ffl \m w ll'i ;H< • • i m Ik m < ■ ■ ■ m -ffi 7 ft 3 c *> ^ GOULD AND LINCOLN, 59 WASHINGTON STEEET, BOSTON, Woulc1: call particular attention to the following valuable WOKS described in their Catalogue of Publications, viz. : Hugh Miller's Works. Bayne'sf Works. Walker's Works. Miall's Works. Bungener's Work. Animal of Scientific Discovery. Knight's Knowledge is Power. Krummacher's Suffering Saviour, Banvard's American Histories. The Aimwell Stories. KewcOmb's Works. Tweedie's Works. Chambers's Works. Harris' Works. Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature. IF.rs. Knignt's Life of Montgomery. Kitto's History of Palestin Wheewcll's Work. Wayland's Works. Agassiz's Works. piC6tim(iDJ of Boct, - \ Aon. .r Sclent. ViL>SWaaih. ,MUI" ■ \ Kaitu and Man *""% D"'d A- »** k Principle. ofZoob- 1\ *,m° ?"**• ^Knowledge Ij Power, «^ C&..T?™ ■«*»»■ i, Cjclop. of Ens. Literal R'A cJc,°P- of B'ble Lit- 5\\\ Concord. of tb. Biblt. Analjt. Cone of Bible 1 Moral Science, \Tb,o«»» *«"*!£ -. ..„* , IE? K0i,U, XV; «>*« Chamber,. N K.tto. _ Cruden. £adie. _ Williamj. to, Francis \V.T|Mj. Vi\ Jobn Harrij. Peter Bajne. k^ L>Oa Ar.-sst/rjcsz William's Works. Guyot's Works. Phcmpson's Better Land. Kimball's Heaven. Valuable Works on Missions. Haven's Mental Philosophy. Buchanan's Modern Atheism. Cruden's Condensed Concordance. Eadic's Analytical Concordance. The Psalmist : a Collection of Hymns. Valuable School Books. Works for Sabbath Schools. Memoir of Amos Lawrence. Poetical Works of Milton, Cowper, Scott. Elegant Miniature Volum.pp. Arvine's Cyclopaedia of Anecdotes. Kipley's Notes on Gospels, Acts, and Bomans. Sprague'o European Celebrities. Marsh's Camel and the Eallig. Bogefs Thesaurus of English Word3. Hackett's Notes on Acts. MWhorter'3 Tahveh Christ. Siebold and Stannius'3 Comparative Anatomy. Marco's Geological Map, V. 8. Beligious and Miscellaneous Works. WTorks ia the various Department* i>r Literature, Science and Art. THE i^ATILKAiinri'DJiT rfil HU MAN SPECIES %9 LIEUT COL CHAS HAMILTON SMITH K H - • r i n i GOULD 8c LINCOLN 59 WASHINGTON STR EET 1851. THE NATURAL HISTORY THE HUMAN SPECIES TYPICAL FORMS, PEIMEVAL DISTRIBUTION, FILIATL »NS, AND. MIGRATK >N& ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. BY LIFXT.-COL. CIIAS. HAMILTON SMITH. rRESIDHNT OK Till: DEVuS AND OOBHWALL -NAT. UIoT. SOCIETV, ETC. ETC. WTTII A PRELIMINARY ABSTRACT OK Till: VTJGWB OB BI.UMENBACH, PRICIIARD, BACHMAN, AGASSI/., AMI OTHER AUTHORS OF REPUTE ON THE BUBJ] BY S. KNEEL AND, Jr., M. D. BOSTON: G O IJ L D A N D LINCOLN NEW YORK: SHELDON AND COMPANY. CINCINNATI : GEO. S. BLANCHAKD. 185 9. feV^ Entered according; to Act of Congress, in the year 1851 13 t GOULD & LINCOLN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. Stereotyped by H 0 B A R T k ROBBISS; NEW ENGLAND TYPE AXD STEREOTYPE FOCXDBT. BOSTON''. Printed by George C. Rand & Co., No. 3 Contra)!. PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. After the anxious and ardent study of two years, the talented author of the following pages has reduced to a last- ing form the labors, original observations, and pictorial illus- trations, collected during his long and valuable life, upon this important history, in which he has, with such praise- worthy industry, treasured up the interesting facts and reasonings in this volume — very much condensed it is true, but yet exhibiting such a view of the subject as, we trust, cannot fail of being both interesting, instructive and popular. We embrace this opportunity to give an extract of a letter just received from himself respecting a Preface to the volume, not being willing to lose any details which may fall from so valuable a source. "As for a Preface, I see nothing required, unless it was thought proper to state what I had said in the concluding 1# VI ADVERTISEMENT. paragraph respecting my predecessors, whose details I did not think it my mission to repeat, particularly as theconfi space allowed me was not even sufficient to fully explain the statements I had to make and comment upon. This fact is abundantly exemplified in the short abstracts I have compelled to give of the European Caucasians] whose inter- mixtures, by well known migrations from the north b south, might have been given, with details full of interest ; particularly as, by the means of the Gothic invasions, all the new elements were brought into existence, which. • leavened by Christianity and the antique schools of civiliza- tion, brought forth the present pr ; development. Experiment, fact, and inductive fact, are the basis of knowl- edge, and stand in perpetual contradistinction to the author- ity and dicta of antiquity, usually without foundations. In the work before us. it is true that much rests necessarily upon induction ; but when we have antecedents and succe- dents, the intermediate cannot be said to be conjecture: it is an approximation to positive fact, from actual necessity. This is the line of arguing which I would take up if a pref- ace be necessary." C 0 N T E N T S PAG1C INTRODUCTION, 16 Preliminary Observations, . .99 Changes on the Earth BDKH the commencement of the iiti-i.M Zoological .System, .... 104 . 105 South of A ...... 107 The Indus, 107 Ceylon, Ill The Ganges, . . . . . . .118 Australasia, . . . . . . .113 East Coast of Asia, . . . . . .115 Arctic Asia, . . . . . . .118 Caspian Basin, or Asiatic Mediterranean, . . .120 Europe, ....... 124 Arctic Europe, ....... 126 Western Europe, 128 VIII CONTENTS. net The Rhine 130 Great Britain, ...... 133 Southern Europe, . . . • • • .186 Italy, TheEgean, 189 Asia Minor, . . . - . • • '41 Basin of the Dead Sea, . . . . . .142 Currents of the Mediterranean, . . . . Ill Africa, 146 America, . . . . • . • 117 WeBt Indies, . . . . . . .149 North America, ...... The Pacific, Bones of Man AMONG Organic BjolUHB, . . . 153 Vale of Kostritz, . . . . . . .168 Traditions respecting extinct Sj ■■ Human Ossuaries, with Bones of extinct Animals, Existence of Man as a Genus, or as a BlHOl Species or Typical Forms of Man, . . . . 17o Abnormal Races of Man, . . . . .182 The Giants, 182 The Dwarfs, 186 The Aturian Pal tas or Flatheads of South America, . .190 Remains of other Abnormal Tribes, . . . 193 • CBNT8. IX TACE The Tvnc\.L Stocks, ....... 193 Comparison ol Btruotura] Differences i f the k«, . . . . , [98 the Typical - Plriii • Mm, or position oft] l BabtjpioaJ Stocks, ....... Till; WOOLLY HAIRED TROPICAL TYPE, . . . 22:5 Tii ...... •_'!;; Tin: \ - 'i, . . . . . 266 Tin: HYPERBOREAN, BEARDLESS, OB BfONGOLIC TYPE, Till. FlBBIO, "m:\ii\-, OB T-i ill mc BUBTIFIUAZ Si Tho i ...... 305 Llogrians, ..... 307 Tlic Veneti, ....... 800 The I . . . . . . .811 mi, ...... 820 The B B28 The Khan ...... 325 The Hungarians, ....... 325 The Turks, 827 The Ethiopia* or Melahio Stem, .... 330 The Egyptians, ...... 310 X CONTENTS. MM The Atlantics or Berbers, .... The Numidians, ...... The Amazigh, ....... TheSuakim, The Tuarikhs, THE BEARDED, INTERMEDIATE, OR CAUCASIAN TYPE, The Semitic Races, ...... 871 The Arabs, -rri The Hebrews, The 1! abylonians, Chaldees, and Assyrians, . . . 373 The Gaurs and Persians, ..... 381 The Typical Caucasians, . . . . . .383 The Kaufirs or Mamoges, ..... 384 The Circassian and Georgian Tribes of the Caspian Caucasus, 386 The Pelasgian, Dorian, and Hellenic Tribes, . . 388 The Tirynthians, . . . . . .391 The Romans, ....... 393 The Celtic Nations, . . . . .396 The Getas or Gothic Nations, .... 410 Appendix, ........ 421 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. Beginning with the most aberrant forms, we have the American, whereof the Aturiau Palta or Titicaca Flatheads form the type. It is so distinct, that it- having a oommoo origin with the forma of the Old Con- tinent is not satisfactorily established, since the oblique-headed Peruvian and the depressed-headed Chinook are mere artificial imitations of the typical head. That this is not itself the result of contrivance, is exempli- fied in the figure of a Titicaca child's head of perhaps the fifth year, which is greatly prolonged, yet less so than another in positive infancy. Both have the orbits more solid than heads of the same age on the eastern continent, and the older of the two presents the additional bone (os incoe) at the back of the head. The oblique-headed Peruvian shows its resemblance to Asiatic figures to be noticed in the sequel. PLATE II. Offers specimens of the woolly-haired type, the vertical view of a Negro's skull, pointing out the small breadth compared to the depth, and the projection of the face approaching the Titicaca form. Both have the XII EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. frontal bone carried high up the dome, though not in the same degree. There is no very striking difference between tb< toad east coast of Africa. Those of Oriental Negroes, and < , who are not an unmixed race, have the same typical structure, though more debased ; the Tasmanian being the lowest, with perhaps the exception of the Bushman. PLATE III. Of the beardless type, may be observed the shorter and more quadran- gular cranial form, with still more facial protrusion ; and, in the most northern partially mixed races, the very contracted occiput is remark- able. PLATE IV. Shows the regular oval form of the most intellectual type : more breadth of forehead ; prolonged expansion backward-;, and nearly vertical facial angle. The regular dome, as seen in the finest races of mankind — ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Circassians, and Ai il -. [a most European, a slight modification from a Finnic source may be traced. PLATE V. Proves the typical identity of the Oriental Negro with those of Mozam- bique and Guinea. PLATE VL— Figs. 1 and 2. Exhibits profiles of Indo-Chinese, or the sub-type of what we take to be the Malay races, where, in the vertical profile of one, we have a Cau casian predominance, in the other more Papua blood, both in some degree pat-taking of the Xegro coloring, but with the hard, black straight hair of a Mongolic intermixture. In the Australasian Islands, many customs remain, which attest that a portion of the American people derives its EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XIII origin from them : fur, among their paintings and carved work, represent- ing gods and heroes, we Bee personages d anoing with human heads slung to the waist, like modern Dyaks ; we observe ensigns of feathers, stuck in sheaths at the hack, like the Malays of Java ; and masks, tomahawks, shields, sword handles, and spears adorned, in a similar manner, >\ith human hair and tufts of feathers. We refer to the figures in Captain Keppel's voyage, and in the late Dutch publications on their Indian pos- sessions. 1 . 8 and 1. The character of lank hair is universal in the beardless races, and the presence of Caucasian blood scarcely marked by a somewhat more ruddy complexion, and slight beard in the Mung'.l and Eleuth. PLATE VII.— Fig. 1. Exemplifies an abnormal family of tribes. We figure a Bushman, onco a private soldier in the Cape Rifles, like all the Hottentot nations, known by the pale yellow color. From drawin Nelson, B. E. . -1. Carose Brazilian ; hybrid between Negro a tribe "f Indian blood. A.t Cape Gardafui, in Eastern ' Lrab intermixture pro- duces the same external aspect in the Jamaule Negroes. It occurs again among the Mekran Ethiops, and among the Malay Papuas of the Indian Ocean. PLATE VIII. — Fig. 1. Tc-Kewiti, a New Zealand chief, showing, in conduct, reasoning, and person, high Caucasian development. 2 XIV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE3. Fig. 2. North American Indian ; from the Travels of Prince Maximilian of Wied. PLATE IX. — Fig. 1. Cluche Indian : a tribe bordering on the Rocky Mountains, strongly marked with Mongolic characters. He was sketched at New York. Fig. 2. Portrait of a Mongolic race : the Nogai Tahlar bearing the character- istics of his type very strongly. PLATE X. The Black Kalmuck most strongly marked with the Mongolic charac- ter ; and a Japanese prize-fighter, with broad but receding forehead. PLATE XI. — Fig. 1. Portrait of Mohammed II., showing the Turkish Ouralian character, before the race was as yet much intermixed with Circassian and Greek blood. Fig. 2. The forehead of the Sarmatian noble is the maximum instance of exter- nal mental development. It is the same character that distinguishes the portraits of TVallenstein and other Bohemian and Polish heads. VIGNETTE. Blackfoot Indian, taken from Prince Maximilian of "VYied's magnificent Atlas of Plates, illustrative of the North American Indian Tribes and Scenery. INTRODUCTION. The subject of the " Natural History of Man" lias become one of the most exciting topics of the day, both from its intrinsic interest and importance, and from the various bearings which have been given to it by sectarians, philanthropists, and savans. It is not a question of one side only, as many take for granted, nor has it become two-sided within the last few years. As long ago as the appearance of the work of Lawrence, scientific men maintained conflicting opinions on the original seats and characteristics of the human races ; and the great advances now made in zoology, com- parative anatomy, history, geography, philology, &c, have added new arguments to both sides of the question, and rendered a satis- factory decision an exceedingly difficult matter. Dr. Prichard may be considered as the best expounder of the theory of the original unity of the human race. The author to whose work this chapter is introductory, adopts the side of the question to which Prof. Agassiz, Van Amringe, Dr. S. G. Morton, and others, give their sanction, in variously modified forms. The argu- ments of authors on both sides will be given as impartially as we are able to do it, and as fully as space will permit ; so that the reader may form his own opinion. A sketch of the views of those who are not committed to either side will also be added, so that informa- tion from all sources may aid in the formation of a just opinion. Lawrence, following the classification of Blumenbach, divides Man into five varieties, viz., the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethi- opian, the American, and the Malay ; wifh the following characters : 1. The Caucasian variety (to which we belong) is so named, from Mt. Caucasus, as in its neighborhood is found the supposed typical race of the Circassians and Georgians. It includes the following nations, ancient and modern — the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Jews, Egyptians, Chaldeans, Georgians, Circassians, Armenians, Turks, Arabs, Syrians, Afghans, Hindoos of high caste, Moors of Northern 16 INTRODUCTION. Africa, Greeks and Romans, the nations of modern Europe, (except the Laplanders,) and their descendants in tins hemisphere ; in fine, those races in which intellect, both native and cultivated, has pro- duced the mightiest results; those races, whose history would be tie- history of civilization and of Christianity ; and, in the opinion of many, the only race referred to in the Mosaic account of creation. The color of the skin, in this variety, is white; to this exclusively belongs the soft-spreading blush, the faithful index of the heart, which a European writer has erroneously made a moral as well as a physi- cal difference between the races ; to this race belongs redness of the cheeks. The hair varies in color from black to flaxen, is soft in quality and abundant. The color of the eyes generally follows that of the skin and hair, depending, as it does, on the amount of color- ing matter which is usually distributed equally in these different parts. The face is small, oval, and almost perpendicular; the features distinct ; the forehead lofty and broad ; the nose narrow and rather aquiline ; the mouth small ; the lips thin and slightly turned out ; the front teeth in both jaws perpendicular ; the dim full and rounded. This is the face which agrees best with our ideas of beauty, being the happy mean between the laterally expanded face of the Mongo- lian and the lengthened face of the Negro. Of the facial angle, and the norma verticalis of Blumenbach, wo shall defer the description till we give Dr. Prichard's views, that the reader may not be wearied by too much repetition. Though the facial angle is of little value in individual skulls, yet, in comparisons of the races, it may give a very good idea of their intellectual power. Those animals which have the longest snouts are always considered the most stupid and gluttonous. When we descend to reptiles and fishes, the jaws seem to constitute almost all the head, and these are the most voracious of animals; they appear to live onlv to eat. On the other hand, a great degree of intelligence is attributed to the ele- phant from his well-marked forehead ; and the solemn owl is made the companion of the goddess of wisdom, for a similar appearance ; but these semblances do not depend on any greater development of the brain. Intelligent Man, whose animal propensities are subordi- nate, has a cranium much larger than his face; even among men, we instinctively regard him as stupid and sensual, whose face is very prominent and whose forehead is receding ; the advancement of the forehead towards the line of the face is always understood by artists as representing the noble and elevated character. As we descend in the animal scale we find the face increasing at the expense of the aranium. INTRODUCTION. 17 In the Caucasian race the facial angle is from 80° to 85° ; thence it decreases in the other varieties of Man as low as C>5°, in the nor- mal condition ; in many of the ancient statues the facial angle is 90°, and in one even 100°, which last never existed in nature except in disease. In children the forehead is more prominent than in the adult, being usually 90° ; thus is explained their almost uniformly pleasing countenances, and also the diminution of their beauty as age advances. The Caucasian race, whether we judge it by the facial angle, the norma verticalis, or the basal view of Mr. Owen, is placed above the other races. Three great divisions are recognized in the Caucasian race. The Celtic division, comprising the present inhabitants of Western Europe, (except the English,) and the ancient Britons, Welch, rish, and Scotch. The Germanic division, comprising Germans, ancient and modern, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Saxons, and English, and the inhabitants of the Netherlands and Iceland. The Sclavonic division, comprising the Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Cos- sacks, the inhabitants of part of Western Asia and Northern Africa. 2. The Mongolian race seems to have originated from the central plains of Asia, whence they are supposed to have wandered in all directions, into the northern parts of Europe and America, and per- haps into the southern parts of Afriea. It comprises, according to Lawrence, the Mongols, Kalmucks, Koreans, Chinese, Japanese; the inhabitants of Thibet, Tonquin, Siam, Cochin ('lima, the Him- alaya Mountains, Hindostan, Ceylon ; the ECainschatdales, Asiatic Rus- sians, Finns ami Laplanders, and the Esquimaux of Arctic America. The ancient Huns belonged to this variety ; these, witli Attila at their head, penetrated to the very centre of Europe ; the famous '/ 'nghis Khan and Tamerlane belonged to this race, which has always been nomadic and predatory. The color of th" Mongolian skin is olive yellow ; the eyes dark, the hair black, straight, and thin ; with very little if any heard, eye- brows, or eye-lashes; the face is broad and Battened; the features not very distinct ; the space between the eyes broad and flat; the orbits large and open ; the nose flattened ; the cheeks high and prominent; the opening of the eye-lids nairow, linear,ohlique, the inner angle the lowest ; chin not prominent ; the ears and lips large. The forehead of the Mongolian is low and slanting, allowing a con- siderable portion of the face to be seen when the skull is viewed vertically from above ; the facial angle is therefore less than in the Caucasian. The cranium is narrower, and the face broader, so that 2* 18 INTRODUCTION. the head has somewhal of a pyramidal form. The stature is infe- rior to the < Caucasian. In intellectual and moral characters it is certainly inferior to tlio white race. The Chinese and Japanese have made considerable advancement in the arts of civilization, and their institution* date back to a remote period ; but the very fact of their having remained stationary for so many centuries proves an inferior capacity for improvement. 3. The Ethiopian race includes the inhabitants of Africa, (exclu- sive of the northern parts,) and the imported specimens and their descendants in America and elsewhere. The color of the akin varies from tawny to jet-black. The iris is black ; the hair black, crispy, generally called " icool/i/," though having none of the char- acters of wool. The eyes are prominent, and the orhits large ; the nose thick, flat, and confounded with the prominent cheeks; the lips very thick and everted ; the jaws projecting, the chin receding ; the whole face very much developed, and the skull thick and heavy. The front of the head regarded from above the face, as well as the forehead, is compressed laterally, so that the long diameter of the head exceeds that of the other varieties. The low retreating forehead allows all the upper part of the face to be seen; the prom- inence of the upper jaw diminishes the facial angle to 70°, and even 65°. The cavity of the cranium is diminished, while the face is increased ; the zygomatic arches are very wide, giving a large space for the elevating muscles of the lower jaw ; the opening of the nose is large and transverse ; the foramen for the passage of the spinal marrow, and the articulation of the head with the neck, are relatively posterior to their position in the white races, from the prolongation of the jaws forward. A slight comparison of the Negro with the Caucasian skull suf- fices to show that the intellectual portion in the former is diminished, while the animal portion is increased. The low forehead and the muzzle-like elongation of the jaws give an animal aspect to the head, which cannot fail to strike an unprejudiced observer ; this is increased by the large and powerful lower jaw, the ample provision for muscular insertions, and by the greater size of the cavities destined for the reception of the organs of smell and sight. Lawrence alludes to the opinion, even then prevalent, that the Ethiopian resembles the monkey tribe more nearly than do the pre- ceding varieties. The size and direction of the face, the promi- nence of the jaws, the flatness of the nose, the greater length of the forearm compared with the arm, the narrow and tapering fingers, render the comparison obvious. But even supposing that this race INTRODUCTION. 19 is the lowest type of man, it is none the less human, and far more separated from the highest monkey than the highest man, by the erect attitude, by the possession of two hands, by a slower develop- ment, by the powers of reason and speech. The anatomical struct- ure of the spine renders it as impossible for a monkey to assume the erect posture, for any length of time, as for a man to go on all fours. That there were men, who were called philosophers, fools enough to maintain that the natural position of man was that of a quadruped, is thus ridiculed in Butler's Hudibras [Part 2nd, Canto 1st] : — • Next it appears I am no horse, That I can argua and discourse, Have hut two letjs, and ne'er a tail. Quoth she. that nothing will avail, For some philosophers of late here Write men have four legs hy nature, And that 'tis custom makes them go Erroneously upon two." A French savant has recently described, before the Academy of Sciences, a tribe of Negroes in Centra] Africa, as furnishing the long desired connecting link between man and monkeys. According to him, there arc men who have not been sufficiently accustomed to the sitting posture to wear off tin- tail, which he says projects some three or four inches. This report, which as yet is based upon the appearance of a Bingle individual, will doubtless be explained, if there beany foundation for it in truth, by some anatomical peculiar' Uy which can in no way he called a caudal appendage. 4. The American race has been traced by theorists to many nations ; to the Polynesians, the Mongolians, Hindoos, Jews, and Egyptians, singly or combined. Lawrence treats of them as a dis- tinct race, ditFerinj? from the others in physical, moral, and intellect- ual characters. They inhabit the American continent from Cape Horn to the Arctic regions, and, with all their differences, are con- sidered by him as one and the same race over this whole extent. The color of the skin is brown, or cinnamon-hucd ; the iris dark ; the hair long, black and straight ; the beard scanty ; the eyes are deep-seated ; the nose flat, but prominent ; the lips full and rounded. The face is broad, especially across the cheeks, which are promi- nent, but not so angular as in the Mongolian ; the features are dis- tinct. The face somewhat resembles the Mongolian, and we shall see that many writers, and among them our author, consider the Americans as transplanted Mongolians. 20 INTRODUCTION. The general shape of the head is square ; the forehead low, but broad ; the back of the head flattened ; the top elevated ; the face much developed; the orbitar and nasal cavities large, indicating, according to some, a corresponding acuteness of sight and smell ; the jaws are very strong. Their curious modes of deforming the skull will be better described when speaking of Dr. S. G. Morton's " Crania Ameri- cana." He maintains that the ancient skulls from Peru, from the tombs of Mexico, and from the mounds of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, present the same characters as the existing Indian tribes ; and that this race is as aboriginal to America, as is the Mongolian to Asia, or the Ethiopian to Africa. 5. The last variety mentioned by Blumenbach and Lawrence is the Malay, inhabiting the Asiatic and Polynesian Islands. The color of the skin in the true Malay is lipht brown, or tawny ; sometimes, as in the Tahitians, very light. The hair is black, lonjr, soft and abundant, — in the Tahitians almost yellow ; thick beards are not uncommon. The eyes are moderately separated ; the nose prominent, but broad and thickest at the end ; in the words of Law- rence they are " bottle-nosed ;" the mouth is large, the lips thick ; the face broad and largely developed ; the jaws prominent ; the fore- head low and slanting. It is truly an amphibious race, and its home may be said to be on the water ; its extended migrations by sea have been traced, as Dr. Pickering maintains, even to the western coast of North America. Those who believe in the origin of mankind from a single pair must, of course, account for the changes man has undergone since Adam. Climate has been generally brought forward to explain the differ- ences in color, and even the varieties of form. Blumenbach gives three arguments, of which Lawrence,* who quotes them in his work, says, " That so able a writer could find no better proofs in support of his opinion, only shows how completely unfounded that opinion is." After many examples, Lawrence gives the following conclusions : That the differences of the human races are analugous in kind and degree to those of the breeds of the domestic animals, and must be accounted for on the same principles. That they are first produced in both instances as native or congenital varieties, and then trans- mitted to the offspring. That the state of domestication is the most powerful predisposing cause of varieties in the animal kingdom. * Lectures on the Natural History of Man: by William La^vrence, F. R. S. 12th Edition. London, 1844. INTRODUCTION. 21 That climate, situation, food, mode of life, have considerable effect in altering the constitution of man and animals ; but that this effect is confined to the individual, is not transmitted by generation, and therefore does not affect the race. That the human species, like that of the cow, sheep, horse, and pig, is single ; and that all the differences which it exhibits are to be regarded merely as varieties. Dr. Prichard, the most zealous and learned advocate of the unity of the human race, commences his second section* as follows : " The Sacred Scriptures, whose testimony is received by all men of unclouded minds with implicit and reverential assent, declare that it pleased the Almighty Creator to make of one blood all the nations of the earth, and that all mankind are the offspring of common par- ents. But there are writers in the present day who maintain that this assertion does not comprehend the uncivilized inhabitants of remote regions ; and that Negroes, Hottentots, Esquimaux, and Australians, are not, in fact, men in the full sense of that term, or beings endowed with like mental faculties as ourselves." These half-brutes, half-men, do not belong to what Bory de Saint Vincent calls the " Race Adamique ;" they were created to be the slaves of the superior races ; and are capable of improvement to an extent comparable to that attained by dogs or horses. Such men think it the extreme of folly for England to have recently emancipated from West Indian slavery a tribe of Negroes, exactly in the situation for which nature designed them. There are not a few in this country who cherish, if they do not express, a similar opinion. But in mat- ters of scientific inquiry, all considerations, not bearing on the im- mediate facts in the case, must be set aside ; the maxim to follow is "fiat justitia, mat coelum." "In fact, what is actually true it is always most desirable to know, whatever consequences may arise from its admission." As the signification of the word "species" has been variously understood, he defines species as " simply tribes of plants or of ani- mals which are certainly known, or may be inferred, on satisfactory grounds, to have descended from the same stocks, or from parent- ages precisely similar, and in no way distinguished from each other." The principal object of his work is to point out the most important diversities by which the genus Man is separated into * The Natural History of Man: by James Cowles Prichard, M. D. London, 1313. 22 INTRODUCTION. different races, and to determine if these races are separate species, or merely varieties of one species. Permanent varieties, if we allow the existence of such tribes, come very mar Bpecies, and may be defined as " races now displaying characteristic ]» culiarities which are constantly and permanently transmitted ;" differing from species in that the peculiarities are not coeval with the tribi have arisen since the commencement of its existence : it is not un- likely that many so called distinct species of animals and plants are in reality only permanent varieties. It has been laid down as a law of nature, that, in order to pi inextricable confusion in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, the off- spring of different species, or hybrids, are incapable of reproducing their kind, thus making hybrid it y a test of specific character. Tins has been denied by many naturalists, among others by Dr. S. G Morton, of Philadelphia, whose views will be given hereafter. Ac- cording to Wagner, hybrid plants are very rarely produced in a state of nature ; they are very seldom fruitful among themselves ; those holding intermediate places between the parent plants are abso- lutely barren, while those which nearly resemble one or the other parent are occasionally propagated : and plants from different varie- ties of the same species are altogether fertile, while hybrids either return to the original character, or become gradually less capable of reproduction, and in a short time extinct. So, in animals, mules or hybrids are produced among domesticated tribes ; but, except in a few tribes of birds, they are unknown in a state of nature. A new breed cannot be perpetuated from them, and their offspring can only be continued by returning to one of the parent tribes. Warner believes that nature has established the sterility of hybrid animals by an organic impediment. If these results are true, we are forced to the conclusion that the different races of men must be either incapable of mixing their stock, and must ever be separate from each other, or that these races belong to the same species. It is a fact that the most dissimilar varieties of man are capable of propagating prolific offspring with each other. The Mulattoes, from the mixture of the Negroes with Whites, are said to be increas- ing in numbers, as well as the mixed race of the Creoles and the Negroes. The Griqua Hottentots, descended from the Dutch colo- nists of South Africa on one side, and from the aboriginal Hotten- tots on the other, are a numerous and rapidly increasing race. The Cafusos of Brazil, so remarkable for their monstrous heads of hair, are known to have descended from the native Americans, mixed with the imported Africans. The Papuas, with equally remarkable hair, INTRODUCTION. 2b are a mixture of the Malay with the Negro in New Guinea and the neighboring islands; according to Lesson, most of them are a frail and feeble race. We hence derive conclusive proof, unless there be in the human races an exception to this admitted law of nature, that all the tribes of men belong to one species and family. If we could compare our breeds of domestic animals with their original wild stocks, we could easily ascertain the limits of variation in these breeds ; but the wild originals cannot now 1m' recognized. However, in the animals known to have been imported into America from Europe since the fifteenth century, we have an abundance of materials fur interesting observations; these animals have greatly multiplied, and many, running wild in the forests, have lost all appearances of domestication ; the wild tribes are physically differ- ent from their tame originals, and there i* reason to believe that the change is in the direction of the wild stocks from which the tame animals originated. The hogs of the forest very nearly resemble the wild boar ; their ears have become erect ; their color has changed to black ; instead of hair and bristles, their skin is covered with thick, often crisp fur, under which is sometimes a species of wool ; their heads become larger; indeed, they are returning gradually to the appearance of the wild boar of Europe. The difference between the skulls of the domestic hog and the wild boar is as great as that between the Euro- pean and the Negro skull. The horse, the ass, the cow, the sheep, the goat, the dog, and gallinaceous fowls, show similar changes, and a tendency to return to the primitive wild type. Even the func- tions of animal life may be greatly changed in a few generations. It is not natural for the cow, any more than for other female animals, to yield milk when she has no young to nourish ; the permanent pro- duction of milk is a modified animal function, produced by an artifi- cial habit for several generations. In Colombia, the practice of milking cows having been laid aside, the natural* state of the func- tion has been restored ; the secretion of milk continues only during the suckling of the calf, and is only an occasional phenomenon. Says Roulin, " If the calf dies, the milk ceases to flow, and it is only by keeping him with his dam by day that an opportunity of obtaining milk from cows by night can be found." The horses on the table land of the Cordilleras are taught very early a sort of running amble, quite different from their natural gait ; these horses become the sires of a race to which the ambling pace is natural, and requires no teaching. The dogs employed in hunting the pec- cary are taught the peculiar way necessary to take this animal ; their offspring inherit as an instinct the lesson of their fathers, and 24 INTRODUCTION. on the first chase knew how to attack the peccary, while an ordinary dog is instantly killed by them. The barking of dogt is an acquired hereditary instinct, supposed to have originated in an attempt to mu- tate the human voice ; wild dogs, and domestic breeds become wild, never bark, but howl. Cats, which so disturb civilised commui by their midnight "caterwaul," in the wild state in Smith Am are quite silent. These well-authenticated facts show to what extent a change of external conditions may modify races of animals. Similar change* may be found among our domesticated breeds. For instance the breeds of sheep differ greatly in different countries ; but it is main- tained that they all are varieties of one species. New breeds of sheep are frequently formed, (and very much as the breeder wis by crossing well-known races, or individuals having the peculiarities which it is desired should be transmitted to the new breed. In the same manner, he says, the numerous varieties of horses are without doubt members of but one species; Blumenbach has remarked that there is more difference between the skulls of the Neapolitan and Hungarian breeds of horses, than between the skulls of the most dissimilar forms of mankind. Some naturalists suppose the dog to belong to the same species as the wolf; others derive him from the jackal. With all their varieties, Frederic Cuvier believes the dogs to embrace but one species ; he observes that if we make more than one species w-e must make at least fifty, all distinguished by perma- nent characters. Restored to the wild state, all these varieties approximate to the type which may be supposed to have belong >< I to the original species. Dogs differ in stature, in the shape of their ears and tails, in the number of caudal vertebrae ; some have an additional claw on the hind foot, and an additional false molar tooth on one side ; the hair differs in color, texture and length, according to the climate in the first instance ; but these differences become per- manent like the corresponding peculiarities of the human races ; the varieties of the dog tribe have become 'permanent varieties. This tendency to variation he ascribes not to accident, but a " nisus formativus," a vital power " in virtue of which organiza- tion receives a peculiar direction from external circumstances."' Varieties in form and structure are found in the offspring of the same parents which are transmissible, and thus lay the foundation for different breeds ; but these variations are within certain limits, and leave unaltered the specific character. It is not always easy to decide what the specific characters are, and what qualities are vari- able. The shape of the head furnishes the most remarkable in- stances of variety and of characters distinguishing races ; the length INTRODUCTION. 25 and thickness of the neck are very characteristic of breeds of horses ; Meckel remarks that the length, height, and proportional breadth of the hinder parts, the length and thickness of the tail, the shape of the pelvis, and comparative length of the limbs, are characteristic of different races. The physiological and psychological differences we have seen are equally remarkable. Races of men are subject, more than the races of almost any ani- mals, to the varied agencies of climate ; civilization produces in them greater changes than does domestication in animals ; and we ought, therefore, to expect as great diversities among men as among brutes, and indeed far greater, from the powerful influence of mind in the former. To proceed with the variations of the human species, we are at first struck with the differences of color. The difference of color tas generally been thought less important in the discrimination of the races than varieties in the form of the skull ; but M. Flourens considers it more characteristic of distinct races than any other peculiarity. lie displayed before the French Academy of Sciences four distinct layers between the outer cuticle and the cutis, viz., a cellular and reticular tissue lying immediately on the cutis; then a continuous membrane resembling mucous membrane in general ; then a black pigment, hardly coherent enough to be termed a membrane ; and, lastly, the interior portion of the epidermis, which he divides into two lamina;. The second of these he considers a distinct organized body, existing only in men of dark color, or, at least, t»" failed to delect it in tin' white races by the ordinary method of mac- eration. He was unable to find any membrane in the white i interposed between the cutis and the inner coat of the epidermis ; this last being, according to him, the seat of the discoloration of the white skin from exposure to the sun, as well as the seat of the brown color of the areola mammarum. This diversity he regards as a specific distinction, "or as marking out the >,'e;!;ro and Euro- pean as separate species of beings." The supposition of M. Flourens will hardly account for many discolorations of the skin which are frequent in Europeans. Dur- ing pregnancy, the mamma; of many females are extensively sur- rounded by a dark tinge, which afterwards mostly disappears ; in some individuals the dark color pervades a great part of the body ; so that, independently of the solar heat, certain constitutional condi- tions may impart to the white skin a dark hue similar to that nat- ural to the African race. On the other hand, instances are recorded (in Philos. Trans., vol. 57) of the disappearance of the coloring matter in Negroes, who have become as white as Europeans. 3 26 INTRODUCTION. Microscopical investigation has shown that the skin does net consist of continuous membranes, hut is composed of several layers jf cells not separated from each other by such definite lines. Ilcnle hr.s found that the apparently membranous parts, which give color to various surfaces, are also of a cellular structure, and not properly mem- branous; in the skin of the Negro he found numerous irregularly spherical cells containing the black pigment to which the color is due ; they were most numerous on those parts of the rete which pro- ject and correspond to the furrows of the cutis. Dr. Simon, of Berlin, has found that the various discolorations of the white skin depend on the presence of similar cells filled with pigment, and that they are related on the one hand to the normal coloration of the Negro skin, and on the other to the disease termed melanosis, in which " the production of pigment cells keeps pace with a change' from the normal or healthy state of organization in the affected parts." He thence concludes that there is no organic difference between the skin of the Negro and the European, which marks them as dis- tinct species. It may also be added that the epidermic tissue, to which the horny tissue of many animals corresponds, and which is the seat of the variations in color and in the hair of man, " is precisely that part of the organic system which undergoes the most striking and even surprising alterations." The complexions of mankind are not permanent characters ; there are many changes from white to black, and vice versa, and both complexions are seen in the undoubted prog- eny of the same stock ; so that no argument, according to Prich- ard, can be drawn from color against the original unity of the human species. The human races have also been distinguished by the color, quality, and quantity of the hear ; these national diversities probably do not exceed the measure of variety occurring in different families of the same nation. Some Europeans are said to have hair quite as crisp and curly as that of a Negro ; even among Negroes, we find every rariety from a so-called " woolly" hair to curled or even flowing hair; the same is affirmed of the natives of the Southern Ocean, where there is no intermixture of races. The nature of the Ne^ro hair has been the subject of much discussion, as it was supposed to possess characters indicating a distinct species. The Negro hair is called " wool," meaning that it approaches the wool of animals. The fibre of true wool is rough on its surface, and has a feathered or barbed edge ; this is at the same time the cause of its felting prop- erty, and the mark which distinguishes it from hair. Examined microscopically, the fibre of wool generally has serrated edges, resulting " from a structure resembling a series of inverted cones, INTRODUCTION. 27 encircling a central stem, the apex of one cone being received into the base of the superior one." Hair, though sometimes rough and covered with scales, has no serrations, or tooth-like projections; it is an even-sided tube, smooth, and nearly of equal calibre. The hair of the dark races is not wool, but a curled and twisted hair ; it has the appearance of a cylinder with a smooth surface ; the coloring matter is the most abundant in the Negro hair ; the Abyssinian hair, very dark, had a riband-like band running through the middle of the tube, as did also the Mulatto hair; European hair seemed almost entirely transparent, like an empty tube. Even if that of the Negro were " wool," it would not prove him a distinct species, since we know that, in some tribes of animals, some of a spe- cies bear wool, while others of the same species are covered with hair. Since the time of Camper and Blumenbach, anatomists have attempted to classify mankind according to the shape of the skull ; but hardly any two writers have agreed as to the number of the divisions and their exact limitation. One of their fundamental principles seems to be wrong, viz., that tribes resembling each other in the shape of their skulls must needs be more nearly related to each other than to tribes having a differently formed head. As sim- ilar causes may have produced similar effects on widely different people, any particular anatomical character so produced can afford no proof of near relationship. If there be any such relation between the physical characters of different tribes and the chief circumstances of their external condition, there may be pointed out three principal varieties, which are prevalent in the savage or hunting tribes, in the nomadic or wandering races, and in the civilized divisions of mankind. Among savages and hunters, among whom are the lowest Africans and Australians, the jaws are prolonged forwards, consti- tuting the prognathous form of the head ; among the wandering Mongolians, we have broad, lozenge-shaped faces, and the pyramidal skull ; while the civilized races have the oval or elliptical skull. There are numerous instances of transition from one of these forms to another, when a nation has changed its manner of life; for instance, the nomadic Turks of Central Asia have a strongly marked pyramidal skull, while their civilized brethren of the Ottoman Empire have the European or oval form. The three principal ways of viewing the skull are laterally, vertically, and from below ; these three combined enable us to form an idea of all its characters. Camper says, " The basis on which the distinction of nations is founded, may be displayed by two straight lines ; one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius, or opening of the ear, to the ase of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of the 28 INTRODUCTION. forehead, and falling thence on the most advancing | art ol the upper jawbone, the head being viewed in profile." This givee the facial angle. For the posterior part of the skull, the occipital may be measured in a similar manner. Though th ementa may be sufficient lor the physiognomist, 1 1 1 ■ v are not lor the ■ eome- trician, on account of the varying thickness of the skull, the i opment of the cavities in the forehead, frontal sinuses, and the dif- ferent projection of the teeth, even in adults; and, moreover, they only measure the skull in one part. To obviate th.-, Cuvier pro- posed to compare the areas of the cranium and face sawed vertically from before backwards ; the section of the face is triangular ; that of the cranium an oval. In the Caucasian the area of the cranium is lour times that of the face ; in the Negro the area of the face is one fifth larger. To measure the breadth of the skull and the projection of the face, Blumenbach proposed the " norma verticalis." Says he, " The best way of obtaining this end is to place a series of skulls, with the cheek-bones on the same horizontal line, resting on the lower jaws; and then, viewing them from behind, and fixing the eye. on the vertex of each, to mark all the varieties in the shape of parts that contribute most to the national character, whether they consist in the direction of the maxillary and malar bones, in the breadth or larrowness of the oval figure presented by the vertex, or in the flattened or vaulted form of the frontal bone." Thus compared, he makes three varieties in the vertical view, strongly distinguished from each other; the Caucasian, Mongolian, and Ethiopian. In no view does the human skull contrast more strongly with that of the quadrumana, than when its base is examined, as suggested by Mr. Owen. In the orang the antero-posterior diameter of the base is much longer than in man ; the zygomatic arches are situated also quite differently. In all races of men, even in idiots, the whole zygoma is included in the anterior half of the basis cranii, while in the highest monkey it is placed in the middle region of the skull, and occupies about one third of the entire long diameter. The occipital foramen in all the lower animals is further back than in the human head ; in man this foramen is " immediately behind a transverse line dividing the basis cranii into two equal parts, or bisecting the antero-posterior diameter." It is situated exactly alike in all human races, if due allowance be made for the protuberance of the jaws in the lower types. In well-formed European heads, lines drawn from the zygomatic arches, touching the temples, and meeting over the forehead, are parallel. J3ut in the pyramidal skull, characterized by great lateral INTRODUCTION. 29 projection of these arches, these two lines form with the basis a tri- angular figure. Another characteristic in the face belonging to the pyramidal skull, is the obliquity of the aperture of the eyelids; this is not due to any want of parallelism in the orbits, but to the struc- ture of the lids; the skin being tightly drawn over the prominent malar bones at the outer an^le of the eyes, and smoothly drawn over the low nasal bones, gives to the eye the appearance of having the inner angle directed downwards. The pyramidal and prognathous skulls being adapted to the nomadic and hunter state, if " either of these were the original condition of mankind, then were the first men probably in form like the Esquimaux or the Negro." The stature, relative size of the limbs and trunk, and the propor- tions of different parts of the body, vary much in the different races of men ; these differences have been considered by some as amounting to specific distinctions. One of the principal of these dif- ferences is found in the pelvis. Vrolik says it is difficult to sepa- rate from the female Negro pelvis the idea of d( gradation, so much does it approach the form in the Simiae in the vertical direction of the ossa ilii and its elongated shape ; he considers the Hottentot pel- vis as indicating greater " animality in comparison even with the Negro.'' Weber has reduced the forms of the human pelvis to four, the oval, most frequent in Europeans ; the fount/, most frequent in the American nations; the square, in people resembling the Mongo- lians; and the oblong, or wedge-shaped, most common in the nations of Africa. He thinks these answer to the corresponding form of the kull in the several nations. Prichard thinks that no particulai lgure is a permanent characteristic of any one race. As to other parts of the skeleton, in some particulars the less ivilized races bear some remote resemblance to the lower animals. I ncivilized men, like uncivilized breeds of animals, have lean, slender, and elongated limbs. These lie considers as mere variations, as the same causes v. Inch produce them in individuals might influence a whole race. In the Negro the bones of the leg are bent outwards and forwards ; the calves of the legs are very high ; the feet are flat, and the os calcis is continued in a straight line with the other bones of the foot, and is more prominent behind ; the length of the fore- arm is also relatively greater; but these differences are said to be no greater than arc observed every day in individuals of any race. Prichard divides the human races principally according to the rela- tions of their languages, which of all endowments " seem to be the most permanently retained, and can be shown in many cases to have survived even very considerable changes in physical and moral char- acters." The system adopted by Cuvier referred the original seats 3* 80 INTBODUCnON. of the human race to Certain lofty mountain chains. The birth-place of the men who peopled Europe and Western Asia ia supposed to have been Mount Caucasus ; hence the term "Cauca ipplied to them. The nations of Eastern Asia were derived from the neigh- borhood iif .Mount Altai; and the African Negroes from the southern face of the chain of Mount Alias. The tradition in the Hebrew Scriptures places the birth-place of mankind on the banks of lour great rivers, two of which have been recognized as the Tigris and Euphrates, in a land rich in animal and vegetable productions. Prichard recognizes three great centres of the earliest civilization of the human race, comprising most of the tribes known to antiquity. " In one of these, the Semitic or Syro-Arabian nations exchanged the simple habits of wandering shepherds for the splendor and lux- ury of Nineveh and Babylon. In a second, the Indo-European or lapctic people brought to perfection the most elaborate of human dialects, destined to become, in after times and under different modi- fications, the mother tongue of the nations of Europe. In a third, the land of Ilarn, watered by the Nile, were invented hieroglyphics] literature and the arts, in which Egypt far surpassed all the rest of the world in the earlier ages of history." These three divisions do not correspond to the three departments of mankind as indicated by the form of the skull ; the former were neither nomades nor savages, but were more or less civilized and had the corresponding oval form of skull. Yet he would tr gradual deviation from this type to the lower, e. g., from the Egyp- tian to the Negro, without any decided interruption ; though he admits " that these approximations require further inquiry and more precise proofs before they can be admitted as furnishing the ground- work of an ethnological system." His Syro-Arabian or Semitic race includes the Syrians, the Jews, the Arabs. According to Baron Larrey, the Arabian race fur- nishes the most perfect type of the human head, and he believes " that the cradle of the human family is to be found in the country of this race." The Egyptian or Hamitic race contrasts strongly with the Se- mitic, the latter being full of energy and restless activity, the former living in luxurious ease on the rich soil watered by the Nile. They are equally different in their intellectual and moral characters ; the one still living in its energetic and ever-roving descendants, the «ther reposing in its own land, which is little else than a vast sepulchre. According to Denon, the Egyptians display the " gen- uine African character, of which the Negro is the exaggerated and extreme representation." Some have called the Egyptians Negroes ; INTRODUCTION. 31 others think them Caucasians ; Pri hard coincides with Denon, as above quoted. More respecting this race will be given when speak- ing of Dr. Morton's Crania Egyptiaca. The Indo-European, Japetic, or Arian race, includes the Hin- doos, Persians, Afghans, Baluchi and Brahui, the Kurds, the Armenians, and the Ossetines. It comprises also the numerous and far-spread colonies of the race in Europe and America. Prichard believes that the Arian race, on their arrival in Europe, found the country already occupied by what he terms " Allophylian" nations; for instance, the Celts found Spain inhabited by the Iberian tribes, who preserved the possession of the Pyrenean chain at the era of the Roman conquest, and whose descendants, even now, are found there in the Basque mountaineers, orBiscayans, (according to Hum- boldt) ; so the Northmen found the countries on the Baltic coast occupied by nations of the Finnish or Ugriat) race, of the same east- ern origin as themselves, but emigrants of an earlier The five great Nomadic races inhabit the great central re of High Asia, and belong to the Mongolian division of authors ; they are all characterized by the pyramidal form of the skull. These live races are, the Ugrian race, in the north-west, of which the Finns and Lappes, the Tschudes, tin1 Ugrians, (whence the name Ogre, the prototype of fabled savage monsters,) tie- Ostiaks of the Obi, (from whom are descended the Magyars, or Hungarians of central Europe.) and other Siberian tribes, are varieties. The Turkish race, often erroneously called Tartars, formerly occupied all the countries from the north of China to Mount Altai. The present Turkish nations display two differenl types of coun- tenance ; the Nomadic tribes, in the ancient abodes of the race, dis- play strongly the Mongolian type, while the Turks of the Ottoman empire have very nearly the European form. Some writers have explained this change by an intermixture of races, which Prichard thinks is contradicted by the evidence of their langua The Mongolian race, including the Kalmuks, strongly displays the broad face and pyramidal skull of this division of the human family. The Tungusians wander over the mountainous regions which extend from Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk ; within the Chinese dominions they are called Mantschu. According to Kla- proth, the languages of the Tungusians, Mongolians, and Turks have a remarkable connection between them ; and the Marschu, in particular, corresponds singularly in its vocabulary with other Asiatic, and still more with European, languages. The Bhotiyahs are a race often termed Tartars, inhabiting a great part of Tibet and the Hirnalayai chain. They are Buddhist, and have peculiar mar- 32 r- rRODl • HON. nage customs; one woman is generally the wife <>f a whole family of brothers; this appears "less injurious in a physical point of view than the more frequent bojtI "t polygamy." A vast amount of literature [s preserved m their language in the mon Tibet 'I'd the nations with pyramidal skulls belong the races bordering on the Arctic Ocean, which are styled [chthyophagi, or Fishing Tribes, which sufficiently describes ilieir habits of life. 'I bey include the Namollos of the north-easl of Asia and the Aleutian islands, akin to the Esquimaux of America, the Koriaks, tin' Kamtschatkans, the Yukagiri of Eastern Siberia, the Samoiedi the Kiinlians. To this division also belong the Koreans, the Chi- nese, and the Japanese; the races of the Indo-Chinese peninsula beyond the Ganges; — the aboriginal races of Iudia distinct from the Hindoos, (who belong to the Arabian stuck.) and inhabiting their present localities long before the latter passed the river Indus; viz., the Singhalese, comprising all the race- of Ceylon, except the Tamulian ; the Tamulians, inhabiting part of Ceylon, and the greater part of the Dekhan or Indian Peninsula, and the Parbatya, or mountain tribes of the Dekhan. Among the " Allophylian" races, inhabiting mountains difficult of access, in the midst of regions long since conquered by the Ara- bian and Syro-Arabian races, may be mentioned the Caucasians, inhabiting to this day the chain of Caucasus, and successfully ing all the attempts of the Russians to conquer them : they are mostly people of European features and form. The Iberians of the Pyrenees have been already alluded to ; to these may he added the Lybians and the Berbers of the Northern Atlas, also extended to the Canary Islands, under the name of " Guanches,*' whose custom of embalming their dead and depositing them in catacombs reminds us of the ancient Egyptians, though the embalming process was different. In his introductory remarks on the African races, Prichard says, " If we trace the intervening countries between Egypt and Sene- gambia, and carefully note the physical qualities of the inhabitants, we shall have no difficulty in recognizing almost every degree or stage of deviation successively displayed, and showing a gradual transition from the characters of the Egyptian to those of the Negro, without any broadly marked line of abrupt separation. The char- acteristic type of one division of the human species here passes into another, and that by almost imperceptible degrees." The countries above Egypt are inhabited by two races, one aboriginal, or the Nubians of the Red Sea, ani the other foreign, or INTRODUCTION. 33 the Nubians of the Nile; the color of the former, and their hair, is different from that of the Negro ; they are a handsome people, of fine form and features; the latter are supposed to be the descend- antsofthe Nobatae, "brought fifteen centuries ago from art oasis in the rn country, by Diocletian, to inhabit the valley of the Nile;1' Prichard thinks they furnish an instance of the transition from the Negro to the ancient Egyptians, though be admits that the evidence is upen to many sources of fallacy. The Abyssinians, a fine, dark, but not Ni _r:'" people, are inter- esting, as having preserved alone, "in the heart of Africa, and in the midst of Moslem and Pagan nations, its peculiar literature, and cient Christian Church ;" it has also extensive remains of a wide-spread Judaism, and a language approaching, more nearly than any living tongue, to the pure Hebrew. Abyssinia has been overrun lately by the Gal la, a barbarous people, who approach more nearly to the Negro type. Of the black races of the interior of Africa, the principal are the imbian nations, viz., the Mandingos, remarkable for their industry and energy of character, and who carry on the principal traffic of northern Africa, and the Fulahs, who are supposed by some to be an onset of the Polynesian race. The true Negro characters are most strongly displayed on the sea-coast, " which encircles the projecting region of Western Africa, to the inmost angle of the Bight at Benin ;"' the region which has been the centre of the slave-trade, and whose inhabitants are reduced to the lowest physical and moral degradation. One peculiarity of the African cranium is said to be that " the sphenoidal bone fails to reach the parietal bonus, so that the coronal suture, instead of impinging upon the sphenoidal, as it does in most European heads, and in the human cranium in general, joins the margin of the tem- poral bone." This peculiarity has been given as a distinguishing mark between the orang and the chimpanz£, but it is by no means constant. In the vast regions of South Africa, in a country analogous to the high region of Eastern Asia, we find nations which may be com- pared with the Nomadic Mongolian races. The Hottentots, and il _i r oppressed descendants, the Bushmen, in the width of their orbits, and their distance from each other, in the form of the eye, the prominent cheek-bones, and the large size of the occipital fora- men, resemble the Chinese and the Northern Asiatics, and even the Esquimaux. The warlike Kafirs, to the north of the Hottentots, are said to bave the high forehead and prominent nose of the European, the :J4 INTRODUCTION. •hick lips of the Negro, and the high cheek-bones <>f the Hottentot. \ i rv likely they may he a mixed race. The Mozambique tribe* resemble the Kafirs, and, were it not for their black color and woolly hair, would be a handsome race. The African nations between Cape Lopez and ('ape Negro are true Negroes, though some of their skulls have lees than usual of the prognathous character, and more of the pyramidal form. The nations of Africa, limited to those with woolly hair, not agree in the form of the skull, and cannot be >educ d to any particu- lar stock or number of races. The races ofOceanica he divides into »hree ' ilayo- Polynesian, comprising a family of nations whose Dear affinity has been established by Humboldt ; the Pelagian Negroes, <»t' dai* complexion and crisp hair, more or less resembling African Nv ; and the Alforas, of dark color, lank hair, and prognathous heads," including the natives of Australia. '■'. is the physic:*' difference between these nations, Prichard thinks there is full proov" of unity of descent in the whole class, and attrib- utes their diversities to fponianeotu variation. This, without settling, only postpones the difficulty. 'The first group contains the Malays proper, a people of short stature and slender limbs, with flal faces, and features resembling the Chinese, though their complexion is darker; the Polynesians, of whom Lesson considers the Tahitiana as the type ; handsomi whose heads might be called European, were it nut for the spread- ing out of the nostrils, and the too ereat thickness of the lips : and the natives of Madagascar, some of whose tribes approximate t be European character of the Polynesians. The second group of Pelagian Negroes occupies the interior t many of the islands of the Indian Archipelago : those of the Philip- pine Islands inhabit the mountains, and resemble the nations of Guinea, wandering about like beasts, and supporting themselves by rruits of spontaneous growth ; the natives of Van Diemen's Land. v>r Tasmanians, belong to this v races, some civilized and some barbarous, who hate left behind them the splendid ruins <>f Palenque. Ainu.:: these were the Tarascas, the Othomi, the Totonacs, and the Huaxtecas. The Othomi were ;i remarkable people, from the circumstance that, while all other known lac America are polysyllabic, they li;nl ;i monosyllabic dialect, resembling the Chinese idiom. In tlie countries t'> the eastward of the Gulf of California, extending northward as far as the rivers Gila and Colorado, ruins have been found in Virions localities, which are supposed to be tin? differenl resting places of the Aztecs in their migration towards Anahuac; th<- farthesl vestige towards the north of tl, civilization is in the neighborhood of to la, which flows into the 1 i 1 « » < lolorado. Among the aborigines of North America there are only two races which can l>c ti I itinent, from th the Atlantic Ocean ; these are the two northern nations of the Esqui- i and the V.thapascas. The Esquimaux, subsisting principally on what they <>!>t tin from the sea, up- rarely found more than one hundred miles from the coast; they inhabit America, chiefly north of the 60° of north latitude, from the east coast of < Ireenland, in Ion 20°, to Behring's Straits, in longitude 167° west; they occupy an extent of coast of five thousand four hundred miles ; they have the Mongolian cast of countenance. The Athapascan, <>r Chepewyans, extend from the western shore of Hudson's Bay, across thi I ncnt to the Pacific ; t lit? i r southern boundary is Churchill river, which falls into Hudson's Bay ; they atrree in dress and manners, according to Mackenzie, with the Eastern Asiatics. The greater part of Canada, and the United Stales east of the Mississippi, at the time of its discovery, was inhabited by two prin- cipal races, the Algonquin-Lenape and the Iroquois, or Hurons ; both were divided into a great number of tribes, which recognized, however, their kindred with each other. The limits of the former were, in general terms, Churchill river on the North ; the Atlantic coast on the east, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to Cape Hat- teras ; on the south, an irregular line drawn from Cape Hatteras to the confluence of the Ohio with the Mississippi ; and, on the the Mississippi river. The Iroquois, always at war with the for- mer, consisted of two bodies — the northern, entirely surrounded by the Lenapian tribes, in the neighborhood of Lake Huron ; the south- ern were the Tuscaroras, in Virginia and North Carolina. ENTBODUCTJ 37 To the southward were the Alleghanian races, many of whom have become extinct; among them were the Cherokees, the Choc- taws, the tribes of t! mfederacy, Seminoles, Natchez, and others. These were the nations among whom Adair thought that '_Mii/."il the institutions of Judaism, such as a cityofrefi temple where the sacred fire was continually kept burning, &o. To the west of the Mississippi are the Sioux ami Pawnees; Mr. Gallatin divides the Smux into four departments, hut all of one kin- dred, from the evidence of language ; these an- the Winebagos, the Dahcotas, the Minetari, and the I I There arc two natii Pawnees, the Pawnees proper, and the Ricarees on the river Platte. On the sides of the Rocky Mountains are the Black-feel and the Rapid Indians, with their numerous families; in their neighborhood are the Snake Indians; further south the Utahs and P and in Mi i co the Apacl The races of the Pacific coast of North America may be di into three sections. The < 'alifornian nations inhabit a region barren, rocky, and sandy, and deficient in water, and of a climate excessively hot and drv, exactly opposite in every respect in the north-western tracts; they an- of a much deeper hue than the American natives generally, so that La impared them to Negroes; thej have low foreheads, and prominent cheek-bones; they approach, in the ahai t" the head and in features, to the nations of New Guinea, and Hebrides. N< w California appears to have a fine race of dark people. The tribes of the North-west coast and the Columbia river, from New California ti> Mt. St. ESIias, are very different from the hunt- ing races ot" the Missouri. The prevailing westerly winds of the northern Pacific render the climate moist and milder than correspond- ing regions of the interior. The northern tribes, from the Arctic circle to Vancouver's Island, including the tribes of the Russian ter- ritories, are bold, industrious, and ingenious; the females have the singular custom of perforating the lower lip, and wearing in it a wooih-n ornament. The southern tribes have been called Nootka- Columbians, winch indicates their locality. The practice of flatten- ing the head in infancy is universal among them, but unknown to the north. To this family belong the Chenooks, the Flat-heads, the Clatsops, and others; they are distinguished for their love of music. Dtr. Prichard thinks the northern tribes more interesting than the last, as ih.y furnish an example, according to him, of a white •a Inch, compared with the black Californians, bears a relation to climate similar to the white Europeans of the Old World compared with the black Africans. The dioms of the Noot- 1 38 DITR0D1 ka-( lolumbiana beat a remote affinity, m well u those of die rmrtneni . to the Azteca-Mexican ; "a fad which recalls ihe tradition that the Nahuatlacaa originated from a region far i *> th« north ; the language of Nootka b) an strong n n mblance to the Mexican in th« terminations of words, and the frequent recurrence oi sonants." M. D'Orbigny divides the South American nations into time families; the Andian group, >>r Alpine nations, including th<- Peru- vians, the Antisians, and the Arancanians; the Brazilio-Guaraai, from the foot of the Peruvian Andes, eastward to the Atlantic, including the vast plains of the Orinoco and the Amsaon; and the Mediterranean group, in the central and southern parts of the con- tinent. Of two and a half millions of the pure aboriginal races, oae and a half millions are Christians, through the efforts of Roman Catholic missionaries. The Peruvian family includes the ln<-a race, the Aymaras, the Atacama, and the Changos. Of the Peruvians we shall say more, when noticing the Crania Americana. The [oca ra Q sheas, an- noted for a very great volume of the chest, \\ bich ia due to i! vated regions in which they live, and the consequent extreme expan- sion of the air; living at a height of between 7. .".no and 15,000 t '• < • t above the level "t' the sea, a much greater quantity of such rarefied air must be inhaled for the respiratory functions ; to effect this, or in consequence of tins, the lungs are dilated, and the thorax from infancy is abnormally developed ; in the lungs there is a kind of natural emphysema. The Avmaras resemble the [ncss in physical charac- ter, but differ from them entirely in language. It is probable that from Tiaguanaco, the most ancient city of South America, and one of the greal cities of the Avmaras. the religion, the arts, and the civil- ization of the Incas originated. The heads of the modern Avmaras display no trace of that tlattening of the skull so conspicuous in the tombs around the lake of Titicaca and other parts of the Aymara country. It is now fully proved that the depressed or elongated form of the skulls is owing to the intervention of art ; its origin was prob- ably contemporaneous with the reign of the Incas ; it appeared to be a mark of honor, as such deformed skulls were found in the largest and finest tombs. The Atacamas occupy the western declivity of the Peruvian Andes, and the Changos spread along the coast of the Pacific ; the latter are of a much darker hue, probably depending on their ocal situation by the sea-coast. The Antisian branch inhabits the eastern declivity cf the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes, from 13° to 17° south latitude. Living in INTRODUCTION. 39 damp forests rarely penetrated by the sun's rays, they arc almost white, and those tribes are the fairest who dwell in the thickest woods. The Araucanian branch defended the mountains of CI ill from the Spaniards; the fishing tribes of Tierra del Fuego arc referred by D'Orbigny to the Araucanian r Of the Mediterranean group, the Paiagonians comprise the tribes of tliis name, and races extending from the Straits of Magellan to ad latitude, including the wandering tribes of the Pampas; they are th'- nomadic nations of th< N> World, fierce warriors, iltnre and all tin' arts of civilization. Their com- plexion is darker than that "t' most Smith Americans ; they have long been celebrated for their tall athletic forms; the stature of the most southern is the greatest; it diminishes as we go northward. The agricultural and fishing tribes inhabiting the central prov- inces of .South America arc called by the Spaniards, Chiquitos ami Moxos. The vast region of South \e. .if the river Paragua inhabited by two great families of nations, tie' Guarani of Paraguay and the Tupi of Brazil, and the Caribbees in the countries bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. According to D'Orbigny, the following is their characteristic description : "Complexion, yellowish; stature, middle; forehead t so much arched as in other races; eyes, obliquely placed, and raised at tl nter angle.'1 These traits approximate them to the nomadic races of II Spix and Von Martins thought the Caribbees rery like the Chinese. Having thus given th.' anatomical and external characteristics of tic various human races, and drawn from them the conclusion that all are varieties of :i single species, he adds testimony which he thinks corroborative from their physiological and psychological char- acters, lie remarks that the average duration of human life is nearly the same in all the rao - ; al any rate, there is the same ten- dency to exist for a definite lime, which may he shortened in some cases by peculiarities of climate and external circumstances. The progress of physical development and tin? periodical changes of tin; constitution are the same, as also the natural and vital functions; he mentions the temperature of the body, the frequency of the pulse, and the periodica] changes in the female, eex. In all these great regula- tions of the animal economy, mankind, white and black, are on the same footing by nature. A comparison of the races with respect to . nts, (and he compares the American and the black races with the white.) shows that all have the same inward feelings, desires, and aversions ; the same susceptibility of improvement in 40 INTRODl CTION. religion and social condition ; in a word, the same nature. Adding together the accumulated testimony from anatomy, physiology, and psychology, he Bays, " We are entitled to draw confidently the con- clusion that all human races are of one species and one family." Dr. Latham* separates the human species into three primary divisions, the Moncolid-E, Atlantih.v., and .1 \ri 1 jp.v. : — the Mon- gol ids inhabiting Asia, Polynesia and America ; their languages aptoticf and agglutinate ; their influence on the history of the world material rather than moral; — the Atlantidae inhabiting Africa; their lanrruaircs with an agglutinate, rarely an amalgamate, in- flexion ; their influence on the history of the world inconsiderable ; — the Japetidse inhabiting Europe; their languages with amalga- mate inflections, or else anaptotic.| rarely ai/rrlutiriate, never aptotic ; their influence on the history of the world greater than either of the others, moral as well as material. The MONGOLIDJE lie divides into, A. — The Altaic Mongolidae. B. — The Dioscuriau Mongolia's. C. — The Oceanic Mongolidae. D. — The Hyperborean Mongolidae. E. — The Peninsular Mongolidae. F. — The American Mongolids. G. — The Indian Mongolida?. A. — The Altaic Mongolidce, he divides into the Seriform and the Turanian stock. 1. The Seriform stock, of which the chief divisions are the Chinese, the Tihetans, the Assamese, the Siamese, the Kambojians, the Burmese, the Mo u, and numerous unplaced tribes ; their lan- guages are generally monosyllabic and aptotic. The Chinese language is remarkable, from the fact that written signs represent whole words, instead of syllables or single articulate sounds. In the wild Seriform tribes we notice erratic agriculture, an exceptional form of human industry, contrasting strongly with the method of cultivating the soil in China. The Chinese civilization he considers the measure of moral development of the monosyllabic nations ; while allowing to the Chinese several of the most important arts and discoveries of * The Natural History of the Varieties of Man, by Robert Gordon Latham, M. D., F. R. S. 8vo. London, 1850. t Without cases. t Falling back from inflexion. INTRODUCTION. 