and fragmentary record. It owes its preservation and existence rather to the chapter of accidents than to the normal cause of circumstances. But, when- ever there is anything approaching a con. secutive detailed record of any race or type of animal, it becomes perfectly evident that the race or type has not come into existence in its present form, but has changed through numerous small or minute gradations from an original type which is hardly or not at all distinguishable from the original form that gave rise to other races or types of animal now widely different. In brief, we may compare the history of animal life to a tree. The modern animals, separated and distinct in varying degrees and in varying directions, represent the tips of the upper branches. As we follow them down, guided by the geological record cf past faunas, we find the separate twigs uni- ted, then the larger branches, and finally, if the record would carry us that far, the great boughs primary branches would come together in the one trunk which is the primitive beginning whence they all arose. or In addition to the branches which have sur- vived to the present day there are many branches, great and small, and innumerable twigs, that have become extinct at various epochs in the past. Such is the picture that we build up from the glimpses of the past HISTORY history of life vouchsafed to us by the record, graven in stone, immutable and un- forgetable, that is set before us. The authenticity of these “documents,” as the French are fond of calling fossil specimens, cannot be challenged save by the ignorant. It is perhaps not known to every- one that it is the structure, not the form of a fossil bone that proves it to be authen- tic. Its form can be mimicked, its peculiar structure it is impossible to imitate arti- ficially, nor does nature ever produce any- thing else resembling it. Historical docu- ments may be forged. _Nature’s documents cannot. It is true that the geological record of successive stages may sometimes be inexact or incorrect. The succession of the geologi- cal formations is determined by the fact that one overlies or overlaps another. Ob- viously the one on top must be of later age, unless the world has been turned up- side down in that particular region.? But sometimes the formations are in dif- ferent regions and cannot be directly con- nected up. In such cases we have to rely on other and less conelusive evidence, and mistakes may be, and have been, made. The earliest serious study of fossils showed, how- ever, that certain formations were character- ized by certain kinds of extinct animals, and that these fossils were found only in those strata; above and below they were re- placed by other species, related but distinct. This fundamental fact has been verified by a century and a half of research. It can be verified again by anyone who will take the trouble to go out into the field and colleet fossils. No one would be more prompt to report an exception than the scientist; for such a discovery would make him But no real exception has ever been found. famous. No species whose strueture is sufficiently complex for its fossil remains to show the traces of change persists wholly unaltered through any considerable portion of geological time. The geological record is a grievously in- . complete one. For the most part it must be built up—as is the historic record—by comparison and deduction from documents 1There really are such cases in the Alps and other mountain regions, where a succession of strata is tipped up on edge and occasionally ac- tually overturned. How such overturns occur and how they are recognized is explained in geological textbooks. CLY SIBLOUL OY} OY ATA YIE} Pataroo-JUIM9) PIUMOLO-SUOL OF JUOWMAD YNOYIIM UOLJIPUOD paUAMO.Ad-JLOYS B WOAT savjoword ayy Jo eFueyo PUB 'SUUINJOD OF app 9} UL SSULARApP ol} UL UMOYS SB seo} JO AaqUINU oY} UL Ysvotep ‘s|[NYS Jo UUMIN[OD OY} UL poyMesordot su osaoy oy jo aZIS UL OSBALOUL [RNUYUOD WIM “(QyJot ey} 7@) Spoltod [Rosoloas AyTwa WOLF WONTOAD sty} Soyworpur ‘dn wW100q oY} WorF Peat ‘UORAYSNIL oy, “Wwe ey Jo Atoysty ysvd oy} surmp uaddoy pip yYM JO 1098 YYSRYs ‘ured vw plo}, st oaozyT “HOTNOAD JO AL1OdY} 9YI 4899 04 MAM AQ Spoor [ISsoy ojoTduoy ysour oy} Jo auO ploye Avpo? UMOUY satoods oY} 0} JUdUIdOJOANp [vAOUBT MOS ey} PUN asaoy oq} jo Aqsoour ayy, dIssela | sajijday Jo xy Sue) JO Qn.y ey!] disseane Ma SKayUOW JO aso) ay!] YIEa] pue e4Oul pue alow aworag Yjeay aepoWory ey] snoarejaa) JOO4 YRY UO Sa] IALY YIN suojsauy peIayodAy | auaz09]84 snddiyoq SBP AS PHO el bif jo syuidg ( $90] ino4 if 99007 jueuTe) svopaaryy dd \ Ar" snddiyo. soy yin (p18) ea) 14.10 ‘paumory ES ~ HOY punnosd ayy Zuryrnoy sjewumeyw Jo ay 10 Aesop BU220810 punosd ayy Suryonoy you (GR \ $20) apic Bis ~) $90] 244] auar0iy $90} apig punosd 24) Suiyonoy you ites er Y snddiy oko pe , sol S90] 9014], \ = Oo. oe | $20} apig i * ah 2 fA A S90] aly | : Ser eaer | snddiyosay 2° EE \\ saoj ooiyy be x ae: 55 § J jo syuydg [ i 20] dug 20] 19 \ EA snnby = Yjoay as are Jooy pury JOO) Woy yey Ui assoyy jo adAy Jijsiiajredeyy pue sayejg paylup, wsajsaqy ul suolyeui0y “ASYOH AHL AO NOILNATOAR AHL - =] 9990S 1a} g snddiyouid f3 ~$u07 81 ap Puc mus i spp op pur 2 Fi 2 Jo syurdg bed Te Arewsajen() juasay 476 preserved. Fortunately we do not have to dispute their authenticity and seldom to question their provenience. But there may often be doubts of their exact significance. It is only here and there, in certain groups of animals and for certain portions of their history, that our “documents” are complete and abundant enough to prove directly the evolution of the race. The best evidence of this sort is to be found among the in- vertebrates, especially among mollusks, which include many cases where the gradual change in a race can be followed by numer- ous specimens from each stratum. But while the evidence of these inverte- brates affords conclusive proof of evolution to the paleontologist, it is not always con- vineing to the layman. Many people may be willing to admit that one species of clam- shell has changed gradually into another, but they will deny vigorously that a horse and a tapir are descendants of a common ancestral stock, and angrily resent the im- putation that they themselves are blood rela- tives of the chimpanzee and the gorilla. Such a position is illogical, if they only knew it, for if the proofs of evolution in the anatomy of the lower animals are shown to be in accord with the facts of their past history, then the much stronger evidence in the anatomy of the higher animals must mean the same thing in their case. But it is natural enough, for the objections to evo- lution center around the descent of man, and the average anti-evolutionist will hardly see that his traditional view is endangered by anything so remote as the humble mollusk. The evolution of the horse, however, comes near enough home to shake his confidence if he is opposed, or to assure his belief if he is in favor of the theory of evolution. It is not the record in which we are most in- terested, namely, that of the evolution of our own race. But it is that of one of the most familiar domestic animals, the changes in the structure of the skeleton are obvious and the reasons for them easily understood, and the record of the evolution of the race is a fairly complete one so far as it goes. A brief sketch of the facts in the case may be in order. The modern horses, asses, and zebras form a little group of animals very much alike save for differences in size, in color, and in surface markings, and still closer together in all the details of their skeleton construe- NATURAL HISTORY tion. The skeleton, while it has the general characters common to all the higher quad- rupeds and man, is characteristically differ- ent and peculiar in many particulars, espe- cially in the construction of the head, of the teeth, and of the feet. By comparing the skeletons of horse and man as shown in the group at the front of the Horse Alcove in the American Museum, one can see that the bones of the skeleton correspond throughout and have the same re- lations, but differ very widely in proportions and form. The head of the horse is nearly all face with long jaws and comparatively small brain. The head of the man is chiefly brain case, the jaws very short, and the face relatively small. ‘The horse has a long neck and deep trunk, the man a very short neck and wide trunk. The tail in man is re- duced to an obseure vestige. The shoulder blade in man is wide and short with a collar bone bracing it against the breastbone. In the horse the shoulder blade is long and narrow and there is no collar bone. The pelvis in man is a wide, capacious basin that aids in the support of the internal organs. In the horse it is a sort of rack on which the powerful limb muscles are fastened. The limb bones in man are long and_ loose- jointed, in the horse short, compact, with tight joints that permit of but limited move- ments—but much more powerful. The outer bones of forearm and shin (ulna and fibula), complete and separate in man, are incom- plete in the horse and consolidated with the inner bones (radius and tibia). But it is in the feet that the contrast is most obvious. The wrist of man corresponds to the “knee” of the horse’s fore leg, and the ankle to the “hock” of the hind leg. But instead of the short, spreading hand or foot of man with its five digits, the horse has a long, slender foot, composed of only one complete digit, corresponding to the middle finger or toe in man with rudiments of the second and fourth digits known as splint bones. And it is quite literally true that the horse walks upon the tips of its finger nails, for the hoof, not preserved in the skeleton, is the represen- tative of the fingernail or toenail of man. The object of these contrasts is evident. In the horse the limbs are adapted solely for locomotion on all fours, and especially over open ground. Speed and endurance are gained by lengthening the lower ends of the limbs, stepping upon the tips of the toes, THREE-TOELD HORSES 47 and concentrating the weight upon the mid- dle toe. The superfluous parts have dis- appeared. In man the hind limbs are the sole organs of locomotion, but in order to maintain a steady upright pose, it is neces- sary to keep the heel on the ground, and the wide sole and short spreading toes are suited for travel over rough ground or in the forest. The fore limbs, released for pur- poses of grasping and holding objects, have hecome specially adapted thereto. The teeth of horse and man are equally in contrast. In man they form a continuous semicircular row, thirty-two in number, all of them very short crowned, the molars with a flattened crushing surface, the front teeth with cutting edge, the others intermediate. In the horse the teeth are more numerous, thirty-six or forty according to sex (the canine teeth are usually absent in the female), with occasional rudiments, “wolf teeth” of the first premolar, that if all pres- ent bring the number up to forty-four. The front teeth are separated from the cheek teeth by a wide gap; and all the teeth, but especially the cheek row, have very long, or rather high crowns, which keep on growing in the jaw as their surfaces are worn down. The grinding surface shows a very complex structure or pattern of crests of hard enamel alternating with softer dentine and “cement” which serves to prevent the surfaces from wearing smooth and makes it effective in triturating the food. The reason for these differences in the teeth is not far to seek. Our food requires but little chewing; cutting off in morsels and a moderate amount of crushing suffice; and there is consequently no great wear on the surface of the teeth. The food is con- veyed to the mouth by the hands (with or without the aid of implements) and there is no need for a projecting muzzle. The horse, on the other hand, feeds upon grasses that require thorough trituration, and needs the magazine of powerful cheek teeth, which are worn down rapidly and must be renewed as they wear, else the life of the animal would be but a short one. It must use the front teeth for seizing and eropping the grass, and their advanced position and clipping edges are adapted to that purpose. The intelli- gence of the horse is highly developed along certain lines necessary to his mode of life. His place- and road-memory are remarkable, for in nature he must daily travel long dis- tances to obtain water, food, and security from attack. His eyesight is keen, his sense of smell far more developed than in man; but in the higher faculties he does not approach the human reasoning powers and standard. Horse and man are sharply contrasted types among the higher vertebrates in struc- ture and adaptation. Most other mammals are more or less intermediate,—but each specializes in various ways and in varying degree in adaptation to its particular mode of life. These specializations are in general most clearly seen in the structure of feet and teeth, which, as Professor Osborn has re- marked, are the organs through which the animal comes most directly in contact with its environment. The structure and habits in all animals is apparent in innumerable details. Whether the structure is adapted to the habits or, as the paleontologists believe, that there was a gradual coadaptation of both from Primi- tive common ancestry to the various spe- cializations, whether all structures are in some way useful or advantageous to the animal—these and many other interesting problems belong to the theoretical side of evolution. It is with the facts that we are here concerned. The horse family stands wide apart from any other group of living animals. The ruminants, which resemble them most in form and habits, differ greatly in the de- tails of their construction. Cattle have long crowned teeth and long slender feet, walking upon the tips of the toes like horses. But the pattern of the grinding teeth is funda- mentally different, and the foot is composed of two digits conjoined instead of a single correspondence be- tween digit as in the horse; and throughout the structure of all ruminants runs a series of superficial resemblance to the horse based On the other hand, the tapir and the rhinoceros, super- upon underlying differences. ficially very different from the horse, show an underlying resemblance which long ago caused comparative anatomists to unite them into a single order of the Mammalia. The paleontologist has since shown that these resemblances are due to relationship, that all three are descended from a common stock that existed about the beginning of the Tertiary period and have gradually diverged each in adaptation to its special mode of life. The record of the evolution of the As8 NATURAL horse, so far as known, is a record of its progressive specialization from that common stock. That stock was already distinct from the stock that gave rise to the ruminants, pigs, and hippopotami, from the stock that gave rise to the various kinds of Carnivora, and from the ancestral stock of lemurs, monkeys, apes, and men, as well as from a number of other primitive stocks of less interest. Could we follow these stocks fur- ther back in time, for another geologic period or so, we should doubtless find that they im turn are derived from a more ancient com- mon stock. But the records to prove this have not yet been unearthed; it remains a matter, not indeed of doubt, but of theory and inference rather than of fact and record. The present distribution of the horse family, aside from domestic horses, is lim- ited to Africa and central Asia. In the latest geological formations, however, of the Pleistocene epoch, we find fossil remains of various species of horse in all parts of Burope, Asia, and Africa, North and South America. These species are all closely re- lated to the existing horses, one-toed, and with teeth entirely similar to the modern species. In the next preceding epoch, the Pliocene, we find fossil horses both in the Old World and the New, and some of them in the later part of the Pliocene of Europe are also closely related to the modern horse and are placed in the same genus, Hquus. In the Lower Pliocene we find three or more genera all evidently related to the horse but of smaller size, with the side toes less reduced, completely formed in some species. In the Miocene there are numercus species, all of them with the side toes complete but small and slender, seldom reaching the ground. They average about the size of a donkey, and their teeth are shorter crowned than in the later horses. In the Oligocene the horses are still smaller, averaging about the size of a sheep, the side toes are less reduced so that they reach the ground and help support the animal, and the teeth are comparatively short crowned with simpler pattern. In the Eocene the horses are still smaller, aver- aging about the size of a terrier dog, their side toes are quite large, and in the fore- foot there is a fourth digit, so that these are known as “four-toed horses.” The teeth are still shorter crowned and simpler in pattern. HISTORY These are merely the cutstanding stages in a long succession of intermediate grada- tions that connect the modern horse with the little four-toed Bohippus of the Lower Eocene. Each gradation 1s found in its ap- propriate geological stage, and not earlier or later. The changes and gradations are seen just as clearly in every bene of the skeleton as in the feet and teeth, and the gradual evolution of the race is thus shown by direct and overwhelming evidence. You may indeed, if you choose, declare that each successive gradation was independentiy created. Direct proof on that point is not at hand; the genetic continuity rests upon inferential evidence. But that the race as such evolved gradually, little by little, through the millions of years of the Tertiary period, is a matter of plain fact and record. It is equally a matter of record that the now diverse types of tapirs and rhinoceroses evolved gradually from 2 common ancestral stock with the horses; and that all the ree- ords of other races of mammals show them converging backward in time toward a com- mon stock. The Hohipyus is by no means as different from man as is the modern horse and he is far closer in every detail of his construction to the Eocene representa- tives of the group to which man belongs (the Primates) than he is to man. All other races of animals display the same convergence toward a common ancestry in every detail of the teeth and feet and skele- ton. The evolution thus shown as a fact of record in certain portions of the history of various races which have been preserved to us in the history of life, appears to be a sure inference as applied to the whole, sup- ported as it is by the community of funda- mental structure that prevails through the whole living world, by the obvious adapta- tion of each race to some particular habit of life, by the proof that natural selection can and must operate to brine about changes in the structure of the race in adaptation to its habits. If we recognize that the records, where they are preserved, show evolution to be a fact, we cannot logically refuse to ad- mit it in the undiscovered portions of the record, upon the force of the immense amount of inferential evidence in its favor, and, in conclusion, because it is the only real explanation of life, the only one that rests upon natural law. SHEDDING AND RENEWAL OF THE ANTLERS OF AMERICAN ELK OR WAPITI A SCIENTIFIC RECORD FROM THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK An instance of phenomenally rapid growth of the true bone of vertebrate animals DEVELOPMENTAL SERIES OF REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPHS NOT PREVIOUSLY REPRODUCED, BY MR. ELMER SANBORN, PHOTOGRAPHER FOR THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY (MR. SANBORN HAS DEPICTED THIS GROWTH ALSO IN A SERIES OF MOTION PICTURES) SEMIDOMESTICATION IN THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK American elk antlers consist of two branching round and solid outgrowths of true bone. They are shed each year and their immediate renewal is a phenomenon of astonishing rapidity of bone growth. Shed antlers are often found in elk territory. Theodore Roosevelt called his ranch on the Little Missouri “The Elkhorn’’ because shed antlers were numerous on the ground both in the surrounding bottoms and among the hills, sometimes many score in a small area indicating where had been a great winter gathering place for elk 479 SHOWN IN A AMERICAN ELK ANTLERS ARE SHED And there is revealed the top of the pedicel or bony prominence from the skull on which they grew 2pt at the base where it is attached to the pedicel. atum between the living bone of the pedicel and the dead bone takes out the mineral elements Thus the heavy, is knocked off by some light blow against tree or fence. up to cover the top where the a short fur, outside of the periosteum grows upward to cover The perfected antler is dead bone and has no blood supply e The blood in the vessels which penetrate this circular | the external antler, gradually, through a few weeks’ time, by an absorbent action, and creates an irregular layer of bone so porous that the strength of the whole antler is undermined. bony outgrowth finally falls away because of its own weight or Immediately the membrane or periosteum which covers the es of the pedicel grow antler has broken away; also a thin, dark skin, bearing 2 the ex 2d top of the pedicel. = It is only in the semidomestication of the zodlogical park or private preserve that the actual dropping of the antlers and the rapid new growth which follows can be observed in detail : 480 RENEWED AND THEY ARE development of the Z o 5 “ 7 P. L i) n i = bors = S oD a grown condition again Stages in the progress of antlers to the full 48] A CIRCLE OF VELVET HORNS After the periosteum covering the sides of the pedicel, and the skin with its fine fur or “velvet”? over that, have extended to cover the top of the skull prominence, the period of remarkable growth sets in. The periosteum is filled with arteries, also a great artery comes up through the core of the pedicel, and these carry so rich a supply of nourishment that the outline of the new antler soon rises into being. Other ar- teries from the periosteum penetrate into the substance of the new growth at the point of union of the antler with the pedicel. Almost at once the growth shows division into two parts: the posterior, the beam which is to make the elongated axis, and the anterior. the “brow tine’; also immediately the beam divides into two (see photograph on preceding page). The new growth hardens and stiffens through a deposit of bony substance from the blood, and by a still greater and greater deposit, changes from a very porous con- dition to that of firm and solid bone. The periosteum carries also a rich nerve supply, so that the soft, growing tips of the antlers are highly sensitive and are instinctively protected by the elk from any contact. At the stage of development presented above three tines have been formed and the backward-projecting beam is continuing its growth 482 APPROACHING COMPLETION BUT STILL “IN THE VELVET” From the earliest growth to the perfected state the antler, with its artery-filled periosteum, protective velvet. In the stage presented here, three tines have been thrown off and the beam tened, and divided for the fourth forward-curving tine. It is not surprising that such antlers, with their astonishing growth, branched structure, and “mossy’’ appearance, should have been described by very early naturalists (Buffon for instance) as “vegetable products’ growing like shrubs on the animal’s head 483 THE VELVET SHREDS AWAY tnd the antlers of hard white bone are revealed Finally the growth is completed. The veins in the interior of the bone which carried back the blood flow from the arteries of the outside velvet, cease to function. The nervous irritation to the animal is considerable until these arteries likewise stop their work. The process is hastened by the elk, which rubs the antlers against fence, tree, or other near object, so that the torn velvet hangs in shreds and wholly drops away, disclosing the white bone PERFECTED ANTLERS OF AMERICAN ELK It is said that our American elk have vanished from fully nine-tenths of the country over a little more than a century ago—next to the buffalo the most conspicuous instance of game extermi ion The species has not been known for 150 years in the northern part of its former range, where this range I that of the moose. The last record of elk-killing in Pennsylvania was in 1869; in Illinois the last individuals we about 1820; between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, where the Lewis and Clark Expedition prosperous herds, they were killed out before the early eighties. The final stand of the species is in certai areas of the Rockies. When driven by starvation from this stand, they have no place to flee to—as in in the slaughter when they tried to seek refuge in Montana. The naturalist in charge at Yellowstone states that the number in the herds that come to the summer feeding grounds, heretofore placed at 45,000, must be corrected to 25.000 A CORNER IN WEYER’S CAVE, VIRGINIA A portion of the reproduction in the American Museum of one of the grottoes in Weyer’s Cave, of the Shenandoah Valley The fantastic adornment of stalactites abounding in such limestone caverns is shown. As the water, heavy with dissolved bicarbonate of lime, seeps through the roof and falls in drops from the ceiling, it loses some of its carbonic acid by evaporation, causing the precipitation of the excess of carbonate. This precipitate accumulates slowly, form- ing tubular stalactites or, when the water drips to the floor, conical solid stalagmites. Some of the giant stalactites of Mammoth and Wyandotte caves must be at least one hundred thousand years old. The material for the American Museum exhibit, presented by the ‘‘Grottoes of the Shenandoah Company,’’ was collected from the cave by Messrs. W. B. Peters and P. B. Hill, of the museum preparation department, during 1913 and 1914, and has been installed by Mr. Peters under the direction of Dr. E. O. Hovey 486 Weyer's Cave Exhibit in the American Museum EYER’S Cave, Virginia, lies on the edge of the town of Grottoes in the Shenandoah Valley, and has long been famous for the variety and beauty of its dripstone formations, for the grandeur of some of its halls, and for the daintiness of its nooks and corners. Many such caves, though few so beautiful, are to be found in Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, and other regions of heavily bedded limestone. A reproduction of a nook in Weyer’s Cave has been installed in the hall of geology of the American Museum, with material taken with great difficulty from a chamber seventy-five feet above the floor of the cave. This cave may be considered a typical example of a limestone cavern in a region of abundant annual rainfall. Surface water, acidulated by carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and other acids from the ground, works its way into and along jointing planes and fissures in the ihmestone and forms larger passages, tunnels, halls, and chambers by solution, “levels” of which, in the miner’s use of the word, are established along and above the occasional insoluble and nearly impervious layers of shale which are interbedded with Often ways and rooms attain larger dimensions. the limestone. these open passage- The “Hall of Statuary” in Weyer’s Cave is three hundred feet long, thirty feet wide, and sixty feet high. “Rothrock’s Cathedral” in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is a circular room three hundred feet in diameter and 135 feet high to the middle of its dome- shaped ceiling. The halls and connecting passages of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, have been explored for more than two hundred miles of their ramifications on different levels. With a change in local admission of water to a cave the process of filling the openings with dripstone begins. Dripstone is the name given to both stalactites and stalag- mites. A stalactite starts as a paper-thin ring, perhaps a quarter of an inch in diam- eter, deposited from a drop of water on the ceiling. The drop is pushed off by a new drop behind it and falls to the floor. The new drop adds its paper-thin ring to the first and falls to the floor in its turn. This slow process goes on forming an open tube depending from the ceiling. Sometimes these pipestem tubes are long; one of them exhibited in the J. L. Mohler collection in a case near our grotto at the American Mu- seum is more than a yard in length. Usu- ally, initial tube becomes clogged with crystalline calcite after a few inches of growth in its simple form. The water then flows over the exterior of the tube, depositing its excess load of mineral as a thin layer, which gradually changes the tube into a sharp or blunt cone, hanging point downward. Still there is a drop of water at the apex of the cone, which keeps on forming a tube for the center of the stalactite. however, the A polished cross section shows the concentric rings and layers produced by this process. When the drop of water frem the point of a stalactite falls to the floor, it flattens out and deposits only a thin layer of lime carbonate. The next drop adds its quota, and thus is piled up a cone (stalag- mite) which usually is much more blunt than the corresponding stalactite, often being rounded or saucer-shaped at its apex. It has no tube, either open or filled, in its center. This is the simplest description of the process; the conditions of local action pro- duce endless changes in form of deposition, and the wealth and variety of these drip- stone formations in some chambers are well illustrated in the American Museum exhibit. When the dripping water carries pure lime carbonate in solution, the resulting dripstone is colorless or white, but often the stalactites and stalagmites are reddish or brownish in color or are banded with these colors, which are due to the presence of minute quantities of dissolved iron oxide. Or, again, clay is deposited over the dripstone during the pas- Sage of excessive amounts of water. In some mining regions other colors result from the presence of salts of copper or other metals. Weyer’s Cave, so the story goes, was dis- covered in 1806 by Bernard Weyer when he was hunting a groundhog which had taken refuge in a fissure in the limestone. Mr. Weyer’s pick and shovel opened the way into a cavern which later became one of the famous sights of the Old Dominion and has always been a favorite resort, although partly eclipsed in popular esteem of late years by Luray Cave, forty miles northward in the same valley, which was discovered in 1878.—EpMuND Orvis Hovey, Curator of Geology .and Invertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History. 487 A Botanical Excursion to the Big Cypress By JOHN KUNKEL SMALL Head Curator of the Museums and Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden H1E most extensive physiographic trinity or the largest prairie-marsh- swamp region, and at the same time the least known area in the eastern United southern Florida. The “Big Cypress,” or the Big Cypress Swamp, lies States, is in south of the Caloosahatchee River between the Everglades and the Gulf of Mexico, The greater part of our population is ignorant even of this geographic designation. To the few who have seen it printed on maps the name signifies nothing, or conveys but a vague idea. Only a score or two of survey- ors, hunters, and prospectors, out of the hundred million inhabitants of the United States, have any definite knowledge of its physical geography. The second week of May, 1917, we were on the very edge of the Big Cypress when we navigated Lake Hiepochee during a cruise to Lake Okeechobee. The day we returned from that cruise, which was deseribed in former papers, an opportunity to explore some of the mysteries of the Big Cypress unexpectedly presented itself. Mr. W. Stanley Hanson, a bird inspector with the United States Bio- logical Survey, and a naturalist well ac- quainted with the Big Cypress, had come to Miami across country from Fort Myers, whence he was about to retrace his course. The opportunity to accompany him on a trip through largely unknown territory was a temptation too great to be resisted. Conse- quently, we prepared a Ford for a week’s run, and the next day set out for Fort Myers. Miami and Fort Myers are about 120 miles distant from each other, in a di- rect line, but the intervening area could have been conveniently, or at least expedi- tiously, traveled only in an aéroplane. The shortest course possible for us followed a curve more than 250 miles in length. In order to bring us to our most distant objective which lay across the Everglades only about sixty miles from Miami, we had to make a detour around the Everglades 1 Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, Vol. XIX, 1918, pp. 279-90. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, Vol. XVIII, 1918, pp. 684— 700. 