41 Europe, (as the art of printing, of paper-money, of the mariner's compass, of a certain amount of astronomical knowledge, and even of gunpowder,) he doubts the antiquity of this civilization, vand still more the self-evolution of it. Within the historical period, three civilizing' influences have been introduced into China. To begin with the latest, European and American intercourse has not changed it in any essential points. The influence of the early Nestorian Christians, between A. D. GOO and 1200, must have been very great, from the introduction of Syrian literature, theology and science. The Buddhism of India is the earliest civilizing influence. The Han dynasty being the extreme date of Chinese history, begin- ning 13. C. 200, Buddhism must have been introduced since that period ; it is generally believed to have been introduced in the first century after Christ. He thus limits the growth of Chinese civiliza- tion to the las) eighteen hundred years, believing " that whatever is older than their religion is reasonable tradition for a limited period, (say a century.) and unreasonable tradition beyond it." 2. The Turanian stock, of which the divisions are the Mongo- lians, the Tungusians, the Turks, and the Ugrians, extending from Kamtskatka to Norway, and from the Arctic Ocean to the frontiers of Tibet and Persia. Though there are here some physical changes, there are also greater changes in the languages, from those of a monosyl- labic and aptotic type to those polysyllabic and anaptotic ; but as we know what modifies form, and what modifies language, we may readily understand that physical and philological changes may go on at different rates. An interesting branch of the Ugrian division of the Turanian slock is the Magyar, or Hungarians, who migrated from the country of the Baslekirs, about A. 1). «J0(). Those who would con- nect the Hungarians with the Huns are misled byr the similarity of the name, for no facts are more undeniable than that the Magyars are of Ugrian and the Huns of Turkish descent. The Magyars arc the only members of the Ugrians who have made a permanent con- quest, within the historical period, over any portion of the Japitidce. B. — Dioscurian Mongolida, so called from the ancient sea-port Dioscurias ; the term Caucasian would have been more appro- priate, but it has already been misapplied in another division, the Japctidae. The principal divisions are the Georgians, the Lesgians, the Iron, and the Circassians. Dr. Latham differs from the long established division of man- kind by placing the Caucasians, who have been heretofore consid- ered as a preeminently European type, among the Mongolida?. The anatomical reason for making the Circassians and Georgians, so 4* 42 INTRODUCTION. Called, Caucasians, was a single fart : — Blummhadi had a folitary Georgian skull, which happened in be the nhesl in Ins colleciion, that ill' ;i Greek being tin- next ; hence it was taken as the type of the skull of the higher divisions of mankind, and gave rise to the term Caucasian. " Never has a single bead done more harm to science than was done in the way of posthumous mischief, by the bead of this well-shaped female from Georgia;" tins is the amount of fact. Similar attempts have been made to conned tin' Dioscurian languages with tin' Indo-European tongues; in 1645, Dr. Latham announced before the British Association, from the comparison of the words only, "that the closest philological affinity of the Diosc languages was with the aptotic ones;" and soon after, Mr. Norriss, of the Asiatic Society, i Kpri ed the same opinion, on gramm grounds. As to the symmetry of Bhape and delicacy of complexion of the Georgians and Circassians, bo different from tin- Mongolian, the reader is reminded of the climatologic condition of the Caucasus ; temperate, woo led, mountainous, and near the sea, — the very reverse of the Mongol areas. " It is only amongst the chiefs where the personal beauty of the male population is at all remark- aide ; the tillers of the soil are. comparatively Bpeaking, coarse and unshapely." C. — Oceanic M idte, divided into the Amphinesian* and Kelenonesianj stocks. The ocean being a medium of communication hetween races only in proportion to the skill, experience and courage to use it, all a priori generalizations on it, as an element of ethnographical disper- sion, must be unscientific. With a few exceptions, every inhabited spot of land in the Indian and Pacific Oceans is inhabited by tribes of the same race, and that race Oceanic; with the exception of the Peninsula of Malacca, it is not only re in the islands, but loxcherc on the continent. In an ethnographical distribution by water, the later date we assign to it the more explicable are the phe- nomena, from the more advanced state of navigation favoring the dispersion ; while, in an extension by land, the earlier the migration takes place, the less is the resistance of surrounding nations. 1. The Amphinesian stock consists of two branches, the Proto- nesian, and the Polynesian. The Protonesian branch occupies the Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Timor, Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, the Philip- pines, &c. With respect to the Malayan Peninsula, the most important fact is its being the only continental seat of any Malay * Amphi, around, aad nesos, island. t Kelainos, black. INTRODUCTION. 48 nation, which suggests the idea of its being the original country of the many widely dispersed Malay tribes. Of all the tribes of the Old World, the Oceanic stock have been the most extensively accused of cannibalism ; not as a mark of honor, nor to gratify revenue, but for purposes of food. Amoni(l diminution, a kind of death, rare among enumerated — suicid P. — American MtmgoUda, comprising the Esquimaux and the American Indians. Over this vast area, whenever the lang diilrr from, or agree with, each other, they differ or agree in a man- ner to which Asm has furnished im> parallel. The Esquimau is the only family common t<» the Old and the New World, and the Esquimau localities are the only ones where the two continents approach each other *ery nearly : so that it ■■ seem easy to decide in what manner America was peopled. choice must be between the doctrine that derives tl ui na- tions " from one <>r more a* parate pairs of prog d the doe- trine that either Beh ring's .Straits, or the line of Islands between ECamtskatka and the Peninsula of Aliaska, w;i- the highway I" I the two worlds — from Asia to America, or a i docs not necessarily follow that the race must have arisen in Asia, though there are valid reasons for this opinion. Physically, thi Esquimaa is a Mongol and an Asiatic ; philologically, he is as American. The Esquimaux of the Atlantic coast are easily distinguished from the American aborigines to the south and west of them, in appearance, manners, and language ; while the Esquimaux of the Pacific coast, in Russian America, pass gradually into the proper Indians in the same respects. The great differences between the American Indians, as a body, and the trihes of the Old World would naturally lead to an opinion in favor of a general and fundamental unity among the several sec- tions of them; "the Brazilian and the Mohawk equally agreed in disagreeing with the Laplander, or Xejjro ; and this common differ- ence was enough to hring them within the same class." The lan- guages of the American nations differ remarkably from each other ; but, as Vater has indicated, " the discrepancy extends to words or roots only, the general internal or grammatical structure being the same for all ;" while they differ glossarially, they agree grammati- cally.— a philological paradox. The likeness in the grammar has generally been considered of more weight than the difference in the words, so that the evidence of language is in favor of the unity of all the American nations, including the Esquimaux. INTRODUCTION. 45 Some have been disposed to separate the Esquimaux, and the Peruvians and Mexicans, from the other Americans — the former on account of an inferior, the latter on account of a superior " civil- izational development," and maintained in consequence, that the American stock is not fundamentally one But the Esquimau civil- ization is not Imcrr than that of the other Americans, it is only different i as would be expected from their Arctic habitat, their fish- ing habits, and their Fauna and Flora. As to physical characters, they are taller than half of the South American tribes ; they are as dark as most of the American races, only a few typical nations being copper-colored ; their skulls approach the " brakhy-kephalic " character of the American; and. finally, their language is Amer- ican in grammatical structure, and even in words. The Pernvio-Mexican civilization lias been over-estimated; the phenomena of their social and political condition should not he com- pared with European feudalism and chivalry, hut rather with " their analogues, the probationary tortures of tribes like the Mandans, ami the constitution of such an empire as Powhattan's in Virginia ;" if ■ opare this empire of Powhattan with the kingdom of .Monte- zuma, we shall find the difference of civilization to be in degree, and not in kind. The dillerei s between the Peruvian and the A r- ican skull are artificially produced, by flattening in front, behind, or laterally, as tin1 case may be. While thus advocating the unity of the American nations, one unong another, he omits tie ition of their unity with nations of the Old World. He merely says, " 1 know reasons valid enough and numerous enough to have made the notion of the New World being the oldest of the two a paradox. Nevertheless, I know no absolutely conclusive ones." G. — The Indian Mongolida comprise the inhabitants of llindos- tan, (in part,) Cashmere, Ceylon, the Maldives and Lacca. lives, and part of Beloochistan ; they have numerous relations with the Jape- tidsn. The Atlantidae he divides into — A. — The Negro Atlantidae. I!. —The K Hire Atlantidae. C. — The Hottentot Atlantidae. 1). — The Nilotic Atlantidae. E. — Amazirgh Atlantidae. F. — The /Egyptian Atlantidae. G. — The Semitic Atlantidae. It is necessary to remember the difference between the Negro and the African ; the true Negro area, occupied by men of black skin, 46 INTRODUCTION. thick lips, flat nose, and woolly hair, being an exceedingly small part of the African continent. A. — Tl.e Negro Atlantidce are distributed on the low lands, sea- coasts, deltas, and courses of the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Niger, and Upper Nile, nearly limited to the tropic of Cancer. The depart- ure from the true Negro features is the greatest on the high or table lands. B. — The Kaffre Atlantidce inhabit Western, Central (?), and Eastern Africa, from the north of the Equator to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Their language has two remarkable peculi- arities which seem to separate it from other African tongues ; viz., the system of prefixing to every noun a syllable without any sepa- rate meaning, and alliterational concord, which changes the initial sound of a secondary word into that of the primary one. C. — The Hottentot Atlantidce have " a better claim to be considered as forming a second species of the genus Homo than any other sec- tion of mankind." Their language contains two inarticulate ele- ments, viz., h, (like other tongues,) and a peculiar and characteris- tic click. D. — The Nilotic Atlantidce are principally the Gallas, Agows, and Nubians ; through the Nubian is traced the transition from the Egyptian to the Eastern Negro. E. — The Amazirgh Atlantidce (or Berbers) comprise the Sievans, the Cabyles of the Atlas range, Tuaricks of the Sahara, and the Guanches of the Canaries. These were probably the subjects of Massinissa, Juba, and Jugurtha. F. — The JEgyptian Atlantidce comprise the Old Egyptians, the subjects of the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies ; and the modern Copts, in the rare cases where they are unmixed : the present dominant population being Arab. G. — Semitic Atlantidce. Connection with the Semitic is by no means synonymous with separation from the African stock ; we may pass naturally from the Copts to the Semitic tribes of Abyssinia, Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, &c, including Syrians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Arabs, Ethio- pians, &c. The Syrian influence on civilization has been undervalued ; through the Syrians, Armenia and Arabia received the knowledge of Greece, and more important still has been the influence of the pro- pagandism of the Nestorian Christians in Central and Eastern Asia. The Babylonians were among the first, if not the first, builders of cities and founders of empires ; they also made the first application of weights and measures. The achievement of alphabetic writing INTRODUCTION. 47 is apparently the work of the Phoenicians. The Arahs have ever been celebrated for their zeal in the diffusion of knowledge, though the amount of originality among them is by no means ascertained. He thinks all the alphabets that have ever heen used are referable to a single prototype, and that Semitic. In order to account for the difference of tribes under the same lat- itude, he lays stress upon the accumulation of climatologic influ- ences, and the angle of migration ; which he illustrates by supposed migrations through a single zone, and through many rapidly passed zones ; in the former case the climatologic influences would be lccumulated much more than in the latter. The Japetidae he divides into — A. — Occidental Japetidae. B. — Indo-Germanic Japetidae. The first consists of the Celts and their branches. The second falls into two classes, the European, and the Iranian Indo-Germans ; the former including the Gothic Sarmatian, and Mediterranean na- tions ; the latter, the populations of Kurdistan, Persia, Beloochistan, Affghanistan, and Kafferistan, — tribes descended from the speakers of the Sanscrit languages (in the present state of our inquiry, dead languages). Cuvier divides man into three stocks, Caucasian, Mongole or Altaic, and Negro ; he refers the American to the Mongolian stock. Fischer divides man into Homo Japcticus ; II. Neptunianus ; H. Scythicus (Mongols) ; II. Americanos (Patagonians) ; II. Columbi- cus (Americans) ; II. Ethiopicus ; and II. Polynesius. Lesson divides man into the White Race ; Dusky Race, including Hindoos, Caflrarians, Papuans, and Australians ; Orange-colored Race, the Malay ; Yellow Race, the Mongolian, Oceanic and South American ; Red Race, the Caribs, and North Americans ; and the Black Race.' , Dumeril proposes the divisions, Caucasian, Hyperborean, Mon- gole, American, Malay, and Ethiopian. Virev divides man into two species : the first, with facial angle of 85° to 90°, including the white race, (Caucasian,) the yellow race, (Mongolian,) and the copper-colored race (American) ; the second, with facial angle 75° to 82°, including the dark brown race, (Malay,) the black race, and the lackish race (Hottentots and Papuas). Desmoulins' sections are Celto-Scyth-Arabs ; Mongoles ; Ethio- 48 INTRODUCTION. pians ; Euro-Africans ; Austro-Africans ; Malays ; Papuas ; Negro Oceanians; Australasians; Columbians; and Americans. Bony Di: St. Vincent makes fifteen di\ isions — races with su hair, of the Old World; viz., Homo Japeticus ; • II. Arabicus; II. Indicus; II. Scythicus (Tartars); II Sinicus (Chinese); II. Hyperboreus ; 1L. Neptunianus; II. Australasicus ; — in the New World, II. Columbicus (North Americans); II. Americanus (South Americans); H. Patagonicus — negro races; H. vEthiopicu> ; II. Carter ; II. Melavinus (in Madagascar, Fiji Islands, Van Diemeu's land) ; and II. llottentottus. Mn. Martin f gives a sketch of the princij)al divisions of mankind, according to various naturalists, which is quite natural and inl ing. Mr. Martin divides mankind into five stocks, as follows : 1. Japetic Stock; including the European branch, or the Celtic, Pelasjjic, Teutonic and Sclavonic nations; — the Asiatic branch, or the Tartaric, Caucasic, Semitic (Arabs, Jews, &c). and Sanscritic or Hindoo nations ; and the African branch, or the Mizraimic (ancient Egyptians, Abyssinians, Berbers, and Guanches) nations. 2. Neptunian Stock, including the Malays proper, and the Poly- nesians ; (including, perhaps, among the last, the founders of the Peruvian and Mexican Empires). 3. Mongole Stock, including Mongoles and Hyperboreans. 4. Prognathous Stock, including the Afro-Negro, Hottentot, Papuan, and Alfourou branches. 5. Occidental Stock, including Columbians (North American Indians), South Americans, and Patagonians. Dr. Pickering \ observes, in his first chapter, that, in the United States, three races of men are admitted to exist, and the same three races " have been considered, by eminent naturalists, (who, however, have not travelled,) to comprise all the varieties of the human fam- ily." He continues, " I have seen in all eleven races of men ; and * Not in allusion to Japhet, the son of Noah, but to Japetus (audax Japeti genus, Horace), whom the ancients regarded as the progenitor of the race inhabiting the western regions of the world. t Physical History of Man and Monkeys : by W. C. L. Martin, F. L. S. London, 1841. J The Races of Man, and their Geographical Distribution : by Charles Pickering, M. D. Boston, 1843. [U. S. Exploring Expedition.] INTRODUCTION. 49 though I am hardly prepared to fix a positive limit to their number, I confess, after having visited so many different parts of the globe, that I am at a loss where to look for others." He enumerates them in the order of their complexion, beginning with the lightest. A. — White. Including 1. Arabian; with nose prominent, lips thin, beard abundant, and hair straight and flowing. 2. Abyssinian; with a complexion hardly becoming florid, nose prominent, and hair crisped. B. — Brown. Including, 3. Mongolian; beardless, with per- fectly straight and very long hair. 1. Hottentot, with Negro features, and close woolly hair, and stature diminutive. 5. Malay; features not prominent in the profile ; complexion darker than in preceding races, and hair Btraight and flowing. C. — Blackisii-Buown. Including, 6. Papuan; with features not prominent in the profile, the beard abundant, skin harsh to the touch, and the hair crisped or frizzled. 7. Negrillo; apparently beardless ; stature diminutive, features approaching those of the Negro, and the hair woolly. 8. Indian or Telingan; with feat- ures approaching those of the Arabian, and the hair straight and flowing. §. Ethiopian; with complexion and features intermediate between those of the Telingan and Negro, and the hair crisped. D. — Black. — Including, 10. Australian ; witli Negro features, but with straight or flowing hair. 11. Negro; with close woolly hair, nose much flattened, and lips very thick. Maritime habits would separate the .Malay, Negrillo, and Papuan, or the three island races, from the eight continental races. Six of the races may be considered Asiatic, and lour African ; while the eleventh, or white race, is common to both hemispheres. All races exist independent of climate. Three well marked divisions of the soil correspond with desert, pastoral, and agricultural communities. " It is a mistake to suppose, with many, that pastoral or nomadic life is a stage in the progressive improvement of society; the condition is inscribed on the face of nature." In the Mongolian race, he thinks, the occurrence of a feminine aspect in both sexes, rendering it difficult to distinguish men from women, is characteristic. He was not able to make much use of the oblique eye as a distinctive character, nor the " alleged absence of a projecting inner angle to the lids." According to him, the Mongolian race inhabits " about one half of Asia, and, with a slight exception, all aboriginal America, or more than two fifths of the land-surface of the globe." According to Mr. Coan, the stature of the southern Patagonians " is nothing unusual, but it is exaggerated by their peculiar mode 5 50 l vn: I] of dress. " Tli i 'arctic Circle, are entirely destitute of clothing, showing th< of the th. "Indeed, we afterwards (bund that in the southern hemisphere vegetation is nowhei by a season of cold ; but that, in many h tropical cl be said i" ' \'. rid to the Antarcl I li and among the natives of the extreme point of South by the Fuegians, but not by the North American In<3 Among the North-west watermen, the air of Btriking; they appeared on g 1 terms with the birds and I and as if forming with them a part of the animal creation; in accordance with an id "' that the Mot liar qualifications !'<>r reclaiming or reducing animals to th state." The do I by them I harden. The Chinooks are considerably superior t«» the hunting tribes of North America in various arts and in ■ I '.nils of the Chinooks;: i in infancy; but, as they grow up, the skull resumes its natural such an i stent a- to show very little trace of the previous deformity, except an unusual , breadth of the face. Slavery exists among the Chinooks, and is probably connected with the first peoplii \ linent. He thinks the fate of the Chinooks Efferent from the rest of the continental tribes, from " the greater density of a spirited population, and the scanty proportion of agricultural territory, that '• they can only give place to a maritime people like them- selves.1' Speaking of a bas-relief from Palc-nque, he says, "It is eminently characteristic of the Mongolian, and seems decisive as to the physical race of the people who reared the remarkable ancient structures dis- covered in that part of America." The Aborigines of the United States seemed to him physically identical with their brethren west of the Rocky Mountains ; their stature is higher, however, and not inferior to Europeans. He thinks all belong to the Mongolian race. Of the Chinese, In " I repeatedly selected individuals, who, if transported in a different dress into the American forest, might, I thought, have deceived the most experienced eye." At Singapore, the Feejean captive, Vein- dovi, saw, for the first time, some Chinese, and " at once identified them with his old acquaintances, the tribes of North-west America." Of the Mongolian races, the Aboriginal American has superior powers of endurance ; the Chinese excel in persevering industry and frugality ; these qualifications promise to have an important bearing on the future destiny of the race. INTRODUCTION. 51 The Malay r.iee is the most widely scattered ; it exhibits greater variety in its institutions and social condition than all oilier races combined ; and it is truly a maritime race. A marked peculiarity is the elevated occiput, which gives to the 1. in front, a broader appearance than in Europeans ; there is a tendency also to tion of the upper maxilla. There is a great variety of stature among them : some of the Polynesians (as the Taheitians) are the largest of mankind, while the East Indian tribi small stature, — this may dep< ad mi food, though in both it is prin- cipally vegetable; tin- fonm r (where almost unknown) live on farinaceous roots and fruits, the latter live almost entin Speaking of the beautiful submarine creation of the coral islands, he says it . mimal life, even ma tables nearly wanting. Tin' mineral kingdom was also absent ; noth- ing hut immem of the debris of animals. Myri ids and th i-palms announced uninb islands ; so, on binding, did ti;. of the house-fly, and of the Morinda, though the with the I' which spreads without human aid. The vegetable prod these islands are limited to about thirty Bpecies, of remarkable uniformity over graphical distance. Among tlie Polynesian customs is the salute by rubbing noses together. He calls the Californians, Mexicans and West Indians, as; a Bingle glance satisfied him of their Malay affinity. At th distinguish native Polynesians from tin- half-civilized Californians. Tie- hair, howei I I the' former being waved ami inclined to curl, while that of the latter i> invariably straight. The Californians have not the custom of scalping, nor do they use the tomahawk. The p of two aboriginal races in America recalls certain historical coincidences. The Toltecs, the tinted with agriculture and nauufactures. Now, such cultivation could not have been derived from the northern Mongolian population, who in their parent coun- tries were by climate prevented from being agriculturists. If, then, this art was introduced at all from ahroad, it must have come by a southern route, and, to all ap] . through the Malay race. This is not incompatible with an ancient tradition, attributing '■ the origin of their civilization to a man having a long beard ;'" ho could not have been a Mongolian ; he might have been a Malay. '• if. h ny actual remnant id' the Malay race exists in the- eastern pan of North America, it is prohahly to be looked for among 52 [NTR0D1 '- H< the Chippewaa and the Cherokeea." He givi Mil.i v ahalogii . He r sf< ra ihe Japanese t" the Malay t The Australian has the complexion and featun of I but hair instead of wool ; the forehead dot much, and often an unusually Bunken i it rail: r the a] jetting ; ill- eyes, though small, are uncommon! ■ about thirty, some of whom w< lidedly fine-looking. He did not notice the i d Blenderm limb; their forma wer nerally better than th :iiian as the finest modi 1 of human proportions l, The liair was usually undu D curl- ing in ring The Australians absolutely reject all the innoval riliza- tion ; they arc strictly in the " hunter state :" I the inferior animals with which thi I d. If the wild Australian dog be a peculiar a there is reason to d never the companion of man, I lutely without domestic annuals ; '• a c The Papuan race arc ro . inbabitin I ids. Th y differ from tb restof mankind in th or harshness of the skin. The hair is In great quantity, naturally frizzled and wiry ; when dressed, its thickness will prol a heavy blow ; it actually incommodes the wearer when lying down, anil renders necessary a wooden neck-pillow. The heard exceeds in quantity that of all except the White races. The features resemble the Negro, but the face is longer ; in stature they exceed the White race. The favorite color among the Fecjeans is vermilion-red ; among the Malays it is yellow. The former have«iot the excessive fondness for flowers manifested by the Polynesians ; they rarely anoint themselves with oil ; they salute by touching- noses instead of lips. Among the Feejeans there exists a general system of parricid' . s die a natural death; when they have passed the prime of life, and are unfit for the service of the state, the son makes use of his privilege and takes the life of his parent. This strange custom, apparently so inhuman, is a sacrifice in favor of the children, — a kind of savage virtue in a land where the means of subsistence are limited. Cannibalism is of daily occurrence, and is regarded in the light of a refinement. The Negrillo race occupies the Xew Hebrides, the interior of New Guinea, Luzon, &c. It differs from the Papuan in its diminu- tive stature, general absence of beard, the inclined profile, and the exaggerated Negro features ; the hair is less knotty than that of the Negro, and more woolly than that of the Papuan. INTRODUCTION. 53 The Telinjran comprises the natives of Eastern and Western Ilin- dostan and Madagascar. The Ni irro race is the darkest of all. and is rivalled onlv by the .tut in the close wooily texture of the hair. The absei rigidity and of a divided apex of the cartilage of the nose is common to this and tli i Malay, ami probably other races. jn Albinos, when the skin resembles tbat of Europeans, the hair resembles "a white fleece.'" The excellence of the] ear for muBic is proverbial; much of our popular music, which has been supposed to beof origin, may probably be traced to a more distant and ancient Bource. In Egypt, Negroes are principally confined to Cairo and Alex- andria, and are generally housi they do not engage in the labors of agriculture, and they are not bo represented on the ancient monuments. N figured principally in connexion with the military campaigns of the Eighteenth Dynasty. One of this dynasty (Thoulhmoais IV.) probably had a Degress fur his queen. He dues not remember set nted on the anterior monuments, nor indeed on those of much later date. He Bays, " I am not aware of any fact contravening the assumption that Negro slavery may have been <>1 modern origin; and th seems t" have been very little known to the ancient < rreeks and Romans." The Soahili arc a mixed race of N nd Whites, living at Zanzibar and other localities; in the same island is also a mixed race of Negroes and Malays. Among the people of Eastern Africa he could not 1 any pastoral Negroes, nor of Ethiopian cultivators. The Kafiers "belong physically to the Negro 1 • opian race is intermediate between the Telingan and •ual appearance and in complexion. The hair is crisped, but fine, never wiry; the skin is suit, and the features Furopean-like. It occupies the hottest countries of Africa ; most of astoral, wandering, some of them in the recesses of I ireat Desert. The Nubians of the Nile, and some trihes bor- .iiia. lead an agricultural life. The Ethiopian race seems to have furnished the originals lor the ancient monuments >r>. the races include the following numbers : The White, . . 350,000,000 The Abyssinian, . 3,000,000 The Mongolian, . 300,000,000 The Papuan, . . 3.000,000 The Malayan, . . 120,000,000 The Negrillo, . . 3,000,000 The Australian, . 500.000 The Telingan, . . 60,000,000 The Xegro, . . 55,000,000 The Ethiopian, . 5,000,000 The Hottentot, . 500,000 Though languages indicate national affiliation, their actual dis- tribution is independent in a great degree of physical race ; and much confusion has arisen among writers from neglecting the means of INTRODUCTION. 55 extension or imparting of languages. The a«1cipi i«>:i of a language is ''very much a matter off convenience, depending oAen on the lumerieal majority." On the supposition, fur instance, that Poly- ehed the Ami rican shores, if does not follow that we •ii lt lit t<> find trios of tlii'ir lang On I ;.iry. it da follow thai ■ ikiiiLr th( are in any way con- W hitesand Blacks of the United States. !l concludes (his chapter thus: "Inth< eh new field r> . going beyond tin- istitntion "fa plant or animal, is met bya new adapta- tion, until the di full ; while, among the immense vai two kinds are hardly found fulfilling the same pre- i -t in ilit- human fam- ily; and it may uned whether any one of the yly, would, up to the present day, have i itended itself over the w bole aurfai f il It i- evident that the manners, arts, and attainments of the Poly- not of independent growth, nor are they the remnants of r civilization. If we look to the East Indies, their supposed nriL.Mii, we find no resemblance. If man baa hada central i, and has gradually spread with itiona and knowledge, •lit to find Ins history inscribed on I eh new revolution obliterating mo >>f the preceding, bis primitive condition^ should !>•• found at the furthest remove from th< graphic centre." If we " coul nto the early history of the Indies, we might find there a condition of society approximating to that nt th" Polyni Cusl to in the place of their origin, may continue a long time in remote situations. ft iween the east coast of Africa and tl America, there arc li- trea of maritime intercourse, which I > r i 1 1 lt into connexion this immense tract of tan. From Arabia to Hindostan the rformed by Arab "dows" : from Hindustan to the I Indies, the Bay of Bengal is navigated by the Telingans and Maldive Islanders; the Easl Indians extend their commercial i from \- i t'i the northern part of Australia; the main Pacific itres of communication with the Bast In lies, through tne Mips, and the Papuan archipelago, though the former is the mam one; this navigation is carried on by Japani and by the large double canoes of the Society and Tonga Islands ; the northern Pacific to America has been passed by these same Japanese vessels and Polynesian canoes; both would naturally and almost necessarily reach he northern extreme of California, precisely the place where we fr d a second physical race ; this course would be 56 INTRODUCTION. broughl about by i h<* ocean currents ami the prevailing winds. Within a few yean a Japanese vessel was fallen in with l»y a whaler in the North Bfcific; another has been wrecked on the Sandwich Islands; and. Mill mure in point, a third bu actually drifted l'» the American coast near the mouth of the Columbia river. Finally, between Asia ami North-west America, there 1- almost a continuous chain ui' islands, inhabited by the same population, so that it is impossible t-ia .(Egypt-iaca ; by Samuel George Morton, M. D. Philadel- phia, 1844. 58 INTRODUCTION. the hair long- ami flowing. Adopting the Biblical term, he thinks the children of Ham, or Mizraimites, (he does not believe that Ham was the progenitor of the Negro race,) entered Africa by the isthmus of Suez, and were the aboriginal inhabitants of the valley of the Nile; "and that their institutions, however modified by intrusive nations in after times, were the offspring of their own minds;" he believes a portion spread themselves over the north of Africa, and became the nomadic tribes of Libyans. Dr. Beke revers* a the route, ami thinks the " Cushite descendants of Hani first Milled on the western Bide of the Arabian peninsula, crossed thence into Ethiopia, ind, descending the Nile, became the Egyptians of after times." The term Ethiopian has been used very vaguely, to embrace Arabs, Hindoos, Austral-Egyptians, and Negroes : it is properly applied to the people who occupied the valley of the Nile from Philae to Meroe, including the present nations of Nubians and Abyssinians, and the great variety of mixed races resulting from proximity. Monumental evidence abundantly shows that the Meroites and Ethiopians had no affinity to the Negro race ; the former are always represented red like the Egyptians, while the latter has also the characteristics of his race. 1 [»■ believes " that the- Egyptians and monumental Ethiopians were of the tame lineage, and probably descended from a Libyan tri The Fellahs are a mixture of the Arab with the old Egyptian stock, and are the lineal descendants of, and least removed from, the monumental race of any now occupying the valley of the Nile. The monuments also prove that the Egyptian race must have been modified by Pelasgic, Semitic, Arab, and Hindoo tribes, of the Cau- casian family. He regards the Copts as a mixed community derived from the Caucasian and Negro. The modern Nubians, he thinks, are "descended, not from the possessors of Ethiopia in its flourish- ing period, but from the preedial and slave population of the country, increased by colonists, and raised into a nation by peculiar circum- stances between the third and sixth centuries of the Christian era."' The monuments give ample evidence of the existence of > slavery among the Egyptians ; and the vast influx of Negroes must have left an impression on their masters, as we see in the ancient Negroid heads and the modern Copts, thus also explaining the inci- dental elevation of the Negro caste. Comparing the ancient Egyp- tian and Negro with their modern representatives, it may be said " that the physic 1 or organic characters which distinguish the sev- eral races of men are as old as the oldest records of our species." INTRODUCTION. 59 Mr. Van Amringe,* while he admits that all the human family sprang from Adam ; that the whole race, except Noah and his family, was destroyed by the deluge ; and that since then the whole human family have sprung from three men, — believes, and forcibly argues, that there are no less than/owr different species of mankind. These arguments will be introduced when treating of the diversity of the races. His species are, 1. The Shemitic species, including the Caucasian nations generally ; of strenuous temperament. 2. The Japhetic species, including the Mongolian races, Esquimaux. Aztecs and Pe- ruvians ; of passive temperament. 3. The Ishmaelitic species, includ- ing must of the Tartar and Arabian tribes, and the American nations , of callous temperament. 4. The Canaanitic species, including Ne- groes and Australians ; of sluggish temperament. 5. The Esauitic species (?), including Malays and Negroes with long hair. Dr. S.MYTiif divides the subject into the question of origin, and the question of specific unity of man ; the former he determines chiefly by the evidence of Scripture ; the latter, only, he makes a question for scientific observation. He has given a great number of texts to show that the Divine Writings unequivocally teach the ori- gin of the human race from a single pair, Adam and Eve ; and he goes so far as to say, u that the gospel must stand or fall with the doctrine of the unity of the human races." He then undertakes to prove that black races of men have ex- isted in ancient times in a high state of civilization ; and, assuming that a black race is a Negro race, he contends, contrary to the opin- ion of the most learned ethnologists, tint the Egyptians and Mero- ites were nearly akin to, if not absolute Negroes. Remarking that " it is the glory of God to conceal a thing," and admitting with Leibnitz that " the utmost that can be fairly asked in reference to any affirmed truths of Scripture is, to prove that they do not involve any necessary contradiction," he thinks that the fact of great existing varieties offers no objection to the revelation of Scripture, that all the present races are the descendants of a single pair. He, therefore, adopts the usual theory that the existing vari- * Outline of a new Natural History of Man, founded upon Human Anal- ogies : by W. F. Van Amringe. New York, 1348. t The Unity of the Human Races : by Thomas Smyth, D. D. New York, 1850. CO INTRODUCTION. etios of man are analogous to the varieties of animals, and to be accounted for by the operation of natural causes, and externa] agen- cies, "or by these causes preternaturally excited." Speaking of specific differences, he calls color a " separable acci- dent" and not a Bpecific distinction in man, it is not univer- sal in all human creatures. 1 f is remarks on hybridity will be b considered when speaking of Dr. Bachman's work, from which they are mostly quoted. The next two cbapti roted to the con- sideration of the unity or common origin of langu argu- ment for the original unity of mankind. Tl bservations on the testimony of history, experience, the religious character of the race, and the insensible gradation of the varieties, have been alluded to in previous authors, or will be summed up hereafter from the original sources. The most characteristic part of the work is that in which he main- tains that the theory of a plurality of races of men is uncharitable, inexpedient, and unchristian; he collates texts to prove that the Negro is " God's image carved in ebony," maintaining that he has " the same' primeval origin, the same essential attributes, the same moral and religious character, and the same immortal destiny " (p. 332) ; and yet, talking about the "first law of slavery," the right of property in a human being enforced by divine commandment, the right of the master to the labor of the slave for life, of anti-slavery movements as blind philanthropy, &c, he says, (pp. 334-5,) " The relation now providentially held by the white population of the South to the colored race, is an ordinance of God, a form and condition of government permitted by Him, in view of ultimate beneficial results. God's authority, God's word, and God's will, and not the applause or the condemnation of men, must be her rule of action.'1'' This, and still stronger, language shows rather the polemic theologian, and the advocate of Southern institutions, than the scientific naturalist, and ethnologist; and, however appropriate in other places, is quite irrelevant on the subject of the origin of mankind. In contrast with the last author, Dr. Bachman,* in a philosophic manner, pursues his investigations " irrespective of any supposed decisions which may have been pronounced by the Scriptures." * The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race examined on the Prin- ciples of Science. By John Bachman. D. D. Charleston, S. C, 1550. INTRODUCTION. 61 Animals and plants, in a state of domestication, or of cultivation, are subject to remarkable changes when removed from their native soils; and these varieties become permanent, not reverting to the original wild stock even when returned to their original localities ; this he considers a well established fact. lie collected together a great number of hybrids of animals and plants, and found them sterile in every instance but one ; he was satisfied " that a union of two species could not produce a new race, and that species were the creation of God." With Prichard he considers domestication of animals analogous to domestication in man, a:ul that the varieties of the animal kingdom within the range of species explain the per- manent varieties of man ; or, rather, that they have been produced by similar causes. lie reviews at length the alleged instances of fertile hybrids in the article of Dr. S. G. Morton, and finds no reason to change his opinion as above expressed. He objects that the instances are taken often from remote distances where it is impossible to verify them; that the authorities quoted are either contradictory, obscure, or of little scientific merit ; and the innumerable instances to the contrary seem to him entirely decisive, that hybrids between different species are sterile. No instance, not open to doubt, can be shown of hybrids fertile for several generations, without a crossing with one of the original Btocks ; many of the so-called different species, breeding together, are generally believed to be mere varieties of a single species, e. g., of the horse, the hog, the sheep, the dog. As hybrids are sterile, hybridity is a test of specific character; and, as all the races of men produce with each other a fertile prog- eny, they may fairly be said to be of the same species. The striking and permanent varieties of animals are acknowledged to be the results of an organization by which the species are enabled to produce varieties. Taking it for granted that we must be governed by the same laws for determining species in man and animals, he asks, Why do our opponents persist in calling human varieties dis- tinct species? Instancing the well-known varieties of the wolf, Why do naturalists admit these as mere varieties, and insist that the human races are as many species? The same question is asked con- cerning the horse, the cow, the sheep, the hog, the dog, domestic fowls, and pigeons, in which there is the same disposition to branch out into varieties from a common stock, as great as between the races of men. Great variations have occurred in many Caucasian nations, while wild animals, with few exceptions, have undergone no change ; showing the influence of domestication. According to G 62 INTRODUCTION. him, man ought to be compared as a domestic species, and not aa a wild one. lie believes that man originated in a tropical cliinrilr; ; that the original type no longer exists; thai the European is as aiuch an improved race in form and color, as the Negro is a i one. We have no evidence that a white race, like the Europeans, existed at the primitive dispersion of man. Central Asia, usually regarded as the birth-place of man, is also the native country of his domesticated animals and poultry, and of the grains and vegetable productions carried with him in his migrations. In what manner climate tends to produce human varieties, he does not pretend to say; the fact is evident, the manner unknown. He thinks " there is in the structure of man a constitutional predisposition to produce varie- ties in certain regions of country."' To show the tendency in ani- mal and human constitutions to transmit peculiarities to offspring, he gives examples showing that excrescences and malformations, and even arrests of development, may be thus transmitted ; he shows, also, how suddenly Nature goes from one extreme to another in the production of Albinos. He supposes that the constitutions of men in early api th Polar n il Betw ien the \ pp il ichian, the Brazilian, Patagonian and Fui branches oi the American family, there are Borne Blight <: which may l>c attributed to thi : climate and locality and tlic consequent habits of life; though all have the low, lima: head, high cheek-bones, aquiline nose, large mouth, and wide .skull, prominent at vertex, w ith flattened occiput, peculiar to the Ami race. The minis have their superior m ritly curved, and tin' ml' rim- margin like an inverted arch, contrasting strongly with the oblong orbh and parallel margins of the Malay. Tl family includes the Bemi-civilized nations of Mexico, Peru, B< Guatlmala, Yucatan, Nicaragua. Tins differs from the Am< family in intellectual faculties principally. Their architectural remains show their great attainments in the practical arts of life. This family is the Neptun - of Bory de St. Vincent, who refers them to the Malay race, in which l>r. Morton do with him, lor reasons to be given h< r< afti r. From nation of nearly one hundred Peruvian crania, he at first came to the con- clusion that the heads of the ancient Peruvians wer v very much elongated, differing in this respect from the ivians, who appeared later. That opinion he has since* given up, and believes the elongated shape to be the result of compression. \\:t now believes that the descendants of the ancient Peruvians yet dwell in the land of their ancestors, under the name of Aymaras, their probable primitive name ; that the Aymaras resemble the surround- ing Quichua nations in almost every respect, having ceased to mould the bead artificially ; that, according to M. D'Orbigny, the flattened skulls were always those of men, while the heads of women retained the natural American shape ; that this deformity was a mark of dis- tinction ; that these people were the architects of their own tombs and temples ; that the capacity of the cranium is the same in the ancient and modern Peruvians, about seventy-six cubic inches. — a smallness of size without parallel, except among the Hindoos. D'Orbigny also believes that the ancient Peruvians were the lineal progenitors of the Inca family, — a question not yet decided. The ancient Peruvian head is remarkable for its long, narrow form, inclined forehead, and length of the occiput behind the ear ; the face is proportionally narrow. The Inca Peruvians date their possession of Peru from the 11th century, — a period corresponding with the migration of the To! *Journ? of Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Vol. 8, 1S42. INTRODUCTION. 65 t:cas from Mexico ; hence it has been supposed these were of com- mon origin. At any rate, the Incas are supposed to have been an intruding nation. The Inca skull is remarkable for its small size, its quadrangular and unsymmetrical form, its prominent vertex, its compressed and often vertical occiput projecting to one side or the other, and its consequent great parietal diameter, He thinks this flatness of the occiput, commpn to the whole American race, may be increased by the manner of treating their children in the cradle. The heads of the ancienl \\> deans resemble, both in size and form, the unaltered heads of the ancient Peruvians, with considera- ble lateral swell, and shortened longitudinal diameter. While the ms were superior to other American nations in intellectual character, their moral perceptions were as much inferior. All their institutions, civil and religious, were calculated to debase th feelings of human nature ; among these was the custom of sacrificing human victims. The difference between the ancienl Mexicans and their modern descendants, where the race is unmixed, is no greater than that between the ancient Egyptians and the present < "»>j>t . The traditions of the Natchez Indians state that they migrated from Mexico. The analogies between them and the Toltecas are, the worship of the sun. human sacrifices, hereditary distinctions, and Sxed institutions, in which they also differed from all the other Florida nations. They hid also the singular custom of compressing their heads from before backwards, giving to them a great height and width. He a satisfied that the American Indians, the Toltecan family, ami the builders of the mounds, belong to one and the same race, indigenous to America; and that they are not Mongols, Hin- doos, or Jews. He thinks the Toltecan family were the only build- ers of mounds. In a subsequent paper* Dr. Morton gives Ins reasons for consid- ering all the American nations, except the Esquimaux, as of one race, peculiar and distinct from all others. The Indian physiog- nomy he considers "as undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro; for, whether we see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark < 'alifornian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian still, and cannot he mistaken for a being of any other race." From the comparison of 400 crania, from tribes inhabiting every. region of both Americas, he finds the same osteological structure in all, viz., squared head, flattened occiput, high cheek-bones, heavy maxillae, large quadrangular orhits, and low, receding forehead. * Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. 4, p. 190, ct seq. G' 06 INTRODUCTION. This applies equally to the oldest crania from Peruvian and Mexi- can cemeteries, and the mounds of the Mississippi valley, and tlie existing [ndian ti Tho moral traits are equally strongly marked. Among them an a sleepless caution, which influences every thought and action, and • their proverbial taciturnity and invincible firmness ; ■ I war and destruction ; habitual indolence and improvidence; indiffer- ence to private property; and the vague simplicity of their religious observances. These arc the same from the humanized Peruvian to the nidcst Brazilian Bavage. They arc averse t<> the restraints of civilization, and seem incapa- ble of reasoning on abstract subjects; they improve not in mechan- ical pursuits, in making their huts or their boats; their imitative faculty is very small. The long annals ol rv labor give no authentic exception to this state of things. Contrasted with barbarous tribes are the Mexicans and Peruvians, whose civilization has been before sufficiently alluded to. If it be asked bow nations, derived from the same stock, should differ so widely, it may be replied that the contrast is the same between the Saracens, who established their kingdom in Spain, and the Hedouins of the Desert, between the Greeks of the present day and the Greeks of the age of Pericles ; and yet these last are known to bi long to the same stock. What accounts for the one may explain the other. In maritime enterprise the American Indian is very much behind other races, even in situations where the ocean invites him to use it as a means of subsistence or communication. In this respect he dif- fers greatly from the Malay, (or Homo Neptunianus, as he might be called,) to whom some consider the American related in Califor- nia, &c. Their manner of interment is so different from that of other races, and so prevalent anion? themselves, that it constitutes another means of identifying them as a single and peculiar race. This consists in burying the dead in the sitting posture, the legs being flexed against the abdomen, the arms being bent, and the chin supported on the palms of the hands. This prevails, with but few exceptions, from north to south. The Esquimaux differ so widely from the Americans, in physi- cal and moral traits, and their aquatic habits, that their ethno- graphic dissimilarity seems evident to him. He thinks there is no more resemblance between the Indian and Mongolian, in physical characters, in arts, architecture, mental and social features, (es- pecially nautical skill.) than between any other two distinct races. The Mongolian theory is objectionable on account of its vastness INTRODUCTION. 67 requiring a lona succession of colonies for a distance of 8000 miles, which must have left traces of tli. ir series of human waves in the north, where the pressure must have been greatest ami the coloniza- tion longest in duration ; but none such are found. It remiins to present the arguments in favor of an original differ- ence of the human races, and their creation in several different cen- tres ; in doing which we shall be obliged to draw on short treatises, most of them recently published, as well as on a dissertation pub- licly pronounced by the writer. Witli those who, like Prichard, believe thai the Mosaic account of creation is a full and complete record, to be literally and strictly interpreted, all argument is of course useless, notwithstanding the nuraen hich may be pointed out in that record. Lord Bacon utti red a great truth, when he said. "The union of religious and philosophical investigation is often detrimental to the cause of truth." It is not Christian philosophy that would have men shrink from the investigation of Nature, from fear of find- ing a contradict. n the works and the word of God. When rightly understood, they must harmonize. Nor can weassume that human knowledge has us yet arrived at its maximum in the com- prehension of the word any more than it has of the works of God. Professor Agassis* remarks that though the question is not at all connected with religion, a entirely to natural history, still the theory of the diversity of origin of the human races does not contradict the Mo d, which is best explained by referring it to the historical races. There is in u no account of the origin of nations unknown to the ancients, as the Arctic nations, Japanese, Chinese, Australians, Americans. We have a right to consider all possible meanings of the text, and no one can object except those "whose religion consists in a blind adoration of their own construc- tion of the Bible." There is not a line in it which hints that the differences in nations were introduced by the agency of time. All its statements refer either to the general moral and spiritual unity of man, (which no one denies,) or to the genealogy of a particu- lar race. There is no evidence that the sacred writers considered the colored races as descended from the same stock as them This is a modern and human invention for political or other purpi By taking into view these non-historic races, with no records, and consequently umnentioned in the Bible, we greatly " lessen the per- plexity of those who cannot conceive that the Bible is not a text- book of natural history, and who would like to find there informa- * Christian Examiner, Boston, March and July, 1850. 68 INTRODUCTION. lion upon all those subjects which have hern left for man to investi- gate." If, then, the origin of the human rare, from a single pair, can he proved a< all, it must be proved independently of the Ji Scriptures; it must be t • pure scientific question. Many i f the varieties of domestic animals arc ascribed to climate. If this be the true cause :. \ I, " why do we find different varieties in the same climate 1 Why does the Durham breed <>f cattle continue in the United States with all its peculiarity The care of man, gTeater than the influence of climate, can keep up varieties in spite of it. Superficial observers — "those who have only known the differences called climatic differeno between some mammalia and birds, which occur simultaneously in different latitudes — may well have assumed that such differ have been produced by change introduced in the course of time ;" but when we consider the great mass of facts in natural history, known only to those who have made it a special study, these inade- quate and accidental causes cannot explain si. eh <_'< neral phenomena. In considering this subject we are not to confound the Unity of Mankind with the Diversity of Origin of the Human Races — ques- tions which are quite distinct, and have almost no connection with each other. The geographical distribution of animals furnishes to the natural- ist very strong evidence in favor of the original diversity of the human races. There are certain recognized zoological and botan- ical provinces, with well-defined and constant limits. The Fauna and Flora of each hemisphere, and of each zone, have their peculiar characters; more resembling each other as we go towards the north, and more widely different as we approach the equator. Even marine animals, in an element undergoing very little change and especially suited for rapid and distant migrations, are restricted to a certain extent of surface, or are confined strictly to certain depths. We have no right to say that the law, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no farther." was impressed on animal and vegetable life as a subse- quent addition to the creative act. We know, too, that there have been successive creations of ani- mals and plants at different geological periods : and that they were distributed in localities best suited for their life and growth for a certain time. In many instances, as in the Edentata of Brazil and the Marsupiata of New Holland, these fossil types were the same as the actually existing types of these localities, though of different genera and species ; this coincidence of distinct creations, separated by immense intervals of time, but occupying precisely the same limits, is certainly difficult to explain by the theory of the origin of INTRODUCTION. 69 all animals from the high lands of Asia, or any other single centre. It i; not probable that the same animals would have twice wandered across land and sea to the smif localities. Of this local creation of animals, the island of New Holland furnishes a striking' example ; nearly as large as all Europe, it contains animals and plants pecu- liar to itself. With the exception of our opossum, the marsupial animals are peculiar to this region, and no higher animals are abun- dant. Most of the genera and all the species of plants were new to botanists. Must of the fishes belong to the cartilaginous type. To Asia belong the orang-outang, the tiger, the i, &c. ; to Africa, the chimpanzee, the zebra, the hippopotamus, the lion, the gnu, the giraffe, &C. ; to America, the ant-eater, the bulHilo, the llama, the grizzly hear, the moose, the beautiful humming hirds, and the mocking bird. There seems no avoiding the conclusion that there have heen many local centres of animal and vegetable creation. Is it most consistent with the wisdom of God to place originally every species in the climate and soil most congenial to it ' or to create all species in one spot, whether suited to them or not, and leave them to find out their present localities, at the risk, perhaps, of life ? To adopt the latter view seems to he placing the Deity below a mere human contriver.* Wherever we examine nature, we find a perfed adap- tation of animals to the circumstances under which they live ; when these are changed, the animals cease to exist. The domestic animals and man are able to resist external changes for a longer period, hut even these finally degenerate and die. " That which," says Arjassiz, '; among organized beings is essential to their temporal existence must be at least one of the conditions under which they were created." The American trihes are uniform from Canada to Cape Horn, whatever the variety of climate ; yet they differ from Africans, Asiatics, or Australians; while the inhabitants of the southern extremities of America, Africa, and New Holland, regions having almost the same physical conformation, are extremely unlike each other. We must conclude that " these iaces cannot have ass'imcd their peculiar features after they had migrated into these countries from a supposed common centre; that they must have originated, with the animals and plants living there, in the same numerical pro- portions and over the same area in which they now occur." These conditions are necessary to their maintenance. * " Distribution," says Vai Amringe, " can only relate to the subjects to )>e distrilmtod ; but the Old World never had the fauna of New Hoi land and America ; and therefore could not distribute them. Fror* whence did thr>y come ? " (p. 144.) 73 iNTBOOi i now. We find the races of man occupying circumscribed localities in inti- mate connection with the recognized zoological and botanic proi Arctic man, like Arctic animals, is the same in \ mi rica, Europe and The races become more distinct as we approach the equator. In temperate Europe we have the great Caucasian family, i three great branches may be said t<> be three varietii - of the same species, as the varieties of the lion in northern and southern Afri- ca (though having their peculiar marks) constitute o In temperate Asia v\e nave the Mongolian race; m temperate America we have the Indian. In the tropics we have the African nations, the .Malay race, ami the people of Central America and the West Indies (by some considered congenital with the Malays). In New Holland we have the Australian; in the Pacific islands we have the Polynesian, and several local varieties. In southern Africa we have i in- Bushman, the Hottentot and Kafir; iii south- ern America, the Patagonian and Fuegian. Among the quadrumana, which approach nearest to man, we see a similar adaptation of species to continents. The monkeys of America, of Asia, of Africa, of Madagascar, are different from each other ; and what is curious is the fact that the black orang is confined to the continent occupied by the black human races, while the brown orang is found with the tawny Malay races. Is it at all likely that one is a modi- fication of the other, by climate or external circumstances? These facts, to the mind of a naturalist, would prove thai both man, and animals and plants, originated together in the places where they are found ; for why should man alone assume new peculiarities, very different from his supposed primitive ones, while animals and plants, in the same limits. •• preserve their natural rela- tions to the fauna and flora of other parts of the world V' We trace the same general laws throughout nature, and there can be no room " for the supposition that, while men inhabiting different parts of the world originated from a common centre, the plants and animals now associated with them, in the same countries, originated on the spot ; such inconsistencies do not occur in the laws of nature." We have additional evidence of the primitive ubiquity of man on the earth in the fact, that, wherever men have migrated, they have found aboriginal nations ; we have no record of people migrating to a land which they found entirely destitute of inhabitants. As to the creation of a single pair, or pairs, it is opposed to the economy of nature, except in a few instances. In some species of animals, both sexes are of equal numbers ; in some there are many females to one male ; in others, one female to many males, as the oee ; some, in which a single individual is the whole species ; others, INTRODUCTION. 71 in which many individuals live a common life, as the coral?. — so that the number of individuals usually found together is one of the peculiar natural characteristics of species. The reproductive- of animals proves, then, that many of them were not created in single pairs, or in a number of pairs; for thus they could not haw propa- gated their species. " The idea of a pair of herrings or a pair of buffaloes is as contrary to the nature and habits of those animals, as it is contrary to the nature of pines and birches to grow singly, and form forests in their isolation. A bee-hive never consists of a pair a, and never could such a pair preserve the species, with their habits." " Was the primitive pair of lions to abstain from food until the gazelles and other antelopes had sufficiently multiplied to preserve their races from the persecution of those ferocious beasts ?" We find the same animals occurring in places distant from each Other, in Europe and America, under such circumstances that we must admit their simultaneous origin in both centres. Setting aside the possibility of the conveyance of eggs in th I birds, &c., which, after having been rejected or laid in the water, may spread species to a certain extent, the great mass of facts can hardly be explained in this way. unless by a very great stretch of credulity. We can only refer to this paper* by Agassiz, where many instances are adduced, which show that animals have originated primitively over the whole extent of their natural distribution, and in large numbers; and that the same species may have a multiple origin, as is shown by the lions in A.frica, the fishes of the Rhine, Rhone, and Danube, 1- it not, then, equivalent to making physical influences more powerful than the Creator, to trace all animals from a common centre, and to trust the production of animals to a sin:;/' ]>air, exposed to innumerable accidents from climate and the attacks of other animals ? In the words ol 5,f " The view of mankind as originating from a Bingle pair, Adam and Eve, and of the ani- mals and plants as having originated from one common centre, winch was at the same time the cradle of humanity, is neither a biblical view nor a correct view, nor one agreeing with the results of science ; and our profound veneration for the Sacred Scriptures prompts us to pronounce the prevailing view of the origin of man, animals and plants, as a mere human hypothesis, not entitled to more consideration than belongs to most theories formed in the infancy of science." Considering, then, the climatic varieties of man as primitive, ♦Christian Examiner, March, 1850. tlbil. 72 INTRODUCTION. the question of the plurality of races is converted into the question whether these varieties :m: species. That men are nearly related, physically ami mentally, is no reason why a community of i >uld be claimed for them; we have the same near relations among animals, for which community of origin lias never been claimed. For instance, the carnivore all ajrree in peculiar teeth and claws for Beizing their prey; in a short alimentary canal for digesting animal food; in their savagt unsocial dispositions; constituting a natural unity in the animal kingdom, entirely different from that of the qnadrumana, ruminantia, &c. But for all this, who ever derived the wolf, the tiger and the bear from a common stock ? And yet they exhibit closer resemblance of dispositions then the different races of men. Common character does not prove common descent. The species of the genus Felis, so similar in habits and structure, were never supposed to be one and the same species; for the same reason, there may be different species of the genus Homo, as far as this argument is concerned. Van Amringe,* speaking of the incompleteness and obscurity of the Mosaic account of the creation of man, asks, whence came Cain's fear that some one, finding him, should slay him, if the only per- sons living, at the death of Abel, were Adam, Eve and himself? and why the reply of the Lord, that " whosoever slaveth Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold?'' and whence the necessity of putting a mark on him ? Surely his father and mother, and their descendants, would not have killed him. The departure of Cain, his marriage, the birth of his son Enoch, and his building a city, took place before the birth of Seth. the next human being, according to Moses. The intermarriage of the "sons of God" with the " daughters of men*' was the cause of the wickedness punished by the flood. There were also " giants in the earth in those days," who " cannot be referred to Cain as their progenitor, because four generations from Cain are mentioned, among whom there were no giants ; and these are sufficient to cover the whole intermediate time" to the epoch of the flood, [p. 57.] All these point to a race of men independent of Adam. Even though all the descendants of Adam, except Noah and his family, had perished in the flood, there may have been other men, in parts of the earth not reached by the * Outline of a New Natural History of Man, founded upon Human Anal- ogies. By W. F. Van Amringe. New York, 1343. INTRODUCTION. 73 Noachian deluge, who escaped. Those who wish to satisfy them- selves on the limited extent of the deluge, may consult with advan- tage the work of Dr. John Pye Smith, " On the Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Science." The fact that so many learned men continue to attribute the varie- ties in animals to climate, food, and other external circumstances, and the various human races to the same causes, can only be accounted for " on the supposition that they believe the subject to be settled by revelation in its results; and that, however contrary to it the facts may appear, they must be made to conform to it in their conclu- sions ;" this, continues Van Amringe, is a perverse disregard of the inductive method of philosophizing, " more particularly as, from our knowledge of the various nations (if the globe, all the known facts are decidedly against any such theory." That animals change to a limited extent, we know ; that man thus changi B, we do not know ; and that he must so change is based solely on analogy. The human constitution has a remarkable power of adapting itself to climate, which animals have in a less degree ; in the latter we expect change, in the former we do not expect it, and have never seen it ; there is no analogy, in this respect, between man and animals. As regards the changes produced by food, there is no analogy between animals and man ; the former, in domestication, usually depend upon a single article, as grass; while omnivorous man, if he cannot get meat or vegetables, can fall back upon " train oil, spiders, 6erpe"ts, or ant eggs." If the supply fail for the former, changes will ensue, against which man is better protected. The Jews are a remarkable proof that climate and mode of living do not change human races to any great extent; wanderers in every land, they are now as distinct as they were two thousand years ago ; the unmixed Jew is recognized at a glance. Prichard and his followers allow that, with few exceptions, the varieties of domestic animals, if left to themselves, show a tendency to return to a supposed primitive type. The difficulty of keeping up any particular breed of pigeons or rabbits is well known ; sheep con- tinually show a tendency to return to the dark color of the wild mouflon ; " black sheep annoy the farmer by appearing in the midst of the most carefully-bred flock." It requires continual care to pre- vent even the dog, the most modified perhaps of all animals, from degenerating. That time alone does not alter species is proved by the mummies of animals found in the catacombs of Egypt, and the representations of species, identical with the existing ones, on the walla of the temples and the outer cases of human mummies. ( Mar- tin, op. cit.) 7 74 INTRODUCTION. The color of the human skin is not regarded as of to much impor- tance as it formerly was ; though no sufficient reasons are given. In every animal but man, color, when transmitted from generation to generation unchanged, is considered of specific value. It is said, though without any facts to sustain it, that climate insensibly pro- duces the change of color with other physical changes. If climate can change a white into a black man, producing what we claim gen- erally as a specific distinction, what difference does it imply to admit the general doctrine of Lamarck " that the vast variety of organisms were produced by the operation of laws, by development, and not by direct creation?'' There is no reason why we should not insist on the specific value of color in man, at least to the same extent as we admit it in animals. Says Van Amringe, " The moralqnestion of uni- versal brotherhood and its consequent obligations is not affected by making the permanent differences, acknowledged by all to prevail in the different races of mankind, to owe their origin either to the direct or indirect agency of our common creation." M. Flourens considers the color of the skin more characteristic of distinctness of species than any other peculiarity ; but, though we may accept his conclusions, (for reasons which will hereafter appear,) he probably labored under an error in assuming the existence of a peculiar membrane in the Negro skin, which is entirely wanting in the white races.* Allowing, with Ilenle and Simon, that the skin is not composed of continuous membranes, but of layers of cells ; of epidermic cells, among which are interspersed the pigment cells on which the color of the skin, hair, and eyes, depends; the fact that the microscope was necessary to discover the rete Malpighii in the white races, while " in the dark races it has long been known, and is easily discoverable, and separable by maceration, without a micro- scope, and that it increases in thickness in the descending series of species, until, in some Negroes, it is thicker than the cuticle," is sufficient to show that the functions of a skin, so differently pro- portioned in the various races, may be considered specifically adapted to the circumstances under which the several varieties of man were formed to live. Microscopic examination has proved that the hair of the Negro is * " The uniform color," says Lawrence, " of all parts of the body is a strong argument against those who ascribe the blackness of the Negic to the same cause as that which produces tanning in white people ; namely, the sun"s rays. Neither is the peculiar color of the Negro confined to the skin ; a small circle of the conjunctiva, round the cornea, is blackish, and the rest of the membrane has a yellowish brown tinge." INTRODUCTION 75 not " wool," but at the same time has shown that it is of a very dif- ferent texture from that of the white races. There is an actual difference in the structure of the hair in the different races ; and this difference does not depend on the color, for the black hail of the Negro is not at all like the equally black hair of the European. The hair of the Albino Negro, " whether red or flaxen, is as knotty, as wiry, and as woolly, as that of his sable parents." The closest curls of the European head never approach the short wiry hair of the African, unless the races have been mixed ; and it should be recol- lected that such a single mixture may have an influence for several generations. Are, then, the differences which characterize the several races of men analogous in kind and degree to those which distinguish the breeds of domestic animals ? And are they to be accounted for on the same principles ? It is maintained that the effects of domestication on animals and the effects of civilization on man are analogous. This supposes that the original condition of man was wild like that of animals ; that he emerged from this condition, became domestic, and domesticated certain animals with the same results for them as for him. All these suppositions are necessary, and all have been taken fur granted, and used accordingly. That civilization has not produced physical changes in man, the authors themselves admit, when they refer this or that ancient skull to the Caucasian or Ethiopian race, according to its characters, which implies permanence of the distinguishing marks. This is proved by all history ; by the monuments of Egvpt, which show that 4000 years of civilization, at any rate, have not changed man. Says Van Amringe, " If it could be proved that a mouse changed to an ox by domestication, we imagine that it would be insufficient to prove that man suffered physical change by civiliza- tion, in opposition to undoubted records to the contrary." Man is the most domestic of animals ; domesticity is in him " a natural instinct, a law of his being, a principle upon which all of his virtues, all of his civilization, all of his progress in this world, depends ;" but domestication in animals, far from being instinctive, or a law of their nature, is " a violence done to them, a tyranny exercised over them ; it is a slavery so absolute and perfect that their very natures are subdued, and their natural instincts, as far as opposed to man's interest, blunted and overpowered." Their tem- pers are modified, their bony structure even is changed, by an unnatural climate, food, and management. Improvements in domes- ticated animals are degenerations in regard to the animals themselves. The difference between the skulls of the wild boar and the domestic 7G INTRODUCTION. hog is constantly adduced, as analogous to the differences between the Caucasian and Negro cranium. 15ut look nt the cause of ch the wild animal is confined in a Bty, where his natural instinct of rooting in the ground, for which his h iad is especially adapted, can- not be exercised ; the powerful muscles attached t<> the m being called into play, the bones to which they are attached, by a physiological law , are modified accordingly. < Civilization, on the con- trary, places man in a position whet tural powers are mora advantageously exercised and increased. ation in animals is a life of unnatural constraint and real degeneration. There i only ii" , but not even the slightest resemblance, between them; and, consequently, physical differences dependent thereon cannot lie considered analogous. If the physical cha Lomestication are analogous to any physical changes of man, it must be of ci\ man, according to their analogy ; hut we have seen that civilization does not physically change man; and, moreover, where would bo the analogies of the savage tribes of the greater part of our globe, among whom exists the only difficulty to be explained 1 Neither are the moral and intellectual qualities of man anal in kind and degree to the qualities of domestic animals. Dr. Prich- ard talks about "psychological chat »" of animals, as if they had suoh. Animals have but ;i tare, a bodily nature, depending on, and connected with, their external senses ; man lias, in addition, a spiritual nature, connecting him with eternity, which animals have not. Animals have no moral nature. Man is, also, a progressive being, and must therefore have an intellectual element, capable of improvement. Animals are created perfect, with instincts capable of no improvement; animals have no intellectual nature ; animals of themselves never improve ; man improves of himself, from a law of his nature.* In any view, therefore, animals furnish no analogies with man, in either physical, moral or intellectual prop- *Prichard's theory required that animals should be the analogues of men, and it was therefore necessary to raise animals, or sink man to their level. By merely substituting the word "psychological" for "instinct- ive " characteristics, says Van Amringe, he raised the whole animal kingdom to the required level. He thus got related the psychology of animals and man, " without the trouble of philosophically accomplishing so impossible a thing ;" and thus obtained " a specious right to use bees and wasps, rats and dogs, sheep, goats and rabbits, in short, the whole animal kingdom, as human psychical analogues, which would be amaz- ingly convenient, when conclusions were to be made." INTRODUCTION'. 77 erties, which can be legitimately used to assist in the natural history of mankind. This doctrine, that the varieties of man have arisen from native or congenital varieties, " rests entirely," says Van Auninge, " upon supposed analogy, in this respect, between domestic animals and man." This doctrine would never have been adopted in any country but England, where the breeding of domestic animals has been carried to Buch perfection. Hut even here the analogy fails ; every breeder knows " that an improved animal has a greater tendency to defect than to perfection ;" there is a constant tendency to deterioration. The varieties of domestic animals are produced only by the greatest skill and perseverance, and are only pre- served by the utmost care in feeding and general management. " Breeding in and in, closely, constitutes a kind of hybrid race, by enervating the procreative power. Thus the highly-bred new Leicester cattle were speed Ij extinguished." How differ- ent in the case of the human races! Such precautions never have been taken ; yet, to make out any analogy, they oughl to have been observed. How, then, can it be inferred, from analogy, that an accidental human variety might have become permanent without the slightest care? If it be said, with Mr. Lawrence, that the Negro and the European are the two extremes of a very long gradation, with innumerable intermediate stages, il may be replied, there is no Buch gradation in domestic animals, whose colors change by very sudden degrees, as n were by leaps ; here analogy fails again. How came it, too, " that some of these changes were arrested in their intermediate stages, while others proceeded to an extreme black ?" History reaches far hack towards the flood, yet makes no mention of such changes in man. Too much importance has been attached to individual examples, by which almost any extravagance might be sustained. It has been too hastily inferred from the " porcupine men," and such congenital monsters, observed for a short period only, that accidental varieties may account for the differences of the human races. Authors have not agreed as to what is a species ; each one defining it to suit his purpose. To Prichard's definition is attached what he calls a " permanent variety," which differs from a species in the changes not being coeval with the tribe. Though a most important point, it is, on his part, a mere assumption, for he does not mention a single fact in support of it. Showing that domestic animals change, and that they differ from each other as much as man does from man, neither proves any relation between them, nor 7* 78 IMTEODUCTIOK. lhatBUch diversities have arisen in man $ina I tute ;i deviation from his original c\ Taking l>r. Morton's definition of a primordial or farm," which implies a uniformity of anatomical and ph organization from the I" ginning, let i fanj can be made out in man, on n other ai Owen (Van A.mringe, p, 263) gives twenty-three diffei tween the orang-outang and the chimpanzee, which were long regarded as one species ; only four of these are instance distinci structure, viz., an additional pairofril a double series of bones in the sternum, the non-division of the pisiform bone of the wrist, and having two phalanges in the toe, wnli a nail. The other differences relate to shape, length and tence of parts; but, as function follows organization, and all the habits and instincts of the animal depend upon it, these diffi i were considered of specific vaJ Van Amringe (|>. 868) gives the follow which the Negro differs from the Caucasian: 1. The cranium is compressed laterally, elongated towards the front, retreating from the superciliary ridges, and smaller in pn The frontal and parietal bones are le the top of the head. (To be added the peculiarity mentioned by Prich- ard in the Ajshantee skull, that the sphenoid bone does not the parietal bone.) 4. The temporal fossa and zygoma are larger, stronger, and more capacious. 5. The cheek-bon I more, and are stronger, broader and thicker. .">. Tl bits arc 1 especially the external aperture. 7. The 055a nasi are flatter and shorter, and run together above into an acute angle. 8. The of the ethmoid bone are more complicated, and the cribriform lamella more extensive. 9. The jaws are larger and stronger, the alveolar incisive portion projecting. 10. The chin is receding and rudimen- tary. 11. The foramen magnum and occipital condyles are in a more backward position. 12. The skull is heavier, and denser, and harder, particularly the sides. 13. The fore-arm is proportionally longer. 11. The hand and fingers arc proportionally narrower and longer; (according to Agassiz, the fingers are more webbed.) 15. Sesamoid bones are general ; rare in the Caucasian. 16. The pelvis is longer and narrower. 17. The femur, tibia, and fibula, are more * Variety implies want of permanence, and a tendency to return, sooner or later, to the original type ; and we know of no animals, permanently uistinct from others, which can be undoubtedly traced to the same original source. INTRODUCTION. 79 cormx, or gibbous. 18. The femur and tibia are bo articulated, that the knees are generally thrown outwards. 19. The us calcis, instead of forming an arch with the tarsus, is horizontal, (the pos- terior portion longer,) and the foot fiat.* 'rinse variations in structure imply variety of function, habit and powers. Psychical powers may be greatly influenced by Blight anatomical dill' : bo slight sarcely appreciable by the anatomist, and y. t confer a character upon the beings mure widely different in every respect, than all the thumbs, tails, cheek- pouches, and callosities in the monkey family." W e musl aol dis- i tlirin, simply because thi .dually one into the other; lor this ire have seen is true of the whole animal kingdom, which tainly not nil oi \)w\ form, if constant and uniform, is of speciju value, for it implies a differei of m ana to attain the same end. Differenc lue in denning species in ani- mals. "The lion is not mop- regularly tawny, the tiger more regu- larly streaked, nor the leopard more regularly spotted, than the sev- eral races of men are uniformly distinguished from each other by their coloi Difference of hair has be» d sufficiently alluded to ; being perma- nent in the respective races, il is of specific value. We tee mankind confined to distinct localities, with permanent distinctions of form and color; with different social relations, on, governments, habits and intellectual powers; the same from the remotest historical time. The psychic ices among men are as usually fori differences in animals. In ■ lucasian nations, generally, we see the rights of woman acknowledged and established; enlightened governments, just laws, a rational system of religion, commi roe, agriculture, art and science in the highest known perfection. In the Mongolian races, woman is a slave, an article of merchandise, government despotic, religion idolatrous, laws unjust and bloody, commerce, agriculture, in a low state ; all the arts of life little advanced, and stationary for ages. In the American races, the state of things is worse still ; and in the African, at the lowest point. If it he said thai these are the results of education and circumstances, a difference of capacity must still lie at the bottom. The causes which have produced these resu ts '' operated in full force anterior to profane history, and have never since varied ; consequently, the naturalist may fairly take it for gra ted that they are natural causes, until the contrary is * And, according to Dr. Knox, the nervous system, and every muscle of the body is different. 80 INTBODl ' 11 proved by something mote than a mere speculation, or presump- tion, thai they are accidental." The constitutional temperaments of the different races, on which the author just quoted lays so much stress, seem to in their capacity fur improvement. There variety in the white races ; while the other races are noted for a great apparent uniformity, so thai to have seen <>n" of a race, you have seen the whole. The dark races have a lese bility than the white. Dr. Mosely (Treatise on Tropical D •■ Negroes are void of sensibility to a surprising degree. They are not subject to nervous diseases. They sleep sound in every di nor does any mental disturbance ever keep them awake. Tie v hear chirurgical operations much heller than white people ; arid what would be the cause of insupportable pain to a white man, a N would almost disregard." The American dark races bear with indifference tortures insupportable to a white man. Is it not pot says Van Amringe, that the increased coloring matter in the skin protects the subjacent nerves to a greateT extent against i sternal impressions? He States, on what he considers good authority, that the Negro expires less carbonic acid than the white man. " Hence Africans seldom have fetid breath, but transpire the fetid matter, somewhat modified, chiefly by the skin." This would explain the greater amount of oily substance with which the black skin abounds, by concentratine; in the integument a larger quantity of carbon, the chief element of the fixed oils.* Dr. Prichard thinks that the liability of all the races to the same diseases is an evidence of identity of species. Everybody knows that some races are more liable than others to certain diseases. The torpidity of the blacks under disease is well known to physicians who have practised much amonj them ; the Negroes are more exempt from nervous diseases and the yellow fever, but more subject to the "yaws.'' If we regard all men of one species, simply because they have the same diseases, we shall have to include the monkeys, cows, horses, dogs, &c, in the human family, for they have consumption, vaccine disease, glanders, hydrophobia, &c. It is known that epi- * It has been ascertained, abundantly, in the East, (according to Dr. Allen, " on the Opium Trade,") that the effects of opium on the Xegro and Indian appear rather on the digestive, circulating, and respiratory func- tions, than in the cerebral and nervous system ; in the whites and Mongo- lians, it acts more directly on the mind, though its effects on the body are not lessened ; this accords with the alleged inferior development or sensi- bility of the nervous system in the dark races. INTRODUCTION. 81 demies have, from the earliest ages, equally affected men and ani- mals ; the causes, the symptoms, the pathology, the treatment, are the same in epidemics and epizootics. This shows, not that men are of one species, — if it does^animals belong to the sam 3 man, — but that men are of different Bpee Borne races ate very liable to certain diseases from which others are almost exempt. Van Amringe considers that the relations between male and female point to specific distinctions in the human race-;. If we go back to the remotest historic period we find that tiie condition of woman has always been higher in proportion to civilization : the white races have always manifested a tendency to honor and esteem woman; the dark races have always considered her rather as a Blave than as a companion and equal. The prevalence of this rule in species, taken is a whole, from the earliest times and under all modifying influ< ndicates a natural difference of mental constitution or temperament ; education has modified, but can never change it. The standard of seauty is different in the various races, physically, morally, and in- tellectually ; and this difference of taste has been one of the chief means of keeping distinct the different species of men. It was thought by Buffon, Hunter, and others, and is generally believed at the present day, that the offspring of two distinct species are incapable of reproducing their kind ; thus hybridity lias been made a test of specific character. By some, hybrids are considered as affording the strongest proofs of the reality and distinctness of species ; by others, they are thought to show that all the present varieties of animal and vegetable life were derived from a comparative! s- few original types. Assuming it to be a law of nature that hybrids are Sterile, it is maintained that all mankind must belong to one and the same species, since all the races are capable of producing a fertile progeny with each other. Dr. Morton* has examined this subject with great care, and has collected a great number of authentic facts of hybrids producing fertile offspring, in mammalia, birds, fishes, insects, and plants. In the higher animals, he gives examples even from different genera. In birds, they are very numerous, especially in the gallinaceous tribes. In plants, they are so common that Mr. Herbert maintains that botanical species are only a higher and more permanent type of varieties, and he would discard them altogether, retaining only the genera to designate those characters which have hitherto been attributed to species. It thus appears that mules are * Hybridity in Animals and Plants, considered in reference to the ques- tion of the Unity of the Human Species. By S. G. Morton, M. D. Phila- delphia. 82 IXlKol'K T10N*. not always tten'e, even in :i state of nature. Still, it must be observed that hybridity is much the most common among domesticated annuals, and that the capacity for fertile hybridity is in proportion to the aptitud ■ of animals for domestication. Dr. Bacbman (as has been seen before) rejects the authorities of Dr. Morton, as unworthy of credit; among which authority Buffbn, Temminck, Hamilton Smith, Cuvier, Chevreul, dvc In snbsequenl articles* Dr. Morton gives additional reasons for li is positions in regard ti> hybrids. Respecting hybrids of the sheep and goat, the tarts of M. Chevreul wen- fully admitted by Bufibo and Cuvier. The dogmatical assertion that tl are both of one species, and the quoted authority of Buffon in support of it. merit no attention, sim-e Bufibn's opinion was founded solely on tin that the camel and the dromedary produced a fertile «.ii- sr. In Layard's plates of Nineveh are represented the camel and the dromedary as distinct as they are now ; this dates as far bfl 2000 years before Christ. There can he no doubt that the wolf and the dog copulate voluntarily, and that races have be d formed in this manner. No one will probably pretend that all wolves are of one Bpec though they maintain that the dogs are, and that the latter are the descendants of the former. Hy- brids between the horse and ass are well known to be prolific. As to hybrids in birds, we need only mention the hvhrid grouse, (Tetrao medius,) which is very generally admitted to be the mule-bird produced by the wood-grouse (T. orogallus) and the black grouse (T. tetrix). This is now the opinion of Temminck, who is " good authority" in ornithology; he confesses that he no longer regards it as a true species, in a work published ten years ago, though Dr. Bachman claims Temminck as showing the contrary. at confusion has resulted from the habit of regarding hybrid- ity as a unit, whereas its facts may be classified like other series of physiological phenomena. Dr. Morton makes four /' of hybridity. 1st. That in which the hybrids never reproduce, the mixed offspring ending with the first cross ; this is the case with almost all domesticated birds, however different their generic rela- tions. 2nd. That in which the hybrids are incapable of reproduction, inter se, but multiply by union with the parent stock ; this is the case with the species of the genus Bos. 3d. That in which animals of unquestionably distinct species produce a progeny prolific inter se ; as the wolf and dog, and other species of the genus canis. 4th. That * Letter to Rev. John Bachman. and Additional Observations on Hybridity in Animals. Charleston. 1850. INTRODUCTION. 83 which takes place between closely proximate species, as strong man- kind and the common domestic animals essential to liis happiness. According to Mr. Eyton, (Proceedings of Zoo], Soc., London, Feb. 1837,) the offspring of the Chinese hog and the common European hojj are prolific inter se; now these animals differ from the wild boar, and the French hog, in the Dumber of the vertebra as follows: 60, 55, 15, and 53. To say that these are all domestic varieties of one sp tlowing too much to the semi-domestication of these animals. It is much less difficult to believe with Hamilton Smith (on Canidas) that this is "a case of providential arrangemenl for b given purpose, ami that there are time, if not four, original species (includ- ing the African) with powers to commix." (p. 94.) The exit ot of the argument thai can be drawn from the phenomena of hybridity as regards man, is (as Temminck has remarked of /■ink) " that the occurrence of the prolific offspring between the different races shows that there is a near affinity between the species." Wl shall conclude this abstract by a few remarks in favor of the diversity of the human races, drawn from various sources of modern date, expressing our own opinion from a careful study of the phenom- ena, and from personal observation. Those who maintain the one-pair theory deny the permanent of and place gTl at stress upon the capacity for variation in animals, and therefore in man; and, when difficulties arise which cannot be explained by the usual causes, they invoke the aid of variation and accidental generation. Allowing for the m nt thai civilization in man and domestica- tion in animals are analogous conditions, (which is of vital impor- tance to their theory,) lei us Bee whal can be established in regard to changes produced by climate and externa] influences. The capacity lor variation is certainly great in our domestic ani- mal-, submitted as they are to various unnatural circumstances. The most commonly used argument in this connection is fur- nished by the varieties of the dog-, which are considered as belonging to one species. To say nothing, however, of the " petitio principii " here, in assuming the point wished to be proved, many eminent nat- uralists believe that there are several species of dojrs. The objec- tion of F. Cuvicr that, " if we begin to make species, we cannot stop short at live or six, but must go on indefinitely," is of no weight ; the most it can do is to show us the exceedingly vajjue meaning of the word species, and that we have not yet arrived at 84 ENTRODl I HON. the true distinction between species ami variety. Tin; " permanent variety " of Dr. Prichard, from bis own definiti is to all intents and purposes "a species." Says Hamilton Smith, (Naturalist's Library : <>n Dogs,) no instance can bi shown " in the whole circle of mammiferous annuals, where the influence of man, by edocation and servitude, has been able to develop and combine facultii anatomical forms so different and opposite as we S68 them ill dif- ferent races of does, unless the typical species were first in pos- session of their rudiments." (p. LOO.) Form and size may thus be somewhat changed, but climate cannot have effected much, as the two extremes are found in hot and cold regions. Food can do no more, since the man living on vegetables or fish retains bis facul- ties as well as he who lives on flesh. Food or climate will not BO widen or truncate the muzzle, nor raise the frontals, nor produce a 1 1 <_» 1 1 1 and slender structure, nor take away the sense of smell, and several other of the best qualifications of the dog, (as in grey- hounds.) These qualities we cannot but consider as indications of different types, whose combinable properties have enabled man to multiply several required species. Ask sportsmen and breeders, who are led by inferences from their own observations, and do not follow the authority of high names; they will tell you the same. In absence, then, of positive proof, we have every reason to doubt that the differences of domestic dogs can be referred to a single spe- cies, and especially that the wolf is the parent stock. There are, indeed, several species of wolves, which might come in for a share of the paternity of the dogs, which would hardly be in favor of the latter beimr varieties of a single species, unless some one will ven- ture to point out the exact species of wolf. If it be said there is only one species of wolf, then it is useless to quote animal analo- gies, for there is no such thing as a species in animated nature ; and we might as well adopt Lamarck's or Monboddo's development the- orv at once, from which such views as are maintained respecting the varieties of dogs are not very distant. The influences which could change, without intermixture, the bull-dog into the greyhound, might well change a White into a Xcgro, or a monkey into a man. We must admit several aboriginal species, with faculties to intermix, including the wolf, dingo, jackal, buansu, anthus, &c, as parents of our dogs ; that even the dhole or a thous may have been the parent of the greyhound races ; and that a lost or undiscovered species, allied to Canis tricolor or Hyaena venatica, may have been the source of the short-muzzled, strong-jawed mastiffs. Smith, moreover, c the dogs according to their apparent affinities with wild originals in neighboring latitudes, — the Arctic dogs with the wolves ; south of INTRODUCTION. 85 the Equator there being no wolves, he refers the dogs in the Old World to the jackal, &C, in the New World to the Aguani fox dogs. We have been thus particular on the subject of the dogs, as they have been triumphantly appealed to as arguments in favor of the unity of the human races; they certainly show little positively in favor of this view, and much negatively against it. lint, even among animals, there is a very great difference in their capacity for variation, which renders any argument that might be drawn from them of little value. The mouse, lor instance, shows very little disposition to change, in color or form ; the brown rat of Persia, now spread over the world, very nearly preserves its original type. According to Dr. S. G. .Morton, (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phil., April, 1850,) the reindeer of Lapland do not change in the slightest particular after long domestication ; the peacock has not varied for thousands of years. Some animals, in two or three gen- erations, are entirely changed in color, as tin- Guinea-pig and tur- key; sometimes even the anatomical structure changes, as in the pigeon, sheep, and dog ; some animals, even in the wild stale, undergo great changes, e.g., the fox-squirrel, (Sciurus captstratus,) whose black variety is not to be confounded with the unchanging Schtrtu niger. The tiger is the same in tint, under considerable rariety of climate, from Siberia to Ceylon. In the province of Delhi, Bishop lleber saw a shaggy elephant ; he Bays that in one or two winters dogs, and even horses, brought from Europe, become woolly in that region, whose men are remarkable for the length and Btraightness of their hair. Dr. Morton also remarks that the wool of sheep becomes Ion? and hairy in Guinea, where human hair is wiry and twisted. So that the causes which change the lower ani- mals, do not alTect man. In this respect one animal is not an ana- logue even for another animal, still less is an animal an analogue for man. If the races of man are analogous to the varieties of animals, why does not he, under similar circumstances, tend to a uniform type? Why do not these varieties occur before our eyes among eiv- i/it'il /nan, who has been called the most domestic of animals? and the more frequently as civilization, with its many unnatural accom- paniments, makes progress ? The capacity for variation may explain temporary varieties of men and animals, but it cannot account for the permanent ran' tics, or species. The characteristics most relied on for the discrimination of the races are ttie color of the skin, the structure of the hair, and the conformation of the skull and skeleton. There are several evident types of these marks in the races; the transition, however, is so 86 INTRODUCTION. gradual from one to the other, that it is impossible to draw tl e line of demarkation ; therefore, say the advocates of the on< theory, the varieties of man may belong to one species. 13ut we know that this same gradation is seen throughout the whole animal and vegetable world. There are many animals intermediate between the orders, families and genera of the Vertebrata, — between mammalia and birds, between birds and reptiles, between reptiles and fishes, both living ami fossil — which require all the acuteness of the experienced nat- uralist to class exactly. Many flowers, known in their typical forms to belopg to different species, can hardly be distinguished in their varieties; the same plant has borne flowers formerly considered char- acteristic of three distinct genera. This will be rendered of more importance if it appear that the races are permanent, and that color is not dependent on climate. Seven hundred and thirty-three years after Noah*s debarkation from the ark, (to follow the generally received chronology,) a nation of blacks occupied the borders of Egypt; now, if these were .Negroes, (as they doubtless were, for we have their features on the monu- ments,) for the last two thousand years climate has not produced such a race, as, according to this idea, must have been produced in a third of that time. Seventeen hundred years ago a colony of Jews migrated to the coast of Malabar, and settled among black races. Dr. Buchanan, in his travels, states that they are as perfect Caucasians as ever.* If, then, seventeen hundred years has not changed these people, in that hot climate, is it probable that seven hundred and thirty-three years have changed a white man into a Negro? A Portuguese colony, which settled on the coast of Congo, has now become lost by amalgamation with the black races ; but, by a sup- pression of a part of the facts, the impression has been given that they were changed into Negroes by the effects of the climate, while the true cause of their extinction was the intermarriage of a few whites for fifteen generations among a large body of blacks. Yet this, and such as this, has been adduced as a proof that climate changes races. The Moors have inhabited Northern Africa from time immemorial, and yet they have made no approach to the Negro, any more than the Negro has to them. The American Indian, under * There are white Jews in Malabar ; where they are black, an intermix- ture with dark races may be traced. This fact is carefully kept out of sight by those who wish to use the " Black Jews of Malabar " on the other side of the question. [Dr. Nott ; Proceedings of Am. Association for Adv. of Science. Charleston, 1850. p. 98.] INTRODUCTION. 87 every variety of climate, has very nearly the same shade of com- plexion ; no other races have been produced there ; there are no woolly heads, no Negro features. It is now about two hundred years since Africans were introduced into this country, and the eighth generation, where they have not been mind with the whites, are as purely African as their imported ancestors ; even in .Massachusetts, where they have been somewhat improved by the most favorable cir- cumstances, the real characteristics of the race are unchanged. The Jews have been a permanent race, from Abraham to the present time, a period of nearly four thousand years, according to Hebrew chro- nology ; and, for still Btronger reasons, from him up to Noah, only ten generations. The Gypsies are a permanent race, preserving their East Indian characteristics in all places, and for all historic time. It may, then, be fairly said, that unmixed races, from the most remote historical time, (nearly 4,000 years,) have preserved the.r dis- tinguishing marks amid all the supposed causes of change, and may be considered permanent. The Ethiopian (Negro) can no more change his skin than can the leopard his spots. As examples of change of color in animals from external circum- stances, and as proofs that similar causes may have produced similar efTects in man, I)r. Prichard mentions the black swine of Piedmont, the white ones of Normandy, and the red ones of Bavaria; and instances also of horses and do> reply, that as this maxim does not repose upon unexceptionable facts, it dew to be held solely in the light of a criterion, more convenient in systematic classification than absolutely correct. So, again, in forming an estimate of the antiquity of organic remains, in juxtaposition with those of man, where the chemical and other conditions of the bones are the same as those of the mammalia they are found to accompany, they must be judged upon the same principles. With the foregoing elements in view, we desire to i upon the chain of our researches, reminding the young reader that no transient facts, solitary examples, or even allusions to names of tribes, legendary or religious, are disposed of, without entering into further details; but, from the necessity of remain- ing within the restrictions imposed upon us by the want of space, although many may be far from needing a known his- tory, or they occur merely as fictions, taken from physical realities, such as the mythologist, versed in the philosophy of early history, will immediately recognize, notwithstanding that they come upon him under the combinations of a fresh aspect. But where traces occur of great nations, and especially of those that have had, or still continue to have, a marked influence on human destinies, a certain extent of detail, we trust, will be justifiable. On questions of antiquity, involving periods of time, and on others which, relate to the measurements of distance between geographical points, it may be well to bear in mind that the THE IIU.MAX SPECIES. 103 first, having no physical instrumentality, is liable to be con- tracted to within assumed chronological data, commencing at arbitrary epochs, not supported by researches in geology, and often appearing to be of insufficient duration ; while the second, being based upon measures of length, either undefined, or vary- ing in different places and times, are, from an innate propensity in the human mind to magnify the unknown, stated to be more than the reality. The purpose before us is, however, sufficiently attained, by taking given ages for the one, and approximation to true distances for the other. We can, by these means, notice a succession of epochs in the conditions of the earth's surface, each adapted to the existence of vertebrated animals, with, it appears, an atmospheric state, gradually more suited for mammalia, of certain orders and families, until it became fit for the reception of man, whose creation may have synchro- nized with the decay and subsequent disappearance of a great proportion of the most powerful and fierce species, organized to submit to some law of decreasing vitality, yet more than to a cataclystic destruction. Hi re, then, we have the heads of those preliminary consider- ations, which demand some notice of the great disturbances that have affected the earth's surface, since the tertiary period came into operation, and our present zoology started into being. Next will be found requisite a few details on the bone deposits before mentioned, by whatever agency they may have been formed ; for, as by the former, the primordial nations may have been forcibly scattered, so, by the latter, their actual existence in regions now s>r:arated by whole oceans, appear to be indi- cated. 104 NATURAL HISTORY OF CHANGES ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE, SINCE THE COM- MENCEMENT OF THE PRESENT ZOOLOGICAL BYSTEM. The present superficial character of the earth may be a result of the combined action of sudden violent disruptions, and long durations of gradual disintegrations, either 0] ing as restorers of equipoises in the permanent laws of ne- cessity, or as conductors of the slow process of accumula- tions, which again prepare a great convulsion. Taking the newer pliocene, or second tertiary age, to be coincident with the mighty changes of sea and shore, when volcanic disturbances were still in active operation, and that convulsive state, which subsequent catastrophes, and the succession of ages, have, as yet, only reduced in number, and moderated in force, when first a congenial atmosphere had begun to prevail, we have an epoch which would include the Mosaic deluge, and terminate with that greatest of all recorded destructions, — one, moreover, supported by innumerable historical confirmations, although some of these may be attributed to subsequent periods, and to distinct calamities, such as the bursting of the barriers of great mountain lakes, and irruptions of the sea ; for these being con- founded, in so man)' and remote quarters, with one great over- whelming event, it is natural that the reminiscence should be common to ever}- region of the world. All these, whether sud- den or slow disintegrations of portions of the earth, it cannot be doubted, must have had materia] influence on the distribu- tion of races and human development. It is, indeed, chiefly by the agency of these changes, — by the insulation of parts of continents, resulting from submersions ; and, again, by the expansion or rising of the submarine floor, whereon islands may have stood, till they united into continents, — that many of the phenomena of zoological distribution can be best THE HUMAN SPECIES. 105 explained; an. if this observation is accepted with respect to brute mammals, it surely implies that man, at least in some degree, may have had to encounter similar contingencies. In jrder to appreciate the great changes proved, or asserted to have occurred, let us take a short review of those which are the most prominent in the physical history of the earth. ASIA. Asia, apparently the most ancient integral continent of the earth, it may be surmised, is held aloft by the agency of great subterrene volcanic trunks, whose direction is externally mani- fested by the huge mountain range, which, passing longitudi- nally from east to west, nearly beneath its centre, forms the gen- eral water shed to the south and to the north, and constitutes the hinge, the axis of nutation, to the whole of both its planes towards the two oceans. In the east, the chain forms two or more paral- lel ridges, widening until an elevated table-land, of prodigious extent, is included between them. This plateau forms, chiefly, the Gobi desert ; its northern boundary consisting of the Altaic chain facing Siberia, and the southern, overlooking the great peninsula of India, contains, in the Himalaya system, the highest mountains of the world.* To the westward, it is con- tinued by the Hindu Koh, which is the real Caucasus, and perhaps the Paropamissus of the ancients. Further on, the chain of Elburs overhangs the southern shore of the Caspian ; then succeeds Western Caucasus, and the mountain groups of Asia Minor and the Crimea, anciently known by the names of Taurus and Tauris ; this, crossing the Hellespont about Con- * That this lofty chain was hove up at a much more remote period, is sufficiently proved by the presence of banks of oyster shells, discovered by Dr. Gerrard at 16,000 feet above the level of the sea; ard in Thibet, shells fallen from cliffs, still higher, were taken up at the height of 17,000 feet. In Asia Minor, oyster beds are not more than 3000 feet above the sea. 10G NATURAL HISTOBT OF stantinople, joins the Balkan to the Illyriun range, and, with broken intervals, passes to the Carpathian and Alpine systems, terminating in the Pyrenees; and that, recommencing west of the Sea of Azoph, proceeds north to the Euxine, forming the Cymbric Chersonesus. From the culminating points of this central region to the shores of every sea, we find traditions, historical records, and demonstrated facts, attesting changes of surface and of level truly appalling, — several of them having been converted, from physical realities, into mythological fictions. In the north, the Arctic shore has been for ages in a constant rising progress. Whole regions have been submerged on the south and east of Asia, particularly between the coasts of Malabar and Ceylon ; and, again, vast provinces have disappeared in the Chinese and Japan Seas. Already, in remote times, volcanic activity, manifested by upheaving of the earth, relieved the elevated valleys of their lakes, — such as those of Cashmeer and of Nepaul, — both events being recorded in the traditions of the people. That of the western Gobi escaped by the upper Irtish, and the lake of Balcach was, most likely, absorbed or percolated through the sand in the same direction. In the present era, percussions continue to be frequent in Afghanistan and Caubul, sometimes destroying houses and whole cities, with many human lives ; and they are still more abundant and violent on the east side, where the mountains dip into the northern Pacific, to rise again and produce desolation in Japan. A diluvian convulsion evidently occurred during the present zoology. It passed over Western Asia, from south to north, affecting the Arctic coast, and snapping a portion of the cardi- nating mountain ridge, it caused the surface of the earth to sink below the level of any known dry land, excepting the basin of the Dead Sea ; thus the Caspian formed an abyss ; the Aral lake, and, futther west, perhaps the Euxine Sea shared the same convulsion ; for all have the greatest depth of water on THE HUMAN SPECIES. 107 the south side, close upon the most elevated shores, where vol- canic detonations are still constantly felt. Notwithstanding the quiescent state of the high sandy plateau of Persia, the fre- quency of naphtha springs, some boiling, others in actual fit me, with constant smaller eruptions along the northern coast, and in other parts of the kingdom, attest the presence of numerous ramifications of active fires, once sufficiently powerful to form lofty mountain peaks, whose summits, such as Elburs and Demavend, show by their craters, now extinct or inactive, the vast extent and force of the disturbing agency, — perhaps still better exemplified in the high cones of Ararat, the loftiest of which recently fell in, and proved this mountain to be also of volcanic origin, crumbling in decay. SOUTH OF ASIA. Turning our attention to the south coast, at the Persian Gulf, we find the high rocks of Laristan and Mekran border- ing on a deep-water sea, belted with narrow shores, — thus bearing tokens of subsidence ; for though Reesheer, not an ancient place, was abandoned in the seventeenth century, on account of the encroachments of the water, Busheer, built in its stead, is already so low that, during certain winds, the whole town is surrounded by the flood. THE INDUS. Beyond Cape Monze (Ras Moaree), the terminal point of the Lukkee mountains, which form the western boundary of the Indus, we have the great delta of that mighty river. From the point where the stream escapes through the high lands, and now pursues a course almost due south, there are abun- dant tokens that originally it flowed nearly south-east, receiv- ing the tributaries of the Punjaub, nearer their sources, and reaching the Indian Ocean as far eastward as the Rhunn and 108 NATURAL HISTORY OF Gulf of Cutch, or even of Cambay. But, in a succession of ages, it has either filled a region of little depth ; or, by a con- stant erosion of the western banks, from longitude 7V>, the bed of the river has worked westward to 67° 10", over a space of nearly ten degrees. Perhaps allusion is made to the great changes in the direction of the waters of North-Western India. in the pretty mythological tale, anciently composed on the table land of Ommurkuntur; and relating the amours and jealous quarrel of the NerbuuMa with the Burraet, whose sources are not far asunder; while the course of the first is westward, that of the latter turns east to join the Jumna. In common with other great rivers of low latitudes, whose course, unconfined by rocky chains, is obliquely to or from the equator, the Indus obeys a law, probably in consequence of the earth's daily rotation, which impels the current of the stream constantly to abrade its western bank, and to forsake eastern channels; so also, in Arctic regions, it causes floating ice ever to drift westward, and to pack against all coasts facing the morning sun. The same results still occur; the current, now in contact with the Lukkee hills, finds them an ineffectual barrier ; for, being gravelly, they are daily undermined, and, at Sehwun, the face of the rock is incessantly carried away. Even the road by which Lord Keene's army passed round its foot was so entirely swept away by the next following freshets, that, in a twelvemonth after, boats sailed in deep water over the very spot. In the first ages of the present geological disposition of the earth's strata, the whole space below the Punjaub may be deemed to have been a shallow sea, which the enormous deposits of the river constantly tended to fill up, and the surf threw back in the form of sand and gravel, until the whole space was filled, down to the edge of deep water, where the currents generated by the monsoons first had power to act; then the present delta, which began higher up, was finally checked or reduced to very gradual additions. Nor is this THE HUMAN SPECIES. 109 supposition visionary. "What the daily deposits can produce, in a course of ages, may be inferred from Dr. Lord's calcula- tion ; for he, assuming the discharge of the river to be three hundred cubic feet of mud per second, maintains it as equal to form, in seven months, an island forty-two miles in length by twenty-seven in breadth, and forty feet in depth ; which, though the remaining five months may not continue an equal daily deposit brought down from high Asia, even with the allowance that a considerable exaggeration may exist in the estimated quantities, is, nevertheless, sufficient to have replen- ished a gulf of shoal water, of enormous extent, in a few cen- turies. Proportionably as the current shifted to the westward, the monsoon winds filled up the abandoned beds of the stream with drift sand, leaving only those of former affluents to con- tinue their course, and the plain to become a desert of sand formed in ridges, sometimes of a considerable height ; for the coasts of France, Holland, and of the Baltic near Dantzig, demonstrate that the surf and winds can elevate them to more than eighty feet, without a single ingredient in their mass to give them real stability. Such is the desert of the Indus from above the junction of the Sutlege (Hyphasis), the lowest of the Punjaub rivers, to the sea-shore of the delta, where Cutch, once a great island, is now a part of the conti- nent. In this vicinity, so late as 1S19, a vast surface of sand suddenly sunk down, upon which a stream of the Indus came towards Luckput by an ancient and forsaken channel from Hyderabad (Pattala?) to Bahmanabad, and filled the depressed soil in the form of a shallow lake, now called Ullahbund ; and many smaller lagoons of similar origin, mere water deposits, are still dispersed on the plains eastward beyond Jeysulmair, to the Hoony river in Malwah.^ * By information very recently received, it appears that a second sub- mersion, greater than the Ullahbund, has taken place during the present summer (1845), offering a further confirmation of the theory above advanced. 10 110 NATURAL HISTORY OF Proceeding to the opposite coast of the Gulf of Cutch, we arrive at the island of Bate, or ancient Chunkodwar, renou ied in the legends of India for the demon Haiagrieva concealing the Vedas in a conch shell; and then, on the furthest point of Gujrat, observe Cape Juggeth, at a distance appearing like a stranded ark, or wrecked ship. Here is a celebrated pagoda, connected with diluvian legends, for on this coast was Dwaraca, now represented by Mhadapore, " before the ocean broke in upon the land ;" and it is still pretended that the annual mysterious bird makes its appearance, as it did in the time of Alexander. Inland the elevated Ghauts appeal with but an insignificant breadth of plain at their base, continuing from Surat to Cape Comorin, in other respects destitute of indications of important changes; but when this most southern extremity of the peninsula is turned, the sea between the mainland and the island of Ceylon is found to be of inconsid- erable depth, particularly in the Gulf of Manaar, abounding in the pearl oyster; and, from the long and narrow island of that name, on the Ceylon side, a shoal, impassable to ships of bur- then, extends across the intervening space to Ramiseram, a similar low and lengthy island, which almost joins a point of land, projecting far out from the coast of the Carnatic. This shoal, based perhaps upon a natural dyke of rock, is the cele- brated Adam's Bridge of geographers; and, at the time of the first European navigators, still retained several islands above water.^ Both Manaar and Ramiseram are decorated with temples, and the whole region, on either side, is redolent of * The channels have shoaled up to a little more than four feet of water, as we were informed by the late Major Rennell, who had surveyed the vicinity, since the French Admiral, SufFrein, about the years 1730-81, caused vessels to be sunk in them, from an apprehension that English forces might pass through these gaps, along the Indian stores, without his knowledge, and avoid going round the south side of Cey.bn. Though at certain seasons there is a strong current in the channels, it is likely that the usual tides meet at the bridge, for the lagoons are everywhere filling up. TnE HUMAN SPECIES. Ill mythological legends of the most remote antiquity. The sea, in particular that portion to the north and east of the bridge, denominated the Palk Strait, is the recorded space of a great diluvian submersion, leaving, on the Ceylon side, evidence of the fact, in the cluster of Jafnapatam islands, and innumerable lakes and ponds on the Carnatic side, which partly recovered from the inundation. The space of land submerged, extended from longitude 9° to 10° 20" north, and from 79° to S0° 15" east — above 3600 square miles, where mankind, as it appears, was both a witness and a sufferer. Whether this particular calamity was one of many postdiluvian events, resulting from a return to equipoises, after a great convulsion in nature, or whether it was in connection with the upheaving of Northern Asia, must be mere conjecture, though it is certain that the south coast for ages after, and even now, tends to continued depression. CEYLON. But Ceylon, the Lanka, Sinhala, Dwipa, Taprobana, and Salice, &c, of ancient classics, of the Hindoo and early Ara- bian writers, as well as in the traditions of Southern and Western Asia, and even in the opinion of a great modern geologist, was the primeval abode of man, whose first station on earth lay in the basin of Candy, girt round with high preci- pices, where the Mavela Gonga rises from beneath the summit of Mali or Hamateel, better known in Europe by the name of Adam's Peak. This cone, though not the most lofty in the island, rises to 7720 feet, and is seen, far out at sea, towering over the high-girt vale, which, flourishing in vegetation, may well have suggested an idea of Para- dise. On the highest summit there is one of those manu- factured impressions of human feet, which imposture repre- sents to be of Adam or of Budha, and belongs to a very 112 NATURAL HISTORY OE early period.* There can be no doubt of the remote civiliza- tion of Ceylon, and the ruins of enormous cities, such as Palaesimundus (Arrian), Amuragramina, Coodramalli on the pearl coast, and the innumerable artificial tanks, certainly prove an enormous and industrious population to have once flourished on the island. Although Arabian legends of Ceylon have an air of the greatest antiquity, it is from Hindoo traditions, both in the island and on the main coast, that the mythological appropria- tions of the local submersion are confounded with the M or general deluge of history ; nevertheless, a separate record of the scriptural event may be traced coming from a western source, first distinctly announced at the pagoda of Juggeth, before mentioned; and from thence passing onwards, more and more distorted, till every circumstance is obliterated, in fanci- ful tales, at the black pagoda of Juggernaut.* On the coast of the Carnatic, eastward to the Bay of Bengal, where several considerable rivers incessantly pour down their tributes of earthy deposit, not only no perceptible extension of the low coast is discernible, but abrasion by surf, and occasional great sea waves, indicate progressive depression. All the streams are barred, and in deep water the currents are violent; thus, in 1793, the settlement of Coringa, near the mouth of the Cawvery, was overflowed by three successive seas, with most of the lives, houses, and property swept away. The ruins of Mahabalipuram, at no great distance from thence, better known as the seven pagodas, once a great and superb city, demon- strate the sinking soil, by several of the temples being either * This was already an ancient practice in the age of Herodotus. Before his time there were some dedicated to Osiris, in Upper Egypt ; one, ascribed to Hercules, was carved in rock, on the Danube ; others are still found referred to Budha, in Japan and China. Paducas are common in India. There is one to Moses in Sinai, to the Saviour at Jerusalem, t; Abraham in Arabia, to Mohammed at Mecca, and to a variety of sain in Italy, France, and even Wales. t Consult Nearchus, Ptolemy, Kosmos, Knox, TJpham, &c. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 113 entirely, or already partially, in conflict with the waves. Annually, immense expense is incurred to defend Madras from the menacing sea ; and even the black pagoda, notorious for the inhuman religious practices in honor of Juggernaut, is threatened with a similar fate ; and Hindoo legends tell of a primeval temple now beneath the sands. THE GANGES. In the Bay of Bengal, where the Ganges is reported to dis- charge, per day, solid matter equal in cubic bulk to the great pyramid of Egypt, and the Sunderbunda or Calingas form a delta of immense breadth, no further extension is observed sea- ward; but, according to Major Rennell, a vast surface of land, with the ancient city of Bengalla, once seated at the eastern- most branch of the river, has been submerged in deep water. Though the peninsula is perpetually disturbed by earth- quakes, Allahabad offers one of the few indications of volcanic action, above the surface, by the thermal waters, observed in a deep cave, where " the tree of Adam continues to bud ;" and beyond the Brahmaputra, a naphtha spring, in perpetual igni- tion, is held in veneration even in Thibet. AUSTRALASIA. On the east side of the Bay of Bengal, down to the extremity of further India, the shore, rich in alluvial deposits, brought down by the great rivers from Indo-China, repels the western monsoon, and maintains a powerful seaward vegeta- tion; but where the Malay peninsula extends towards the great Australian islands, volcanic disturbances again become predom- inant, presenting, in their extent, above fifty craters in fearful activity. Disruption and submersion of what may have been a continent, a kind of counterpart to South America, may be surmised, by the shallowness of some parts of the sea, and the 10* 114 NATURAL HISTORY OF exceeding inequality of the submarine floor; the islands, great and small, appearing like the subsisting ruins of a once united region, which the straits of Malacca, Sunda, Bali, the Sea of Banda, &c, have separated, from the effect of immense percus- sions, originating at a great depth. No small confirmation to this supposition is drawn from the frequent identity of the mammalia observed on the i.slands and the neighboring conti- nent; in several cases, the species cannot, with any probability, be supposed to have been transported from one to the other, by human intervention. Some of these are Pachyderms, common to both, and others of the same order, of different species; such as, 1st. Large ruminants: The Banting, Bos leucoprymnus? Rusa, or Cervus eqiimus, Elant of the Javanese Dutch. 2d. The Elephant ? two or three species of Rhinoceros, a Tapir, and many more. In the distribution of zoological species, there is no other instance of great Pachyderms being confined to insulated locations, and none where the same species occur on two or more of them, and again on the mainland of the next continent. They offer, therefore, additional arguments in favor of the conclusion, that in the earlier period of the existing zoology, all these great islands formed part of the continent ; and that in one anterior to it, the connection extended to Aus- tralia, since fossil remains of great Proboscideans (Elephas angustidens ?) have already been discovered in that soil ; not- withstanding that the present mammalia, perhaps with the only exceptions of the dog and rat, (both imported species,) are entirely im placental, with fewer congeners on the Asiatic than on the American side of the southern hemisphere. These exceptions in the former direction, are chiefly confined to those islands, great and small, clustered together on the north of the Australasian group, and with more questionable connection, extending by New Guinea to the south-east, including several Archipelagos and Nev Caledonia, all notoriously encumbered with cora. reefs, ever he certain indications of comparatively shoal waters, and by Torres Straits passing to Australia THE HUMAN SPECIES. 115 proper; foi: the strait which severs it from New Guinea is almost fordable in many parts, the ship channels being narrow and dangerous passes. The whole of the islands in question, from New Guinea to beyond the Solomon's group, bear a still greater appearance of cataclysis, not by division so much as by submersion. Beside the singular zoology already noticed, the ec]uatorial islands are the habitation of Simiada, such as the Gibbons, (Hylohates,) or long-armed apes, and of two or three species of Pithecus, or Orang Outan, in stature as large as men, and in strength superior to eight or more, — of all the brute creation the genus which structurally approximates most to man, who, to the eastward and in Australia, is himself represented by Papua tribes, cannibals so low in the scale of numanity, that, were it not for the admixture of other blood, hopes of ameliorating their condition would appear illusory. They might be considered to form the centre of that antique population which alone occupied the southern hemisphere, before the diffusion of the bearded or Caucasian man; a popu- lation primevally formed to breathe and multiply in the heated and moist atmosphere of tropical swamps and forests, at a period when the great Saurians and the now extinct Pachy- derms existed ; and that their native region, extending far east- ward in the Pacific, had in great part subsided, leaving the islands and their organic creation, the evident wreck of a former system of existence. EAST COAST OF ASIA. It is off the east coast of this part of Asia that the main ramification of galleries passes from Japan to the north, as far as Kamtschatka, and to the south by several trunks, beneath the Bonin, Sulphur, Marian, and Ladrone groups; and again, by the Philippines, Banda, &c, become connected with the great equatorial centre of ignition in Java and the surrounding craters. Although Chinese history commences with their 116 NATURAL HISTORY OF deified heroes, toiling to clear the upper provinces of lakes and marshes, the sea, particularly between the main coast and Formosa, by many geographical indications, supports the local tradition of submersions; such as Mauri Gasima, and other islands shown by the shoals, at the still remaining Piscadore and Bashee islets ; and the tale, notwithstanding a due allow- ance for the expert impostorship of the natives, seems con- firmed, by the fishermen's dragnets occasionally bringing to the surface a curiously colored porcelain, which the art, as now understood in the Celestial Empire, is unable to produce. The continent is separated from Formosa by a sea, we believe, always in soundings, the shores being bordered with a broad belt of sand, swamp, or sunken rock, generally indications of progressive denudations ; and both coasts are not unfrequently visited by calamitous overflowings. Since these lines were first written, (1S45), if the foreign news may be credited, an event of this kind has again taken place on the maritime provinces and the Yellow Sea, the waters rising in the Gulf of Pechelee, to the destruction of several hundred thousand human lives, innumerable cattle, the loss of all the houses and provisions, and the total ruin of above sixteen millions of the population, who were driven to seek shelter and food in the upland provinces. Even admit- ting probable exaggeration in the report, it is an event far sur- passing the traditional deluges of Greece, or any other recorded in profane history. It is an occurrence that may boldly be claimed as a proof of continued depression of the southern and eastern shores of Asia, and the oscillations pro- duced on the sea by submarine disturbance, which then, like a great tide wave, passes upon the land far above its usual limit. In Japan, volcanic convulsions have been unremitting, from periods anterior to the most ancient records of the nation ; for to them alone can be ascribed the repeated discoveries, at great depths, of jewels and manufactured objects, totally distinct from the present and noticed by all the native literati as more THE HUMAN SPECIES. 117 ancient than the existing creation. On the line of volcanic agitation, south of Japan, and near a crater in constant activity is the island of Assumcion, (or Ascension,) one of the Marian group (?) — now, like many others of this and neighboring clusters, low and small : — here there was lately discovered, by the officers of H. M. Sloop Raven, the ruins of a city, still, it seems, known by the name of Tamen. It stands so far in the wash of the waves that a boat is necessary to land at the buildings, which are composed of very large blocks of stone, some being twenty feet in length. Other reports were subse- quently brought to Sydney, stating that one or two other cities of similar work, were extant on other islands, and equally sub- merged. One, indeed, seated on an island, named Pouznipete. or Seniavane, is mentioned by Mr. C. Darwin, in his volume on the structure and distribution of coral reefs, but he supposes it to be the same as the first mentioned.^ Tinian, however, is not far remote, and there, when Lord Anson landed, were found two parallel rows of squared upright stones, in the form of obelisks, each surmounted by a coping block, immediately recalling to mind the colossal pillar-idols of Easter Island, which are known to have been the work of a departed population, probably of the same race that once inhabited Pitcairn's, the late well-known retreat of the mutineers of the Bounty. These antique and now forsaken cities must have been constructed by a people totally distinct from the present inhabitants, and much more numerous than the existing locality could now supply with food. The group is entirely composed of volcanic cones, and of low coral reef islands ; and we agree with Mr. Darwin in opinion, that they are the remains of land once much greater in extent, but sunken beneath the sea's level, by the effect of * The most recent maps are unsatisfactory with reference to these islands ; and, as both Mr. Darwin's account and our own were derived from the Sydney papers, it may he well to remain somewhat in doubt on the truth of the reports. We arc obliged to that scientific observer for a n"Ji on this subject. 118 NATURAL HISTORY OF the excavations of igneous exhaustion. The population was once unquestionably organized in a social state; it may have been a kind of Austral Pelasgian people, distinct from the pres- ent Jacalvas Biagoos, or Sea Gypsies, who always live on the water ; but that one has wandered, as navigators and workers in stone, across the whole breadth of the South Seas, is proved by the monuments left on the islands above-mentioned, not- withstanding the great distance they are asunder; perhaps the builders of the great pyramids in some of the Australasian islands, — again repeated, under the name of Morais, in many of the South Sea groups, — the same who ultimately passed to the west coast of America, and introduced similar structures at Cholula and many other places; models upon which the indigenous civilization of the New World was based and pro- gressing, notwithstanding the vicissitudes of international wars and conquests, until the arrival of the Spaniards laid the whole western fabric in the dust.* ARCTIC ASIA. Behrixg's Strait is generally of a trifling depth, scarcely forty miles wide, having several denudated and abraded islands intervening; and the coasts, in many parts, composed more of frozen earth than solid rock. As the water, with several shoals, is floored with fossil bones and shells, and there being no river of importance on either shore of the continents, or near, on the Arctic side, no great pressure can have come from the polar ocean; and, consequently, no great opening, if any, until the Arctic rising of Asia and Europe altered the relative conditions of th:3 two seas. That once there was no current, may be inferred from the islands of New Siberia, and the vicinity being in part composed of ice, mixed with mammoth bones, tusks, ani other organic remains; and the presence of * See Addenda. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 119 several species of land mammals, common to both continents, attests a facility of passing from one to the other, and a pas- sage to have been effected by several of them on the ice. While the foregoing statements sufRcieiitly demonstrate a continued declination of the south and east coasts of Asia, the case appears entirely reversed, from the lofty central mountain hinge northward to the shores facing the Arctic Sea. Chinese documents of remote antiquity report the land to have termi- nated at no great distance beyond the mountain chain of North- ern Tahtary;* skeletons of whales having been found 800 miles inland, up the Lena. The enormous loads of debris which some rivers, amongst the largest in the world, incessantly pour forth from the great central chains of Asia, convert them, during the melt- ing of the snows, for a considerable period to the breadth of marine straits, and carry away hills, banks, and forests, in their course ; and constantly shift the soil in such a manner, that, speaking of a more elevated basin, Cochrane remarks : — "It is but twenty years since the present centre of the river Selinga was the centre of the city Selenginsk." The Obi, * According to the Chevalier Paravey, north-eastern Asia was still rising within the last two centuries. The shadow of a gnomon, set up in 1260, by order of Kobi-lay, emperor of China, proves that the northern coast then ranged between the 63d and 64th degrees of north latitude ; whereas, now it is above 70 degrees. — Memoir read at the Geographical Society, 8th Feb., 1S41 ; see Biblioth. Orientate d'Herbelot, t. iv., p. 171 ; Hedenstrochm. M. Arago remarks that the ice has greatly accumu- lated in the Arctic seas within the latter centuries, and rendered navi- gation round the polar extremity of Nova Zembla totally impracticable, although the foregoing travellers maintain that the cold in eastern Siberia decreases sensibly ; and this opinion is in perfect accordance with the gradual rising of the polar shore, for that must increase the power of the sun's rays very considerably, on the oblate spheroid surface of the Arctic Circle. Strahlenberg notices the entire hull of a keeled ship being found in the Barabinsk, between six and seven hundred miles from the sea. Wran- gel observed drift-wooc above the highest sea level, upwards of 50 versts inland, and other phen mena of 7isings of the surface. See Reise. 120 NATURAL HISTORY OF Jenissei, and Lena, all overflow to a vast extent, as was already remarked by Abulghazi ; and no doubt the deposits of so many streams contribute largely to the extension of the shores in the Arctic Circle; but the increase thus obtained cannot be of sufficient extent to account for the rapid pro of the land, even where the depth is inconsiderable, and little current exists. It militates against the conclusions of the most scientific travellers who have visited the localities ; among whom Strahlenberg, Pallas, and Humboldt stand conspicuous; and is an opinion, moreover, that every new research tends to strengthen, and one in unison with the belief of all the barba- rous tribes that wander over those inhospitable regions. CASPIAN BASIN, AN ASIATIC MEDITERRANEAN. A gradual upheaving of the Arctic shore, chiefly on the north-west of Tahtary, and also to the west of the Oural chain, can alone explain the general fact, which, in the north of Europe, is now fully established ; and furnishes, also, the best argument to account for the loss of that great inland sea which once spread over the low bed where now the Obi and Irtish flow united, covering the whole lower Ichim and Tobol, the Barabintz, Lake Aksakal, and the innumerable pools, sea sands, incrustations, and efflorescences of salt, and recent shells. It reached by the Aral to the Caspian, was further connected with the Black or Euxine Sea, at that period inun- dating a considerable proportion of Southern Russia, and unit- ing with the Baltic, had again open communication with the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, both by the Gulf of Bothnia and by that of Finland.^ The Caspian Sea, by accurate measurements taken in 1S44, is eighty-three and a half feet below the Mediterranean, or about sixty-five feet lower than the Sea of Azoph; and Lake * See Addenda. THE HUMAN iSPECIES. 121 Aral, though higher, is still known to be below the level of the Euxine. Both are, with the exception of the Caucasian moun- tain system, and the Elburs chain, entirely surrounded by saline plains of hard clay, and low sandy steppes ; on the west, extended to the Sea of Azoph and the Euxine, and between the Kama, Don, Wolga, Jaik, Lake Aksakal, the lower Ichim, and the Amoo, covering a space of 18,000 square leagues. In addition to the inland seas already mentioned, on the south- east is the desert of Karakoum, or of black sand, estimated, alone, at 150 miles in length, by 100 in breadth, forming a plain without a tree, — the floor of an evaporated and perco- lated sea. With the exception of the Oulon-tag, the Ildiglis, and the low Monghogar hills, the surface extends north-eastward, with scarcely an undulation. It is studded, in all directions, with smaller lakes, sedgy pools, morasses, and temporary rivers, which now terminate in small water basins, or are lost in the sand ; and the occasional more elevated spaces are always edged by water-worn indications. The vast lake, which for- merly covered a great space on the south of Khiva, in long. 59°, lat. 41° 15", has disappeared, all but a few pools, where the whole region is intersected with vestiges of ancient canals of irrigation, now dried up. These show a second stage, or era, when the sea had departed, and rivers still flowed onwards to the Caspian. So, also, the Kirguise steppe, forming the northern portion of the depressed region, is composed of a cold clay, which, notwithstanding, was anciently productive of a remunerating income to the cultivator; but husbandry con- tinuing to be invaded by a black sea-sand, blown from the north, whole districts are now uninhabitable; and ruins of ancient farms, rendered desolate by a bed of this destroying substance, attest the progress and influence of the northern upheaving. The dust comes up from the Obi, and the results are comparatively recent, though their commencement must date back to a remote period. They were, no doubt, early, a 11 122 NATURAL HISTORY OF cause of the destruction of the caravan trade, already on the decline during the Roman empire, and show that the efforts of Russia to revive it are unavailing, because, the course of the Oxus being changed, trade no longer reaches the Caspian by boats; and, moreover, water becoming annually more scarce, the nomad hordes of the desert, gradually deprived of cultiva- tion by the inroads of the sea-sand, and driven eastward by the want of that necessary element, are necessitated to live by rapine where the earth grants no subsistence.* Rivers like the Jaxartes, now denominated the Syrderiah, or Syhoun, and the Oxus, since called Jeyhoun and Amou, which, according to the ancients, originally flowed more directly westward to the Caspian, are now turned into the Aral, — a result which changes in the plane of declivity alone could produce, although the fact has been repeatedly ascribed to the labors of a poor, idle, and scanty population, destitute of mechanical skill, and almost of property in the soil. The Jax- artes now reaches Lake Aral through a sedgy bed, filling the north-eastern angle with clusters of islands, successively pro- duced by the deposits bearing the same aquatic plants. The Tanghi-Deriah, said, anciently, to have constituted the Deltic branch of the Jaxartes, which discharged its waters into the Caspian, is reported to have been turned off by the Khokani- ans, who, dreading the Khiva robbers might plant colonies of their own people along the stream, raised a bank to cut off the current. Although great rivers are not to be thus turned from their natural course, the dry bed certainly exists. It is now overgrown with Anabasis ammodendronA * See Report to the Acad, des Sciences, Paris, by M. Hommaire Dehel, on the levels of the Caspian and Aral, and on the decrease of the Oxus and Volga. April, 1843. t We doubt this being the same as the Janderiah, which forsook its bed so late as 1816. Report of a Memoir by M. A. De KanikofT, to the Geo- graphical Society of London, November, 1844. It is reported by Arab an authors that both rivers remained dry for seven years, about 460, and the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 123 The Oxus was stated already, in antiquity, to have changed her course ; probably because the bed of the stream shifted repeatedly ; for undeniable vestiges of a broad river course, with upright water-worn banks, occur between Khiva and the Caspian, and notably near Old Ourgengj. Both streams now hasten the repletion of the Aral, already of small depth and full of islands ; and these noble rivers, at some future period, may be lost in the sand, or take a course still further north, to Lake Aksakal, or ultimately reach the Tobol or the Ichim, and terminate in the Polar Sea. Such are the abstracts of statements, and the inferences which establish the existence of an Asiatic Mediterranean, or, rather, a lagoon sea, in the earlier period of man's presence on the earth ; for until ages after, though in a gradual progress of evanescence, desiccation was not effected till the bed and mouth of the Obi were elevated, when the mass of waters in the lagoons, no longer fed by external supplies, and being of themselves insufficient to maintain the equilibrium against percolation and the power of solar heat upon sand and hard clay, absorbed such an amount of moisture that the level of the dry plains is now far below the surface of the ocean. But so long as there was a sea, Northern Europe was insulated, inac- cessible to migration, excepting on the winter's ice, and in the skin or birchen kayaks of polar nations. Geographically, our best course is now to continue the description of the progres- sive rising of the Arctic soil in Europe, and to return by the Mediterranean to Western Asia; because the chief phenomena affecting changes on the earth's surface are again common to both quarters of the world ; in the north referring mainly to the same effects as already noticed in Asia, but with more undeniable proof; and, in the south-east of the Mediterranean, statement is countenanced by the appearance above noticed, and perhaps still more by the prodigious number of Indo-German and Tahtar invaders, which broke in upon Europe about that period. They could not remain in a land without water. 124 NATl ELAL BIST0B1 OP marked by volcanic perturbations, passing, from time to time, through Western Asia to Africa, and sometimes extending con- vulsively to Western Europe and even to the Azores. EUBOPR EUROPE, ill many respects, is only the western prolongation of Asia, where features of the great central chain of mountains similarly, break into ramified systems, turned to the Atlantic; while, on the east, they end or border the Pacific. On each coast there are mighty islands, containing the most energetic populations; and on each continent are the two forms or races of mankind, which alone have advanced in mental develop- ment, without any common point of departure hitherto philo- sophically substantiated. Both quarters have volcanic spiracula in the seas beyond them, and on the shores, though not in the same degrees of activity ; for while the craters of many on the main land of Kamtschatka, in the Japanese islands, and on multiplied points in the Chinese and neighboring seas, are incessantly incandescent, those of Europe, with exception of the Italian, are dormant or extinct; and though the Azorean cluster turmoils on a smaller scale, Hecla, in the high north, alone has produced devastations, within the period of historical cognizance, sufficient to affect profoundly the permanent inter- ests of a resident population. At the bifurcations of the European continuation of the great mountain chains of central Asia, are dislocations of great extent, among which that formed by the great basin of the Euxine, or antique Axenus, is the most remarkable. Its present outlet at the Bosphorus, dating, probably, not much anterior to the- Greek heroic age, was clearly a consequence of increased pressure, produced by the waters of the inland seas, already noticed, increasing their weight towards the south, in proportion as the north was hove up ; and both the Ouralian and Sarmatian arms were cut off from their :ommunications with the ocean, but were not to be THE HUMAN SPECIES. 125 converted into marshes and deserts until drained off by a new outlet, and when the sun could act with power in the process cf absorption. Then it was that the emphatica] expressions of "the kings of the isles," and "isles of the west," which desig- nate Europe in the oldest human records, were correct in the strictest sense; and, until the progressive results had been long in operation, man was not able to reach Europe in the strength of numbers, but only by families, or small clans of wanderers, in canoes or rafts, on the northern ice, or at the isthmus of Thrace, before it was rent asunder by a volcanic percussion, and the local deluges of Hellenic mythology took place. Russia, west of the Oural chain, exhibits a counter direction of water-courses, which forms a kind of table land in the Vologda province, flowing towards the Caspian and the Eux- ine, and having only inferior rivers turned towards the pole. Hills, or small mountain clusters, commence already to rear their heads amid the marshes and lakes bordering on the Arc- tic shore, through the whole province of Archangel, becoming more elevated westward, after the interval occasioned by the White Sea, till they reach their utmost north and Western limits in the Lapland system. Vologda, and the surrounding high lands of Russia, were then an insulated prolongation of the Oural range, full of forests and marshes, with the Euxine reaching to a great distance inland, and the Chersoncsus (now Crimea) was a rocky island.* At present the southern steppes or^ still composed of sea-sands, and the vegetation consists almost wholly of saline plants, — Artemisia:, Saholcc, and Salt- cornice, — and lakes of salt water are frequent in the eastern parts; but the great affluents towards the south attest the des- iccation of the soil by a progressive diminution of water. The fact applies equally to the Volga, Oural, and Don, as well as to the Borysthenes or Dnieper, and the Boug, the sacred * Ai-petri, the culminating point of the Crimea, is estimated at 3500 feet above the sea. 11* 126 NATURAL HISTORY OF stream of antique Russia, the seat of Asa gods, when their Alan kindred still possessed the hanks of the Don. At that period, Sacae wandered over the newly recovered plains of western Siberia, and the great streams just mentioned had ceased to form Archipelagos of upland islands and peninsulas, between shallow creeks, marshy woods, and salt water pools, not even now obliterated.* Leaving, for the present, other considerations affecting the Euxine, till the volcanic system of eastern Europe is under review, we proceed with the Scandi- navian peninsula. ARCTIC EUROPE. From Cape North, to the southward and east, as already observed, the Lapland high lands are a system spreading to the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, and, in connection with the high mountain chain of Scandinavia, once formed a gTeat island, the Scansia of Jornandes. The gulf and White Sea being still connected, in 1450, by the Kitkacerva, and, probably, also, by the Ulea Lakes ; and, more anciently, the Ladoga and Onega, communicating, by the Ozero Sig and Ozero Vigo, with the Arctic Sea. The greater part of Finland, thick set with pools, is in itself strong evidence of the fact. At the summit of the Gulf of Bothnia, it had long been observed that the sea was retiring by slow degrees, not so much from the effect of fresh water deposits, as, according to a common opinion, by a progressive rising of the submarine floor ; for many outlying rocks, known from ancient times by distinct * The Moscow uplands are given at 460 feet above the level of the sea ; but the base of the hills, and water-courses, can scarcely amount to 100 feet, notwithstanding the continuous rising of the upper soil, by the deposits from above, washed down by rains and melting snows. In Poland, the canals between the two seas require only from ten to fifteen locks, although it does not appear that careful surveys had determined the lowest levels. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 127 names, and sung in Runic ballads, for being the basking beds of seals, where daring hunters acquired celebrity in their pur- suit, had risen above water beyond the reach of their ancient amphibious visitors; parts of the gulf, which, half a century before, had been crossed in boats by the French academicians, were converted into permanent meadow land ; and more minute research disclosed, at a distance inland, successive lines of beach, each provided with a bed of shells in a very recent state. From these the sea had evidently receded, according to the changes which an upheaving motion of the land, proceeding from the north, effected on the levels; and correspondingly raised beaches have since been observed by M. Bravais, on the opposite declivity of the Lapland system, near Hainerfest and Cape North, which show, by being at greater elevations, the acting forces to be most powerful on the Polar side. More than a century passed ; with a view of settling the question by positive measurement, copper bolts were driven in several rocks at the mean sea level, and subsequent investigation sub- stantiates that the rising progress is greatest in the north, oeing, at the summit of the Gulf of Bothnia, at the rate of 4£ feet in a century, decreasing to one foot at Stockholm ; and on the southern or German shore of the Baltic, at 0, or, as we think, declining.^ This supposition is countenanced by several submersions in the southern Baltic, already observed, from the year 830, such as those resulting from the great storm, when the island of Rugen was separated from the German shore, and the successive marine depressions of the commercial republics of Winetha, Arkona, and Jomsberg, near Wollin; some endur- ing to the twelfth century, when their ruin, effected by the * These researches date from the year 1700, when, to mark the true level, copper bolts were driven in, and deep grooves were cut in the rocks. They terminated in 1S27, the observations being made by Davis, Hellant, Cydenius, Klingius, Rudman, &c. Several French philosophers have made later researches, and confirmed the progress. See Elie. de Beau- mont, Mem. Acad, des Sciences de Paris. 128 NATURAL HISTORY OF hand of man, was followed by submersion beneath the n Continuous denudations of the sea-shore, or erosions of rivers, famished the amber of the Baltic from very early age* j and the check of that trade is now only as it n ry of it at son, but not inland. A prolonged depression on this coast alone accounts for the absence of deltas al the mouths of the Vistula and the Od<-r, and may be in combination with the changes of surface, which, while the real plane of declivity of the two last mentioned rivers became greater towards the north, did not affect their watershed, and aided in throwing tlie masses of the Lagoon Sea down the western Russian rivers into the Euxine. WESTERN EUROPE. The whole of Northern and Western Germany is low and of a sandy alluvial soil, which, without the aid of cultivation and human care, might still be threatened with marine inva- sion ; and Denmark, in its oldest poetical aspect, was appar- ently less intersected by creeks and water channels than at present. High sand hills are easily formed by the surf and the wind ; they are no proof of antiquity, still less of dura- bility, from the fact of the sand bank, eighty feet in height, near Dantzig, being broke through in 1543, and forming a new mouth for the river, during an unusually high flood of the inland waters. Some part of the east and south of England was certainly connected with the opposite coast, at a period preceding the change of direction which the Rhine received, when, turning from its ancient bed through the Cevennes, a channel was formed to the north, and the waters first reached the sea by the volcanic basin of Neuwied. Western Germany seems then to have been indented with deep bays, estuaries, and islands, the salt water reaching above Wezel, on the Rhine, where the heaths still abound in sea-shells, in a perfect TIIE HUMAN SPECIES. 129 state.* No extensive deposits, brought by lengthened water- courses, had as yet formed deltas ; for, while the great volcanic craters from the Vogesian chain to Kloster Laach, in the basin of Neuwied ; of the Pulvermar, near Gillenfeld, in the Eifel, &c, were in activity, the Rhine had not broken through in a northern direction; and the event may be regarded as a conse- quence of the igneous exhaustion of that region producing a considerable change in the levels. The same law which altered successively the courses of the Oxus and the Jaxartes towards the north, may have operated in a similar maimer on the Rhine, & ise, I Sch* 1 It. But th — Important altera- tions in N\ 1 1 nnany and Gaul were effected, and their consequences were no doubt considerably advanced, before man was present in Europe; yet comparatively recent the period may be deemed, since at Arend See, in Brandenburgh, a lake of about sixteen square miles' surface, apparently pro- duced by subterraneous percolation, which causes the earth to sink vertically, in stages each of about forty feet perpendicular, offered a further instance of this phenomenon so late as 16G0. It is one of the same class as that subsidence of the earth, which occurred in 1806, near the delta of the Indus. With the prolongation and change of direction in the course of the rivers in Western Germany, the weight of waters, or a contemporaneous percussion, may have shaken the chalky and alluvial shores, converting Britain from a peninsula into an island, and forming the Channel and Dover straits. Waters which, until that period, covered the drainage of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems, &cc, more anciently communicating, but imperfectly, with the Gallic Sea, (perhaps at high water only, through the Belgian low lands, behind the chalk cliffs of the coast to the Liane, south of Boulogne,) suddenly forming a * We have picked up oa the German side of the Rhine, near Wezel, 6everal univalves, and a pinna, with the hinge ending in a very acute point. These were found on the line of the new chaussce. 