488 and Lake Okeechobee at their head. The facilities for making an examination of the country and a collection of specimens of its vegetation were generously furnished by Mr. Charles Deering, of Miami. The first stage of our course lay along the eastern coast of Florida between Miami and Fort Pierce. Miami, Fort Pierce, and Fort Myers are about equidistant one from. the other, or, straight lines connecting the three places would form an equilateral triangle. The territory included in the triangle, made up mostly of everglades, prairies, cypress swamp, and pineland, together with Lake Okeechobee situated near one side of the triangle, was essentially uninhabited, ex- cept for the scattered settlements in the Caloosahatchee River region. Between Miami and Fort Pierce pinelands and sand dunes (scrub?) predominate; between Fort Pierce and Fort Myers are pinelands and prairies ; between Fort Myers and Miami lie prairies, cypress swamps, and the Everglades. Mr. Hanson preceded us to West Palm Beach, where we overtook him. while It was late in the evening when we reached Stuart, where we had to spend the night because of a high wind which made the ferryman hesi- tate to carry us across the Saint Lucie River. An early start the next morning brought us to Fort Pierce in time for breakfast. Thence we started on the second leg of the tri- angle, proceeding in a southwesterly direc- tion. Between Miami and Fort Pierce our course took us through not fewer than forty towns. After leaving Fort Pierce only four settlements were encountered, two established settlements and two embryonic colonies. After Fort Pierce disappeared from view we sped westward through pinelands and across the Halpatiokee Swamp, where count- less turtles and snakes basked in the sun about the water pools that lined the road. “These are white sand. ’ These lie. outside of the triangle of wunin- habited territory referred to in a previous para- graph. quiescent inland dunes of snow- Ost LOL RJ aa ri top 1 | ate wu \| tva]o “S.Lal[o pur S Sadat] aaqoyoeayO 7 yur] | 1O uo YILUOD arRad pur ann eutd rM OPAL TOS jenbo qsou Is RB AO SUlpveall oq | “ I yy AJIWIVed NVIGNI FHL NO WVSYHLS ATION TINONVYL V a ~ ww 490 NATURAL HISTORY After crossing the swamp another stretch of sandy pine woods was traversed with diffi- culty, as the combined power of the engine and the pushing ability of the occupants of the car were necessary to get through the twelve miles of loose sand. Finally the Onoshohatchee River and the first habita- tion in about forty miles came into view. We soon reached Okeechobee City—then a settlement of several scores of houses. In the fall of 1913 when we went up the Onoshohatchee River from Lake Okeechobee this place had been indicated on the map and staked out by the surveyors, but had not yet been colonized. At this point we again left civilization be- hind. From Okeechobee City to Fisheating Creek the country was devoid even of roads, and we took to an old trail dating back perhaps to a period before the Seminole wars. By degrees Okeechobee City disap- peared as we hurried around the curves, not to say coils, in the trail, and after passing some miles of pinelands we suddenly came into the bottoms or prairies of the Kis- simmee River. These bottom lands are like immense lawns, perfectly level, carpeted with a turf of various grasses, and often extending as far as the eye can see. There were thousands of semiwild cattle grazing on the broad green prairies. All had gone well thus far, but at the Kissimmee River a series of apparently pre- destinated troubles began. The trails on either side of the river were connected by a ferry which consisted of a flatboat large enough to hold a car, and a small motor boat of barely sufficient capacity to drag the flatboat around the bends and over the sand bars in the river. In order to cross the river, which there is less than a hundred feet wide, it was necessary to go about a half mile down stream because of the ero- sion of the banks. Once in the stream the current of the river—say, three miles an hour—ecarried the ferryboat along at a greater speed than the motor boat could maintain. Time and again the ferryboat would bump into the river banks, first on one side, then on the other, and would, in turn, bump against the stern of the little motor boat and knock off the rudder. Even after the ferryboat drifted out of sight, we who were left behind for the second trip could hear the ferryman nailing the rudder on his disabled boat. We lost several hours of valuable day- light while waiting for the ferryman to re- place dead batteries with live ones. As the short twilight deepened we ran up a slight incline through a strip ot pine woods, mak- ing all haste compatible with the imnumer- able curves in the trail and the proximity of pine stumps, and found ourselves on the great Indian Prairie. This comprises a large part of an immense region lying west of Lake Okeechobee, north of the Caloosa- hatchee River, and east of Peace River. The prairie is high and dry all the year round and is uninterrupted, except by a single stream, Fisheating Creek, one of the larger feeders of Okeechobee. Up to a short time ago it was practically uninhabited, except by wandering Indians. At the present time a half dozen or more ‘“—ports,” “—dales,” “—monts,” “—burgs,” and even “—Cities” have been put on the map, and a railroad bisects the region,—so, farewell to its natu- ral features. In order to save time, we decided to eross the prairie that night, and we certainly had a weird ride. The trail at times was dis- tinct, but at other times almost blind. AI- though the prairie was a dead level, the optical illusion created in the darkness was that of running down hill and jumping off the earth. We had some obstructions to progress in the form of forks in the trail which would, we knew, either come together farther on or diverge indefinitely and thus lead to some other part of the state. At each fork, the four in our party would hold a council, and in each instance consult the stars. The stars always put us on the right trail, and toward midnight, after passing several half-discerned Indian camps, we saw a few faint lights of human habitation ap- pear, and finally we reached the recently established colony of Palmdale on Fisheat- ing Creek, or, in Seminole, “Thlathtopopka- hatchee.” We did not hesitate to disturb the peace- ful slumbers of the inhabitants, who were as glad to see us as we were to see them, which fact they showed in a substantial manner by arising from their slumbers and preparing a midnight meal. After a few hours’ rest we made an early start for Labelle, which is an old settlement situated at about the head of natural navigation on the Caloosa- hatchee River. The Indian Prairie extends nearly or quite A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO THE BIG CYPRESS to the Caloosahatchee. Unfortunately, a road had been laid out to connect Palmdale with Labelle. It is well we decided to stop at Palmdale until daylight, for although we could travel the almost trackless prairie in the dark with ease, we could barely tra- verse this new road in broad daylight. The deep sand had become very loose, and it took more than the engine to get the cars over a good many miles of the road. Just south of Palmdale we crossed Fish- eating Creek, which is an exceedingly pic- turesque stream meandering through the al- most uninhabited prairie, between banks either exposed to the sun, or clothed with shrubs and bright-colored asters or ham- mocks of oaks, ash, and maple, which in some places give way to groves of palmettos that often lean far over the water’s edge. After leaving the hammocks which border the creek we drove out on the prairie again, and few trees came into view for a distance of about eighteen miles, until the hammocks bordering the Caloosahatchee appeared. Perhaps the most interesting creature on these prairies was the burrowing owl. This bird had honeycombed the prairie in many places with its burrows. These tunnels, often six to eight feet long, are about a foot beneath the surface of the sand. At one end is an opening approximately six inches in diameter, while at the other end is a nest. The old owls were so tame that one could almost pick them up, and often they would sit perfectly quiet while the automobiles passed them at a distance of not more than two feet.1 On this same prairie many interesting - 1 Out of curiosity we decided to dig into one of the burrows. Starting at the opening, we began by lifting the sand out very carefully. Of a sud- den we were startled by the rattle of a rattle- snake. After proceeding a few inches farther we heard two rattlesnakes; before going much farther into the burrow a third rattlesnake be- gan to rattle. The digging became more exciting as we worked farther in and as the snakes rattled more loudly. When we neared the end of the burrow we cautioned one another to be careful not to get our hands too close to the snakes. This seemed to be an excellent opportunity to get good photographs of living rattlesnakes. Con- sequently the camera was set up and everything prepared for the opening of the end of the bur- row. As there was no woody growth on the prairie the question of getting sticks with which to fight the snakes arose. After considerable search several surveyor’s stakes were found, and with these we prepared nooses for capturing the serpents alive. With extreme caution we ap- proached the end of the burrow; the snakes began to rattle more viciously. Finally the sand was removed from the top of the end of 491 plants were observed and collected. Milk- weeds were represented by species of As- clepias and Asclepiodora, while more ¢on- spicuous was the purple water willow (Di- anthera crassifolia). Low milkworts (Poly- gale) with white and yellow flowers were prominent in the landscape, and clumps of the native beardtongue (Pentstemon multi- florus) towered above all the other her- baceous plants. There a _ white-flowered heliotrope replaced the ¢ yellow- flowered heliotrope of the region lying east of the Okeechobee basin and the Everglades. After contending with the sand for several hours we reached the Caloosahatchee River and came to the town of Labelle, where we did not delay, but went directly up the Caloosahatchee several miles to Fort Thompson. There we found a number of magnificent live oaks around the old bar- racks which date from the period of the Seminole wars. After making a number of photographs in that region we returned to Labelle and at once started down the south bank of the Caloosahatchee River for Fort Myers. We now left the prairies behind and en- tered the flatwoods, where the arboreous vegetation is made up almost entirely of pine trees. Peninsular Florida, especially the southern part, lacks what is ordinarily understood as altitudes, in fact, most of it is decidedly flat. It might well be called a large sand bar. Notwithstanding this dis- advantage, it reveals an astonishing number of surprises in the matter of diversity. The Big Cypress is one of the larger sur- prises. Its area is about half that of the ommon the burrow, and to our surprise we found four young owls, three large and one small, but—no snakes ! It was the three larger owls that were making the noise of a rattlesnake, and imitating it so well that all of us who had had personal ex- perience with rattlesnakes were deceived. We decided that this experience proved that the stories we used to hear of owls, prairie dogs, and rattle- snakes living peacefully together in the same bur- row were fantastic. Of course, a rattlesnake might enter an owl’s burrow, either to seek shelter or food; but it is a difficult matter for any one well acquainted with the habits of rattlesnakes to believe that a husky rattler would be considerate and restrain his appetite, with such a tempting morsel as a young owl or young prairie dog lying about in his den. (For further notes on this subject see: The American Natural- ist, Vol. XLI, pp. 725-726; Vol. XLIII, pp. 754— 55; Birds of the World, pp. 536-37.) After photographing owls instead of rattlesnakes, we re- placed.them in their nest and rebuilt their burrow, as well as we could, by making a roof of brush over which we replaced the sand. 492 NATURAL HISTORY \ Cp Re RR mem \ Renae = Palms and pine trees are often a favorite ref- uge for wild turkey and deer. A flock of turkeys took refuge in this particular grove just as we suddenly rounded a sharp curve in the trail. In the Big Cypress there may be prairies so ex- tensive that woody vegetation can be seen merely as a dark line along the distant horizon, or again we may see at one time associations of palms and pines, pure pine woods, solid broad-leaved ham- mocks, cypress heads, and combinations of cypress head and hammock Everglades, and although it abuts directly on the western side of them, it has but little in common with them. Instead of being a vast prairie-marsh like the Ever- glades, the Big Cypress exhibits a variety of conditions and plant associations. There are pinelands, prairie, sloughs, cypress heads, hardwood hammocks, palmetto ham- mocks, and lakes. Early in the afternoon we were prepared to strike into the wilderness. After leaving Fort Myers, roads disappeared and we took to mere trails through the pine woods in a southeasterly direction. As we proceeded, strange plants and strange birds began to appear. White terrestrial orchids (G@Gymna- dcniopsis nivea) and single-flowered spider lilies (Hymenocallis humilis) dotted the dry prairies, while uliginous creepers with vari- ous colored flowers formed enecireling mats about all the shallow ponds. Ponds end pools were the favorite feeding places for the wood ibis, the white ibis, cranes, and herons. The hammocks hid many flocks of wild turkeys in their depths. For some distance outside of Fort Myers we traveled through unbroken pine woods. As we went on, the pine trees be- came more scattered and areas of prairie came into view. Farther on, the prairie began to increase and the pines appeared only here and there as isolated| Golonies. A little farther on cypress trees appeared, and we were really in the Big Cypress. Here, too, the cabbage palm was much in evidence, and in some places it formed hammocks of almost pure growth. As we proceeded, the prairies grew larger and the cypress grew less, until there was open prairie in all di- rections almost as far as the eye could see. Then the hammocks clothing the Okaloa- ccochee Slough appeared in the distance as a mere line on the horizon. It is said that the Seminole word “Okaloacoochee” signifies “boggy-slough.” Consequently the usually associated word “slough” is really super- fluous. As we approached the slough we observed immense flocks of ibis collecting at their rookery for the night. The confused sounds they made as they flew over the tops of the tall trees could be heard for a distance of a mile. The sight of the great flocks of ibis and the racket of their croaks or squawks as they collected in their rookery we shall long remember. A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO THE BIG CYPRESS 19s We drove into a small hammock within half a mile of the slough and prepared +o camp there for the night. Many interest- ing plants were collected on the prairies near the slough before darkness drove us back to camp. Indian plantains (Mesa- denia), foxgloves (Agalinis), and helio- tropes (Heliotropium) grew nearly every where. Fully as interesting as the native plants was the climbing black-eyed Susan (Thunbergia alata), which we found ex- tensively naturalized on the prairie near the Okaloacoochee.. The plants now growing there may be the descendants of specimens introduced and cultivated in gardens the Seminoles maintained there fully a century ago. The following morning we broke camp about daybreak and proceeded to cross the slough. We parked our cars in its midst on the very spot where, it is said, more than sixty years ago Lieutenant Harsuff’s com- pany of engineers had their sanguinary ¢lash after they had destroyed the old chief’s garden just io with Chief Billy Bowlegs “see old Billy cut up.” The larger trees of this hammock c¢on- sist of the bald cypress or river ¢ypress (Taxodium distichum). It was a favorite spot for the Indians to obtain logs for mak- ing their dugout canoes. In the rainy sea- son there is commonly about six feet of water in the slough. After the rainy season the water table is naturally lowered by seepage. The waters, evidently, find their way directly into the Everglade basin, and directly or indirectly into the Gulf of Mexico. In the dry season most of ihe slough can be traversed on foot. It was the custom of the Indians to go to the slough in the dry season, cut down the trees they selected for making the canoes, and then wait for the wet season and high water to float the logs out toward the western coast. We went down the slough afoot just as the thousands of birds in the rookery were awakening. The birds mostly represented several species of ibis, and were present by the hundreds and thousands on the large cypress trees. In fact, they were so crowded on some of the giant cypresses that they were continually falling off for want of sufficient room to stand. As a consequence of not having been much disturbed by man, they were so tame that one could walk In the Okaloacoochee Slough dead trees as well as living serve as part of the ibis rookery, for the birds are so numerous that space is used. Their nests are rm sticks in the trees or on ledges of rock. During the day the birds leave the rookery, traveling in more or less definite groups or companies. ‘This photograph was taken in the morning, after the rreater number of the birds had departed a Se A NATURAL AMBUSCADE the United States Army fought the perhaps from this very spot—commands of growth of shrubs whose.stems are intertwined with woody vines vood of river cypress in the lower part of the slough. From such beautiful coverts Indians during the Seminole wars. A riotous form an almost impenetrable thicket extending back to a The hammock floor is a mass of ferns and small herbs; Boston and sword ferns in particular are prevalent. There ire at least fifty other kinds of ferns—many of them epiphytic—which display the greatest possible variety in structure and contour 494 A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO THE BIG CYPRESS toward them, set up a camera, and photo- graph them at short range. There was water in the lower parts of the slough, but none was visible, for the sur- face was completely covered with a soft carpet of various small aquatics. These were distributed in patches of beautiful shades of green. In the higher parts of the slough ferns and flowering plants grew in about profusion and remarkable luxuriance. The growth reminded me of that in the hammocks of the eastern shore of Lake Okeechobee.1 The large, straplike leaves of the spider lily and the paddle- like leaves of the golden club or bog torches (Orontium) were very conspicuous. The leaves of the golden club here at its most southern known station were fully three feet long, while the fruiting spadices lying around on the ground were thrice the size of any that I have ever observed at the north. The lizard’s-tail (Saururus) was also there in great abundance. Thus these typically northern plants, the lizard’s-tail and golden club, are there inti- mately associated with such typically south- ern plants as the water hyacinth and the water lettuce. Other southern elements rep- resented are the Boston fern (Nephrolepis exaltata) and the wild coffee (Psychotria undata). : After making a collection of all the plants observed and photographing the more interesting views, we returned to our cars, crossed the slough, and set out over the prairie in the direction of Rocky Lake, which lies in an uncharted spot in the Big Cypress between the Okaloacoochee Slough and the Everglades. As we pro- ceeded, palmetto hammocks, hardwood ham- mocks, and cypress heads became more nu- merous on the prairie. At last we came to the hammock surrounding Rocky Lake, which is known to the Seminoles as Okee- hy-yot-lochee, a word said to mean “wide- open-water,” where we camped for lunch, and made collections of the plants. This lake is contained in a rock basin several acres in extent. It is said that it is fully seventy-five feet deep, and abounds in fish and alligators. Of course, it would be some- what of an exaggeration to say that one could walk across the lake on the alligators’ equal 1See Journal of the New York Botanical Gar- den, Vol. XV, pp. 69—79; Vol. XIX, pp. 279— 290. The AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, Vol. XVIII, pp. 684-700. Aests 495 backs; but they were more numerous than I have ever seen them elsewhere. After lunch we set out for the ruins of an Indian mission? which some years before had established the site of the one-time Fort Shackleford, and then aban- After leaving Rocky Lake the trail wound in been near doned. and out between hammocks and cypress heads until finally more open prairie was reached. When we arrived at the Seminole mis- sion we were now not more than four miles from the western edge of the Everglades. A unique specimen of the cabbage tree was observed—a: five-fingered object, with five branches of about equal length arising from the trunk, just above the surface of the ground and all in one plane. Probably no- where is this duplicated. Many interesting plants were found in the vicinity, especially several loosestrifes (Lythrum), and a false indigo (Amorpha) which is apparently different from any known species. *The old Seminole mission thirty-five miles beyond Immokalee was established about 1910-11 through the instrumentality of William Crane Gray, then Bishop of southern Florida, for the Protestant Episcopal Church, the work being undertaken by Dr. William J. Godden, of Green- wich, England, who happened then to be touring the United States. Dr. Godden, a man of high connections and attainments, soon won the love of both red and white men. Originally, he started a small hospital and social center for the Seminoles at a point about seventy miles back from Fort Myers, near the historic site of old Fort Shackle- ford. He called this first settlement Glade Cross— because of its proximity to the Everglades and the large white cross he mounted against a cabbage palm. But when a couple of red patients died in the hospital ro more Seminoles could be in- duced to come near the place. The mission was thereupon transferred to the lonely outpost culled Boat Landing, ou the edge of the Everglades, at that time the head of all the canoe trails of the region. It was not long, though, before the par- tial drainage of the Everglades dried the canoe trails, and Boat Landing ceased to be a port of call, or any port at all. So the doctor once more moved his mission, this-time to about the center of the present Seminole Reservation, five or six miles from his former locations, right in the heart of the Big Cypress, where he hoped to establish an experimental farm. He put up a number of buildings—a store, a dispensary, var- ious shelters. He employed the Seminoles to dig a couple of miles of drainage ditches about the place. He himself worked far harder than any- one else—without pay, mostly alone, always de- voted, perfectly kind—while his people in Eng- land urged him to return to them. He died at the mission, suddenly, presumably of heart fail- ure, in 1914. And now Glade Cross is jungle again; only a few broken canoes mark the site of Boat Landing; and the last site of all, still called “Godden’s Mission,” is merely a weedy, haunted ruin, The doctor’s body was buried at Im- mokalee, a Seminole word which signifies “My Home.’’—Perley Poore Sheehan. 9G6F MOAING OURS OY} ULYIIM oovad Ut Suol oar 0} ATOYT, oq P[NOA s[MO Suno0k asoy} SV POOF JO Sjoscour SUA} YOUS PUB OYVUSO[}IVL V RUZ Podatfod AR IaAd aUOKUL P[NOD MOFT “poqanjstp US| ySvo[ JR—aANUUL PUR ‘od10A ‘ooULALOddE UL SNOTIA 91 SpatTq GUNO oYY YU “Joos MoF B ULIALM poyorordde oq ABUL puR oUIR) TayyRAI oaR auaq Seyoul JYStO co XIS A[UO ST A[UOMMTTOD puk MOLING YY JO Suruedo oy} WOLF JOOF JYSTO LO XIS Jnoqe ying st ysou oT, “Sura AARoY Suranp jo sjand owos fotour 10 aATOM} 0} daa] MOAy SIMO JUaIvd aT, “@oRJANS oY} YP UOTJONASop WOLF PoAdosord aiv Woy} UL S]SoU oY} PUL AO] MOY [OATLUE OM YLYY SMOTING WIA poquoosouoy, OS ATG OL ad oly QURAJUA OY}J—AO}JOWRIP UL SoloUL XIS ynOqGR sfoY B otarRad oy} JO puLs oy} UL PUY SoUIIOUIOS 9 \\ SojO, PONG "s[MO SurMmoOacang oy} JO ouloy otf} 0} GNVS S3HL NI MOYYNEG V SO GNF YV4 SHL LV SIMO DNNOA JO SUMO}, UL Ind00 L6Ft TAIBAM OY} OF Sdat} Vt] JO Ss Upratds ay} WoT, YoRort ssow Suoy oy} purx ‘wiraas sty} fo syur i YEN puR AA00L0 TN Op INO ut anbrun VIR SBARI] 1 Suo}]XoO SSet TO 910UL Oy 0} JUaTAIpadMt vy} Jou St Aypensn ‘advospu a} SIaod ayt jo Aaeqr ty Sty} t L9}UM OY} S.1OAOD PELE EOE. aye(d orydeasojoyd oy} Ssorduat 0} palley punoa«syonq JYST oy} UO SAO[OD Alay} ynq ‘KyxS oY} YSUIRSe 4I Sururgno ‘poydeasoyoyd sum ni Gey oat} SI} JO do} oy} patoeaod spaiq oy, ‘edvospuvy oy} oO} onbsarnyord oy} JO YONo} AeYyJANZ V SPpB 4YVY} UodaYS OL][BJOU B YIM SSUIM poyojorjs}no ALY} Seystuang uns oy 1YSIp [NJtemod Iley} Ul asta AOY} UOYM PUB 4SOOL SpiAIq 94} JO SporpuNny soeay YURLS 94} Jo SquIyT Suripraadsopim oy} Up “SIqt SL aN 2} PUB SSOUL VplMO,] JO SLOMIVETS OJIYM YSTARIS SULABA OY} YIM JSuajuoD AQ poylsueyul st ‘sysno[s oy} sjsetoy AlaSavl YOM ‘sseadAod AVAIL oy} JO UseIs JuRT[IAq Oo «SSAYdAO SIG, VOINOIS SHL AO 3aYL LNVID V JO OZIS 0 Jo WIM vo 500 Wild orange trees, some with sour fruits, others with sweet, occur in the hammocks of the Big Cypress. Of course, some of these are the remnants of trees planted by the Seminoles; but others may be derived from ancestors planted there by the abo- rigines of that region or by the Spanish adventurers themselves. The cypress of the region outside of the large sloughs was the pond cypress (Taxo- The prairies were showy flower gardens. Several species of Polyg- ala, several of Sabbatia, three or four kinds of terrestrial orchids, and a number of dium ascendens). other conspicuous plants, both monocotyle- dons and dicotyledons, often covered acres in extent. A yellow-flowered bladderwort grew copiously in extensive patches in the Many rare and _little- future dry white sand! known plants were collected for study. Rocky Lake proved to be the lunch sta- tion. While in a temporary camp near the shore the writer rescued two animals from living graves. On two different occasions, while going to the lake for a drink of water, he was startled by agonizing cries. In the first instance, a large water moccasin had caught a mocking bird and was at- tempting to swallow it. In the second in- another moccasin had caught a frog which he was trying to slip down his throat. In each case the victim went free and, it is to be hoped, survived. After recrossing the Okaloacoochee Slough, instead of retracing our former course we turned more to the westward and headed-for the colony of Immokalee. After passing through stretches of forest and prairie we came in view of the scattered houses of the settlement. This colony, situ- ated about thirty miles in a direct Jine from stance, Fort Myers, comprises a general store and We reached Fort Myers shortly after sunset, and early the following morning started up the Caloosa- hatchee River by the same course we had taken several days before. a few dwelling houses. Numerous stops NATURAL HISTORY were made along the way for collecting plants and taking photographs. Palmdale, where we took the trail over the great Indian Prairie, was reached early in the afternoon. The herbaceous vegetation and magnificent palmetto hammocks not vis- ible in the dark gave an entirely different impression of the prairie region. Some of the same genera of plants were common to both the Indian Prairie and the Big Cypress but the species were usually different. The Caloosahatchee River is evidently a natural boundary between different floral regions. The most striking feature in the vegetation of this prairie, however, is the cabbage tree. This palm grows in small clumps and also forms hammocks from one to many acres in extent, surpassing in luxuriance any growth of it I had seen previously. After the usual bumping of banks and sand bars the ferry landed us on the oppo- site shore of the Kissimmee River whence we at once set out over a trail which seemed to have endless windings, but which finally brought us to Okeechobee City. From there, after a night’s rest, we journeyed to Fort Pierce, collecting as we found favorable places in the pine woods and in the swamps, and next day we started on the final stage of our return trip to Miami. The city was reached without further incident, except the passing survey of a large hammock on a high sand dune along Saint Lucie Sound or Lower Indian River, which has already been partly described! and which has been designated for thorough exploration. This preliminary survey deeply impressed upon us the wonderful natural history of that little-known region. Our time was limited and the region was large, but some day, before drainage and other depreda- tions of civilization, not to mention vandal- ism, have removed the bloom from that still unspoiled garden, we hope to make another and longer visit to the land of the Big Cypress. 1 Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, Vol. XIX, pp. 76-77. The Gypsy Moth in New Jersey HK gypsy moth (Porthetria dispar) entered America in 1868, and it has been one of the most troublesome of insect pests ever since, but by great effort and the expenditure of millions of dollars it has been confined to the New England States. Now, however, it has invaded New Jersey... T probably — started about 1911 through the introduction of blue spruces from Holland for the James B. Duke estate at Somerville (about his invasion imported 2500 acres extensively planted to evergreens At that time there was virtually no government inspection sys- and ornamental shrubs). tem in force and the pest probably came in at the docks without being noted. The infested area now covers about one territory with addition the hundred miles of Somerville as the center. In square insect has been located at Deal Beach, South Orange, Paterson, Ridgewood, and Madison, New Jersey, and also at Loretto, These infestations owed their origin to trees shipped Duke estate. All of the stock that has ever been sent out from this estate is being traced and inspected by federal men. The New State Department of Agriculture is planning to ask an immediate appropriation to be used in fighting the pest: The entire northern part of New Jer- sey with its valuable estates and ornamental plantings is threatened. The insect attacks especially shade and forest trees, although it feeds also on the trees of the orchard. Pennsylvania. from the Jersey Indeed, the destructive ability of the noc- turnal young caterpillars may be judged from the fact that they feed on more than If it were an insect that attacked agricultural crops, five hundred species of plants. each farmer might be able to save his own acreage, but the protection of shade trees and forest areas must rest with state and federal governments. New England is spending $1,000,000 every year just to hold this insect in check within its boundaries. If the gypsy moth is allowed to spreid in New Jersey, it is only a question of time before it will be in New York and neighboring states which have unusually large forest interests. Evergreens, when once their foliage is lost, are killed for all time, and deciduous trees, if de- foliated than three succession, usually die also. It will probably require from three to five years before we can say with any de- more two or years in gree of certainty that the gypsy-moth pest The whole territory will have to be scouted again and again to be sure that nothing has been missed. It is greatly to be hoped that the plague has not found entrance to the forests of Watchung Mountains just outside of Somerville. If it is there, the work will take and effort because of the difficulty of spraying trees on the mountain- side.—H. B. Werss, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics and Inspection, New Jersey State Department of Agriculture. in New Jersey has been cleaned up. more time Foreign Insects Newly Come to America’ SMALL member of the Lepidoptera, a pyralid moth (Pyrausta nubilalis), has recently found its way to this country from Europe, probably in a ship- ment of broom corn from Austria-Hungary, and some of our best economic entomologists ‘ear that it may become a very serious pest. It was discovered in 1919 infesting corn in the vicinity of Boston. The insect has only one brood a year in some places, but in others not only do adults appear in May from larve that have overwintered in old stalks, but there is another generation in midsummer, The larve bore their way into the tassel stalk, causing it to break, or into the main stem, lowering the vitality of the plant, or into the ear, spoiling it for food. Pyrausta breeds, also, in a great variety of weeds which makes it more difficult to con- trol. Another introduced pest is the “green Japanese beetle” (Popillia japonica) which skeletonizes the leaves of various trees It is a small searabeid newly and hardy shrubs. that was discovered in 1916 in Burlington County, New Jersey, but a recent bulletin states that in 1919 it had increased to such an extent that 20,000 beetles could “be col- ' For fuller details of these and other insects common in the northeastern United States see the 1921 edition of Field Book of Insects. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 501 lected by hand by one person in a single day.” The first beetles probably came in with earth surrounding the roots of some ornamental plant such as iris or azalea. Among the foreign insects which have entered American ranks, spreading beyond their point of entry, it is pleasant to record one which is not injurious. This is Calosoma sycophanta, well named “caterpillar hunter,” a European beetle which was introduced near Boston some years ago to help in the control of the brown-tail moth. It is now well repre- sented in the vicinity of New York City. On the other hand, practically every one of the insects that are seriously injurious to our crops in America are species. I do not recall now a single native introduced ° NATURAL HISTORY insect that is a decided plague. The Hessian fly and the cabbage butterfly, for instance, are both introduced species. Our native insects have been here a long time and have already spread as far as they are going to. Foreign insects, however, which have just come in will spread until they have reached a distributional limit. That they multiply so rapidly and can spread with such alarming speed is explained in part by the fact that the parasites which preyed upon them in their old homes were not introduced with them. Our economic entomologists are importing these enemies of the foreign insects as the most feasible method of control.—FRaNK E. Lutz, Asso- ciate Curator of Insects, American Museum. A Case in Point to Prove the Value of Prolonged Research HE facts are being set forth, by Samuel J. Record, professor of forest products and expert on wood identification at Yale University, of a wonderful achievement in lumber drying. Mr. Harry Donald Tie- mann, dry kiln specialist of the Government Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, has revolutionized the industry 1 and he did it at just the psychological mo- ment in the history of lumber drying in the United States. This was when we entered the World War and the demand became im- mediate for vast amounts of dry lumber for the various implements of war. Lumber manufacturers had no quick method for dry- ing oak, hickory, and walnut, the woods especially needed. The customary method often required four or five years—merely to expose the timbers in protected piles. Dry kilns were used only for shingles and other thin specimens or for the softer woods. Fortunately for the situation, one man in the country had been spending years of re- search on this very problem, namely, the behavior of wood relative to its moisture content. He had experimented during six years at Yale Forest School, using testing machines and compiling results gained from ‘IT quote from a letter from Professor Record: “What I have attempted to do is to lift the veil of anonymity that shrouds government employ- ment and reveal the great work of an individual. Of course others and the organization have helped in the practical application but the basic fact and theories were worked out through years of concen- tration on the part of Mr. Tiemann.”’ crushing and breaking wood under all con- ditions of moisture—green, water-soaked, kiln-dried, air-dried, boiled, and steamed. He had continued his experimental work at the Forest Products Laboratory, of the University of Wisconsin, from 1909 to the opening of the war. Here he had been able to use experimental kilns in which temper- ature and humidity were under measured control, as well as circulation of air. He finally evolved from his long series of ex- periments a process by which the drying is accomplished through regulation of the humidity in the kilns—the kilns being espe- cially devised drying chambers of his own invention, but of such character that they can be developed without great difficulty from the manufacturer’s ordinary kilns. There could be no more powerful specific proof of the value of prolonged scientific research and experiment, whether within an industry or under the auspices of the goy- crnment or in an academic institution. These kilus invented by Mr. Tiemann allowed drying the most refractory kinds of lumber in limited periods of time and with no loss of either strength or elasticity of the wood. Oak for wheel stocks was perfectly seasoned in three months instead of from three to five years; black walnut was dried for army rifles in two months; and aéroplane stock was pre- pared in one month. It is not easy to esti- mate or properly appreciate the value to the nation of so vast a service.