130 NATURAL HISTORY OF vast current by means of the new efflux of the Rhine, would give such force to the ebb tide, (now first beginning- to meet the flowing wave in the channel,) that a new aspect would be given to all the shores, even far up the east coast of Britain. Heligoland, a friable conglomerate, became an island at no very remote period. So late as the ninth century of our era, it was still forty times the present area ; in 1300, twelve times the surface ; but woods, rivulets, pagan temples, monasteries, parishes, and castles, have been swallowed up, and the portion still above water gradually crumbles away. When the Cym- bers penetrated into Italy, they had recently been dislodged by great encroachments of the sea on their native shores, which were in the low lands of the above-named rivers, on the north of the kindred tribes of Friesland, who were repeatedly suf- ferers from the same cause, down to recent times. Thus, on the river Unsing, which, in the Roman era, reached the sea by a direct course, and later by the Ems, there is noticed the Portus Manarmanis ; and higher up the bank, a place named Siatulanda, both localities being now lost in the waters of the Dollaert.^ THE RHINE. The whole delta of the Rhine, by the many changes that have occurred in its several arms within the historical period, through West Friesland, Holland, and Zealand, proves the unconsolidated condition of the deposits; and the depth of alluvial was shown at Amsterdam, in 1604, when a well was sunk, in an abortive attempt to obtain pure fresh water, the * If the convulsion, which certainly took place, belonged to so remote a period as a former order of creation, the final effect would have terminated long before our historical era. It is more likely to synchronize with the changes in the Polish and Russian inland seas, when a very considerable alteration must ha 'e resulted in the currents and tides on the west coasts of Europe. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 131 workmen finding sea-shells and animal hair to the depth of 132 feet.1* The lake Flevo, known to the Romans, was evidently not then ancient, since a great portion of West Friesland, on its banks, sunk down and formed the present Zuyder Zee, leaving of the coast only a chain of islands. The canal of Drusus, now denominated the Yssel, is a further instance of the tendency of rivers to flow northwards ; for this additional outlet of the Rhine was a proximate cause in the formation of the Zuyder Zee, by breaking through the coast more to the north than the ancient channel, which was a river then known by the name of Flevus, whose waters were dis- charged close to the present Flie island. Another great sub- mersion in the south-east of Holland, was felt at the Biesbosch, near Gertruydenberg, in 1421, when the waters of the Meuse and Waal, suddenly overwhelming seventy-two villages, 100,- 000 human beings were lost ; but the subsoil must have sunk at the same time, since the whole region has remained beneath the surface, and is now overgrown with huge reeds. The principal mouth of the Rhine, during the Roman sway, is all but obliterated, excepting in name, and the whole coast of Holland has much receded from its earlier tide-mark; for, at the spot where the Rhine mouth entered the sea, there stood a fortress, by some ascribed to Drusus, by others to Claudius, intended to guard the entrance. The whole plan of this struc- ture, with walls of hewn stone, still three feet high when it was last seen, is now buried under the waves, and more than a mile from the present shore.! Coins of Postumus, Victo- rinus, and Tetricus, with others, resembling early Anglo-Saxon * See Des Roche's Hist, des Pays Bas., vol. i. A learned and exceed- ingly curious work, which the untimely death of the author has left unfin- ished. The Ganges ofTers a similar result, for, on sinking an Artesian well at Fort William, Calcutta, bones of cauidce were brought up from the depth of 150 feet. t This place is known by the name of Huis-ten Britten. Here several alto-relievo figures of the goddess Nehalennia, and many coins, have beea 132 NATURAL HISTORY OF Skeatta, indicate that the fortress was garrisoned, and, there- fore, that the river was still navigable after the Roman departure from Britain. Further west is the Roompot estuary, where another Roman fastness is supposed to have existed on the sand bank facing Ter Veer, in the East Scheldt; and Romerswal, another fortress of the same people, was also a small town on a bank in the West Scheldt, opposite Bergen- op-Zoom, where we have seen remains of brick walls, covered with sea-weed and muscles. So late as 1606, the -Hock of Holland, Goeree, and other parts of the coast, were invaded and swept away; and, at this day, West Capelle, in Walche- ren, after similar devastations, is defended by rows of piles, which occur again at Blankenberg, and even at Ostend. It was here, amidst the multitude of low woody islands, formed by the confluence of the Scheldt, Dender, Lys, Nethe, and Meuse, called the Paludes Morinorum, that places of safety existed, whither the inhabitants retreated out of the reach of Caesar's legions. In the middle ages, all this region was still encumbered with swamps and water channels, which extended up to St. Omers or Sethon,* communicated with the sea at Calais and Dunkirk, until the emperor Otho, about the year 9S0, caused a canal to be dug from the Scheldt to the Hondt, which gradually drained the upland, and now consti- tutes the Western Scheldt. Persevering cultivation, sus- tained by manufacturing riches, alone succeeded to rescue the drowned soil, and make it one of the most fertile portions of Europe. The old mouth, now the Swyn, between Sluys and Cadsandria, passed through a vast pool, where the largest ships and fleets could assemble ; and the Swyn mouth was found during very low tides. The ruins have not been seen above water during the last hundred years. *Sethon, Portus St. Aumeri, now St. Omers, was still a seaport; that is, had a channel opening to the sea, in 1156, as appears by a charter of Louis VII. Compare Caesar de B. G., lib. iv., with St. Paulin Epist. ad Victru, who wrote in the fourth century. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 133 still so broad in latter ages that both the fleets of King John and of Edward III. succeeded in attacking and destroying their enemies within the port ; but in time that harbor became marshy, and then meadow land. On the side of the Western Scheldt, however, the land diminished, and between 1377 and 1477, upwards of forty villages were submerged, chiefly about Biervliet. On the coast, the village of Scharphout was swept away, in 1334, to the sands where now Blankenberg is built ; and Terstreep, near Ostend, shared the same fate. In no part of this vast space of alluvial deposit have fossil remains of Pachyderms been observed. In the Rhine alone and about the shores of that river, bones of two species of Bos and of Cervus giganleus, or Irish Elk, were noticed, and one or two Saurians, referred to Crocodile, have been detected in Upper Flanders. GREAT BRITAIN. If we now turn to the British Islands, we find the whole east coast of England marked by devastation and marine encroachment. From Cromer, where the village of Shipden was lost in the reign of King Henry IV., though it is said the ruins are still discernible at very low tides, about half a mile distant from the shore, and thence by Yarmouth and Harwich to Reculver in the estuary of the Thames, the work of erosion is everywhere conspicuous, and still proceeding. The soil is evidently older than the alluvial of the German rivers, for debris of Proboscidians, of Saurians, and Tortoises, are not unfrequently found imbedded in it. At Dagenham, in Essex, as mentioned in the Phil. Transactions, the Thames bank wall having given way, the soil washed down, in some places, to twenty feet in depth, when " many large trees became exposed to sight, oaks, alders, and hornbeams, one of which bore ' marks of the axe, and the head was lopped off.' " There is no reason for rejecting the tradition concerning the Goodwin 12 134 NATURAL HISTORY OF Sands; and the disappearance of the island was a natural con- sequence of the tides acting upon its low shores, from the time the Straits of Dover were opened, and the calamity an imme- diate result of neglecting to defend the banks by artificial means. The same force which swept away the town of Win- chelsea, in the reign of Edward I., had long before destroyed the Portus Iccius on the opposite coast, and commenced the gradual denudation of the rocky basis of the Channel Islands, where a tax is still levied and applied to arrest the further encroachments of the sea. If tradition could be trusted, the present channel within the Isle of Wight, was, in earlier ages, sufficiently shallow to be forded at very low tides, where now line of battle ships pass in safety; but this result is applicable to the whole British Chan- nel, while Poole harbor is filled up by the deposits of slack water. There is a marked character in the long succession of landslips and "founders" in the vicinity of Lyme Kegis and Azminster, resulting indeed from percolation to certain under- lying strata, but, most assuredly, in connection with a progres- sive erosion of the floor of the channel.* On the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, numerous marks of ancient sea beaches, hove up far beyond the present levels, indicate similar press- ures and slidings of superincumbent strata, forcing the beach to rise up in the same manner as occurred near Axminster. St. Michael's Mount, however, is now almost severed from Cornwall; and the invasion of the sea is still attested by the remains of forest trees, sunk beneath the waters. Beyond the Land's End, the Scilly Islands, now forming a cluster of rocks, were almost wholly united when first they became historically known, under the name of Cassiterides. In the Irish Channel, submersions, perhaps even greater than *If similar events in other countries were carefully recorded, they would be found surprisingly numerous. Balbi, and Mr. G. Roberts, in his account of the Dowland and Bindon landslip of 1339, enumerate a great variety of them. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 135 in any other part of England, appear to have occurred, and phenomena on shore are equally surprising. A part of the bed of the Severn is stated to have risen, in 1773, to the height of thirty feet, the back water immediately forming a lake, which was drained by cutting a new channel. According to Camden, and Bishop Hakewell's Apology, at the time of the Norman Conquest, part of Pembroke formed a promontory, extending towards Ireland; but the space was already sunken beneath deep sands, in the time of Henry II., when a violent storm so far uncovered the original surface, that many stumps of trees appeared fixed in the earth, "and the strokes of the axe upon them quite fresh." In the Welsh Triads, Orkney, the Isle of Man, and the Isle of Wight, are styled the three adjacent islands of Britain ; and they proceed to mention the subsequent separation of Anglesea from the main land. Nennius similarly alludes to the three adjacent islands; yet, since that period, Orkney became divided into several parts ; and it is evident that other portions of Wales and Western Scotland likewise became insulated. So many important changes, particularly in the British Channel, imply the agency of forces which were not in activity at very remote periods; for, had they been of primeval date, their operation would have effected the whole of the changes they necessitated long before the dates here mentioned. SOUTHERN EUROPE. Returning to the west coast of France, we find the important invasion of the sea, which in the eighth century destroyed a great space of poor and forest land, separating Mont St. Michael from the main shore;* and in the Bay of Biscay, ♦There is an earlier great event of this kind recorded in history, in the reign of Gallienus, when one or two Romano-Celtic cities, in Armorica or Bretagne, were destroyed. That in the reign of Charlemagne was equally destructive on the coasts of France and in the Baltic. 130 N Al i B \L BI8T0BI 01 the currents and mods continuing the encroachment on the coast, they have in tome places advanced two . ;iiina century. But the Spani-h peninsula, forming a plateau the mo I rated of Europe, nn.ro than l'OOO feet ahove the ocean, without an existing volcanic crater on its surface, is nevertheless sub- ject to \i particularly on the side of the Atlantic. Geologically, as i ossiferous breccias, the south point of the peninsula reproduo I ratifi- cation which occurs ahout Genoa, and is n peati d in the islands on the coast of Dalmatia. They have all compressed, bet beds of limestone, innumerable remains of mammals, held in a matrix much harder than the bones themselves. In zoolo affinity, Spain ami a considerable portion of the terranean islands boar an African rather than an Eur^ I : and the similarity was much mi t in early times. Spain, having no deltas, with only B ils formed by the Tagus, Ebro, and Llobrega, is surrounded on three sides by very deep seas, close up to the shore. Further eastward, within the Mediterranean, the coast of France presents a totally different aspect ; for the whole extent of the shores, with little exception, is low, belted on the sea- side by a shingly beach, some hundred yards in breadth, and having behind it salt water lagoons a mile or more in diameter, but only a few feet deep. This breakwater of shingle extends to near Aigues Mortes, and the delta of the Rhone; for that river has evidently supplied the materials for it. At some distance, facing the Mediterranean, a chain of lofty hills con- tains lavas and extinct craters, particularly about Nismes and Montpellier, and again in the department of the Aude, where fossiliferous caverns exist, which will be noticed in the sequel. The hills trend on one side towards the eastern Pyrenees, and on the other, ascending the river course of the Rhone, become connected with the Alps ; and, assuming the name of Vogesians, display basaltic formations and craters, that connect them with THE HUMAN BPBGIBS. 137 the basin of Xeuwied. The delta of the last-named river is of considerable size, with a gradual but slow progress in the sea; it having been demonstrated, by measuring the distance between the fossa Marians and the sea, that from the til Marina to the present, a period of near ars, only about 1000 yards have been added to the shore. HALT. 1' -sing, for the present, the Alpine system without notice* we arrive ;it the Italian peninsula, reposing, in its wl. upon an ignited gallery, in perpetual activity, and producing a sea more fathomable than the abysses of the Gulf of Lyon offing. On the Tyrhenian coast, the changes most readily ascertained occur at the port and city of Pisa, which were originally situated at the mouth of the Arno, when re now above lour miles inland ; and the Au-ar streamlet, which, according to Strabo, fell into the river close to the town, now terminates ten miles distant. The rolcanic soil, alike fertile and deleterious in the maremmas, is in some places unstable, so that, even since the fall of the Ri empire, certain spots about Bais have been sunk below the level of the sea, and again raised up above it, without entirely overturning columns, such as those of the temple of Serapis, all of which, at a certain elevation above their base, have been subjected to the boring of Lithodomi, while other parts of the ancient city, an 1 a paved road, are seen beneath the waters. The whole length of Italy exhibits craters, lakes simmering, * Reniarknl.lc, however, f"r land slips, anciently more numerous and extensive than at present. In the Alps, fragments of Roman roads, with arched gateways, occur among elevated precipices. Hannibal encoun- tered a subsidence of the road on his passage. Those of Mont Grenier, Diablerats, Mont Chede, and particularly of the Rossberg, in 1806, are well known ; and that of Cernaus, hetween Dijon and Pontarlier, in the Jura, where the high road sank 300 feet, in 1839, is the last of irnport- auco. 1U- 138 NATURAL HISTORY OF volcanic pits, crevices emitting sulphurous vapors, till we reach the kingdom and Bea of the two Sicilies, \vh' re a vast coneen- tration of volcanic fire permanently discharges from below smoke, gaseous vapors, flame , and lavas, by the craters of iEtna, Vesuvius, and Stromboli. Thucydid S :a, Strabo, Pausanlas, Pliny, and others, mention numerous earthquakes in Italy, where mountains were split, cities were overturned, and volcanic islands rose and again subsided. Since the Vesuviau eruption, recorded by Pliny the Younger, no calamity more appalling appears on record than that which took place in 153S, when, in a few hours, Monte Nuovo, a flaming moun- tain of four miles in circumference, rose out of the earth, destroying the village of Tripergola, obliterating the Lucrine Lake, and caused the ruin of the countrv to six miles around it; unless one greater still occurred, when Messina in Sicily, and many towns of Calabria, were destroyd in 17S6. No author states at what period, and to what extent, vol- canic convulsion changed the surface of Eastern Italy, and separated Calabria from Sicily, by a disrupture now denom- inated the Straits of Messina. The event can only be sur- mised by approximation; for, although the catastrophe confess- edly took place before written historical record, it was not so remote as to have obliterated the terror impressed upon the memories of subsequent generations living in the vicinity, or to have worn away the dangerous impediments of Scylla and Charybdis, which intervened at the most adjacent point for crossing from one coast to the other, and probably not long before the foundations of Zancle (now Messina) were laid. The event may synchronize with the close of that transition era of convulsive phenomena which includes the bursting of the Thracian Bosphorus at the volcanic Cyanean islands ; the Greek deluges ; the separation of Eubcea from Attica ; and the passage of a large diluvian wave across the isthmus of Corinth, which has left indelible marks on all the coasts in the vicinity, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 139 and was particularly recorded at Dodona.* They were the necessary precursors of the first swarming of the tribes that came down the Hellespont, and commenced the heroic age of Greece and Italy. In the Adriatic, at the summit of the gulf, we find Adria, or Hadria, said to have been built on the sea-shore, by Tarchon, leader of the antique Etruscan people, about the time of the Trojan war. The present town, standing upon the rubbish of two others, is now fifteen and a half miles distant from the nearest mouth of the river Tartarus, which is still six miles within the farthest point of land projecting in the sea.t It is only of late years that, in making excavations at the depth of several feet below the present surface of the town, a former level was found, with numerous fragments of Etruscan and Roman pottery ; and, at a still greater depth, a second floor, where all the earthen-ware fragments proved to be Etruscan alone, and there were vestiges of a theatre ! In these facts, both the raising of the soil and progress of alluvial deposits are demonstrated in waters but little disturbed by marine currents, and during a space of 3000 years. THE EGEAN. In the Egean, volcanic disturbances have been and still are exceedingly numerous and destructive. From the remotest periods recorded, islands have risen up from the sea ; such as volcanic Delos, overhung with vapors to the present time ; or torn from the continent of Asia, like Samos, with its ancient organic remains of Neiades, and craters, one of which com- menced latterly to furnish a rivulet running to the sea ; and * Scholiast upon the ICth Iliad, v. 233, quoting Thrasyhulus, an ancient author, and other comments. tNow Podi Levante, and most likely the oldest hed of the Padus or Po? The lowest stratum of ruins was at the depth of more than twenty fcet. 140 NATURAL HISTORY OF other island?, within these few years, have heen visited by earthquakes of the most calamitous violence. Through the Cyclades there came, in remote antiquity, a sea wave, raised up by some volcanic convulsion, which desolated Greece, and is recorded as one of the deluges ; while other percm opened the passage already mentioned, for lowering the surface of the Euxine into the Propontis, and thence to the Egean ; an event commemorated in Samothrace, when that island most 1 lively was separated from the main coast.* It was then the Cimmerian Chersonesus, from a rocky island, became a great peninsula, and Phanagoria of the Moeotis began to exhibit the cones of deposit from which mud is ejected to the present time. The Euxine, Caspian, and Mediterranean, have shoal water and islands almost exclusively on the north, and. the deepest sea on the south ; but the Euxine alone witnesses percussions, which still continue to elevate the highlands of the Crimea. From the year of the death of Mithridates to the present period, many severe earthquakes have shaken the promontories of the coast, and caused destructive avalanches. At Sevastopol, the ancient Sinus Portuosus of Mela, iron rings, originally fixed in the rocks, probably by the Genoese, to secure vessels, in natural docks, close to the shore, are now risen so high above ground as to be no longer available for that purpose ; and, in the autumn of 1S44, a sudden heaving of a volcanic disturbance caused the sea to recede from the whole line of the northern coast, leaving all the vessels then close in shore stranded. In the Caspian, Baku, like Derbent, had its walls partly thrown down by the sea, in 17S4; yet now it stands a quarter * The effects of this sea wave are clearly marked on the east coast of Attica and Peloponnesus. It hroke across the isthmus, and left marks of its violence in the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. Traditional recollec- tions of these enormous catastrophes are depicted in the language- of St. John — "And every island fled away, and the mountains were not found." Rev. xvi. 20. Patmos was in the direct line of this convulsion. THE HUMAN SPECIE3. 141 of a mile frcm the water's edge. The level varies occasionally six or seven feet ; and small volcanic cones still break forth on its shores. In the lake, or rather bay of Ensili, three new islands have appeared since 1811, already showing several willows upon them ; and the back water of the Gemishawas is become fordable, though, until recently, it was not to be trav- ersed, the river waters having sensibly diminished. The Cas- pian is the Deryah Kolsum of the Arabs, because it is covered with a mist ever han2rin£ on the water. ASIA MINOR. Asia Minor appears subjected to the action of at least two subterranean volcanic galleries, which, in connection with the Italian system of ignitions, passing beneath the Egean, are the agents of convulsion in that sea; and in Greece and Thessaly, produce those mephitic localities, inflammable rivers, and gaseous exhalations, which were used in mythological doctrines and in the prophetic impositions of the Delphic oracle. Others, of at least equal antiquity, existed on the Asiatic side; and although no conspicuous volcanic crater is pointed out in the peninsula, excepting at the present Dopos Kalesi, and at Koolah in Catacecaumene, where the lava district reveals volcanic agency, apparently not long dormant. There is, also, at the extremity of the Bosphorus, where the Cyanean craters are submerged, a recent lava formation, particularly conspicuous on the Asiatic shore. No region has been more constantly disturbed by earth- quakes than this high peninsula, from the earliest period to the present; but perhaps most so during the Roman sway, when, in the reign of Tiberius, fourteen, and in that of Julian not less than one hundred and fifty cities were destroyed in one con- vulsion. 142 NATURAL HISTORY OF BASIN OF THE DEAD SEA. Tiif.se convulsions of the surface are external signs of the gallery that passes westward ; but there is a second, which turns from beneath Taurus, south of Syria and Palestine, pro- ducing, in the valley of Jordan, the celebrated Dead Sea, or Asphaltic Lake, regarded as the deepest basin, beneath the level of the sea, in the known world, the surface of the water being far below that of the Caspian. No exact measurement of this depression of the soil is, as yet, rigidly determined, because the instruments employed for the purpose, — the mer- cury rising to the summit of the tube, — have always failed, by the excess of their indications, to offer a trustworthy basis for calculation. Russeger, the last scientific traveller, being simi- larly disappointed, gives, from other calculations, the surface of the lake, at the mouth of the Jordan, as 1319 French feet below the Mediterranean ; Jerusalem, by measurement, as 2479 feet above it ; and yet no traveller remarks, that if these state- ments be nearly correct, the ridge behind, or west of Jerusalem, being in sight from the lake, would be more that 4000 English feet higher and loftier than any mountain in Great Britain ; * nor is there any notice taken of the levels of the lake, as com- pared with the Gulf of Akkaba, — which is nearly on the same level as the Mediterranean, — and the elevation of the ridge which parts the Dead Sea from Wady Moosa. Already, before the era of Abraham, it is evident, by the notice of slime pits (naphtha) in the plain of Gomorrah, that volcanic action was kindled ; and when the surface subsided into the Asphal- * According to measurements of British naval officers, taken after the cat ture of Acre, in 1S39, it appears — by lines of altitude, carried from the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea, &c. — that the Lake of Tiberias was 84 English feet below the Mediterranean ; the Arabah al Kadesh 91 feet ; the Dead Sea, 1337 ; whence it is plain no region of equal extent, on the earth, presents phenomena of such great difference ; for the culminating point of Libanus rises, at Mount Hermon, to 10,000 feet. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 143 tic Basin, the ridge in Wady Moosa was elevated, and the Jor- dan, already insufficient to compensate for the evaporation, could no longer flow to the Red Sea. There is, at least, a certain affinity with Africa, in this region, supported by a pro- portion of the local botany, and by the fish of the Lake of Tiberias. The volcanic flues, branching off, pass through Arabia, to Aden, and beneath the Red Sea ; and another, more due west, communicates with Northern Africa, beyond the Egyptian boundary, far into the interior. From Palestine and Syria, eastward, to the Indus, there are only three rivers of importance that reach the sea. They al unite into one channel, and although they drain an immense surface, generally arid and sandy, and the Tigris, in particular is swift, they have no period of inundation like the Nile, but simply freshes in the spring ; and albeit they terminate at the head of an enclosed gulf, they have not formed an extensive delta. The high table land of Persia is estimated at little less than 4000 feet above the sea, a most arid desert, but with rivers from the north-eastward forming the fertile valley of the Hel- mund, and terminating in Lake Aria or Zurra, anciently much more extensive than the present, having ruins of vast cities in the vicinity, unknown in history, and of the remotest period; the cradle where Iranian power was nursed. From the social systems first evolved on the Oxus and the Helmund, and thence carried to the Tigris, Euphrates, and Choaspes, when combined with those of Egypt and Palestine, the present relig- ious, moral, and scientific state of the world is almost entirely drawn. The fundamental principles relating to the highest good, and the maxims of the greatest evil, emanated from Western Asia, wherein the ancients used to comprehend the Nile, as far up the course of the river as the Nubian frontier. 144 NATUKAL HISTORY OF CURRENTS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. But the isthmus, connecting Egypt with Asia, did not exist at the commencement of the present geological arrangement. The Arabian prolongation of volcanic galleries may, indeed, have dug the channel of the Red Sea, since, on the Abyssinian sides, mephitic lakes and a sulphurous soil reach from the coast to the mountains, and chains of dormant craters pass behind the coast, in a south-east direction, even beyond the equator. So, likewise, on the west of the Nile, extensive tracts, bordering on the desert, manifest igneous activity, not far below the surface, in ebullitions assuming various fantastic forms. From the period, however, when the Straits of Calpe, the Bisepharat of Phoenician navigators, admitted the Western Ocean, to give the present form and extent to the Mediter- ranean, anteriorly supplied with very little fresh water, it may be supposed that the evaporation, being more counterbalanced by the influx, passing mostly eastward in the straits, and still more at a great depth below the surface, raised the sea to a higher level, and caused the circular course, which now, flowing eastward along the coast of Barbary, casts all river deposits, brought down that shore, into the recess of the two Syrtes, and near the summit of the Mediterranean, sweeps onward all the Nilotic discharges. At the commencement of the present superficial terrene system, when the current first acted upon the efflux of the river, it threw, similarly as in the Syrtes, all deposits back upon the coast, and filled the channel of com- munication from the Red Sea, whose level, somewhat higher, was kept in check by the prevailing northerly winds, until a bank was formed and marshes created, which the same northerly winds, acting upon the sea-shore, would supply with dust, and all other currents of air aided to fill up, until the isthmus was formed, and the delta had advanced to the edge of deep water, when first it came within the force of the real sea current. Thus, a space of 72 miles, from Suez to El-Arish, and nearly THE HUMAN SPECIES. 145 ISO along the sea-coast, from west to east, became a fertile land, where inundation extended ; pasturage where it is acces- sible only in part, and desert or marsh in all the rest.*- On the Syrian coast, the Mediterranean current is first repelled by the rocky soil of Palestine, and turned northward, undermining, in its passage, the sea-wall, formed of enormous stones, at the port of Caesarea ; but, further on, completing, with the sands of Egypt, Alexander's work, at the isthmus of Tyre. Next, at the Calpian Gulf, the foot of Cilician Taurus again turns the current, which, now forced in a direction to the west, is broken into several devious branches by Cyprus, Rhodes, Crete, the Egean Islands, Sicily, the Peloponnesus, and Italy; but still not so entirely but that it is again recognized in the Tyrhenian Sea, and thence sweeping the deposits of the Rhone along the coast of Gaul, and finally allowing the unevaporated portions to pass out at Calpe, or to resume again a new circular course.! * "It is inferred, from geological data, that the Red Sea, in former times, penetrated to the basin of the bitter lake, and there left high-water marks, distinguishable at the present day ; flowing from thence to Lake Mensaleh, thus entirely separating the land of Africa from that of Asia." But Captain Veitch adduces strong reasons against trusting to the opera- tions of nature to excavate for herself a channel, again, in that way, and shows, also, why it would not be expedient to form a navigable channel of still water, with locks, between the two seas, or dependent on the Nile. This statement, drawn from actual survey, leaves no doubt of the primaeval separation of the two continents, viewed geologically ; and the expected condition of dead water, instead of a current in the channel, should a communication be reopened, is supported by the fact, that a simple process of nature was sufficient to close it. + It is the enormous evaporation, and the very scanty supply of river- water in the Mediterranean, that causes its waters to be deemed even more salt than the ocean. The direction of its currents is traced by the species of fishes, periodically entering the straits, from the west cr tst of Africa, and in those that remain permanently, either in shore, in sound- ings, or beyond them. 13 146 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Of Africa the most striking feature is the tabular form of its structure, standing immovable, like a huge bulwark, almost centrally beneath the equator, without a plentiful vegetation, — almost without forests; with few undrained lakes, and, conse- quently, few great rivers, which derive their supplies of moisture from clouds coming from distant regions, and furnishing a diminishing supply; for there is an acknowledged desiccation in progress, observed alike in Morocco, at the Cape, and most in Abyssinia. Perhaps the oldest of the continents, it appears exhausted. With a vigorous animal or vegetable life, thinly scattered, or confined to particular valleys, and with proofs of a desert state so remote that no other region can produce a simi- lar example, — namely, in the Baobabs (Adansonia digittata), of ninety feet in circumference, a bulk so enormous as to induce Adanson to assert that they contained full six thousand rings of annual growth, — that is, an age which no other living organic body on earth can claim.* In this great region, the Nile alone, of all the rivers, is of ancient interest in what relates to the History of Man. Though for centuries past little or no addition has been made to the delta, the coast lakes have materially decreased in depth, and the bed of the river is now much higher than in antiquity, since the plain of Thebes is, during inundations, in many parts under water. In Abys- sinia, mountains, formerly covered with forests, are become pasture lands ; and a large river, the Kibber, which descends from the south-west side of that great mountain system, pro- ceeds obliquely to the eastern coast, and is suddenly arrested at its mouth, under the equatorial line, by a broad beach of * There are oaks in France, Switzerland, and even in Great Britain above thirty feet in circumference, which may be 3000 years old. A chestnut on Etna, not one of the largest or oldest, left a portion of a side shoot, not containing- the inner core or circles, which, nevertheless, afforded 1700 rings of annual growth. Baobabs thriye best on arid plains. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 147 shingle, through which the waters percolate to the Indian Ocean. On this side no other facts of interest are offered, excepting the great volcanic spiracles, forming islands far out to the south-east ; and a whole range of craters on the outside coast of Madagascar, probably with submarine trunks that connect them with the series on the main coast ; and the straits them- selves, which, perhaps, were formed by the collapse of a part of the Comoro Islands. Down the coast, to the Cape of Good Hope, and thence along the western shores to Mauritania, no objects of a direct interest to our present researches present themselves, excepting those clusters of volcanic islands, with craters on peaks of very great elevation, which were believed by the ancients, and by many moderns admitted, to be the wrecks of the Atlantis, recorded by the priests of Sais as the site of a fearful deluge, which, it seems, was confounded with a similar event, already recorded among the devastations of Greece. In the plains of Morocco, among the high lands of Abyssinia, in the bed of the Quorra (Niger), in Congo, and at the Cape of Good Hope, simi- larly formed table mountains, with precipitous sides and lime- stone summits, occur, and with deep valleys or flats between them, produced by forces that cannot now be satisfactorily explained. We may add, that while all the ancient adventi- tious populations have greatly decreased, the indigenous npgro races alone continue to expand. AMERICA. America, stretching from the Arctic to the Antarctic Circfe, has the great chain of cardinating mountains in the same direction, with indications of far more awful convulsions than are remarked on the old continent ; for here the nutations of the great ridge, instead of influencing the continent, like the Himalayas, with a gradual action upon their abutting planes, 148 NATURAL HISTORY OF have snapped n, ar the fulcrum of its western side, nearly two thirds of the whole length, from Terra del Fuego to California, and sunk that portion of the continent in such deep sea, for many degrees seaward, that scarcely an island remains above water. Freed, it would seem, from the adhesion of the broad surface, as naturally belonging to this side as on the other, and to counterbalance it, as is the case in Asia, the Andes, in their whole extent in the vicinity of the ocean, retain volcanic activity in full force, and consequently heave up, at the present time, as perseveringly as at the remotest periods. They con- tinue to rise with every great shock of an earthquake, perhaps affecting the whole height of the mountains, but certainly the western or maritime side, where successive stages may be traced to a great elevation, and rocky heads, lines of beaches, and shoaling waters, become more and more evident; as if nature labored to recover from the deep a portion of long-lost terrestrial soil.*1 The multitude of enormous volcanoes in the Andes do not appear to have depressed the east coast to a per- ceptible submersion, or, rather, to what is more than fully replaced by the deposits of the vast and numerous rivers which intersect the whole surface. It is, moreover, stayed by the mountain system of Brazil, Guiana, and Venezuela, from whence, and from the basins at the foot of the Quindiu Cordil- lera and the Pacaraima mountains, have been effected many entire discharges of elevated lakes, such as the Amucu and Savannas of Dutch Guiana, while the swamps of the Parana, and the lagoons on the coast, remain unchanged. But at the northern extremity of South America, where the Andes pre- sent an interruption in the direct chain, a branch turning east- ward, and then to the north, shows a connection from volcanic Trinidad, through the West Indian Islands, till the mountain character, but not the volcanic connection, is lost in the island * In most volcanic upheavings, there follows a subsidence, — nature endeavoring to return to its anterior equilibrium, — but the result is rarely down tc he former level. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 149 of Cuba. All this enormous surface, from Barbadoec to Vera Cruz, forming the two distinct basins of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, presents many indications of a violent disruption belonging to the present geological superficies of the earth, and perhaps not remote in date from the submersion of Atlantis on the African coast. A series of volcanic craters, still in violent ignition, may have worked on the single mountain ridge, of no great breadth of base, pressed by the unceasing action of the tropical current, laboring in a gyration, which impels the Atlan- tic Sea, on the north of the equator, and strengthened by the trade wind, broke through the mountain barrier directly opposed to it, perhaps not unaided by the collapsing of the submarine galleries, or struck by some great sea wave, rushing from the African or from the Azorean regions, under the impulse of a mighty earthquake. On examining the Windward Islands, the Grenadines, between St. Vincent's and Grenada, point out where the force of the current was most violent; and the rocky hills, from Tobago to beyond Curaotoa, almost perpendic- ular on the north, and sloping to the south, attest its contin- uity through the Caribbean Sea. "WEST INDIES. The Windward Islands are, in this view, only the remains of 8 vast mountain chain, still impeding the currents sufficiently tn produce a very considerable difference in the sea levels between their east and west coasts ; or, as they are obviously checked, according to their respective localities. Thus, in the port of Havana, the sea is thirty-six feet lower than at the north side of Guadaloupe, according to the observations of Jonnes, compared with those of Humboldt and F. de Bellevue. If the great current were not restrained by the islands, and by the coast of Yucatan turned into the Florida Strait, the sea level at the isthmus of Panama, now by some asserted to be twenty-four feet lower than the Pacific, and by others to be 13* 150 NAT! RAL HISTOB i equal in elevation, or differing only as the tides on either side may be at full, won 1 rise perhaps sufficiently to separate the two great portions d: America. Here, then, we have a not improbable diluvian event in the western portion of the world, sufficient to account for all the traditions locally current, in the supposition that the progeni- tors of the present population were already in part upon the spot. Some authors have assumed the American cataclysm to be the same as the Atlantic; but what is more evident is the volcanic agency in both, and the ignited galleries passing beneath the ocean, with spiracula in the western African islands, and the Azores completing the electrical circle on this side, as the Kamtschatka volcanoes and the Caroline and Jap- anese effect on the other. NORTH AMERICA. North America, having the Rocky mountain portion of the Cordilleras for central watershed, although it is less disturbed by volcanic convulsion, in proportion as the ridge is further removed from the sea, and has not discharged a great propor- tion of the inland lakes that weigh upon the eastern plane of its surface, is nevertheless not so free of igneous agency as to escape the West Indian ramification, which passes through the Floridas and South Carolina, to the plain of the Mississippi, where earthquakes left permanent tokens of their force in 1S11. Over a considerable part of the eastern side of the great mountain ridge, more particularly where ancient lakes have been converted into morasses, or have been filled by allu- vials, organic remains of above thirty species of mammals, of the same orders and genera, in some cases of the same species, have been discovered, demonstrating their existence in a con- temporary era with those of the old continent, and under sim- ilar conditions. But their period of duration in the New World ma}' have been prolonged to dates of a subsequent time, TUE HUMAN SPECIES. 151 since the Pachyderms of the United States, as well as those of the Pampas of Brazil, are much more perfect, and, in many cases, possess characters ascribed to bones in a recent state. Alligators and crocodiles, moreover, continue to exist in lati- tudes where they endure a winter state of torpidity beneath ice, as an evidence that the great Saurians in that region have not yet entirely worked out their mission ; whereas, on the old continent, they had ceased to exist in high latitudes, long before the extinction of the great Ungulate. The vast extent of sandy alluvial territory, from the Gulf of Mexico to the summit of Long Island, appears as if it were a late deposit, in part debris of the Mexican and Caribbean portions of the continent, car- ried north, and thrown off when the Gulf Stream was formed. At the mouth of the Mississippi, the sea, of small depth along the whole coast, continues to recede before the delta of the river ; and the Florida and Carolina shores northward form a series of lagoons on the ocean side. The stream rushes onwards in a north-cast direction, and with a gradually de- creasing velocity and temperature (though both are still very perceptible off New York), until it is finally neutralized at Nantucket, and the last particles of deposit suspended in it are precipitated to form the banks of Newfoundland. A continent torn asunder and washed away alone could furnish the immense alluvial surface and submarine banks here noticed. The rivers of the United States and Canada are not of a nature to have added more than feeble deltas, such as that of the Hudson at Sandy Hook. Great changes are commemorated by the Indians in their mythological and legendary tales, both in the direction of th< tides and in ancient accumulations of ice.* THE PACIFIC. The Pacific and South Seas are likewise replete with evi- dence of great geographical mutations ; some have already *See Appendix. 152 NATURAL HISTORY OF been noticed, and the active progress of coral reefs proves the vast proportion of space beneath the waves, either still sinking lower, or again in a reiiscending state. Volcanic cones, far from continents, like flaming beacons at sea, towards the South Pole, as Hecla is in the north, may be elaborating elements for future geogonies, or heave up regions now sunken, on the southern side of the equator, more particularly where a peculiar zoology, living and fossil, appears to point out that one existed a. an anterior period; and, by the evidence of the great Struthionidae, such as Dinornis, only recently extinct, that animals of such bulk w-cre not originally confined to islands not larger than New Zealand; which, moreover, is /eplete with craters nearly all dormant. The foregoing statements have been submitted, in this place, somewhat more at length than the nature of the present volume would seem to warrant ; but we apprehend, no view of the primeval history of Man can be complete, without reference to the conditions of existence which obtained in the first more calamitous ages of his presence on earth. Though particular points in the changes here alluded to may be doubted or denied, still sufficient will remain to substantiate the influence they must have exercised upon human distribution, upon man's earliest wanderings ; and they will finally establish, we think, the fact of his coexistence with the latter period of the great Pachydermous era. We have, in fact, both sacred and profane authority for diluvian convulsions of great magnitude, when the earth was inhabited by human families, in quarters very distant from each other, and when many genera of animals may have perished. If, in the opinion of geologists, more than due importance has been ascribed to the action of volcanoes, the answrer is, that the violence of subterrene fires wras unques- tionably much greater, and its presence much more generally manifested, than in succeeding ages ; since it can be shown THE HUMAN SPECIES. 153 that scarcely oni fortieth of existing craters is now in activity, or about one hundred in four thousand; and yet, that there are still about two thousand eruptions in a century, or about twenty per annum. Moreover, Iceland offers a comparatively recent example to what extent a volcanic eruption may ruin a great region of fertile country. Since this was written, another devastation has taken place in the same island. BONES OF MAN AMONG ORGANIC REMAINS. For the further illustration of this important question, it is requisite to examine whether the organic remains of extinct animals, found in the soil, and chiefly in limestone caverns and clefts of rock, are accompanied by human remains, bearing sim- ilar characters of antiquity. Although, as yet, few systematic researches on this head have been made, even in Europe, and it is likely that in many bone deposits no human exuviae have been noticed, still a sufficient number of instances attest to the fact, and leave the question open only on the ground that they were accidental cases, not belonging to the same period.* Donati, Germer, Easoumouski, and Guetard, maintained that human bones had been found intermixed with those of lost spe- cies of mam mi ferae, in several places. They had been detected in England,! in caves and fissures, enumerated by Professor Buckland ; they were found at Meissen in Saxony, and at Dur- fort in France, by M. Firmas. A fossilized skeleton, found in the schist rock, when excavating the fortifications of Quebec, * Baron Cuvier, in the last conversation we had with him on the sub- ject (in 1824), admitted that although the human fragments discovered at Cette, near Monaco, and in the caves of the Apennines, might he more recent, the opinions then in vogue would require considerable modifica- tion. tAt Kirkby, in Yorkshire, in 1786, in the fissures of a limestone quarry. 154 NATURAL HISTORY OF in part preserved in the museum, at the seminary, excited no attention ; and the well-known Guadaloupe skeletons, one of which is now in the British .Museum, had been pronounced recent upon hypothetical reasoning. Those discovered by M. Schmerling, in the Liege caverns, were similarly disposed of, and the reports of Dr. Lund, residing at Lagoa Santa, in Bra- zil, respecting partially petrified human bones, found by him in the interior of the country, and represented to have been in the same condition with those of numerous animals now extinct, which accompanied them, attracted no more than cred- ulous attention, although they were represented to have belonged to that singular flat-headed form of man which will be noticed in tin- sequel.^ But the fact of juxtaposition of the bones of extinct mam- mals and of man recurs so often that some may be mentioned more in detail, thus : — In the caverns of Bize (department of the Aude), in France, human bones and shreds of pottery were found in red clay, mixed with the debris of extinct mammalia, among which were recognized those of TJrsus arctoideus, Cervus auoglochis, a species equal in size to the common Stag; Cervus Reboulii, Capreolus TournaVri, and Lefroii, 8fC. Soon after, the celebrated Marcel de Serres examined the caverns of Pondres and Souvignargues, and detected the remains of human skeletons and pottery in the same deposits with bones of a lost species of Rhinoceros (R. tkhorinus), a small kind of Equus, and a Stag {Cervus cataglochis). On the Rhine, skulls of gigantic Bisontes andUri occurred, and Dr. Boue found human bones mixed with others of extinct species at Lahr. In the vicinity of Xanthen, beneath an altar- stone, the head of a Cervus giganteus (Irish Elk), and a quan- tity of ashes, were discovered. *Dr. Lund has since discovered another deposit of fossilized bones, in the province of Minas Geraes, along with several entire human skeletons. He enumerates, in the same deposit, forty-four species of extinct mam- mals, among which the horse occurs abundantly. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 155 In 1833, human bones were found, together with those of JJrsus spelceus; U. angzistidens, Hyena, and a Feline not much le^s than a lion, Elephant, &c, were detected in caves near Luge, beneath a thick coat of stalagmite. About the same period, the Rev. Mr. M'Enery collected from the caves of Tor- quay human bones and flint knives, amongst a great variety of extinct species, such as Elephant, Rhinoceros, Ursus a?ignsti- dens, Hyena, &c, all from under a crust of stalagmite; and reposing upon it was the head of a Wolf. Before that period, and repeatedly since, caves have been opened by quarrymen, at Oreston, near Plymouth, several of which had bones, such as Elephant, Rhinoceros, Ox, Horse, Hyena, and abundant coprolites, denoting that they had been the dens of Carnivora. Among them we detected the upper portion of the humerus of man, which was immediately thrown away upon being pointed out to the possessor ! * Other cav- erns exist in the Plymouth Hoe; and, no doubt, also beneath the present level of the sea, for several teeth of Elephants have been washed up by the surf. Other deposits have been found at Yeahn bridge, and most of the bones applied to mend the roads, before scientific men had notice of the discovery. Those at Kitley, we believe, have not been disturbed ; but eastward, human bones, with their usual accompaniments, have been col- lected from a cave near Brixham, by the Rev. Mr. Lyte and Mr. Bartlett. There were, in this deposit, shreds of pottery, like those of the caverns of Bize, in France ; and it is said the locality bore evidence of smoke, which renders it probable that it had once been inhabited by troglodyte savages. Fragments of pottery were discovered by Captain MAdam, in the escarp- ment of calcareous breccia, at least 200 feet above the level of the sea, and. about 100 beneath the vertex, five miles north of *This is not the only instance of the kind. Collectors, in the plenitude of ignorance and prepossession, determined that human bones were of no consequence. — See Appendix. 156 NATURAL HIST0B1 01 Monte Nuovo, near Naples; and not within the sphere of action when that crater rose out of the earth. VALE OF KOSTRITZ. An instance more remarkably clear, because more carefully observed, is that of the vale of Kostritz, near the river Elster, in Upper Saxony, where, about fifty years ago, gypsum quarries were opened, in a generally undulating country, sufficiently elevated to preclude all supposition that inundations can have had the least influence on the deposits, since the present geo- logical arrangement, and without external evidence of the exist- ence of any caverns. The soil is of the usual red loam, which, both in France and in England, encloses organic remains, and here, as in South Devon, covers the limestone formation of the whole country. Masses of stalactites occur beneath the surface, and, at the depth of twenty feet, bones of large land animals were discovered in the loam of the greater cavities. At Kos- tritz, in particular, the gypsum is intersected by caves and fissures in every direction, and connected with each other, but filled throughout with red alluvial clay, containing in clusters bones of mammalia, and, among them, of man. They were first described, in a lucid manner, by Baron von Schlotheim, who summed up his account by saying : — <: It is evident that the human bones could not have been buried here, nor have fallen into fissures during battles in ancient times. The human bones are few, completely detached and isolated. Nor could they have been thus mutilated and lodged by any other acci- dental cause in more modern times, inasmuch as they are always found with the other animal remains, under the same relations, not constituting connected skeletons, but gathered in various, groups," &c. Beside those of man, of different peri- ods of life, from infancy to mature age, the bones of Rhinoce- ros, a great Feline, Hyena, Horse, Ox, Deer, Hare, and Rabbit, bones of an Owl were found; and, since the paper of the baron THE HUMAN SPECIES. 157 was published, portions of a small Elephant, of Elk and Rein- deer,— facts which, in this case as in others, confirm the coexistence of species in the present zoology, on the same area.^ Of man, fragments are in the possession of the Prince of Reuss, Baron von Schlotheim, Dr. Schotte, and other individ- uals residing near the spot ; and Mr. Fairholme, who went purposely to Saxony to convince himself of the facts by careful examination of the locality, brought home specimen*, which he presented to the British Museum. It appears that all the bones are not precisely entombed within the caverns or the fissures, since the fragment of an arm and the thigh-bone of a man were dug out of the clay at eighteen feet of depth, and eight feet below two phalanges of a Rhinoceros. As the facts relating to the coexistence of human remains with the bones of a mostly extinct mammalogy can no longer be denied, it remains to be ascertained whether the explanations that have been offered with a view of proving that they are of a more recent date, can be substantiated. Those found in the clefts of lime rock in England (17S7) were reburied or thrown on the public road, without further notice. The late Rev. Mr. M'Enery disposed of those he found, without examination; and, as it appears to us, his replies to our interrogations, and his letter, afterwards published, did not exactly coincide, since there was some disparity in the bones not being all found above the stalagmite, but partly below. The criterion for pronouncing on the age of vertebrata remains, we believe, rests solely, beside the circumstances of location, upon the absence or pres- ence of animal matter in them. In the first case, a bone sticks to the tongue ; in the second, it is not adhesive. No series of *Cuvier remarked the coexistence of Elk, in all respects appearing to be identical with the present, the Asiatic elephant, and other tropical ani- mals, in the same deposits. 14 158 NATURAL HISTORY OF experiments, elaborately made, so far as we know, has yet determined to what extent the criterion can be trusted. Mr. Franklin Bellamy, with bis usual patient caution, submitted a portion of bone from the Yealm Bridge Cave, weighing one drachm ; and also a piece of bone, of the same weight, taken from one by the road-side, that might have been exposed for many months. Each was placed in a separate glass vessel, containing diluted muriatic acid. As soon as the fossil bone was immersed, a violent action commenced to disengage car- bonic acid ; gradual corrosion, or removal of earthy matter, suc- ceeded, and in the space of seven hours the bone waa reduced to a spongy, flocculent mass, which, having become lighter than the fluid, rose to the surface, in the shape of a mere pellicle. This, being extracted, weighed eleven grains. In the other vessel, a quiet and gradual escape of gas took place. In the space of seven hours the earthy matter had been extracted to one half of the depth of the piece ; and after the process was complete it remained at the bottom, and retained the original form of the immersed fragment. It was fibrous, soft, highly flexible, and elastic, and weighed eighteen grains. By adding sulphuric acid to the liquor, after removing the masses of ani- mal matter from both vessels, sulphate of lime was obtained ; and, when weighed, they were found to correspond very nearly The fastidious caution of Mr. Bellamy did not suffer him to regard this experiment as conducted with the greatest nicety. At our request, he submitted a metatarsal bone of Hyena, from the same cavern, to immersion in one sixth of muriatic acid to five sixths of water; but in this case, after the earthy matter was thrown off, the animal substance remained so abundant that the bone retains its complete form, is only translucent, and remains at the bottom of the liquor, as if it were a recent speci- men, of which it preserves all the characters. Pieces of human skull, from a sub-Apennine cavern, in Tuscany, probably not less than twenty-five or thirty centuries old, appeared thoroughly fossilized, or rather entirely deprived THE HUMAN SrECIES. 159 of animal juices, and in a chalky state. On examination, in proper chemical tests, by Dr. Armstrong, of the Royal Naval Hospital at Plymouth, and by Mr. Oxland, chemist, both gentlemen came to conclusions which did not invalidate Mr. Bellamy's investigation, though they presented a smaller quantity of gelatine or animal matter than was obtained from the bones above mentioned. Human bones, from the Brixham Cavern, were said to be recent, though they appeared to us as if the extremities had been gnawed, and marks of teeth were traceable at the sides. Not far from the cave where these remains were found, there was dug out of the sand a thoroughly fossilized head of a Deer (Rangifer ?), within a few feet of a humerus of some great feline, not less than a Panther, but hav- ing all the appearance and color of a recent bone. Great dis- similarity exists in the conditions of the bones of extinct mammals, undoubtedly arising in part from their relative ages, but still more from the localities where they are found de- posited. Those of Megatherium, often discovered on the sur- face of the Pampas of Brazil, necessarily differ from bones located in clefts of limestone rocks in the same country. Again, there is a change between these and the Mastodons of the clayey bone licks of North America and gravels of Eng- land ; and, still more, between those of the Asiatic Mammoths, which are so perfectly fresh that bears have devoured the flesh after many ages of preservation in ice or frozen earth. The bones found in Gibraltar breccia are not in the same condition as those dug out of the red loam or clay beneath stalagmites. They are dissimilar even in the same caves, and therefore we may infer that the criterion whereby their age is to be deter- mined is exceedingly questionable, and, consequently, that human bones found among them, and under similar conditions, should not be made exceptions upon hypothetical assumptions, but treated similarly with those around them. No new theory of guesses should be admitted for every recurring case. With regard to the pretence that they may have dropped into the 160 NATURAL HISTORY OF caves, it is to be observed, that few of these receptacles have been found to have perceptible openings, excepting such as have been accidentally made in later times. Besides, no accident could place them under the stalagmite subsequent to its formation. When recourse was had to the supposition, that alter the ossiferous formation was completed, either by deposits caused by floods, by the gradual accumulation produced through the intervention of resident carnivora, or in any other way, they were buried in the caves, without considering that savages, who, as the presence of flint knives proves, could, with such implements hardly break through the dense stalagmite ;rust, and, from their nature, would scarcely be willing to effect a passage through what must have been viewed by them as solid rock, when, within the distance of a few yards, they would bury a relative, worthy the trouble, with ease, in the common soil/* If, in truth, the human bones found among the others had been placed in those receptacles by the hand of man, there would be tokens of human care; they would be found connected, and the skulls, by far the hardest bone and longest preserved, would not be wanting, as they generally are ; nor, in that case, would the human remains be deprived of animal juices, exactly in the same condition as those in the bones of extinct species, — that is, varying according to cir- cumstances, as they occur in both. With regard to the evi- dence attempted to be drawn in support of the theory that the human remains are more recent, because fragments of pottery have been found with them, and, in one case, that the cavern indicated the effect of smoke, it is surely unnecessary to remark that savages are still human beings, who make use of fire and of earthenware, particularly in cold and temperate climates, provided they are not nomads; therefore, that the presence of human bones indicates the existence of both fire * To a comparatively late age, when tools were not wanting, human bones are found deposited very near or on the surface ; not buried, but covered with heaps of stones or earth, forming cairns or barrows. TIIE IIUMAN SPECIES. 161 and culinary utensils. Cuvier, more profound and more cautious, simply replied, " Pas encore," when he was asked whether human bones, proved to be coeval with those of extinct mammalia, had yet been discovered. This was in 1S24.* TRADITIONS RESPECTING EXTINCT SPECIES. Though the remains of Mastodon ang?istidcns, found on an elevated site of Peru, of Toxodon, Macrauchenia, and Mylodon, may, in America, point to a more remote antiquity, the bones of Megatherium, in Brazil, are on or near the surface, in a recent state, and in the same condition as those of Horse, often accompanying them, whose bones arc, nevertheless, accepted as belonging to an extinct species. Now, could they have resisted disintegration during four or five thousand years, con- sidering both of these to have lain exposed to, or, at least, •vithin the influence of a tropical sun and the periodical rains? Yet they occur often on the surface, and the bones of the pel- vis have been used for temporary fire-places, by the aborigines, wandering on the Pampas, beyond the memory of man. In North America, although such remains as are now usually dis- covered have lain sunken in clay or mud, deposited by former lakes, the fact is not invariable ; and exclusive of Dr. Lund's discoveries in Brazil, there are native legends which indicate traditional knowledge of more than one species. Such is that of the great Elk or Buffalo, which, besides its enormous horns, had an arm protruding from its shoulder, with a hand at the extremity (a proboscis). Another, the Tagesho, or Yagesko, was a giant Bear, long-bodied, broad down the shoulders, thin and narrow about the hind quarters, with a large head, power- ful teeth, short and thick legs, paws with very long claws, body almost destitute of hair, except about the hind legs; and, there- fore, it was called " the Naked Bear." Further details arc fur- * In this, as in other cases, Cuvier made it a rule to answer only for his own personal observation ; and the human skulls found in the Apen- nines he c nsidcred as demanding further research. — See Appendix. 14* 162 NATURAL HISTOID nished by the Indians, which, allowing for inadequate termi- nology, incorrectness in tradition and translation from the native dialects to English, leaves a surprisingly applicable pic- ture to a species of Megatherida, perhaps the Jeffersonian Megalonyx. Thecolossal Elk, another name lor the Mastodon, or I'cre aux Beeufs, points ou1 that with designations of existing species the Indians describe extinct animals with a precision which, in the .state of their information, nothing but traditionary recollection of their real structure could have furnished. We remember seeing, in the United States, a rib, supposed to have belonged to a fossil ungulate species, which bore undeniable marks of a wound, apparently given by some sharp instrument of human invention. Tradition, in the East Indies, similarly mentions the Aula, or Auloc, Elephant-horse, a solid, ungulated proboscidean, sup- posed to be figured in Kindersley's specimens of Hindoo litera- ture, where the Macaira, represented in Budha zodiacs, is again seen beneath the monster horse, and, still more singu- larly, bears the same form in a Peruvian bas-relief, always resembling the presumed figure of Dinotherhtm gigayiteum, or, rather, with the characters of an aquatic proboscidean. The Uri and Bisontes, of the Hercynian Forest, have disap- peared, and the Machlis of Csesar, if it was identical with the Sech and Schelch, of the middle ages, and the same as the Irish Elk, by Breton bards transmuted into the Questing beast of romance, was a real existing species, so late as the eighth century, and, perhaps, even to the fifteenth. It is, neverthe- less, an extinct animal, and its bones are found under circum- stances similar to the Megatherium of America, and nearly in the same chemical condition. Next, we have the exuviae of existing species, exclusive of Horse, Beaver, &c. The Elk is not unfrequently found among those of extinct animals, in the same regions where that ruminant now resides; and we ask by what theory, compatible with the sentence pronounced upon others, these are to be disposed of? THE HUMAN SPECIES. 163 HUMAN OSSUARIES, WITH BOXES OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. Now, the inference which we desire at present to draw from *he foregoing facts, is, solely that the extinction of several lost species of the so-called fossil mammalia was not entire, nor an- terior to the first appearance of man on earth, nor even to his dispersion over the greater part of its surface ; and, therefore, that the asserted alteration in the atmosphere, by the increase of carbonic acid gas, if it did not affect their vitality, must have been shared by man, and, at most, can have operated only by very slow degrees.* In order to show this probable coexisting state, other caverns may be mentioned, which were discovered in the calcareous mountains of Quercy, in the commune of Guienne, district of Figeac, and department du Lot, nearly in the centre of Southern France. They occur, chiefly, on two mountains, on opposite sides of the valley, at an elevation of more than 300 metres (nearly 1000 feet) above the river Scle, and at a locality which appears to be connected with circular and rectilinear fortifications, whereof the ruins bear a resem- blance to what are commonly called Cyclopean walls, such as occur in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy. Here it is that an unknown people actually did bury, or, at least, made ossuaries of the dead, at a period so remote as in all probability to be anterior to the arrival of the historical Celts, who were them- selves colonists ere the Gauls established their power west of the Rhine. The people in question, though barbarian, was not a mere assemblage of savages. It was stationary, if we can * Captain M'Adam, in MS. Lectures, gives the English coal formations alone to have returned, — Oxygen, 7,706,700,800 cubic feet. Absorbed carbo-uc acid, . . . 3,123,530,809 cubic feet. But since the remains of birds, of marsupials, &c, are discovered, belong- ing to the eocene period, there does not seem to exist any reason for pre- suming a marked atmospheric difference could prevail, since the more perfect vertcbratae were in being. 164 NATURAL HISTORY OF trust the defensive structures to have been its work, and had social institutions, at a time when the Rhinoceros and extinct Reindeer had not departed. An obscure and remote tradition pervading the present inhabitants, that, among other localities, there existed caverns on the right side of the river, replete with wondrous treasures, an entrance into one was at length searched for, and in 1825, digging in a spot judged to be favor- able, at the depth of three feet, the excavators found a human skeleton, and an iron tool of a forked shape. They continued to sink a shaft to the depth of eighteen metres, about fifty-six English feet, until they encountered a stone harrier of human workmanship; and having forced a passage, the workmen dis- covered three branches or natural galleries, and passed by one of them into the desired cavern. Instead of treasures, however, human bones were found in great quantities. They were mostly disposed in the crevices of the rock, with evident care, and others were pressed regularly into a cavity, and covered with a flat slab, surrounded by a circle of very clean white stones. By the precautions that had been taken to block up every entrance with walls of stone, and the success with which it had been performed, — (since the shaft by which an opening was forced did not reach the real entrance), — the whole mani- fested that it had been a tribal necropolis, formed with great respect for the dead, at the same time that a strong impres- sion was created of its remote antiquity, from the circumstance of these human remains being accompanied by the head and three teeth of a Rhinoceros, antlers of a small species of Rein- deer, the head of an extinct species of Stag, the shoulder-blade of a very large Bovine, and the canon bone of a Horse. In this case, we hear of no stalagmite, no red loam ; there is no mention of Hyenas or other carnivorous animals, and only a few remains of herbivora, which may have been deposited in the human ossuary, because they had served for sacrificial purposes in honor of the dead. It is not probable, if they had been found in the locality, when cleared for a sacred purpose, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 165 that there w uld not have been any more, and in company with debris oi' carnassiers, or that they would not, in that case, have been removed, without exception. If the ossuary was formed by progenitors of Basque, Euscarra, or Cantabrian tribes (the most ancient marine Hyperboreans of the Ouralian or Finnic stock in Western Europe), the presence of sacrificial heads and antlers would call to mind a similar practice still in vogue among the kindred pagan tribes in the Arctic regions, where Elk and Reindeer horns invariably decorate the tumuli of the dead, and would substantiate the inference that the lost herbivorae here mentioned, including a Rhinoceros, were still existing at a time when the people in question were already settled in Southern Europe. From the foregoing observations, we have no grounds for objecting to the coexistence of man with departed species, and wc may naturally expect his debris to become more abundant, in proportion as the others are less numerous, and will contain an increasing number of the last extinguished, or of such as are still in being : — Ruminants, among which may be reck- oned Wrus, Bison, Elk, Reindeer, Sheep ; and Carnivora, more particularly Bears, Felinse, and wild Canidoe, whereof the Wolf is anion? the latest. We have adduced the foregoing facts and inferences, not so much to establish the implied dependence that should be placed upon them singly, but as inducements for the general reader to bear them in mind as a whole, without which the conditions of human life, in a primeval state, such as man's distribution and earliest migrations, cannot be fairly reviewed. Thus much we have deemed necessary, foregoing, at the same time, to search beyond the later age of the great pachydermous distribution. In a mental physiological retrospect, we might, perhaps, fan- cifully, but not without truth, cast a pictorial glance over the aspect of organic nature, as it may have been presented to the 166 NATURAL HISTORY OF light of day in the brightness of youthful creation, wit dant meada and dense I imposed of botanical families still extant, abounding in Palms of different genera, in Bp of giant ArundinacecB and Marsh Plants, at this day flourish- ing in warm r ination might behold remaining Pachyderms on the borders of lakes; huge Ruminants swarm- ing on tli'' plains ; Saurians not as yet n duced in location, and numbers basking or floundering on the banks of the w Hyenas by the borders of the wood, or glaring from opening caverns ; and. perhaps, a distant solitary column of white smoke ascending from the forest, the certain indication ence, as yet humble, and in awe of the brute monarchs around him ; possessing no weapons beyond a club, nor a tool 1" a flint knife ; timid on earth, because he is still unacqu with his own rising superiority over other animated beings, though they be more powerful than himself; and ignorant of his destiny to survive their duration of existence, though he may already have witnessed convulsions, which, while they tend to benefit him, and set bounds to the rest, are yet causes of apprehension, because he cannot wholly escape their opera- tion. Whether such a condition of life, one that may be seen at '.he present time in those regions and latitudes where the a:tive-minded European has not yet overturned the old innate habits of savage life, — whether such an existence dates so far back as 6000 years, or 7322, according to Professor Wallace, or does not amount to forty-two centuries, is not, in our view, a question of importance; since, between the dates of Man's creation and the present, there is abundant proof, not only of one general diluvian catastrophe, but, also, of many others more or less important; and these alone, in a great measure, are sufficient cause for the dispersion of Man to all the points of the earth where he is found to reside, and in many places where the marks of his presence evidently date back to a very remote period. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 1G7 EXISTENCE OF MAN AS A GENUS, OR AS A SINGLE SPECIES. Although the existence of Man upon the face of the earth, to a very remote period, cannot be denied, it still remains a question, in systematic zoology, whether mankind is wholly derived from a single species, divided by strongly marked vari- eties, or sprung successively or simultaneously from a genus, having no less than three distinct specii s, synchronizing in their creation, or produced by the hand of nature at different epochs, each adapted to the peculiar conditions of its period, and all endowed with the power of intermixing and reproduc- ing filiations, up to a certain extent, in harmony with the intermediate locations, which circumstances, soil, climate, and food, necessitate. Of these questions, the first is assumed to be answered in the affirmative, notwithstanding the many diffi- culties which surround it ; and a very recent author, of un- doubted ability, has gone so far as to conclude that man neces- sarily constitutes but one single species. The inference, at first sight, appears to repose almost wholly upon authority without physiological assent, excepting when- physiology itself again upon an assumed conclusion. Now, with n to the second proposition, notwithstanding an unnecessary multiplication of species successively adopted by other philo- sophical physiologists, it cannot be denied that, by their hy- pothesis, many phenomena, most difficult of explanation, are solved in a comparatively natural way, and so far deserve more implicit confidence. For the first, scientifically taken, reposes mainly upon the maxim in natural history, which declares, " That the faculty of procreating a fertile offspring constitutes identity of species, and that all differences of struc- ture and external appearance, compatible therewith, are solely the effects resulting from variety of climate, food, or accident ; 1G8 NATURAL HISTORY OF consequently, are forms of mere varieties, or of raws of one common species!"* The second, on the contrary, while admit- ting the minor distinctions, as the effects of local causes, regards the structural, taken together with the moral and intel- lectual characters, as indications of a specific nature not refer- able to such causes, albeit the species remain prolific by inter-union, which, according to them, are the source of varie- ties and intermediate races. In systematic zoological definitions, the first may be regarded as sufficiently true for general purposes of classification ; but, physiologically, it cannot be assumed as positively correct, since there are notable exceptions, most probably in all the classes of the animal kingdom, from the lowest up to the most compli- cated ; and, therefore, when applied to mankind, it is of little weight, since even the exceptional law, assumed by the writer who regards the human races as necessarily of one species only, is more likely to operate in the usual generical form of animated beings, than by acting inversely, granting to one spec- ified type the attributes that belong, in all other instances, to a genus; and so far supporting his own doctrine of a progress- ive creation. In physics, dogmas are admissible only so long as they are not disproved. Since the fissiparous propagation of some animals is established, " Omne animal ex ovo " is no longer asserted to be a universal maxim, nor that all parturi- tion of mammalia is derived wholly from uterine gestation; for, without referring to classes of a lower organization, fertile offspring is obtained among several genera of brute mammals, from the union of two or more so-called distinct species ; or the definition of that word is several ways incorrect. Frederic Cuvier, sensible of the fallacy embodied in the maxim above quoted, endeavored to prop it up by an argument drawn from the asserted gradual decrease of prolific power in a breed of * Buffon and Cuvier have made their definitions somewhat more com- plicated, but essentially the same THE HUMAN SPECIES. 169 hybrids, obtained from the union of a Wolf and Dog-, reared by Buffon ; an experiment often referred to, but not carried out with the care and perseverance required to render it of sub- stantial weight. We have, for example, among carnassiers, the Wolf, Dhole, Chakal, and Dog; that is, all the diurnal canidae, if the dogma were true, would form only one species, diversified merely by the effects of chance, food, and climate, though all of them reside together in the same regions, such as India, and main- tain their distinctions; or the species Canis alone, as now clas- sified, must offer the union of three or more, aboriginally different. This is plainly indicated by the great inequality in the number of mammae; for they are not always in pairs, and vary from one individual to another, — from five and six, to seven, eight, nine, and ten.* No condition of existence that we know of can produce such an anatomical irregularity, with- out a presumption that it arises from the intermixture of dif- ferent types ; and the opinion is further borne out, by other structural differences in dogs, strictly so called, amounting to a greater diversity of forms than there are between that species and the Wolf, Dhole, or Chakal ; differences which maintain themselves, with very slight modifications, in the extreme cli- mates, whither Man has conveyed the various races, large or small, and amounting, in some cases, to greater hindrance to the continuation of so-called varieties than are recorded to have obstructed the experiment between Wolf and Dog already noticed. The FtiidcB offer another instance of blending two or more species without apparent difficulty. The breeds of the domes- tic cats produce, with the wild species of the Himalaya Moun- * On the property of a relative, there was lately a bitch, of the Spanish mastiff breed, twenty-nine inches at the shoulder, who brought forth twelve puppies at one birth ; indicating even a greater disturbance in the original species, and proving that mastiffs are by no means as sterile as js pretended. 15 170 NATUBAL HISTORY OF tains, the booted of Egypt (Ft lis maniculata), the wild Indian [Fells pennantii), and the original tortoise-shell, — all regs as distinct; yet remaining prolific, with but small appearance of being varieties.* Among Pachyderms, the Hoi e, and, still more evidently, the domestic Il(>L,r, by the great irregularity in the vertebral column, &c., indicate a plural ori .in, in BuminantiOt Goats and Sheep intermix-, producing permanently fertile hybrid-; although the genus Ovis, exclu- sive of the Argalis, offers several species in a wild state, which have themselves every appearance of being the types of differ- ent domestic races, that have been blended into common sheep after they had been separately subjugated. Such are the Sha, a species of Little Thibet; the Koch of the Suleimany range, having only five molars; the Persian Sheep of Gmelin; and the bearded or Kebsch of Africa, which is sufficiently aberrant to have been placed in a sub-genus, denominated AmmolragusA Another example may be pointed out in the promiscuous breed- ing of common cattle with Zebu (Bos Gibbosiis), a species born with two teeth already protruded) ; with the Gayal (Bos Gav- (Bus) ; and with the grunting Ox (Bos Poephagns). Finally, let one more instance be named from among the Rodentia, where the Hare and Rabbit of Europe, and the vari- able Hare of America, produce a continued progeny; more par- ticularly when the hybrids are again crossed with one or other of the pure species — a condition likewise the case with all the foren-oin?. * There is, besides, the brown black-footed eat of north-eastern Russia, and others that may claim a distinct origin ; but whether the Jaguar of South America, and the black variety (Jaguarete), forming a common cross- breed with the Leopard of the old continent, in our itinerant menageries, be successively prolific, is not satisfactorily determined, though the hy- brids so obtained are asserted to be both stronger and healthier than a genuine breed. t I believe, by Mr. Blyth, who first distinguished several of the above species. TIIE HUMAN SPECIES. 171 Those who, in the eagerness of defending a dogma, have erroneously assumed that the conditions of hybridism, among animals in a state of nature, were well understood, have like- wise asserted that they were confined to domesticated animals, or, at most, to cases where one of the parents was domesti- cated; and therefore, in all cases, formed vitiated, degraded, and exceptional instances, should likewise have reflected, when the question is raised respecting the specific distinctions of Man, that if his influence be thus powerful upon the brute creation, it should not be denied to be still more efficient between the species of his own genus, where the degradations inflicted by slavery, and the corruption of so many varied insti- tutions, have an empire independent of climate and food in much more durable operation. Enough, we deem, has been said, to satisfy the reader of the exceptional character of the definition above quoted, and, there- fore, that it is not one to be assumed, with confidence, on the question of the typical forms of Man. Reverting to Buflbn's experiment of breeding between the Wolf and Dog, intended by him more with a view to ascertain the reality of their common origin, or specifical identity, and by Frederick Cuvicr pointed out as solved, because, according to his view, it established an increasing sterility in the succes- sive generations, we have already stated, that neither sufficient care nor continuity was given to the experiment ; and that one single pair, of homogeneous origin, continuing propagation through successive offspring, without a single cross of renovat- ing blood, would, in all probability, end in similar sterility, or at least in sensible degradation. Hence it remains to be proved, whether it would not hold equally between two such dissimilar forms of Man, as a typical African negro and an European conducted upon the same principle, of admitting no intermix- ture of a single collateral* We doubt, exceedingly, if a * It is even pretended, by many white colonists, that no negro woman, 172 NATUBAL HISTORY OP mulatto family does, or could exist, in any part of the tropics, continued to a fourth generation, from one stock : perhaps there is not even one of five generations of positive mulattoes (hybrids in the first degree), from difTen ;it parents, but that all actually require, for continuity at least, a long previous succes- sion of foreign influences of white or negro, mestise, quar- troon, sambo, native Indian, or Malay blood, before the sinew and substance of a durable intermediate race can be reared. When the case is referred to Mongolic blood, placed in simi- lar circumstances, or when merely kept approaching to equal proportions with that of a Caucasian or Ethiopian stock, or even with any very aberrant, the effect would be the same. If the moral and instinctive impulses of the beardless stock be taken into account, they will be found to operate with a singularly repulsive tendency. Where the two types come in contact, it produces war, ever aiming, on the Mongolic side, at extermination, and in peace striving at an absolute exclusion of all intercourse with races typically distinct. In the wildest conquering inundations, lust itself obeying its impulses only by a kind of necessity ; myriads of slaves carried off and em- bodied, still producing only a very gradual influence upon the normalisms of the typical form, and passing into absorption by certain external appearances, with very faint steps.* War and slavery seem to have been, and still are, the great elements, perhaps the only direct agents, to produce amalgama- tion of the typical stocks, without which no permanent progress in the path of true civilization is made. From war has resulted the intermediate races of man, in the regions where the typical Laving borne a mulatto child, is ever after the mother of a black ! She becomes, they say, in that respect, sterile. But surely this must be very doubtful, although our researches do not invalidate the assertion. * This aversion to interunion with the bearded races is a result of experience, proving the superior activity of those who have sprung from iuch races, and become conquerors. Genghiz, Timur, and Nadir Shah, were directly, or in their ancestry, descended from Caucasian mothers ; and hence, also, the jealous exclusion of European women from China. THE HUMAN SrECIES. 173 species overlapped, strove for possession, and were forced to withdraw or to submit to absorption. Periods of repose seem even to be requisite before new influences are efficient; and thus, by degrees, commences that state of amalgamation which the necessities of the case, and the conditions already mentioned, prescribe to generate secondary forms of Man, by combinations, where new habits, new dialects, new articles of food, together with at least change of climate in one of the constituents, had their legitimate sphere of action. It is thus, where the foreign influence of infusion is modified by a change of climate, that mixed races spring up and have a continuous duration beyond the pale of their primitive centres of existence, until the ground is contested by the purer races, when they fall a prey to the victors, are exterminated, absorbed, or perish by a kind of decreasing vitality, or are entirely obliterated.* The centres of existence of the three typical forms of Man, are, evidently, the intertropical region of Africa for the woolly-haired, the open elevated regions of north-eastern Asia for the beardless, and the mountain ranges towards the south and west for the bearded Caucasian. But, with regard to the western hemisphere', it may be asserted that it is not a centre of any typical stock, since the primeval Flathcads have already disappeared ; and, though the partial population of the bearded form had been overwhelmed by the Mongolic, it is in turn now fast receding, and the woolly-haired, brought in chiefly by modern navigation, it maybe foreseen, will ultimately secure to itself a vast homogeneous region, without other change in characters than slight intermixture, advancing education, and local circumstances, can effect. Although, on debatable ground, a race may be dislodged, evidence of their having had possession of it remains in the population of the more inaccessible mountains and forests ; and * Yet this apparent obliteration must ever affect subsequent forms and mental conditions in the victors, which the physiologist ought to bear in mind, where known, or indicate when only suspected. 15* 174 NATT BAL ll I- J "UV OF this fact is still oftener observable when distinct races of the same type have contested the tenure of the soil. \\ e Bee both these cases repeatedly exemplified in all the metre isolated mountain systems, for the chains are guides to further | ress. It is shown in the Neelgherries, the Crimea, the Carpa- thians, the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Atlas, and even in the group of Northern South America — all the residence of very diffen nt tribes, driven to take refuge in them at various peri- ods, and a single ridge or valley often separating people totally distinct in religion, language, and aspect. The conditions of their several states of existence often produce a more certain and impressive history of the transactions in foregone ages, in a given country, than its hest chronicles afford. Thus, the temporary tenure of Caucasian tribes, the Kin- tomoey, Scythi, Yuchi, Yeta, and Sac®, and the overlapping nations in the north-east of the centre, and in north-western Asia, is proved by their insulation or expulsion by the Mongo- lic, to whom the whole expanse is more genial; while, for the same reason, this last named stock could not maintain its con- quests in Europe, nor to the south of the central ridge in Asia. But the white and negro races of Africa readily inter- mix. The woolly-haired form has there no pretensions on the debatable land between them. The Caucasian might have assumed mastery beyond it, had not the force of nature interposed; for this race does not and cannot multiply in the centre of Negro existence ; and in the warmer valleys of the intermediate spaces, such as that of the Nile, only a mixed Semitic stock possesses durability. It has been calculated, that, since the introduction of the Mameluke power, not less than five millions of well-chosen colonists, of both sexes, from higher Central Asia, have been introduced, not to wear out a life of slavery, but one of power and rule ; yet no fourth generation of this stock can anywhere be shown in Egypt, even with all the additional aid of Syrian and Persian females, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 175 to supply tl e deficiency.* The force of a true Negro expan- sion is felt coming from the centre of Africa. It presses upon the Caffres, the Abyssinees, and the west coast of Nigritia. Morocco is already ruled by black sovereigns ; and the antique semi-Caucasian tribes of the north part have greatly dimin- ished. As it is with individual life, so families, tribes, and nations, most likely even races, pass away. In debatable regions, their tenure is only provisional, until the typical form appears, when they are extinguished, or found to abandon all open territories not positively assigned them by nature, to make room for those to whom they are genial. This effect is itself a criterion of an abnormal origin ; for a parent stock, a typical form of the pres- ent genus or species, perhaps with the sole exception of the now extinct Flathcads, is, we believe, indestructible and inef- faceable. No change of food or circumstances can sweep away the tropical woolly-haired man; no event, short of a gen- eral cataclysis, can transfer his centre of existence to another ; nor can any known cause dislodge the beardless type from the primeval high north-eastern region of Asia and its icy shores. The white or bearded form, particularly that section which has little or no admixture, and is therefore quite fair, can only live, not thrive, in the two extremes of temperature. It exists in them solely as a master race, and must be maintained therein by foreign influences; and the intermediate regions, as we have seen, were in part yielded to the Mongolic on one side, and but temporarily obtained, by extermination, from the woolly-haired on the other. SPECIES OR TYPICAL FORMS OF MAN. Whether we take the three typical forms in the light of distinct species, or view them simply as varieties of one aborig- * The same result is asserted to be observed on the banks of the Ganges ; though, in the South Sea Islands and Australia, the bearded stock multi- ples in itsell, and with semi-Caucasian Malay races. 176 NATURAL HISTORY OF inal pair, there appear immediately two others int< rmediate between them, possessing the modified combination of chaiac- ters of two of the foregoing, sufficiently remote from both to seem deserving, likewise, the denomination of Bpecies, or at least of normal varieties, if it were not that the same difficulty obtrudes itself between every succeeding intermediate aber- rance. Hence, from the time of LinnSBUS, who tared to place Man in the class Mammalia, systematise hav< various diagnoses for separating tin.' different types or varieties of the human family ; such as, the form of the skull, the facial angle, the character of the hair, and of the mucous membrane. But the skeleton and internal structure may not have been suf- ficiently examined in all conditions of existence. It does not appear that a thorough research has yet been made in the successive cerebral appearances of the foetus, nor of the character the brain of infants exhibits, immediately after parturition, in each of the three typical forms. M. de Serres, indeed, has led the way, and already, according to him, most important discoveries have resulted from his investigations ; for, should the conditions of cerebral progress be more complete at birth in the Caucasian type, as his discoveries indicate, and be successively lower in the Mongolic and intermediate Malay and American, with the woolly-haired least developed of all, it would follow, according to the apparently general law of pro- gression in animated nature, that both — or at least the last mentioned — would be in the conditions which show a more ancient date of existence than the other, notwithstanding that both this and the Mongolic are so constituted that the spark of mental development can be received by them through contact with the higher Caucasian innervation; thus appearing, in classified zoology, to constitute perhaps three species, originat- ing at different epochs, or simultaneously in separate regions, while by the faculty of fusion with the last or Caucasian, im- parted to them, progression np to intellectual equality would manifest essential unity, and render all alike responsible beings, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 177 according to the degree of their existing capabilities — for this mast be the ultimate condition for which Man is created. Fan- ciful though these speculations may appear, they seem to confer more harmony upon the conflicting phenomena surrounding the question, than any other hypothesis that rests upon physi- ology, combined with geological data and known historical facts.* *The higher order of animals, according to the investigations of 31. de Serres, passes successively through the state of inferior animals, as it were in transitu, adopting the characteristics that are permanently imprinted on those below them in the scale of organization. Thus, the brain of Man excels that of any Other animal in complexity of organization and fulness of development. Eut this is only attained by gradual steps. At the carlirst period that it is cognizable to the senses, it appears a simple fold of nervous matter, with difficulty distinguishable into three parts, and having a little tail-like prolongation, which indicates the spinal mar- row. In this state it perfectly resembles the brain of an adult lisli ; thus assuming, in transitu, the form that is permanent in fish. Shortly after, the structure becomes more complex, the parts more distinct, the spinal marrow better marked. It is now the brain of a reptile. The change continues by a singular motion. The corpora quailrigcmina, which had hitherto appeared on the upper surface, now pass towards the lower ; the former is their permanent situation in fishes and reptiles, the latter in birds and mammalia. This is another step in the scale. The complica- tion increases ; cavities or ventricles are formed, which do not exist in either fishes, reptiles, or birds. Curiously organized parts, such as the corpora striata, are added. It is now the brain of mammalia. Its last and final change is wanting, that which shall render it the brain of 3Ian, in the structure of its full and human development. But although, in this progressive augmentation of organized parts, the full complement of the human brain is thus attained, the Caucasian form of Man has still other transitions to undergo, before the complete chef (V&uvre of nature is per- fected. Thus, the human brain successively assumes the form of the Negroes, the 3Ialays, the Americans, and the Mongolians, before it attains the Caucasian. Nay, more, the face partakes of these alterations. One of t ,e earliest points where ossification commences is the lower jaw. This bone is therefore sooner completed than any other of the head, and acquires a predominance which it never loses in the Negro. During the soft pliant state of the bones of the skull, the oblong form which they nat- urally assume approaches nearly the permanent shape of the American. At birth, the flattened face and broad smooth forehead of the infant ; the 178 NATURAL HISTORY OF How iruch remains still to be done, may be further instanced in the mental faculties, which have been even more neglected; neither Live they noticed religious and traditional opinions and practices ; and the connection they have with the external world assuredly demands rigorous and dispassionate inquiry. In general, the leading cbaracti r, Bomewhat arbitrarily chosen, i> held upas singly sufficient and uncombined with others, — some of the most important points in the question remaining unnoticed, — and sometimes the conclusions are drawn at vari- ance with the systematic rules prescribed in zoology on all other occasions. No common concert is the result of this variety of systems; and a great number of arbitrary divisions and cause- less names are introduced, — the proof how little zoologists are agreed in their views, — while the main points are scarcely influential ; and more than justifiable stress is laid on coin- cidences of language, which, notwithstanding they have un- questionable weight, are not as yet sufficiently discriminated for the general acquiescence of linguists, and should, more- over, be used with some regard to the occasional oblivion of a parent tongue, by the encroachment of another, brought in vogue by a conquering people.* All, however, appear to have taken but slight notice of numerous races of the several forms of Man, which have been entirely extinguished, and to have assumed, for incontroverti- position of the eyes, rather towards the sides of the head, and the widened space between, represent the Mongolian form, which, in the Caucasian, is not obliterated but by degrees, as the child advances to maturity. * We refer to such as the dialects of ancient Italy. Etruscan, &c, oblit- erated by the Roman Latin ; the Celtiberian and Turdetan, by the Latin and Spanish ; the Syriac by Arabic ; Celtic by the Latin and French ; the Celtic of Britain by the Saxon and English ; the Pelhevi and Zend by Perso-Arabic ; the Mauritaniau by the same ; and many more. Those who wish to view the abstract forms of the classifications of Man, zoolog- ically considered, will find an interesting article in the Edinburgh Jour- nal of Ph' sical Sciences, by William Macgillivray, fol. vol. i. ; and in the AniriH 1 Kingdom, commenced by Linnaeus Martin ; two works which, it is to be regretted, were discontinued from want of public support. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 179 ble, that the structural differences observable in nations are solely the result of changes of climate, food, and other condi- tions of existence, which a careful attention to history does' not confirm ; and which, if they operated at all, must be a result of the long-continued action of the same causes upon the por- tions of mankind placed within the sphere of their operation, such as arid or moist tropical heat, arctic cold, open mountain ridges, or low swampy forests ; — yet there is so little cer- tainty that such causes do or would effect the modifications ascribed to them, that it is not even proved they influence the brute creation to any extent, except in clothing; and the three normal forms of Man, in every region which is sufficiently genial to sustain the persisting duration of one of them, feel the effect but slightly; and as there are only three who attain this typical standard, tee have in them the foundation of that number being exclusively aboriginal. This inference is further supported by facts, which show, if not a succession of distinct creations of human forms, at least probabilities that their different characteristics are of a remoter date than the last great cataclysis of the earth's surface ; for the admitted chronological data do not give a sufficient period of duration between that event and the oldest picture sculptures of Egypt, to sanction the transition from Caucasian bearded to the Negro woolly-haired, or vice versa, as both appear on the monuments. In that case, the operation of the decided changes would have passed through all their main gradations in three or four centuries, without any subsequent perceptible addition in as many thousand years;* or should * There are, besides, such facts as the perfection of style in building, in drawing, and in hieroglyphic intaglio sculpture, remarkable in the oldest monuments ; not surpassed, but even receding to inferior execution, in subsequent ages. A national multitude must have risen out of few parents — all the subordinate arts invented, and so far carried to perfection, as to be available for scientific purposes, such as architecture, &c, in some cases exceeding our present capacities, or demanding the utmost ability in the moderns to equal. All this, without mentioning Etruria, Bactria, Assyria, India, and China. 180 NATURAL HISTORY OF the beardless stock, which never becomes intensely black, be regarded as intermediate, tbe difficulty is increased ; and it may be remarked, in addition, that the first admissible appearance of this type, in historical records of the west, is incomparably more recent. Cuvier, and other eminent writers, viewed the typical forms of Man to have descended from dif- ferent high mountain chains of the world after the deluge, and therefore dated them at least as old as that period. But if they were in their characteristics the same before, by what force in nature did they suddenly, in a short time, change to their present distinctions, after that event? Or if they were clearly possessed of them, then the remoteness of the time renders all trustworthy decision impossible, or favors, more than it contradicts, that the tropical conformation was the most general, and the Mongol ic next, because both extremes of temperature are not incompatible with its vitality ; and the bearded type last, the highest, the best endowed, and destined ultimately to elevate the others by its contact; and, finally, supports the same facts in the location of species which are observed to exist in the distribution of animals and plants in particular regions, according to their nature and structure. Thus, reasoning merely from facts, the woolly-haired type again bears tokens of greater antiquity than either of the other, and it may have been of Australasian origin ; not necessarily black, for color alone is of very secondary importance. Other distinctions of a specific character will be found, when those of the three forms are explicitly enumerated ; and thus far their separation as species might be claimed as established, but that there remain still other considerations which should not be overlooked, since they tend to an opposite conclusion. Among these, perhaps not one is more forcible than the fact that the lowest form of the three is the most ready to amalga- mate with the highest. Again, that both the beardless and THE HUMAN SPECIES. 181 woolly-haired acquire the Caucasian expression of beauty from a first intermixture, and very often both stature and form ex- ceeding either type; and, in the second generation, the eyes of Mongoles become horizontal, the face oval. The crania of the Negro stock immediately expand in their hybrid offspring, and leave more durable impressions than when the order is reversed. Even from the moment either typical stock is itself in a posi- tion to be intellectually excited by education, it is progressive in development in succeeding generations. Here, then, at the point of most intense innervation, the spark of indefinite progress is alone excited, and communicated in power, pre- cisely according to the quantity received. For the rest, gesta- tion, puberty, and duration of life, exclusive of accidental causes, are the same ; and in topographical location, though each is possessed of a centre of vitality, yet all have races and tribes scattered in certain directions through each other, and to vast distances, at the very first dawn of historical investigation. This may be the cause why all nations acknowledge a great deluge, although they do not foresee a second; but almost as universally expect a conflagration. It is, however, true, that the obvious inference to be drawn from the foregoing remarks, does not amount to a demonstration that mankind sprung from a single pair, or is of one species only, since there are numer- ous proofs, notwithstanding a permanent divergence, of the three types having been constantly in sufficient contact to learn great general traditions ; and the diluvian fact itself was of such magnitude, that it may have been actually witnessed by all. But then, the intention of an aboriginal unity of the species is at least so far indicated by the circumstance of Man's typical stock, having all a direct tendency to pass upwards towards the highest endowed, rather than to a lower condition, or to remain stationary. However, these remarks appertain solely to the traditional, geographical, and historical considerations, leaving untouched the structural phenomena, which the physiologist must weigh 16 182 NATURAL HISTORY OP and value according to their true importance, if so be, that ihj solution can thereby be effected, and bearing in mind how cir- cumscribed is our knowledge of the exceptional laws of nature. Without, therefore, coming to a peremptory conclusion in the present state of our knowledge, and having stated, so far as space and our means permitted, the principal conditions of the questions at issue, — questions which are, after all, in a great measure speculative, and whereof the result can in no shape have weight, where the moral obligations of Man regard his intercourse with fellow-men, — let us now proceed, first, to take a view of extinct abnormal races of our species ; and then, after noticing generalities, offer a somewhat detailed account of the three great typical forms which constitute the human family. ABNORMAL RACES OF MAN. GIANTS AND DWARFS. There were, in early antiquity, nations, tribes, and families, existing in nearly every part of the earth, whose origin and affinities appear so exceedingly obscure, that they have been transferred from physical realities to poetical mythology ; and, under the names of Titans, iEooras, Hastikarnas, Danaras, Gins, Deeves, Thyrsen, Dwarfs, Swergi, Elves, and Fairies, regarded as personifications of phenomena in nature, although the inverse may be assumed with more probabdity, taking the pretended creations of mere fancy to be, in their origin, derived from physical realities more or less distorted. Such are the Giant and Dwarf races of mythology, romance, and history, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 183 both sacred and profane.^ They occur in the traditions of most nations ; and in both hemispheres their physical existence has survived to within late ages ; provided, in considering the question, we reject wild impossibilities and adopt, in their stead, the subdued impressions compatible with the sobriety of nature, reducing them to an admissible stature, and view them more by the brutal ferocity of their manners, coupled with superior physical powers, than as absolute monsters in size and energy. At a period when animal development and mus- cular strength alone gave preeminence, it causes no wonder that the possessors of those qualities should abuse them. They were the source of the first desires of conquest for dominion s sake. They caused nations of more lofty structure, almost all arising among the nomad shepherds of temperate latitudes, — perhaps Shetoe, Kheta, or tribes of milk-eating Scythas, — to wander southward, and establish supremacies over weaker constituted people ; first as conquerors, next as a privileged body, and last, as families, among the subjugated populations, till intermixture, or new conquerors, partially effaced the dif- ference of nationality. Thus, the myrmidons of Achilles may have been identical with the Penestes of Thessaly, the Helots of Sparta, the Charotes of Crete, Gymnetes of Argos, and Conephores of Sicyon, which were all tribes enslaved by foreign conquerors. Thus, with scarce an exception, Giants are ever found in juxtaposition with Dwarfs, who, in reality, * The extent of Giant legends is shown, from their having no satisfac- tory interpretation, except in the Scythian (Gothic) mythology ; yet they are interwoven in all the earliest Greek mystical fables, without being intelligible to them. It seems as if there did exist, in Asia Minor, a particular version on this subject, for it is not a Greek mythus which has served the Jewish fabricators of their pretended Book of Enoch, where it treats of the commerce the Egregori, or fallen angels, had with women. The Giants heget Nephilim (Scandinavian Niflem,) and then Eliud (Elfen.) This is almost like the Edda, and may have been forged after the first captivity, when some Jews certainly visited Armenia. See Lac- tam, and Syncell. 184 NATURAL BIST0B1 0] are the mere subjects of the other, and perhaps little inferior in stature, bu, certainly nol bo well supplied with food, and its consequent physical results. Hence, in the early a party sees Giants among the leaders of the enemy, and only heroes in its own. Here, again, tin- rapid decline from con- quering tribes to single families, sinking still to individuals in a tribe of casual birth, who on some occasion- \ 1 to he Roman emperors and Gothic chiefs. At a later period, they pass into a kind of brutal champions, kept lor the sport or for the wars of chieftains in the middle and feudal ages, or for show, as certain men are still retained in Asia. Such Giants, in remote times, were the leaders and princes of idolatrous Egypt and Canaan, Apoplieis, Og, Goliath, &c. Such the first horsemen conquerors of the Bcdoueen or Ethiopian Arabs, still obscurely designated in the national lore as fair and blue- till the Almighty turned them red, and then black, in punish- ment for their iniquity.* And in mythological dualism, the red-haired Typhon, Baby, or Anteus, types drawn, equally with the Nephilim, from the red and fair-haired nations of Northern Asia, Gog and Magog (Haiguge and Magiuge, or the lofty and kindred lofty) Scythian tribes ; the Cyclopians and Lestrigons, the Thyrsen or Tyrheni, and Raseni. Such the deified heroes of Greece and of Etruria, always represented naked, like the Baresarks and Blaumans of the north, and Gaurs and Hunen of the Celtic and Teutonic nations. Such, finally, the Goths still figured on the brazen bas-reliefs of the cathedral gates at Augsburg,t and others lately discovered during some excava- tions in the Tyrol. Naked championship was a custom pre- served by Greeks, Gauls, Britons and Franks. So late as the year 157S, the Scottish Highlanders still fought naked against the Spaniards, at the action of Rymenant, near Mechlin. * See Tarikh Tebry. t These gates are certainly older than the eleventh century ; the male costume renders it likely that they really belonged to the palace of Theo- doric, at Ravenna, and the workmanship, that it is Byzantine. T1IE HUMAN SPECIES. 185 The Baresarks were true Giants in their manners, in their liability to fits of phrensy, paroxysms already characterized in the deeds of Hercules, and like the Malay muck. In Moslem. Asia were the Chagis, naked fanatics of giant stature, in the wars of the Crusades ; and there still remain Shumshurbas, Pehlwan, Kawasses, prize-fighters and wrestlers, often pos- sessed of immense muscular strength, kept in the pay of gran- dees, like the ancient Blaumen of the north, or like Orson in romance;* besides these, a nation of primeval invaders of India, denominated Cattie, even now contains many warriors above six feet high, with a powerful muscular structure; and revealing the origin whence it came, by the occasional presence of light-colored hair and gray eyes. As might be expected, physical Giants flourished longest in the colder temperate regions of our hemisphere, and are traced on the American continent, in the Mexican records, and high- nosed human forms in relief; while there exist also several tribes of American Indians, of very large stature, bearing, in general, marks of a partially distinct origin from the others, and still more from the Esquimaux. Again, in the cold extreme south, the Patagonians, likewise apparently differing from the more stunted Fuegians near them ; and the Araukas or Arookas, perhaps a mutation of the Indian Azooras, com- pared with the now extinct Flatheads ; and in both cases, fast disappearing, by reason of recent interunion with trihes of lower stature. South Africa, again, is in the possession of a lofty race of Caffres, with their champion, Aba-lafas, by the side of the dwarfish Bosjemans and Dokkos ; and in the moun- tains of northern China, men above six feet in height occur. But it is doubtful, whether, in any region, they do not all, directly or indirectly, spring from the original bearded stock of High Asia ; therefore conquerors, and always a master race. * The chained giant Widolt with the gavelock, and Wade with the hammer, of the " Heldenbuch and Niebelungen " romances ; and the wrestler Charles, in " As you like it," belong to this class. 16* 186 NATURAL HISTORY OF They have been often and long cannibals, the earliest pos- sessors of horses ; and hence doubly meriting the Chinese name of horse-faced; because, in addition to the first possession of the animal, all the lofty tribes of mankind have elongated features.* TIIE DWARFS. The races below a middle stature, frequently sinking to the form of Dwarfs, though seldom noticed but in conjunction with Giant tribes, are nevertheless much more numerous, more * In the list among the giant tribes of Syria alone, we find so many, that it is evident the y were mere families, ruling, most likely, by con- quest, over Canaan it ish trilics ■ — Nephilim, Rephaim, Zuzim, Gihhorim, Enakim, Zamzumim — some being distinguished by a malformation, having six fingers and six toes on the hands and feet ; of which there is a counterpart in the legends of India. Of the stature individuals may have attained, are the examples of Teutobochus, king of the Cymbers, whose head overtopped the spears, bearing trophies, in the triumph of Marius. The Emperor Maximinus exceeded eight feet ; Gabarus, an Ara- bian, in the time of Claudius, was nine feet nine inches high ; he was shown at Rome. In the reign of Augustus, Pusio and Secondilla were ten feet three inches in height ; their bodies were preserved and shown in the Sallustian Gardens. The Emperor Andronicus was ten feet high, according to Nicetas. Herodes Hercules was eight feet. Porus, six feet nine inches. Charlemagne, seven feet. George Castriot, or Skanderbeg, and George Freunsberg, nearly eight feet. Without, therefore, vouching for the exact measurements here given, we have still sufficient evidence to show, that, even in recent times, men of high stature, and of immense strength, have been historically conspicuous. The last trace, in Great Britain, of the Giant character, may be perceived in the Broincch of the Hebrides, where they are called Gruagaichs, (Gruage feachd,) a hairy bandit, concealed in the glens, and coming forth at night to plunder. During the operation of the Berlin and Milan decrees, we have personally known, in London, a Moor, usually named Gibraltar, captain of a neutral merchant ship, who was visible, at a great distance, in the Strand, head, breast and shoulders above the hats of the passing crowd, for he meas- ured six feet seven inches and a quarter, and was, in all respects, of the finest proportions, and of very considerable acquirements in languages, &c. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 187 generally liffused, and bear evidence of greater antiquity, wherever hey are located. In some instances supplying, by ingenuity, the want of superior strength, they appear poss of a certain progress in civilization greater than the conquer- ing tribes. Either from a kind of instinctive impulse, aiding natural intelligence, or from a docile spirit taking counsel, when the sense of physical inability prevails, from experience, or from instruction obtained in the Caucasian or even Mon- golic stocks, to which they appear directly <>r indirectly related — they are miners, metallurgists, smiths, and architects. When not driven to the woods and fastnesses, they have agri- cultural habits and superstitions of a low polytheistica] charac- ter, but bearing evidence of systematic organization. These qualities, in conjunction with retiring defensive habits, have, in every region, conferred upon them mystical properties, generally marked in legends by more excessively reducing their stature. Thence, we have Indian mythological Balak- hilyas and Dwarapulas; in Western Asia, Eliud, Peri, Gin ; Celtic Dubh ; Northern Elfin; Dwergar, always marked with Ouralian, Finnic, and Mongolian peculiarities; passing to more poetical fairies and pigmies, and then to true Fins, Lap- landers, Ostiaks, Samoyeds, Skrelings, and Myrmidons (of Achilles) afterwards named Elfin, in the woods of Thrace, and in the Hartz, Tyrolean, and Pyrenean mountains, where they are evidently the present Basques; all attesting a similar dualism of fancy and fact, as was shown to exist in the Giants. They bear, however, beside their diminished stature, one com- mon character in physical history ; namely, that all the races, where by superabundant intermixture the distinctive marks are not effaced, are swarthy, with black hair and black eyes, grow- ing still darker in southern latitudes, till at length they become positively black, and the hair assumes a woolly character. Still, among these, some may be seen of ordinary stature, and others are stunted by habitual want of food. In this shape they are, in Asia, recorded to have existed under various 188 NATURAL HISTORY OF legendary names ; and they now occupy many localities, but greatly debased by persecution. Indeed, their intermediate races, and still more and more, as they pass into the purer type of the Papua or Negro, have suffered, and continue to suffer, the unmitigated oppression of Caucasian superiority. In hot regions, where a powerful vegetation supplies the means, some of the most brutal tribes, such as the Vedas of Ceylon, Cookies, and Goands of Chittagong, east of the Bra- maputra, reside in trees, with little more contrivance, or the use of reason, than is evinced by Chimpanzees, the great apes of Africa. The Pouliahs of Malabar are no better, for they also form a kind of nests, in trees, beyond the reach of elephants and tigers, never associating with other nations, and not even permitted by the Hindoos to approach within one hundred yards. In open mountain country, these nations are more commonly troglodytes, dwellers in natural grottos ; and only in colder regions inhabitants of caves, excavated by their own industry. Mat tents, bark and skin huts, belong to a third class; and all are, or have been, cannibals ; but this appears to be a condition of existence which, at some time or other, was a habit in the highest and noblest races; for human sacrifices are always the last symptom of the expiring custom.* To the east of the Indus we find the primeval nations of India sometimes typified, in mythological poems, by Hanuman and his monkey followers ; but historically shown to designate certain human tribes, since the Ranas of Odeypoor, heads of the Sesodya tribe, noblest of the Rajpoots, claims to be descended from the monkey god, which they pretend to prove by a peculiarly elongated structure of the coccyx in their family. The claim establishes much more clearly, that the Bheels of this region, primeval inhabitants, and still the most numerous portion of the population, were the chief means of * The Mexican sovereigns, in the time of Cortez, were still obliged, by law, to taste human flesh once in the year. The Goands do the same as i religious behest. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 189 conquest in the wars of Lankadwipe or Ceylon ; although they nad many wars with their more western conquerors. The nation is further mixed up with Brahminical mythology; for Bhil, the chief god of these foresters, slew Heri, one of the Pandoo family. Bheel likewise shot Chrishna with an arrow ; and the Kabandaz of the same primeval stock are related to have captured Kama. These, with many others, extending to beyond the Brahmaputra, may be considered as the physical Nagas of Sanscrit lore ; that name being still applied to the Cookies, whose inveterate cannibalism we have already men- tioned ; and other tribes of the same source, such as the Chong, extend to the extremity of the Malay peninsula.1* The nations of this class, mystified in the records of tradi- tion, mythology and legends, are again prominent in Southern Asia ; such as the Nagas and Nishadas, the Acephali of Greek authors, or Nimreks, Flatheads, Dombuks, Kakasiah, or Black Brethren; in Persian lore, they are the objects of constant per- secution and extermination, by the earliest heroes of the first Iranian riding conqueror tribes — Husheng, Temurath Div- bend, &c, who sometimes vanquish Deeves, at others subdue the black tribes of Southern Persia, among whom there appear to have been one or more, whose foreheads were naturally, or, perhaps by art, greatly depressed — a character we shall soon see which occurs again in America. Bones and crania of men, with this conformation, have been found in Yemen;! profdes ~A Negroes, similarly conditioned, occur in Egyptian figures, published by Gau and others ; and the same frontal structure is observed in portraits referred to Caratchai (black Circassians, more probably Koords), allied to the Georgian stock, as if they * There are tribes of Negroes in Central Africa, likewise known by the name of Nagas ; and Cookies is again the name of the dark slaves of New Zealand. t Communicated by an officer who was employed in surveying that coast. 190 THE HUMAN S?BCIBS. still bore testimony to the ancient intermixture with the black Colchians mentioned by Herodotus. To the west of Persia, the Chna or Canaanites, and Ethio- pian Arabs, before the inroads of the Giant Scytbic horsemen, appear to have belonged to the same family (if nations, extend- ing northward to the Colchians before named. To this day there remains a clan of crisp-haired Arabs on the Hieromax, east of the Lake of Tiherias, with Mongolic features, by profes- sion graziers, and, like the Hottentots, destitute of horses. To the west, in Africa, exclusive of the basis of the ancient Egyptian population, these abnormal tribes appear again to recur in the Hottentots, Bushwanas, Boshemans, and probably Dokkos, who may be the pigmies of ancient fable. Certain it is, that Hebra- isms and Semitic words, in proper names, &c, are abundant, from the mouth of the Nile to the Cape of Good Hope. Thus, the Indian Parbatia, Naga tribes, as well as the African Bush- wanas, have all indications of a remote intermixture with the Mongolic races; and this character is retained in the earlier forms of their idols, always represented with crisped hair, oblique eyes, and ears detached from the side of the head ; and it may, perhaps, be traced in another direction, among the swarthy Kirguise. THE ATURIAN PALTAS OR FLATHEADS OF SOUTH AMERICA. Of all abnormal nations, the most singular were those Flat- heads of South America, whose bones and skulls now remain- ing furnish the only proof that a people with such strange conformation of the cranium have positively existed, and if we could now ascertain to what extent they likewise differed from the other typical forms of man, in the physiological conditions of structure of the softer parts ; such, for example, as the peculiar epiderais which Monsieur Flourens ascribes to the whole red race o{ America ; a quality which they, as the most normal of THE HUMAN SPECTES. 191 them, may have possessed to a still greater extent; the ques- tion would assume a paramount interest — one, perhaps, more indicative of a distinct origin than any before noticed. Dr. Tschudi, describing this form, in his paper on the ancient Peruvians, remarks on the flattened occiput of the cranium, and observes, " that there is found, in children, a bone between the two parietals, below the lambdoidal suture, separating the latter from the inferior margin of the squamous part of the afterhcad ; this bone is of a triangular shape, the upper a^igle between the ossa parietalia, and its horizontal diameter being twice that of the vertical. This bone coalesces at very different periods with the occipital bones, sometimes not till after six or seven years. In one child of the last mentioned age, having a very flat occi- put, the line of separation was marked by a most perfect suture from the squamous part, and was four inches in breadth by two in height." In remembrance of the nation where this confor- mation is alone found, the learned doctor denominated this bone Os. Ihccb ; and he further remarks, that it corresponds to the Os. interparletalis of Rodentia and Marsupiata. These characters had been previously noticed by Mr. Frank- lin Bellamy, in a paper read by him to the Naturalist's Society of Devon and Cornwall, together with remarks which do not occur in Dr. Tschudi's communication, and are, nevertheless, of considerable importance. Comparing the cranium of two Titicaca children with skulls of Europeans of similar age, he found the frontal bone, the parietal and occipital bones, of the former, all considerably larger than the latter, elongating the head posteriorly, and throwing back the whole skull. This peculiarity was greatest in the cranium of an infant, not many days old, and lessening with growth in the older head ; there- fore it was not absolutely the result of bandages ; because the natural effect of these would tend more to increase than to decrease this result. From the small flattened forehead there could not be much space for the anterior lobes of the brain. The orbits were exceeding strong, with a somewhat elevated 192 NATURAL HIST0B1 ridge, and the bones of the face harder and more solid than those which were produced for corapari on. Dr. Lund like- wise observed the incisor or molar teeth of adult - to be worn to flat crowns — a character which occurs also in som<' an Egyptian jaws, and in heads of Guanche mumrj Here, again, we have characters so marked and decisive, that if the case were applied to a lower animal, Bystematists would not hesitate to place it as a Beparate Bpeciea ; and the comment - ol physiologists who refuse their assent, not being in harmony with the admitted definitions, are more specious than convincing. I appears that the nation to which this form of head was peculiar, although with all the signs of very low intellectual faculties, ha.! nevertheless made advances in civilization, which m of the Asiatic abnormal tribes have never even attempted to acquire. They built houses of large stones, in a pyramidal form, having aii upper floor; and, judging from certain remains of their implements, ami the contents of their graves, they were able beings, most likely under the control of superiors not of the same stock, even from periods anterior to the formation of the Inca system of civilization. Mr. Pentland, we believe, first brought this singular race into notice, from skulls dug up near the shores of Lake Titicaca. Dr. Lund found others, even in a fossilized state, in the interior of Brazil. They were discovered in limestone crevices, in company with bones of different species of extinct animals ; proving both the remote age when this form of man already existed in America, and the extent of surface it is now known to have occupied. As the Budha, and several other idols of India, constantly represent Man with pro- files taken from a very low type ; so, in America, the Flathead form appears to have had a commanding influence in the ideal divine of the human head ; for the depression of forehead and occiput is found artificially reproduced by many tribes in both the southern and northern continents ; and specimens of these are observed among human remains, buried in the high sea sands of Peru itself; but these last mentioned have, in general, THE HUMAN BPECIES. 193 the occiput flattened obliquely, with but little apparent artificial anterior depression, evidently the effect of the back of the head having been secured to a board during infancy, as is still a practice in the north. The same form of the head is likewise observed in the high-nosed bas-reliefs of gods and heroes, both sculptured and tooled in the ancient temples and buildings of Yucatan and southern Mexico ; the representations of a people now likewise extinct, and by the indigenous tribes referred to the Giants of their primeval ages. Tbe account is not without some probability, since the profiles belong to a race entirely distinct from the general population of the western hemis- phere, and is only conformable to tip' high-statured races of Asia; excepting some tribes of North America, who, by their traditions, came from the north-west, are still of a lofty growth, and bear the aquiline features which may prove their descent from a kindred race. Several of these, like the Osages, not uncommonly reaching the height of six feet eight inches; but since the great disturbance of location, pro- duced by the European influx, they have latterly intermingled with other tribes, and are now fast effacing their particular characteristics. Perhaps the Yucatan Giant master-race disap- peared, when the Aztecs prevailed in Anahuac, from causes of a similar nature. Upon the whole, the nations with depressed foreheads, when under the guidance, perhaps, of Gomerian masters, seem to have a community of other characters, such as constructiveness, which distinguish the Paltas of South Amer- ica, as well as the older Egyptians. REMAINS OF OTHER ABNORMAL TRIBES. From the occasional destruction of whole tribes and races, which is sometimes caused, even in modern ages, by the sword, by contagious diseases, or by new modes of life, and the intro- duction of vices before unknown, it is evident, that numerous populations of the human family have disappeared, without 17 194 NATURAL HISTORY CF leaving a record of their ancient existence. We may .nstance savages in the British Islands, who had (lint knives, a kind of earthen pottery, and dwelt in caves. They were contempora- neous with hyaenas and lost species, for their bones are found in the same deposits ; consequently, they are older than the Cynetae, who preceded the other Celtic colonies in this island. Continental Europe affords instances of several more, whose history is a blank, although there remain scattered families, with peculiar marks of distinction, in evidence of the anterior existence of communities of the same kind. Some, still extant, seem to have been objects of slander and persecution, under several successive social systems, denied the rights of common humanity, without a comprehensible cause, and even in defi- ance of the kindness which Christian pastors evinced for them. Others are still said to be untractable, notwithstanding the gov- ernment endeavors to make them adopt the manners and duties of civilized life. The caves, with human bones, in Quercy, already mentioned, belong to this class. Such are the Cagots of the south-east of France, by some asserted to derive their name from the contraction of Can-goth, because they are a resi- due of the Goths, who, being anciently Arians, were held in de- testation by their neighbors; they were stigmatized as lepers, and refused entrance into church by the common doors, &c. This people, either an ancient residue, or latterly forced to a vagrant life, extended, under many different names, to Guienne, Beam, Bretagne, and la Rochelle, being sometimes confounded with Gypsies, although they were known before the arrival of the latter, and even enjoined not to appear abroad without tha mark of a goat's foot sewed upon the outer garment. King Louis XVI. first ameliorated their condition, and the French revolution finally swept away all the remaining legal dis abilities.* In the forests of ancient Dauphiny, there exist also relics of * There are recent accounts of this people, written by Baron Ramon, as well as ancient notices by Ochenartus, " Vasconiae notitia.'1 Bel Forest and Paul Merula. ft THE HUMAN SPECIES. 195 another population, unrecorded in history, but commonly ascribed to a Saracen or Moorish origin, stragglers of those who invaded France in the seventh and eighth century, and were unable to escape. There were Caucones in the Pelopon- nesus, Conconi (drinkers of horse blood), and Cheretani, in the Eastern Pyrenees ; but they and the Almogavaries have been absorbed. The Chuvash, still found scattered in the provinces of Kasan, Sembirsk, and Orenburg, in Russia, are a still more obscure race of men. They seem to be the remnant of a semi-brute population, which was scattered on the arrival of the moro intellectual Caucasians. In mental capacity, the Chuvashes are reported to be inferior even to the Ostiaks and Samoyedes. They live without taking the slightest notice of the world around them, in a condition little elevated above the orang- outang. While increase and activity is everywhere witnessed in their vicinity, they alone remain stationary ; industry and civilization excite in them no desires, no wish to be partakers of prosperity; none ever show inclinations to barter, or to be stimulated by gain to increase the means of comfort or of per- sonal happiness, still less to learn any trade. Their counte- nances are stupid, their habits incurably lazy, and their religion, for they have a worship, the most degrading idolatry. Their language is barbarously imperfect, and their manners and customs are still more revolting. The Assassins, Ansarie, Batenians, Dozzim, Laks, and Yezeedis of South-Western Asia, still persecuted, but not wholly exterminated, are tribes of primeval origin, variously mixed. The Gypsies, Zingari, Sinde, may be of the same stock as the Tschinganes at the mouth of the Indus, who are them- selves a tribe of mixed oriental Negroes and Caucasians, and are likewise connected with the Gungas or Indian Gypsies and Laubes of Africa, who may all be instanced as examples of the development of human beauty, whenever the typical races are crossed; for, while this result is impressed on the whole of 196 NATURAL HISTORY OF the Astatic stems, the Laubes, dwelling in the Jaloff country, in western Africa, though of the Zingara race, are remarkably ugly and diminutive, probably because they are unmixed even with the Negro tribes around them. In one characteristic they all unite, namely, to be, by predilection, wanderers without a home ; not graziers nor cattle-dealers, but tinkers and pilfer- ers. Another outcast race, in Central Africa, are the Cumbrie Blacks, whose origin is still less known. Though they are considered to be genuine Negroes, they are not permitted to have a national existence, but are treated as slaves by all the other tribes in Yaouri and Engarski. This fact is sufficient (o prove them of a distinct origin, and their present character to be superinduced by the lust and lawlessness of conquest and oppression. The Guanches, perhaps identical with the ancient inhabi- tants of Fernando Po, both sallow nations ; the first latterly, the second not yet extinct, appear on the skirts of Africa, as rem- nants of a race of tenants of the soil, before the expansion of the Negroes. The cannibal Ompizee of Madagascar, or copper-colored sav- ages, who fed upon each other till they are nearly or perhaps now entirely destroyed, may have belonged to the same stock, for they have no national affinities with any other people of the island. We may mention here the Benderwars, a Joand tribe on the Nerbudda, who devour their aged and sick in honor of Kali ; the Ogres or Gholes of Bajahstan, known by the name of Rakshassas, Pisachas, or Bhutas, Aghori, Mardikohrs, &c, feeders on human carrion, whose habits are already mentioned by Ctesias, and are still not entirely extinct. Other tribes there are, equally aberrant, almost as degraded in mind and form, but caused by the wretched conditions of their existence, or by an apathy of character, which no force of example or change of circumstances seems to affect ; such are the Samang Dwarfs of the Malayan mountains, and the black Inagta of the island of Lasso, whose stature seldom exceeds four feet eight THE HUMAN SPECIES. 197 inches. It will be an interesting object of consideration for anatomists, who may be placed in favorable conditions for observation, to examine the brain of children belonging to these races in the foetus, and particularly after birth, as it may be expected to display a still more imperfect state than that of a Negro infant. The foregoing discussions have chiefly had for object, to offer some points relating to the physical history of man, which, it appears, have not as yet been viewed in the light here shown ; perhaps, because the facts relating to them are uninteresting and few, or are concealed under a dense veil of tradition and figurative mystification, with only occasional glimpses that can be appreciated, and therefore difficult to grasp, and uncertain in the application ; still, when collected into somewhat of a series, give consistency to conjecture, and frequently bestow upon it most, if not all, the conditions of his- torical truth. As we proceed, names of nations and tribes above indicated among the unassignable in the family cogna- tions of man, may again appear with more detail, clothed in the form they seem to have passed into, and become known and well-defined races. 17* 198 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TYPICAL STOCKS. COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL POWERS, AND STRUCTURAL DIF- FER K.N CFS OJF Till: TYPICAL STOCKS. Let us now proceed to review the structural characl tics of man, in their general application to the distinction of species, varieties, or Among these, Camper's observa- tions on the facia] angle which distinguishes the three typical races, taken in a general view, are most important. The human head, seen vertically, or from above, conceals, in the Cau< . form, nearly every part of the facial surface; whilst the same view of the woolly-haired type demonstrates the narrow and obliquity of the forehead, by exposing the greater part of the face. A smaller obliquity may be observed in the cranium of the Mongolic stock, but differing from both the preceding by the lateral expansion of the cheek-bones. Hence the facial angles, taken by drawing a line from the opening of the ear to the nostril, bisected by another line dropped from the promi- nent part of the forehead to the most advanced edge of the upper jaw, taken on the profile view of the head, produce an angle, which, according to the number of degrees it is found to open in Camper's hypothesis, advances the forehead towards a vertical structure, gives prominence to the anterior lobes of the brain, and consequently develops intellectual capacity. But this criterion, though generally true in all mammalia, if the question be referred to man, is liable to the objection, that whole races have the orbital crests, at their junction on the lower edge of the frontal, so prominent as to prevent the facial lines touching the forehead, which from that point falls sud- denly, both in the natural structure of the flat-headed nations of Asia, and in the heads by nature or artificially depressed, such as occur in America. In other respects, where the facial line can be drawn fairly, there is no doubt of the general cor- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 199 rectness of the principle, provided a vertical view upon the skull, according1 to Blumenbach, and another upon its base — the lower jaw being removed as recommended by Professor Owen — be likewise employed to form a comparison. The highest intellectual bearded nations present, by the Camperian method, individuals rising to eighty-five and even nearly to ninety degrees. These are, for example, occasionally observed in the Teuto-Sarmatian nobles, and, more rarely, in other European nations;* but beyond the perpendicular line of fore- head, there occur only indications of morbid development, and ideal exaggerated profiles of Greek divinities, whose over- hanging brows, and deep-seated eyes, produce the effect of a calm shadowy frown, which we learn to view as an attribute of majesty and conscious power. Much, however, and indeed the essential, in all mental constitution, must depend upon the proportions of the cerebral structure being in sufficient harmony for their rational operation ; and this condition is found pre- served, without material injury to ratiocination, where both the anterior and posterior portions of the brain are distorted by- artificial pressure in infancy, or where the volume is small, by the retreating low angle of the forehead ; whether or not the case applies to a whole race, or to an occasional individual among the bearded tribes. It appears that individual interunions between the typical races not only tend to the superior development of form and * In a series of portraits, representing Polish, East Prussian, Silesian, Bohemian, and Moravian nobles, they occur frequently. The late Count Harach, from our personal knowledge, was remarkable for this feature ; i. e., a lofty and broad, very nearly vertical forehead; and it must be added, that many so distinguished, were conspicuous as statesmen and war- riors, probably all as ambitious men. It were to be wished that portrait painters paid more minute attention to this object — we mean, placing the aperture of the ear in relation to the nostril. It is important to them for the sake of truth, and to the physiologist for the same reason; since, without accuracy, he cannot draw fair conclusions from painted human likenesses. 200 NATURAL HISTORY OF capacity in the offspring, but that the same tendency continues to operate between different tribes; the constant crossing of Celtic with Teutonic blood, upon a Perso-Arabian basis, being per. laps a principal cause of the early progressive civilization of Southern and Western Europe; and the stationary charac- ter, chiefly observed in the Mongolic race, being a result of the want of the same acting cause. Notwithstanding the desire of the beardless type to violate its own prohibitory laws, inter- marriage with Caucasian women is decidedly more sterile than the union of the bearded and woolly-haired sexes. Where human laws prevent intermarriage, nature endeavors to be avenged through the more powerful operation of the passions, by means of interunion with foreign slaves, by abduction, and by child-stealing; whence results a certain restoration of the balance. There are localities in Europe, where the frequent intermarriages of the same families produce constantly indi- viduals defective in constitution, mind, or limbs. Without intermixture of races, the ratiocination of mankind appears inoperative to certain particulars in life. Nomad nations may not wander with their cattle solely from inclina- tion. Necessity is the first cause. But there are tribes, such as we have already named, who are not to be taught by example, or by the advantageous results of undertaking certain things that their inclinations reject. The Jews probably never were a truly agricultural people, working with their own hands. The Veneti, Heneti, Gwyniad, or Ventae, were always the real commercial pedlers of antiquity. The Armenians are nationally merchants, from London to Bokhara. Neither were ever warriors ; they traded solely ; and the last mentioned con- tinued to act on the same principle. They lived under the shield of the strongest warlike people that would protect them ; the first, under Etruscans, Gauls, and Romans, till the fall of the Western Empire ; and the second, under still existing gov- ernments. Some nations decline the use of horses ; others abhor the plough or a sea life. The Gypsies are always THE HUMAN SPECIES. 201 tinkers. These predilections must therefore depend on modi- fications of the brain. That *.he volume of brain is in relation to the intellectual faculties, is clearly proved by Dr. Morton's researches, who, having fil'.ed, for this purpose, the cerebral chamber of skulls belonging to numerous specimens of the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and Ethiopian (Negro) stock, with seeds of white pepper, found the first the most capacious, and the Ethi- opian the smallest; though there may be some doubt whether the Negro crania that served for his experiment, were not, in part at least, derived from slaves of the Southern States of North America, who, being descended from mixed African tribes, and much more educated, have larger heads than new Negroes from the coast. We have personally witnessed the issue of military chacos (caps) to the 2d West India Regiment, at the time when all the rank and file were bought out of slave ships, and the sergeants alone being in part white, men of color, Negroes from North America, or born Creoles, and it was observed, that scarcely any fitted the heads of the privates excepting the two smallest sizes ; in many cases robust men, }f the standard height, required padding an inch and a half in thickness, to fit their caps ; while those of the non-commis- sioned officers were adjusted without any additional aid. Though, on one hand, it is here stated that the Negroes from the coast of Africa were, in all probability, still less favored than the measurements of Dr. Morton proved ; it is, on the other, equally true, that the progress of development, and the elevation of the forehead, in the mixed offspring between the woolly-haired and white races, is often effaced in a second generation. It is so always much sooner than the apparently insignificant characters of the color of the skin, and the crisp- ness of the hair, which are never totally obliterated till after the fourth generation, when the African character may be deemed absorbed. It is advanced as established, that an accidental effect in the external characters of an individual may become 202 NATURAL HISTORY OF permanent in a nee. But accidental appearances must have a cause, and terminate when that cause disappears. Men covered with hair, or with a horny skin, may reproduce this character in their offspring; but then it is exceptional and dis- appears in the next generation. Albinism is more evident, and therefore believed to be more frequent in the woolly-haired races of man ; but in the sandy plains of the north-west of Europe, the same appearances occur, though not quite with the marks of disease; it is mere absence of coloring matter in the system. Among Mongolic nations it is unknown, or very rare, and it is equally so with the aboriginal tribes of America. The stature of mankind is unquestionably influenced by the adequate supply of wholesome food ; and hence the civilized nations of moderate climates are more generally of an equal standard than barbarians and savages, among which the hunter and pastoral nomad tribes arrive at the greatest stature. But, in these cases, a Caucasian element may be expected to be present, whether we take the Miao-tze of China, the Caffres of Eastern Africa, the Patagonian Araucas of South America, or the Creeks and other tribes in the north. For, if some latent cause of this kind did not produce the difference, all other tribes in the same climate, and under similar condi- tions of food and mode of life, would acquire a similar height; yet this is not the case ; and it is even known, in both the Americas, that the union of two tribes, differing in this respect, has produced, in one generation, the disappearance of a superior growth. Ancient history likewise represents the northern Gauls (Belgae), and the Teutonic nations, as far superior in stature to the civilized Romans, though they do not appear in their barbarous habits to have been better fed than the tall tubes of North America. In gracefulness of propor- tion, the American mixed white races with Negroes, both of French and British, and still more, of Spanish origin, yield to none in any part of the world ; and it is a mistaken notion to believe in the assertion that the standard contour of beauty THE HUMAN SPECIES. 203 and form differs materially in any count-/. Fashion may have the influence of setting- up certain deformities for perfec- tions, both at Pekin and at Paris, but they are invariably apol- ogies which national pride offers for its own defects. The youthful beauty of Canton would be handsome in London ; and the Tahtar nations, in the days of their conquering career, married the daughters of semi-Caucasian nomad princes, or notoriously selected, for their chiefs, the same class of European or Caucasian forms as they still purchase from Cir- cassia and Persia, Afghanistan, Cashmere, and India.* Lud- dee, the young wife of Abba Thule, chief of the Pelew Islands, was handsome on the Caucasian model ; so are all the beau- ties of Malay or other blood in the South Sea Islands ; the most admired young females among the Arookas and the Caribs. The Chippeways likewise have many beauties ; and so was Harriet, the belle of Lorette Sauvage, a Huron village near Quebec. In all these cases, both Europeans and natives agreed. Human growth, according to Professor Quetelet, is not com- pleted until the twenty-fifth year, at least in Belgium ; but this period is supposed to be shorter in other countries; cer- tainly so within the tropics, and in very warm regions, where development and decay are universally allowed to be more rapid. Weight is another element in the consideration of races, as this quality materially influences physical strength, and conse- quently bestows confidence, enterprise and success. An instrument, the dynamometer, has been invented to measure the relative scale, and they have shown savage nations to be * It is from these sources that the energetic innervation was principally derived, which gave birth to the great Toorkce Mongole conquerors, both in the west and in China. Siich, for example, was Alancona, wife of Pe- souka Bahander, of the Niron Toorkee tribe of smiths ; Purtan Cciigine, daughter of Conjorat Khan, the ambitious wife of Genghis, and Toora- kina Catan, wife of Octai. 204 NATURAL HISTORY OF strong in proportion to the abundance and wholesomeness of the food they possess; but in all cases hitherto examined, civilized Europeans surpassed them;* and, it appears, English exceeded French ; or perhaps more correctly, the Teutonic stock surpassed the Celtic, both in strength and weight, although the Irish Celts are said to be taller and heavier than the English Saxons. As yet, no great stress can be laid on results obtained from an imperfect instrument, partial inquiries, and questionable nationalities; still, enough is determined to reject an opinion, often prevalent, that the moderns are degenerate when compared with their ancestors. The conclu- sion is further controverted, by an experiment made at Good- rich Court, where the splendid collection of ancient armor is classified, with rigorous attention, both to date and nation, by Sir Samuel R. Meyrick, the enlightened and munificent pos- sessor. Two gentlemen, one of middle stature, with ample chest and shoulders, and the other somewhat taller, but of more slender structure, endeavored to find armor sufficiently large to fit either one or the other, and failed, in a collection where, we believe, they had a choice of upwards of sixty com- plete suits of plate, all defensive armor, which nevertheless had been worn, in preceding centuries, by chivalry, and persons of distinction, in England, France, Germany, and Italy. Hence King John, Petit Jean de Saintre, the Constable of Bourbon, the Prince of Conde, (" ce petit homme tant joli,") and Nicolo Piccinino, were not the only valiant men of small proportions in the feudal ages. At the present period, the British upper classes are probably of higher stature than the aristocracy of any other civilized people;! but taken nationally, the Prussian * The strongest North American Indians are asserted to fail against the ordinary power of wrist of Europeans ; that is, when each side place the right elbow to elbow, and cross the fingers through each other's hand, striving to bend the opposing wrist hack. The fact was established by the 60th Regiment in Canada. t Mr. Laurence, in his work on the Natural History of Man, may have THE HUMAN SPECIES. 205 and all the fair-haired natives of the north-west of Europe, are of greatest height, since the standard size for the military- service is above that of any other people in Europe. Northern Chinese, or Highland Tahtars, we have been informed by a general officer who served in the late war, were found to be fully equal, in stature and bulk, to our stoutest grenadiers; but we have since learned, from another officer, that when these men appeared on the field, they were found to be Miao-tze, — that is, a people of Caucasian or Caucaso-Malay origin. Elasticity of frame is, however, a quality very distinct from weight and strength. The Caucasian of Europe is trained to harder manual work than other races; but it may be doubted whether he could ride continuously, like the Turkish Talitar messengers, or Persian Chuppers ; or whether he could sustain the fatigue of such unceasing marches as the aboriginal Ameri- can warriors perform, or run on foot with the speed of Bechuana Hottentots, or even compete with New Hollanders, the most slender-limbed race on earth. When, therefore, comparative trials of strength are made with other nations, the selection of the modes should not be more than one half in favor of those which Europeans are most inured to. Captain Cook found his seamen unequal to a boxing contest with Hapaceans. There have been Negroes able to dispute the sparring championship of the English fancy ring; and beside the porters of Constanti- nople and Smyrna, celebrated for prodigious strength of loins, there are Pehlwans, professed wrestlers, in middle Asia, whose physical powers are certainly equal to any Europe can produce. It is not by comparing French or British seamen, as Peron did, with natives of Van Diemen's Land, New Hollanders, or Timorians of torrid regions, — all notoriously of small bone and light weight, — that a true estimate can be obtained of the easily found Englishmen of six feet and more in height, and Negroes below that standard j but had he visited tropical market-places, and com- pared the stature of our planters and sailors by that of the Negroes, he would most likely have found the white men the smallest. IS 206 NATURAL HISTORY OF relative strength of savages. The experiment sh:»ultl be tried, likewise, with Caffres, Patagonians, Araucanos, and Osages, notwithstanding these nations train their powers more to active exertions of body than to heavy manual toil; for if the trial were made with women, it may be expected that, in most cases, Europeans would be inferior to savages, excepting those who are particularly destitute of food ; or if it were made between populations of the bearded race, such, for example, as French Canadian boatmen and English laborers, there is no doubt that the last mentioned would as greatly surpass the first, in the toil of agricultural labor, as they would be outdone by them in the lasting exertions of poling, — that is, pushing boats up the cur- rent of rapid streams by the help of poles. INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL CHARACTERS OF THE TYPICAL STOCKS. Confining the number to three, because they alone are pos- sessed of the extremes of difference in structure and color, and because they have received, as before stated, centres of exist- ence where the others cannot predominate, we shall find pro- ceeding from them sub-typical stems, always interposed at the geographical points of contact between the two nearest types and, further on, third and fourth branches, or races and nations, consisting of more divergent forms, which have combined the characters of all the three in greater or less proportions ;* while over the whole are spread adventitious distinctions, sprung from changes of climate, latitude, food, mode of life, and the * The ancients, in several of the trinal combinations which play in their doctrines, seem to have an allusion, perhaps unwittingly, so far as the Greeks were concerned, to the three typical stocks, in the evocation of Hecate, (a Scythian divinity) ; for the ceremony demanded a waxen triform image, whereof one was to be white, the second red, and the third black. These indications are significant on a spot such as Tauris, notwithstanding the usual explanation, which refers them to the triune doctrines of India. THE HUMAN Si'ECIES. 