—THE Epiror. Notes Owine to unavoidable delays in the preparation of NaruraL History it has been necessary to omit the July-August number, and the present issue for Septem- ber-October, containing an increased num- ber of pages and illustrations, takes its place. Sir NorMAN Lockyer, for fifty years edi- tor of Nature and one of the leading astro- physicists of the world, died on August 16. Sir Norman was one of the pioneers in the application of spectroscopy to astronomy. He was the first to observe the solar promi- nences at times other than during an eclipse, discovering in the course of this study the element helium twenty-seven years before it was isolated on the earth. He was director of the British Solar Physics Observatory from 1885 to 1913. Later he devoted him- self to erecting an observatory and station at Sidmouth, where he spent the last years of his life. Not only in pure science but also in public activities was Sir Norman a leading figure in England. He was among the first to impress the British government as to the value of science to the army and navy; he led in the founding of the British Science Guild, which remains as an institu- tion for stimulating the application of science; and it was indirectly owing to his clear presentation of the needs of the na- tion that the government made large grants to the universities for scientifie research. Worp has recently reached the American Museum of the death in 1916, in the Faytim, of “Richard Markgraf, the veteran collector of Egyptian fossils. Mr. Markgraf was an Austrian by birth and, in his earlier years, a professional musician. While in the prime of life, serious pulmonary trouble made it necessary for him to leave the humidity of Europe and so he moved across the Medi- terranean to Egypt, where the wonderful arid climate enabled him to continue life in moderate comfort for twenty years or more. Ifere he took up natural history col- lecting as a means of livelihood, and after the discovery by the Egyptian Survey, about the year 1900, of the remarkable ancient mammal fauna in the desert sands along the edge of the Faytm. depression, he di- rected his efforts to the search for these fossils, working during the cooler months of the year with a small caravan of two or three camels and a native assistant. In this work he was employed principally by Professor Eberhard Fraas, of the Stuttgart Museum, and the extensive collections sent by Markgraf to that institution have since been the subject of elaborate memoirs by German paleontologists. The American Museum’s expedition to the Fayiim in 1907, under the leadership of President Henry Fairfield Osborn, was visited in its desert camp by Markgraf, who was at that time unemployed. His services were immediately engaged, and he carried on, with his own equipment, exploration work in that vicinity for several months. After the return of the expedition to America he was employed at intervals over a period of two or three years for short trips into the desert, always with success. As a total result of this work our Faytim collection has been greatly increased and several of the choicest specimens of the American Museum are credited to him. THE hundredth anniversary of the birth of Andrew Haskell Green was celebrated on October 6 in New York City. He was at one time president of the Board of Education and comptroller of the city, and was closely associated in the last named capacity with the founding of the American Museum. In 1869 Mr. Green was elected a trustee of the American Museum and was appointed a mem- ber of its executive committee, on which he served until 1881. He was active not only in promoting the increasing usefulness and popularity of the institution, but also in the encouragement of research. WE record the death of Mr. Frank Slater Daggett, director of the Museum of History, Science, and Art, of Los Angeles. Mr. Dag- gett spent the greater part of his life in commercial pursuits in Minnesota and Illi- nois. In 1911 he entered on a professional scientific career when he assumed the direc- torship of the newly founded museum in Los Angeles. Here he supervised the col- lection of important exhibits representing the natural history of southern California, and exploited scientifically the now famous asphalt deposits at Rancho-la-Brea. 003 A+ NATURAL BaroN GERARD DE GEER, professor of geol- ogy in the University of Stockholm, and Mrs. de Geer, together with Dr. R. Lidén and Docent E. Antevs, visited the American Museum on August 20. The party has come to this country to study the geological chronology since the Glacial period. Pro- fessor de Geer has worked out and applied in Europe a method of counting the seasons by the laminated clay layers annually de- posited by the glaciers during the melting seasons. THE record enrollment in the United States for students of geology is announced by the University of Oklahoma. There are this year one thousand students in the de- partment, which maintains a staff of four associate and thirteen assistant professors in addition to the head of the department. Microscopic work is being offered for the first time this year, including a_ special study of cuttings from oil wells provided from the Healdton, Oklahoma, oil field, through the courtesy of the Roxanna Oil Company. AN account of the drilling of our deep- est wells in recent years and some of the scientific problems which they help to solve is told by Mr. Robert G. Skerrett in the Scientific American. The drilling of the deepest well in the world was interrupted by a cave-in far down in the hole after a depth of 7579 feet had been reached. This well, called the Lake well, was sunk in West Virginia in 1919, with the hope of reaching an oil-bearing strata of sand at 8000 feet. The second deepest well, the Goff well, is also in West Virginia, and reached 7386 feet before it was discontinued in 1918 be- cause of the breaking of a cable; the third deepest well in the United States, the Geary well in Pennsylvania, was crushed in at 7248 feet by a water pressure of nearly 3000 pounds to the square inch. Although the boring of all these wells had to stop a few hundred feet short of the objective, it revealed a number of geologic facts of im- portance. The Geary well, in particular, penetrated layer after layer of rock salt below 6800 feet, showing that these strata extend in sheets of many thousand square miles as “the remains of fossil ocean water imprisoned in mid-Palewozoic time”—which may contain valuable deposits of potash _ forest of ESL OR salts so important for agriculture. The United States Geological Survey has inyesti- gated the problem of subterranean temper- atures with specially designed apparatus in all three of these wells, recording a tem- perature of 168.6 degrees Fahrenheit at 7500 feet in the Lake well. Two very important aids to the use of scientific literature on South America have recently appeared, the one a bibliography of the mineralogy and geology of Chile, the other a bibliography of the geology, mineral- ogy, and paleontology of the republic of Argentine. A NUMBER of minerals, of which chaleed- ony is the most commoa, have been found replacing wood, as in the noted petrified Arizona. Replacement by dolo- mite, a common limestone mineral, has now for the first time been described? in a speci- men from Kern County, California. Dr. AMADEUS W. GraABAU, formerly pro- fessor of paleontology in Columbia Univer- sity, has been appointed to a chair at the University of Peking. He will also serve as a member of the Chinese Geological Survey. Dr. W. D. MarrHew, curator of verte- brate paleontology in the American Mu- seum, in a discussion® relative to discoveries of fossil vertebrates in the West Indies and the bearing of these on the origin of the Antillean fauna, concludes that the islands are not remnants of a former continent, nor have they in any likelihood been connected at any time with either of the American continents. The geologic evidence, as well as the submarine topography, is not favor- able to either idea; the geology positively forbids connection with Florida. The islands are not very old geologically and have been built up by uplifting blocks The fauna is very in- a former and voleanie action. 1 J. Briiggen, Bibliografia minera y jeoléjica de Chile. Boletin mineralégicas de la Sociedad de Mineria, Santiago de Chile, Vol. XXXI, 1919, pp. 441-513, 539-607; Enrique Sparn, Biblio- grafia de la Geologia Minera’ogia y Paleonto- logia de la Republica Argentina, 1900-14, Aca- dcmia National de Ciencias Miscelanea: No. 2, Cordoba, 1920. - Journal of Geology, Vol. XVIII, 1920, p. 356. By Mr. S. F. Adams, of Stanford University. 3 Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. LVIII, 1919, p. 161. NOTES complete and entirely insular in character and not the result of invasion from either North or South America over a supposed “land bridge.’ On the contrary the fauna must have arisen as the result of coloniza- tion through storms and ocean drift. Tue Bureau of Biological Survey at Washington, D. C., will in the future con- duet the bird banding formerly carried on by the American Bird Banding Association under the auspices of the Linnean Society of New York. identification bands on both water and land This enterprise of placing birds has already proved very instructive and when carried out on a large scale should give valuable information with reference to migration routes, speed, longevity, affinity for nesting sites, and behavior in general. The codperation of volunteers throughout the country is earnestly solicited. Mr. Eninu Root, speaking at this Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration of the Metropolitan Museum, expressed what civilization has long accepted as true, that the cultivation of taste is one of the mightiest agencies in the conflict between the discontent and tedium of life and happiness. We should add to this the practical dictum of Mr. Frederick Lee Ackerman, of Trowbridge and Ackerman, New York architects, who re- cently contributed an article to a symposium on education and art in the Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum, that a true apprecia- tion of art comes to very few except as a result of some creative experience. One key, then, to uplifting the spirit and refining the point of view of the laboring classes and advancing the happiness of all members of the race, would seem to lie in giving every student before he enters the period of self- support enough training through individual practice to provide him with an avocation Is it true that we must become a race of amateur artists before we can have any great output in art, any coun- try-wide appreciation and devotion to art, or any large number of artists of the highest rank? in some line of art. THE problem of opening the world’s liter- ature to the blind appears to have been finally solved through an invention by Dr. D05 EK. E. Fournier d’Albet which has been constructed in a_ practical cial form by Dr. Archibald ment maker of Glasgow. The translation of optical into acoustic effects is by way of an electric current through the metal, selenium, and Barr, instru- commer- whose conductivity varies with the incident light intensity. attached in the circuit. dots of different fre- quencies are flashed on to the printed line, letter by letter. Those dots which fall on white paper are reflected back while those which fall on the black of the type are ab- sorbed. certain An ordinary telephone re- ceiver is selenium Luminous musical Each letter accordingly blots out notes and chord while all the chords together consti- tute a sound alphabet which may readily be learned by most persons in a short time. The instrument as perfected by Dr. Barr can gives a characteristic be adjusted to any ordinary printed type. Mr. JOHN BARRETT, director-general of the Pan American Union since 1907, retired from this post on September 1. He is sue- ceeded by Dr. L. S. Rowe, formerly chief of the division of Latin American of the State Department. affairs COLONEL W. B. GREELEY, chief of the Forest Service, returned early in September from Alaska, where he made an inspection of the Tongass National Forest. Colonel Greeley reported that the national forests of Alaska were able to supply a million and a half tons of wood pulp yearly and still keep the cut within the annual increase. The Tongass region alone can perpetually supply one half of the present news-print requirement of the United States. The gov- ernment, by limiting this cut to an amount not exceeding the natural increase, will make the supply of pulp wood permanent so that manufacturers interested in the Alaskan field can count on raw material. THE United States Forest Products Lab- oratory at Madison, Wisconsin, held its De- cennial Celebration on July 22-23. Repre- sentatives from every wood-using industry were present. Dr. Carlisle P. Winslow, di- rector of the laboratory, delivered an 1E. E. Fournier d’Albe, ‘‘The Type-reading Op- tophone.” Nature, Vol. XCIV, 1914, p. 4, and “The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by the Ear,” ibidem, Vol. CV, 1920, p. 259. 506 NATURAL address at the banquet in which he quoted many of the results of the work of the laboratory. Investigation on the mechanical properties of woods has permitted a 20 per cent increase in allowable working stresses in structural timbers; experiments on the proper nailing of boxes have given results which will prevent damage to commodities in shipment; experiments on water-resistant glues and plywood for airplanes saved $6,- 000,000 in a year for the War Depart- ment alone; investigations on the uses of hull fiber and second eur cotton linters for pulp and paper have resulted in the estab- lishment of plants with daily capacity of 300 tons; studies in methods of turpentining have resulted in inereased yields. These are only a few of the problems upon which the laboratory has been working—and, in addition, a vast field lies as yet untouched. THE point is taken in an article in the current number of American Forestry, by Mr. George W. Sisson, Jr., president of the American Pulp and Paper Association, that the immediate problem in the paper and pulp question does not so much concern dis- covering a supply in some remote part of the continent as in promoting a supply by protection and reforestation in localities where the old established industries may be served—as in the northeastern United States. He advises as necessary, whatever policy be followed, a continent-wide cooper- ation looking toward economy in the use ot paper among all publishers and large con- sumers of paper or paper products. THE reduction of the appropriation for forest investigation by $28,728 in the Agri- cultural Bill which has passed Congress is nothing less than a calamity. Experi- ments in forestry are not matters of an hour, but require decades for completion, so that this cutting off of financial support from the Forest Service for experimentation will effect in many instances the abandonment of research work carried on for the last ten or fifteen years. The reduction will close three of the four Forest Service Experiment Sta- tions which are located at Priest River, Idaho, at Colorado Springs, Colorado, at Flagstaff, Arizona, and at Stabler, Washing- ton. Such a curtailment can by no means be urged on the basis of economy, for forest in- vestigations have resulted in great saving of HISTORY lumber and increase of revenue from the na- tional domain which have repaid many times over the cost of maintenance of the stations. It will be noted that this bill carries the usual appropriation of $239,000 for the dis- tribution of free seeds by Congressmen. Tue forest depletion of the United States and possible remedial measures are sum- marized in a recent circular of the Depart- ment of Agriculture.t More than two thirds of the primeval forests of the United States have been cut or burned over and three fifths of the timber originally in the country is gone. At present about 26 billion eubie ‘feet are cut from the forests annually and only 6 billion grown again. This is not use of forests but their devastation. Cor- rection of the situation can come only through restocking the 326 million acres of cut-over timber lands now standing idle. This program requires a national forest policy on a much greater scale than at pres- ent exists and also active cooperation by the several states. Ecology, the official organ of the Ecologi- cal Society of America, calls atiention to the fact that the preservation of natural areas for scientific study is of incalculable im- portance. One of the best ways for accom- plishing this, it points out, is through co- operation with those organizations especially working for the conservation of particular regions, such as the Okefinokee Society and the Save the Redwoods League. AN addition of 130 acres of giant Sequoias to the Roosevelt National Park has been presented to the United States Government by the National Geographic Society. When the park was established in 1916 the society supplemented the original Congressional ap- propriation by a gift of $20,000. Tue National Geographic Society has en- gaged Mr. William L. Finley, formerly state biologist of Oregon, to obtain motion pic- tures of the rare birds and mammals of the North American continent. Dr. E.-W. NELSON, chief of the Biological Survey, has spent several months recently in 1 “Timber Depletion and the Answer.’ Depart- ment Circular 112, United States Department of Agriculture, 1920. NOTES Alaska for a study of fur-bearing animals and of the salmon industry. Improvement of the reindeer herds as a source of meat, fox farming, and the protection of the land fur-bearing animals have been assigned to the United States Department of Agricul- ture, and a permanent staff for these duties will be established in Alaska, THE Statement of the Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund for 1917, 1918, and 1919, has been issued by Dr. William T. Hornaday, director of the New York Zodlog- ical Park and campaigning trustee of the fund. The volume includes a_ special col- lection of illustrated campaign reports and papers on various features of conservation. This permanent fund, founded by gifts from Mrs. Russell Sage and other public- spirited persons, has now extended its activi- ties beyond the shores of North America, This Bhutan takin 5O7 especially into France and Belgium, where it has been engaged in promoting the pro- tection of The chief activities in North America, other than the campaign food erops. for protection of the grouse, have been the promotion of legislation such as the game sanctuary bill and the migratory bird treaty, aid in the creation of 6468 wild life sanctu- utilization in contribution to game aries, gi Canada, and opposition to the sale of seized plumage. A LARGE shipment of animals from Africa United among the has arrived in the States and has distributed New York, Philadelphia, and National zoological parks, been The safe arrival of the shipment was made possible largely through the energetie co- operation of the director of the National Zoological Garden of South Africa at Pre- toria, Mr. A. K. Haagner, who personally By courtesy of the New York Zodlogical Society (Budoreas tavicolor), for ten years past a resident of the London Zodlogical Garden, was a representative of the most southern of the three known species of this genus of Asiatic ruminants. that inhabiting Assam Valley, India, and Bhutan is chocolate-brown with black underparts; takin discovered by Mr. Anderson in the Province of Shensi, central China (see page 428), Toward the South the species become successively darker in color and shorter-haired; the Chinese is of uni form golden yellow; the Tibetan takin of Szechwan, southwestern China, shows an intermediate hue. The animals are about the size of our domestic cattle and are heavily built, yet they range over the rocky sides of high mountains with unusual nimbleness. In climbing precipitous slopes they are pos- sibly aided by the two false hoofs of each foot. which are apparently functional 508 NATURAL HISTORY brought the collection to America. The most valuable specimen is a Nubian giraffe, ten feet high. Among the other species of large mammals are included the nearly ex- tinct mountain zebra, sable and lechwe an- telopes, gemsbok, eland, gnu, springbok, blesbok, and Chapman zebra. Three indi- viduals of a new species of Rhodesian baboon were the special gift of Mr. Haagner. In return, the New York and _ Philadelphia zoological parks are planning to ship to Africa a representative collection of Ameri- can animals. Ix a recent illustrated pamphlet! by Mr. Ned Dearborn, of the United States Biolog- ical Survey, a definite stand is taken for the protection of the North American small mammal fauna, outside of the recognized pests, rabbits, rats, and mice. Fortunately, the advice given is likely to be followed the country over because of the enhanced mar- ket value of all kinds of fur. The differ- ent species in themselves are for the most part valuable because they help rid the country of insect and rodent pests, or, if vegetable feeders, are at least negative in effect because not feeding on cultivated crops—and as fur bearers they put “mil- lions of dollars a year into the pockets” of the Americans who trap them. The species considered in the pamphlet, with statement of food, the best season for trapping, directions for construction of traps, and for preparation of the skins for market, are more than a dozen in number. Among them are the striped skunk, the little . spotted skunk or “civet cat,” mink, weasel or “ermine,” otter, the different kinds of foxes, mole, muskrat, and beaver. The amount of American-grown raw fur available for the markets has decreased, it is said, from 25 to 50 per cent in the last ten years. Our great fur sales of today must be stocked from all parts of the world, and manufactured furs in 1919 brought prices 200 per cent higher than they did two or three years back. Mr. Dearborn, who has spent many years on this particular problem of investigation, gives specific constructive advice relative to the conservation of fur-bearing species and the permanent improvement of America’s wild fur. 1 Separate No. 823, reprinted from the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1919. Dr. JAMES WILSON, secretary of agricul- ture during the administrations of President McKinley, President Roosevelt, and Presi- dent Taft (1897-1913) and previously pro- fessor of agriculture in Iowa Agricultural College, died on August 26. Dr. RopNgEy H. True, who has had charge of physiological investigations in the United States Department of Agriculture, has re- signed from the department to accept the chair of botany in the University of Penn- sylvania. THE Crop Protection Institute, a codpera- tive group of investigators of insect pests and plant diseases and representatives of companies manufacturing poisons used in fighting these destructive agents, has been organized with the assistance of the Na- tional Research Council. Mr. Harrison E. Howe, chairman of the Division of Research Extension of the Council, is temporary secre- tary. Two new magazines in the field of arche- ology and anthropology have been inaugu- rated in Mexico. El Mexico Antiguo, under the editorship of Herman Beyer, is devoted to the archeology, ethnology, folk-lore, pre- history, ancient history, and linguistics of that country; Ethnos will appear as a monthly review of the anthropological sciences in Mexico and Central America. The editor of the latter, Manuel Gamio, is di- rector of the division of anthropology in the Department of Agriculture. He is widely known as the author of general works on the development of Mexico and Latin America. THE sources and authenticity of the his- tory of the ancient Mexicans as revealed by the surviving pictographie codices and maps are the subject of a recent monograph.2 Several of these Mexican documents ante- date the Spanish Conquest and recount the ancient migrations (probably from south- western United States), the subjection of Mexico, and the founding of the Aztee Em- pire. Dr. Radin discusses the degree of reliance with which these records may be accepted and concludes that they should yield a fair account of Nahuan and Aztec history from at least about 1109 a.p. There ° University of California Publications in Amer- ican Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. XVII, No. 1, 1920, pp. 1-150. By Dr. Paul Radin. NOTES is great need for a critical edition of all these ancient sources and for a search for undiscovered codices that undoubtedly lie forgotten in some of the older libraries of Europe. Dr. Radin reproduces in part the oldest known codex, the Codex Boturini, and several of the maps, and gives translations of certain of the commentaries. THE application of anthropological meth- ods to tribal development in New Guinea (Papua) is presented 1 by Lieutenant E. W. P. Chinnery, formerly acting resident magis- trate in the Delta Division of Papua. The problem is one of universal application, namely, how to stabilize primitive institu- tions so that the development of the culture of a savage people can proceed by way of something tangible to a higher plane of moral and social ideals. For this it is neces- sary to uphold the indigenous culture ex- cept where it conflicts with these moral and social ideals. The most difficult savage cus- tom with which a government has to deal is homicide in its various forms such as head-hunting and cannibalism. Among some tribes in Papua killing a man was a neces- sary accomplishment before a male could become an adult member of his tribe. “If homicide,” says Lieutenant Chinnery, “be an essential link binding together the social and religious fabric of a community, the suppression of homicide is likely to result in the collapse of the whole structure unless something equally capable of perpetuating tribal welfare is substituted to fill the void.” Such a_ substitution, successfully accom- plished, is narrated in the case of a tribe which had been in a state of disaffection for nearly five years due to the presence of a government station which prevented initia- tion of its youth, by prohibiting homicide. It was finally decided by the chiefs that the essential element in the custom that a youth must kill a man before he became eligible for initiation, was the demonstration of courage, which could be just as well proved by the killing of a wild boar. The result of this compromise was highly satisfactory to both the natives and the government. “My experience in Papua,” concludes Lieu- tenant Chinnery, “has convinced me_ that only by developing the natives and their cul- 1H. W.-P. Chinnery, ‘The Application of Anthropological Methods to Tribal Development in New Guinea.’ Journal of the Royal Anthropo- logical Institute, Vol. XLIX, 1919, p. 36. 5O9 tural institutions together can we hope to give them a civilization more beneficial than ‘the primitive life from which we intend to lead them.” Dr. CLARK WISSLER, curator of anthro- pology in the American Museum and presi- dent of the American Anthropological As- sociation, has pointed out in a paper on “Opportunities for Coédrdination in Anthro- pological and Psychological Research”? how differentiated. The with the processes the two séiences are one is concerned mental of the individual while the other studies races and cultures as group phenomena, Points of contact between the two sciences, however, are multiform, for an under- standing of the group presupposes knowl- edge of its elements, and in a study of the individual one must consider the social con- ditions within which he moves. Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de VAcadémie des Sciences, Tome 170, No. 16 (19 Avril 1920), p. 960. RR NOTES of the New York State Conservation Com- mission, has overcome this difficulty by using a centrifugal machine which concentrates the millions of minute forms sufficiently to allow transference to a fresh supply of water. He has thus made possible the maintenance of the animals until they have “set” or at- tached themselves to available objects, where- upon they can be handled and moved to suitable growing grounds. This puts oyster culture on a par with the now widely used fish culture. A COLLECTION of fishes, representing spe- cies especially valuable for study, was _ se- cured in Hawaii for the American Museum by Dr. B. W. Evermann, director of the Museum of the California Academy of Sciences, while in attendance at the Pan- Pacifie Congress. Dr. HrkosHicHiRO MatrsumorTa, assistant professor of paleontology in the Northeast- ern Imperial University, Japan, is making his headquarters at the American Museum while on a visit of several months to the United States. Professor Matsumota, who has previously published several papers on Pleistocene and later Tertiary mammals and reptiles of Japan and China, is now engaged in studying the prehistoric human remains of Japan. THE bust in bronze of John Muir, a half- tone reproduction of which appeared in the March-April number of Natura HIs- TORY, was presented to the American Mu- seum by Mrs. E. H. Harriman. The bust was modeled by Miss Malvina C. Hoffman, a well-known American sculptor, pupil of Rodin and of Borglum. She has exhibited her work frequently both in this country and abroad and received first honorable mention in the Salon, Paris, in 1910-11. ON October 27 the sixty-second anniver- sary of the birth of Theodore Roosevelt was commemorated beside his grave at Oyster Bay. Among the organizations sending rep- resentatives were the New York Botanical Garden, the Torrey Botanical Club, the New York Horticultural Society, the American Museum of Natural History, the National Association of Audubon Societies, the Amer- ican Scenic and Historic Preservation So- ciety, the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, and the New York Bird and Tree Club. 511 Mr. SuHow Siimorort, one of the ablest artists on the staff of the American Museum, has returned to Japan on an extended leaye of absence. For the last eleven years Mr. Shimotori has been associated with the de- partment of invertebrate zodlogy as one of a corps of skilled artists and modelers en- gaged in preparing the series of “window groups” in process of installation under the direction of Mr. Roy W. Miner. In this work Mr. Shimotori is responsible for the remarkably accurate and artistic coloring of the thousands of models of sea animals and plants comprising these groups, but the char- acter of his work is particularly well shown in the realistic coloring of the transparent backgrounds which form part of the set- ting. In some cases these are photographs on glass which he has colored by hand. In submarine effect has others, an unusual been produced by successive sheets of plate glass in such a way that when placed one before the other, the whole is blended into one composition. The work of Mr. Shimotori was not confined to the laboratory; he accompanied many of the department’s expeditions, and his work as field artist called for adaptability and ver- satility as well as artistic skill. coloring on Now that the New York Aquarium has a collecting boat, the “Sea Horse,” which ex- plores the salt waters of this neighborhood, the American Museum’s department of ichthyology through friendly codperation will learn many new facts about the move- ments of marine fishes. Mr. JuLiaN A. Dimock has been elected a patron of the American Museum in recog- nition of his gift of 38874 photographic negatives, including large series on many natural history subjects. Dr. W. D. MarrHew, curator of verte- brate paleontology in the American Mu- seum, New York, left in August for a visit to the museums of Europe. He expects to return some time in December. THE preservation of inland lakes and marshes in the interest of bird conservation in lieu of their indiscriminate drainage is recommended by Dr. E. W. Nelson, chief of the Biological Survey. The perpetuation of inland lakes and inland and coastal marshes is necessary to provide feeding and 512 NATURAL resting places for our migratory wild fowl. Even from the economic standpoint these lands probably, under proper protection, would prove of more value to the community in the game they yield than as agricultural lands. THe American Museum has long main- tuined a special collection of the birds found within fifty miles of New York City, grouped together in a separate exhibit. In connec- tion with this local group is arranged month- ly a seasonal display containing only those birds which may be expected during the cur- rent month. This gives a sort of picture of the bird life of the month and facilitates - the identification of any recently observed bird. Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator of HISTORY birds in the American Museum, has incor- porated this scheme in book form? with the aid of 301 drawings in color by Mr. Edmund J. Sawyer. A cabinet of drawings is ar- ranged so as to show in groups the permanent residents, winter visitors, and spring m1i- grants of the northern and southern sections of the eastern United States. On any one plate the birds are drawn to the same seale, so that their relative sizes are apparent, a feature which is an impertant aid in iden- tification. To these drawings are added 154 pages of what Dr. Chapman calls “labels,” giving briefly the distinctive characteristics, habits, and range of each. 1 What Bird is That? A Pocket Museum of the Land Birds of the Eastern United States Arranged According to Season. New York and London, 1920. SINCE the last issue of NaturaL History the following persons have been elected members of the American Museum: Patron, JULIAN A. DIMOCK. Fellow, GEORGE W. KorPER. Life Members, MESDAMES HELEN A. BELL, Henry D. Prescorr, THE HONORABLE Mc- DouGALL HAWKES, Messrs. Simon A. AL- CAIDE, SYDNEY BEVIN, Victor D. Bevin, WM. NELSON CROMWELL, WEBB FLOYD, and JOHN MARSHALL. Annual Members, MESDAMES PAULINE BoerTGeEr, C. F. BoKER, DupLEY Buck, Ros- ERT W. COLLINS, BAYARD DoMINICK, RICHARD A. Dorman, A. J.- Fox, M. J. KAuUFMANN, R. S. Kennoee, J. P. Knicut, Jr., Misses C. Hoskrns-MINEr, Matiupa J. McKrown, Auegusta N. Tompxins, Louise F. Wick- HAM, Doctors J. GEIGER, BERNHARD W. WEINBERGER, G. H. ZIMMERMAN, MESSRS. THOMAS H. AuiIson, WALTER Bauer, Louis 3EERMAN, WILLIAM BLUMSTEIN, FREDERICK Brooks, A. J. Brosseau, Nat. I. Brown, F. H. BROWNELL, WALTER BuCKNER, Harry CAPLIN, WALTER M. CARLEBACH, J. MAXWELL CARRERE, GEO. L. CoNNor, R. CLARENCE Dorsett, Henry DuNnKaAK, RALPH ELLIS, GEO. W. ENGLISH, ERLAND F. Fisu, PELL W. Foster, LAwrENCE D. Frank, Jacosp L. FRANKEL, W. FRAZER Gipson, M. GLAUBER, Henry W. Gorpon, B. GUGGENHEIM, ARTHUR B. HatcHer, CHARLES E. HEYMANN, L. G. Horst, ALBERT G. Kaupr, Henry G. F. LAUTEN, Epwin LupLow, JoHN Emery Mc- LEAN, Epwin W. Merriam, Gro. W. Ocus Oakes, JESCS SAscorts, MARKIAN STANKo, Harry WACKER, CHESTER W. WASHBURNE, and CHARLES WISNER. Associate Members, MESDAMES VINNIE R. ABORN, R. G. AITKEN, A. A. CRANE, ELLERY Davis, Mary K. Perers, Miss JOSEPHINE KeLy, Docrors T. M. ADERHOLD, IRA AYER, Ipa Barney, Ropert A. Buack, G. W. Boor, D. C. Bryant, J. E. Coacr, M. A. CuarK, T. SHIELDS COLLINS, JAMES E. CoNNETT, LAv- RENCE F. Cusick, Davip J. Davis, HENRY H. DONALDSON, CHARLES A. ERDMANN, JAMES S. Foot, R. B. Girren, T. CASPAR GILCHRIST, JOHN M. Gitz, C. H. Gurney, E. W. MontTGoMery, PROFESSORS WILLIAM DopéE Frost, Rurus Lot GREEN, HERBERT OsporN, Messrs. Durr A. ABRAMS, DEAN Bascock, MatcoLm H. BISsELL, CHARLES 8. Boyer, PETER A. BRANNON, JOSEPH A. Braza, FRANK H. Brewster, C. T. Brown, GEORGE BURNHAM, JR., WILLIAM PHILLIPS CAINE, THOMAS K. CHAMBERLAIN, ROLLIN L. CHARLES, SANFORD L. CLUETT, ALBERT H. CrosBy, W. H. Dauton, R. P. Dow, JAMES H. DuncAN, SaAMuEL L. EaRLe, RoBert J. FISHER, JOHN F. Firzparrick, ARTHUR DE Wint Foote, FREDERICK EUGENE FOWLE, Mauran I. FursisH, THOMAS S. GATES, JOHN GROSS, JAMES CoFFEE Harris, PauL B. Havmanp, A. P. HENDRICKSON, GEORGE Wm. Hitt, CHarntes F. Hinus, CHas. A. HuGHES, JOHN H. JONES, DELACOURT KELL, W. S. Kintron, ByroN LEAIRD, JOHN C. MARKEY, WILSON W. Mituis, Paun N. Myers, JOHN MiLTon OLivErR, JoHN H. PaCKarD, W. W. WALLACE, ALAIN C. WHITE, Wo. HENRY WHITE, Harris WHITTEMORE, and MASTER NALBRO FRAZIER. NATURAL HISTORY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM mi mi eis | J fr attty sa : NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, 1920 VOLUME XX, NUMBER 5 NATURAL HISTORY VoLUME XX CONTENTS FOR NOVEMBER-—DECEMBER Nomspzr5 Frontispiece, “At Tai-Yuen-lu There Are Twin Pagodas” From a photograph by Malcolm Playfair Anderson A Winter Journey in Northern China....MAtLconM PLAYFAIR ANDERSON 516 With photographs that tell the story of the ruin of the soil by centuries of erosion unimpeded by the forests that once covered the mountains Illustrated from photographs by the Author (the: Cmicormerand: slag ablonnts ne sere eee eee FrEDERIC A. Lucas 532 With an illustration of the horn, presentcd in 1590 to Pope Gregory XIV, which has recently been acquired by the American Museum Canadians DimOsauts sac sei coe eee Dee IE 2 3b ot og 2 W. D. MatrHew 536 Notable discoveries by members of the American Museum staff and others Illustrations from the collections in the American Museum Ten sDayseim Walitie cs. pak aver PS oi oles: Ree ceraee toLLO H. Beck 545 The pleasures and disappointments of bird collecting in Polynesia Unusual’ Photosraphs of wishes <3). sie. » 222+... HLWIN R.SANBORN 549 From Kayenta to Rainbow Bridge:........... CHARLES L. BERNHEIMER 552 Description of some of the natural beauties of northcrn Arizona Scenic illustrations from photographs by the Author Some Plants from Tropical Sea Gardens....... . MarsuALt AvERY Howe 560 Curious and beautiful scaweeds of our North American coasts and their importance as island builders Illustrated from photographs by the Author Sacred. Bundlestotrthe Pawneeecs = ca ance artes ..-CLARK WISSLER 569 Story of the manuscript accounts covering each detail of the rituals for these religious objects, the greatest of tribal treasures, now on exhibition at the American Museum The Optimistic Philosophy of a Naturalist... °....-.7.. G. CLYDE FisHEeR 572 Review of John Burroughs’ Accepting the Universe With a picture of ‘‘Slabsides’’—the poet naturalist’s retreat Proois.or the Lyolition of Mani... see S.C Aceeeeed: ...W. D. Marraew 574 We may hope to find the earliest human remains somewhere in the desert regions of central Asia Storve ot be. Wilniteloae silks tc ee sees oes epences Ba a eet M. P. SKINNER 576 Biography of one of the antlered wards of Yellowstone Park With photographs by the Author A Year’s Progress in’ Bird! Protection... 2.559.540... ..T. GILBERT PEARSON 584 The successful work of the National Association of Audubon Societies With a portrait of Mr. Pearson Thei@Onuestion- of: Correct, Diet Acc.) ae ee eer ae Mary Greig 587 The campaign of the American Museum against malnutrition among New York City’s school children Enjoyment of the Forest through Knowledge............... F. F. Moon 592 Mrées sag mE rienids). wires s.aco. fe susheiectoedste eee mtckc Ren pe Noe ap ene ase ae PI o's grog NO) 1 sc ee cri ein A Cetra Mies rape URE Leen th, aU escnee tege cote oa ae rn Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Subseription price, $3.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NaturAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of membership. : Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Aceeptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBERSHIP For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- erosity of friends. More than 5500 friends are now enrolled who are thus supporting the work of the Museum. ‘The various classes of membership are: Benefactor foe ge oe ee A Sey ets ee ee OO) Associate Founder ere ay gape. ee ee rae Bee Bay 0 40) ASSOLE Bene lAGrOn ana) tame weet Cee ere esses es 10,000 PARTON Syst ygd eterna eepesth gl sepa ier tary) (tm = RE 1,000 LESION ae BEE OSS es ee ee, Fee Oo ee 500 itebeMiremibers eth), em Pees ate lan bas ‘er 100 Pustaimine: Member) <2. 2.8 2. annually 25 Annual. Wembers es >...) 8). 2.6. .. annually 10 Associate Member (nonresident)* . . . annually 3 Full information regarding membership may be obtained from the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. * Persons residing fifty miles or more from New York City. NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM NaturaL History, recording popularly the latest activities in natural science and exploration, is published bimonthly by the American Museum of Natural History. The subscription price is Three Dollars a year. Naruran Hisrory is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of membership. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the Museum. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS A large number of popular publications on natural history, based on the explor ation and research of the Museum, are available in the form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed lst of these publications with price lists and full information may be obtained by addressing the Librarian of the Museum. SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the inside back cover of NaruraL History. Price lists and complete data may be obtained from the Librarian. i AT TAI-YUEN-FU THERE ARE TWIN PAGODAS. THE NEARER ONE LEANS ALMOST AS MUCH AS THE TOWER OF PISA NATURAL VOLUME XX NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, 1920 HISTORY NUMBER 5 A Winter Journey in Northern China By MALCOLM PLAY FATR ANDERSON Nore.—Narturau History has the good fortune to present to its readers another article by the late Malcolm P. Anderson. We quote from Professor Melville B. Anderson’s letter placing his son’s manuscript for publication in this magazine: “The article I enclose is no tale of sensational adventure, but a straightforward record of close observation in an out- 5 of-the-way portion of the state of Shansi, China. become, since the days of Marco Polo, a great rarity in far Cathay. Such a forest as is here deseribed has The photographs tell the melancholy story of the ruin of the soil by centuries of erosion, unimpeded by the forests that once covered the mountains.” The Journey Ty was a chilly morning in November when I left my inn at Tai-Yuen-Fu, the capital of Shansi Province, north China, bound on a trip westward into a region almost unknown to for- eigners, and where Europeans and Americans are equally unknown to the inhabitants. Besides muleteers I had with me only my cook and interpreter, Mang, and a Chinese hunter whom I called Joseph and whom I took chiefly as guide. The outfit of food, blankets, ammunition, and instruments was loaded on four pack mules, the loads heing so arranged that the men could ride on top as much as they pleased. I had no intention of riding, for I knew 1 should have no difficulty in keeping up with the mules. I may explain that this little expedi- tion was only an incident in a system- atic survey by myself of a consider- able part of eastern Asia for the pur- pose of obtaiming scientific specimens of animals and birds for the British Museum (London Zoological Society). | had heard of the existence of forested mountains in the direction I was tak- ing, and I was anxious to do some hunt- ing and trapping in the region before the coming of the winter weather. Tai-Yuen-Fu is situated in a wide valley running north and south and traversed by the Fen-Ho, a broad, shal- low stream of muddy water. Passing out of the west gate of the walled city, we crossed the river by a long, low, nar- row bridge built of pine poles and coy- ered with a thick layer of sorghum stalks. Then we began the ascent of the long, cultivated slope reaching from severe the river to the foot of the western hills. Peasants were flailing their mil- let that morning, and a few were plowing for winter wheat with teams composed of an ox and a donkey work- ing together in a very docile manner. At one village a festival was in prog- and actors im soiled, fantastic costumes of some previous dynasty were reproducing a drama of mythol- ogy in a little, open theater stand. Across the road was a small Buddhist temple, on the steps of which the vil- lage dignitaries were gathered to watch the performance while the common people from the narrow street. After traveling for some hours, we entered a canon in the treeless hills, d17 Tess, looked on oe “S ar RS ca ‘ef wa %& ge 4 i <€ : amr See: *8F; 1 THE DRUM TOWER IN THE CENTER OF TAI-YUEN-FU A MARKET SCENE ON A STREET IN TAI-YUEN-FU A WHEELBARROW LOADED WITH PUMPKINS ON A STREET IN TAI-YUEN-FU 519 520 where we began to encounter frequent pack trains of mules with loads of coal from the mines a little above. Large- wheeled barrows also loaded with coal came heavily down the narrow, rocky path, the sound of their squeaking being heard afar. Each wheelbarrow was handled by two men, one guiding and pushing, the other in the lead pulling with a rope. Only the wretchedly poor will toil for a livelihood as these men do in order to get their coal to market. Less frequently we met trains of mules and donkeys loaded with bars of pig. iron. As the muleteers seemed willing to keep on, we made no stop at noon that day, so that we reached the sum- mit of the hills rather early. Here was a hamlet of dugout dwell- ings, mere burrows in the loess banks. There was no inn, and the only house above ground was built of mud and stone and thatched with millet straw. Thad hunted in this neighborhood a few weeks before and was acquainted with the peasant who owned this house, so I was able to get a room for the night. The room was furnished with a “kang” or sleeping platform raised about twenty inches above the ground, built of stones and earth and having under- neath an opening for a fire. Here I caused a blaze of pine boughs to be kindled to heat the kang and the room, but, as the fireplace was not provided with a chimney, I was forced to walk about outside until the heating process was finished and the smoke had cleared away. Then, after my supper of boiled rice, Chinese steamed bread which I had brought from the city, and Amer- ican canned meat, | made myself com- fortable for the night by setting my camp cot on the heated platform. The next day, continuing the jour- ney, we first skirted the side of the sum- mit near which we had passed the night, then took a ridge of the hills leading northward, and came _ before nightfall down to the Fen-Ho again. Looking at my map, I could not see NATURAL HISTORY why it would not have been better to ascend the river to this point, but later I learned that the Fen-Ho makes a great bend which geographers evi- dently have not discovered. By coming up over the hills we had in fact made a considerable cut-off. On this second night we stopped be- side the river at a village called Ku- chow, which is about thirty-three miles northwest of Tai-Yuen-Fu. The houses of this place are built of gray brick and appear better than the huts of the hills; my inn, however, was as bad as even China can boast. Choosing from several hostelries the one that ap- peared best, we drove our mules through the great door into the large general room, which was already crowded with muleteers and other travelers. While the animals were being unloaded I looked around. There were no private rooms with the excep- tion of one little place occupied by the innkeeper. The general room had on one side a long kang already crowded with sleepers. Near the door two dirty fellows were boiling millet and sweet potatoes on a stove constructed of stones and earth. The floor was littered with cargoes and packsaddles. Many voices were raised in exclamations and curses, while from the rear, where the animals were stalled in a long shed, came the continual jangle of bells and the bray- ing of mules and donkeys. After a few moments the innkeeper came forward to welcome me, and surrendered to me his little room after turning out several ragged wretches who had been smoking opium there. The walls of this room were black- ened with smoke and loaded with the dust of all the years, no doubt, since the house was built. Under the kang, which was covered with a dirty, tat- tered reed mat, burned a fiercely hot coal fire which added to my discom- fort. The partition separating the squalid cell from the general room was a mere latticework which had once been A VILLAGE IN THE HILLS WEST OF TAI-YUEN-FU THE HAMLET WHERE THE FIRST NIGHT WAS SPENT ON THE WAY TO CHAO-CHENG-SHAN 522 NATURAL covered with paper,—now hanging 1n dust-loaded shreds,—so that whoever would, might look in on me. Needless to say, there was a crowd of curious on- lookers,—so I got out some scraps of paper and had my servant stick them on the lower parts of the lattice. But this did not serve as a sufficient hint; eyer and anon some rustic, bolder than his fellows, would burst open the door and stand staring at me. This went on until at last, losing patience, I gave the tenth uninvited guest a broader hint in the shape of a sprinkling of water, whereat he retreated to the great amusement of his companions, who roared with laughter. The Chinese feed their work animals on chopped grain-stalks, usually millet straw mixed with maize or beans. This is doled out to the beast in small quan- tities and frequently. So it comes about that a Chinese caravansary 1s always a noisy place at night; the driv- ers are continually going out to feed their animals, the while incessantly shouting boisterously at one another and cursing the mules. On the third day we turned up the valley of a tributary stream which en- ters the Fen-Ho from the westward. As we advanced, the mountains enclos- ing the valley to the north and south grew higher and more rugged, still how- ever preserving their bare, yellow ap- pearance. The valley was very stony, being little more than the bed of the stream in which there was at the time but little water. The fields were for the most part restricted to the valley and therefore stony; the villages that we passed were all poor; the mountain- sides, too steep and infertile for culti- vation, were given up to the pasturage of sheep and goats. We traveled due west all day, cover- ing a distance of perhaps twenty-five miles, and at nightfall we had almost reached the divide at the source of the stream. Joseph was acquainted with a peasant living in a small hamlet by the HISTORY wayside, so we put up for the night at his house. The aged grandfather, clad in sheepskin coat and cap, welcomed us with all the ceremeny he knew. Va- cating the best room in his hut, he turned it over to us for the night. It was a far better place than that in which I had passed the preceding night. My hunter and the muleteers repre- sented it as impossible to reach the monntain for which I was bound in less than five days, but as I had arranged to go in four, | was determined to make ‘an end on the fourth day. In the early morning we ascended to the divide which I had seen the day before; a slight snow was falling and a strong north wind blowing; all the higher mountains were enveloped in clouds. Looking onward from the pass, I saw no change in the character of the coun- try. I paused on the divide and found that my aneroid barometer recorded an altitude of seven thousand feet; this surprised me but I later found the read- ing to be approximately correct. Descending from the pass, still in a westerly direction, down another stony and nearly waterless stream bed, we reached before noon a rather large tributary of the Fen-Ho and a little town called Mi-Yueh-Cheng. The houses here, as at Ku-chow, were of eray brick. It was market day and the street was lined with peasants and merchants displaying their produce and wares on benches and tables as well as on the ground. Here my men wished to spend the fourth night, but I urged them on and so, after a short stop for a lunch, we took the trail indicated by Joseph toward the wooded mountain. That I had reached a wild, sparsely set- tled region was soon evident, for after we left the village, we passed but few dwellings, while trees and bushes be- came more and more abundant. We were following a small stream to its source, and late in the afternoon, im a drizzle of rain and snow which had con- A WINTER JOURNEY IN NORTHERN tinued all day and now became heavier, we reached another pass about a thou- sand feet higher than that of the morn- ing. ‘Through a momentary lifting of the fog I now caught a glimpse of the forested side of a mountain not far off. This was Chao-Cheng-Shan and I was glad, for until this day | had searched northern China in vain for a real forest. Somewhat beyond the pass but still short of the woods we came upon a farmer’s place on the steep mountain- side. Had Joseph not been acquainted with the people, we might have had difficulty in persuading them to receive us; as it was, however, we were greeted cheerfully and were assigned for the first night to the family room, displac- ing the wife and children of the young farmer. The house was a very rude affair,—a group of low buildings of earth and stones, clustered on the four sides of a small courtyard on a slope so steep that the roofs of the lower buildings were about even with the floors of those on the upper side. Most of the rooms were dark and smoke-blackened, but the one that was prepared for me the next day —for I decided to make the place my headquarters—had been newly added and was well lighted by one large win- dow. This room was small but clean, except for the dust which inevitably comes from the earth walls of such The kang occupied the front of the room, and at the inner end was the fireplace, a mere flue extending under the kang, and in this case there was a chimney. Into the end of the platform over the fireplace were set two large kettles which had to be kept full of water whenever there was a fire, so that I had not only smoke but steam to endure. Moisture from the steam condensed upon the rafters and formed a coating of ice which grew thicker and thicker as the days passed. buildings. The people of this lonely farm were very poor peasants, living by herding CHINA 523 cattle and goats on the mountains and by cultivating small patches of ground near their home. ‘They seemed to sub- sist chiefly on oats and potatoes. Be- sides the ordinary potato, which is good though small, a tuber about the size of a cherry is extensively grown. The oats they grind and boil into a pudding, er they parch and grind them to flour, and eat this mixed with water. This preparation tastes much like pop corn. Leeks are raised as a delicacy of which the people are particularly fond, and a certain amount of millet is grown. IT had brought with me, of course, my own food, but I purchased potatoes from my landlord and he had a few carrots which were a treat. One eve- ning, by way of a compliment, he sent in to me some food of his wife’s cooking. The dish consisted of layers of oaten dough rolled into cones and steamed until thoroughly done. I found it ex- cellent. But after the first night I never went into the family room again, and really saw little of the people. I was constantly busy with my hunting, trapping, and preparation of mens, and the father and son were at work all day thrashing their crop of oats on the earthen floor behind the house. The women kept inside because of the cold and also, doubtless, on ac- count of shyness. speci- The Mountain Forest The morning after my arrival, when I looked out, the sky was clear and the first rays of the sun were gilding the tops of the highest ridges in sight. My hut proved to be near the upper end of a deep canon stretching from north to south and heading in the forest above. Below I saw only bare, buff-colored mountains and the pass we had mounted the previous afternoon. After breakfast I took my shotgun and ascended the ridge west of camp. Strik- ing a trail on its top, I followed up southward, reaching the forest. Here I lost the path which was deep in soon ~ ~ ——~ = F6G NIVLNNOW SHL NO ONIiddVYLl GNV ONILNOH ATIHM G3AIT YOHLAV AHL 3YSHM ASNOHWYV4 G3LVIOSI SHL Paar TS Set, A WINTER JOURNEY IN NORTHERN CHINA snow and overgrown with bushes; | struck through the thick growth of spruce and larch, taking the direction of what seemed to be the summit. ‘The slope was steep, the forest dense, the soft snow knee-deep, so that I pro- gressed slowly, gaining the top of this portion of the mountain only at the end of two hours. Thence I looked down to the southward on a fine scene of rugged snow-covered mountains, with here and there in the foreground a peasant’s dwelling among bare fields on some canon-side. Chao-Cheng-Shan is a group of three summits. I was standing on the cen- tral mountain which then appeared to me to be the highest. Westward rose a peak, and southeastward was a level- topped summit similar to the one I was on. All the upper northern slopes of this mountain mass were covered with the admirable forest I so long had sought; the southern slopes were also wooded, although less extensively. | saw that morning, in the fresh snow, many tracks of wild animals,—deer, fox, hare, and marten, as well as smaller animals in abundance. I was delighted to find at last so good a place to obtain a variety of specimens. On that occasion, however, | came across no game except three Chinese pheas- ants, which went sailing across a deep canon, looking, with their long tails, like huge dragon flies. Within a day or two I found that a small species of deer is very abundant in this region. Accustomed only to the Chinese hunter with his wretched matchlock gun, they were very tame, and gave me many opportunities for close observation. These beautiful lit- tle white-rumped, almost tailless deer frequent the grassy tracts near the edge of the forest in which, if alarmed, they take refuge. They were sometimes solitary, usually in threes and fours; once I saw five together. Joseph was the first to shoot a deer. He came in one day saying that he had wounded a buck but it had run so far that he could not follow. I insisted on his following it up immediately, where- at he went out again, but I suspected that he did not look for the deer at all. The next day he found it and brought it in,—what was left of it. During the night a leopard had devoured the hind quarters, leaving us the head and fore legs. I took the skull as a specimen and the unharmed flesh for food. — are to be prepared and the grain planted. Since the women are the chief gardeners, they take the leading réles in the more spectacular parts of these ceremonies. In addition to these two very remark- able Skidi bundles we have tribal bun- dles for the Kitkahaki and Chaui divi- sions. Of these, the Kitkahaki is the more striking. Fastened permanently to its outer cover are five large gourd rattles. Within this wrapping is the bundle made up in a woven bag, con- taining sacred ears of corn, a sacred pipe, an arrow-straightener, paints, and other objects. Attached to the outer cover are a pipe, a wooden swordlike object, and some sacred arrows. The Chaui bundle is wrapped in buf- falo skin, on the outside of which ap- pear a raccoon skin, sacred arrows, a stick for stirring soup, a wooden pad- dle, and a swordlike object. Within the bundle are a shoulder-blade hoe, the usual sacred corn, an arrow-straight- ener, and fresh-water mussel shells for mixing paints. Besides these four great tribal bun- dles there are in the collection a num- ber of smaller war bundles. These usv- ally are spoken of as “meteor bundles” because it is believed they contain me- teorites, objects looked upon as chil- dren of Tirawahat, the supreme god. This collection is the best series of religious objects on exhibition in the American Museum; yet its value rests not in the possession of the mere ob- jects, for they are commonplace, but, in the manuscript accounts covering each detail of the rituals for these bun- dles, we have the knowledge as to what these objects symbolized in the thoughts of the Pawnee. Other tribes had bun- dles, and examples of them frequently find their way to museums, but seldom is there satisfactory knowledge as to their significance. Thanks to Chief James R. Murie, we can look upon at least one set of tribal bundles and see them in something of their true light. Slabsides, John Burroughs’ rustic cabin near West Park, New York The Optimistic Philosophy of a Naturalist By G.-C LY DUR ESE SEB Associate Curator of the Department of Public Education, American Museum OHN BURROUGHS is not and never has been a preacher. His is not the theological type of mind, but the interpretive type, and in his latest book, Ac- cepting the Universe,’ he does not turn from his literary habit of more than half a century. While this volume is a collection of religious essays, we know our veteran naturalist writes ‘‘not to preach, or to convert, or to dog- matize,’’ but to interpret. There are thousands of lovers of John Burroughs who will be grateful for this book,—who will be keenly inter- ested in what this exponent of the simple life has to say, ‘Accepting the Universe, by John Burroughs. Boston: The Houghton Mifflin Com- pany. 1920. at eighty-three, about ‘‘The Faith of a Naturalist.’’ It is a robust faith. The strictly orthodox reader may dissent from many statements, but all must admit that John Burroughs is a tireless searcher after truth and that he stands reverent and humble in the face of the eternal verities. The breadth of treatment is suggested by the following oD: . quotation: ‘‘Were not Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall and Lyell, and all other seekers and verifiers of natural truth among the most truly religious of men? dio The Proofs of the Evolution of Man Scientific evidence would indicate that the human race came from small tree-dwelling ancestors in Central Asia By 9 We Do MAne eer ney Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History HE chief interest of evolution to everyone, the only interest to the “average man,” is its bearing on our own ancestry. Mention Darwin to a casual acquaintance, and he immediately thinks of monkeys, and whether or not he is descended ° from one. Generally he prefers not to be and therefore coneludes that he isn’t. Even the better informed members of the com- munity, who have read enough and thought enough on this subjeet to know that this is not quite a correet or complete statement of the Darwinian theory, still consider it as chiefly concerned with the ancestry of our own race. And so perhaps it is from a humanistic point of view. Our own history is after all a deal more interesting to us than other people’s. And it is quite proper that scientists, as well as the rest of the world, should give more consideration and discussion to the problems of man’s evolu- tion than to any other phase of the subject. Certainly they do so. Every new bit of evidence regarding the ancestry, near or re- mote, of our species, every new interpreta- tion of facts already at hand, attracts an interest denied to evidence or theories which concern the evolution of the lower animals. A discovery of fossil man, or of prehuman “hominids” as man’s immediate extinct rela- tives have been called, is chronicled and discussed far and wide, not only in scientific journals, but also, and at almost equal length, in the newspapers and popular maga- zines. Its genuineness is subjected to the most severe scrutiny. Its significance is set forth with a varying degree of pardonable exaggeration by enthusiastic writers, scien- tific and popular. Criticisms no less vigor- ous appear in abundance, some based upon a well-inrormed and conservative judgment of the facts, most of them, one regrets to say, reflecting merely a reluctance to accept evidence that conflicts with accepted theories, and a disposition to minimize its importance and validity. 574 The interest that attaches to this phase of evolution has been recently illustrated at the Birmingham meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The Piltdown skull, the latest find of fossil man, was one of the chief centers of dis- cussion, dividing popular attention with Sir Oliver Lodge’s speculations on the future life, and the trade problems of the Panama Canal. Other announcements and _ diseus- sions, some of them of no small scientific importance, attracted little or no notice out- side of small groups of specialists. Some of these contributions had an important bearing upon problems of more popular in- terest. But the relationship was indirect and passed unobserved, its influence to be seen and recognized only at a later date. In view of their absorbing interest it is peculiarly unfortunate that fossil remains of man and of his prehuman ancestors are so extremely scarce. Nature, in preserving her records of the evolution of life, has shown no preference for her present favorite. While the records of man’s ancestry are not quite the rarest of fossils, yet they are ex- ceedingly rare in comparison with the fossil remains which illustrate the evolution of many well-known races among the lower ani- mals. The record is imperfect, and it quite fails to furnish that overwhelming mass of direet evidenee which would refute and silence all opposing criticism. The evidence for the evolution of man, for his descent from a common ancestry with the lower ani- mals, convincing as it is to every well-in- formed and unprejudiced scientist, is yet chiefly indirect evidence, and the lack of direet evidence has always been a stumbling block to the evolutionist in his attempts to convinee the world at large of the truth of his theories. It is quite true that with many—indeed with the greater number—of the races of lower animals now in existence, the direct record of their past history and evolution is as imperfect and inconclusive THH PROOFS OF THE as that of man, or more so, and yet this does not deter the opponents of evolution from accepting the theory in regard to all other animals while denying it with respect to man. But in these cases the evidence is considered impartially. If the eritie ac- cepts the theory of evolution of the horse and the dog, as proved by both direet and indirect evidence, he has no especial diffi- culty in aecepting it for the angleworm upon the indirect evidence of structure and physiology alone. But he draws the line at man, and declares that while the mind and body of a dog may have been evolved from a bit of protozoan jelly by the slow and gradual processes of natural evolution, the mind and body of a man cannot have been so evolved. With the logic of such a position or the often ingenious arguments by which it is defended, I am not here concerned. Plainly stated, this is the view taken, not indeed by scientists, but by a large section of the nonscientifie world. The lower animals may have been evolved through the processes of natural law, but man is a special creation, his fundamental and detailed resemblances to other animals being obscured in their minds by the disproportionate development of his mentality, looming large in the close perspective in which it is viewed, and the differences further accentuated by a new set of terms applied to various phases of this exaggerated and highly specialized men- tality, phases of which the germs may be obscurely seen in the higher quadrupeds, hut which appear definite and distinet in man. Obviously the only evidence that will con- vince the opponents of evolution will be the discovery of a complete chain of ancestral stages connecting man with the primitive tree-dwelling ancestors from which the in- lirect evidence indicates his descent and of which the lying apes, monkeys, and lemurs are more or less altered survivors, in vary- ing degree less progressive. But only a few fragments, broken links of such a chain, have as yet been found, and their pertinence to man’s ancestry rather than to some other related chain of descent is in every instance open to more or less question. There is nothing exceptional about this, unfortunate as it is. There are many races of animals EVOLUTION OF MAN 575 of whose evolution there is little or no record among fossils. Several reasons account for this imperfect record. (1) There may be no hard parts in the body, so that nothing can be petrified and preserved, save under most unusual cireum- stances. (2) The hard parts may be small and delicate, and the habits and dwelling place of the animal such that its remains would rarely escape destruction before they could be buried and preserved by petrifaction. (3) The animal may have lived only in some of the unexplored or inaccessible re- gions of the world, or in areas where no geological formations were being laid down at the time, or where such forma- tions have not been preserved to the present day. While the first reason does not apply to man’s ancestors, the others pretty certainly do; and so far as one may judge, they ac- count quite satisfactorily for the scarcity of the remains. There are several lines of evidence—his- torical, archeologic, ethnographic, ete.