207 innumerable other influential conditions of existence, — con- ditions that affect, though in a less degree, the typical structure, the external appearance of Man, and that acquire a deep-seated poAver over his intellectual faculties, in their possible develop- ment, and, consequently, also in their contraction, externally observable. Therefore, in reasoning upon them, we must be guarded against certain prepossessions of self-esteem, which the educated man of the bearded stock, and, indeed, mankind in general, is apt to entertain of strangers; for the same ten- dency is ever at work between nation and nation, and between every sub-division of the human family, however formed. In the description of characters, scientifically taken, we can only point out what they are, without having the power of stating what may be eventually evolved ; and though already assured, even with the apparently most degraded nations, that moral rectitude is fully understood, nay, often put in practice, by the savage, to the disgrace of the rapacious Christian who visits his abode ; not ashamed to use knowledge for the purpose of deception and illusions for his own gain, though the conse- quences carry destruction to his victims. When bearing in mind what our own remote progenitors were, we must allow that all men, and all races, bear within them the elements of a measured perfectibility, probably as high as the Caucasian; and it would be revolting to believe that the less gifted tribes were predestined to perish beneath the conquering and all- absorbing covetousness of European civilization, without an enormous load of responsibility resting on the perpetrators. Yet their fate appears to be scaled in many quarters, and seems, by a preordained law, to be an effect of more mysterious import than human reason can grasp.^ * Tiicrc is, however, a great distinction to be drawn between conquest that brings amelioration with it to the masses of the vanquished, and extermination, which leaves no remnant of a broken people. It seeras the first condition is only awardable to the great typical stocks, effecting incorporations among themselves ; the second almost invariably the lot of the intermediate, which, in most favorable cases only, aie absorbed. 208 NATURAL HISTORY OF As, therefore, we cannot attain, in our state of knowledge, satisfactory conclusions on this head, it becomes the duty of all to assert, at least, the rights of humanity, in their indisputable plenitude, although to us, in particular, as mere naturalists, it is a bounden duty to confine ourselves to known historical and scientific facts. PRIMAEVAL LOCATION OF MAN, OR POSITION OF THE TYPI- CAL STOCKS. As the more detailed characters of the typical stocks, their real or primaeval location, and the diffusion of subsequent races, cannot be readily understood without some retrospect of the geographical conditions of the earth, not only with regard to the convulsions already mentioned, but likewise as they bear upon the position of the great chains of mountains, seas, and deserts, and tbe direction of leading rivers, it is important not to overlook them, wherever the influence they must have exer- cised in the question under review is clearly ascertainable. Mankind, when first it becomes historically known, is already diffused over the greater part of the eastern hemisphere, and, probably, far beyond it, even to the western ; yet it appears to have departed from the vicinity of a common centre, or, at least, to have primaevally formed several stocks, clustered in the vicinity of that high central region of Asia which com- prises the external rampart, and, perhaps, interior of the vales of Thibet, and the so-called Khangai* of the Gobi desert; for this was, approximately, either the seat of Man's first develop- ment, so far as it can be now traced, or the space where a por- tion of human beings found safety, when convulsions and changes of surface, which may have swept away a more ancient zoology, had passed over the earth, and were introduc- tory to a new order of things. * Khangai, 01 oasos. verdant river courses, and lakes, which occur iu reveral places. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 209 The Gobi or Shamoo region is a true Shinar or Djeen, a series of sandy deserts, intersected, at great distances, by moun- tain ridges, and not unfrequently by rivers ending in lakes, which all naturally tend to separate small populations, and to keep them isolated so long as numbers do not compel the inmates to seek for more abundant subsistence. This state of being urges Man equally to a shepherd's life and to a begin- ning of agricultural industry. Around this space can be traced several high mountain systems, bearing the names of God, of Heaven, and of Snow (purity) ; for these are often expressed by the same words, such as Himaleh, Thianchan, Bog, &c, and mythical traditions, without geographical localities, where Pagan nations, at various times, centred the habitations of their gods, or progenitors, in spaces of eternal snow, such as Mount Mem, Kaf, or the oldest Olympus, find here in Bogtag, Hima- vali, and the peak of Himavahn, real geographical positions. It is there we find the Chumutaru peak of snow; and Somero purbut, created by Mahadeo, for his retreat and throne, when, like another Jupiter, he fled from Ravan ; the Hindoo diluvian Titan is clearly the snowy group at the sources of the Ganges. In this high region are the local sites commemorative of tradi- tions more than once repeated, at successive more distant stages, in proportion as the earliest nations moved further from their original common centre, or mythical tales spread onwards with time. There is Naubundana, — perhaps Dhawalaghiri, — where the patriarch god himself, in the form of Kapila, con- ducted the ark, and secured it to the rock, according to Hindoo lore ; and, on the north, where the Tahtar legend places Nataghi, the boatman god of the mountain, with his family, in one of the peaks of Altai ; for it is not a fact which always marks a pagan source, as has been remarked, when Man's existence is made to commence after the diluvian cataclysis. There is constantly a record of antecedent existence, though not a history, among early nations. It is variously told, but 18* 210 NATURAL HISTORY OF not the less the same in substance, in both hemispheres, and in the South Sea Islands. Although, in Central Asia, no very distinct evidence of a general diluvian action, so late as to involve the fate of many nations, can be detected, still there cannot be a doubt that, with scarce an opposable circumstance, all Man's historical dogmatic knowledge and traditionary records, all his acquirements, inventions, and domestic possessions, point to that locality, as connected with a great cataclysis, and as the scene where human development took its first most evident distribution. The animals subdued for household purposes, by the earliest nations, are found upon or around it in all directions, — like the Dog, universally spread where Man resides ; and the Hog, found radiating from points, where the wild species occur, from south-east to north-west; the Horse, Ass, and Camel, in direc- tions originally commencing from the west side; so, again, the Ox, Sheep, and Goat, still existing wild in the form of more than one species on the same borders ; whilst even the Ele- phant walked once through the more southern woods ; and the Wild Cat, similar to the European, now haunts the same, and prowls far onwards m the north. Of birds, Gallinacea, all originating in the south-east of Asia ; several kinds of poultry are wild in the woods ; and one domesticated species, at least, was carried, in Man's earliest migrations, onward to Egypt and the west of Europe, as well as to the furthest islands in the South Seas ; perhaps even to Chili, before the arrival of the Spaniards. On the western side, at least, are found the parent plants of many fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, now naturalized in Europe; the walnut, chestnut, filbert; the apple, medlar, cherry, and almost all the wild and cultivated berries, and the vine at no great distance.^ Wheat and barley, of more than one variety * The vine is now cultivated about Llassa, in Thibet, 29° 40" north latitude, and may also be indigenous. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 211 or species, occur on the skirts of the same central region, some thriving at more than 10,000 feet of elevation in the Himalayas and in China, with buckwheat and oats on the plains of the north-west, and onions, turnips, &c, growing wild in many places ; wild flax and hemp on the northern plains ; and, in Cashmere, the valleys even possess edible gourds, pumpkins, and melons, whereof one or two species flourish in the arid deserts ; even the lotus, celebrated in Egypt, was derived from some part of India. It would be vain to look for so many primitive elements of human subsistence, in a social state, in any other portion of the globe. Nearly all of them were originally wanting in the western Caucasus, and the civilized development of Egypt could nof have occurred without the possession of wheat, bar- ley, flax, the leek, garlic, onion, and many other objects, all foreign to Africa.* These can have been brought westward only by colonies practically acquainted with their value. In the devious course of the nations moving westward, the mul- berry, apricot, and the date palm, may have proved an early resource to the traveller; and, further on, the olive, fig-tree, and plum, were, no doubt, luxuries; but the sorbus, and, more certainly, the citron, were a later importation from beyond the Indus, as well as the orange, which came from China last of all. Rice was, most probably, a substitute for corn, first per- haps cultivated in China, or Indo-China, where the requisite heat and watery soil naturally present themselves.! On the west side of Thibet is the huge table land of Pamere, * Triticum sativum ; Triticum spelta, still wild near Hamadan ; Hor- deum vulgare, in Northern India and Tahtary ; Allium cepa, &c, wild in various places. t In Egytian representations of tribute, brought by subjugated nations from "far countries," it is pleasant to remark, among many objects, liv- ing plants and shrubs, carefully transported for replanting, and, by those accompanying them, are evidently from an eastern region. These figures likewise bear the Swasteca, or a similar cross, indicative of a symbolical creed. 212 NATURAL HISTORY OF the back-bone of the world, not yet distinctly marked in maps; a more real umbilicus of the earth than any other of the sacred centres of primseval society. Here is the mysterious Lake Surikol, at the source of the Oxus, where local belief pretends that the Jaxartes and the Indus have both affluents rising at no great distance, while the Kash-gar, on the east of the summits, flows towards the rising sun. To the west are the mountains of Northern Hindoo-Koosh, the probable seat of the first Celto- Srythsc, for in these regions was afterwards established a Macedonian empire, which, without an original consanguinity with the local nations, could not have lasted even for one gen- eration. Most primaeval nations have traditions of a primordial city of the gods, of the progenitor heroes of each stem, — a Babel, Nagara, Pasagardas, or Asgard. It appears that Balkh (Kham- balu*), is, at least, the most prominent, so far as the western and southern nations are concerned, notwithstanding that the present Bamean, with the interminable troglodyte habitations around, may well represent the spot where increased popula- tion, finding insufficient food, would be excited to discord; and an appeal to force would naturally end in the weaker party being driven to exile or dispersion. Though other traditions may be more purely Caucasian, mention may be made of some, perhaps, no less important. Among these is the very ancient name of Neel-ab, Blue River, given to the Indus by the earliest Semitic tribes in the east, and similarly applied to the Nile of Egypt, causing that con- fusion in geographical ideas which believed the river of Africa to come, by some unknown way, from the east, until the expe- dition of Alexander cleared up the error. It is curious that the Sutledge of the Punjab is still the Blue River; pointing to Cashmere (Kaspapyrus) as the first seat of the Perso-Arabian races. * The first Cambalu, or rather Khan-balk, is not Pekin. Samareand, the first horse-fair, and thence commercial city, is at no great distance. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 213 The oldest form of social existence was parental, or by fam- il.es, which soon expanded into the patriarchal, still retained by- nomad pastoral nations. With others it broke up by the sep- aration of the priestly dignity from the head paternity of tribes. As soon as dogmas and political considerations multiplied, the struggle between authority by birth, and the suggestions of expediency, began; for ambition pleaded the claims of valor, justifying them by surrounding dangers and the inefficiency of nonage ; the pontificate demanded an undying adequacy of purpose, upheld by sanctity of example : arguments which, being repeated as the social existence spread wider, hierarchies were instituted, and the rights of pleading the cause of jus- tice, or the art. of healing the sick, became separated, or clas- sified into learned orders. In religious feeling, a deism, perhaps a form of Budhism, can be traced back to Central Asia as early as the reign of Sesostris. The Vedas, not much, if at all later, show the pos- session of a higher truth than the subsequent philosophizing social dogmas, depending upon dualisms and astronomical fan- cies, could teach ; and those in the east have a more reasoned cohesion than the Egyptian, and, still more, than the Greek and Roman poetical physicalities, drawn from eastern sources and misinterpreted. In high Asia we find the legends of Eu- rope extant in their sources. Many of the arts of social life are similarly derived from thence ; every wave of invasion westward bringing new ideas ; and, in later ages, the crusad- ers, coming from the east with loss and shame, still returned with the additional information they had acquired. From Madagascar, back to the Indus, we find a similar connection , and, in the South Seas, there are everywhere evidences of an Asiatic priority. Finally, the western continent of America i.s redolent of Malay, Mongolic, Ouralian, and even purer Caucas- ian sources, in physical as well as traditional objects. In order to proceed to their various destinations, each typical stock naturally follow* i the great rivers in their course, for 214 NATURAL HISTORY OF these are the natural directing lines of nations exploring the way to unknown regions ; and the necessity of facilitating progression is the cause why all tribes, however rude, are acquainted with some mode of conveyance by water. Other roads were early indicated, by local necessities, differing from the subsequent caravan routes, which took directions from and to points already known to be most favorable for trafficking with distant nations, who had objects of barter to exchange, and, therefore, on both sides, had an interest in the speediest and safest passage. From the well-known proceedings of sub- sequent ages, it is clear that outcasts and scouts, then hunter families, would naturally be the first adventurers, and tribes would follow onwards only as far as immediate necessity or convenience might dictate ; pushing further when more was known of the world before them, and pressure from new colonists urged them from behind. Starting through the gorges of the great river outlets to the plains, and following their course, or ranging along the flanks of mountain chains, to turn deserts, or escape the necessity of attempting elevated ridges, or interminable swamps, which were, or might be, im- passable ; while, at the same time, water, game, and wild fruits would be most abundant. Deserts and plains are never so absolutely impassable as to prevent ulterior progress. Water is found in some localities, and occasionally verdure ; and these oases are soon marked by the wanderer, who then guides his family or moving tribe along them, till they reach a better region. Impediments of this kind are, therefore, incentives to progress, and generally much less obstacles than morasses and dense forests; for it is by the river courses alone that these last are penetrated. In the progressive colonization some leading tribe would find a natural obstacle to retard or prevent its further migration ; halting on the spot, other clans would come up ; and where no forests near the sea, nor a great stream, would favor the struc- ture of rafts or canoes, intercourse occurring, more or les9 THE HUMAN SPECIES. 215 knowledge of the acquirements and experience each had gained would be the result, although it might be obtained after col- lision, by much slaughter and suffering, if not by the subjuga- tion of one of the parties. Yet, out of these disasters rose almost all the elements of civilization ; and it may be remarked, ai a fact of constant occurrence, that human intelligence is per- haps never fully awakened to a progressive social system from suffering alone, but by intermixture, when races are packed together on the ultimate border of a sea, checked or forced to pass close upon or through each other, and to appeal to the sword. Thus, Palestine and Egypt, seated on the bridge that leads into Africa ; Ionia and Greece, on the ferry of the Helles- pont; Tangier and Cadiz (the Bisepharat of antiquity) ; Bab- el-mandel, the gate of tears, or passage into Africa ; even the isthmus of Panama, all attest the fact, together with an addi- tional result, which shows not so much the stationary people, as that which has passed on, to be likewise foremost in civili- zation. Such was Egypt compared with Syria, Greece in re- spect to Asia Minor ; Spain with Africa ; such was Peru to Mexico ; and Western Europe is now, in comparison, to the east. Total civilization is not even produced by the mere compul- sory mixture of nations moving in the same direction ; it requires the additional influence of the modes of thinking and acting, from sources coming through other latitudes, to pull down and reconstruct a system that will accept of a progressive march of reasoning, independent of ancestral routine. Had the northern nations, by their own ambitious free wijj, not crossed upon the older migratory movement that came from east to west, such civilization as Egypt, Greece and Borne had conferred, notwithstanding that marine influences had greatly aided in the development, must have continued sta- tionary, then decayed, until they fell to ruin.^ A want of * The power of habit, of educational prejudices, is forcibly seen, in Christian Rome continuing wild beast and gladiatorial exhibitions, though 216 NATURAL HISTORY OF such concurrence, as already observed, may be the sole cause why China has remained stationary; for even the slight shock lately given to that empire by Great Britain, has already had an effect, disproving the common opinion that the Mongolic mind cannot advance beyond a certain point. No people of the typical stocks could arrive at a progressive social existence, without intermixture of one or more branches of the homoge- neous nations of the bearded and beardless forms ; and through these, such rudiments of advancement as can be traced among the woolly-haired, were likewise engendered. While nations pushed each other forward, and contested the possession of desirable territories, sudden extermination of the vanquished people generally lent but trifling aid to intellectual advancement ; there was scarcely a desire to make slaves, where food was often insufficiently abundant for the victors ; but when the great roads of colonization had been trodden by many nations to the verge of oceans, the result was different, because by that time Man had learned to subdue the Horse for his convenience, whereas, until that moment, the Ox alone appears to have been used for the saddle.* This conquest over brute power again commenced in high Asia, perhaps about Samarkand, but more certainly on the great plains north and west of the central table land; and with the aid of this valua- ble acquisition, began the era of invasion for dominion's sake ; at first, in a more cumbrous manner, by charioteering; but, soon after, riders, on the backs of their horses, passing rapidly over immense distances, and almost entirely from east to west, carrying few or no wives or children, obtained both by the sword, and even spared the vanquished male sex, in order to enslave it.t both had been repeatedly scenes of martyrdom, until they were stopped by a Pagan, held to be a barbarian, because he was a Goth. * This was certainly a practice of Hindoo princes, before the Horse appears, and even long after. It is still in use among the CafTres, who ride their Bakeley Oxen in war ; and by mendicant fakeers in India. t Yet there are examples, down to the ninth century, when Christian THE HUMAN SPECIES. 217 From conquests by military invasion, there thus arose privi- leged families and tribes, a master class, in nearly every nation, marked, even at present, in many instances, by a distinct exterior, notwithstanding that, with scarcely an exception, it is issued from a cognate stem. Only time softened the bonds by gradual interunions, and by new conquerors again subduing both master and slave. In Europe, where the history of foreign subjugation is best preserved, there are instances of three or more having passed over the same people, each in turn crush- ing the former privileged orders. All were originally pastoral tribes, and they continued to conquer so long as agriculture had not yet fostered the other sciences of civilization ; and defensive war was unavailing to scattered husbandmen, whose masters' subdivided power thwarted each other, and left the masses little worth defending. The nations who seem to have escaped servitude, it may be remarked, retreated to mountain regions, where cavalry had no advantage. Such are the Nilgherries, the Yindayan system, the western or modern Cau- casus, the Alps, the Pyrenees, &c, all peopled by refugees, not by Autochtones. Mere insular situations did not afford equal security, because boats conferred the same invading facilities which the horse produced on land ; and hence even the more remote South Sea Islands are not without a master race, which, in whatever way attention is turned, will ever be found to be directly or indirectly of the Caucasian stock, excepting only in those centres of existence where the two other typical forms of Man reside ; for one of these, sensible of an inferior innervation, is possessed of a well-founded jealousy of the bearded race, and by political precaution endeavors to exclude it, while the other rests secure in the effects of climate ; and both abuse their good fortune by, at least, inflicting subjection each upon kindred tribes; but much more restricted in the extent by the increasing progress of the Caucasian. kings (Franks) could direct the slaughter of every male whose height sur- passed the length of the conqueror's sword. 19 218 NATURAL HISTORY OF West of Central Asia, all records agree in pointing to the east for the direction whence nations migrated. Only three exceptions occur, where the course was a return homewards from anterior progression. Such was the Hebrew from Egypt to Palestine, the Ionian from Greece to Asia Minor, and the Nogay Tahtar from Russia to China. If the Egyptians, led by a Sesostris, penetrated to Bactria, a fabulous Bacchus to India, the Gauls to Greece and Galatia, and the Macedonians to the Punjab, beyond the Indus, they were mere conquering inroads, which lasted only for a few generations, sustained in some degree by the aboriginal homogeneousness of the invaders with the races in possession of the land. The pseudo-Greek kingdoms, notwithstanding the great national influx of that people in Western Asia, had no permanent tenure ; and the Romans, the Crusaders, and the modern French, have only produced military occupations, not national colonizations. None are historically known to have departed from the inter- Pontine Caucasus, though many came westward, by the route of Armenia, with more or less delay in that high region, because the avenues leading south and west, from both sides of the Caspian, to Asia Minor, Syria, and Africa, mainly pass through it.* Had the first population of mankind radiated from the Ara- rat of Armenia (for the word is generical),t all the present nations of the west, whose great movements are historically traceable to the high Oxus and Jaxartes (such as the Gomerian Celtse, and the Indo-Germans, Yuchi and Sacae), would have travelled, without being pressed in the rear, across deserts, up great rivers and high mountain ranges, before they multiplied, for no other purpose than to return over the same ground, that * Of course, the dispersion of the Jews eastward, and some more recent forcible transpositions of western Caucasian tribes to high Asia, are not here regarded. tin the Circassian tongue, Ararat, Arak, or Areck, simply denctc a peak. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 219 they might thence continue still further west than they had been east, and delay peopling only that portion of the globe which is unquestionably the most important of the whole ; or for the sole purpose of fetching the physical elements of social life already mentioned, which western Caucasus never spon- taneously produced, and to learn, at a distance, forms of speech, fundamentally belonging to the oldest Scythic, or a parent Sanscrit — a language found to influence, with very few exceptions, every known grammatical tongue in the world, though, in its present shape, it may be a mixture of various dialects. Asiatic early lore proves this primaeval tongue to have originated in the southern and western Highlands already noticed, and to exist still in many idioms, spreading from their oorder through India, Indo-China, and, with less evidence, to Australasia, far more than to the west, in Europe, Persia, and Syria ; and none of its dialects positively belonging to western Caucasus. The present Imeritians, Circassians, &c, though they may have a just claim to be of the purest bearded typical stock, like the Coords, or Gaurs, were originally riding con- querors, and were driven into their present fastnesses at a com- paratively recent period. If we turn to India, although the woolly-haired stock may have retained, from priority of diffusion, a typical nucleus with- in the tropics, expanding even westward, there is a master race, of a distinct origin, domineering over the oldest discoverable tribes, gradually more and more intermixed, till, from pure white, it becomes positively black, without, therefore, being deprived of a superior aspect, which the Caucasian blood alone confers. It extends, with few exceptions, down to very near the equatorial line, where, indeed, contamination is still observ- able ; but the mastery of a foreign race evidently disappears. These conditions recur, in a south-western direction, along the Persian and Arabian maritime provinces, and eastern Africa; the Caucasian, whether brownish or black, preponderating numerically towards the shores of the Mediterranean, exactly NATURAL HISTORY OF in the ratio structural conformation would prefer, if left at liberty. This intermediate sub-typical race, in all its shades of color, is the Ethiopian of antiquity, and seems to have included those tribes which were held accursed by several of the most ancient white immigrators in Western Asia. The Mongolic nations record, in the same manner, their descent from high mountain ranges, and the early struggles of their heroes in draining marshes, teaching cultivation, letters, and metallurgy; in time, making even regular observations on comets, when the wisdom of Europe was hidden in a howling wilderness, and long before science amongst us assumed a rational shape.* In America, all the tribes that retain tradi- tions of their origin, point to the north-west, with the exception of the extinct Flathcads, whose history is wholly unknown. They have propelled each other cast and south, although cer- tain tribes of the most ancient residents in the south-east and Patagonian regions, may form exceptions; and there are tradi- tions, even in Mexico, of marine strangers from the east ; for man soon passed from fishing on the lake, or paddling in a stream, to adventure his person beyond the surf of seas; and, when it served his purpose for coasting, trusted to the simplest materials to support his weight. Catamarans of three dry pieces of wood, and a staff, with flattened ends, for oars, have been in use, for uncounted ages, on the rolling seas of Madras, and models like them are often dug out with the bones of ancient Peruvians, where the inhabitants have similar breaking rollers to encounter. Coracles, made upon a frame of twigs, with the skins of seals, oxen, and horses, belonged to most nations of the Old Continent; birch kaicks to the Arctic people of both ; and canoes of solid wood, hollowed out, to every por- tion of the globe. When these had attained a certain bulk and adequacy of structure, a family might transport itself from one end of the world to the other, in a few seasons, merely by coasting. Thus did the messenger of Vasco de Gama pass, in * See Biot on Comets. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 221 an open boat,*1 from Diu, in the East Indies, round the Cape, to Lisbon, in safety. In this manner, opinions, languages, and records, were transmitted, unadulterated, from the Euxine and Asia Minor, as far as Britain, in a single generation ; while the tribes whose fate it was to travel by land, were compelled to fight their way onwards for ages, gradually losing all memory of the pristine fatherland, and unable to recognize their ancient kindred, when they met again in the west, but by broken accents of a once common language, as is sufficiently evident in the meeting of the devious tribes of Gomerian Celtoe. In the view here taken, mankind might be primitively arranged somewhat in the fonn of the diagram on page 222, sup- posing the apex of an equilateral triangle to point to the north. Thus, we have the southern line representing the Himalaya chain, with its great streams ending at the Indian Ocean, the eastern similarly leading to the Pacific, and the western to a sea gradually contracted into the Caspian ; and the intermedi- ate, conducted by geographical necessities, reaching the South Seas, the Northern Pacific, and from thence to America, the Polar and Western Regions, and the Erythrean Seas to North- ern Africa. Of these, however, the Caucasian alone bears evidence of commencing development upon the table land, and under the shadows of the western chains ; the Mongolic being at first no nearer than the eastern extremity of the Gobi, and the woolly-haired type coming up to, and along the skirts of the southern chain, rather than commencing primaeval diffusion so far to the north of its general centre of existence. The review of typical and sub-typical forms of Man, intended to be submitted here, appears to be best arranged by taking in succession the woolly-haired ; the Malay and mixed races of * It is supposed that Iago Botello used a pattemar, or ditch native boat, in this daring voyage. The vessel was half-decked, but only 1 64 feet long, 9 broad, and 4i in depth. 19# 222 NATURAL HISTORY OF SOUTH SEA CAUCASIANS 333110 0 1 THE HUMAN SPECIES. 223 the South Seas ; the American abnormal nations ; the Mon- golic, or beardless ; and the Ouralian and Toorkee. From these we arrive at the true Caucasian, whose early history, being best known from the south-east side of the central region, will require that first the mixed semi-woolly-haired tribes of South and Western Asia be examined, in order that the great influence and expansion of the bearded stock maybe established; and the records of its principal races will form the remaining subject of consideration. Beginning, therefore, with that form which may likewise, on that account, be considered as the most ancient, we find, — THE WOOLLY-HAIRED TROPICAL TYPE.* The woolly-haired, tropical, dark-colored stock, improperly caded Atlantic and Ethiopic, is considered to be most distinctly typical, where the maximum of development is found, in the peculiarities of structure and faculties that distinguish it from the other normal forms. It is that which predominates in Central and Western tropical Africa, — a form of Man of good stature, though seldom attaining six feet in height, and falling * By this denomination is understood, not wool, strictly speaking, but hair so highly frizzled as to appear like the wool of Iceland sheep, and in coarseness so rude, that the wool of a Negro head, struck with the knuckles, frequently cuts the skin to the bone. The pile of the beard, &c, is equally file-like or lacerating. These effects we have repeatedly witnessed. Though within the tropics no microscopes of sufficient power were at hand to test the fact, the general impression was, that this kind of hair is angular, and we doubt that Dr. Prichard's observations on the subject are wholly satisfactory, — the less so since the hair of the head seems to have been exclusively examined, in all the researches we have been able to consult. 224 NATURAL HISTORY OF as rarely beneath five feet six; the facial angle varying from 65 to 70 decrees; the head being small, laterally compressed; the dome of the skull arched and dense ; the forehead narrow, depressed, and the posterior part more developed ; the nose broad and crushed, with the nostrils round; the lower jaw pro- truding, angular, but more vertical in nonage; the mouth wide, with very thick lips, black to the commissure, which is red; the teeth large, solid, and the incisors placed rather obliquely for- ward. The ears, which are roundish, rather small, standing somewhat high and detached, are said, like the scalp, to be occasionally movable; the eyes always suffused with a bilious tint, and the irides very dark. The hair, in infants, rises from the skin in small mammillary tufts, disposed in irregular quin- cunx, and is, in all parts, of a crisp woolly texture, except- ing the eyebrows and eyelashes. In men it is scanty on the upper lip, generally confined to the point of the chin, with- out any at the sides of the face, excepting in late manhood. On the head it forms a close, hard frizzle of wool ; in the pure races never hanging loose, nor rising into a kind of mop; and the breast sometimes has a few tufts, but the arms and legs are without any. The throat and neck are muscular, and, with the chest, shoulders, abdomen, hips, back, upper arms, and thighs, very symmetrically moulded ;* but, compared with the Caucasian, the humerus is a trifle shorter, and the forearm longer, thereby approximating the form of Simiadae. The wrists and ankles are robust ; the hands coarse, with phalanges rather short, particularly the thumb; and the palms are yellow- ish. The legs have the shin-bones slightly bent forwards, and * The late Sir Francis Chantrey's magnificent cast of a Torso, taken from a Negro in London, bore ample testimony to this fact. Our own sketches of the naked figure, drawn during a residence of twelve years within the tropics, gave so much additional proof, that the great sculptor wras tempted to copy several for his own use. With regard to the other sex, the tropics alone produce the combination of infantine natural grace with the full development of female maturity. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 225 the calves paced high up; the feet broad, heavy, squarish, with the soles flat; the os calcis less prominent ; the toes short, more equal in length: and all the nails strong, short, and broad. The skin is soft, silky to the touch ; in the new-born infant, dull cherry-red, gradually darkening to the permanent depth of shade ; beneath the epidermis the mucous membrane, loaded with a coloring matter in the bile, causes the melanic appearance of the skin, which varies, however, from deep sal- low to intense sepia black ; darkest in health ; and that color always distinctly affects the external glands. It is likewise the source of an overpowering offensive odor, spreading through the atmosphere, when many are congregated in the hot sun. The silky texture of the epidermis is more liable to erosion from pressure than that of white men. It is a charac- ter as organic, or more so, than the arched dome of the skull, and the perpendicularity of the vertebral column, which are quoted as the sole cause, why burthens are best borne by Negroes on the head instead of the back ; for their general structure is athletic, the gait erect, free, and in young persons not ungraceful. It appears that some tribes in Dongola and Sennaar have one lumbar vertebra more than the Caucasian, and the stomach corrugated.^ In general, the female pelvis is wider, the aper- ture round, and both sexes have the hips remarkably well pro- portioned. The bones of the typical nations are heavy, well knit, or with the apophyses fitted to receive broad insertions of the muscles; and the dome of the skull is particularly solid, but the ribs slender and flexible. Hence, Negroes, of all human beings, are distinguished for fighting, by occasionally butting with their heads foremost, like rams, at each other, the collision of their skulls giving a report that may be heard to * " Observations sur les bjttuillons Negres du Cordofan au service de Mehemet Ali en Egypte et qui servirent en Candie." By a German sur- geon. The sane remarks are likewise offered, we believe, by Dr. Mad- den, Travels, &c. 226 NATURAL IILSTOItY OF some distance. Even women, in their brawls, have the same habit. The dense spherical structure of the head, liki enables several tribes to shave their crowns, and in this exposed state to remain, with the lower half of the body immersed in water, Under a vertical sun. This very structure may influence the erect gait, which occasions the practice, common also to the Ethiopian or mixed nations, of carrying burthens and light weights, even to a tumbler full of water, upon the head ; a feat which they effect with perfect safety and gracefulness.* Most of the black nations are capable of protracted toil, without much injury to their frames; they willingly share labor with the female sex in a state of independence as well as in captivity; they dig, hew wood, carry, walk, or row, for many hours, in a tropical sun, without repining. They mul- tiply on mountain and in morass, in sterile and in rich soil, throughout the tropical region. Though a new locality like South America be not their original centre of existence, they spread, on both sides, beyond the equatorial belt, over the lower degrees of the temperate latitudes ; do not decrease in the presence of Caucasians when not overworked by their task- masters ; and flourish under the fiercest solar heat, when other types of man decay or perish. In constitution, they escape or withstand many of the most virulent epidemics, among the rest, small-pox, so fatal to all the American races ; and others, incidental to the tropics, or introduced by Europeans, visit them with less violence. In South America, where the indigenous tribes diminish, in regions where white men are but little known, the Maroons * Though the practice is general, pride nevertheless can counteract it ; for we have invariably seen the Jamaica Maroons carry their produce to market on the back, and take their rest under distinct trees, apart from slave Negroes, because, as they told us, they would show themselves " free like Buckra man!" A second jar of water, Negroes always carry upon the palm of the hand inverted. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 227 or Negroes, escaped from Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch slavery, increase; they have established independent commu- nities in the swampy regions of Guiana, and, still more, between the rivers Amazon, Iza, and Japura, where, under the name of Jurie Negroes, they occupy an extensive territory, since they expelled the Moruas and Maruquevare Indians. These, however, together with the Haytian, the Jamaica Maroons, and Guadaloupe Quelehs, as well as all the West Indian and North American woolly-haired populations, being the offspring of the greatest intermixture of different African tribes, and not entirely free of European and American Indian admixture, are excited by acquired knowledge, under new cir- cumstances, and therefore capable of a united and reasoned energy. They have mostly lost the peculiar features belong- ing to the different African parent tribes. Their heads are larger, as is seen also in Dr. Morton's measurements, who, we are inclined to believe, was not aware of the rapid change that takes place in the development of the skull ; though, even in Europe, the difference of size in heads of the educated and uneducated classes, among civilized nations, is no secret to hatters. In this condition, colonial born Negroes are often ingenious handicrafts. We have known a slave cooper, whose owner refused to grant his emancipation for less than £600. They make good masons and joiners, and excellent steersmen at the wheel and tiller are not uncommon. The voice of Negroes is feeble and hoarse in the male sex ; exceedingly high and shrill in females ; the sense of sight is acute; that of taste sufficiently delicate ; hearing sharp; with notions of time, but very little of melody; yet fond of music, and constantly handling instruments of the most imperfect kind, excepting a species of harmonicon, made of slips of bamboo, or of a set of sounding stones, — if it be that these are of their own invention. They have drums and a kind of Cas- tanet; but stringed instruments are derived from a Moorish source. Though the physical qualities are well developed, the 229 NATURAL HISTORY OF intellectual are low, in some tribes quite puerile; yet the moral impulses are not unfrequently of a most noble nature. They offer, therefore, a discordant mixture of qualities, wherein the good predominates, till the European, not mis- guided by personal interests or prejudices, cannot refrain from feelings of affection for them. They all believe in some kind of future state, though religious sensations are with them superstitious and childish mummeries, too often connected with fetiche necromancy, which deals in the crimes of poison- ing and murder. Thought is habitually dormant, and, when roused, it is manifested by loud soliloquy and gesticulations, regardless of circumstances. War is a passion that excites in them a brutal disregard of human feelings; it entails the deliberate murder of prisoners ; and victims are slain to serve the manes of departed chiefs. Even cannibalism is frequent among the tribes of the interior. But these habits were once not unknown to the highest endowed Caucasians; human sacrifices belonged to the heroic age of Greece; to the historical of India, Phoenicia, Carthage, Egypt, and Celtica; to nations who must have known better, and were not, like the African savage, in mental nonage, without neighbors to teach a better doctrine or more humane example ; for wherever higher moral duties have been promulgated to Negroes, they have been quickly accepted. Notwithstanding the listless torpidity caused by excessive heat, the perceptive faculties of the chil- dren are far from contemptible. They have a quick apprehen- sion of the ridiculous ; often surpassing the intelligence of the white, and only drop behind them about the twelfth year, when the reflective powers begin to have the ascendency. Collectively, the untutored Negro mind is confiding, single- hearted, naturally kind and hospitable. We speak not without personal experience. The female sex is affectionate, to abso- lute devotedness, in the character of mother, child, nurse, and attendant upon the sick, though these be strangers, and the often experienced reward scarcely amounting to thanks. As THE HUMAN SPECIES. 229 housewives, they are charitable to the wants of the wayfaring visitants; within doors orderly; and, personally, very clean; they are joyous; noisy; in the night-time indefatigable danc- ers equally with the men, who are in general orderly, trust- worthy, brave and unrepining. Both sexes are easily ruled, and appreciate what is good, under the guidance of common justice and prudence. Yet, where so much that honors human nature remains — in apathy, the typical woolly-haired races have never invented a reasoned theological system, discovered an alphabet, framed a grammatical language, nor made the least step in science or art.* They have scarcely comprehended what they have learned, or retained a civilization taught them by contact with more refined nations, so soon as that contact has ceased. They have at no time formed great political states, nor com- menced a self-evolving civilization. Conquest with them has been confined to kindred tribes, and produced only slaughter. Even Christianity, of more than three centuries' duration, in Congo, has scarcely excited a progressive civilization, because it is unattended by the stimulus of a stranger race (for the small number of Portuguese officials, priests, exiles, criminals, and slave merchants, are inadequate, and of all European nations least capable of stirring the mind to activity, by educa- tion, and the example of exertion) ; notwithstanding that the nations south of the Zezere have a more intellectual aspect, and have a barter trade across the continent to Mozambique. Thus, the good qualities given to the Negro by the bounty of Nature, have served only to make him a slave, trodden down by every remorseless foot, and to brand him for ages with the * The simple formulce of Negro languages remain, when they are obliged to learn European ; thus, all the Negro slaves of tropical America speak a dialect in form the same as the general African tongue, though the words are Spanish, Portuguese, French, English, Dutch, or Danish. Education and time have no doubt made the present generation more gram- matically correct. 20 230 NATURAL HISTORY OF epithet of outcast ; the marked unceasing1 proof of a t urse, as old as the origin of society, not even deserving human forbear- ance ! and true it is, that the worst slavery is his lot, even at home, for he is there exposed to the constant peril of becoming also a victim, slaughtered with the most revolting torments.* Tyrant of his blood, he traffics in slavery as it were mer- chandise ; makes war purposely to capture neighbors, and sells even his own wives and children. A second stem of the typical group is the eastern tropical or Samang, which we shall continue to denominate Papua, notwithstanding recent investigations have endeavored to con- fine this name to a more hybrid population of the Australian islands. It is in general greatly intermixed with Hindoo, Mongolic, and Malay blood ; and in comparatively few locali- ties sufficiently pure to retain the close crisp woolly scalp which is the most decisive criterion of the fact ; for, so soon as, in any warm climate, there is foreign alliance, the wool becomes bushy, and rises into a huge round mop; and, if there be still greater connection, it droops, and gradually turns into incipient curls. By this token the amount of adulteration may be traced, independent of the color of the skin, with per- haps no exceptions, although it is true that there is in some cases a tendency to variation, in the offspring taking, in one birth, a more decisive maternal character, and perhaps in the next a paternal, even to the extent of modifying the hair, par- ticularly between true Negroes and hard lank-haired South Americans of the Austral-Malay cast of structure. These remarks show that the earlier Egyptians had only a casual knowledge of the true Negro populations ; for, when these were first noticed, they occupied, it seems, the high lands behind the east coast of Africa ; and the ages they may have nestled in the central regions, without further progress west- * See Bowdich's Mission to Ashantee. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 231 ward, may be surmised, from the Phoenician navigators, who reached that coast by the Atlantic, not mentioning the presence of real human beings to the south of Cape Blanco, since they brought back to Carthage specimens or skins of the Chim- panzee, which at no time could exist to the north of the great rivers, where alone there are trees and food. The abnormal are portrayed on Egyptian temples, often repeated, with great bushy heads ; but real Negroes may be alone intended in the figures of black human victims, significantly offered to a Python god. In Asia the circumstances were different; to this time the Hubbashee clans of real Negroes exist in Laristan and Mekran, in Persia, and even on the Ilelmund ; and are evi- dently of the primitive race, to the south of the Himalaya chain as well as Southern Persia.* This type forms the primaeval inhabitants of the Australasian and many tropical islands, although they have been rooted out or subdued to form a low cast of slaves in most of them ; and notwithstanding that a remote idolatry, of Papuan origin, can still be traced out in parts of India, and sovereign families even claim descent from monkey gods, that is, from primaeval Bheels, the worship has changed to Brahmanism, and the ruling dynasties are now of high caste Caucasians, as will be shown in the sequel. Only, in the larger islands, the Papua tribes are in general still found masters of the central mountain forests. Rarely, however, is this branch of the Negro stock equal in stature and vigor to the African. * Professor Wilson, in his notice of the animals, &c., mentioned by Ctesias, gives some account of the Kalestrii ; and in my manuscript note upon it, I find, that "there were other tribes, higher up the country, and nearer the sources of the Indus, who were very black, drank no water nor ate corn, but lived on the milk of their flocks." These were, perhaps, the typical Asoors or Azuras of Hindoo mythology. Abulghazi speaks of black people residing between the Hylas (Cabul ?) and the Indus, (vol. i., p. 15.) The present Aghori, by Ctesias named Andropophogoi, and by the Persians Mardikohr, still occasionally feed on putrid human flesh, and reside in caverns about Aboo, among the Jains. They cannot well be Caucasians, nor are they Mongoles. 232 NATURAL HISTORY OF Sometimes varying to yellowish-brown, it is in color sooty- black; in stature often so diminutive, that the small heads they have appear large, the more in disproportion, because the mities arc feeble and slender. Such at least is the case with many of the tribes still possessed of retreats in the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula; but this form of the woolly-haired stock, unlike the African, diminishes rapidly before th< croachments of Malays, Arabs, and Europeans. Many of them prefer death to slavery; others vegetate in that condition, their marriages not producing more than one or two children; and some, becoming Mahometans, form mixed populations, where Horafoura and Malay, Hindoo and Arab, Chinese and Euro- pean, have been promiscuously mixed, and their characteristics obliterated. In this way Western Asiatic nations, with more undulating or lank hair, were likewise formed, by intermixture with the low-fronted Dombuks, Nimreks, and Kakasiah, or black brothers. They may have influenced even the black Kahnuks, the Colchians of Herodotus, and the black Bedou- eens. From the geographical position of the purest Papua Negroes, it is evident that they have been the first race expelled the coasts and plains, since they are insulated in the mountains, or driven to the unhealthy equatorial points, where other tribes cannot multiply. Hence, they are the oldest primaeval race, even if it should be denied that they are a population of ante- rior date to a great territorial cataclysis, which submerged a continent beneath or on the south of the line. It is also evident, that around them, and northward, up the Indus, to the southern foot of the Himalayas, the (Nishada) most ancient nations, with some relation to the distance from their equatorial centre, bear strong marks, in structure, intellectual capacity, habits, color, and hair, of a succession of intermixtures with r?.:. as regards their classification; the learned William von Hum- boldt vainly claiming a unity of origin from the identity of the dialects spoken by a great proportion of the Polynesians, whom he and others regard as Malays. But, although we do not mean to deny a pervading intermixture of Malay blood in the composition of these tribes, still, as they vary, from absolutely Oriental Negroes, to nations having most striking characl tics of true Caucasians, the sole test of language, even if it were beyond dispute, is scarcely of sufficient weight to determine the whole question. It should be remembered that all the [Malay dialects abound in Sanscrit words, which, be they borrowed from the tongues of the present Indo-China, or from the Te- linga of the peninsula, are still evidence of a prevailing Cauca- sian admixture. Indo-China, the primaeval abode of the Malays, bears Sanscrit names in every locality, whereas the Polyne- sian languages are without these characteristics in the words and grammatical structure. There are, moreover, monuments of Man's presence in many islands, from the Ladrones, in the Chinese seas, and Tinian, to Java, the Marquesas, Easter and Pitcairn Islands, monuments, not the work of the present exist- ing nations, but raised at so remote a period, that all memory of the facts connected with them is departed even from myth- ical tales ; yet they are constructed upon principles positively akin to Caucasian reasoning and Caucasian skill. Tribes of this type have left strong evidence of their ancient prevalence in the present mop-headed Figees, the brown curly-haired Marquesans, the dark-haired Hawaiians, and the variously featured New Zealanders, in all of which, though the masses of population indicate mixtures of lower origin, the chiefs point to the true Caucasian descent, in their whole external con- formation, and still more in the intellectual qualities they pos- sess. It is from this high order of ancestors, it appears most probable, that the pyramidal Morais, and other monumerts, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 249 have )een derived ; for in the [Malay peninsula, and where that stem has res/ded the longest, all the religious structures they acknowledge are bell-shaped, notoriously made of straw, rushes, mats, and poles ; or, at most, they are of a Mongolic character, built with wood and mortar. Now, if we compare the Egyptian pyramids, the ruins% of the supposed temples of Belus or tower of Babylon, and of Baradan in Persia, it will be found that one of them certainly had four towers, and, from the shape of the ruins, it had also a projection or propylon, characteristics which mostly occur again, and with the same cardinal aspects, as the great Morai of Suka, in Java, of Temurri, at Poppara ; that at Atte Hura, and the base of the Fiatookas, like the Mooau at Tonga, and others in Poly- nesia ; there are occasionally similarly constructed successive terraces, forming pyramidal elevations in the Marquesas and elsewhere, and these are again repeated in America, with exactly the same forms — one of these at Cholula, exceeding in area, and in cubic quantity of artificial accumulation, both the great tower of Belus, and the great pyramid of Cheops, taken together.*1 The forms of all these structures indicate a common religious system, more ancient than the extant idola- tries ; they may be claimed by a solar theism, distinct from the subsequent elaborate astronomical religions, but containing the basis of what has since been ascribed to Fob and Budha, which both Mongolic and Eastern Caucasians have long revered on the continent, and in the Asiatic Archipelago. The Malay form, whether composed of two normal types, or of three, in various quantities of admixture, can be traced to Ceylon, where the blowpipe, the outrigger canoe, and other peculiar customs and words, give evidence that it visited at least the southern portion of the island. In the same manner, * The base is square, and covers forty-four acres, the upper platform is somewhat more than one acre. The elevation at present is 177 feet ; hut this is partially diminished by the ruinous state of the lowest platform, and is exclusive of the temple which adorns the summit. 250 NATURAL HISTOBI OF and by li^'e evidence, they are found to be a component part of the populations in Nortli Australia, Polynesia, and probably in tbc eastern portions of South America, ulun; the blowpipe is likewise in use, and a variety of practices, customs, opinions, weapons, and industrial arts; feather mantles and caps, tas- selled swords and war-clubs, support the opinion of a commu- nity of origin, which is still further substantiated by legends and traditions. The Malays, as before hinted, do not extend far into the interior of the east coast of Sumatra ; the local tribes belong to the Orangulu, extending thence to the Rejang Islands; appar- ently they originate from a mixture of the Negro type with aberrant Caucasians, or Indo-Chinese, having the slender points, pale yellow color, and even the practice of allowing the nails to grow, of a Mongolic character, though they crush the nose and draw out the ears, in order to look more like Papuas. In Java, the Malay stem is still less predominant ; for the oldest population was a race of Negro cannibals, tenne*d Gunos, who were assailed and driven into the mountain fast- nesses by a nautical people, the real Javanese, under the com- mand of their legendary hero, Passara. Now this name, as well as Javana, i. e., mixed, a mixed people, are both of San- scrit origin, and show that the invaders were Indo-Caucasians, with perhaps only a mixture of Mongolic, that is, Malay blood ; the oldest religious edifices are of Indian character ; and from names, such as Pen-y-gawa for a chief; Kralon, a palace; Sasakadom, a hall or temple, might indicate a branch of Pandoo wanderers, Gomerians, allied to the Peiasgian and Celtic tribes of the west, — a conjecture further strengthened by the Morai pyramid of Suka before mentioned. The Java- nese appear to have sent colon.sts to Madagascar, since known by the name of Jacalvas, who similarly waged war against the cannibal Anachimous, and were for many ages noted marine pirates, distinct from the Joasmees, who are of Arabian origin. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 251 Further east, in the island of Borneo, where true Malays have the ascendency, but only reside on the coasts, there is another people distinct from them, partly sedentary and in part exclusively nautical. These are the Orang Darrah and Orang Laut, men of the soil and men of the sea, one maintaining an unequal struggle against the Malays, and the other pirates from birth, and always residing on board their proas ; freeboot- ers in every sense, and ready to aid in the oppression of their kindred race inhabiting the interior. Both are nationally denominated Dyaks, are fairer than the Malays, and most likely allied to the Joasmees before noticed. They are of the Horafoura stem, also marine adventurers, who, having for ages frequented the north coast of New Holland, have certainly caused a further hybridism among the Papuas of that region, and are themselves the most mixed branch of Indo-Caucasians in Australasia, with a language and religious notions originally unconnected with any Malay source. The tribes of Borneo, here enumerated, are evidently older possessors of the soil than the Malays, and the most ancient in these seas excepting the Eastern Negroes, who may be regarded as absorbed by them in this great island, since none of the purely woolly-haired stock are now known to remain in the country. Celebes is principally inhabited by the Boun, Bouginee, Buges, or Bugesses, of which one nation is called the Macas- sar, and the whole appear to be of the same stem as the Hora- fouras. Here they are again fairer than the Malays, with very long black hair, and soft silky beards and whiskers. Their original language, more allied to southern dialects of India, with the admixture of Sanscrit, is now much corrupted by the Malayan. The women of this island are the hand- somest and most polished of the eastern seas, setting the fash- ions which other nations strive to imitate ; and a more advanced civilization is shown in several articles of their man- ufacture, which are carried in native vessels as far as Fort Cornwallis. The male population are mercantile resolute sea- 252 NATURAL HISTORY OF men, and the reputation they possess for valor has caused thu name of Macassar to be regarded as equivalent to warrior. It may be questioned, whether the possession of some parts of Malacca, near Salengore, and Point Romania, at no great dis- tance from remains of the Samang expelled Oriental Negroes, is not also an indication that the Buges tribe came from this portion of the continent. The same observation is equally applicable to the Magin- danao, who are also Horafouras, that reached the island when the Philippines were still wholly possessed by Papuas or Bangel-bangel savages. Such, again, are the Bissayans of Lucon ; the races found onwards to Tywan or Formosa, and the Ladrones, who are all possessed of Hindoo tokens of affinity, mixed with evidence of an original consanguinity with the Japanese, particularly to the eastward ; and, according as either preponderates, adopting a Caucasian or a Mongolic ra-tiocination : these mental qualifications are evinced in the readiness many have shown to abandon their ancient idolatry; and the preference they give to the law of Mohammed, rather than to the Christian, is in consequence of the former having had merely teachers to spread the new doctrines, while the latter endeavored to make proselytes by means of Portuguese and Spanish conquerors. Of all these tribes, the Pagans were, or still are, cannibals; the others have certain forms of govern- ments established, and often written laws, in alphabets of their own construction, having scarcely any retrospect to Chinese ideas ; and they were so little in communication with pure Mongols, that it was not until after the arrival of European navigators, that bodies of colonists, from the celestial empire, made their appearance in Luqon and Java. Even in Formosa the population was alien, until refugee emigrants, escaping from Mantchou conquest, reached the island in the seventeenth century, when the Dutch were already in possession of it. But notwithstanding this historical fact, Caucasians from Eastern China, Indo-Arabs from Western Asia, and unnamed THE HUMAN SPECIES. 253 tribes from the Malay peninsula, seamen from choice or neces- sity, had long before laid the basis of the resident populations, being in a more or less state of degradation by Oriental Negro interunions. They formed the numerous pirate communities, Orang Laut, Sea Gypsies, Jacalvas in Madagascar, Idaan, Marootzie, Sea Dyaks in Celebes, Biagoos or Bragus in Bor- neo, some partially sedentary, others entirely dwellers on the seas, shifting their stations with the monsoon, so as to be always under the lee of land ; and, among other supersti- tions, like western Hindoos, sending a model canoe, cursed and loaded with the sins of the people, far away on the ocean. Their legends and romances, most particularly in Sumatra and Java, are of Hindoo origin ; and vast temples of Indian divin- ities, such as that of Boro-budor in Java, point to a Brahmin- ical religious system prevailing there before the Arabian inno- vations of Islam came among them. From families of these tribes, rather than from pure Malays, the majority of the Polynesian islanders are composed ; their chiefs still bearing the marks of higher Caucasian castes than the vulgar, who were, from the first, servants and rowers ; and both together are the descendants of wanderers, blown off by untoward mon- soons, in like manner as are still frequently witnessed, in a similar condition, on most islands of the South Seas. While the European navigator and conqueror is invariably held to be an enemy, nothing but ancient amicable reminis- cences can account for the peaceful passage of Chinese and Japanese traders through most, if not all, the seas infested by the vast pirate fleets before mentioned. A tacit law of com- mon affinity binds the inhabitants of the South Seas, even to the most remote islands, sufficiently to receive among them the shipwrecked or storm-driven wanderer on equal terms, excepting where the resident population is of purer Papua stock ; for these regard all others as conquerors, and usually treat them in the light of victims. The South Sea islanders, beside feature, hair, and personal 22 254 NATURAL HISTORY OF conformation, show their consanguinity with Caucasians nost distinctly in the structure of their minds. While other savages and barbarians are incurious, merely satisfied with childish sur- prise, or value only the superior means of destruction possessed by Europeans; they alone, though so near the savage state when first visited by our navigators, were struck with the wonders of civilization in a right spirit. No other tribe of Man was so desirous of learning the useful, the peaceful, and ornamental arts of Europe. Some examples may be quoted of other races listening with respect to the doctrines of religion, and becoming imperfect proselytes ; but the Polynesians, even when they were still cannibals, embraced Christianity with ardor, and now hold it with an intelligent sincerity, that enables converts of a late date to become messengers of peace to other tribes, and open the path for more educated teachers. They alone have shown examples of chiefs, quitting the pleas- ures and prejudices of local consideration, who, for the pure love of benefiting their native land, have entered as common sailors on board British ships, that they might visit England, see, learn, and adopt improvements in ship-building, naviga- tion, and agriculture ; procure seeds of triticum and legumin- ous plants, and advance civilization. Others used the pleni- tude of power to encourage the same object, to learn the alpha- bet, to read, write and cipher; they set up a printing-press, and had the honor to throw off the first printed words of the native language. They have shown, when at war with the white men of Europe, instances of romantic forbearance and valor, under impressions of unjustly suffering a public wrong. All these seeds of human progress have developed in the first gen- eration, since they have become acquainted with better things, and are going on notwithstanding the evil examples but too commonly held out to them. If, therefore, Frederick Cuvier, when descanting on the trifling external characters of some mammalia, nearly allied in structure, be right to recommend rigorous researches in their relative moral instincts and inteUi- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 255 gence, in order, by their aid, to establish a primaeval unity of a genus, how much more important must the same method prove in researches after the aboriginal unity of a sub-typical stem of Man. If there were no such other indications as have already been noticed, by these facts alone we may with confi- dence appeal to the presence of a considerable portion of Cau- casian blood, in the composition of the master race of the Polynesian islands. It is undeniably conspicuous in some of the groups, less so in others, and evident in despite of linguistic considerations, which, to say the least, are still not sufficiently mature to admit the generalizing conclusions of Humboldt. The Maori tongue of New Zealand is an example, which, while it shows the presence of a Semitic element in the com- position, is but feebly tinged with Malay; perhaps, by reason of the great majority of its component words being the offspring of Papua dialects, the basis of the population being originally of Eastern Negro derivation, only by degrees amalgamated or destroyed. Whence these two races came, can now be only conjectured from the reminiscences of the people, that two immigrations originally took place on these islands; they still name the localities, and assert one to have come from the east and the other from the west. To individuals or families of the earliest Polynesian wanderers, the introduction of at least one system of doctrine, in South America, may be ascribed ; and to another, of Caucaso-Mongolians, a second, which appears to have reached the north-west coast, and finally to have estab- lished itself on the plateau of Anahuac. These considerations lead us to the New Continent, before the two historical arche- typical stocks of the Old can be traced out without interrup- tion. THE AMERICAN SUB-TYPICAL STEM. Though researches on the primitive population of America may be deemed unphilosophical, because the conclusions are 256 NATURAL HISTORY OF not amenable to positive proofs, yet the inquiry is not without profit; and surely, so long as physiologists continue to admit the maxim, that mankind consists of one species only, it must involve, as a consequence, the necessity of migration, in order to people the earth in all its habitable portions ; or it demands a plural creation of the single species, sufficiently diversified to be adapted to the varieties of climate and circumstances wherein they are found to exist; in which case, the term "species" assumes a different acceptation, and confounds the notions hitherto attached to it, notwithstanding that no positive definition has been undeniably established to guide the natu- ralist. Always regarding the flat-headed Paltas, Aturians, or primaeval race of South America, as anomalous, though evi- dently mixed with tribes of a more marked origin, and admit- ting that of them some small clans, such as the so-called Frog Indians, with probably others, are still in being about the val- leys on the east side of the Cordilleras, we cannot but remark, considering the antiquity of the deposits and extensive range where their bones are discovered, (from Brazil to the west coast of America,) that the stock is fast passing away. It has been supplanted for ages, by the Guarany and other nations in Brazil, whose Malay aspect countenances the supposition of their original arrival in the New World somewhere about the Californian coast, whither they seem to have transported, along with legends already pointed out, the practices of boring the septum of the nostrils, the lobes of the ears, and even the lips and cheek-bones, for the purpose of inserting therein bits of bone, of shells, wood, feather, or leaves* These, and other fashions before described, they have in common with many islanders of the South Seas and coasts of the Northern Pacific ; * Dr. Burchell, Prince Maximilian of Wied, and many other travellers, entertain similar ideas with ourselves. The present physiologists who draw other inferences, are not always reconcilable to each other when their arguments are generalized. TIIE HUMAN SPECIES. 257 and, if they are not of foreign origin, they most assuredly are startling coincidences. But that these, and nearly all other invaders of the west coast, are intermixed with the flat-headed aboriginals, is shown in the artificial means employed by the former to' obtain the resemblance of the flat-head conformation; inflicting for this purpose daily torture upon their infants, till the desirod effect is produced. Torture, self-imposed, is indeed a part of the education of most American tribes, and the habit is sufficiently indicative of the small irritability of fibre they possess, in common with the Mongolic and Indo-Papua races of Asia. If the typical Flathcads were not a distinct species of Man, they were, at least, the oldest and first wanderers that reached the American continent.* They appear to have possessed in Peru, elements of social progress before strangers came among them, provided always that the Titicaca and other remains of this type represent the Peruvian people before the Incas obtained the sway.t The question would certainly be more doubtful, if the imitation of their cranial form had not been adopted by races of strangers in both Americas, and even by the aquiline-nosed hero tribes, whose portraits still adorn the ruined temples of Yucatan, where they represent giant divini- * Natives of scattered southern islands, such as the Malccolcse, and sallow Papua-Malays of some sandal-wood islands, all distinctly marked with very elevated frontal bones, seem to countenance the probability that there were men of this form in Polynesia, but then their frontal does not appear depressed. t There is a statement somewhere, that the Incas permitted one or more villages of Flatheads, taken during a war of conquest to the east of the Andes, to settle near the capital ; but this seems to be at variance with Dr. Tschudi's observations. It may be right to repeat here, that writers speak often in very indefinite terms of American flat-headed tribes, there being certainly three very different in form ; the first, those whose crania are naturally depressed ; the second, with the occiput obliquely flattened in a vertical manner (this belongs also to Peru, and is seen on the Yuca tan images) ; the third is the North American, where both the frontal and occiput are pressed down, bulging out laterally. See Plate I. 22* 258 NATURAL HISTORY OF ties in the character of conquerors. Such homn^ was never paid hy conquerors to the vanquished, unit I in possession of indisputable superiority in arts, or in the forms of their institutions, and then the consequence is natural. We see the proofs of it in the Turkish imitations of the Byzan- . and in the .Mon^olic of the Chinese. The foot of Man lias pressed many a soil which later trav- ellers assume was never trodden before them. Navigating antiquity knew many geographical facts that scholastic preju- dice neglected for the sake of grammatical pursuits. From King Alfred's writings we know the voyage of Othere towards the North Pole ; and that even from England navigators vis- ited distant seas in the ninth century. Dicuil's incidental notice of Iceland, in the beginning of the same aire, was not observed till of late years. The Scandinavian discover}- of Greenland was long doubted ; though it is now proved that these hardy seamen pushed their discovery along the coasts of America, beyond the equator, to Brazil. We have discredited, with equal resoluteness, the discovery of Newfoundland by the brothers Zeni, Venetian navigators, seventy years before the voyage of Columbus, according to Cardinal Zurla. Docu- ments published at Copenhagen prove the same coast to have been repeatedly visited by the Northmen from the years 9S0 and 1000 to 13S0 ; and the Biscayen whalers seem to have equally known this region by an accidental south-easterly storm, which drove them from their fishing station off the Irish shores, in the reign of King Henry VI., that is, about 1450; and all this incredulity and apathy, when the names of Brazil, of Antillia, and the country known as Newfoundland, were already noted, though not correctly laid down, in the chart of Andrea Bianca, bearing date 1436, still in the library of St. Marc at Venice. Columbus himself found the rudder of a ship cast on the beach at Guadaloupe. This would be a natural consequence of any ship being disabled, and driven to the south-west, till ;t falls in with the trade winds, which, perpetu- ME HUMAN SPECIES. 259 ally bl ving in the same direction with the currents westward, drive all floating bodies onwards to the coast of the New- World.* What, therefore, the ancients, and more particularly the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, nay, the Celtic may have done, beyond the Atlantic, is not even entirely a conjectural question, since there are still extant elements of a Semitic dia- lect in certain tribes of South America, and of Celtic in the north ; and without the arrival of some mariners from the coasts of the Old Continent, the legend of Quelsalcoatle, a Toltecan legislator, with Budhistic, perhaps Christian dogmas, could not have been framed prior to the arrival of the Spaniard ; yet Cortcz was told that he returned to the ea^t; and hence arose that general belief, that beings of a superior nature would again visit the west from their abode beyond the broad ocean, which was fully established in Anahuac.t But, stimulated by the discoveries of the Portuguese, the power and commercial vigilance of Spain successfully blinded for a time the scholastic apathy of the rest of Europe, and persuaded political ignorance that it was Columbus who first made the discovery of America. Thus, every probability supports the opinion, that men from Europe or Western Africa had reached the New World long before the assumed discovery of Columbus ; yet it does not follow that any who were carried to the west by the trade winds ever returned. The Scandinavians, however, reached the coast at a high latitude, where the north-western winds pre- vail in autumn, and the marine current sets towards Europe. * See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, No. 73, October, Jan., 1845, where this question is treated more at length, in a notice of the Travels of Prince Maximilian ofWied. i If the painted chronology of the Mexicans could be relied on, the legislator priest came with the Toltecs to the plateau of Anahuac, which would then be in A. D. 648. It was asserted, that he began the pyramid of Cbolula. There was another legislator priest, named Votan, who arrive! much earlier in Mexico, but then the chronology now admitted must je wrong. See Don Antonio del Rio. Teatro critico Americano, by F. Cabrera. 260 NATURAL HISTORY OF Hence they returned to Iceland or to Norway with little uncertainty. Disregarding for a moment the probabilities already men- tioned of the subsidence of a great extent of land in the Pacific Ocean, it is evident that from the East of Asia and the Poly- nesian Islands, the principal immigrations of mankind have taken place. Of these the Pitcairn and Easter Islands, near- est to the coast of South America, are remarkable for the co- lossal idols of stone, which have been observed in both, though the first was for a time believed never to have been inhabited before the arrival of the mutineers of the Bounty, and the other is now in the possession of a race who do not claim the fabrication of them. It may be observed, in confirmation of the removal of Polynesians by war, by design, or by stress of weather, to the eastward, that to the 20th degree of south latitude, and to more than 200 leagues at sea, a south-west and south cold wind blows, with a current coming from the pole, and, setting towards the south-west coast, drives float- ing bodies on the shores of Chili. Easter Island, the farthest eastward of all the Polynesian groups containing inhabitants, is as remote from them as from the longitude where these winds and currents prevail ; hence the casual arrival of Poly- nesian wanderers could scarcely fail to reach the coast of Chili ; and subsequently they were, it is obvious, driven eastward, to commix with the Brazilian tribes, and southward, to form the race of Araucas ; others, perhaps from the Sandwich Islands, rre the progenitors of the tribes on the Sacramento river, on the lorth-west coast, where the women still wear the Maro, and the men have short undulating hair, with beard and whiskers very soft and silky. That another immigration was continuous for ages from the east of Asia, is sufficiently indicated by the pressure of nations, so far as it is known in America, being always from the north- west coasts, eastward and southward, to the beginning of the thir- teenth century. It appears to have taken place mostly by the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 2G1 Aleu an Islands, and southward, to the Columbia and Cali- fornia. Here, also, the facilities for this purpose were mostly furnished by nature, and the propelling cause, when landed, is likewise detected, by the country supplying little food between the Rocky Mountains and the sea. The Northern Pacific was navigated by Japanese tribes in ancient times, and is so even now, although, since the appearance of European navigators, the trade has been discontinued, if not absolutely forbidden ; yet, within these few years, a British vessel boarded a Japa- nese junk within two days' sail of the California coast, and found that it had drifted, without human care, for many months, and that, of forty of the ship's company, only seven persons survived. This vessel, having lost its course, was car- ried by the prevailing winds and currents of that portion of the Pacific to the eastward, and was in all probability wrecked on the American coast, after the living people had been taken out of her and saved.