— that concur in indicating the continent of Asia as the probable cradle of the human race and more probably north than south of the Himalayas. Here we believe that man evolved from small tree-dwelling mon- key-like ancestors, and from this central region he spread to east and west and south, finally overrunning all the outlying conti- nents and the islands of the ocean. Here, then, somewhere in the great desert regions of Central Asia, we may hope to find the earliest human remains and the fossil bones of man’s ancestors, in the Tertiary formations which may be discovered and explored by the scien- As yet the geological exploration of the world is but in its beginnings. The preliminary recon- tists of coming generations. noissance and mapping of its strata are well advanced in Europe and North Amer- ica, elsewhere they have only commenced. And the more thorough search by which the fossils characteristic of each formation are secured for study and adequate evidence obtained of the successive faunas and floras which inhabited the region, has covered only a part of Western Europe, a minor part of the United States, and a few scattered areas elsewhere. Aoyy JT “WOBVAATAS YIM pPIuazVaIy, ol poyoysor Suroq Aq Ye oUF pus potdnovo [jw ate esoyy AOU YN TaJUIM Atoy}Z JO WOrRdNIIO OATSS «oid St Spitoy OY} SUaPRaIYZ YoU surp Jo oy, “Weyy «10F jsed savop> pum 9st} urvuet ‘mous doap Ydnoryy Med OF o[qe ‘ourtad yy UL STTNG wot [uQ ‘“Waxorq eB SPUN UO A[MOIS JAVIS YO OY} UtUNGNe JO SMOUS FSI OU} WILL BUBJUOTT ut uUotpOUAsep Lloyd uolpojord oy} puodeg LopUTA suvak Loultoy UL ‘StoyUNY puv WoUto[}} Bo Aq sosur ay} uo wade ato ‘yaud ot} JO sAo][BA o[pprue ayy UIYIIA posto} {jdoeap OO} Jou ST SSt Is ot} oto M YALNIM HOVS NOILVAYVLS Ad GANSLVSYHL a3YvV ASHL oy sdoy ureyunour JUIM oy} puB paetanqg ¢ LBA Potogyfoys “TaMOT OY} OF UdOyeAsIUt [enuue «ety Story of the Whitebar Elk: DY) ila bee, Kel INN Ey Park Naturalist, Yellowstone National Park there is a quiet and lovely valley; through it flows Slough Creek. The valley bottom is a long meadow divided midway by a short and rocky canon; it is from one to three miles wide and bordered on either -side by high and rocky ranges that still show the effects of the resistless forces of the Glacial epoch. These ranges are cov- ered on their higher slopes by a dense growth of pine, while the lower are un- usually beautiful with their numerous open, grassy parks, alternating with groves of quaking asp, of fir, and of pine. The upper meadow is, for the most part, cov- ered by grass, with low willow thickets along the stream; the lower meadow is still more striking with its smooth, green level, broken by clumps of quaking asp, with here and there a few dark firs. This valley is a favorite winter feeding ground for immense herds of elk with an ocea- sional mule deer, or a buffalo. In the spring its meadows and ponds are fre- quented by vast numbers of Canada geese, and by many species of ducks and other water birds; and in the late summer and early fall Slough Creek is a famous fish- ing ground for the black-spotted trout. To us, it is especially interesting as the winter and spring home of the elk. It was here in early June when the bright green grass and the fresh, rather yellowish, foliage of the quaking asp formed a de- lightful contrast with the darker fir groves, that “Whitebar” was born. I may call him that now but our little elk was not known then by the name, for it was much later in his life that the sportsman’s bullet seared its way across his shoulder. He was only one of many elk born that year in Slough Creek Valley, but none among the many was destined to become as mighty a bull as he and as great a king among his kind. He was dark brown in color with numerous spots of lighter brown; his legs were too long for him, and only just strong enough to support him for a few minutes at a time. |: the northern part of Yellowstone Park His mother hid him carefully in the weeds and brush whenever she left him to find grazing for herself, and by some strange instinct he always remained so hid- den until she returned. It was while he was thus concealed that he had his first adventure, for one day one of the soldiers that formerly guarded the park came down the banks of Slough Creek and found him. The care of vast numbers of animals has its effect upon the men who guard them. They lose much of their desire to hunt and kill. This soldier had no evil intentions toward the big-eyed, helpless little animal lying so motionless; but he did wish to test what he had so often been told—that a man is able to catch a very young elk when it is hiding. He did actually pick up the baby and place it upon its feet. In doing so, however, he broke the spell that had caused the little elk to lie so still, and it ran as fast as its tottering legs would permit— luckily in the direction of the returning mother. After a week or ten days of this hide- and-seek life, the little elk’s legs became more serviceable and his mother led him by slow and easy marches (gradually in- creasing in length each day) out of Slough Creek bottom and up on the heights of Specimen Ridge to the south. Specimen Ridge is a fine open grazing ground, high enough to escape the heat and the flies of the lower valleys; but for our elk and his mother it held one grave and unforeseen danger. Coyotes are not very formidable enemies of the young elk when their mothers are with them. But when our elk was a month old, a large coyote, fierce and hungry because of a long term of unsuc- cessful hunting, made a desperate attempt to get Whitebar. It was early in the morn- ing when the fight began. The mother elk could fight only by attempting to strike with her forefeet or to knock the enemy over with her head. The coyote was too swift for her to run down or chase away; and besides she was hampered by the little elk, which kept close to her side or at her 1 Illustrations from photographs by the Author. BYWy eee THE ELK OF THE YELLOWSTONE stand of elk in the United a summer The herds of the Yellowstone National Park region are the only remaining great 403 . ne 4 z = ~ a r ‘ a = : The mountain ranges at the headwaters of the Yellowstone and Snake rivers have long been States. feeding ground for these great game animals on the fresh grass of the alpine meadows. No inducement other than protection is nec the park, for they unerringly find and occupy areas closed to hunting 0 come with the melting of the snow to graze sary to keep the elk within 25,0 where as many as ==9 i8 STORY OF THE WHITEBAR ELK 579 heels. On the other hand, the coyote had to be very wary and very cautious; one successful blow from the elk’s lightning- swift hoofs would mean his death. The struggle went on all that long, hot day: the coyote continually worried his prey but was forced to keep out of range of those terrible hoofs; the elk continually tried to get in one deciding blow. More and more tired became the mother until it seemed as if she would lose her life in de- fense of Whitebar (for she could have run away at the beginning had she cared to do so). No help seemed near for her; and that menacing gray form was always just before her and always just out of reach. But help was near. Late that afternoon a government ranger came riding by. The coyote saw him in the distance, and well he knew what rangers are; well he knew that they carry death-dealing rifles; and well he knew that there is no sanctuary within the park for such as he. The coyote was forced to run, and our little elk and his mother were saved; but it was many a day before they recovered their strength, and perhaps they never would have recov- ered it if the rich grass had not been thick and easy to get on Specimen Ridge. For the rest of that summer our elk remained upon the upland grazing grounds with many other elk and their calves, al- ways busily feeding and gradually taking on fat to help them over the coming win- ter. On the approach of fall the young elk gradually lost the spotted coat of his babyhood and his hair grew longer, thicker, and was lighter in color. As cold weather drew near, the mother took him down toward the valleys, forded the Yellow- stone River, and passed near Tower Falls. Slowly, very slowly, going only a mile or two a day and often retracing their steps, they made their way past the Petrified Trees and Yancey’s, and on to the country of the Blacktail Range. By the time the first severe snow.came they were safe in a well-protected valley where the snow did not fall as deep as upon the higher altitudes they had left. Now the winters in Yellowstone Park are likely to be long and a very severe test upon the strength of all the animals. Food is scarce and hard to get, and the long, bitterly cold nights often kill the half-starved and weakened animals. That this first winter of our young elk’s life happened to be a mild one was of vast importance to his growth. He was already a well-grown little elk owing to his mother’s good and the grass they had had all summer. care nourishing The only setback had been the coyote fight, and he had not taken the brunt of that. this mild winter the mother elk was able During to secure a fair supply of food in places where the wind had blown off the Often she pawed the snow with her fore- feet; and often, when the snow was freshly snow. fallen and light, the elk were able to push it aside with their noses while they fed on the grass exposed. As spring drew near, the sun became warmer and warmer, and by the end of February it had melted the snow a little, revealing many patches of grass which had been hidden during the winter. Later, fresh grass appeared here and there, and the starving time was over, One day Whitebar wandered a short dis- tance from his mother, and when he came back, she was gone. Of course, he did not know that it was usual in elk land for calves to lose their mothers about this time of year. He was a self-reliant young animal, however, and although he looked for his mother for a week or more and occasionally called for her, he never saw her again. Still he managed to get on, for she had done her work well and he had become wise in the ways that young elk should know. The weather grew warmer and _ he climbed higher and higher. He did not return to the Specimen Ridge of the pre- vious summer, but ingtead he made _ his way in a southwesterly direction. One morning as he was resting under some pines, he was startled by strange noises. By this time, our elk knew all the more common sounds of the forests and mead- ows, but this was like none of them, be- ing far louder than any he had ever heard. As he hesitated whether to run or to find out what the noises meant, he saw a stage- load of talking, laughing people going by through a little meadow not far off. After that morning, he saw many more tourist stages; their approach was always heralded by the strange noises, and they always went hurriedly by. But they did not hurt him, in fact I doubt if any saw the elk 580 peering out at them from behind some convenient thicket of small pines. They were a source of much curiosity to White- bar; and as he got used to them, the happy joyous people seemed to fit in with the birds and animals about him and he was not afraid. After a short time the weather became still warmer and the flies more annoying, and the elk was forced to move on again. In seeking the higher mountains, he en- tered a strange valley, where the ground was quite white and had neither grass nor trees upon it. From many parts of it columns of steam rose high in air, and often jets of water spurted into the air only to fall back again. There were many strange sounds of roaring, hissing steam and water falling and dashing upon the rocks. The air was filled with hot, acrid, stifling odors; and again there were tour- ists, but there were no stages and the people were walking to and fro over the white ground among the rising jets of steam and water. In fact, our elk had happened upon the Norris Geyser Basin. He crossed it after the sight-seers were gone and continued on up the hills before him. In time, he reached the top of the Madi- son Plateau; and finding among the cool pine forests abundant food and freedom from the little stinging flies, he spent the rest of the summer there. Now all through that summer the first pair of horns had been growing. They had only two points on each antler, but they were the fore- runners of many mighty antlers to come, for elk shed their horns every spring and grow another pair during the summer. These first horns were small and the cov- ering of skin or “velvet,” as it is called, remained upon them—as it often does on an elk’s first set of horns. At the approach of his second winter our elk turned northwest and descended into the Madison Valley, instead of re- turning to the northern section of the park. This was another fortunate move that no doubt had its effect upon his strength and growth, because the second winter of an elk’s life is the critical period that deter- mines whether he will be large and strong, or remain commonplace. The grasses of the Madison were particularly luxuriant, ynd there were fewer elk there so each NATURAL HISTORY had a larger share. This winter was an average one but he was able to get abun- dant food all through it, and when spring came he already showed many signs of the great strength and beauty that were soon to be his. Whitebar spent his third summer, and had his last experience as a member of a herd, in the upper Hayden Valley with the cow elk, small bulls, and calves that usually summer there. This year he grew a pair of horns that had four points on each antler; and unlike his first pair they lost their velvet in the fall and were sharp _and serviceable. But that third winter is one long to be remembered in those mountains. The snows came early and fell fast and heavy. From October to June the storms were al- most incessant; snow followed upon snow with but little interval. Among the ani- mals it was the great starvation year. As the snows grew deeper and deeper, the elk found it more and more difficult to get enough grass to sustain life. Then spring approached, and still there was no decrease in the fierce snow squalls that swept the region, no break in those bleak, wintry days, and the elk began to die by scores. By the time the warm June sun appeared, the terrain was covered with hundreds of dead and dying animals. How was it with Whitebar? Again we see one of those lucky happenings which contributed to make our elk the magnificent animal he was. Early in the winter he had found a partly spoiled stack of hay left by the men who had gathered hay for the Buffalo Farm. When forage became scarce he returned to it and never during those bitter days did he wander far from it. It was his salvation, for he came through that trying time very much better than did the other elk. He passed his fourth summer in great contentment and grew his third pair of horns, a full-sized pair with five points each. Elk horns may grow much larger, with six, seven, and even eight points, and a few curiously deformed horns have many more. Nevertheless five points per antler is the full-grown size. Our hero, then, had now come into his full elkhood. He felt it in his strength and power, and showed it when he began instinctively in late August to “horn the brush” in his en- STORY OF THE WHITEBAR ELK 581 deavor to rid his horns of the still clinging velvet. Early in September he gave an- other sign of his maturity in attempting to whistle, or “bugle.” Other deer, nota- bly the moose, give similar challenges; but neither do the notes become so clear and ringing in any other mammal, nor does any other issue these challenges so frequently. Nor have I ever heard any other deer challenge just for the fun of it, as elk seem frequently to do. Each autumn the elk whistles are to be heard all day long on a good range and often all through the night, although the early morning is apparently the favorite time. With elk the bugle seems to be an incident of the mating season. It is at times a call, a challenge, or occasionally just an expres- sion of the life and power that the elk feel coursing through their veins. The rutting season lasts from early September to late October. To one unaccustomed to elk on their native range it is a great experience to be among them while the bulls are bugling and often fighting, and the mountains that have been so silent and forbidding all summer suddenly seem full of life. Early during his next winter, our friend gave another sign that he was now a full- grown elk. Instead of descending to the low valleys, he elected to spend the winter upon the Blacktail Range of mountains. Bull elk in the prime of life often spend their winters high upon the open ridges from which the winter winds sweep away the snow. The brave, hardy animals are even better sustained than the elk of the low levels, for the grass is nourishing and easily obtained; but woe to the weakling that braves the winters in such exposed places. Our elk did well on the wind- swept ridges of the Blacktail Range. In April Whitebar shed his horns again, and only the bony butts were left. As soon as the horns dropped, the skin grew up over the tops of these butts, which in turn began to swell. Thus within a week after the falling of the old horns, a pair of skin-covered knobs took their places. They were about the size of a large to- mato, rather darker in color, and full of hot, swiftly flowing blood. They kept right on swelling, but it was noticeable that soon they began to acquire shape. Rapidly they grew, forming branches and points at their proper places, each branch and point ending in a knob until it was completed. During this growth the horns remained covered by the skin (or they were “in the velvet”) and filled with nu- merous blood vessels carrying the rich ma- terial necessary for the rapid growth. The horns were extremely sensitive to the touch while in the velvet and the elk carefully avoided hitting them against anything. By the end of July the antlers had stopped growing; the knobs had been gradually absorbed; the velvet had dried and withered; and the horn structure itself had hardened, losing the blood vessels which had furnished the growth and the nerves which had prevented injury to the horns by making them sensitive. While his horns were growing he had other experiences. He had worked along the mountain range to its southern end and crossed over to Mt. Washburn. Here he encountered men again, but these were far different from the tourists he had watched so long before. They were more silent and did not travel in stages. They were engineers engaged in the work of building a road to the top of Mt. Washburn. They did not bother the elk and soon he be- came used to them. So little did he fear them that later when they blasted out the rock, he remained feeding indifferently within a few hundred feet. Had he only known it, he was witnessing a wonderful sight; at noon when the men went to lunch, long lines of blasts were set off. The whole crest of the mountain would seem to rock and shake with those tre- mendous salvos resembling the discharge of powerful guns along a lofty rampart. This familiarity with men was like to have cost our elk dear. That year in fol- lowing elk custom during the rut he wan- dered far and near and soon he was out- side the east boundary of the park. It happened that a sportsman was there too; but the elk was not frightened until the report of a gun sounded and our elk felt a hot, stinging blow along his side. He ran, and fortunately ran into the park so that the hunter could not follow. By in- stinct he began to climb the mountains and soon he lay down on a snow bank and his fevered side was cooled; that night it rained, and the water washed out the wound and helped to cool the mounting E——————EEE t fever. Luckily that autumn was an open one and the heavy snows were late in ar-- riving. Our elk remained near the moun- tain tops, feeding when he could and often lying down on the snow banks. Slowly he recovered and was able to get down to the winter range near Soda Butte. It was well along in the winter before he fully recovered and he was left with a white bar across his left shoulder that won for him his name. That winter Whitebar moved to and fro throughout the northern part of the park. In March he found himself in what is known as the Hellroaring country, from a creek of that name. This was a fine win- ~ ter grazing ground but infested with moun- tain lions. A mountain lion usually hunts by lying in wait in some tree or on some high rock above the trail, pouncing down upon the prey as it passes underneath. Mountain lions do not as a rule attack full-grown elk, and, moreover, Whitebar was especially wary and fleet. Thus he passed safely through the winter in the big cat’s country. The sixth summer was spent amid the many beautiful open parks on Mirror Platean. Often he met others of his kind, but the summer was a time of peace in elk land and these meetings were unevent- ful. Often, too, he met coyotes and even bears, but none cared to attack an elk of Whitebar’s size, especially as other food was plentiful and easier to get. It so happened that this season was a dry one and the grass for winter forage did not grow well. Whitebar wandered back again to the Slough Creek, and for a time did well on the scattered feed; but long before spring the forage gave out. Our elk, however, was now big and strong and with the help of bark from the quak- ing asp he was able to get through. But the year was a hard one on the other elk and before fresh grass appeared all the aspen trees were barked from the ground up for five feet, and even higher where the snowdrifts afforded a platform on which to stand. Often the elk were able to push over the weaker trees and then not only was the bark completely stripped off, but all the twigs and smaller branches were eaten also. Whitebar was now a great bull elk, mighty in size and strength. Many ex- 582 NATURAL HISTORY periences and escapes had made him wise, and he was quick to scent danger and quicker still to get away. Among his own kind he was a king, ruling absolutely the little herd of cows that he acquired each year. Rivals he fought at sight and usually conquered. If the defeated elk had had a following of cows, Whitebar took them as his spoils of battle. Thus by the time autumn was over he was the center of quite a herd—only to lose them during the winter when the fight for existence drove every elk, cow and bull alike, to look out for itself. Well do I remember a fight I witnessed between Whitebar and another bull of about the same size. It took place in an open vale almost surrounded by dark pines and firs at the edge of the flats of the upper Yellowstone River. On the east was a towering range of mountains over which the sun was just appearing. The morning was still and frosty, and a foot or so of light, fluffy snow covered the ground, al- though it was only October. I had been conscious for some time as I came down the trail that a bull elk was bugling ahead of me. Just as I neared the edge of the timber, an answering challenge came. I hurried carefully forward, for a meeting between two big bulls such as the hoarse notes revealed them to be would be an event. Soon I caught sight of Whitebar. There was no mistaking him. The peculiar mark across his shoulder was gleaming white in the sunlight. Very many times before had I seen this elk, and many hours had I spent in admiring his strength, his beautiful form, and his majestic appear- ance. During the years I had known him Whitebar had grown larger and larger until he was known far and near as “the big bull.” Each year his horns had grown larger and had excited much ad- miration among the men who knew him. Many were the schemes of hunters to get him, but Whitebar was too wary. I doubt if he had any idea where the park boundaries were, or even if there were such things, but he did know where he was safe. He did not know that as long as he remained within the park the long arm of the gov- ernment protected him from the one enemy with whom he could not cope, but he did know that in certain places men never bothered him. He no longer feared any enemy; in fact he had no enemy, except SLORY OF THB man, as none cared to pit himself against the prowess of the monarch of the Yellow- stone. He was monarch of the mountain parks and meadows just as truly as his big relative, the moose, was monarch of the marshes, and as the grizzly was mon arch of the forests. When I came in sight of him that morn ing, Whitebar was horning a pair of four- inch saplings; and he did it with a vigor that tossed the saplings this way and that and all but uprooted them. Later I tried to shake those saplings myself and could just barely move them by a fraction of an inch! Occasionally he stopped to bugle and always came the answering call, nearer and nearer. Soon the on-coming bull walked into sight, and he was almost an exact duplicate of Whitebar in size. At the same time Whitebar left his sap- lings and came to meet his adversary. Slowly they approached each other, slowly lowered their heads, and gently placed their horns together. But at the touch, the power lurking in strong muscles awoke; harder and harder came the strain. The fight lasted only a few minutes. Each combatant strove to push the other back, occasionally the horns would separate only to come together again with a sharp crack. WHITEHBAR ELK 583 Only in the “cracks,” in the straining muscles, in the fierce bloodshot eyes, and the panting snorts could one see the tre- mendous power being expended. At times one of the elk would give a savage side twist of his horns to reach an unguarded flank. But always the opponent was able and spry enough to spring around and escape. And then the straining pushes and panting snorts would begin again as the two powerful heads came together once more. Slowly the stranger elk was pushed back step by step only to recover and force Whitebar in his turn to give way. There was little to choose between the two com- batants; they seemed equally powerful and equally determined to win. Round and round they went, first one would gain a little and then the other, but neither could master. Suddenly the stranger went down on his knees. Was he overcome by strength, or had a piece of ice proved a treacherous foothold? Or had the snow concealed a soft spot of ground? Be that as it may, the fight was over. The con- quered elk slowly retired with many an angry shake of his antlers, and Whitebar was left the victor of this, his greatest battle. For protection of the Yellowstone elk during the winter the Biological Survey and the Forest Service propose an extension of Yellowstone Park southward, the setting aside of state game refuges, and the establishment of government ranches where hay may Hunting licenses in surrounding states must also be be raised for emergency feeding in severe seasons. limited and legitimate hunting regulated so that only the annual increase is taken. The present herds will not be enlarged, except at certain points, for the available ranges will not support greater numbers of grazing animals Copyright by Harris & Ewiny T. GILBERT PEARSON President, National Association of Audubon Societies, Elected October 26, 1920 Mr. Pearson has been affiliated with the National Association of Audubon Societies since January, 1905, when he was engaged to assist Mr. Dutcher and was elected secretary of the newly incor- porated association. From the time in 1910 that Mr. Dutcher became incapacitated for work until now the administrative affairs of the association have been carried on by Mr. Pearson. As a tribute of respect, Mr. Dutcher y retained as president until his death, July 1, 1920, and at the meeting in October Mr. Pearson was elected his successor O84 A Year's Progress in Bird Protection’ Bye Geli Bel hie Pla h S/O President of the National Association of Audubon Societies NE of the most significant occur- rences in the field of bird protection the past year was the decision of the United States Supreme Court upholding the constitutionality of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. This was the final scene in the drama which began in 1904 when Rep- resentative George Shiras, 3d, introduced in Congress the first bill intended to place under federal protection the fortunes of North America’s migratory birds. All Audubon Society members will be interested in the final outcome of this long-waged battle in which the National Association and its affiliated organizations have taken such a prominent part. It was at our sug- gestion and through our insistence that the original bill was modified to include the pro- tection of migratory nongame birds. The past year has seen further efforts to open conventions with the republics to the south of us with a view to securing pro- tection for our birds that migrate to South America. The urgency for such a course does not yet lie clearly before us, but the matter is under advisement and the United States Government has sent a naturalist to South America to investigate the benefits to be derived. Of late, vicious attacks on the national parks have been made in Congress by those who would grant favors to western land interests at the expense of the country’s richest nature sanctuaries. A bill to allow certain exploitations of the Yellowstone Na- tional Park came very near of passage, and another, intended to place the authority for granting water power rights in the national parks in the hands of three members of the President’s Cabinet, actually passed both Houses of Congress, and President Wilson, in spite of an avalanche of letters and tele- grams, signed this measure and it became a law. This statute should most certainly be repealed at the coming session of Congress. Much effort undoubtedly will be required to defeat other Congressional measures for ex- ploitation of national parks. Attempts to secure such adverse legislation now seem most certain. In January, 1919, through the columns of Bird-Lore this association first advised the public of the Eagle Bounty Law in operation in Alaska. Since continued to bulletin, from time to time, the results of this measure. The last report from our representative in Alaska showed that the official territorial records reveal the fact that bounties had already been paid on the feet of 8356 eagles. Nor does this tell the entire story of the appalling slaughter of the American eagle, for it should be borne in mind that to collect the fifty cents bounty it is necessary to bring in the feet to some territorial official and pay a fee for an affi- davit to accompany them before the bounty can be collected. Men who secure only one or two eagles at a time, or who shoot their birds a very long distance from the place then we have where the bounty is paid, of course never report their killings. Furthermore, many hundreds of eagles undoubtedly are wounded by gunfire and escape in the wilderness to die later from their injuries. We have filed the most vigorous protests against this law and for a time it appeared there were pros- pects of getting it repealed by the terri- torial legislature, but the latest reports are that a great majority of the people of the region, including Governor Riggs, have such fixed ideas of the destructiveness of this bird to fish and game that the Bounty Law is in no immediate danger. By the death of the president of the association, William Dutcher, on July 1, 1920, there passed away the leading pioneer in the cause of American bird protection. He was responsible for the establishment of this association, and from the time of its incorporation in January, 1905, until he was stricken with paralysis in October, 1910, its growth and welfare were matters of ever- abiding concern in his mind. Although help- less for ten years, and deprived utterly of the power of speech or the ability to write, 1 Extract from the report presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of Audubon Societies, held in the American Museum of Natural History, October 26, 1920. 58) 586 NATURAL he never lost interest in reading or hearing of what was being accomplished for the cause that lay so near his heart. The memory of his name and his work will never fade as long as men take note of the feathered guardians of the field, or lift their heads to listen to the wild, sweet music in the trees. This association’s system of employing special guards to protect important breed- ing places of water birds cannot for one moment be relaxed. This is one expense that has to be met every summer, no matter how limited the funds may be or how strong the calls come for expenditures in other directions. Sad experience has shown that, especially in the case of the nesting egrets, a colony left unguarded means a colony in which the birds are sure to be shot. During the past year we employed thirty- seven wardens, distributed as follows: New York, 1; Massachusetts, 1; Virginia, 1; Georgia, 1; North Carolina, 1; Mississippi, 1; South Carolina, 2; Michigan, 2; Louisi- ana, 3; Florida, 11; and Maine, 13. The nesting season in the colonies The loss of life from high tides and storms was not guarded was a fairly good one for 1920. greater than for an average normal year, and no raids of consequence were carried out by feather hunters. During the spring the United States Bio- logical Survey detailed special agents to operate in Florida in order to break up, as far as possible, the illegal traffic in aigrettes. The secretary of the association had supplied the chief of the Biological Sur- vey with a long list of names of people who, it had been reported, were engaged either in killing birds or shipping plumes in that state; and to assist in carrying on this work the association appropriated $1600 for the Survey’s use. A large amount of patrolling was done by these wardens in southern Florida with much attending pub- heity. Also some violators of the law were apprehended and fined, notably a man named Mackinson, of Kissimmee. We have no Audubon wardens located in New York City, although we could use one or more to most excellent advantage. Mem- bers of the Association and others often HISTORY report by letter or telephone violations of the bird and game laws. These reports we at once place in the hands of the state game warden department for the state from which the complaints were received, and many prosecutions have resulted. The “field agents” employed in recent years have been continued: E. H. Forbush, for New England; William L. Finley, for the Pacifie Coast; Winthrop Packard, for Massachusetts; Mary 8S. Sage, for Long Island, New York; Arthur H. Norton, for Maine; Frances A. Hurd, for Connecticut; and Herbert K. Job, in charge of the De- partment of Applied Ornithology. Through ‘lectures, published articles, correspondence, and personal work, this body of men and women are annually performing services of great value to the cause of wild-life pro- tection. All previous records in the organization of Junior Audubon classes were broken the past year. Before the spring had far ad- vanced, the 200,000 sets of literature, bird pictures, and Audubon buttons prepared for the entire year’s work became exhausted. Eighty thousand sets of leaflets and pic- tures left over from previous years were brought out of storage and were readily accepted by pupils and teachers in lieu of this year’s material. By the middle of May all possible sources of supplies had been ex- hausted and regretfully we began returning to the disappointed children their ten-cent fees. Our ever-generous and unknown bene- factor again gave $20,000 to this cause for the past year. With a total of $27,500 we enrolled and provided supplies to 280,- 963 children in the United States and Canada. I regret to state that collections for the coming school year have not thus far been as good as last, and the prospects are now that little more than two-thirds as many children can be supplied this year as last. To those who may see this report and who, seeing, care for children and the birds, let me remind them that for every gift of $100 for this work about 1000 children will be able to join the Audubon Society, wear its button, study its lessons, and learn many worth while facts concerning the wild bird life about them. The Question of Correct Diet TEACHING FOOD HYGIENE TO SCHOOL CHILDREN BY MUSEUM METHODS By MARY GREIG Assistant, Department of Public Health, American Museum of Natural History HERE is abundant evidence to show that proper food promotes health. Plants under experimental conditions can be made sickly by the wrong food or healthy by the right food, and the same is true of animals, and of course of children. In all these cases the sickly individuals might just as well have been strong and healthy. There is nothing essentially diffi- cult about the subject of nutrition. We could just as easily learn good habits of eating in youth as the bad ones we learn now, and the American Museum is planning to do all it can to help the children of New York City along this profitable road to learning. The attention given to the food problem during the last five years has resulted in a real and permanent gain in so far as it has turned our minds from eating for the mere purpose of pleasing the palate to a considera- tion of the scientific use of foods for the satisfaction of the physiological needs of the body. The shortage of food in Europe during the war forced statesmen to realize that the food supply is one of the chief problems of national existence. England, a manu- facturing nation, imports two thirds of the food she eats. The German submarines re- duced by one half the number of ships that De- spite this handicap, the use of a scientific could be used to transport this food. rationing system for all staple foods brought about a condition whereby “there was probably an actual increase in the av- erage consumption of food in the United Kingdom in spite of the world shortage of food,”1 from 1916-18. an accomplishment to its eredit will hardly be likely to go back to the ignorant and haphazard methods of pre-war times, when, A nation with such 1The Oliver Sharpey Lectures on The Feeding of Nations. By KE. H. Starling. Longmans, Green and Co., London and New York, 1919. as is shown by the figures of Rowntree, 30 per cent of the population was improp- erly nourished. Possible Food Resources of the World Far in Eacess of Any Present Demand The world shortage of foodstuffs is due largely to mismanagement and lack of or- ganization, and not to any inability of the earth to support its inhabitants. There are acres of exceedingly fertile marsh land which can be drained, and deserts which can be irrigated. The food resources of the sea and of the tropics are barely touched; and development of many areas now unprodue- tive is made possible by our victories over the mosquito and other disease-causing in- sects. Russia could perhaps easily double her population if she utilized her unused grain lands, and even the Chinese and Jap- anese have by no means caught up with their resources. ‘With every article of food except meat we can easily and greatly in- crease the supply in the western world.” 