*' Here then, we have likewise, on the east side, instances, not of facilities, but of necessary consequences, of vessels reaching the west coast, so soon as they are placed within the influence of the winds and currents which prevail, either constantly or at certain periods of the year, in the latitudes above indicated ; nor is there a want of proof that canoes, with a proportion of Polynesians, have survived the hardships of four months at sea, nor that they have been found at eight hundred leagues' distance from their homes; for both facts are noticed by our navigators in the tropical Pacific; and by the Aleutians, a con- tinuous chain of islands passing from one quarter of the globe to the other, a route is established, as if they were intended for an easy and speedy method of crossing between them. But though timber for canoes and sea-rafts is abundant, both on the north and south points of departure, there is scarcely any near * They were arried to the Sandwich Islands, and thence, by the first opportunity, sej on to their native land. 262 NATURAL HISTORY OF the vestern coast of America to keep up marine habits, nor are there navigable rivers without bars, nor ports with safe places for landing, but mostly everywhere an open, barren, sandy, or rocky shore, beaten by a heavy surf.* Hence, on this side of the Americas, if arrivals were not frequent, departures were impossible, excepting in the more northern latitudes ; and that these had been crossed and recrossed may be presumed, even in case the assertion of Chinese scholars, that America was known by the name of Fu-sang, and mentioned in the great annals of the celestial empire, down to the fifth century of our era, was a mistake.! The absence of Chinese forms of speech on the American continent is not absolute, since the Othomi language, spoken on the north of the valley of Mexico, is mon- osyllabic. In Europe, we know the existing eastern tongues of the Mongolic stock so imperfectly, that the work of Dr. Pfitzmayer on the Japanese, though not directed towards the spoken dialects of the more remote islands of the empire, yet shows that the learned had, until lately, a very slight acquaint- ance with it, and often mistook written Chinese for the Niphon language. t Even the learned Chinese is more a lettered than a nationally spoken vehicle of thought ; and in both the em- pires, the written is partly different from the spoken tongues, though the characters, being symbols instead of alphabetical * The surf in many places is as high and violent as at Madras, and there being little wood procurable on the coast, the natives invented great floats of inflated seal skins, which are still in use. They had formerly cat- amarans, like those on the Coromandel coast. Models of these are frequently found, with a double-bladed paddle, in the graves of the aborigi- nal inhabitants ; but, from California to Peru, rafts, balzas, or janjadas, served, capable of carrying great loads with safety, sailing with uncom- mon speed. See Charnock's Marine Architecture, vol. i., p. 13. Ealza wood is a very light kind of palm. t See C. Frederick Neumann and De Guines, though Klaproth sup- poses Niphon or Japan is meant ; Japan, however, bears a different name or names in the same innals. t A Dictionary in the so-called Tirokana characters, containing 40,000 words, is in preparatio.t by Dr. Pfitzmayer, at Vienna. THE HUMAN SPECIES. £63 signs, can be interpreted by words in several languages, differ- ing in every other respect from each other. Thus, there can- not be a reliance on arguments drawn from the difference of American languages from the Mongolic ; they vary among the distinct families of North America, as much as from any Tah- tar tongue ; and there exist sufficient coincidences and similar- ities in the sounds of words, as well as in the opinions, man- ners and practices of the natives, resembling those of Eastern Asia, when taken with the other arguments already produced, as to overthrow the whole fabric of an exclusively American aboriginal species or form of man, constituting the races of that continent, always excepting the Flathead type, which, it must be owned, constitutes an ingredient very generally diffused through the native tribes, but not their principal portion. Even the most determined advocates of the original unity of the races reject the Esquimaux, who are admitted to be of an Asiatic stock, when they should also reflect, that, in the north- ern portion, several tribes of the present Indians, such as the Iroquois, confess that they dwelt themselves in the high north before they migrated to their present habitation ; while the Tschutski of Eastern Asia are assumed to be of the American stem ; accommodating the conclusion to a reversed order of migra- tion, which, with singular inconsistency, admits the practicabil- ity, on hypothetical grounds, in favor of utter savages, what it refuses to the ancient and middle ages of great and organized nations, who were navigators both on the east and west of the New World, and for times when facilities for that purpose were apparently more at hand than in later ages; for, by strangely re- versing the natural order of human dispersion, another and prob- ably not inconsiderable transition from Asia is disregarded ; one which, being taken in connection with the more immediate facility, by an entire, or almost an entire, communication by land, when Behring's Straits had not yet greatly widened, obviated all serious difficulty. At that period not only Esqui- maux, but Finnic, and the north-eastern Caucasian races, here- 264 NATURAL HISTORY OP after to be mentioned, had no doubt inducements which brought the parent families of the high-nosed and other nations of North America to that continent; and the influence of rigor- ous winter seasons must have gradually induced them to seek milder latitudes, where more plentiful means of subsistence were accessible, in the same manner as the nations of northern Asia and Europe have and ever will continue to do when they have a chance of success. It is perhaps here that we must look for the sources of those multiplied evidences of Asiatic origin, shown by most, if not all, the American tribes, both those of the IMongolic or of the beardless stock, and of the true Caucasian ; for, when the former of these had journeyed almost entirely southward, tribes of the latter appear to have occupied their abandoned localities, and, in a pure condition, or blended with such as remained behind, to have parsed on across the isthmus, or the straits, to the American shore, whither they, in their turn, were followed by the Esquimaux or Skrelings, who, it is evident, came last, since their descendants have never been able to penetrate more to the south than the shores of Nootka. All these occurrences coincide with the known progress of the Caucasian nations to western Asia and to Europe. They account for the presence of similar inscriptions in Siberia and in America, and for many of the facts of the peopling of the new continent at a later period than the west of the Old World ; they admit, without violence, the usual immigrations of dis- tressed marine wanderers, whether they were of Malay or of Phoenician origin, and even of African as well as Oriental Negroes ; such as the colony of the former found at Cariquel, near the Isthmus of Darien, or the now exterminated Char- ruans * of the Guarani, or, like the latter, found in a mixed state on the shores of California. This view gives sufficient time for the local intermixture of the races with the fiat-headed * These may be the same Sir Walter Raleigh mentions as having lank hair ia Guiana, where he observed them. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 2G5 aboriginal, whose peaceful phlegmatic habits readily yielded to the turbulent activity of male adventurers, and accounts for the various other phenomena which attend the question under con- sideration. In the successive struggles of nations, which must have ensued, for hunting grounds or for dominion, the more advanced nave evidently been obliged to yield to those from the north. Whether both originally came from the same quarter, or one had previously arrived by a marine route, the result was the same. The proofs are seen in the ruins of vast castral cities, and human tumuli, still extant in the United States ; in the Maen Stones and Cromlehs of the more eastern regions;* in the pyramids and temples possessed by the successive nations of Mexico ; and, if the singularly squared cone in the middle of a lake of Northern California be wholly or in part the work of Man, it may be a memorial of departure, or a mark of direc- tion for other tribes, perhaps similar to the semi-artificial pile of Chehel Suton — that antique landmark of migration, and directing guide of caravans, situated on the edge of the western Gobi desert, almost midway between Pekin and Constantinople, or Serica and Byzantium. At all events, it would then point out the station which the builders of similar edifices in America once occupied in their earliest day, and confirm the conjecture that the Wapisians of Guiana, at least, are of those tribes, which, at a period long anterior to the march of the Ulmecks and Toltecs, nations of a kindred race, had passed over the pla- teau of Anahuac. Beside the monosyllabic Othomi language, there is a similar mode of connecting sounds into long strung words, pervading the American, Astec and Maya, approach- ing Finnic and Tahtar dialects ; the syllables Ac or Ak, Uk and Kith, often recur in the northern Indian tongues ; and Tla and Tie in the Mexican ; sounds which are again found in the speech of the Arctic nations of both continents. In addition to * At North Salem, New York ; at Winipignan river, on tho O^io. &c. 23 266 NATURAL HISTORY OF these rude and simple characteristics of a mixed Tahtar and Finnic form of speech, there are Scythic words, that is, words of Sanscrit origin, which can scarcely be coincidence*, and rather show that some tribes, perhaps of kindred Yuchi, passed over to the western continent. Again, Semitic words occur rather profusely in the Carib and Makusi dialects* and strik- ing coincidences of similarity between certain tribes of Aus- tralia and the Fuegians of the Straits of ^Magellan are pointed out by Captain Stokes, in his voyage of discovery lately pub- lished. One, more, or all the nations of America had, besides, creeds, usages, and traditions, in common with stems of the Old Continent, and particularly with Asiatic tribes. Such, among others, were the diluvian legends and the celestial dragons' attempts to devour the moon during the appearance of an eclipse. Next, there still exists in the northern portion a basis of pure Deism, coinciding with the common belief of all the nations of high and northern Asia. It was ever independent of tribal and subordinate divinities, and admits of various forms, such as Shamanism, with its demonology, and the more moral system of Budhism ; one being outwardly remarkable for sorcery, incantation, the magical drum, and rattles ; the other for several religious monastic orders, for penances, self- * Thus, in the Dakotah dialects, which convert 31 to W, the Teutonic Mag, large, becomes Wdh and Wak, great, superior, master. Wehrman, warrior, is converted to Wcroicanic. a war chief, &c. Sachem, a priest chief, ma}' be derived from the same root as segher, a priest, from sagen, to speak, and belong to the series with gesach, schah, &c, authority, right to speak, to command. Hooloo is holy, sacred ; min, many, plural ; Hogh or Oug, high, superior, &c. In other dialects we find Eloa to denote God ; and, in the Carib, Makusi, &c, there are, among many other, Tavxoosi, Phoenician, Tammus, for God ; Karbet is the same as Grabit, a house ; together with usages and opinions closely allied to those of the ancient nations of Syria. The Mexican words, Atzlan, Tlapallan, Teno- titslan, without radical meanings in the language, are readily convertible into very appropriate appellations in several Caucasian la" guages. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 267 mortification, and undying chief-priests, and both recurring in the New World ; nay, tokens of what seems a Christian doc- trine are detected in the worship of the cross, repeatedly found carved among the ruins of Palenque. There are, moreover, evidences of Hebrew lore in the metal plates dug out of the same ruins, where the serpent is represented twisted round a tree ; and another, with a naked human figure, kneeling in the attitude of supplication, surrounded by huge monsters, among trees of a tropical forest.* What makes these repre- sentations still more remarkable, is, that though they belong to the high-nosed Toltecs, the mystical figure in distress has neither the features nor flat occiput of that people, nor the posture of prayer which belonged to the idolatrous nations of Anahuac. They had, it is true, a serpent or Naga worship, and believed that tutelary genii appeared to mortals in the animal forms assigned to constellations. But this very fact is again an indication that even the astronomical signs of Asia had passed over to them, for they were figured in astro- logical books which were employed for incantations by an Aste- can order of priests. The medicine men, with their drums, are still perfect counterparts of Siberian Shamans, who per- form their mummeries with a like instrument, similarly painted. The nations of Anahuac were acquainted, like the Tahtars, with a great dragon standard; had, like the Thibetans, huge banner lances, such as are still planted before Lamaite tem- ples and palaces ; and there were ensign spears similar to those of ancient Bactria : one of these was the Shiemagun of the Chippeways, the other was the guiding sign of the Choc- taws, during their great migration from the west. The Mexi- cans had some adorned with wings and feathers like the Huns * The priesthood kneaded maize flour with blood, and baked it in the form of the god of war, then broke and gave it in morsels to the people, who partook with signs of humiliation! See Prescott's valuable History. Was this Budhism ? 268 NATI RAI HIST0B1 "I and early Turk--. The nations of the plateau of Mexico had all a practice of fixing several ensigns or banners, Muck in ferula, at the hack of a warrior, like the earl: ( se, or they attached them to their shields; which was lib unexampled in Asia. Symbolical devices, almost amounting to real heraldry, designating even at this time many tribes of North America, were thoroughly understood in Mexico, and are likewise well known to all the Tab tar nations ol Tiny had, it is asserted, the use of a peculiarly Chin< ment, the well-known gong; but more likely it was a great drum, audible, according to Beroal Diaz, to the distance of two leagues; the same as the Nakara of Southern Asia. In common with Tahtar nations, nuptial- were symbolized by the ceremony of tying the garments together of the two contract- ing parties; and, like them, there was only one lawful wife, though there might be a plurality of concubines. In very an- cient graves, not far distant from Niagara, human debris have been detected, having with them a reversed shell of the whilk (Buccinum) exactly similar to the Shonk found in the tumuli of ancient Ceylon.* Peru, with its Paha people, instinctively builders, has left ruins of huge walls, surpassing the Cyclopean and Pelasgian structures of the older continent in bulk, and superior to them in artistic skill. From the institutions, religious, humane and moral, the legislator of the Incas has rarely been considered by the learned to be of indigenous origin, but more generally as a Japanese or a Brahmin philosopher, who, if he were an Asiatic, certainly did not traverse the Pacific alone. Several nations in both parts of the continent, had, like the Oceanians of the South Sea, and of the north-east of Asia, a bone thrust through the cartilage of the nose ; they had also swords with tassel handles, like the 3Ialays, feather mantles, and decora- * The fact was communicated to us by Captain Chapman, late Royal Engineers, who had examined both instances on the spot. THE HUM AN SPECIES. 269 tions like natives of the Sandwich and other Polynesian islands. The progressing nations, and, in particular, among those of Anahuac, the Mexicans, were a bearded and hairy race, and, bein^ in a state of creator civilization than oilier American tribes, they were in a condition of representing more circum- stantially the tenor of their ancestral history. Accordingly, they had traditions, supported by hieroglyphics! maps, which marked the Stag) - of their ancient migration from the north to their arrival on the plateau of the Andes, where they founded Mexico in 1325 of our era, according to Clavigero. They had then already resided at Tula and its vicinity for above a century, gradually dislodging other tribes, who had successively pressed upon each other from the same quarter. These were chiefly the Acalhuans, Chichimecas and Toltecs, whose first arrival is referred to so early a time as the year (> IS ; and even these were posterior to the Ulmecs : but the dates may not be safely relied upon ; and the charts themselves, though still existing, at least in copies, cannot be deciphered with trustworthy precision. The point of primaeval departure i--. however, designated by the names of Aztlan (the Eden, or land of nourishment), and Huekuetlapallan, which has been interpreted, the 1 » r i _r 1 1 1 abode of ancestors, a region which cer- tainly lay in the north ; and, when coupled with the departure, i. i hides likewise the west. This region was certainly not the valley of the river Gila, in California, notwithstanding that a cognate language is still spoken there, and that ruins of mag- nitude attest there was anciently a people residenl on the spot already in a progressive state of civilization. It is probable that this people were the Astecans, who may have resided on the locality until they had increased to a nation, and were forced to depart by pressure from behind ; for sedentary nations do not abandon cities and temples but by force, or by the fear of foreign and unknown invaders, from whom they expect no mercy. It is a curious coincidence of time, that these great 23* 270 NATURAL HISTORY 01 recorded migrations in America correspond sufficiently well with the same kind of migratory and invading wars in Asia, which precipitated the Yuchi from Chinese Tahtary west- ward, and brought the Ilyatili or White Huns first to compi'i Cabul and Bactria ; being followed by true Mongolic nations till their hordes established themselves beyond the Danube and the Vistula. These are uncontrovertible signs of the great expansion which the beardless stock then made in north and eastern Asia ; and may well account for clans of Caucasians, such as still have possession of sundry mountain chains in China, taking refuge towards America, by a route sufficiently near the Arctic Circle to give the north and west for a true point of their first abode on that continent. Followed, as all fugitive nations are, by their enemies, no doubt real Mongo- lians came after them ; and both, in departing from eastern Asia, lost their horses and their nautical habits. Thus, these migrations of distinct types may be a cause of the intermediate character of the present Aleutian Islanders.* With these facts before us, it is vain to assert that all Ameri- can races, excepting the Esquimaux, have originally sprung from one stock ; for many more coincidences could be enumerated ; and while one like the last mentioned is admitted to be of the beardless type, of Ouralian or of Finnic origin, surely others could migrate in a similar direction, at earlier periods, when, in all probability, this passage was much more practicable; and, according to observations made by Biot, the climate less * See Warden's Antiquites Americaines. Pennant's Arctic Zoology, Introduction ; where«many other customs, common to the Scythians, and to the North American nations, are enumerated. There is a Japanese map now in the British Museum, which marks islands in the straits of Behring, and notices the region by the name of Ya-zue (the kingdom of the dwarfs), that is, the diminutive Esquimaux. This map, presented by Kcempfer to Sir Hans Sloane, is, therefore, of comparative antiquity, and shows Behring's Straits to have been known to the Mongolic stock long before Behring made the discovery, or Cook fixed the real position of the two coasts. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 271 severe than at present. More than twenty tribes of Indians, of the present territory of the United States and Canada, record their migration either from the north, or from beyond the Rocky Mountains. Many of these nations have therefore occupied a high northern latitude on the west coast ; regions now mostly in the hands of Esquimaux tribes, who, as they have replaced them, have evidently arrived after their depart- ure : the former tribes, not emphatically fish-eaters, but hunt- ers, when, from single families, or from a race mixed with the indigenous Flatheads, they had increased to tribes; and when in that little productive region, where game is rare, they could no longer remain stationary, must have sought subsistence in and beyond the mountain chain ; for to the east only, with the exception of the valleys of California, could they find the Bison, the Elk, the white mountain Goat, the Ahzata, Argali, prong-horned Antelope, and the wapiti Stag. In pursuit of game, they must have come upon the sources and feeders of the great rivers that run to the south-east, and fall into the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic. They would naturally follow their course, or crossing the Ohio and Mississippi to richer woody regions beyond the Alleghanies, occupy the eastern prov- inces of the present United States and Canada. Other tribes of the west, probably immigrants of later periods, and pos- sessed of higher attainments, even with a remnant of nautical means, descended between the islands and the coast, till they reached the rivers now significantly denominated de los Mar- tires, and de los Piramides ; and thence, crossing the Colorado, rested for some ages in the valley of the Gila.1* Here they gradually multiplied, advanced in civilization, and raised those structural monuments which are still to be seen in their ruins ; thence, in successive waves, ascending the plateau of the An- des, they made their appearance in Anahuac, to seize new and * Surely these point out two or more of the Astecan halting places. 272 NATURAL HISTORY OF perhaps better settlements; but, from their new position, event- ually forsaking all acquaintance with navigation. Thus are shown those successive proceedings of nations in the New World, which were counterparts of the well-known invasions of the northern tribes in the Old ; both radiating from a common centre; surmounting obstacles of seas, deserts, swamps, forests, and mountain-chains ; surviving mutual slaughters, victories and defeats, till they reach the utmost limits of the habitable earth. If now we inquire whether the nations of America attest, in their structure, the various origin here shown, or have a uniformity of characteristics, which many eminent physiologists, together with Dr. Morton, contend for, we shall find great evidence of a common type very gen- erally, but not unexceptionably, pervading the nations in ques- tion. It is found chiefly in the great vertical prolongation of the frontal bone, though this distinction, we have before noticed, is not exclusively American : it varies in size, probably, according to the degree of intermixture different tribes have received — there being, besides, populations on the coasts of the sea of Okotsk, and even on Saghalin Island, similarly dis- tinguished.* Many Japanese, particularly Bonzes of the lower classes of the nation, have the forehead remarkably depressed. In several portions of the New Continent, the oblique eyes, complexion, and other characters of Mongols occur, as among the Alikhoolis of Terra del Fuego ; but the Chilenos have strikingly Hindoo features. * It is externally apparent, in some abnormal tribes of the Polynesian islands, and exclusive of the Flathead Paltas, most conspicuous in peak- headed natives of Kotzebue's Sound, on the north-west coast, who, though they do not belong to the Esquimaux stem, are more like natives of the east coast of Asia; and if these are claimed as a portion of the Tschutski race, then they would show the last mentioned to be originally not American, but Asiatic, nay Finnic ; and, consequently, that the cra- nial conformation in question is not peculiar to the New World ; but an excessive divergence arising in an abnormal stem, where the sutures close more slowly than in the typical stocks. THE HUMAN SPECIE3. 273 In general, however, it is evident that the nations of this portion of the globe possess a marked similarity of physical characters. They have a small skull, varying in the capacity of the cranial chamber from 100 to 60 cubic inches, according to Dr. Morton's measurement. It approaches the Mongolian in shape, but the summit is more rounded, and the sides are less angular. In some tribes there is a somewhat more pointed crown, and the back part is often flattened, in most cases arti- ficially so ; the cheek-bones are high, the forehead naturally rather low and depressed; the nose prominent; in a few tribes aquiline ; maxilla? powerful ; the mouth rather large, and the lips full, if not tumid. The eyes of all the nations are black, and the hair rather scarce, lank, and coarse; though, among the Arauca mountaineers, and also on the west coast, gray eyes and lighter colored hair are sometimes seen. These tribes, also, are as fair as southern Europeans. The South Americans are more yellow than copper-colored ; but in the northern portion the skin is reddish, agreeing with the distinct- ive name which the native tribes bestow upon themselves ; that color being formed by a peculiar tissue below the epidermis, according to Flourens, but yet not nearly so vivid as we have often observed it to be among French and Spanish fishermen in the West Indies.* The Caribs are intermediate : some tribes of Guiana much darker than Mulattoes, and the Cali- fornians almost black, or dark like Samboes. In most respects, the aboriginal population may be divided into the yellow tropical semi-Malay stem of the eastern regions of South America, and the Caucaso-Mongolians of the north, and of the Cordilleras, along the whole west coast of the conti- * We have personally compared and drawn from life many individuals of dillerent tribes: — Fuegians, Brazilians, Arookas, Carihs, Mosquito Indians, Seminoles, &c., of the United States, and others in Canada of different northern tribes. The highly developed reddish color may be a result of the long-continued action of dry, sharp winds in the prairies of Upper North America. 274 NATURAL HISTORY OF nent. The frame is, in general, symmetrical, rather tumid; in the one, below the middle stature; in the other portion, gener- ally above it; and among some tribes, equal to the largest men of the old continent. With regard to mental qualifications, the nations of North America, not having passed beyond the state of hunters, show, for want of the laboring Ox and conquering Horse, the characteristics of others in the same condition. Thoy arc active, vigilant, daring, revengeful, restless, cruel, but capable of lofty feelings ; full of hospitality, of the love of truth, and of vast earnestness of purpose, when once their attention is roused. Ruins still extant in nearly every region of the conti- nent, and, still more, history, as written by their enemies, attest that they could work out systems of self-development, creating civilizations which were fast advancing to a more reasoned maturity, notwithstanding that the foundations were often stricken down by successive hordes of new invaders, till the whole was finally crushed by European zeal and cupidity; for, notwithstanding our view of a foreign element having worked in the development of the indigenous social institutions, it must be recollected that a few strangers cannot sway a distinct peo- ple unprepared to receive their suggestions. They must be homogeneous, — the result of time and of national engraftings, — before they can take root. Now, the Mexican civilization was a reconstruction of one or more preceding it ; and the Ulmec and Toltec, so much older, were, most likely, not the first that pervaded the warmer regions of Western America ; therefore, the American mind, resulting, as we claim it to be, from two typical stocks of Man, is only inferior in capacity, so far as the existing races are more or less removed from the means of attainment of social improvement; and the cold philosophy of modern science, which inflicts the accusation, is not totally destitute of cognate participation, in producing the conditions of existence it stigmatizes. Luckily, a host of writers, and among them, lately, Prescott, have fairly summed up what the intellectual powers of the aboriginal races had THE HUMAN SPECIES. 275 already attained, without the intervention of European science. Writers, in general, more dazzled with Mexican splendor, because that empire was more within reach of European curi- osity, have not regarded Peru with sufficient discrimination; perhaps because its splendor and civilization was more suddenly and more universally trodden down by the European monsters who invaded it; and fewer documents of its condition have come down to our time. But the nation which had advanced to the established practice of bloodless sacrifice in its worship, had surely gone far beyond the Mexicans ; and although we do not know how much of scientific progress was the property of one or of both the two empires, the bas-relief carving, already mentioned, where the sun is represented in the centre of the system, with other planets in the irradiated circle around it, shows that children of the sun, though they claimed them- selves to be, had a better notion of the planetary disposition than Europeans possessed to a late period; and that the superior men of the nation were not blinded by the solar dog- mas of their religion, is proved by the memorable reply of Inca Tupac Yupan-gui to the monk Valverde, wherein he rejected the belief that the sun was a living body, creating all things ; but thought him to be " like an arrow which performs the flight intended by the archer who shot it off." The Peruvians of history appear to have been a partial compound of naturally flat-headed Paltas, and a mixture, probably, of the dominant tribes, with partly artificial-flattened occiputs; but the figures of Incas, preserved in early Spanish documents, offer neither of these deformities. The first were, most likely, the working castes, the second the privileged, and the last appears to have been confined to one sacred family. Cyclopean structures,*' or walls, fortifications, and pyramidal elevations, raised with enormous stones, belong, certainly, to the oldest population. * Such as Chulucanas, on a secondary ridge of the Cordilleras, as well as pyramidal instances of tombs. 276 NATURAL HISTORY OF It is likely that others, particularly those evincing greater skill were constructed during the sway of the second, and that the Inca period only adapted them to the system of solar Budhism, which it can scarcely be denied formed the basis of their insti- tutions. Of the Cromlechs of America appearing to be identi- cal with the Celtic, known all over Europe and Asia, we wish not to say more than that they are, to a certain extent, evi- dence of the early wandering of some Gomerian tribes to the New World ; and of the Northmen it is now proved that they reached the east coast by a western course from Iceland, and wandered much further to the south than was suspected in earlier times. Whether any of these survived and amalga- mated with the local races, is a question not likely ever to be settled. The decay, amounting to prospective extinction, observed to be the lot of the American races, is, moreover, a further proof that they are not a typical people, but that they are stems occupying debatable ground, which we have before shown are alone liable to annihilation, or to entire absorption. Yet, in some parts of the tropical latitudes, in Yucatan for instance, so great an amalgamation of the white with indigenous tribes and with Negro imported slaves, has taken place, that this mixed population, becoming sensible of numerical superiority, as well as of the more intense energy they possess in those climates, are now asserting their power ; and ultimately this hybrid race may prove a more serious opponent to the white man's insa- tiable cupidity than the descendants of European conquerors have yet had to encounter. We have not space to enter into the geographical details of the distribution of the indigenous tribes, further than has been already done, nor to advert more particularly to their dialects ; for hordes, without letters or great national expansion, and which are constantly subdividing, exterminating by mutual slaughter, or perishing from constitutional liability to disease, are therefore by no means able to form durable communities THE HUMAN SPECIES. 277 and persisting dialects. This last observation is already per- ceptible in the catechisms and prayers printed in the Huron and other languages, by French missionaries, not quite a cen- tury ago, and now only understood in consequence of daily repetition and careful explanation. At least, such was the information we received on the spot. One people we must, however, except from the rest, namely, the Carib, or that por- tion of the Carib tribes which still occupies parts of the mari- time border of north-eastern South America, because, as we have before observed, many opinions, institutions, and even words in their language, bespeak an intercourse that once appears to have existed between the ancestors of the present families and a Semitic nation, perhaps Phoenician or Hebrew. That they were once not a sedentary nation is evinced, since they still refrain from travelling in the interior, unless previ- ously prepared for it by peculiar ceremonies, excepting one tribe, which is remarkable for enterprise, and, in a small com- pany, will fearlessly penetrate among hostile nations, much in the character of fighting pedlers. The Caribs were, like their prototypes of the Old World, a nautical people, partly cannibals and conquerors, over all the islands of the West Indian seas ; having commenced, some generations before the arrival of Columbus, their career of invasion by those nearest the coast, and gradually extending their enterprise to the north and west, till they had subdued all to the east of Hayti, where, at the time of the Spanish discovery, they had, as yet, only secured dominion for themselves in the vicinity of Samana Eay. It is erroneously asserted that no indigenous people of America had contrived sea-going vessels of any size ; for if the information we received while in the country be trustworthy, within a sandy portion of the border of the river Yuna, in this very bay of Samana, a sunken canoe was found buried, which was nearly 100 feet in length, proportionally broad ; and what was considered to be sufficient evidence of the period when it had perished, was the discovery of a stone vessel, a stone casse-tete, 24 278 NATURAL HISTORY OF and an axe of flint, all within its hollow. Canoes of great capacity were necessary to nautical invaders of populous islands, and the materials for constructing them abounded on the north coast of South America ; and, indeed, in the northern portion, there still remain rude sculptures of very long vessels of this class, manned with numerous rowers, particularly on tide rocks, in Massachusetts and elsewhere. At foot note, page 270, we should have noticed, in confirma- tion of the northern and marine migration of some tribes, that the Chichimecs relate, that after they emerged out of seven "caves" (islands), they travelled to Amassiemecan, or the northernmost portion of America. Perhaps they were Aleu- tians, and the term caves, if not denoting islands, may refer to canoes, which, in many languages, bear names allusive, like caves, to hollowness, Altei. The legend is exceedingly like that in Strabo, which relates to the original seven Cyclopeans, who first came from Lycia by sea. They evidently designate ships' crews, since they began soon after to build works of huge stones, such as those near their caves at Nauplia, &c. Votan, the third personage in the Mexican Calendar, according to Francisco Nunes, was the leader of seven families, who came from an island to America, and then brought seven more to the same country. But the bishop of Chiapa is questionable authority. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 279 THE HYPERBOREAN, BEARDLESS, OR MOKGOLIC TYPE. From what has been stated in the foregoing pages, on the two preceding extensive subtypical stems of the great family of Man, our chief aim has been to produce some of the reasons which, at least, seem to substantiate the conclusion, that both are results of amalgamations of two, or of all the three normal stocks, separated from their original centres of existence, at dif- ferent epochs, part whereof may be of so remote a date that they precede a portion of those great territorial dislocations already pointed out, which affected both the Northern Pacific as well as the equatorial and southern seas. Whether the period in question synchronized with the avulsion of the plane of earth which originally abutted on the western base of the Cordilleras, is not now a question to be discussed in the bear- ing it might have on human existence, since there are sufficient evidences to show that the present tenants of the island groups can mostly be traced to more recent periods ; and the traditions of the northern hemisphere, in both continents, tend to prove the arctic nations, of the present time, to be of comparatively late expansion over their now dreary abodes. The question, however, is not without some curious circumstances affecting the beardless type, which we pointed out as first traceable in the north-eastern flanks of the great central table-land of Asia. But more attentive search seems to establish the fact, that, even there, during many ages, it cannot have been the dominant stock; for as on most other occasions we find the older races of Man, that possessed a given country, and were obliged to yield to the power of later invaders, hold to the last in the fastnesses of mountain ranges, so we observe here, from the Chinese annals, whole nations of Caucasians, Kinto-Moey, Yuchi, &c, possessed of vast portions of Thibet and Eastern Tahtary, and 280 NATURAL HISTORY OF maintaining their ground to the times immediately preceding and succeeding the Christian era, when they were first driven westward, whilst others are now found subdued and incorpo- rated with the Celestial Empire, though still retaining their distinctive characters of ample beard, horizontal eyes, and lofty stature. They are spread in population about the river Amour and the hill countries, while others, such as the Miao-tze (cat- people) and the Mou-lad (wood-rats), occupy, in the south, the wildest mountains in Se-tchuen, Koei-tcheou, Houkang, and Quangsi, to the frontiers of Quang-tong. None of these nations and tribes can have penetrated eastward, from Thibet, after the Mongolian races were fully established in the plains. They must, therefore, be of anterior date; and, as we see above, in the case of the Yuchi, the residue of the people driven from the more fertile plains, by the force of invaders. All the way to the Malayan peninsula, every known event tends to prove here, as in America, that a succession of invasions followed upon each other, from the north, and formed vari- ously amalgamated nations, still marked by strong distinctions in Indo-China, Australasia, and the South Sea Islands.* The facts here stated, when accepted to the extent they of necessity imply, establish that the Mongolian type was not primacvally predominant in Thibet, and, at most, hung on the north-eastern flanks of the plateau of Tahtary, in the same manner as the woolly-haired appears to have done on the southern. Yet there was assuredly a huge development of this stock, at the most early human period, which, as it could not be concentrated immediately on the high land, was clearly produced in the north-east, most probably from the basin of the * In proof of the departure of the Mongolic nations from the high north, may be shown, that they always look to the south as the object of desire, naming the wes': by the same denomination as the right hand, and the east a« the left ; therefore totally distinct from Caucasians, who univer- sally, from a religious motive, look to the east, and call the west the back. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 281 upper Lena to the sea of Okotsk, and bounded on the south by the mountains of the Jablonoi and Tugurek chains, that is, between 55 and 65 degrees of north latitude ; for it was through the passes, at the head waters of the river Vitim, that it appears the Mongols first pushed their conquests forward among the Yuchi, then in possession of the southern borders of Lake Baikal, and the Mandshures subjugated the Shagallian terri- tory, washed by the great Shika or river Amour, where the ruins of most ancient cities, captured and abandoned by the beardless stock, are still to be seen. Desolate cities, with standing gateways, in a great degree perfect, and monstrous statues, akin to, but far more elaborate than the more early Scandinavian and Gothic works of art in Europe, indicate no very remote period when they were forsaken, and testify that the religion once predominant had more affinity with the northern Caucasian doctrines of the west, than with the Budhism, Shamanism, or any other superstitions known among the beardless nations/* Having before shown the opinion, drawn from high authori- ties, and corroborated by Chinese annals, that while the Polar Sea covered, to within recent ages, several degrees of latitude in northern Asia, the climate must have been considerably milder than at present, and consequently have facilitated migration to the eastward, even if Behring's Straits had then already its present dimensions, and the Aleutian islands did not form a more continuous chain than they now exhibit. These circumstances may account both for the Caucaso-Mongolic propulsion to America, and for the comparatively late period * Par-liotan, city of the Tiger, a mass of extensive ruins, on the Kirton- Gura of the Kalkas, and to the north of Mongolia. The Kirton-Gura communicates with the Amour by the Kulon-nor lake. The ruins are in latitude 43, and in longitude a little west of Pekin. Though not built by the Mongolic nations, this and other cities were no doubt occupied by them till after their conquest of China, when to permit another hardy population to grow up concentrated in the north was no doubt found tc be unadvisable. 24* 282 NATURAL EI8I0BY OF of development which that stock displays towards the south and west. The earliest Chinese annals may not in reality belong to the beardless races, hut he an appropriation made by them alter their first conquests were effected ; for the Chinese b< roes and social institutions, including Foh himself, have, in their human relations, characters that do not helong so much to them as to their predecessors, the Kinto Moey, or Yuchi. They have also usages, like the feast of lanterns, which have no proper meaning in their legends, though, like the Hoolee of India in substance,- they may be regarded as the same, since they are both dedicated to the opening spring. It is doubtful whether at Canton the votaries of Budha understand the hymns sung by them in his praise; for they are obtained from Ceylon, though the religious system itself is derived originally from Thibet, or perhaps, with still more certainty, from the more western portion of High Asia, before the Hyperborean diffusion reached that quarter. The beardless stock, in its primaeval abode, may not have attained the full stature of Caucasians. Migration to more southerly regions, still more, innervation derived from inter- union with bearded races, probably gave it the development now attained ; for no giant tribes are recorded among the unadulterated nations of Mongolic origin; and many instances occur, where, like Anna Comnena, speaking of the first appearance of the Turks, they are described to be of small stature. Here, like in other cases, it should be borne in mind that the ruling tribes and royal clans, the greatest sharers in the division of spoil, possessed the principal propor- tion of Caucasian captive females, and thence acquired an external superiority of aspect, as well as much greater cerebral expansion. This fact is forcibly shown in the Osmanli and Toorkee dynasties of Europe and Persia. Mythology and romance notice dwarfs and Pypilikas, or gold-finding ants (pos- sibly a mole of describing the gold miners of the Altaic range), THE HUMAN SPECIES. 283 Tschutski, Jakoutski, or others, not perhaps pure Hyperbo- reans, such as the iron-working Niron tribes of Mongolia appropriately typified by griffins and dragons, since these very monsters have been their national ensigns from the remotest ages; and at several times conquerors have issued from among them, desolating the earth, and forming the greatest as well as the most transient empires in human history.* Whether the Phryni and Seres of antiquity, mentioned by Pliny, Strabo, and Ptolemy, were really of the beardless stock in possession of Kashgar and Yarkund, and associated with the Tokhari as early as the Macedonian conquest, may well be contested, since the conjecture of Dr. Vincent, that for Scythioe should be read Sindh, is proved to be incorrect. The southern glens of that region, being the spontaneous land of the mulberry tree, had then, no doubt, their own different species of indigenous silk-worms, which they still possess, and from their produce the name Serica was derived, as well as Seres, without reference to the origin of the nation that then had rule. There can be little doubt but that they were Caucasian Scythians of remote times, since the name of the Tokhari has been read phonetically among the vanquished tribes repre- sented on Egyptian temples, where the conquests of a Thoth- mes or Remses are depicted, and the population of those high lands is not even now Mongolic. What the earlier Greeks related of the Seres, who were reported to be satyrs, eighteen cubits in height, sufficiently proves they knew the name only in connection with some colossal statues of Indian or of Bac- trian divinities. The Chinese, in their earliest records, seem to denominate the whole beardless stock Le Mia, or black-haired people, according to the old classical comment on the Yaou Tan, in order to distinguish them from the foreign races, which are designated as invariably red or fair-haired ; that is, Yuchi. * Such as Ogus Khan, about 657 B. C, to Genghiz Khan, about 1154 A. D. 284 NATURAL HISTORY OF The Mongolic type is, in truth, unknown to ancient history in the shape of organized nations ; hut isolated tribes have pen- etrated westward at early periods, more or less mixed up with that subtypical stock which formed the Finnic or Ouralian nations, whose presence in Europe we shall shortly mention. Those among them which are least mixed by Caucasian inter- union, certaiidy still retain the characteristics evidently belong- ing to the most pure and ancient Hyperborean beardless tribes ; still the following description is applicable to both, with only so much difference as the conditions of their respective situa- tions admit to be results of circumstances only. The Beardless Hyperborean,* or Mongolic type, differs from the white Caucasian and Melanic stocks, by constant characters, which mark it externally, even where the subordinate stems are greatly adulterated by intermixture, or modified by climate and other causes. It is a form of Man distinguished from the other two types by a facial angle, sloping backwards from 70 to 80 degrees — the contents of the cerebral chamber varying, according to Dr. Morton's measurement, from 69 to 93 cubic inches ; the head is rather small, the face flat, the cheek-bones projecting laterally, the eyes small, not much opened, appearing to be placed obliquely, with the external angle upwards, chiefly because the lachrymary gland is con- cealed by the upper lid, which turns directly down over it. This is a provision of nature common to the ruminants of high latitudes, and the most elevated ridges, who are all destitute of tear pits, probably because the lachrymary structure cannot be exposed in a rigorous climate without positive detriment to the eyes. The Mongolian eye has always a dark iris, the eyebrows are narrow, the hair is coarse, lank, and blacky the beard scanty, not curly, partially or wholly wanting at the * The denomination of hyperborean is more strictly applicable to the Arctic stock, though by the ancients the same designation is commonly believed to refer to Gothic, or at most to Finnic tribes, who were at that time merely borcc:-, or northern inhabitants. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 285 ears, and it appears to be of the same pile as the hair of the head. The nose is small, somewhat pointed, and the mouth well-formed. In the Nogai race the nose is, however, round, flattened, and dilated, the cheek-bones still more prominent, the lips are tumid, and the eyes almost reduced to linear open- ings; while the black Kalmucks have the obliquity of the lids still greater, so that their external angles seem to be almost forty-five degrees above horizontal. All the true beardless nations are olivaceous in color, the skin varying from a kind of sallow lemon-peel, through various shades of greater depth; but it is never entirely fair, nor intensely swarthy; although, in the adulterated races that occupy the Himalaya range, slight appearances of blush may be discerned among young people ; and the black Kalmucks, from some other unex- plained cause, are of an ashy darkness, not far remote from the true Papua color. The typical nations are all square of body, in stature rather low, the trunk long, the extremities seldom or never lengthened, and the wrists and ankles are weak.* These characteristics of the Hyperborean type retain such uniformity, that the American races are in most particulars, as we have already shown, but little aberrant, and the Malay, Indo-Chinese, &c, continue to bear them, in the exact propor- tion of their commixture with other aberrants, and of the influ- ences generated by local circumstances. In the same ratio we also find the physical structure to harmonize with the intellec- tual qualities. The Hyperborean evinces a feebler innervation than the other typical forms of Man ; he is less under amatory influences, less prolific, less enduring in toil; hence more dis- * Where the gland is visible, the eye horizontal, and the beard spreads up to the sides of the ears, there is certainly a mixed descent. It is most common, perhaps solely observed, among natives of the northern prov- inces beyond the wall. No doubt the superior energy and capacity they evince is the cause why they are everywhere in office, and that so many portraits, thus characterized, occur in the Chinese Museum now exhibit- ing in London. 286 NATURAL HISTORY OF posed to severity where he has power ; to a victim or a captive inflicting needless torture, less from natural ferocity, than from the want of individual self-reliance, which ia thus prone to express fear by precaution. More readily reduced to order when subdued, he evades rather than resists oppression by force; he is more obstinate than brave, but savage to self- destruction when roused by despair ; avoiding personal tion, such as to walk or to dig unremittingly in the fields, be rides in every region when the Horse is accessible; more imita- tive than inventive, he exerts his ingenuity to apply mechani- cal aids in necessary labors. Sitting at work, he is dexterous, but little tasteful ; at handicraft professions, preferring patiia. is here referred to a particular locality, perhaps the chain of Deroavend, or one of the several peaks bearing the name of Alburs, or, rather, Kohi-Baba, where Argenk's palace is described to have been adorned with statues of mon- sters, endowed with reason, " such as existed in former crea- tions." There were pictures upon the walls relating to those * Neither Kondemirnor Mirkhond are the inventors of these traditions ; for Kaf was, in Arabian lore, a mountain, " enclosed like a ring surround- ing a finger," and " the sun rose and set from Kaf to Kaf." It denotes the high land of Asia. The Sakrat hinge of the world is Himalaya, and was the region wherein the deeve bird Simurg or Simorganka tells Temu- rah he had served forty Sultauns, his predecessors, and had seen the crea- tion renewed seven times. Kaf, when particularized in the Shah Nameh, is evidentlv Kohibaba, which, with its two passes, was best known among the elevated peaks on the western front of the great plateau ; and there it appears Zohauk is likewise fabled to have had his fastness, though another of the name is placed in the middle of Lake Zurrah. The number of seventy-two Sultauns, compared with the forty Solimans, indicate the priority of residence in easternmost P?rsia to have been on the side of the sable races. According to Arabian notions of geogranhy, Kohi-Kaf is situated between the habitations of Iran and Ginnistan. " Taric TebrL" See also " d'Herbelot, in voce Soliman ben Daoud." THE HUMAN SPECIES. 347 times, poetical embellishments in the legend, which, since the late discoveries in the ruins of Nineveh, show that the narra- tions are drawn from buildings adorned with Andro-Sphinxes Sirens, and Taurine monsters, similar to those of Persepolis The locality may even be much more towards the north and east, since a sculptured sphinx has been discovered about the Altaic gold mines, and similar objects are frequent in the ruins of ancient cities about the river Amour, in Chinese Tar- tary. The name of Temendoun, a giant with one hundred arms, defeated by Kayomurs, first king of Persia, but who escaped and fled to Oman, in Arabia; one more, named An- thalous (Antaeus), with a thousand arms, who was captured and sentenced to death by Solitnan Ben Hakki, who could never accomplish his decree, indicate that they are rem cences of ancient legends, notwithstanding the evident plagia- risms from Greek fables and Hindoo relations, and that the color, the direction of the flight, and the indestructible charac- ter of these enemies, whose many arms imply the strength of their forces, and the region and antiquity of their occurrence. They are, moreover, countenanced by others, such as the ante- diluvian sovereigns Mahabad, "Father of mankind;" Biurasp, " King before the flood ;" and Gilshah, " The first man ;" all mythical records of the first Caucasian invasions from the high lands, and the wars they waged upon the black popula- tions in possession of the land. If the relation of Herodotus can be admitted, they were in his time not quite extinct in Col- chis. The evidence of their blood remains marked in the present Bedoueen Arabs; it was unquestionable in the race of Ham in Chaldea and Syria ; in the Ethiopia of southern Per- sia, Persis, Chusistan, and Susiana; in Arabia Deserta, from the southern coasts of the Indus to the Straits of Bab-el-Man- deb, and in Upper Egypt to Nubia and Cordofan. The Shah Nameh furnishes traces of their wars with the Iranians, and Asiatic Ethiopians are historically noticed in the 'ime of Xerxes. The whole region from Hindostan to Lybia, 348 NATURAL HISTORY OF was anciently, and even is now by Orientals, frequently denomi- nated India. Like their ancestors, the population still forms a mixed race, having in general ruling families of a white origin; sometimes named Getae (Goth) , Gern anii oi Kerman- shah. Strabo (lib. vii.) makes Pyrebestas (Abu Rebbia) rule the Getae. Ammianus calls Arabia the desert of the G and the Beni-Ghour (children of the swamp) are still regarded as a fair race, descended from that stock. It is in tb is territory, and adjoining E^ypt, that in the ear- liest antiquity a very considerable civilization is detected, because the confluence of nations moving westward obliged concentration at the isthmus, in order to reach the lower Nile, and in this manner they became conversant with each other's discoveries in the arts of life, and saw the dawn of commerce opening by the mariners of Sidon. Whether the Imilikon, or Amalekites, were of the same mixed stem, does not clearly appear; but that the Phoenicians, Punes, Fynes, so far as the master tribes are concerned, were Finns, is exceedingly probable, since a red-haired race neces- sarily must have come from the northern parts of Asia ; and if the language they spoke was in the historical era almost a pure Hebrew, the cause is easily discovered, since a white com- munity, of no great strength, had gradually increased to a series of cities, whereof the vast superiority of inhabitants were Semitics and southern strangers, who, from the period of the first conquest of Phoenicia, acquired political power; whereas, until then, they had perhaps only possessed a certain preemi- nence in the refinements of civilization. The Phoenician power was long settled before the arrival of the Hebrews in Pales- tine, and it was not regarded by them in the same light as the upland tribes of Canaan, since political and commercial alli- ance, and permanent peace, existed between the two states ; conditions which could not have been maintained if the Punic race had not been of a very distinct origin from the Canaan- ite. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 349 EGYPT. If the isthmus of the Red Sea was already closed on the Mediterranean side, when the first human population came to the western shores of Asia, it may be assumed that the delta of the Nile was not yet so consolidated as to offer any firm footing beyond the sands on the beach ; while the marshy fens within them were, as yet, only beginning to form the pres- ent lower province. Gradually the valley was occupied, from the head of the first bifurcation of the river, up to the cataracts, by a population of very distinct origin, cemented together by causes not now accessible to investigation ; for here three nations, at least, adopted the same system of civilization, and amalgamated together from different sources of migration, elaborating a state religion, and peculiar social institutions, whatever difference there might be else in tribal speech and local doctrines. The oldest of these nations had been pushed up the river by succeeding immigrations, and was of true Ethiopie character, Indo-Arab, deb or black, and since known by the names of Aurites, or Abarites. It was apparently com- posed of tribes expelled the coast of Malabar, and distinguished b\* the more elevated position of the ears, by large dark eyes, strong curly hair, long legs, thick lips, and very swarthy color: the second, a brown race, with lank hair, were the Misr, or Mestrai (Misraim of antiquity), said to have been led by Masr ; but all these names indicate a mixed race, which both were ; and the third, governed by a fairer high-featured tribe of real Caucasians, were most likely the last comers, and in part a privileged body of conquerors ; they were, collectively, the Gouptas, Koptos, said to have followed the mythological Menes,* who first nestled in the marshes of the delta, and * Menes, the same as Mauu, who binds the ark to the peak of Hima- vahn ; and Meru, whose holy mountain was west of Cabul, near Bamean, and ancestor of Rama ; but it may be a name for Joktan. 30 350 XATIKAL HI8T0RI Mf most likely came by sea from Asia .Minor. They obtained and kept the ruling power, the Pharaonic crown and ; hood, for ages, in their hands, although they were neither the authors of the civilization, nor of the religious doctrines of the land. The enormous army, with excessive privileges, main- tained by the state, and forces often called in from abroad warrant this opinion. The conjecture is strengthened by the prohibition the government gave to all marine enterprise on the Red Sea, and the early and long continuance of suprem- acy it exercised over Syria; and, finally, by the reminiscence of hostilities in High Asia, which prompted the greatest of the nan kings to make repeated inroads as far as Baetiia, though ever with ephemeral results. At length the sceptre passed from them to the Cushites, who, in time, were again subdued by new hordes of High Asia ; while the Cushite nation secured the coast of Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt, up to the Port of Aphrodite; this was the Ethiopia of Africa, Thosh, or Etaush, and Kush, still called Kish in the country. Both the Cushite and Aarite people had Caucasian or white chiefs, since, even at this day, Dongola women are prized, because they are comparatively fair. Leaders, like the expelled Pandoos, led them, by coasting, till they crossed over from the Arabian side to the Egyptian. Coming from the Indus, the Aurites ascended still higher, to the head of the Red Sea, as we are expressly told by Syncellus. They passed by the Wadi Sendeli, still named Derb-Tuarikh, and thence spread from Memphis to Thebes; for, had th ar 656 of our era. Another source of the Arabian people was derived from the Jewish clans, which, after the massacre in Persia, had re- tired to the desert, and become formidable by their numbers and warlike propensities. They had apostatized, and united with the followers of Mahommed, and greatly strengthened his forces, notwithstanding that other clans of Hebrews, who retained the faith of their fathers, were expelled by him. Long before that period they had been forced to disperse, in consequence of the successful inroad of a Roman army under CElius Gallus, who is said to have burst the colossal stone em- bankment raised to sustain the waters of the Mareb, a very extensive reservoir, serving to irrigate a great district of land. The event is known by the name of the deluge of El Maureb; for when the waters escaped, the whole cultivated surface was swept away, and the wretchedness it produced was among the original causes of the subsequent expansion of the Arabian power, because forced emigrations led colonies beyond the Shat-ul-Arab, perhaps, even then, so far to the east as the bank of the Indus, producing constant hostilities against the Par- tisans, while other tribes, pressed to the borders of Kourdistan, equally embroiled them with the Byzantine Romans, at a period when the Arabian horse first began to acquire its supe- rior qualities. Ages before that time the Phoenician traders, who were masters in the Persian Gulf and the islands of Bah- rein, had no doubt stimulated the Arabs' love of adventure, and from pirates turned their attention to legitimate trade, ulti- mately becoming the successors of the parents of commercial industry. They traded as they had roved to Madagascar ind THE HUMAN SPECIES. 375 in the monsoons reached not only the marts of India, but, it appears, penetrated by their own efforts, or in connection with a remote navigating system in the South Seas, to the ports of China. For ages the southern portion of Arabia was possessed by Phoenicians and Cuthites: the last mentioned, after they had been driven across the Red Sea to Africa, returned, and again swayed the commercial provinces by their authority ; they opposed the progress of Islam, but were at length van- quished, not by the power of the true Arabians, but by the affiliated tribes of Mostarabi, who, with the Koran in hand, rallied all parties in a career of unexampled victory, extin- guishing in their progress languages, nations, traditions, and history, to the wall of China, and to the Pyrenees. Notwithstanding the vicissitudes and intermixture of races, the aspect of the present typical Arabs is a light sinewy struc- ture, with great capacity of endurance, a swarthy complexion, with high lengthened features, black curly locks, and a bril- liant dark eye, full of malignant fire. Though not exempt from subjugation, they have survived conquests, because no victorious nation has ever thought the desert a possession worth acquiring. With the national convulsions the language of Arabia has likewise changed. Ancient Arabic is not only a dead lan- guage, but the character and alphabet are equally lost, though it is suppos:ed to have had two dialects, the Hamjar and Kore- ish, and that certain words and forms of speech in the Axumite tongue of Abyssinia are remains of it. THE HEBREWS. Though of all the nations of antiquity this people is best known, and clearly depicted in the most authentic records, the conclu- sions of the comment on the text are by no means free from objection, respecting the assumed geographical position of the original stem, nor the inference that this people, so far as 376 NATURAL HISTORY OF regards its subsequent alliances and interunions, had the right to call itself pure or unmixed. All the tril rid d from Abraham and Lot were of high land through Armenia, clearly in part of a fair rufo eyed, and auburn hair. Evidence of the fact is repeatedly traced in history and in tradition. The manifestation is still positively marked in many Oriental Israelites; and in Morocco, a region least liable to that kind of adulteration, the women in particular 1 eing to this day generally gray-eyed. The family of Heber was, therefore, not Chaldean nor Assyrian. It came from the East, and might be of the same stem as that which subsequently invaded the Suleimanic range, west of the Indus, for here was an early national centre, whence colonies pene- trated to India, where Hebrew congeners may now be believed to exist ; as tribes of Rajpoots, and others, passing on to the borders of Indo-China, may be the present Mugs, for all of these have the peculiar Hebrew aspect and conformation ; have even rites and customs similar to that people, as well as tra- ditions and reminiscences, which now assume the aspect of actual descent from the lost tribes of Israel.* These facts establish an affinity too positive for utter rejection. Although we will not carry the conditions of Hebrew consanguinity further than to hint that perhaps the promised high destiny of the race embraced alliances which should include the three great typical forms ; first, by connection with the rufous stem, through the Asiatic Finn tribes, who were the Scythian con- querors, at one time in Armenia, and again for ages resident in northern Egypt and Palestine ; and in the second, by the long * The assertion that these AfFghans expelled a nation of Kaafirs or idol- aters since the Hegira, is more unlikely than that they themselves are converted idolaters ; for mountain tribes are not expelled by passing- conquerors who have themselves Jewish rites. It is more likely that original consanguinity carried Jewish fugitives among them, whose books and wondrous history caused the whole clan to adopt them as their own. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 377 unrestrained alliances with the real Egyptian people, as well as with Canaanites during the administration of the Judges; and at a later period with Babylonians, Greeks and Romans. A mcst ancient assimilation of the Hebrew people, if not an actual origin among tribes located near the Gomerian source, is indicated by the exiled tribes having shown a greater ten- dency to mix and assimilate with the Finnic Scythians on the north than with the Arabs on the south ; notwithstanding that their language was more positively allied to it than to the Celtic or any Finnic dialect. In the north alone, the ancient Israelite race found honor and power, as was proved by the military energy they displayed against the Persians, noticed in an earlier part of this volume, and again in their connection with and titular dignity among the Khazars ; it is even now shown in the respect bestowed upon the Karaite Jews of the Crimea. These views are strengthened by the beautiful spher- ical cranium of the Jews, as fine as the Arabian or Circassian ; by their profiles still predominantly aquiline ; by the frequent recurrence of gray eyes, xanthous hair; and by a sturdy struc- ture, less Arabian than Celtic, yet on the whole retaining an Asiatic and peculiar aspect seldom adorned with beauty. All the foregoing conditions taken together tend to show that the Hebrew race and language were not paternally of a Semitic origin, but that both resulted from the region where the first family came to settle among strangers; and the mixed alliances, in the earlier period of the tribal history, contracted with Egyptians, Canaanites, Arabs, Babylonians, and even Phoenicians, affected it, till in the end they adopted Greek and Roman names. The males of a race cannot alone maintain its purity, and where polygamy exists, the other sex must neces- sarily change it almost entirely. In China, Cochin-China, and Malabar, Jews now exist in families, according to the most trustworthy account, ever since they were expelled Persia, in the year of Christ 508. There are in the last-named region black Jews, probably a mixed race 32* 378 NATURAL HISTORY OF of prosi lytes of low caste. Though an older people, the Sulei- manic Affghans pretend to he descendants oi the first captivity ; there is still a clan of them known as the Beni Khaibe in Arabia ; and the Falishas of Abyssinia, according to Bruce, are a tribe of Jews ; finally, the white race of Zafi-Ibritn, in Madagascar, claim Abraham for their progenitor. The handsomest of the whole nation are asserted to be the Babylonians of Meso- potamia; and it used to be from among them that the prince of the captivity, now the wretched representative of the ancient kings, was and still is selected by the Turkish govern- ment. In all lands they are, as of old, a stiff-necked race, most reso- lutely attached to their institutions, ever since the Christian dispensation was promulgated. It is difficult to decide whether their own obstinacy of character, or the unceasing injustice of mankind, have been other than agents, mutually acting upon each other, to produce that permanent manifestation in their forms and opinions which separates them from human society, as it were, by a lasting miracle ; still the persecuted Jew bears on his front the tokens of mental power, in his make the attri- butes of physical strength, and in his heart the feelings of mercy and charity, which all the vices acquired by degradation, or natural to his temperament, cannot efface ; for since a more humane treatment is afforded to the race, constant examples of good, benevolent and liberal actions embellish their conduct, even more than in the feudal ages their learning and research illustrated their mental capacities. THE BABYLONIANS, CHALDEES, AND ASSYRIANS. The nations now to be considered, though, differing- among 7 O DO themselves, were evidently all of one family, obscurely traceable to eastern Armenia and Atropatene, whence, as they spoke dialects of Semitic languages, it is evident that, like the Arabs, they had come originally from the high lands in the east. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 379 They were, moreover, advanced in civilization, had solar and astronomical religions, with legends of Fish-men Legislators, whose persons and doctrines revealed a diluvian reminiscence, distorted into Indian forms. In their record, the first disper- sion of mankind was transposed from the high tahle land of Asia to the new centre of their own locality, in the plains of Shinar. Shinar maybe a repetition of the name of Djeen ; and the Bab, that is, Ghaut, Gate, or Pass, was, perhaps, transferred to the collateral signification of a tower.* For the pyramidal temple of Belns, still visible among the ruins of historical Babylon, has more than one counterpart in Persia, little inferior in magnitude : that particularly of Bara- dan, situated on the mountain-chain, near the upper Diala, almost south of Lake Van, is remarkable. The remains are of disintegrated brick; and the summit 170 feet high, or only 28 feet less ; but it is GOO feet in base, or 100 more than Birs Nimrood.t near the Euphrates. The Babylonian unquestiona- bly had four towers at the angles of the summit, and a broad terrace on one of its faces, with probably a central space between the towers for fire worship. It had walled enclos- ures, perhaps colossal lions, at the entrances ; all which seem to have been common with other structures of the same kind, and notably in the Budh temples of Suka in Java, where every one of the foregoing particularities exists. * Bab, Baby, in the most ancient sense, a giant. Baby in Egyptian, Typhon, Taifune. It might tie conjectured that the pass, or, at least, one of the principal gorges for descending from the plateau of Thibet, across the Bolor range, upon the sources of the Oxus, was originally meant ; for at the foot of this commence the glens which lead to Bamian and to Balkh ; and the summit is close to Kashgar, near Behesh-Kend ; in Ori- ental legend a city of paradise, seated in a verdant region, on the Chi- nese side of the summit. t Birs Nimrood, the temple of Belus, and the temple of Nebuchadnez- zar, are the same ruins. The name of "Tower of Babel " is originally a rabbinical inference. There are many other applications of scriptural localities aid names in the south-west of Asia, made at random by the Arabs, who, like most other Semitic nations, having lost their own tradi- 380 NATURAL HISTORY OF If (he Chaldeans had been established in a great kingdom when Abraham entered Canaan, it is unlikely that the Elamite Arabs would be sufficiently strong to make alliances with other princes, and undertake invasions to so great a distance as the vicinity of Jerusalem ; and in the Egyptian historical paintings of the conquests of Sesostris, and of Thothmes II. and III., all of which appear to have been directed to the valley of the Oxus, that in these transactions there should be no acknowledged representations of Babylonians, or Chaldeans, either as allies or enemies. They first appear as prisoners captured by Tir- haka ; whence it seems that either the Egyptian conquerors never proceeded so far east as the Euphrates, or that the Baby- lonian empire did not, at so early a date (that is, in or about the reign of Cushan-rishathaim), embrace the upper course of that river, or of the Tigris.* Regarded as a race, they were unquestionably pure Caucasians of the black-haired tribes ; and so closely allied to the subsequent Persians, that no distinction can be made between them, as they are represented in the bas reliefs of Persepolis and those of Nineveh, lately brought to light. They have the same ample beards, and abundant curly locks, similarly trimmed. The sculptures represent the same symbolical monsters, the same cuneiform letters, the same cos- tume, the same system of architecture, and the same school of design in sculpture — as if little or no alteration or progress tions and history, frame new legends out of the Scriptures ; and what the Rabbins only misplaced, they distorted to suit their particular national vanities. * These colored delineations contain, however, a series of nations, most assuredly representing tribes of high-featured Caucasians, and the more vertical profiles of the midland colonies, which can be traced from Indo- Koosh to Asia Minor and Greece. There are fair-haired people, with a blue round spot upon the forehead, like a tribal, or caste mark. They are the Rebo, with ox-hide mantles, and tattooed skins, Cyclopians of High Armenia ; and some wear crosses, perhaps Budh amulets ; and the Rot-n-no, a giant race, with red beards, chariots, horses, elephants, bears, and manufactures in metals ; or people of the giant races, Scyths or FinDs. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 381 had taken place in the national civilizations, between the periods of splendor in Nineveh and the downfall of Persep- olis.* THE GAUBS AND PERSIANS. Whether the Chaldeans, or Chasdim of the Hebrews, were only hordes of robbers at the time they are placed by geogra- phers in Arabia Petnea, or whether they were a distinct people from the learned caste of Chaldees at Babylon, is not quite clear, though in either case they must still be regarded as .nountaineers before they were established in Babylonia. The thysical characters of the Assyrians, and their locality, alike attest that they, the same, or a kindred race, were also moun- taineers, who had migrated, by marching along the flank of the Caspian chain, till they established themselves in eastern Ar- menia; but whether they were allied to the Karduchi, Kurds of the present time, does not appear, although, in Persian tra- dition, the Gaurs were the first conquerors of Aria or Iran. The name, again, indicates mountaineers or giants ; and the region whence they departed was no doubt Paropamisus, or the Gordii Montes. In that case, they passed most likely by the Helmund to Lake Zurra, and spreading over Aria, they * The sculptures of Nimrood, now in the British Museum, indicate a more ancient, though not an essentially different period. Of Bactra we have no minute knowledge, though, from the still existing practice in Cabul, palaces under ground were no doubt likewise constructed there, where the climate is still more severe ; and the similarity of condition with Nineveh is proved from the fact, that it was at the siege of Bactra Ninus himself died. His amtiilious wife, Semiramis, succeeded him, and was the conqueror of the Omool Belaut, or " mother of cities," once the capital of Kai Kaus, when it was named Sarias, or Sariaspa? Future research at Ecbatana, that is, ahout the present Hamadan, and on the sites of other primeval cities of Upper Asia, will, no doubt, reproduce subterranean habitations like those of Nimrood, and reveal conditions of art more perfect in the older than in the subsequent periods. 382 NATi i:\l BJBT0B1 01 were altimately driven forward to tlio present Kurdistan, prob- ably by the Persians, who in their turn had been tenants of Bactria ; for all the traditionary events of the first dynasty an refern d to the time when they were expelled by the Ou-sun, fair-haired tribes from Thibet, or by Massagetae from the north.