2 Science has only begun to show us a few of its limitless possibilities. By its means we have increased the sugar content of the sugar beet sevenfold through selective breed- ing. We have discovered: how to prepare a synthetic dye, thus releasing for food the acres previously planted to supply indigo. We have searcely begun to attack the prob- lem of “waste” in the transportation of food. The saving that can be accomplished here is a potential resource of enormous magnitude. “Half of the fruits and vege- tables produced in the United States never get to market.” 2 America a Food-exporting Nation Yet Mal- nutrition One of the Country’s Real Problems In the last fifty years the population of this country has increased from 38 million 2 The Smith. World’s Food Resources. By J. Russell Henry Holt and Company, 1919. 87 588 to 104 million, and although, because of our great resources, we are still a food-ex- porting nation, we face a real problem of malnutrition throughout all parts of our country. Conservative government statistics place the number of undernourished children in the United States at about three million. This condition is by no means confined to the children of the poor, but is also prey- alent where there is ample money to buy proper food. Such widespread malnutrition is due mainly to ignorance of food values, but it is more serious to be ignorant nowa- days than ten years ago because high prices have reduced the variety. of foods from which our selection may be made. How Shall We Inculcate Correct Dietary Habits? It has always been realized that the quickest and most lasting reforms can be .of his body as a whole. NALURAL Hi SRORY brought about by concentrating our efforts upon the children. This is particularly true in matters of diet because any dietary re- form involves changing our habits. We may convince a grown man that he should reduce the quantity of meat in his diet and eat more vegetables but if he is used to meat two or three times a day and the flavor of vegetables seems too bland to his pampered taste, the likelihood of bringing about a permanent change is often slight. It is not until some serious disease threatens his use- fulness in middle age that many a man consents to eat for the sake of the welfare The unperverted appetite of a properly trained child of four years, which leads him to take with evident relish a piece of bread, a dish of carrots, or a glass of milk, is an object lesson to us. The purpose of dietary education is to trans- form this rational appetite for simple foods Vitamines (a = \ yarvaty A , ater Anti- Energy Protein Mineral Sa’ts Fat Soluble Soluble Reunen Grain Cheapest Cheap source Good source Variable Present Lacking products source but deficient in of certain except in and certain neces- salts but highly dried beans sary kinds low in milled and peas of protein calcium grains Meats Costly source Contain pro- Source of iron Not abundant Present Very low but depends teins of good but lacking in content largely on cut quality calcium Root Fairly cheap Contain certain Good source Variable Present; Present; vegetables source proteins but better usually inadequate as source abundant sole source than meats Sugars Very cheap Lack proteins Lack salts None None None source Fruits Fresh fruits Poor source Fresh fruits Unknown Present Abundant expensive costly source; especially source; dried fruits in orange, dried fruits cheap source lemon, fairly cheap and source tomato Nuts Cheap source Fairly cheap Good source Unknown Unknown Lacking proteins but inadequate as sole source Milk Fairly cheap Good quality Best source Abundant Present I‘resent source proteins (Milk is the best source of this vitamine) Leaf Very little Fairly good Valuable Abundant Present Present; vegetables energy value source source espe- usually cially for cal- abundant cium and iron Butter Cheap source Lacks proteins Poor source Abundant Lacking Lacking Eggs Expensive Expensive Rich in min- Abundant Present Unknown source source but contain proteins of excellent quality eral salts. Lower than milk in calcium Special values of various foods.—This table has been prepared to accompany the traveling exhibit sent out by the American Museum, and to show clearly and concisely in chart form the réle played by each type of food in the diet,—which food constituents it supplies and which it lacks THE QUESTION OF CORRECT DIET 589 The problem of malnutrition among school children is being attacked by the New York City Depart- ment of Education, in codperation with the American Museum, by means of a traveling exhibit illus- trating the correct principles of diet. The exhibit includes eight wall charts, a set of colored blocks setting forth the composition of six common foods, and, of primary importance and interest, a set of sixteen wax models of foods for sample menus for a day’s meals. This picture shows the models of the various dishes for a sample breakfast suitable for a child from ten to thirteen years of age. ‘There are 1 cup of oatmeal, 2 slices of toast, 1 tablespoonful of butter or butterine, 35 of a cup of cocoa, 1 baked apple with sugar, and 38 of a cup of milk. This sample breakfast represents a heat value of 600 calories; it contains 15.76 grams of protein and the necessary amounts of iron, phosphorus, and cal- cium. Each of the models individually represents a heat equivalent of 100 calories so that the children can readily grasp the idea that a certain portion of food stands for a definite energy content into a habit of correct eating which will last into adult life. American Museum Campaign Among the School Children A special campaign to combat malnutri- tion is now being conducted in the New York public schools in connection with the school lunch service of the Department of Education. It has been realized that some- thing more must be done than merely pro- vide good lunches for the children. Only about 9 per cent of the children avail them- selves of the school lunches, for one reason or another. But even if a child consumed regularly the daily lunch at school, he would be taking fewer than 200 meals out of a yearly total of 1095 or more. This ex- perience alone would scarcely be enough to establish the habits we have been speaking about, since in many cases his other meals at home would tend to destroy the good habits as fast as they were formed. The school lunch must be supplemented by very definite instruction in dietary hygiene. In this nutrition “drive” the preliminary step of “propaganda” has been accomplished. The children’s attention and interest in re- gard to food matters have been aroused by such means as slogans, posters, and “nu- trition days.” The Child Health Organiza- tion has even contributed a health clown, “Cho-Cho,” who lent the glamour of the circus to the simple injunction to drink milk instead of coffee. The next thing to do is to try to use the interest that has been aroused and teach the child more concretely just what a correct diet is. Dr. Gustave Straubenmiiller, as- sociate superintendent of schools, sent to the American Museum of Natural History a request for teaching material. To meet this demand the department of public health of the Museum in cooperation with the department of public education of the same institution has prepared a traveling exhibit for the public schools which it is hoped will constitute a real contribution to the cause of public health education. This exhibit consists of a set of sixteen wax models of foods suitable for the needs of a child be- tween the ages of ten and thirteen, and a set of colored wooden blocks illustrating the composition of six common foods. It in- cludes also eight wall charts. Correct Diet Taught by Means of Food Models The food models have been designed to be used in three different ways so as to give a fairly complete picture of the chief lessons of dietary hygiene. In the first place, each Examples of Foods That Make Up a Healthful Diet for a Child from Ten to Thirteen Years of Age CALORIES SUPPLIED BY EACH TYPE NECESSARY TYPES OF FOOD I. BREAKFAST.— Total Calories : 400-600 Apple ss emg cirateteraters = Orgbananawracw eee 50-100 OL OLaneese nie eae or Malaga grapes... . Z or flaked wheat..... Cereal cise sae 100-150 ae searntiees rei or puffed rice...... or shredded wheat.. Bread cterec ierciercieles 50-100 . or white bread. .... Butter, or butterine. 50-100 Butter, or butterine. Mb Me Sso.c:d oto dom Malis ore serene . : z Cocoa made with milk. 100-150 ) RE made with Il. DINNER.— Total Calories : 700-1200 Ibam'bistewieiceeiesretenene or piece of steak.... Meat, fish or eggs... 75—300 ODNC ELSE erro cieneter Orechickeniaesqetecree White potato....... or sweet potato..... or boiled rice....... or boiled macaroni. . Potatoes, rice, maca- MONI WCC ms casnanevaie ou 100-200 Spimachseeeitesrn oat OEDIGALTOLS tesa reyelerokere OLA PtULNIP Seueweerenetetens Fresh vegetables..... 25-50 CEO AGES Brad Sus wercisuchehes. ea 100 Butter, or butterine. Rice pudding....... or apple tapioca.... or cornstarch blanc- MAN Seek weione or Brown Betty pud- ding ose sess Or 1Ge) Creams. sie Pudding, or similar dishiMee eerie 200-300 III. SUuPPER.— Total Calories : 400-800 Cream of tomato.... or celery or spinach. or asparagus or pea. Cream soup, or similar or split pea or bean § Whole wheat....... ? U s Y ; } or mashed or creamed DOLATOCS erie osc chetene or boiled macaroni. . Breadia seeueroverereins 50-100 Butter, or butterine. 50-100 White or whole wheat Butter, or butterine. Stewed prunes...... Stewed! fruit. eestor 100-200 or apple sauce...... or stewed apricots. . Plain cookies ~(2% inches diameter).. Gish’ foe ste evstetorene 200-300 | SOUPS ee Cake. ce sre heueiee 50-100, or lady fingers...... or one-egg cake (two inch) icubes))s.). <1 Milk, or cocoa made J Milk ........... ke with milk........ 100 Doe cocoa made: swath milk 590 AMOUNTS THAT SUPPLY THE NECES- SARY CALORIES Y% to 1 % to 1 34 to 1% 10 to 20 1 to 1% cups cooked Z - 24 to 1 cup 1% to 2 cups 1 to 1% biscuits - 1 to 2 slices 14 to 1 tablespoon a 25 to 1 cup OWA of % to 1 cup 1 to 3 small pieces, 1 to 3 oz. 1 to 3 pieces (2x 1141 inches) 1 egg—70 calories 1 to 3 slices (2x 4x% inches) 1 to 2 medium 1 to 2 small 344 to 1% cups 1 to 2 cups ¥% to 1 cup 1 to 3 medium ¥% to 1 cup sliced 1% to 1 medium lg to % head 1% cups. shred- ded=25 calories 24 to 1 cup 2 slices 1 tablespoon YZ to 3% cup 1 to 1% eups 1 to 1% cups 2 to 3 cups 1 to 2 slices Y% to 1 tablespoon about 2 to 5 prunes and 2 to 4 tablespoons juice Y% to 1 eup 4% to % cup r 38 cup § % cup THE QUESTION OF CORRECT DIET 591 model represents a 100-calorie portion (or in some cases 50-, 150-, or 200-calorie por- tions) so that it gives the child a clear grasp of the conception that each food has its definite value as a source of energy for the running of the living machine. In the second place, the models can be used to show the specific contributions made by each kind of food to the upbuilding of the body, for it is as essential to provide a sufficient supply of calcium and iron, of protein and vitamines, as to supply the total energy which the body needs for its daily activities, n bs " wo eee ee ee Models of a sample menu for a child’s midday dinner, including 14% ounces of lamb (stew), 1 medium-sized potato, 1 cup of cooked spinach, 2 slices of whole wheat bread, 1 tablespoonful of butter or butterine, 1 cup of milk, and % cup of rice pudding. The portions also separately represent a heat value of 100 calories, except the spinach, milk, and rice pudding, which supply 50, 150, and 200 ealories respectively. Such an exhibit tells a story which the children can readily understand, and makes clear to them the fact that food is not eaten merely because it tastes good, but rather to build up the body and supply energy for its work This sample menu for a child’s supper consists of 1 cup of cream of tomato soup (200 ecal.), 2 slices of bread (100 cal.), %4 tablespoonful of butter (50 cal.), 5 prunes and 4 tablespoonfuls of juice (200 cal.), 1 cup of milk (150 cal.), and 2 cookies (100 ecal.). The whole day’s food, as represented by the samples illustrated, gives a total heat value of 2200 calories with 64.44 grams of protein, 1.356 grams of calcium, 1.495 grams of phosphorus, and 0.015 grams of iron. The diet of a child from ten to thirteen years of age—the preceding is only a characteristic sample—should always represent 1800 to 2500 calories; one third of these should be supplied from cereals and bread. Further, whatever the daily menu, the child of this age should always have a quart of milk a day, 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of butter or similar fat, a cupful of fresh, cooked vegetables, 4 or 5 glasses of water, and fruit at one meal at least Enjoyment of the Forest through Knowledge By F. F. MOON Acting Dean of the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse University O most. Americans, particularly those living in the cities, the forest is a closed book. Far from being a group of trees merely occupying a certain part of the landscape, the forest is in re- ality a community of trees having itself a life. Trees, shrubs, and ground-coyer, the animal life which roams beneath the forest shade, the fungus and bacterial life of the . forest soil—all together form the forest community. In view of the manifold subjects of surpassing interest which the forest af- fords, it should be the desire of every red- blooded American who loves the open to learn the ways of the forest: how it starts, how it develops, the names and habits of trees; how they, like individuals in the city, compete with one another for food and drink while affording one another protec- tion. The enjoyment of the green shade of a city park can be multiplied a hundred-fold by those who are fortunate enough to be able to hunt, fish, or camp in a real forest, and strange as it may seem, the fact that forests need to be developed and in some degree prepared for widest, fullest use as recreation areas is at present grasped Roads and trails must sites selected and laid out with an eye to beauty and accessibility. by only a few. be cut, camp Sanitary features must be provided. In short, the wilderness host presents a stern front to those guests who do not know its ways. Fully to enjoy and profit by a camping experience or even a walk in the woods, one must be acquainted with the woods. Just as a boy or girl going to a new school or to a new town feels strange and ill at ease until he makes acquaintances, so one feels when going into a forest composed of trees and shrubs of whose identity he is ignorant. The first steps should be to know the principal trees and shrubs: to recognize them by their leaf and _ buds, also from their bark and general appear- ance. When these have been learned, a 592 ramble among the trees is as enjoyable as a visit to the home of friends. The habits of the trees and their reaction to environ- ment can then be studied. Every tree stands for something and has its definite part to play in the community. Those like the Nor- way pine, gray birch, and red cedar which are light-demanding and will quickly die if over-topped, will be found growing in the open or in pure stands unmixed with other trees. Others, like the beech, hard maple, or red spruce, which are “tolerant” of shade, will grow for some time beneath a com- paratively close canopy made by the foliage of taller trees. The reaction of trees to soil and moisture conditions offers a particularly interesting study. Certain trees lke the black walnut and white oak are found large and well developed only where the soil is deep and fresh. The pioneers in the Lake States were accustomed to locate on the land covered with good-sized beech and maple, since these trees indicated soil of agricultural richness. Other species prefer light to soil-fertility and moisture, and can soon be crowded out of the rich bottom lands by shade-enduring trees. This may explain why dry barren pastures may be found covered with a stand of gray birch and red cedar. When the fact has been grasped that trees have their peculiarities like human beings, a study of the forest community, composed of trees and shrubs, becomes fascinating. Countless instances of the indomitable en- ergy of the tree, its tenacity, its ability to adapt itself to circumstances, can be seen while strolling through the woods. The de- velopment of a tree community from a group of wind-sown pine seedlings on abandoned pasture to a splendid stand of pine trees, straight of bole, clear of branches, really constitutes an epic. It is a struggle for existenee and the survival of the fittest, an inspiration to those who have eyes to see and a heart to understand. The forest holds many a lesson which the discerning eye can read. ee ‘Trees as Friends It is a pleasure to publish the following extracts through courtesy of the Editor of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, from Dr. W. A. Murrill’s very charming mention of some of the world’s best known trees. It brings to mind anew the particular trees which have come close to our own personal experience and thought, especially those connected with our childhood, and emphasizes anew the realiza- tion that familiar acquaintance with nature gives a broader and more gracious and generous view of life. HE children of the Orient have the bamboo, the ginkgo, the teak, the banyan, and the oriental plane; those of Syria the ancient olive trees and cedars of Lebanon. The children of Norway have the Norway maple, and the Norway spruce; those of Sweden, who live in the very home of Christmas, have also beautiful firs and birches. The Germans love their lindens and horse-chestnuts and fill their fairy sto- ries with references to fir trees; the Swiss children spend their summers on the Alpine pastures surrounded by tall and stately firs and spruces; the Austrian children find the larch on the mountains and a beautiful spe- cies of pine in some of the valleys, from the wood of which they carve their Christ- mas toys; the Italian children, even in the crowded streets of Venice and Naples, can- not fail to know something of the chestnut and olive orchards on the mountain slopes and the pollarded willows of the lowlands. The children of rural France love the long rows of poplars that shade the highways, and those of the cities love their beautiful parks and shaded boulevards; the London lad occasionally turns his eyes from his cricket bat to gaze upon a majestic field elm or a grove of oaks or beeches, while the farmer’s boy loves to linger in the shade of the elms and oaks that everywhere dot the English landscape.” “In Cuba, children play beneath wide- spreading laurel trees and royal palms; while in Mexico girls and women loiter and wash their clothes beneath the willows that fringe the streams, or gather wild fruits and flowers under oaks and Montezuma pines. Every child in Mexico City knows the grove of giant cypress trees adjoining Chapultepec and ‘La Noche Triste’ tree, under which Cortez reviewed his shattered army. The children of California boast of the giant redwoods, still the largest of all trees in spite of rival claims; while those of Wash- ington and Oregon know red firs and other trees almost as large. The boy of the south- ern United States delights in the magnifi- cent oak, chestnut, and pine forests, and in the beauty and perfume of the southern magnolia; while the boy of the North glories in ‘the murmuring pines and the hemlocks’ and the valuable forests of maple, beech, and birch.” “In studying history, art, literature, myth- ology, and the customs of various peoples, a child finds many references to trees and tree lore. If we add to these sentiments and fancies some definite and accurate knowl- edge of the more common trees in one’s locality, together with the life history and needs of trees in general, it means a much broader and happier life for the child and man. Trees will then never be forgotten, but will be recognized and loved as the faces of friends.” Notes On February 1, Dr. Robert Cushman Murphy comes to the American Museum as associate curator of ornithology. He will devote his time particularly to a study of the collections made by the South Pacific Expedition; publication of reports upon zoological material collected along the east and west coasts of South America is also contemplated. It may be remembered that some years ago (1912-13) Dr. Murphy went to South Georgia on an expedition conducted jointly by the American Museum and the Brooklyn Museum. The observations and collections made on this trip laid the foundation for his future work on sea birds in particular and oceanic zodlogy in general, which have now become important branches of his studies. Among other expeditions made by Dr. Murphy was one to Lower California in 593 yy 594 1915, while his latest investigations have been among the guano islands along the Peruvian coast of South America. Dr. Freperic A. Lucas is nearing the tenth anniversary of his directorship of the American Museum and the fortieth anni- versary of his service to the museums ot America. In celebration of this event the American Museum has in mind the publica- tion of a selected series of his papers on museums and museum administration, to- gether with a brief autobiographical sketch and bibliography of his writings for the last forty years. THE president, trustees, and scientific staff of the American Museum sent their greet- ings and felicitations on the occasion of the formal opening of the Institute de Paleon- tologie Humaine in Paris on December 23. The great service to anthropology which this institution has already accomplished is a monument in the history of science which points the way to a bright future of dis- covery and achievement. The institute was inaugurated by S. A. S. the Prince of Mon- aco in 1910 for the study of early man and his works. Under its auspices a number of researches have been carried on, notably in certain of the caves in Spain. THE American Association of Museums has appointed a committee consisting of Mr. L. V. Coleman, chairman, and Dr. E. O. Hovey, of the American Museum, and Mr. H. L. Madison, of the Park Museum, Provi- dence, to report at the Cleveland Convention in 1921 on a plan for classifying museum in- formation and providing for its distribution. It is planned to organize the subject matter of museum technique, administration, and activity on a decimal basis and to arrange for publishing data on loose leaves. WE regret to record the death on October 8 of Dr. Yves Delage, professor of zodlogy at the Sorbonne and director of the Roscoff Marine Station in France. Professor De- lage was preeminent among French zodlo- gists for his knowledge of shore fauna and his experimental work on parthenogenesis. More than twenty volumes of L’ Année Biolo- gique stand as a monument to his industry, as well as six volumes of the Traité de Zoologie Concrete and many other books, in- NATURAL HISTORY cluding his notable work on Heredity and the Great Problems of General Biology. AN expedition to Greenland for the fur- ther exploration of the north coast regions, including Peary Land, will be undertaken in 1921 as a fitting bicentenary commem- oration of the first colonization of Green- land by Hans Egede in 1721. Dr. Lange Koch will lead the party which in the late summer will carry supplies by Cleveland tractors across the ice-free marginal zone at Inglefield Gulf to Warmings Land on the nerth coast. In the two years following, Dr. Koch will journey by dog sledges with Polar Eskimos. The cost of the expedition is being defrayed by the Danish government and a committee of prominent Danish gen- tlemen, including Professor Eugene Warm- ing. THE completion of Knud Rasmussen’s study of the Greenland Eskimos is reported by Mr. W. Elmer Ekblaw in the Geograph- ical Review. Rasmussen returned late last year from Ammassalik on the east coast. He now knows every Eskimo in Greenland per- sonally and has made an exhaustive study of the language, customs, and folklore. He is himself part Eskimo and was born in Greenland, but later studied languages and ethnology at the University of Copenhagen. His life has been devoted to this anthropo- logical study which he hopes will ultimately comprehend all of the race from Ammassa- lik to Siberia. THE statement frequently made that the Hawaiian race is disappearing is erroneous, according to Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, assistant curator of anthropology in the American Museum. Mr. Sullivan is at present making an anthropometric survey in the Hawaiian Islands in codperation with the Bishop Mu- seum of Honolulu. Although the native stock is rapidly becoming mixed, he esti- mates that there are at least 20,000 repre- sentatives still to be found. In his anthro- pometric work Mr. Sullivan has received active cooperation from the people of the territory who willingly presented themselves for examination. He has found the aver- age height of the Hawaiians to be 5 feet, 8% inches, which is exceeded only by the Scotch with an average height of 5 feet, 81% inches. Mr. T. C. White, representative of NOTES the Bishop Estate in the district of Kona, accompanied Mr, Sullivan for a month, ren- dering valuable assistance through his wide acquaintance among the Hawaiians. THE week after Christmas was as usual convocation week, and the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science and a number of other scientifie societies met in Chicago. Dr, Frank EK. Lutz presided at the meetings of the Entomological Society of America and Dr, E. O. Hovey was present as secretary of the Geological Society of America. Dr. E. H. Moore, professor of mathematics in the University of Chicago, was elected president of the American Asso- ciation to succeed Dr. L. O. Howard; Dr. Simon Flexner, director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, the retiring president, gave the presidential address, his topic being “Twenty-five Years of Bacteri- ology—A Fragment of Medical Research.” PHYSICAL anthropology, as the name im- plies, deals with the material side of man, his bodily characters, such as size and color, shape of the head, character of the hair, points wherein one man or race differs from another. Among other matters it includes detailed measurements of the human body and their relationships to one another, the object being to determine resemblances or differences between individuals or races of mankind, a branch of science termed an- thropometry—the measuring of man. Now, in order to have uniformity in measurements so those taken by one worker may be accu- rately compared with those taken by an- other, or with those taken by the same worker at different times, certain definite points have been agreed upon by anthropol- ogists. These are usually located where the underlying bones come near the surface, sometimes the bones or joints themselves are chosen, not only because these points are well marked, but so that measurements of the skeleton may be compared with those made on the outside of the body, for some- times bones only are available, and some- times measurements must be made on living men. These selected points are shown in an ex- hibit prepared under the direction of Mr. L. R. Sullivan and recently placed in the south- west pavilion on the second floor of the American Museum. So far as we know this 595 is the first piece of its kind. It is a life-sized figure of a man showing on the one side the outer part of the body and on the other the skeleton—the points selected for measure- ments being indicated by labels. The technique of cephalometry, the de- tailed measurement of the head and face, is shown in a case near by which includes a set of labels giving a brief history of the subject. A MEETING preparatory to the foundation of the Institut International d’Anthropo- logie was held at the Ecole d’Anthropologie of Paris, September 9-14, 1920, in ae- cordance with a circular letter sent out by the school on November 20, 1918. The aim is to found a permanent international or- ganization among all the anthropologists of the allied nations with a central office for the arrangement of periodic sessions, the facilitation of relations between investiga- tors, the centralization of publications, and the development of plans of research in physical anthropology, prehistory, ethnology, and other branches. Dr. Charles Peabody, of Harvard University, was the American delegate. A provisional executive council was elected of which S. A. I. Mgr. le Prince Bonaparte is president. Doctors Clark Wiss- ler, of the American Museum, Ales Hrdliéka, of the U. S. National Museum, G. G. Mac- Curdy, of Yale University, and Charles Pea- body, of Harvard University, are the Amer- ican representatives on the council. THE Intercollegiate Cosmopolitan Club of New York City was the guest of President Henry Fairfield Osborn at the American Mu- seum on January 4, 1921. The elub is com- prised of foreign students who are studying in various collegiate institutions of the city and represents more than sixty nationalities, including Latin America and the Far East as well as many of the European countries. These men and women from the four corners of the earth are absorbing American ways of life and ideals in connection with their academic studies and for that purpose they are brought together by the club in a semi- social way. As the aim of the club is to express the common brotherhood of man, Dr. G. Clyde Fisher appropriately spoke on the interrelations and interdependence of all human life in connection with a special ex- hibition of the film on “How Life Begins.” 596 Following this lecture the guests made an excursion through various halls of the mu- seum, after which tea was served in the hall of the Age of Man. A new theory of the origin and racial affiliation of the Polynesian peoples was proposed by Dr. Roland B, Dixon, professor of anthropology in Harvard University, in a paper before the American Philosophical Society on April 22.1. Professor Dixon has reinvestigated all available data, not alone with reference to the cephalic index but also with reference to a correlation between the cephalic index, length-height, and nasal in- dices, and, whenever possible, the facial in- dex. The conclusions that he reaches are that the primitive underlying strata in the Polynesian area was Negrito. This was followed by a Negroid people such as now inhabit Melanesia and Australia, while the Negritos only survive in remote marginal areas. After the Negroid peoples came a Malayoid or Mongoloid race which absorbed and submerged the preceding types. As the anthropometric data is very scanty, these conclusions can only be regarded as a tenta- tive hypothesis on which more light will be shed by the investigations now under way under the auspices of the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. Dr. RatpH S. LiLuie has resigned his professorship of biology in Clark University to accept the position of biologist in the de- partment of pure science of the Nela Re- search Laboratories, National Lamp Works of the General Electric Company. He will, however, retain his connection with the Ma- rine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. THE field of anthropology has been al- most entirely lacking in books of a general and introductory type such as would place the principles of the science before the be- ginning student or the worker in related sciences such as sociology, history, and com- parative jurisprudence. Dr. Robert H. Lowie, associate curator of anthropology in the American Museum, has undertaken to supply this lack in the special branch of social organization, and his recent work, Primitive Society, constitutes an excellent 1Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. LIX, 1920, p. 261. NATURAL HISTORY introduetion to social anthropology for the student or interested layman. The author takes up the topics of marriage, kinship, the position of women, property, associations, government, and justice, and outlines the characteristic forms in which each have been found among primitive groups. Dr. Lowie adheres to the historical as opposed to the evolutionary school of anthropology. “The existence of uniformity in cultural history,” he says, “cannot be assumed simply because it would be convenient. Jf there are laws of social evolution, he (the an- thropologist ) must assuredly discover them, but whether there are any remains to be seen Without, therefore, at the outset renouncing the search for laws of social evolution, we will emphatically de- clare our independence of that pseudo-scien- tific dogmatism which insists on formulating all phenomena after the fashion that has proved serviceable in a diminutive corner of the field of human knowledge. Uninfluenced by any bias for or against historical regu- larities, we shall attempt to determine what are the facts and what has been their actual sequence.” Dr. CHARLES-Epwarp A. WINSLOW, cura- tor of public health in the American Mu- seum and professor of public health in Yale University School of Medicine, will assume the directorship of the public health activi- ties of the League of Red Cross Societies at Geneva in February. Dr. Winslow expects to return to the United States before the opening of the fall term next October. Dr. Henry E. CRAMPTON, curator of in- vertebrate zoology in the American Museum, now on an extended expedition to the Orient, reports a very successful trip. His first period of field work comprised two months devoted to Guam and Saipan in the Mariana Islands. Guam, which is well known as our naval station, is a composite island geologically, as it is formed in part of ancient sedimentary strata much meta- morphosed, and in part of uplifted lime- stone reefs. The island is very interesting in connection with studies of distribution, for certain land mollusks of the genus Par- tula extend to it and to its neighbors, al- though they are more strictly Polynesian in their habitat. The natives, called Chamor- ros, are allied to the Filipinos in part. The success here was largely due to the governor, NOTES Captain Ivan C. Wettengel, U. S. N., who granted many unusual favors and made it possible for Dr, Crampton to proceed by naval vessel to Saipan. Here also the col- lections were particularly rich in several groups, especially insects. On August 26 Dr. Crampton sailed for Manila. Through the codperation of the Philippine Bureau of Science he secured on the island of Luzon a fine series of photo- graphs and from Dean Baker, of the College of Agriculture at Los Banos, a full series of reptiles and amphibians and a large series of named insects. Governor Harrison was much interested in the expedition and placed a coast guard steamer at Dr, Crampton’s disposal in order that he might cross Man- ila Bay to the Mariveles Mountains and see the pygmy natives of that region. On this trip, however, Dr. Crampton was most un- fortunately kicked by a vicious horse and was forced to return for treatment. About the middle of September he sailed for Hong Kong whence he continued up the Canton River to the Canton Christian Col- lege. Here at the invitation of the faculty, he delivered a series of lectures on evolution and on Polynesia and its peoples. The zoolo- gist of the college, Professor Howard, is de- veloping a campaign of systematic collect- ing in the Canton region which is certain to be exceptionally successful. Late in September Dr. Crampton took steamer to Bangkok. A few days were spent there in making preparation and then he proceeded to his long-determined goal, the city of Chieng-mai, five hundred miles to the north, where for a few weeks he was the guest of His Serene Highness, Prince Bova- radej, viceroy of northern Siam. Numer- ous favors were extended and Dr. Crampton was privileged to learn a great deal of the Lao people of this region and of their highly developed culture. The city of Chieng-mai is beautifully sit- uated on a plain of rice fields, surrounded on almost all sides by mountains of consid- erable height. Nearly a week was spent in the forests high up on the mountain of Doi Sutep at an elevation of 2700 feet. The American Presbyterian Mission has Rest Houses at different places on Doi Sutep and these were placed at Dr. Crampton’s dis- posal. On November 8 he started by rail for Singapore, taking several days for the trip 597 down the Malay Peninsula and collecting around Penang and Kuala Lumpus. Thence he sailed to Java on November 19 for a period of field work on that island. Mr. H. E. ANTHONY, associate curator of mammals in the American Museum, reports from Ecuador unusual success in securing valuable material. Mr, Anthony, together with Mr. G. K. Cherrie, has been enjoying the hospitality of the South American De- velopment Company, at one of whose mining camps, Portovelo, a base has been estab- lished. From here they have collected throughout the southern Andes almost as far as Peru, obtaining about 1200 birds and 640 mammals. This is the largest collection of mammals the American Museum has ever made in South America. The expedition will continue into the eastern Andes and the little known headwaters of the Amazonian drainage system and will subsequently make a eross section of the mountains farther north. Mr. Anthony also plans a reconnais- sance for fossils along the west coast. _ THE last island in the West Indies to be thoroughly investigated, and perhaps the most interesting island of all, from a bio- logical standpoint, is Santo Domingo. The American Museum has received a number of collections from this island. Perhaps the most recent contribution is a series of rep- tiles and amphibians made by Lieut. J. K. Noble, United States Marine Force, Air Service, and his associates in the First Squadron, Aviation Unit stationed at San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo. A num- ber of photographs taken from an airplane show the possibility of panoramic repre- sentation of life zones, so interesting to the students of zodgeography and so clearly marked off on the slopes of most tropical mountains, especially those of the central highlands of Santo Domingo. In a future number of Natura History Mr. Rollo H. Beck will narrate his experiences while bird collecting in Santo Domingo. THE “Lepidoptera of the Congo, Being a Systematic List of the Butterflies and Moths Collected by the American Museum of Nat- ural History Congo Expedition, with Descriptions of Some Hitherto Un- described Species” has just been published by Dr. W. J. Holland, director of the Car- together 598 negie Institution, in the Bulletin of the American Museum. The collection, which is one of the largest from the region in re- cent years, is especially rich in the larger and showier species characteristic of the territory covered. It contains nearly 9000 specimens representing more than 725 spe- cies and varieties. Mr. A. K. HaaGner, director of the Na- tional Zoological Gardens of South Africa at Pretoria, was the guest of the American Museum on September 21, and delivered an address. in the auditorium, illustrated by lantern slides and moving pictures. Mr. Haagner gave an account of the cireum- stances that rapidly led to the practical ex- tinction of many large South African mam- mals, such as the blesbok, springbok, white- tailed gnu, white rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and Cape giraffe. In this process of ex- tinction the development of transportation facilities has been a vital factor; the auto- mobile, the motor-boat, and the railroad have finally supplanted the porters’ caravan, ox wagon, and “Cape-cart.” As a result, most of the larger animals now exist only in reservations, which are often privately owned. A pleasant surprise was an account of the success attained in breeding wild animals in the Pretoria zoological gardens, in part made possible by the relatively mild climate in that region. Conspicuous in this respect were the fine herds of the greater kudu, the Rhodesian cob, South African eland, and buffalo. Among the carnivores successfully bred was a litter of the spotted hyena, suckled by a domestic dog; the quaintest were the young of the long-eared fennec fox. A splendid film of a herd of elephants, orig- inally taken to illustrate one of Rider Hag- gard’s stories, brought great applause. The huge animals seemed only shghtly disturbed on leaving the forest and after entering a remarkably picturesque parkland they scat- Their actions and grouping often changed and the artistic effect of the picture was heightened by the presence of a great flock of cow-herons which circled over them, some alighting on the elephants’ backs. Following a charge across the open veldt, the largest tusker fell to the skill of a hunter tracker. Mr. Haagner has presented to the Amer- tered among the palm groves. and his bushman NATURAL HISTORY ican Museum a fine skin of the rare moun- tain zebra which was taken in the Cradock District in the mountains of the Southeastern Cape Colony and which through an accident had perished on the way to America, THE great moonfish or opah (Lampris luna) is one of the strangest fishes of the sea and so unique structurally that it con- stitutes an order (Selenichthyes) by itself. It is a large fish reaching a weight of four hundred pounds and is characterized partic- ularly by the extraordinary development of the shoulder girdle which is proportionally many times larger than in other fishes. Dr. David Starr Jordan now reports a fossil species of Lampris from the diatom bed of Lompoe, California.t The specimen is about 3 by 2 feet and is “of great interest as showing the antiquity of one of the most sin- gular of all living fishes, and incidentally with other associated forms, the relative age of the present fish fauna of California.” THE use of the sucking fish (Hcheneis or Remora) for catching other fish was first re- ported by Columbus and has since been both affirmed and denied by travelers and scien- tists. Dr. E. W. Gudger, in a series of arti- cles in the American Naturalist, collects all the written evidence and actual experiments with HLcheneis, which tend to show that the method was feasible. The method was to fasten a line around the fish’s tail. With its powerful sucking apparatus the Hcheneis would then attach itself to another fish and the latter could be hauled in and netted. Dr. Gudger estimates from experiment and cal- culation that an Echeneis might stand a pull of about fifty pounds or greater. This pull is sufficient for landing even large fish which are frequently taken with lines breaking at less than thirty pounds dead pull. THE United States Department of Agri- culture has undertaken the investigation of the effect of poisonous plants on grazing animals with the ultimate aim of prevent- ing losses from this source. There are more poisonous plants in the United States than is generally supposed (one list gives 25,000 Field stations have been estab- lished by the department in localities where the investigators can have immediate access to poisoned stock. species). 1**An Ancient Moonfish.” Vol. XI, 1920, p. 470. Scientific Monthly, ae Photograph by John K. Small Courtesy of G. P. Putnam’s Sons Arboreal snails (Liguus fasciatus) ewestivating on the trunk of a Jamaica dogwood on Long Key Nur rorle ~ La hl o 7 7 97 > r . ° - . * - . . 2 wm te Everglades. These richly painted mollusks are among the rapidly disappearing fauna of Florida. Their doom is sealed in the destruction of the hammocks by the white man, whose very presence seems fatal to them THE veteran naturalist, Mr. Charles Tor- rey Simpson, during more than twenty years of residence and travel in southern Florida, has collected a wealth of observations on the wild life, geography, and geology of that state which he now presents in a volume, In Lower Florida Wilds. Mr. Simpson lived on the southwest coast of the peninsula from 1882 to 1886 and explored the tropical wil- derness when flamingos and spoonbills, deer, otter, and alligators were yet abundant. The book is a valuable record of a life now in great part passed away. During these many years the author penetrated into the remote Everglades, protected from the curious by swamp-land and sword grass; he explored the ragged coral-bound islands of the coast, and hunted through the once primeval for- ests. He is particularly interested in the sausal features in the natural history of Florida—the origin of the land and the dif- ferences of fauna and flora, separated at times by only a few miles of swamp or sea. The presence and distribution of tropical animals and plants Mr. Simpson attributes for the most part to the current of the Gulf Stream rather than to a land bridge or the agency of birds. Among the beauty spots described in the book the most notable are perhaps the hammocks or areas of hardwood trees and rich tropical vegetation. Their great enemy, aside from man, is fire which, strange to say, seems ultimately to benefit the pine woods. Except for the live oaks which he ealls the “Achilles of the ham- mocks” the hammocks would not exist. The pioneer work of this remarkable tree is ae- complished by its rapid growth, great re- sistance, and dense shade which make it a de- fense against the fires and a blight over the pines. But in a hammock once well established the tropical flora ultimately takes root and the live oak, which has made possible their growth, succumbs to the stifling embrace of the common strangler (Ficus aurea Mr. Simpson makes an appeal for the preservation of the wild life and forests of these hammocks before it is too late. “They should be cherished for their beauty and for the rare vegetation they contain. Once de- stroyed they can never be replaced quite as uature has made them, and Florida would be despoiled for all time of one of her most important attractions.” oy 600 NATURAL HISTORY Dr. Franz Steindachner, 1834-1919, renowned ichthyologist and director for fifty years of the Natural History Museum in Vienna Dr. FRANZ STEINDACHNER was born in 1834. As a young man he was associated with Agassiz at Cambridge, making collec- tions of fishes for him or with him in Cali- fornia and in Brazil. In the fifties he was called to the K. K. Naturhistorischen Hof- museum in Vienna, of which he became direc- tor (intendant) about 1870, succeeding Dr. Rudolph Kner. As head of this museum he devoted his personal energies to the upbuild- ing of an extensive collection of fishes, pub- lishing with great regularity a series of papers on the different groups which he studied. These papers are remarkable for their accuracy, especially shown in the de- scription of species, and all were illustrated by the fine lithography of his inimitable art- ist, Edouard Konopicky. Steindachner was interested especially in details, leaving to others, and usually less careful workers, the great generalizations of his science. With Linneus he held, Tyro fit classes, magister species. “The beginner defines classes, it takes a master to deal with species.” Steindachner’s first paper, on the fossil fishes of Austria, appeared in 1859. The last which has reached me is on certain fishes of Brazil and was passed by the British cen- sor as politically safe in 1915. When the Imperial Government razed the fortress wall of Vienna, they established the Burgring on its site, and from the pro- ceeds of sales founded a Gallery of Paint- ings, an Opera House, and the Museum of Natural History of which Steindachner be- came director. But he received scant funds for his work. Outside his artist, taxider- mist, and the janitor service, practically the whole expense fell on him. He wrote labels for the specimens and at least a large part of the material received was paid for from his own funds. I find that this was true of the collections I sent him from the West Indies and the Pacific. Dr. Steindachner never married. He lived in very modest fashion in rooms attached to the museum, where I visited him in 1913. He was a man of medium height, slender and wiry, wearing a full brown beard, silvered with age,—a delightful personality, quiet, modest, and intensely devoted to his museum and his studies. One of the most terrible results of the war has been its abasement of science with the sufferings it has entailed on scientific workers in central and eastern Europe, the regions where, in Hoover’s words, “Human life is worth about three cents.” Steindachner died on December 10, 1919, at the age of 85. His successor, Dr. Victor Pietschmann, writes me that he died of cold, there being no coal obtainable to heat the museum or his own apartments.—Davip STARR JORDAN. THE production of light by animals has always proved a phenomenon exciting ad- miration and has given rise to much physio- logical speculation and research. Dr. E. Newton Harvey, professor of physiology in Princeton University, has recently published a monograph on bioluminescence, treating of the underlying physical characteristics and chemical processes in animal lght.1 Dr. Harvey concludes that the luminescence of at least three groups of animals (the beetles, Pholas, and Cypridina) is due to the inter- action of two substances, luciferin and luci- ferase, in the presence of water and oxygen. Luciferase is a protein substance which be- haves in many ways like an enzyme and is used up in large quantities in the oxidation of luciferin in the formation of light. This problem has also been studied extensively 1E. Newton Harvey, ZYhe Nature of Animal Light (Monographs on Experimental Biology), 1920. NOTES 601 by Prof. Ulric Dahlgren, who will contribute an article on the subject to a future number of Natura History. In order to provide for the organization of an institute for research in tropical Amer- ica the National Research Council through its Division of Biology and Agriculture has appointed a committee on organization and incorporation consisting of Messrs. A. 8. Hitchcock, of the Smithsonian Institution, and J. W. Toumey, of Yale University, and Doctors D. S. Johnson, of Johns Hopkins University, F. M. Chapman, of the Amer- ican Museum, Thomas Barbour, of the Mu- seum of Comparative Zoology, and W. J. Holland, of the Carnegie Museum, repre- senting the organizations especially inter- ested in the establishment of such an insti- tute. THe New York Zoological Society is or-_ ganizing a campaign for the protection of the fur-bearing mammals of the world against inroads now being made by the fur trade. A forthcoming number of the Zodlog- ical Bulletin will be devoted to an article prepared by Director William T. Hornaday on this subject. It seems probable that the age of mammals is literally drawing to a close and that by the middle of this cen- tury there will be no mammals left except in the game preserves. Even in the pre- serves great inroads are being made from time to time, as we learn in a letter re- cently received from South Africa from the secretary of the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire. The secretary writes: “We had a very bad case before us last week, which shows how great is the need for awakening interest in faunal protection at the present time. A game drive on a large scale was organized by about sixty settlers in Zululand, and in defiance of the game laws, with the connivance of the Natal Pro- vincial Council, they rounded up vast num- bers of game in the Umpolozi Reserve, and slaughtered them wholesale, leaving the car- easses to rot. About 3000 head of big game were killed, mostly zebra, but including at least two of the last ten white rhinoceroses left in South Africa. The excuse was the prevalence of ragana in the area. As it is now the opinion of the greatest experts on the tsetse that the slaughter of game is quite useless as a preventive measure unless all living things, great and small, be exter- minated in the area, it seems all the more deplorable.” THE New York Zoological Garden report- ed the birth of a chimpanzee on July 14, 1920. The event was noteworthy in that this is the second chimpanzee known to have been born in captivity. As the litera- ture on the subject of the breeding of an- thropoid apes is small, the accounts by Dr. W. Reid Blair in the Zoological Society Bul- letin and Zoopathologica are of considerable scientific interest. The mother unfortunately was unable to nurse her offspring, and it lived but eight days. THE great length of time which a hippo- potamus can remain under water without coming to the surface for air has been noted in the case of a specimen in the London Zoological Gardens. This animal, timed by his keeper, remained submerged in clear water for 29 minutes. The hippopotamus, “Guy Fawkes,” which died in the same gar- den in 1905, is also credited with a long immersion under unusual circumstances. A dog which one day strayed into his enclos- ure was furiously pursued into the water tank and crushed in the jaws of the hip- popotamus. The latter seemed very much disturbed by the occurrence, and the next day when the enclosure was opened he plunged to the bottom of the tank. After half an hour the keeper, supposing that the animal was dead, prepared to drag the tank to recover the body, whereupon the hip- popotamus rose again to the surface. THe American Ornithologists’ Union held its annual meeting in Washington from November 8 to 11. It was one of the most largely attended meetings in the history of the Union, with one half of the total num- ber of fellows and 10 per cent of the entire membership present. A feature of the occa- sion was an exhibition of illustrations of birds by American artists and a series of prints showing the evolution of ornitholog- ical illustration from the earliest times. Dr. Witmer Stone, curator of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, was elected president for the ensuing year. Six papers were read by the following members of the staff of the American Museum: Dr. F. M. Chapman and Messrs. W. DeWitt Miller, J. P. Chapin, and Ludlow Griscom. THE continuation of Major Charles Ben- dire’s monumental work on the life his- eee 602 tories of North American birds has been undertaken by Mr. Arthur Cleveland Bent. Mr. Bent has published the first section as “Life Histories of North American Diving Birds—Order Pygopodes,” with illustrations from numerous photographs of habitats and nests and fifty-five color plates of eggs.1 Unfortunately, for reasons of economy, it was not found possible to bring Mr. Bent’s volume — especially the plates—up_ to the standard of Bendire’s work. Mr. Bent includes the hitherto unpublished reports on Aretie bird life of the Crocker Land Expedi- tion in so far as they relate to his group, together with photographs made by mem- bers of the expedition. THE discovery of a sculpture dating from 1561 of the extinet dodo is recorded by Dr. A. C. Oudemans from the town of Vere on the little island of Walcheren, Zeeland. This is the oldest known representation of the dodo, which became extinct in the seven- teenth century. Dr. Oudemans considers it a good figure, modeled after an actual speci- men. He has compiled a monograph (in Dutch) on the dodo, its anatomy, habits, distribution, and the literature thereon, and publishes therewith a series of rare or for- gotten illustrations, including photographs of the Vere sculpture. A good reproduction of this giant, awkward, aberrant pigeon may be seen in the hall of birds of the world in the American Museum. THE first engagement in the fight to main- tain Malheur Lake Reservation, Oregon, as a wild-life sanctuary has been lost by the forees in favor of conservation. In Novem- ber the people of Oregon voted down a. bill, initiated to give a clear title to the United States Government to the land and water rights of this tract. Malheur is a shallow lake about fifteen miles long by nine wide, surrounded by marshy land which, it is be- lieved, is the greatest breeding ground for wild fowl in the country. It was set aside by executive order of the late President Roosevelt in 1908 “for the use of the De- partment of Agriculture as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds.” Under the proposed law it would have been re- christened “The Roosevelt Bird Refuge,” but for a number of years certain promoters with eyes only for commercial exploitation ‘Smithsonian Institution. Bulletin 107, 1919. NATURAL HISTORY have been urging the state of Oregon to bring legal proceedings to get control of the reservation in order to drain the lake and sell the land for agriculture. Already the lake is on the verge of drying up as a result of the diverting of most of the waters from the Silvies and Blitzen rivers for irri- gation. The proposed law would have cor- rected this situation in part and have given positive title to the Federal Government. Myriads of water fowl have been accus- tomed to breed here—Canada geese, mal- lards, redheads, pintails, gadwalls, cinna- mon teal, ruddy ducks, California and ring- billed gulls, night herons, great blue herons, Farralone cormorants, white pelicans, three species of grebes, bitterns, rails, avocets, stills, phalaropes, snipe, kildeers—and the lake is the only place in Oregon where the white heron or American egret, which in 1908 was all but extinct, is to be found. Two colonies of this most beautiful of American plumage birds were discovered near the lake in 1919 by Mr. William L. Finley, field agent for the Audubon Society, and, given opportunity, they would no doubt become numerous again. The land which might be salvaged by the drainage of Malheur Lake region, aS was reported in NaTurAL H1IsTory for December, 1919, has been shown by in- vestigations of the United States Biological Survey to be too alkaline for anything but coarse grass. No economic development of any importance can result from destroying this ancient home of the birds. There is no other spot among the arid lands where they can raise their broods, and the citizens of eastern Oregon fail to realize that the birds themselves are an asset, not only from the esthetic and natural history point of view, but in dollars and cents as measured by the protection they afford to crops from insect pests and in the maintenance of a legiti- mate game supply. There is still possibility that through prompt action by the Federal Government this bird sanctuary may be spared. Bird lovers and sportsmen all over the country should give the matter wide pub- licity and do all they can to bring about the creation of a permanent Federal reserva- tion, Apropos of the recent article on the red- woods in NaTuRAL History a member of the staff of the American Museum who visited the western coast last summer writes: “Of NOTES 603 the routes covered none seemed at the time more beautiful or made a more lasting im- pression than the ride from Grant’s Pass, Oregon, to Eureka, California, a two days’ trip, much of it through the wildest and most wonderful forest region still remaining in America. On the second day, after leay- ing the cleared area about Crescent City and climbing the steep hills which nearly every- where along that coast extend to the ocean shore, the traveler sees little of civilization and little of the effects of human destrue- tiveness. The road winds among hills and ravines densely clothed with a magnificent redwood forest, the great trees growing in places in dense, nearly pure stands, but more often intermingled with tall firs and hem- locks and, farther south, with Sitka spruces and lowland white firs, which are often scarcely less impressive than the redwoods. At times the highway comes out on the bare bluffs bordering the Pacific, affording a view out over the ocean and the white surf break- ing far below. But the most impressive feature of the trip is the long stretch of almost absolutely wild and undamaged for- est, through which the road passes, and the magnificent size and height of its constituent trees. The mountaimous country, the re- moteness from large centers of population, and the lack of good harbors along the coast have alone saved this region up to the present time; they cannot save it much longer. If prompt action is not taken, all this natural beauty will be destroyed in order that a few people may make money out of what should be the property of all.” In 1895 when the New York State Legis- lature put the beavers under absolute pro- tection it was estimated that there were not more than five or ten individuals in the state. This year the Conservation Commis- sion estimates that in the Adirondacks alone there are 15,000 or 20,000 of these animals, From virtual extermination in the state the beavers, under twenty-five years’ protection, have increased to such an extent that meas- ures are being considered for their restric- tion. The beaver in times past was an im- portant economic asset and was hunted for its valuable pelt. The animals, however, are very destructive to trees, cutting down large numbers for use as food and to con- struct their “houses,’ and flooding large areas with the dams they build. Last year the Conservation Commission supported a bill providing a short open season, but it failed of action. The annual increase, amounting to about three thousand animals, might well be taken and would yield a econ- siderable cash dividend, EVIDENCE of a recent world-wide sinking of the ocean level to the extent of about twenty feet is presented by Dr. Reginald A. Daly, professor of geology in Harvard Uni- versity, in the June number of the Geolog- ical Magazine. Professor Daly offers his own field observations and marshals a large amount of published data to show the pres- ence of a strand about twenty feet above high tide, dating from post-Glacial times. As there is no evidence warranting the be- lief that the ocean basin has been suffi- ciently enlarged in recent times to admit of this change, Professor Daly proposes the hypothesis that the lowering of the sea level has resulted from the increase in thickness of existing nonfloating glaciers and ice caps. For example, a sinking of this extent would result if the Antarctic ice cap were thick- ened by about seven-hundred feet. THE part played by military geologists on the Western Front has recently been offi- cially summarized by Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, formerly chief geologist on General Persh- ing’s staff. Mr. Brooks points to a number of hopeless enterprises, expensive in lives, that were undertaken because the responsi- ble officers failed to take account of the geo- logical factors. The principal applications of geology were the determination of under- ground and surface-water conditions and the physical character of the soil, subsoil, and bed rock, with special reference to field- works and the determination of road mate- rial and the influence of soil and subsoil during wet and dry seasons on the move- ment of troops. It was also found that the geologic conditions affecting electrical trans- mission entered into the use of listening de- vices such as were extensively used in trench warfare. The value of geologic knowledge to an army in the field became so evident as the war went on that toward its close nearly all the powers had organized geological staff's. Avr a symposium before the Geological Society of America on the teaching of geol- ogy and paleontology Professor Charles — mn 604 Schuchert, of Yale, read a paper on “Amer- ican Paleontologists and the Immediate Fu- ture of Paleontology.” Professor Schuchert estimates that there are but 37 invertebrate and 17 vertebrate paleontologists and 4 paleobotanists actively engaged in construc- tive work in North America. The great shortcomings and restriction of paleontology are due, Professor Schuchert thinks, to its dominance by the geologists especially in the universities. Historical geology should be taught by paleontologists rather than by geologists. The invertebrate paleontologists have further been dominated by geological interests in that about 90 per cent of their work is chronogenetie while the biological aspects of the subject have been allowed to pass into the background. EvipENCE for a former land connection be- tween Patagonia and Australia by way of the Antarctic Continent has long been seen in the presence and restriction to these two regions of the frogs of the family Lepto- dactylide. It has, however, been main- tained by some that this distribution was merely a case of convergent evolution. The latter hypothesis is definitely excluded and the existence of the land bridge established, according to Dr. Maynard M. Metealf, by the discovery in the two branches of Lepto- daetylide of closely similar species of para- site (Zelleriella).1 These parasites are in turn confined to South America and Aus- tralia. That both similar frogs and simi- lar parasites should have arisen together by parallel evolution in remote quarters of the earth would seem unlikely. Dr. LEON A. HAUSMAN, who recently con- tributed an article on “Mammal Fur under the Microscope,’ has just published in the American Naturalist a much more extended paper, with numerous illustrations, on “Structural Characteristics of the Hair of Mammals.” This work of Doctor Hausman’s emphasizes the fact that there is plenty of work at hand for him who has his eyes open. It may be recalled that microscopic struc- ture of hair has now and then played an important part. About fifty years ago a murder trial in England hinged on the ques- tion of blood and hair adhering to a knife. 1“Tpon an Important Method of Studying Prob- fems of Relationship and of Geographical Distribu- tion.” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sciences, Vol. VI, 1920, p. 432. NATURAL HISTORY The defendant claimed that this came from a rabbit that he had skinned, but micro- scopic examination showed that the blood corpuscles were human in their character and that the hair was not that of a rabbit but of a squirrel, and the murdered woman had worn a tippet made of squirrel’s fur. THE application of statistical methods to meteorological data has been made in order to determine the effects of various kinds of weather on crops during various stages in their development, to calculate the risk from unfavorable weather, and to correlate the weather relations over various parts of the country. Mr. Thomas Arthur Blair, mete- orologist in the United States Weather Bureau, reviews the progress in the United States of this new branch of meteorology in a recent number of the Scientific Monthly.2 An example of the results achieved may be seen in the determination made by Professor J. Warren Smith that the yield of corn in Ohio is dependent upon the rainfall during June, July, and August. The difference between three inches of rainfall in July and five inches means the difference in yield be- tween 30 and 38 bushels an acre, or 27,300,- 000 bushels for the state. One half inch of rainfall less than 314 inches reduces the state crop by 15,000,000 bushels, and each quarter of an inch increase between 2 and 4 inches adds an additional $7,800,000 to the crop. Closer calculation indicates that the critical period for corn in Ohio is during the first ten days in August. This is the time when the extra rain must fall, if a big crop is to result. Such determination of critical periods is of great importance in practical agriculture inasmuch as the climate of most of the United States is known in detail and accordingly it may be predicted whether a specific crop is climatically adapted to a particular locality. Further, inasmuch as the development of a crop can be advanced or retarded within limits, the time of its arrival at a critical period may be controlled to a certain extent and the proper stage of development caused to occur at a time when favorable weather conditions are most likely to exist. THe plant and animal life in a fresh- water pond, with especial reference to roti- 2 “The Weather.”’ p. 353. and the Vol. XI, 1920, Mathematician, the Farmer Scientific Monthly, NOTES 605 fers or wheel animalcules, will be depicted in a companion study to the Bryozoa group at the American Museum. Field work is at present in progress in southern New Jersey under Mr. Roy W. Miner in codperation with Mr. Frank J. Myers, who has recently been appointed a research associate in the Ameri- can Museum. SYSTEMATIC trapping of birds for band- ing is far more productive of results than merely banding young birds in the nest, ac- cording to Mr. 8. Prentiss Baldwin1 who re- ports on four years’ experience in this work. The birds regarded the traps as feeding sta- tions and showed no fear. By the exten- Sive capture of adults in this way a large number of records of birds returning to their last year’s feeding grounds was _ ob- tained. Mr. Baldwin considers the chances are about one in five that a migrant will re- turn to the same locality to winter. In- formation may also be supplied by this means of the routes birds follow in migrat- ing and the length of time they spend at various feeding grounds on the way. THE progress in the purchase of eastern national forests during the last nine years is reviewed in the August number of Ameri- can Forestry. By the Weeks Law of 1911 provision was made for the protection of the headwaters of navigable streams by the maintenance of forests. The original ap- propriation was for $11,000,000 to which $3,600,000 has since been added. Under this act 1,841,934 acres of spruce and hardwood have been or are being acquired at an aver- age price of $5.26 an acre. These purchases represent the only provision so far made for conserving the timber supply of the eastern "states and are of especial importance as they include hardwoods practically limited to these states. There are about 30,000,000 acres of hardwood and spruce land in the East unsuited for agriculture, which should be maintained for all time as productive forest. At the invitation of the government of the Republic of Haiti, Mr. W. P. Woodring and several other representatives of the United States Geological Survey have gone 1S. Prentiss Baldwin, “Bird Banding by Means of Systematic Trapping.” Abstract of the Pro- ceedings of the Linnean Society of New York. For the Year ending March 11, 1919. No. 31, 1919. to that island to conduct a geological recon- naissance, THe Rockefeller Foundation reports that during 1919 its activities in publie health and medical education have been carried on in twenty-five countries besides the United States.2 “The war against disease is a world war.” There is no use purifying one community, if its neighbors remain a con- stant source of infection. The foundation has been pushing the fight against yellow fever into its strongholds in South and Cen- tral America and Africa. Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, of the foundation’s staff, has ap- parently isolated the infecting organism of this fever. Attacks were also continued against the malarial mosquito in the south- ern states and against the hookworm disease in remote corners of the world. An ex- haustive bibliography on the latter disease is now nearing completion and will, it is hoped, be published soon. In France the campaign against tuberculosis was continued and extended. The largest work of the foundation—as measured financially—is the introduction of Western medicine into China through the medium of the China Medical Board. A modern medical center is being raised in Peking where premedical, medical, and graduate study will be offered and a standardized hospital maintained for clinical study, training of nurses, and as a model for imitation by the Chinese. Three of the school’s buildings were occupied in October, 1919, and the whole plant will be ready by January, 1921. A TIMELY publication on the races of Russia has been written by Dr. Ale& Hrdlitka,3 giving an account of the origins and characteristics of the Russians. This people which is essentially Slav is increasing at a rapid rate, more rapid than the inerease of any other large branch of the white race, and so bids fair to become one of the pre- dominating factors in the Europe of the future. Tur American Museum of Natural His- tory is to receive an unconditional bequest of $15,000 from the estate of Mrs. Fanny Bridgham. George E. Vincent, The Rockefeller Founda- tion: A Review for 1919, New York, 1920. 3 Smithsonian Misc. Coll. Vol. LXIX, 1919, Noseltl< — 606 NATURAL An exhibition of paintings of birds by Mr. Courtenay Brandreth was recently held at the American Museum. The exhibit will be reviewed by Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator of ornithology, in a future number of NaruraL History. THe library of the American Museum has continual inquiry for back numbers of the AMERICAN MusEUM JOURNAL and NATURAL History, and urges that those subscribers who have copies which are no longer needed will send them to the Librarian. They may be sent by express, collect. Mr. Donatp B. MacMILuaN, leader of the Crocker Land Expedition of 19138, announces that this spring he will start on another two-year trip to the Arctic for scientific in- vestigations. THE second and last volume of Wild Flowers of the State of New York, by Homer D. House, state botanist, has just been received. The most notable feature of the work is the extraordinarily fine series of color plates illustrating most of the species. A more comprehensive illustrated review of the volumes will be given in a future number of NatTurRAL History. A uistory of American state geological and natural history surveys has been com- piled by Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology in the United States National Museum.! North Carolina, it appears, inaugu- rated the first geological survey with an ap- propriation of $1250 1824. This was undertaken during spare time by Professor Denison Olmsted, of the State University, who had urged it upon the legislature as an economic measure. The results of Professor Olmsted’s work were published in two book- lets of 44 and 60 pages respectively. To Massachusetts, however, belongs the credit for the first really comprehensive sur- vey, undertaken and carried to completion. It was begun in 1830 under Professor Ed- in ward Hitecheock, of Amherst, assisted by a corps of naturalists in other branches than geology. Other states soon followed, so that, by the end of the Civil War, thirty-three had carried forward surveys to a greater or less degree. 1 Smithsonian Institution. Bulletin 109, 1920. HISTORY Dr. G. A. BOULENGER, curator of reptiles and amphibians in the British Museum (Natural History), recently issued a_ re- vision of the family Lacertide with special reference to specific variation. The mono- graph combines a number of years’ research some of which has already been published elsewhere. This is Dr. Boulenger’s last work in his official capacity at the British Museum, from which institution he has withdrawn in order to take up botanical researches in the Gardens in Brussels. A brief bibliographi- cal notice of this monograph of the Lacer- tide appears in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for December. The author of that note comments on Boulenger’s retirement “All zoologists must regret that the most distin- guished of living herpetologists is no longer in the following words: officially connected with the unrivaled col- lection which he has done so much to build Ups THE curatorship in plant pathology has been established at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and provision will be made early in 1921 for an experimental greenhouse and grounds. Dr. George Matthew Reed, pathol- ogist in the office of cereal investigation of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, and previously assistant professor in botany at the University of Mississippi, has been appointed to this position. In 1916-17 Doctor Reed spent eight months at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and during that time made a study of the diseases of the trees and plants of Prospect Park and the Botanic Garden, the results of which were published in the Record for January 1917— 18. In addition to his research work, Doctor Reed will act as curator of the Cryptogamic Herbarium and will have general oversight of plant diseases in the conservatory and plantations. Dr. C. S. SHERRINGTON, professor of phy- siology in Oxford University, was elected president of the Royal Society on Novem- ber 30. Professor Sherrington is the leading authority on the physiology of the central nervous system. In 1906 he delivered the Silliman Memorial Lectures at Yale Uni- versity and on the text of these lectures was based his most notable published work, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. NOTES 607 A TABLET to commemorate the discovery by Dr. Hideyo Noguchi of the yellow fever organism has been ordered placed in the laboratories of the Public Health Depart- ment of Guayaquil, Ecuador, by the mu- nicipal authorities. Dr. Noguchi made this discovery while pursuing researches in these laboratories for the Rockefeller Mounda- tion, THE annual meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences was held in New York City on December 20. Baron Gerard De Geer, of Stockholm, Sweden, addressed the meeting on “How and Where To Determine the Pleistocene Time Seale in the United States and Canada,” and Dr. Robert Cush- man Murphy spoke on “The Natural History of the Humboldt Current and the Islands of Peru.” Dr. Edward L. Thorndike, professor of educational psychology in Columbia Uni- versity, was reélected president of the society for the ensuing year. THe American Meteorological Society held its first annual meeting in Chicago on December 29. The presidential address was delivered by Professor Robert DeC. Ward on “Climate and Health, with Special Refer- ence to the United States.” SINCE the last issue of NaturAL History the following persons have been elected members of the American Museum: Patron, Mrs. A. H. BRAWNER. Fellow, Miss Mary CYNTHIA DICKERSON. Life Members, Doctors JOHN A. ForpycE, GEORGE M. MackeNnzi£, Messrs. C. Monta- GUE COOKE, JR., GEORGE M. DEXTER, WALTER F. DmLIncHAM, Harry HARKNESS FLAGLER, Ropert S. KiLBorNe, Pirte MacDonazp, CHARLES A. Mauricr, E. E. SMATHERS, and RicHAarRD WELLING. Sustaining Members, Messrs. CHARLES Strauss and FRANK D. WILSEY. Annual Members, MESDAMES THOS. GARRETT, JR., H. E. Grips, WM. 8. Gorpon, SAMUEL HAMMERSLOUGH, EUGENE HOoDEN- PYL, EDWIN C. JAMESON, Dwicut A. JONES, JOHN T. SmirH, PAUL STARRETT, JOS. EARLE STEVENS, HERBERT K. STocKTON, ROBERTS WALKER, Misses Mary Douerty, CHar- LOTTE REGESTER, RuTH LANGDON RoGeErs, M. W. SHaw, Doctors ALBERT R. LAMB, Victor C, PEDERSEN, MESSRS. CHARLES DEX- TER ALLEN, Haro~tp B. ArKins, A. C. BEROLZHEIMER, RayMOND Biuu, CHas. E. Bryant, L. J. Canvocoressi, WINTHROP CHANLER, JOHN GRANT DaTER, WILLIAM S. DENISON, H. DE WETTER, GEORGE D’UTASSY, ALFRED FRANK, WILLIAM O. Gay, ARTHUR GREENBERG, FRANK FE. Harr, HERMANN HaGeEporn, H. I; HarrsHorn, Pau M. HEr- zoc, Victor R. Hess, WALTER §. Himzorn, JOSEPH E. HorrMaNn, LAURENCE C, HOLDEN, Henry A. Hovet, CHARLES E. HuGHEs, JR., FREDERICK W. JACKSON, J. EDWARD JETTER, C. H. Keep, D. Emm Kien, Loruair S. KOHNSTAMM, CLAUDE W. Kress, ALEXAN- DER H. Kripet, Louis Krower, Virus C. LAMBERT, CLINTON H. Leccett, Harotp M. LEHMAN, Mor Levy, Ropert LIssAveEr, PuHiLip LiviIneGston, Maurice Logpsirz, AL- BERT C. LupLuM, E. L. LurepER, Wm. M. MACFARLANE, K. MANDELL, HENRY MET- CALFE, JULIUS PRINCE, GAVIN Rowe, Ismpor S. ScHwerrzer, A. J. SELIGMAN, A. RANGER TyLER, L. L. WINKELMAN, G. Byron Woo.- LEY, and the WASHINGTON SCHOOL. Associate Members, Mrspames G. 8. J. OLIVER, JOHN C. OLMSTED, Misses T. Mar MacNas, KATHERINE E. H. VAN WINKLE, Docrors Lewis B. AmssBry, ROSWELL P. ANGIER, WILLIAM WALLACE CAMPBELL, I. C. Cuase, A. P. DuryvrEr, D. H. Gattoway, OLIVER E. GLENN, H. LEIGHTON KESTEVEN, HERBERT W. RAND, L. D. RicKkErTs, ALBERT HAZEN WRIGHT, THE REVEREND JAMES M. OWENS, PROFESSOR C. OLIVER SCHNEIDER, Messrs. E. J. ARMSTRONG, Horace W. Bas- cock, Don O. Bairp, M. A. Beck, Frep M. BuLLARD, Haro~p O. BurpicK, Henry M. CANBy, THOS. CANTLEY, CHARLES C. CARSON, Francis B. Cooney, T. G. DaBNry, Erwin ' A. Esper, LAURENZ GREENE, HorrMan R. Hays, Witt1amM Hurp Hint, Erwin P. Hints, CHARLES C. JACKSON, OWEN W. KENNEDY, A. M. Linpsay, JR., HARVEY HARLOW NININGER, C. M. Paumer, C. S. PARKER, CARROLL CHURCHILL PERRY, JR., HaroLtp SHARP, W. MOSELEY SWAIN, W. G. Swart, Roy M. WHELDEN, and RALPH WIL- LIAMS. — INDEX OF VOLUME XX Names of contributors Abbott, Lawrence, 145 Accepting the Universe, 572-73 Accessions, anthropology, 222, 342, 469-72; herpetology, 597; ichthyology, 109, 511; ornithology, 342 Ackerman, Frederick Lee, 505 Agassiz medal, 110 Alaska: eagle slaughter, 117-19, 334; fur- bearing animals, 507; revegetation of Katmai, 390-95; salmon industry, 507; wood-pulp supply, 505 Alaska Can Save the American Eagle, 117—19 Albert I, 8. A. 8S. Prinee of Monaco, 110, 594 Alberta, yield of dinosaurs from, 536-44 Alge, tropical marine, 560-68 Ameghino, Carlos, 339 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 595 American Association of Museums, 344, 594 American Camp Directors’ Association, 111 American Forestry Association, 215 American Meteorological Society, 607 American Mineralogist, 220 American Museum field hospital plan, 343 American Museum library needs, 344, 606 American Museum scientific zodlogical pub- lications, 107—9 American Ornithologists’ Union, 601 American Society of Mammalogists, 111 Ancestors of the Sequoias, The, 152-55 ANDERSON, MALCOLM PLAYFAIR, The Discoy- ery of the Chinese Takin, 428-53; For the Sake of His Ancestors, 92-99 ; A Win- ter Journey in Northern China, 516-31 ANDREWS, Roy CHAPMAN, In Mongolia and North China, 356-73; New Expedition to Central Asia, 348-55 Andrews, Roy Chapman, 110, 222, 340 Angell, James R., 335 AntTHONY, H. E., A Zodlogist n° Jamaica, 156-68 Anthony, H. E., 111, 344, 597 Anthropological, excavations, 336; research differentiated from psychological, 509 Anthropology and Geology in the Pan-Pacifie Scientifie Conference, 467-68 Antillean fauna, origin of, 504 Application of Psychological Tests of Army Camps, 147-51 Aquatie Preserves, 103-6 Arizona, Kayenta to Rainbow Bridge, Utah, 552-59 are sel in small capitals Army Mental Tests—A Review, 302-3 Arps, GeorGe F., Application of Psychologi- cal Tests in Army Camps, 147-51 Art, fine and industrial, 211; lack of gal- leries for, 100; Metropolitan Museum of, 452-65 Ashokan, The Fountains of, 91 Asia, central, new expedition to, 348-55 Austin, Mary, 220 Aztee excavations, 336 3ADE, WILLIAM FRepERIC, John Muir in Yosemite, 124-41 BAILEY, ALFRED M., The Brown Pelicans, 197-201; The Silver-winged Sea Birds, 329-33 BaAItLEY, VERNON, Rock Rivers, 169-72 Baker, Huecu P., The Manufacture of Pulp and Paper as an American Industry, 277-79 Baker, Hugh P., 110 Baluchitherium osborii, 335 Beavers, increase restricted, 603 Beck, Rouio H., Ten Days in Tahiti, 545-48 Bent, Charles, 601 Bequests: A. D. Juilliard, 222; Mrs. Fanny Bridgman, 605 BERKEY, CHARLES P., The Water Supply of a Great City, 406-21 BERNHEIMER, CHARLES L., From Kayenta to Rainbow Bridge, 552-59 Berry, Epwarp W., The Ancestors of the Sequoias, 152-55 Berry, Edward W., 216 Big Cypress Swamp, 488-500; plants in, 342 Biological Survey, 505 Birds: banding of, 505, 605; collecting in Tahiti, 545-48; dodo, 602; American eagle, 117-19, 334; motion pictures of, 506; paintings of, 606; pelicans, 197— 201; poisoning of water fowl, 218; pro- tection of, 212, 344, 511, 584-86, 602; silver-winged sea, 329-33; South Amer- iean collection of, 342 Birth of a Seience, The, 247—52 Bishop Museum, 214, 510, 594, 596 Blind, nature appreciation by the, 102; occu- pational progress of the, 208; optophone for the, 505 Botanical Exeursion to the Big Cypress, A, 488-500 Boulenger, G. A., 606 oe II INDEX OF 3randreth, Courtenay, 606 3ranner, John Casper, 218 Brazil, geological map of, 218 3ridgman, Mrs. Fanny, 605 3RIDGMAN, HERBERT L., Peary, 4-13 3ritish Museum Glamiral ees 112 Nathaniel l., 217 Broili, Ferdinand, 339 Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 606 3rooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 221 Brooklyn Museum Peruvian Littoral Expedi- tion, 112 3rown Pelicans, The, 197-201 Brown, R. N. Rudmose, 219 Buenos Aires parks, 304-11 Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 107-9, 597 Bulletin of the National Research Councii, 3ritton, 112 Burroughs, John, 572; in moving pictures, 204 Butter, Howarp RuSSELL, Galleries for Fine Arts and Industrial Arts, 211; The Needed Art Galleries for New York, 100-1 Caiman Hunting in South America, 424-27 California Fish and Game Commission, 218 Canadian Dinosaurs, 536—44 Carnegie Corporation, 112, 335 Carnegie Institute, 253 Carnegie Institution, new president of, 253— 54 Cat-tail nutrition, 341 Cattle and poisonous plants, 598 Chalcedony replacing wood, 504 Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, 221 Change of Personnel in the Forest Service, 206-7 CHAPMAN, FRANK M., Our 422-93 American Game Birds, Chapman, Frank M., 512, 601 Chapter of History and Natural History in Old New York, 23-27 CHERRIE, GEORGE K., South American Field Notes, 193—96 Cherrie, George K., 344 Chimpanzee, birth of a, 601 China, north, 516-31 Chinese life and manners, story of, 9 Chinnery, E. W. P., 509 Clitf dweller excavations, 336 CocKERELL, T. D. A., Scientific Research as a Public Function, 14-17 Cockerell, T. D. A., 110, 342 Colorado, an entomologist in, 312—25 356-73 ; —99 VOLUME XX Conservation: migratory wild fowl, 512; of natural areas, 506; Okefinokee Swamp, 28-41 Crampton, Henry E., 343, 445, 596 Crop Protection Institute, 508 Crops, influence of weather upon, 604 Crospy, RutH E., Nature in New York’s Lower East Side, 205 Daggett, Frank Slater, 503 d@Albe, E. E. Fournier, 505 Darwinism, Sixty Years of, 58-72 Davison, Henry P., 223 DEAN, BASHFORD, A Bibliography of Fishes, 334 De Geer, Baron Gerard, 504, 607 Delage, Yves, 594 Diet, correct, 587-91 Dimock, Julian A., 511 Dinosaurs, Canadian, 536-44 Discovery, 111 Discovery of the Chinese Takin, The, 428-33 Dorr, GEORGE B., Lafayette National Park at Bar Harbor, Maine, 255-64 Dutcher, William—In Memoriam, 327-28 Earth’s Spring Choir, The, 42-57 Ecological Society of America, 340 Beology, 340, 506 Ecuador, expedition to, 344, 597 Educational Films Corporation, 222 Egyptology, research in, 217 Elk, antler growth of, 479-85; story of a Yellowstone, 576-83 ELuioTT, RicHArD M., Army Mental Tests— A Review, 302-3 El Mexico Antiquo, 508 Enjoyment of the Forest through Knowl- edge, 592 Entomologist in Colorado, An, 312—25 Ethnos, 508 Etude de la Mer, a review, 286-93 Evolution, 58-72, 110, 216, 472-77, 574-75 Exhibits: avnericen Museum, evan. 343 ; flying reptile, 73; dodo, 602; for public schools, 220; geological, 342; physical anthropology, 595; proposed Rotifera, 605; sacred objects of the Pawnee In- dians, 569-71; Tibetan, 470-72; trouble- makers in water supply, 110; unicorn horn, 532-35; Weyer’s cave, 486-87. Brooklyn Museum, undersea life, 221. Museum of New Mexico, 221 Expeditions, American Museum, Asia and Oceania, 345; Ecuador, southern, 344, 597; Entomological Survey West of the EN OTN Cae | a-~ INDEX OF VOLUME XX 11 One Hundredth Meridian [ Wyoming and Colorado], 343; Jamaica, 111, 220; New Central Asian, 848-55; Second Asiatic Zoological, 110, 840, 3856-73; South Pacific, 545-48; South Seas and Far Kast, 596. Brooklyn Museum, Peru- vian Littoral, 112. land, 594 Danish, to Green- Field Museum of Natural History, 220 Hinley, John H., 217 Finley, William L., 112 Fischer, Hmil, 215 FisHer, G. Ciypr, The Optimistic Philos- ophy of a Naturalist, 572-73 Fisher, G. Clyde, 111 Fishes: aquatic preserves for, 103-6; bibli- 334; of Ha- walian, 511; fossil, 18-22; horse mack- ography of, collection erel, new species of, 218; reclamation of, 338; spawning habits of California silverside, 218: sucking, 598; unusual photographs of, 549-51; weights of, 220; Spanish Main, 449-51 Fishes of the Spanish Main, 449-51 Fitzsimons, EF. W., 336 Florida, Big Cypress Swamp, 488-500; Big Cypress Swamp plants, 342; wilds, 599 Flower, William §., 344 Fly larve, hiding places of, during winter, 217 Flying Reptiles, 73-81 For the Sake of his Ancestors, 92—99 Foreign Insects Newly Come to America, 501-2 Forest, appreciation of, 120-23, 592; areas, progress in purchase of, 605; depletion and possible remedial measures, 506; investigation appropriation, 506; sup- ply, 505; waste, 216 Forest Products Laboratory, investigations of, 505 Forest Service personnel, 206-7 Forestry: Chinese, 216; Long Island, 216; memorial tree registry, 215; “prevent forest fires” stamp cancellation, 217; redwood conservation, 206; redwood grandeur, 339, 602; wood pulp and paper manufacture, 277-79; wood pulp shortage, 280-82 Fountains of Ashokan, The, 91 Frogs, notes on habits of, 42-57 From Kayenta to Rainbow Bridge, 552-59 Fur farming, 217 Fur, mammal, 434-44 Galleries for Fine Arts and Industrial Arts, 211 Game Birds of California, The, 422-23 Game preserves, 103-6 GARLAND, HAMLIN, Lawrence “Roosevelt,” 144—46 Geology, demand for courses in, 504; dis- coveries through well drilling, 504; mili- tary value of, 603; at Pan-Pacifie Scien- tific Conference, 467-68 Georgia, Okefinokee Swamp, 28-41 Gifts to the 110, 222, 511, 598, 605 Golden Jubilee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1870-1920, The, 452-65 Gorgas, William Crawford, 335 GRABAU, AMADEUS W., Sixty Years of Dar- winism, 58—72 Grabau, Amadeus W., 504 Grafting, bone, 219 Greeley, W. B., 207, 505 Green, Andrew Haskell, 503 Greenland, a review, Abbott's museum, askimos, 594; expedition, 594 GREIG, Mary, The Question of Correct Diet, 587-91 Grey, Zane, 111 Grices, Rosert F., After the Eruption of Katmai, Alaska, 390-95 GRINNELL, GEORGE Birp, A Chapter of His- tory and Natural History in Old New York, 23-27 Grinnell, Joseph, 217 Griscom, Ludlow, 109 Gypsy Moth in New Jersey, The, 501 Haagner, A. K., 598 Haeckel, Ernst, 215 Haiti, geological research in, 605 Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum, The, 228—46 Hankinson, Thomas L., 217 HARPER, FRANCIS, Okefinokee Swamp as a Reservation, 28—41 HausMAN, LEON A., Mammal Fur under the Microscope, 454-44 Hausman, Leon A., 604 Hawaii, anthropometric survey of, 594; ex- hibit of race types of, 510; fishes from, 511; research concerning, 214, 510 Hawkes, Clarence, 102 Heilner, Van Campen, 220 Hewitt, C. Gordon, 109 Hewitt, Charles Gordon,—In 202-3 Hippopotamus, water habits of, 601 Memoriam, IV INDEX OF VOLUME XX Historic Trees of Massachusetts, The, a re- view, 175-79 Hitting the Dark Trail, 102 Holland, W. J., 597 HoLMES, WALTER G., What the Blind are Doing, 208 HorNapDay, WiLuiAmM T., Alaska Can Save the American Eagle, 117-19 Hornaday, William T., 507 Horse mackerel, new species of, 218 Horses, three-toed, 473-78 House fly, hibernation of, 217 Hovey, E. O., Weyer’s Cave Exhibit in the American Museum, 486—87 Hovey, E. O., 344 Hower, MarsHauu Avery, Some Plants from Tropical Sea Gardens, 560-68 Imperial College of Science and Technology, 338 Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt, a review, 144-46 Indians: Aztee excavations, 336; eliff dweller excavations, 336; music, 209-11; paintings, 220; sacred bundles of the Pawnee, 569-71 In memoriam: Dutcher, William, 327-28; Hewitt, Charles Gordon, 202-3; Peary, Robert E., 4-11; Perkins, George Wal- bridge, 294-301; Steindachner, Franz, 600 In Mongolia and North China, 356-73 Insects, foreign, 501; pests, 508 Institut International d’Anthropologie, 595 Institute de Paleontologie Humaine, 594 Intercollegiate Cosmopolitan Club, 595 International, twentieth, Congress of Ameri- canists, 214; second, Eugenics Congress, 338; sixth, Sanitary Conference of the American Republies, 510 Jacobi, Abraham, 340 Jacot, Arthur, 510 Jamaica, A Zodlogist in, 156-68 JOHNSON, ROBERT UNDERWOOD, The Foun- tains of Ashokan, 91 JORDAN, Davin Starr, A Miocene Catas- trophe, 18-22 Jordan, David Starr, 110, 598, 600 Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, 593 Juilliard, A. D., 222 KAHN, Morton CHARLES, Microscopical Trouble-makers in the Water Supply, 83-90 Katmai, Alaska, after the eruption of, 390— 95 KEEN, W. W., The Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, 283-85 Keen, W. W., 340 Kerman, J. De Jr, 107, 1108 Kiln-drying, improved methods of, 502 Kogia breviceps, 107 KNIGHT, CHARLES R., Undersea Forms of Life, 286-93 Kroeber, A. L., 215 KUNZ, GEORGE FREDERICK, George Walbridge Perkins, 1862-1920, 294-301 Lafayette National Park at Bar Harbor, Maine, 255-64 Lalande prize, 110 LAMSON-SCRIBNER, F., Parks and Gardens of Buenos Aires, 304-11 Lead poisoning of waterfowl, 218 Le Conte Memorial lectures, 214 Lee, Frederic S., 510 Leipziger, Henry Mareus, 109 Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, The, 283-85 Lillie, Ralph 8., 596 Livingston, Burton E., 112 Lockyer, Norman, 503 Loeb, Jacques, 110 Lowie, Robert H., 596 Lucas, F. A., Nature and Science on the Pacific Coast, a review, 211-12; The Unicorn and His Horn, 532-35 Lueas, Frederic A., 594 Lusk, GRAHAM, “The Manhattan Medical School,” 142-43 Lusk, Graham, 510 Lutz, FRANK E., An Entomologist in Colora- do, 312-25; Foreign Insects Newly Come to America, 501—2; Scientific Zo- ological Publications of the American Museum, 107-9 uutz, BY, H, Wid, 343 MacMillan, Donald B., 606 McNaitrN, WILLIAM Harvey, The Birth of a Science, 247-52 Macoun, James M., 339 Malheur Lake Reservation, 602 Mammal Fur under the Microscope, 434-44 Mammals, slaughter of, 601 Man, prehistoric, 228-46; proofs of the evo- lution of, 574-75 “Manhattan Medical School, The,’ 142-43 Manning, Van H., 338 Manufacture of Pulp and Paper as an Amer- ican Industry, The, 277-79 1 | INDEX OF VOLUME XX Vv Markgraf, Richard, 503 Matheson, W. J., 510 Matsumota, Hikoshichiro, 511 MarrHew, W. D., Canadian Dinosaurs, 536— 44; Flying Reptiles, 73-81; Merriam, John Campbell: New President of the Carnegie Institution, 253-54; Proofs of the Evolution of Man, 574-75; Social Evolution: A Palwontologist’s View- point, 374-77; Three-toed Horses, 473-— 78 Matthew, W. D., 504, 511 Maxwell, William H., 212 Mayor, Alfred G., 445-48 MEAD, CHARLES W., A Prehistoric Poncho from Nazea, 466-67 ; Music, 209-11 Méheut, 287 Members of the American Museum during 1920, 223-24, 344, 512, 607 Merriam, John Campbell: New President of the Carnegie Institution, 253-54 Merriam, John C., 339 Metropolitan Museum of Art, 335, 452-65, 505 Mexicans, ancient, history of, 508 Microscopical Trouble-makers in the Water Supply, 83-90 Miner, Roy W., 344 Mineralogical Society of America, 219 Miocene Catastrophe, A, 18-22 Monaco, the Prince of, 110, 594 Mongolia, 356-73 Monkey coconut pickers, 336 Moon, F. F., Enjoyment of the Forest through Knowledge, 592 Moonfish, ancient, 598 Moore, J. Perey, 112 Moreno, Francisco P., 111 “Morley, Sylvanus G., 509 Moses, Alfred J., 220 Mosquito, elimination of the, 112 Motion pictures, educational possibilities of, 222; of birds, 506; of John Burroughs, 204; of model volcano, 222; of wild life, 112 Muir, John, bust of, 140, 511; in Yosemite, 124-4] Murphy, Robert Cushman, 5935, 607 Museum information, classification of, 594 Peru, Indian National Research Council, 338, 601 Nature and Science on the Pacific Coast, a review, 211—12 Nature and the City Child, 265-76 Nature extension work, new plans in, 173-74 Nature in New York’s Lower East Side, 205 Nature Notes, 204 Nature photography, 180-92, 549-51 Needed Art Galleries for New York, The, 100-1 Nelson, EH. W., 506 New Expedition to Central Asia, 348-55 New Guinea tribal development, 509 New Mexico, architecture, 221; Museum of, 221 New Plans in Nature Extension Work, 173— 74 New York, Academy of Sciences, 607; Aquarium, 213, 511; Guide, 109; Botan- ical Garden, 221, 342; State Conserva- tion Commission of, 217 New York City: historical, 23-28, 213, 453— 65; lower east side nature work, 205; a Manhattan medical school, 142-43; needed art galleries, 100-1; water sup- ply, 91, 406-21 NiIcHOLs, JOHN T., Fishes of the Spanish Main, 449-51 Noguchi, Hideyo, 605, 607 NorruHrop, Mrs. J. I., Nature and the City Child, 265-76 Notes, 109-112, 212-23, 335-44, 503-12, 593- 607 Objects That Symbolize the Common Life in Tibet, 469-72 Ocean level, sinking of, 603 Ohio State Archeological and Historical So- ciety, 221 Okefinokee Swamp as a Reservation, 28—+1 Opal, wood turned to, 82 Optimistic Philosophy of a Naturalist, The, 572-73 Optophone, 505 Oregon Caves, The, 396—405 Orthogenesis, 58—72 OsporN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum, 228-46 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 110, 214 Our American Game Birds, 422-23 OVERTON, FRANK, The Earth’s Spring Choir, 42-57 Oyster, culture, 511; propagation, 310 Pacific Ocean region, scientific problems of, Pali Pan American Union, 505 Pan-Pacific Scientific Conference, 467-68 Pan-Pacifie Union, 217 Parks and Gardens of Buenos Aires, 304-11 Parks: Audubon, 23-27; of Buenos Aires, 304-11; Lafayette National, 255-64; VI INDEX OF VOLUME XX Roosevelt National, 506; Yosemite Na- tional, 124-41 Partula, 445-48 Pawnee, sacred bundles of the, 469-71 Pearse, A. S., and CuypE B. TERRELL, Aqua- tic Preserves, 103-6 PEARSON, T. GILBERT, William Dutcher—In Memoriam, 327-28; A Year’s Progress in Bird Protection, 584-86 Peary, 5-13 Peary, Robert E., 110 Perkins, George Walbridge, 1862-1920, 294— 301 Peruvian, littoral expedition of the Brooklyn Museum, 112; poncho from, 466—67 Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 214 Philbin, Eugene A., 215 Philippines, Peoples of the, 215 Photography, of fishes under water, 549-51; of outdoor wild life, 180—92 Physical anthropology, 595 Pinchot, Gifford, 214 Plant diseases, 508 Polynesia: bird collecting in, 545-48; ex- hibits of types of race, 510; investiga- tions of race, 214; race origins of, 596 Portheus, 73 Posters, kindness to animals, 343 Prehistoric, fishes, 18-22, 598; horses, 473-— 77; man, 228-46; poncho, 466-67; rep- tiles, 73-81; trees, 152-55; vertebrates, 335, 536-44 Progress in Saving the Redwoods, 206 212, 344, 602; mammals of the world, 601; national parks, 326, 342; North American small mammal fauna, 508; “Prevent Forest Fires. Protect Wild Life” cancellation stamps, 217; red- woods, 206; seals, 218; Sierra grass, 214; Yosemite, 124-41 Proofs of the Evolution of Man, 574-75 Protection: antiquities, 209; birds, 117-19, Psychological research, 509 Psychological tests, Army Mental Tests, 302- 3; m army camps, 147-51 Pteranodon, 73 Publication, difficulties of scientific, 340 Pulp supply, 506 Question of Correct Diet, The, 587-91 Rainbow Bridge, from Kayenta to, 552-59 Rasmussen, Knud, 594 Redwood, conservation of: the, 206; grandeur of, 339, 602 Reed, George Matthew, 606 REESE, ALBERT M., Caiman Hunting in South America, 424-27 Reforestation of China, 216 Reptiles, flying, 73-81 Research, anthropological and psychological, 509; a public function, 14-17; codpera- tion in, 219; Department of Agriculture, 507; in the South Seas, 445-48; value of prolonged, 502 Research in the South Seas, 445-48 ~ Revegetation of Katmai, Alaska, 390—95 Reviews and notices of books and articles: Accepting the Universe, 572-73; ““Amer- ican Paleontologists and the Immediate Future of Paleontology,” 603; “An Ancient Moonfish,” 598; “Application of Anthropological Methods to Tribal Development in New Guinea,” 509; Army Mental Tests, 302-3; “Bibliografia de la Geologia Mineralogia y Paleonto- logia de la Republica Argentina,” 504; “Bibliografia jeoléjica de Chile,” 504; Bibliography of Fishes, 334; “Bird Banding by Means of Sys- tematic Trapping,” 605; The Birds of Eastern Canada, 111; The Book of the National Parks, 214; Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, minera y 107-9; “Contributions to a History of American State Geological and Natural History Surveys,” 606; Etude de la Mer, 286-93; “Fish Reclamation,” 338; The Game Birds of California, 422-23; A Guide to Nature-Study and Garden Op- portunities in the Greater City, 222; The Historie Trees of Massachusetts, 175; The Human Skeleton, an Interpre- tation, 221; Immunity in Health, 510; Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt, 145— 46; In Lower Florida Wilds, 599; “Lepi- doptera of the Congo,” 597; “Life His- tories of North American Diving Birds —Order Pygopodes,” 602; “The Mathe- matician, the Farmer and the Weather,” 604; Monograph of the Lacertide, 606; Natural History of South Africa, 336; Nature and Science on the Pacific Coast, 211-12; The Nature of Animal Light, 600; “A New Theory of Polynesian Ori- gins,” 596; New York Aquarium Guwide, 109; “Qpportunities for Codrdination in Anthropology and Psychology,” 509; Peoples of the Philippines, 215; Primi- tive Society, 596; “The Races of Rus- sia,” 605; “Recent Discoveries of Fossil Vertebrates in the West Indies and INDEX OF VOLUME XX VII Their Bearing on the Origin of the An- tillean Fauna,” 504; “Regeneration of the Appendix of the Rabbit,’ 510; “A Replacement of Wood by Dolomite,” 504; The Rockefeller Foundation: A Review for 1919, 605; “Sources and Authenticity of the History of the An- cient Mexicans,” 508; Spitsbergen, 219; Statement of the Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund, 507; “Structural Characteristics of the Hair of Mam- mals,” 604; Studies on the Variation, Distribution, and Evolution of the Genus Partula. The Species Inhabiting Tahiti, 445-48; Tales of Fishes, 111; “Timber Depletion and the Answer,” 506; “Upon an Important Method of Studying the Problems of Relationship and of Geological Distribution,” 604; What Bird is That?, 512; Wild Flowers of the State of New York, 606 Rivers, W. H. R., 217 Rockefeller Foundation, 605 Rock Rivers, 169-72 RocKWELL, Rosert B., Trials and Tribula- tions of a Nature Photographer, 180-92 Roosevelt, Theodore: anniversary of birth, 511; Roosevelt committee for proposed memorials, 339; Impressions of Theo- dore Roosevelt, 144-46; Roosevelt Na- tional Park, 506; State Roosevelt Me- morial Commission, 223 Root, Elihu, 505 Rotifers, plans for group of, 605 Russia, races of, 605 SANBORN, ELWIN R., A Scientific Record from the New York Zodlogical Park, 479-85; Unusual Photographs of Fishes, 549-51 Santo Domingo, collections from, 597 Save the Redwoods, Day, 111; League, 335; reprints, 345 Schoolboy and His Forest, 120-23 Schuchert, Charles, 604 Schulte, H. Von W., 107 Scientific Record from the New York Zodlog- ical Park, A, 479-85 Scientific Research as a Public Function, 14-17 Scientific Zodlogical Publications American Museum, 107—9 Sea anemone transplantation, 341 Sedwick, Wiliam T., 214 Sequoias, ancestors of the, 152-55 Sherrington, C. 8., 606 of the SHERWOOD, GrorGE H., New Plans in Nature Iixtension Work, 173-74 Silverside, habits of, 218 Silver-winged Sea Birds, The, : Simmons, James T., 175-79 329-33 Simpson, Charles Torrey, 599 Sixty Years of Darwinism, 58-72 SKINNER, M. P., Story of the Whitebar Elk, 576-83 Slipher, V. M., 110 SMALL, J. K., A Botanical Exeursion to the 3ig Cypress, 488-500 Smith, G. Elliott, 217 Smith, M. de Forest, 107 Smith Yellowstone Park Bill, 342 Smithsonian Institution, 338 Social Evolution: A Paleontologist’s View- point, 374-77 Societa Romana di Antropologia, 214 Some Plants from Tropical Sea Gardens, 560-68 South Africa, mammal slaughter in, 601; zoological gardens, 598 South Africa, Natural History of, 336 South American, bibliographies, 504; bird collections, 342; caiman hunting, 424— 27; field notes, 193-96; parks and gar- dens, 304-11 South American Field Notes, 193-96 Spawning habits of 218 Spier, Leslie, 344 SPINDEN, HERBERT J., The Stephens Seulp- tures from Yucatan, 378-89 Spinden, Herbert J., 110 Spitsbergen, mineral riches in, 219 State Should Protect Its Antiquities, A, 209 State surveys, history of, 606 Steindachner, Franz, 600 California silverside, Stephens Sculptures from 378-89 Story of the Whitebar Elk, 576-83 Straubenmiuller, Gustave, 112, 220 Yucatan, The, Studies on the Variation, Distribution, and Evolution of the Genus Partula. The Species Inhabiting Tahiti, a review, 445-48 Subepithelial glands, 510 Sucking fish, 598 op) ugar substitutes, 542 Sullivan, Louis R., 214, 510, 594, 595 surgery, primitive, 510 a) Swamps, Big Cypress, 488-500; Okefinokee, 28-41 Swimming, open-air, danger in, 340 VU Tahiti, bird collecting in, 545-48; genus Partula in, 445-48 Takin, Bhutan, 507; Chinese, 428-33 Tapestry, Flemish, 461; French, 459; Peru- vian, 466-67 Taverner, P. A., 111 Ten Days in Tahiti, 545-48 TERRELL, CLYDE B., and A. 8. PEARSE, Aqua- tic Preserves, 103-6 Three-toed Horses, 473-78 Tibet, collections, 342; customs of, 469-72 Tree plantings, 215-16 Trees, prehistoric, 152-55 Trees as Friends, 593 Trials and Tribulations of a Nature Photog- rapher, 180-92 Tropical sea gardens, 560-68 Trowbridge, Augustus, 358 True, Rodney, 508 Tuberculosis decline, 510 Tylosaurus, 73 United States Department of Agriculture, 598 Undersea Forms of Life, 286—93 Unicorn and His Horn, The, 532-35 Unusual Photographs of Fishes, 549-51 Van NAME, WILLARD G., The Wood-pulp Shortage, 280-82 Voronoff, Serge, 219 Walter, Herbert Eugene, 221 Warburg, Felix M., 110 Waterfowl, lead poisoning of, 218 Water Power Bill, 326 Water supply, microscopical trouble-makers in the, 83-90, models of, 110-11; New York, 406-21 Water Supply of a Great City, The, 406-21 Watson, Frank E., 220 Weiss, H. B., The Gypsy Moth in New Jersey, 501 Weyer’s Cave, 486-87 INDEX OF VOLUME XX Whales, American Museum publications on, 107-9 What the Blind are Doing, 208 WHItLocK, Herbert P., Wood Turned to Opal, 82 Wild life, motion pictures, 112; raphy, 180-92 WILLIAMS, Ira A., The Oregon Caves, 396- 405 Wilson, James, 508 Winans, Walter, 335 Winslow, Charles-Edward, 596 Winter Journey in Northern China, A, 515— 31 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, 221 WISSLER, CLARK, Sacred Bundles of the Pawnee, 569-72 Wissler, Clark, 336, 509, 595 Without the Aid of Eyesight, 102 Woop, FRANK H., The Schoolboy and His Forest, 120-23 Wood-pulp Shortage, The, 280-82 Wood Turned to Opal, 82 photog- Xyne grex, 18 Yard, Robert Sterling, 214 Year’s Progress in Bird Protection, A, 584— 86 Yerkes, Robert M., 302 Yoakum, Clarence §., 302 Yosemite, John Muir in, 124-41 Yosemite National Park, John Muir in, 124— 41; recreation in, 213; trail in, 214 Yucatan, sculptures from, 378-89 Ziphius cavirostris, 108 Zoological, scientific, publications of the American Museum, 107-9 Zodlogical parks, accessions of, 507 Zoological Society Bulletin, 213 Zodlogist in Jamaica, A, 156-68 eer. ee ‘71's as oe eee To 5 pee oe ce QH Natural history PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY ta es rane. ; o oe Le aabhwhis Radeeeeaaee Nene Oe peng