* They, too, had traversed the Parop&raisus, and, following the Helmund, had crossed the Arian Desert to the hills of Susiana, where they absorbed the Klamite bowmen; located their sacred centre at P< rsagarda, and, further west, built Fersepolis.f where the great empire of Persia properly commenced. The city and palace were constructed according to a system of architec- ture already long established at Zariaspa or Bactra, or in con- formity with one common to the whole vast region of Nineveh, Babylon, and High Asia. The ancient Parsi language shows, however, a certain affinity with the Assyrian through the Pel- hevi, introduced by the Medes, and an adopted civilization, in the use of a cuneiform alphabet. This character continued to be used for inscriptions after the overthrow of Darius, and was revived during the Parthian sway, although another dialect, namely the Zend, was spoken — a fact which attests the pres- ence of a further Sanscrit element, approaching still nearer to the early Gothic of the west, and a tongue even now in part mixed up with the Poushtoo, used by the Affghans. The Belooches and Poushtoo Affghans, the Kurds of Kurdis- tan, the Loures, the modern Persians, and the Ossetes of Cir- cassia, are all branches of this great stem, which, in ancient and in more recent ages, has held dominion over Egypt, and produced some men of great military celebrity (such as Saladin * The Ou-Sun, and Kian-Kncn, or Kakas of Chinese writers, were, according to Klaproth, fair-haired races within the western borders of the high land chains. The Massagetae, first known on the outside of the same table land, gradually moved down to the north-west, and were for a period stationary on the south and cast of Lake Aral. They were all Geta tribes, or clans, with Finnic intermixture. 1 If indeed Persepolis, Pasargada, and Persagarda, are not the same. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 383 the Great); geometricians; and in particular, poets of lasting reputation. THE TYPICAL CAUCASIAN-. We now come to the typical Caucasian family, which em- braces the greatest celebral development in width and depth, combined with the highest form of beauty, Strength, and power of endurance, coupled with a nervous system less swayed by impulse. In this group are found the most per- fect notions of the Ideal beautiful, of relative proportion in art and in literature, of logic and of the mathematical sci- ences in general. The skull, though somewhat lower in the dome, is broader in proportion than the Arab and the Hebrew, more developed at the forehead, making that line more con- tinuously vertical down the nose, which, in the finer specimens, is not aquiline, but straight. The complexion is clear brown, with mostly dark-brown hair, passing to auburn, generally straight, the beard full, the chest ample and deep, the loins small, the gait erect, and the tread martial. It is here that female beauty is possessed of the highest human loveliness, grace, and delicacy; and the manly character attains the most majestic and venerable aspect. The primeval focus of the family is traced up to the high- est glens of Hindu-Koosh, the real Imaus and Caucasus of antiquity. In that region, or possibly still higher, in the most elevated portion of ancient Turan, the Cassio-regio of Thibet, Cassar, or Cashgar of Marco Polo, it is that we must place the primeval point of departure; for there, in a verdant fruitful region, a Behesh, or Paradise, according to Iranian nations, is placed Ardukcnd, Ordukend, still more anciently Arthur- keind, and now known as Behetseh Keng or Keind. It has still ruins of arched avenues, the work of ancient kings, and the locality is on the caravan road, on the north side of the plateau of Pamere, eastward, going by Cashgar to China ; and 384 NATURAL BTJ3T0BY Of westward, down the Bolor range to Hindu-Koosh and Balkh. In these mountain ri Kaufir of the present time retains the full vigor, indej . and beauty of his earliest pro- genitors, notwithstanding that he is hunted like a wild I by Moslem half-bred tribes, and debarred all access to more civilized nations. His similarity to the ancient Greek nations is so striking, that it was believed the hardy mountaii were a relic of a Macedonian army left in the country ; nor was the supposition a wild fancy, since dynasties of Greek priii x'S have ruled in Bactria, and in Candahar for several centuries after the memorable invasion of Alexander the Great. Tin: KATJFIBS, OB MAMOQES.* Ir is in the fertile glens of lofty ridges of pine forest, forming a portion of Hindu-Koosh and Beloot Tauch, that this people resides, though as yet little known. The true national denomi- nation of it is not even certain, and instead we are obliged to rest contented with the Mahommedan vituperative term of Kaufirs, or infidels, which the Affghans use to designate idola- ters. They divide them into Speen, or white, and Seeapush, or Tor Kautirs, merely because one is habitually clothed in white cotton, and the other in black goat-skins. The people is divided into a multitude of independent clans, living peaceably together, but in unceasing war with the Moslem, much like the Montenegrins in Europe, who carry on an exterminating con- test with the Turks. The Speen Kaufirs, having Little Thi- bet on the north, Ladauk east, the Punjaub south, and Poushtoo west, have to guard themselves only on the side of the four passes leading from the Punjaub, one from the Affghan side on the west, and two from the north, there being none on the east. * Of the four original tribes, the Mamoges alone retained the primitive manners ; the Camoze, Hilar, and Silar, becoming Mahommedans, and mixing with other Islamized nations. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 0&> By the direction of these, migrations had easy communication from Thibet, and towards Cabul, or down the Oxus as well as the Indus. The Seeapush appear to be still more remote, and may extend to Cashmere. These tribes are remains of a con- siderable people, among whom were the original Cashmerians, and a great part of the inhabitants of Badakshaun and Cabul, as far south as the Deggaun tribes, and on the southern face of the higher ridges of Himalaya, extending eastward to an unknown distance ; for, at the sources of the Jumna and Bun- derpoosh, clans of Bisharecs are blue-eyed, and often have red hair; but nearly the whole of these, being subjected by Mos- lem conquerors, have lost their pristine individuality of national character, though among the Affghan tribes of Cabul, in par- ticular, it is still not unfrcquent to observe heads and figures that might serve for models to sculptors who would portray a Jupiter, or a Mars, according to the refined idealism of the ancient Greeks. The Kaufirs have the face oval, the brows well arched, and the nose and mouth even more refined than the Greek. They are moreover, still fairer, generally with lighter hair and gray eyes. They defend their fastnesses, whither they have retired since the Mahommedan conquest in 742 of the Hegira, with obstinate valor, attaching certain privileges to him who slays an Affghan. They still retain a rude idol stone, denominated Irmtan, representing Iinra, Dagun or God, the Supreme Being, having besides inferior divinities, evidently borrowed from other nations, chiefly from India. They shave the hair, excepting a tuft in the middle, which, when it is plaited, is exactly similar to the older statues of Horus, when he is holding the Egyp- tian hoe, and recurs again on a coin of Comana, where Per- seus is so figured, and again on one of ancient Tauris. It is the glib of the ancient Irish. The Kaufirs sit on stools, and do not squat like other Asiatics. They are vehement dancers, and a kind people. Blending with the nearest black-haired tribe? the Mamoges 33 886 NATURAL HXBTOBY OF may be considered to have formed the ancient Persians, and with the fair-haired on the north, produced the handsome tribes of the earliest Goths; for immediately towards the west the line of migration through Cabul is found interrupted by invaders from both sides, and history is full of the contests which very different nations have maintained in that region. There are even now found, upon this line, remaining tribes of Persians, Usbeks, Toorkees, Mokrees, Reekas, Kalmucks, Arabs, Kir- guise, Hindoos, Punjaubees, Cashmerians and Lesghis, which last are among those most nearly allied to the primeval stock; for, after traversing the space disturbed by migrating collisions, chiefly Turkoman, we find these and the Circassians, Abas- sians, Georgians, Albanians, &rc, likewise refugees, in the highest glens of the Caspian Caucasus; and, in remote a^es, there is no doubt that some of them once extended along the southern coast of the Caspian and Georgia, onwards to the Borysthenes, and through Asia Minor to the mountains of Thessaly and Greece. THE CIRCASSIAN AND GEORGIAN TRIBES OF THE CASPIAN CAUCASUS. While others, coming more from the north, with, as it appears, a portion of Finnic blood in their veins, held posses- sion of the plains on the Kouban and the Don* these extended westward, in the Crimea, and along the shores of the Euxine, until they were in part swept onwards, and partly driven back to take shelter in the fastnesses they now hold. The Don Cossacks are of the same stem, for although all the tribes are, in various proportions, of mixed origin, the typical form is always evident. * Although the banks of the Borysthenes are known to have been suc- cessively inhabited by Alans, Goths, Geti, Cumans, Polowtses, and Rox- olani, the antiquities known to have been the work of Circassians are still found scattered through the country. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 887 The women of Circassia are beautiful, probably the most beautiful, in features and complexion, of the whole earth. They have, often, light hair and blue eyes, tall, graceful, and erect forms, with straight or slightly aquiline noses, well formed lips, and beautiful teeth ; while the men justly pride themselves on their broad shoulders, slender waists, expressive features, stalwart height, and martial gait. Indeed, this inherent superi- ority of form is so dominant, that the unceasing practice which the Osmanli Turks have of purchasing female slaves of this race, has caused them to have become, from the most ill-shaped and wretched-looking of barbarian Mongolcs, a people that can now dispute the palm of beauty with the handsomest of Europe. For, and with these nations, commencing in Central Asia, Kaufirs, Affghans, Georgians, Circassians, Cossacks, tribes of Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, and the Gothic people of the north, on to the west of Europe, there are ever sympathetic feelings, an enduring interest, independent of religious motives, political considerations, cr commercial purposes. In England, espec- ially, we feel for them more than curiosity, travel among them, overlook or palliate their barbarism ; nay, so strong and deep is the inclination, that among British captives made dur- ing the disastrous winter months in Cabul, most spoke highly of the urbanity they had experienced ; several of the softer sex felt unwilling to be released ; and some, it is said, actually escaped from those who were to restore them to their homes. Nothing but original consanguinity could reproduce such effects. To that cause alone we must ascribe the long duration of a Macedonian monarchy subsisting for so many generations among the most warlike people in existence ; and, in more modern times, that the fierce bigotry of Islamism has not oblit- erated that tendency ; for, beyond this line of consanguinity, the Tahtar race, now in possession of Thibet and Bokhara, or the Arab on the south, never excite similar affections, nor feel themselves yearning for approximation. 388 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PTLASUIAN, DORIAN, AND HELLENIC TRIBES. Although Ionia or Asia Minor wai visited from the most early period by nations coming from the east, some by a north- ern, and others by a southern route, we may regard the popu- lation in general as emanating from the foregoing, and in particular tlie Pelasgian and the Dorian tribes, which, how- ever, may have been mixed with a proportion of Getic clans, such as the Phrygian undoubtedly were. It is likely that the Carians were similarly of a mixed origin of the same source, as they were remarkable for the hoarse guttural language they spoke, and the resolute determination they evinced in the defence of their country. As colonists they had brought with them elements of civilization more advanced than the Grecian of the same era, and science in the art of war that made them more than respected by the Egyptian power, which, indeed, had warred with them, but appears to have preferred to have them as allies. They seem to have possessed the whole valley of the Meander long after the adjoining tribes had been driven onwards, probably because the volcanic territory at the sources of the river afforded sites for strongholds which guarded the passes. They and the Lycians had connections with the Leuco Syri, as well as with the Greek Pelasgians ; and some such remote affinity may have been the basis of the claim to consanguinity, which, ages after, appears to have been allowed between the Hebrews and the Spartans, as is attested by Joseph us. Among the expelled nations, the Hellenes may have been the foremost who crossed the Bosphorus, and made conquests of the possessions then held by a Finnic, or Illyrian race, which, as myrmidons and helots, we have already noticed ; for that these were in anterior possession of the soil is attested by their subjugation, and by the name of the river Alpheus, evi- dently derived from the Finnic Alf, a mountain torrent. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 389 The Hellenic tribes could not have been long in the land before the great swarming commenced on the seas and coasts of Eastern Europe. Besides the Cyclopeans, who left walls of their work from Van in Persia westward to Sicily, and the Punes, or Phoenicians already mentioned, others, like the Cad- means, Etruscans, and Colchians, wandered along the shores, from beneath the high lands of the present Abassia, or came under Ionian Taurus to the Mediterranean, all similarly bent upon forcing a landed possession for themselves, and su!>n>t- ing meantime as sea-roving pirates. The names of the Cen- taurs and Lapithce indicate confusion in the Greek reminis- cences ; for, although they explained the first to have been horsemen, it is more likely that they were ox-riders, such as have been already mentioned in Africa and India, and that their name has passed to a second invasion of real cavalry. But the Thraco-Pelasgians, the ITeraclidae, and Acbaei, seem to have been Celto Scylha?, that is, likewise of Illyiian or Geto Finnic affinity, belonging to the giant races, who, as far as regards the two first mentioned, came round from the Kouban and Don, along the shores of the Euxine, and then sought conquests towards the south, as all the more northern nations were impelled to undertake. On their own national origin, the accounts by Greek writers are confused and contra- dictory regarding the sources and movements of the different tribes of the nation ; and vanity claims aboriginal possession they were only early conquerors. They commemorate Pelasgian and Dorian invasions coming from the north, while they do not seem to acknowledge that the anterior Hellenic col- onists were, like the myrmidons and other tribes, a vanquished people, who may have had Finnic consanguinities. The pres- ence of tribes from the Asia Minor region is shown in the Cretan colonies settled in Greece, and in the Cretan people themselves, who could not have reached that island more conveniently thin by crossing from Caria, by Rhodes and 33* 390 NATURAL HISTORY OF Carpathos ; for even the maritime shore of Caria was called Doria. Notwithstanding that polished Greece claimed to be in the centre of the world, and assumed for itself the discovery of almost every element of knowledge and civilization, it had a secret pride in the pretence that the Cadmeans and Thebans were colonies from Egypt; and it may be conceded, that in the wanderings of the parent clans of those denominations, they had been to the south so far, as to remain for a period in the then unclaimed marshes of the Delia, or had resided some time on the coast of Palestine or Syria, which was on many occasions considered as a portion of Egypt. But on the banks of the Nile no civil war, historically known, brought vanquished fugitives to the north ; they fled to Abyssinia, or westward towards Cyrene. No true Egyptian was ever known to travel northward, though Greek students and philosophers constantly went in search of knowledge to the regions of the Nile, or eastward even to the Indus. The slight resemblance of the Greek Theban rites with those of Egyptian Thebes was more likely a consequence of Hellenic importation; and the Cad- mean Python worship was derived from the same source as the Colchian and the Celtic, that is, came direct from the east. The alphabet was totally distinct, and the language of Cadmus, if not Semitic, was allied to Sanscrit. The Pelasgi, more properly so called, had resided on the coast of Asia Minor. If we take a Celto Scythic dialect to have been in use among them, the tribal names of Cranai in Hellas, as well as that of Cieropidse, might have reference to their migratory life in boats, while the general appellation may have indicated the character they assumed of heroes or champions, it being alike traceable in the Pelhevi, Pelwan, and the Celtic Pulvan, although, if the denomination had a more Gothic root, the Pelasgi would merely denote skin-clad Asi, nearly the same signification as that of Seeapush Kaufir, and peltry-wearing heroes — a term in later ages applied to the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 391 G:ths themselves. The Achsei, though they claimed to be of the Pelasgian family, and the oldest of Greek colonists in Eu- rope, came from the Mceotic estuary near Colchis. They were, as the name indicates, serpent worshippers, or builders of Dracontia, like the Cadmeans, the Colchians, and other nations of Asia Minor. THE TIRYXTHIAXS. The Tirynthians, referred to the Cyclopean race, seem to have been a still more early clan of the Pelasgian family ; and it may be remarked that a fair-haired nation, with a blue round tribal spot painted between the eyebrows, is represented on Egyptian monuments, wearing mantles of peltry, appar- ently cow hides — a costume which corroborates the meaning of Pelasgians ; but as they wear ostrich feathers in the hair, it is evident that these figures refer to clans who had forced their way to the south of the mountain chains ; and, if they do not represent giant tribes of Palestine, that they possessed ter- ritory in Mesopotamia, and belonged to that Teutonic race which mixed early with the Arabs before noticed. These observations are not opposed by the actions of the legendary Hercules at Tiryns. The Heraclidoe were of the same Pelas- gian stem; and if the name be a mutation of Erck, Erk, they may be fairly referred to the Giant Finns, whose tribes consti- tuted the Tyrhenians, the Raseni, and the subsequent conquer- ors of the north-west of Europe. The Ionian name is of later introduction in Greece ; it was probably before known in Asia Minor, although, if we trust Greek pretensions, they carried it from Europe to Asia. The European Greeks had, however, anteriorly been known by the name of iEgialeans, or coasters, which is an evident proof that at first they only occupied the sea coast, and, consequently, that they had come by water, and not across the Danube, through Thessaly. Among these, the Cretan colony led by Rhadaman- tl us, whose name indicates a Getic origin, had settled in Boeo- 392 NATURAL HISTORY OF tia. Tiryns itself was the abode of fishermen, and Argos was built by Cyclopeans, notwithstanding that Euripides calls it Pelasgian. This last name appears to be more generical than the other, and to have superseded it, though it is not improba- ble that the Cyclopeans were likewise a distinct tribe of the family which was soon driven forward to Sicily, where we have already pointed out that they appear to have been con- nected with the Finns of High Asia, in their quality of miners and metallurgists. In connection with the kindred Siculi, they had settlements on the coast of Italy, and with the Sicani, another clan of the same stock, had penetrated to Liguria and Spain. In Greece, the Pelasgians appear to have constituted the chief portion of the historical dominant population. They were most numerous in Thessaly. The Perhasbians, Caucones, Dolopians, Athamanes, the Helli, and Graii, on the west coast of Epirus, were Pelasgi. The Pasonian and the Cecropian Athenians were of the same stock. In the peninsula they were known by the names of Argives, Achaians, and Arca- dians. They built more than one Argos; and if the name of Larissa is to be taken as a sure indication of their presence, they would be found extended from Nineveh to the confines of Egypt, Spain, and Southern Germany. There were Pelasgians in Crete, and the western tribes of the race had Finnic affinities in Upper Italy, not less than at least a partial community of opinions and speech with the Celtic and Scytho Celtic nations. In Syria they may have constructed the enormous ramparts of Tortosa with stones, some of which are not less than thirty feet in length, by ten or twelve in thickness, and at so remote a date that the place is named, in Genesis, by the designation of Arpad, or Arvedi, (chap, x.) Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, being all to the north of Greece properly so called, and west of the Bosphorus, nations moving to the south came across the Danube, from Dacia, as well as from Asia Minor, without the route of their movement being known in Greece. Many came westward in fleets of THE HUMAN SPECIES. 393 canoes, from the Euxine and the coasts of Asia Minor, by Rhodes, Carpathos, Casos.and Crete, and therefore they became greatly mixed by the captives they made in piratical wars, as well as by peaceful alliances. The noble typical races that had come direct from the east, had been broken in upon dur- ing the march by northern and by southern wanderers, and forced to deviate from the line of progress by deserts, inland seas, and chains of mountains. Still the characteristic supe- riority of aspect remained, even to the furthest marine colo- nies they carried to eastern Italy, and to Massilia in Gaul ; and their intermixture was a further cause of the high civili- zation they soon attained ; for national prejudices broke down by communion with other tribes, and the bigotry of conflicting superstitions, unable to establish particular supremacy for one, adopted a general amalgamation of the whole. Hyperborean gods and Egyptian gods were blended. The recondite sym- bols, pregnant with meaning in the east, became west of the Hellespont mere fables and physical personifications, attractive to a people petulant with a luxuriant fancy, and so elegant in poetical worship, that it passed to other and more gross condi- tions of society, such as the northern Africans and the Ro- mans ; it spread among Celtse, Iberians, and Getee ; all striving to recognize their own divinities in the disguised physicalities that came thus recommended from a polished people. THE ROMANS. The western Pelasgians, sometimes considered as the descendants of two great colonies coming from Thessaly and Arcadia, penetrated very early to Italy, a land which looms on the horizon from the heights of Acroceraunus. In both coun- tries we detect the same names of tribes and places, such as Chaones, Elysinians, Siceles, Acheron, Dodona, Pandoria, &c. ; and if we judge the affinity of nations by their mode of build- ing with huge stones, even the Etruscans were in part of this 394 NATURAL HISTORY OF stocrf, the rest being Illyrian or Finnic, as we have already noticed. The Pelasgian element, no doubt, furnished the basis of all the arts and legends, which we find they possessed in an eminent degree; and the huge stone-built ramparts of many cities in Italy, as well as Epirus, Greece, Crete, and Asia Minor, attest the work of kindred civilization. Among these, Rome itself was a frontier fortress in the Campania, not improbably known by a name equivalent to Valentia, before it received the present denomination, which, it may be observed, means the same thing in one of the dialects spoken among the Latin tribes. Valentia was probably derived from the same root as Valum and the Teutonic Walle. The Pelasgians left also colonies at Norba, and among the Volsci, Hernici, Marsi, and Sabini, tribes having all names and characteristics of a Getic infusion in their dialects, and indications which show, like the first named in particular, affinity with the Bclgic Gauls, chiefly with the Volsci, Tectosages, and Arecomici. The word Volsci, Velkre, Wilci, Teutonic Volke, is generical for people; and the different tribes had each a particular desig- nation. That of Italy was known by the appellation of Aurunci, from Awe, the Vale, or open country; and the two others, as above, had names equally resolvable into Teutonic meanings. Nor is this singular, since Teutames is the oldest known hero of the Pelasgian race who ruled on the coast of Caria; and Hera, a goddess revered at Samos, may denote simply the Lady, and be the same as Hertha, Ertha.or Orsiloche, in Tau- ris. There are the names of Circe (Kirke), and Falaces, the double divinity and pillar gods of a great number of nations ; with many others, all derived from Getic, or Teutonic dialects. The Romans, properly speaking, did not com- pose a homogeneous race. They were, still more than the Greek people, a compound of many tribes, it is true, more or less remotely allied, but still concentrated on the Tiber from distant quarters, the result of distinct colonies and successive arriv. Is. Among these, the so-called Trojan basis of the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 895 Roman population is not more authentic than that of Ante- nor on the coast of the Adriatic, though popular legends are seldom without some basis of truth ; and that Asia Minor con- tributed several tribes of migrators to different parts of Italy, can scarcely be disputed. Of all the Roman nobility, the Julian family alone was con- sidered to be of indigenous origin ; the rest were Pelasgi, Etruscans, Sabines, Siculi, and others from the hills, whose parentage is unknown. Although they were mixed with fair- haired tribes, the aspect, profile, and structure of the Roman, has greater resemblance to the Persic aquiline-featured race than to a Celto Scythic type, notwithstanding that the Arabian name for the people, probably derived from the appearance of the majority of the foreign garrisons in the eastern empire, in general composed of northern levies, was Be?ii Asfar, that is, fair-haired, " as of Esau." If any relics of the Roman physi- ognomy be now traceable within the boundaries of the once mighty state, they must be sought among the mob population of the city beyond the Tiber, known as the Transteverini ; fo they still bear the animal square-built form, observable in the statues of ancient Romans, with the aquiline features and deep- set eyes, bespeaking power and daring. Elsewhere they have vanished, and they never can have been numerically prominent where there was more of a class population than a real nation- ality; Rome, during the degradation of the empire, becoming a city of foreigners, and the older civic inhabitants scattered over every part of the empire, in search of lucrative office, or possessing all excepting the military, which was exclusively in the hands of strangers. The true Romans had therefore disap- peared before the state itself was extinguished, and, even in Constantinople, scarcely a family of Roman descent appears prominent during the eastern empire. 896 NATURAL HISTORY OF TUB CELTIC NATIONS, Often designated by the appellation of Gomerians, may be regarded as amongst the very earliest migrators that left the high lands of central Asia, and moved not only in tribes towards the west, but likewise, as we have before shown, penetrated to the extremity of India ; and if we accept as theirs the monu- mental structures, composed of very large stones, placed in a particular form, such as are exemplified by what are known in Europe by the term Druidical, they certainly visited the South Seas and the coasts of China, and penetrated to North America. By what inducement they became a nautical peo- ple in the east, and under what denominations they were known in Austral Asia, are questions probably beyond the attainment of research. It is, however, rather singular that the tribal appellation of Gal is common to many clans of Aus- tralian savages; and Galla is still more extensively spread in the east of tropical Africa. In the peninsula of India, we have pointed out the Pandoos of remotest antiquity, with their crom- lechs, and an Arkite worship evinced in their genealogy; and, towards the west, we have them often greatly mixed with other races, in Armenia, Circassia, Asia Minor, Ancient Greece, the Bosphorus of Thrace, Sarmatia on the Baltic, in Scandinavia, on the Danube, in Friesland, in Britain, Gaul, Italy, Spain, and Northern Africa. They are thus known by distinctive names, Celto ScythaB, Celto Cimmerians, Cymbers, Belgae, Vulci, or Volsci, Centomanni, Celtiberii, Gallaici, Gallati, Galli, Galli Comati, Galli Cisalpini, Britanni, Caledonii, Iberii, Hiberni, with an infinite variety of tribal distinctions, and names of sub- ordinate clans. Collectively, they have been named Gome- rians, perhaps without sufficient reason, though we retain the distinction, so far as relates to tribes of this family anciently resident in the south and west of Asia ; but as there are nu- merous indications that among" the first migratory tribes por- tions, such as the Cimmerii and Cvmbri, directed their course THE HUMAN SPECIES. 397 to the north-west, and mixed, to a great extent, with Finnic and Getic nations ; we are desirous of distinguishing them from all others, collectively, as Celto Scythse, or Celto Finnic, and more distinctly, by substituting one or the other of the above names. Their probable movement down the Oxus, and passage to the Oural mountains, and thence by Russia, Poland, the Baltic, Scandinavia, and Denmark, into Friesland and Bel- gium, has already been partially noticed ; and taking the so- called Celtic mode of erecting monuments, altars, and tombs, with huge stones, on the surface of the earth, or hidden in cairns and barrows, as proof of their presence, we have in more than one place pointed out that they must have been sea- men on more than one occasion, have traversed great portions of the South Seas, and left the evidence of their toils on the coasts of China as well as America.^ That these massive structures are not the chance-work of races of unallied nations, is plain, from the fact, that among nearly one hundred and fifty cromlechs, logging-stones, masses of unwrought rock, cleared away to constitute them into colossal idols, circles of stones, parallellitha of linear or curve-linear ranges of upright stones, single maen stones, mysterious caves for worship or initiation, shealings, &c, the greater part whereof we possess drawings, we find that they are placed more or less in certain territorial regions, where they form groups or lines leading from one to another. Thus, in particular, those bearing the character of cromlechs pass down the west side of the Indus to the sea ; then divide, one line eastward, following the coast to the Coim- batoor as before noticed, and further on to China and the islands of the Pacific; while the other, forming two branches, one follows the mountain chain to the Caspian, the other by the Helinund, through the desert of Iran to Persepolis, and up the Tigris, till it meets the first on the high land of Armenia, where * In the atlas of Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard there are some delinea- tions of these seeming Celtic structures in the South Seas not before noticed. 84 398 NATURAL HISTORY OF they become directly referable to Cyclopean and other Celto Finnic tribes, and pass from both coasts of Asia Minor along the two shores of the Mediterranean, up the west coast of Spain, and by the Alps and Cevennes down the* Loire to the sea, where both unite again, and then skirt the ocean towards the north, cross over into Britain, the final extension ending in Norway.* With the exception of a few observed in the Uni- ted States, no monuments of this class are detected in any other direction. If we now inquire from whence the construc- tors of these peculiar monuments originated, it is clear, that tracing them back to the points whence they branch off, and then further up to the ultimate limit where they are found, though even then there may be traces of them not as yet dis- covered, we have a proximate solution that they commence either beyond the crest of the central high land of Asia, or at least that they are to be found about the Indus, before that stream escapes to the open plain ; that is, again, about Hindu- Koosh, and in the vicinity of certain significant local names, such as Penghir (Pen-y-ghir), Carura, &c., bearing Celtic meanings. It is the region west of high Kashgar, north-west of Cashmere, (he vicinity of the first known station of the Pandoos, or Pandei. It is near the first great central sacred troglodyte city, Bamean (Adrepsa), and not far to the north from the first commencement and divergences of the character- istic cromlechs ; for it is along the southern flank of the Paro- pamisus that they pass on northward to Armenia, while another descends the Indus to the sea, and thence branches both eastward and to the interior of Southern Persia. From this vicinity we find also that the oldest pagan diluvian legends have radiated;! * We have thought it right to repeat a part of what had already been stated on this head, because here, in particular, it connects the various tribes of this common family. t Compare the third Avatar, where Prithivi complains to Yishnou, with Davies' " Celtic Researches." Appendix, " Preidcevi," "Anmon." Still more, No. 12, of ditto, page 563, where some lines appear to be Etruscan. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 399 for those of America, of the South Seas, of Tahtary, and of the north and west of the old continent, are all cognizant of the Dragon formula, the Dragon fish, the serpent devour- ing the sun, the moon, and the woman, type of reproductive animal nature, by which the mysterious doctrine is con- veyed. We find the legends of an Eden, a city of the gods, an oasis of bliss, with its four rivers, equally mystified and dis- torted, from the Brahmaputra to Ireland, and a succession of Ararats, from the Himalaya chain to Snowdon.* From India to the German Ocean, there are at least eleven, with a series of subordinate localities, more or less complete, assimilated to the narrative of the Pentateuch, in proportion as the Hebrew Scriptures had been accessible, and in particular among the Arab nations, rekindled by the spreading of the Koran. In point of date, it is known, that both in Italy and Britain the Celts were possessed of the soil before their husbandry was acquainted with either barley or wheat corn ; acorns were the sole farinaceous food then known. Greek and Latin classics relate the travels of Ceres, and lessons of Triptolemus, as well as Welsh poets the first introduction of cerealia in Britain. Enough has been said in former pages respecting the move- ments of the most eastern branch of these colonists; their wars, * Pagan tradition scarcely separates the creation from the diluvian legends ; paradise from their cities of the gods and primeval ahode of man ; their umbilicus, or navel of the world, from the mountains of God, of the descent, of the deluge and the ship ; a locality usually made the centre of the world, according to the position of each nation asserting that doctrine, and accordingly by each surrounded with sacred rivers and hal- lowed localities, without therefore being in the least scrupulous about Geographical truth or much coincidence of opinion. Scriptural commen- tators on the geographical relations of Assyria and Persia with the tiigh lands of Asia, have generally sought the easternmost in Armenia instead of Bacti ia, though profane history and research agree in the fact, that these two regions have been in constant relations of war, trade, migration, and conquest. 400 NATURAL HISTORY OF probably of several ages' duration in tbc peninsula of India, and of others still more remote in date, who appear to have reached the south-east coast of China, and traversed a great portion of the Pacific. There were others whose early presence in Africa is detected by a variety of customs among the Abys- sinian and even Caffre nations, which we have likewise no further occasion to mention. Of the tribes of Shelluhs in Morocco, whose Showiah dialect is asserted to retain many Celtic words, it is not requisite to say more than what has already been stated, excepting that the existence of cromlechs and maen stones along the coast, such as the Romans noticed by the names of Philsenian altars, and the ancients likewise attest to have existed on the island of Cadiz, or Gades, in Spain, are of themselves sufficient proof of a primeval coast- ing progress along the African shore, which, leaving colonies in Mauritania, now, it may be, mixed with Shelluh tribes, turned northward, marking its progress in Portugal by the usual monuments, and by the name of Portugal itself, as well as that of Gallicia (land of the Gallaici), where they came in contact with the Finns or Finno-Celts, from the north, whose progress we have already mentioned. We now come to the march of the main body of the Celtoe, from their first departure, divided into two great columns, one directing its course to the northward of west, and the other appearing to have followed the southern flanks of the great mountain chain, through Armenia and Asia Minor, to Europe. It is this movement westward, of successive tribes of the family, which has commonly been designated as the Gome- rian. Josephus first made this application to the race in ques- tion from the tenth chapter of Genesis. We may retain the name, without entering into the truth of the Jewish historian's derivation ; particularly when restricting the meaning to the portion of this great stem which passed through Middle Asia; because the word may be construed to imply mountaineers in one set of cognate languages, and in another it may be derived,' THE HUMAN SPECIES. 401 with little mutation, from Guorno, Homo, which was doubtless in use among- the Pelasgians, a somewhat kindred nation, that passed and dwelt along the same line of migration.* It sig- nifies merely 1: an or men, the common appellation of a multi- tude of ancient tribes in Scythic dialects, or those which we take to be offspring of that common tongue of High Asia, the Sanscrit, before it became a polished vehicle of knowledge in the centre of the ancient world. If the tribes which followed the most southern route, such, for example, as that by the Helmund, towards the region where Persepolis and Susa were afterwards built, had black eyes and curly hair, like every race that came in contact with the Ethi- opian stern; those which followed the course more directly west, along the flank of the mountains, where their monu- ments are still visible, were more probably a blue-eyed people, with brown hair, and full muscular structure; nationally graziers (gwallah), and possessing that basis of traditions which they afterwards carried with them to Gaul and Britain. In a pure state, or already in commixture with tribes of Finnic origin, we find them in Armenia; tribes reckoned among the giant conquerors, penetrating into Syria and Arabia, and the main columns possessing Colchis and Asia Minor, where the rivers Sangarius and Gallus (Halys), with other remote Celtic denominations, attest that they once resided. If the Milesians have a true claim to Celtic consanguinity, they penetrated to the Borysthenes, and built Olbio, where the sturgeon fishery, corn husbandry, and weaving fine cloths from hemp, had formed a flourishing community in the time of Herodotus, or B. C. 460. But this date is several ages posterior to the first * There are other derivations, or the same, reversing the meaning, as is constantly ;he case in cognate languages, such as the Celtic Combe, a valley, and Tautonic Kam, a crest ; for in both we may have the radical meaning of Cumraeg, Cymhri, Cumbers, Cumbrians, Cambrians, Cam- brivii, Cambresians, Kumbers, Kempers, Kempenners, Kennermers, Cimmerians, &c. See also Cuma, in many localities. — Steph. Byzant 34* 402 NATURAL HISTORY OF Celtic irruption across the Taurine Alps in Italy ; since that event preceded the conquests of the Gauls, B. C. about 600, when tl.ey established themselves in the Cisalpine territory, an event which was said to be the consequence of over population already accumulated in Transalpine Gaul, and therefore at least many generations after their first arrival. Over popula- tion certainly could not well have been the true cause of expatriation ; for several whole tribes of Belgas, and the Allo- brogi, had not yet relinquished the north of the Rhine and Danube. Now these denominations in Theotisk had onlv two meanings; Volke, as before said, denoting a people, in contra- distinction to Geschlecht and Stam, which were applied to homogeneous clans or tribes ; and Gela, Gaul, Gael, by the Celtic nations always understood to designate strangers, foreigners, because most probably they also were partly mixed tribes; the same originally as those who were known by the collective appellations of Belgse, Centomanni, Celtomanni, observed that wandering tr be, the Boii, in the present Bavaria the same which once occupied Bohemia, and left two colonie in Gaul, whereof one, seated at the Teste de Buch, near thi mouth of the Garonne, ha:l for hereditary Vergobret, rornan ized into Captal de Buch, Jean de Grailly, the last of the family, who was, in the reign of Edward III., the fifth Knight of the Garter, at the foundation of the order. This very title of Buch, their tribal name of Bougers, and their silent wood- land manners, attest that they were not pure Celts, but, like other fair-haired Boii of the north, Belgae or Semi-Germans.* Besides the possession of Bohemia, Celtic tribes long held Galicia in Spain ; others, from the Tauric Chersonesus, passed up the rivers and swamps of Sarmatian Galicia and the Baltic, where they came in contact with Illyrian or Finnic Verieti. Passing over to Sweden and Norway, they built up the usual monuments of their presence, and left some portion of their dogmas to the first conquering Getae ; thence they edged down by the Cymbric Chersonesus, along the west coast of Germany, and began to force their way into Northern Gaul, at least one century before the Roman conquest. They dislodged the first Belgce, who, not finding space for habitation on the Continent, formed the two well known irruptions into Britain. They extended themselves along the southern coast, reached the British Channel, and passed over to Ireland, where they formed the Firbolg tribes, who, at a later period, encountered the Finnic Celts in the northern portion of the island. Taking the Irish Firbolg to be descended from the * In the letters of St. Paulinus, addressed to the poet Ausonius, there are some details of the manners of these Boii. At present they are col- lectors of rosin in the pine forests of that sandy region, and characteristi- cally possess a breed of vigorous feral horses. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 407 first Belgic branch (that which was expelled by the second Belga?, who secured for themselves the sea-coast and the valley of the Rhine), we may regard them as the purest Celtas now remaining. They still much resemble the Vaudois, die Illyrian Lombards, and the Walloon population, even more than that of Lower Brittany. The Irish are in form athletic, rather spare and wiry ; the forehead is narrow, and the head itself is elon- gated ; the nose and mouth large, and the cheek-bones high. The features are rather harsh ; and in character they are fiery, brave, generous in their impulses, and very patient of fatigue. Intellectually considered, they are acute, witty, ingenious, but beset with the sense of drollery more than of the true and use- ful ; they are deficient in sobriety of thought and breadth of understanding ; they consequently want more excitement for action and enduring reflecting power than the Getic family of nations seems to require. The Finnic Celtas were the first northern marine wanderers, who, having attained the Scottish and Irish coasts, constituted the Gael Coch, or red-haired stran- gers of Scandinavian origin, and first taught the pursuing Getae — in part their kindred — to follow them to the south, under the name of Northmen and Ostmen. The Cymbers were perhaps the last colony from the north that had consanguinity with theCeltse; they broke into Gaul B. C. 108, penetrated to Spain, and, in alliance with Teutonic tribes, they were at length vanquished in the plains of Italy, after they had destroyed several consular armies.* In Britain, as already stated, there were a greater diversity of races than is commonly admitted, besides a nameless population of sav- ages, probably Finnic, in possession of the coast when the Celtse first landed. There were among these, and protected by the Hedui, the Veneti (Henyd) and Ligurians (Llogrwys), * They routed, between B. C. 302 and 307, the armies of Papyrius, of Silanus, of Cassius Longinus, and of Crepio and Mallius, who were loaded with the Celtic Measures of Tolosa, once plundered by the Gauls at Grecian Delphos. 408 NATURAL HISTORY OF who, we have shown, had, through their Ulyrinn origin, like- wise Finnic affinities; the purer Celtse, such as the Morini and the nautical clans coming from the coast of Spain, and the Belgce of Semi-Teutonic origin, such as the Cantii and others occupying the east coast of Britain. The intercommunication of knowledge and civilization among tribes, who, in different parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, had been in contact with nations far more advanced in the arts of life, some perhaps, with little delay, passing west in their coracles the whole dis- tance from the regions of Phoenicia and Carthage to Britain, brought dogmas, such as the religious and moral dicta of the Druids attest. They had, no doubt, possession of rudiments of literature and reminiscences of science, and, reaching a home rich in mines, not only became miners and metallurgists — as more than one line of their progenitors had been in the east and in Spain — but, stimulated by the example of the Etruscans in the arts of smelting ores, they must have accelerated the progress of development, which inroads of new hordes, the tendency to intestine factions and open war, too often, and, in the end, too fatally arrested. This imprudent irritability of temperament caused the Celtic races, notwithstanding their military prowess, to be ever sub- dued and ruled by strangers, both in Asia and Eastern Europe, in Gaul and Britain. Without reference to the universally known facts in history, we may add one or two more not so commonly noticed. It was the Veneto-British fleet, defeated by Caesar's navy, off the mouth of the Seine, which produced the Roman invasion.* The struggles between the Christian municipal towns of foreign colonists left by the Romans, and the Pagan Reguli of native race, brought in the Caledonians and then the Saxons. So, again, the force of 12,000 Britons under Prothamus (Pritham?), which crossed over to Gaul in * It was more likely a fleet of Gallic and British Veneti united, who fought D. Brutus in Quiberon Bay, in order to recover Vannes, Blavet, and Henneboa, all Henyd, or Venetic towns. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 409 457 to support the Emperor (Marjoriam ?), stripped the island of its trained defenders, at the time the great Saxon invasion was in progress;* and, lastly, we find the name of Sawel ben Uchel, with his supporters, probably Belgse, taking part with the Saxons in the overthrow of their own race. Language and religious doctrines were likewise different in the three great national divisions of the Celta?. In the north, the name of Druids, or rather Drotne*, was a title of civil authority, perhaps even more than religious; the Belgas had no Druids, but Seghers, speakers (sacerdotes of Tacitus); nor was the order known in Cisalpine Gaul, nor in the Iberian posses- sions of the race. Druidism seems to have been evolved on the banks of the Loire, and acquired the higher doctrines in the mining districts of Britain, by intercourse with the Phoeni- cian traders, until it was ready to accept a modified Christian- ity, like that Aurelius Ambrosius entertained, when he assumed the civil and military authority, with the office of chief Druid and that of Christian Bishop ! Though the French nation of the present time is in its vast majority of Celtic origin, there remain only the Bas Bretons who claim something of a pure descent. The Waldenses of the Alps are less distinct. The south-eastern Irish have a just claim to a Belgic origin, and the Cymraeg of Wales to a true southern Celtic parentage ; while the Gael of the Scottish Highlands are probably Finnic Celts, who resided in Erin, till they were obliged to retire before the superior numbers of the Fir-bolg.t *This expedition may have given rise to the fabulous wars of Arthur on the continent. Prothamus is mentioned by Jornandes, Freculphus, and Sigebert of Gembloux. t It may be remarked here, that several Celtic terms are referred to Theotisk sources, because they belong to the Celto-Cymber and Belgic tribes, who, as Cassar asserts, spoke a distinct language ; and the ioman- ized names of divinities prove to have been invariably of Teutoric, not Gallic origin, from the Rhine to beyond the Scheldt. 35 410 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE GETiE OR GOTHIC NATIONS. At length we attain the concluding family of nations. It is that stem, which, though later in reaching the Western Ocean, and, like the rest of the tribes that peopled Europe, though compelled to forsake High Asia, and quit the east, was des- tined nevertheless to hold dominion in Chinese Tahtary, ages after the other Caucasian nations had been expelled or exter- minated by the Mongoles. They likewise were early invaders of India, and are no doubt of the number of those which the Egyptian kings Remses and Thothmes, and the Assyrian Ninus, vainly endeavored permanently to subjugate, notwith- standing that they had the organized masses of great empires at their command, and the invaded mountaineers could not retreat towards the east. This stem of nations was, as it still is, the tall, fair, light, or red-haired portion of the Caucasian type, including the giant races of historical tradition. It ven- tured, in the remotest ages, in small clans, or by mere families, to penetrate far among the dark-haired nations, unsupported by numbers, and trusting solely to their fortitude and valor. The Mongolic, the Ural Altaic Finns, and the Indo Arab nations, have at all times acted by the weight of overwhelming num- bers, therein differing from the fair-haired tribes of mixed and of pure Caucasians, whose cool energy and self-reliance not only takes little account of numbers, but actually is the cause of small sovereignties, and even permanent republics, remain- ing independent to this day. We have in more than one place pointed out families, and clans of this great stem, assuming the absolute mastery of swarthy and of dark-haired nations, or becoming in a collective form the nobility, the privileged class, wherever they resided. An element of this kind, either in part Finnic, or purely Getic, blended in the earliest population of Greece, probably before the formation of the kingdom of Argos, eighteen centuries before the Christian era. The Her* THE HUMAN SPECIES. 411 aclidae were of the fair-haired stock, and so was Theseus, and indeed most of the demigod heroes of Greece ; at least that opinion in tradition is equivalent to an admission of the fact that the northern race prevailed among the Hellenes before their historical era. They came from Thrace, from Asia Minor; and, in the quality of marine swarmers down the Euxine, occupied portions of the coast, or passed on to the Mediterranean, to the Adriatic, Gaul, and Spain, where the fabulous Gerion is again represented to have been a fair-haired giant.* All these legends have a singular alliance in consist- ent uniformity, reaching to Egypt, and going round and beyond the Mediterranean Sea. Under the names of Scythians and Tauranians, we find, in Asiatic history, that they were dreaded by all southern nations, even to a single individual coming amongst them. Kindred nations of this stem reached Europe without distinct accounts of their origin and progress; but the movements of others, at later periods, substantiated by Chinese writers, by Indian documents, and by Greek and Latin authors, who record their arrival in the west, attest that they all came from the same region, in Mongolia, Thibet, and the lakes of Central Asia. Being coerced by the pressure of the beardless stock behind, they forced a passage towards Europe through innumerable fields of slaughter, and swarmed during a period commencing probably twelve centuries B. C, perhaps when the great inland sea was already much contracted, and the rivers in their way were not yet so greatly absorbed in sand as they are now. We observe, in fact, that already at the time of the first Celtic expansion in Gaul, when tribes of that race recrossed the *In Asia Minor they appear to have constituted the Lydian, Pelasgian, and Carian nations ; and Tyrhenian orTorubian, and Phoenician, further on, were probably more Finnic, but all allied, as is shown by Hesiod and Herodotus, in Lydian records ; and Ovid, quoting a Naxian legend, where tribes are personified, the Tyrhenian theft of the god Bacchus, indicates that these pirate rovers carried the vine to Italy. 412 NATURAL HISTORY 01 Rhine, 600 years B. C, that Semi-Teutones or Getic tribes, such as the Boii, were among them, and that the moveon-nt was occasioned by fresh pressure of similar tr.'bes coming down the north-west coast of Germany — tribes that could not be expatriated by any other than enemies of purer Getic race, who were themselves pressed by more of the same", further in the north-east. We have prominent, on the scene of action, the same names of nations, from the high lands of Mongolia to the German Ocean. They continue to roll onwards in waves, retaining their first appellations, till four centuries A. C. In Tahtar, and Chinese and European Chinese annals, they are distinguished by the names of Kioto Moey, Yuchi, and Yetx-, Getae, Scythae, Guti, Guttones, Jotun, Goths, Massagets, etc., until they become known by more tribal denominations, such as Gothi, Germani, Teutones, Xacas, Sacas, Sakya, Sacse : at later periods we find Sueiones, Suevi, Burgundi; and at length they are followed by Sclavonic tribes, which always bear some impression of Ural Altaic consanguinity, notwith- standing that in part they are descended from Sacas, who, repulsed by Indian forces, fell back upon Persia, and brought with them Hindoo mythological notions, that extended among kindred nations, and reached Scandinavia. According to Chinese annalists, when Foh appeared, B. C. 1027, Yuchi were already established in Bactria, along the Sihoon or Jaxartes river, and they had possessed, or still were masters of, the great basin around Lake Balkach ; the first station west of the central mountain chain, provided that the Siberian region, in remote times called Geta or Yeta, be not still more ancient, and reveal the original meaning of Get, bright, corrus- cating, the same as Sibir, and our silver, which seems to be the Russian or Sclavonic translation of Yet. The Chinese Yuchi, and more proper names of Yeta and Gette, collectively taken, denoted the whole family of fair- haired tribes, including those which were foremost in the movement towards the west, and were partially intermixed THE HUMAN SPECIES. . 413 with the Celtic tribes of the north, forming the Cymber or Cimmerian people before mentioned. Similar interunions affected the Gallic or fair-haired Gaul tribes; the Boii, the Volsci, the Britons of the east coast, the Yuinidi; the Wilci, northern or second Belgas* &c. ; but it may be doubted whether the Allemanni, Allobrogi, Centomanni, Geremanni. Teutones, and Frisones, were of the same races, pure Getae, or with perhaps some Finnic intermixture. That they were nearly allied, is evident from their tribal names, notwithstand- ing that the Romans confounded them with the Gauls, because, in the time of Marius, it was thought to be the greater honor to vanquish them, and they were encountered )n the west side of the Rhine. In Britain, the former were the Gwyddel Coch, or Ywerdon, the red Gael of Ireland, probably the Dalriads noticed in the third century again, of the same nation as the yellow-haired Britons, taller than the Italian race, seen at Rome by Strabo, and still distinguished by the bard of Malcolm III., in 1057. These no doubt were the Celto Scythas of earlier antiquity, little if at all to be divided from the Finnic Celts, but more distinct from the Getic tribes, who are often noticed in antiquity, as milk-eating and western Scythoe, residing between the Danube and the Tanais or Don, at the time the eastern Getae, or Massagetse, the Sakas and Sarmata;, were on the plains northward of the Caspian, and along the Oxus and Jaxartes, up to High Asia, and the Yuchi (Yueichi) were still in the present Mongolia. This appears to have been that period when the great conflict of the typical races was at its height, in Northern Central Asia; for the Chinese were then building the Great Wall (B. C. 223) to exclude these valiant tribes from their southern states, and the Persian monarchs were equally anxious to pre- vent them penetrating to the south, since they also had raised * The Esauites, or Italian Edomites of Gorio, who built Norba, Alba, and other Cyclopean cities in Lower Etruria and Latium, were a fair- haired race, most likely Etruscans, speaking an Oscan dialect. 35* 414 NATURAL HISTORY OF a great wall, or continuous lines of defence, from Bactria to the Caspian, a rampart like the Kizil Alan, most likely older than the accession of the Sassanian dynasty ; since further west, the wall between the two seas, passing from Derbend (Porta portarum, Portue Caspiae) to the Euxine, appears also to be more ancient than historical record. The Yuei-chi, the last Caucasian race that left the north central high land of Asia, being pressed by the Mongolians, or by Huns from the north-east (about 200 B. C), were compelled to quit Chensi, and fell upon the Sai, or Sakas, who, retreat- ing, divided into two great masses, whereof the first directed its course towards the west, and the other, not quite so numer- ous, fell back upon Southern Thibet, and thence came down upon the Greek Bactrian state (B. C. 90), then ruled by Mith- ridates. They had, at the same time, similar conflicts with the Parthians, whose king, Artaban, they slew. They gave an asylum to Sanotrokes, and restored him to power (B. C. 76). From Bactria they crossed the Paropamisus, and sub- dued another Greek sovereignty in Afghanistan, on the south side of the chain. Passing onwards, they formed a province of Scinde ; but, in an attempt to penetrate further eastward, they were routed by Vikra-maditya, king of Avanti (B. C. 56). If not from an earlier invasion, it was, at the latest, in consequence of this defeat, that the recoiling Scythae were supplied with the Hindoo religious elements, which some of the tribes, migrating westward, have evidently mixed up with Celtic and Finnic legends in the north of Europe. We do not, for example, find the Asii, here called Lazi, to have pos- sessed the doctrines recorded in the Edda. When, according to the Chinese annals, they were opposing the Tatzin or the Romans, in their endeavors to open a trade with China, for which purpose, being hindered on land, they sent an ambassa- dor by sea to the Celestial Empire, in the reign of a sovereign denominated " Anton," i. c, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. While they were still residing on the Caspian, and when the" THE R7MAN SPECIES. 415 began to form a strong community on the banks of the Borys- thenes, Thorgitaus, their chief divinity, is not represented with characters suited to the high northern latitude, where Thor and Woden are afterwards made to operate in a manner congenial with the climate. If the city Asgard, once existing near Azof, at the mouth of the Don, was the representative of the first abode commemorated in the north, then the Asii possessed at that point an intermediate resting-place, so that from their first known station within the high table land of Asia, above the southern sources of the Jaxartes, they moved gradually to the south through Sogdiana, across the Paropamisus, and then westward, to the three stations already indicated, before they or a clan of this people again returned to the north, probably by ascending the Borysthenes, and halting some time about the lake of Ladoga, made that water a sacred centre, until they migrated to Scandinavia. The Getse, found by Ovid occupying the west coast of the Euxine, were then already a century in moving onwards towards the north-west of Europe, taking again the great rivers of the present Poland to reach the Baltic. With the Thuringians and Saxons, or Sacasunen, among them, they forced their way to the German Ocean, dislodging the Cym- bers, excepting remnants that clung to the swamps, and the then submerging islands of the deltas formed by the great rivers which discharge their waters into the German Ocean. They were most likely the subsequent Friesen and Sicambers, or Water Cymbers, who, with other tribes of so-called Ger- mani, formed the posterior offensive confederacy of the Franks (Freye-Anke) ; among these the clan of Merovingians (Meer- vingen), notwithstanding that the site they inhabited is pointed out to have been :n the Merwe in Holland, seems nevertheless to indicate a clan of sea-rovers, whose first intel- ligible historical chief, Pharamund (Vaaremund), or com- mander of the navigation, had performed some great exploit in the then fresh career of distant marine expeditions, such as 416 NATURAL HISTORY OF that of plundering and ravaging- the coasts of Africa and Spain. They and their chief may perhaps refer to the remark- able escape of the Frankish exiled prisoners, who, in A. D. 280, seized upon shipping on the coasts of the Euxine, and forced their way homeward, plundering Syracuse and the coasts of Gaul and Spain, until they reached the mouth of the Rhine in safety, and loaded with booty. This event may be the basis of the mystical legend of the Bristly Bull monster, which rose out of the sea, and became the parent of the Bor- stigen, Meringauen, or Meeringen; for it explains how a daring, rich, and victorious body of Celto Scythae and Finni of the west, being moulded into one united companionship by misfortune and by success, replete with the experience of their adventurous achievement, and possessed of captive wives and slaves from highly civilized nations, should have grasped power at home, and given that settled purpose of conquest to these restless tribes, which, until then, had been only known as the mere maraudings of pirates. By the departure of the Franks eastward and across the Rhine, and of the Saxons and Angles to Britain, room was made for other tribes, who either wanted space on the spot, or were daily pressing onwards through the swamps and for.ests of Poland and Russia. We shall not relate the great influx of them before and with the Huns, and of numerous Finnic and Getic nations from the east, among which the eastern and western Goths were the most conspicuous. Like several others, they had struck upon the shores of the southern Baltic, and then found they must turn to the south. They or similar migratory bands compelled Alans, Vandals, Burgundians, &c, to precede or to follow them, and to produce that remarkable cross migration from north to south, which caused the intimate mixture of the fair and dark-haired races in middle and south- ern Europe, and in the end effected that thorough civilization of the whole, on principles of progression, continuing to THE HUMAN SPECIES. 417 develop 3cience with daily increasing rapidity, and tending shortly to embrace the whole earth. Though many of the parent races of nations now remaining were without letters, or were possessed of valuable elements of knowledge in a very circumscribed degree, there existed among them all, at a period much earlier than is often allowed, a method of embodying (it is true, commonly under symbolical expressions) records of national belief, manners, and events, which give occasional light, sufficient to rectify the scanty data of the later classical writers, and the documents contained in the acts of the earlier ages of Christianity. These most ancient national legends are poems, in various forms, and often in some part religious. They are reports, such as Virgil knew, and interwove in his iEneid, concerning the tribes of Latium, and Strabo asserts were possessed by the Iberians. They were recitals committed to memory, like the Homeric poems, preserved from one generation to another by repetition, with an exactness, all things considered, wonderfully perma- nent. Thus the Gael of the Scottish Highlands, and northern Irish, have recorded the poems of Ossian, now thoroughly proved to be genuine. Such are the thirty cantos of the Finnic Kalewalla, lately brought to light, the numerous Scan- dinavian Sagas, and the two Eddas. Even the British Celtic legends of Arthur, the Mabinogion, and the poems of Taliesin and Aneurim, have now likewise established their degree of authenticity, as well as the first part of the Arabic Antar. Among the Teutonic tribes, the staves of the Gehugende, according to Jahn, marked on wood, in Runic letters, con- tained the tribal reminiscences, whence the earliest monkish annalirts have drawn a great part of their first historical mate- rials. The Heldenbuch, and Niebelungen-noth, were most likely p eserved by their help. The last mentioned may, however be of Franco-Theotisk origin, since four or six pages, in the Flemish language, of the twelfth century, have been lately discovered at Ghent. 418 NATURAL HISTORY OF It is to be regretted that many stores of early information have been neglected. The list of classical (Greek and Latin, writers which have perished since the thirteenth century is sufficiently extensive. That of indigenous chronicles, annals, and legends, especially in the north of Europe, since the same period, is even more considerable. Some few may yet remain jnknown ; and though the general history of events may not be greatly impaired, we still have to deplore the loss of much that concerns the nationality, the manners, opinions, and tra- ditions of our remoter ancestors, which, after all, are quite as valuable, nay, even more so, than the commemoration of crime and barbarity which has been preserved. Of the class we mean, there are still a few remaining, which, although they be distorted by ill-directed zeal, by imposture, and by ignorance, furnish curious hints in their way. Such, for example, is the song of the Lombards, also known as that of the Ost and West Friesen or Frisons, found by Mr. Bonstetten, at Copen- hagen. In the Land-urbar, or Costumier of the Bernese Swiss, there is likewise a legendary record of the fair-haired tribes of Ober-Hasli, Schwytz, Gessenay, and Bellegarde, printed as early as 1507, by Etterlin, in the chronicles of Lucerne. The Song of Hasli, of about one hundred and eighty stanzas, relates the migration of these clans, their battles, and their arrival near the Brochenberg, where they built Schwytz ; and, it appears, they fought in the cause of Arcadius and Honorius, about the year 387. Here we terminate this inquiry into the origin and filiation of the races of Man, — a subject, zoologically viewed, we thought more novel, than to repeat what has already been said by other writers, and especially by Dr. Prichard, with his accustomed industry and learning. As for us, we are compelled, for want of space, to abstain from entering into many important particulars, which would be THE HUMAN SPECIES. 419 more necessary for the elucidation of the general theory now advanced, if readers were not now very commonly well informed on most of the points brought here under considera- tion. Want of space compelled us, from the beginning, to mass our superabundant materials into groups, which on many occasions may appear too much generalized, and on others marked with repetitions, which sometimes we thought requisite to refresh the memory of the reader. The basis of the questions chiefly investigated was laid in a series of lec- tures on the same subject, read to the Plymouth Institution, between the years 1832 and 1S37. The materials were exclu- sively sought for in scientific researches and profane history ; and the successive discoveries and conclusions of other writers since that period, have, in general, strongly supported the main points of our own convictions, to which we attach no further personal importance than what continued research will disprove, or in due time assent to, when the basis of sev- eral conclusions offered in these pages will have acquired more ample notoriety and consequent solidity. AMER'C'A T>^E Trent view . Unrrmi /Jo- Jtlatuticit. of the ShiU /r 'capital I've* mth the 0, ■ ■ r WOOLLY-HAIRED TYPE GOLD COA.ST AkA>'OUR(JS BEARDLESS TYPE MONGOU V&ITJ^AL ASPECT BEARDED or CAUCASIAN TYPE Q I* UJ LU a o — x. < a .<--*£*. 1 1 # A j& j g;»w,? INDO_CHINA-MAlAY RACES. COCHIN CHINA . U. SI OP lil'.A/II- H.\:.r \>T XEl.Ku AN'D '.AYAPO END1AX NEW ZEALAND } if TE KEWITI, SON 01 TF h . \ i WAIS 0T0 INDIA'S CLTXHE K.OCIC* MOCK TATN OJDIAN 1 yOJAl 7.1HTAE 10. El ELTH V 2k 1?; JAPANESE PRIZE TIGHTER CAUCASIAN TAHTARS CAUCASIAN RACE GREATEST DEVBLOPEMINT . SI.AWS1C .VOBLE. APPENDIX. It was intended, when the foregoing work was first in progress, to have thrown into an Appendix such additional observations as might be thought important, or that had escaped notice in their proper places, and to add to them the discoveries which might have become known during the progress of publication ; but finding the text already greatly to exceed the usual limits of the single volume allowed for the discussion of the questions we have had to consider, the objects to have come under notice were reluctantly abandoned, or confined to the smallest space. Thus, on the article Indus, pp. 107 — 111, recent discoveries of more than one ancient bed of the river have been made considerably further to the eastward than what were known, and the conjectures respecting the origi- nal course of the river to the sea, in the Gulf of Cutch, are strengthened. Respecting the abrasion of the west coast of India, pp. 109, 110, might be mentioned Calicut, the capital city at the time of the Portuguese con- quest, but now sunk beneath the sea. With regard to the various levels between the Caspian Sea, the uplands of Russia, and Poland, pp. 120 — 124, we may remark, that the fall of the rivers opening in the Volga is 110 feet, those that are affluents to the Neva fall 445 feet, making a total of 555 ; now, adding this total to the surface of the Caspian, there appears to be only 200 feet remaining for the culmi- nating ground at the sources of the Volga ; but if these are estimated on 36 422 APPENDIX. measurement based in error, and we make the elevation to Vie about 700 feet at the highlands of Vologda, still taking the lowest level between the Euxine and the Baltic to be in a line of latitude 58, the waters of the two were of no dissimilar height, while the Gulf of Bothnia was still an open strait, and the northern portion of the Old Continent had not as yet com- menced rising. It appears that Norwegian Lapland has risen 1800 feet in the last 1200 years. At page 129, note, we should have added that even the byssus of the pinna was not destroyed. Pages 142-3. The volcanic disturbances of the Red Sea were again in operation in the last or in the present year (1847), when a new island rose above the surface in the southern portion. The French survey, for a canal between Suez and Lake Mensaleh, recently published, likewise countenances the opinion that the Isthmus was originally open. Page 151. Among others, is the tale of Moshup, the giant spirit, who resided at Nop, now Martha's Vineyard, at a time when the currents ran differently, and ice used to pack about Nantucket shoals. But better evidence is found in the researches of Mr. Lyell, who considers the south- eastern portion of the United States, about Savannah, to be subsiding, while Canada, and latterly Nova Scotia, are shown to be rising, probably in the same ratio as the Arctic regions on the Old Continent. Page 155. The human bones first discovered in England were in fissures of lime rock : they went to mend the highway, and no investigation by competent pei'sons took place until long after. A similar fate attended the discovery of a completely fossilized human body at Gibraltar, in 1748. The fact is related in a manuscript note, inserted in a copy of the disser- tation on the antiquity of the earth, by the Rev. James Douglass, read at the Royal Society, May 12, 1785. The volume belonged to the late Rev. Vyvyan Arundel, while he was still at Exeter College, Oxford, and the note, signed J. W., is written on paper, by the water-mark indicating about the year 1 790. In substance it relates that while the writer was himself at Gibraltar, some miners employed to blow up rocks, for the purpose of raising batteries, ibout fifty feet above the level of the sea, on APPENDIX. 423 the higher ground, near the Old Mole, discovered an appearance of a human body, which — impatient because the officer to whom notice was sent of the object did not come to witness it — they blew up. It was reported to have been eight feet and a half long. Several of the pieces were taken up, and among them part of a thigh bone, " with flesh, and I thought an appearance of veins, all in a state of perfect petrifaction, as hard as marble itself ; and in the solid part of the same stone a sea shell." It is evident, that if this body was fossilized by the infusion of stalactite matter, it must still have been of most remote antiquity. Pages 15G — 161. We refer to Mr. Lyell's account of the human remains brought from South America, where, among others, he notices a skull, taken from among a great number of other remains, out of a sandstone rock, now overgrown with very large trees, in the vicinity of Santas, in Brazil. He avows an opinion that the locality may have been an Indian burying-ground, which subsequently sank beneath the level of the sea, and then was hove up again. Now, if this theory be admitted, and it is coupled with the growth of large trees above the deposit, to what period can it be assigned, when we reflect, that the bones of pachyderms, and of a species of extinct horse, both confessedly found in alluvial, must be of a more recent period ? Page 419. With regard to the Slavi, which might have been noticed as the last migrating nation that came from the East to Europe, they were omitted, because no detail could be given even of the little that is known of them. In structure and intellectual capacity they are so like their immediate predecessors, the Goths, that no other sensible difference is observable between them, than that they have even a still greater pre- dominance of Sanscrit roots in their language, and that there are other evidences which lead to a presumption of their route westward having been in part to the south of the Caspian. An instance of the highest intellectual development, in the frontal form of the head, is given in the Plates. GOULD & LINCOLN, PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLEKS, 59 WASHINGTON STREET, BOSTON. CUAllLES D. COl'LD. JOSIIVA I.IXCOLX. CTJ~ O. .".• L. would call attention tn their extensive list of publications, emhrncine vnlunblo works 111 XllEOLOOY, Sell SI I . 1-1 I I KATI l.l. USD ART, Tl..\ r BOOKS FOB BC >LS ' V "i 01 s and \li--i i.i i..\ m.m! s, etc, in large variety, the productions of some of the aDIeet writers, and most scientific men ol the age, among which will be found those of Chambers, Hindi Miller, . 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With numerous elegant Engravings. 12mo, cloth, $1.2J. IP O IE T I C A.IL WORKS. COMPLETE POETICAL "WORKS OP "WILLIAM COWPER; v.ith a Life and Critical Notices of his Writings. Elegant Illustrations. 16mo, cloth, $1.00. POETICAL WORKS OP SIR WALTER SCOTT. Life and Illustra- tions. 16mo, cloth, $1.00. MILTON'S POETICAL WORKS. With a Life and elegant Illustrations. 16mo, cloth, $1.00. E3~ The above Poetical Works, by standard authors, are all of uniform size and style, printed on fine paper from clear, distinct type, with new and clcjant illustrations, richly bound in full gilt, and plain. (27) IMPORTANT NEW WOEKS. CYCLOPEDIA OF ANECDOTES OP LITERATURE AND THE PINE ARTS. Containing a copiou9 and choice Selection of Anecdotes of the various forms of Literature, of the Arts, of Architecture, Engravings, Music, Poetry, Painting, and Sculpture, and of the a ed Literary Characters and Artists of different Countries ana Ages, ic. J'.y Kazlitt Arvine, A.M., author of "Cycl | Religious Lnecdotes." With numerous Illustrations. 725 pp. octavo. Cloth, $:j.uo ; Bheep, $:j.50 ; cloth, gilt, $4.00 ; half calf, $4.00. This is unquestionably the choicest collection of er published. It contains three thtmsa Inecdotet: and such is the wonderful variety, that it will he found an almost inexhaustible fund of interest fbr every class of renders. The elaborate classification and Indexes ommend it especially to public speakers, to the various classes of Nf< fill/ and scientific men, its, mechanics, ani others, m* Dictionary for reference, in relation to facts on thenum- suhjects and characters introduced. There are also more than one hundred and fifty fine THE LTPE OP JOHN MILTON, Narrated m Connection with the Political, Ei'OL&sia itical, and Litbrart History of bisTimb, By David Masson, M.A., Prof Bsor of Knjrli^li Literature, University College, London. Vol. i , embracing the period from 1608 to 1639. \\ itli Portraits, and specimens of his handwriting at different periods. K »yal octavo, cloth, $0.00. This Important work will embrace three royal octavo volumes. By special arrangement with Prof. Mass the author, <;. .v L. are permitted to print from advance sheets furnished them, as the authorized American publish' rsot this magnificent and eagerly looked for work. Volumes two and three will follow in due time ; but, as each volume covers a definite period of time, and also embraces distinct topics of discussion or history, the) will !»• published and sold independent of each other, or furnished in sets when the three volumes are completed. THE GREYSON LETTERS. Selections from the Correspondence of E. E. It. Qretson, Esq. Edited by Henry Rogers, author of " Eclipse of Faith." 12mo, cloth, $1:25. " Mr. Greyson nnd Mr. Rogers are one and tho same person. The whole work is from his pen, and every tetter is radiant a ith the genius of the author. It discusses a wide range of subjects, in the most attractive manner. It abounds in the keenest wit and humor, satire and logic, it fairly entitles Mr. Rogers to rank with Sydney Smith ami Charles Lamb aa a wit ami humorist, and with Bishop Butler as a reasoni r. Mr. Rogers' name will share with those of Butler and Pascal, in the and veneration of posterity ." - Co " A hook not for one hour, but for all hours ; not for one mood, hut for every mood ; to think over, to dream over, to laugh over." — Boston Journal "The Letters are intellectual gems, radiant with beauty, happily intermingling the grave and the gay. — Christian > > ESSAYS IN BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM. By Peteb Bathe, M. A., author of "The Chri tia i Life, Social and Individual." Arranged in two Series, or Parts. 12mo, cloth, each, $1.25. I,i a volumes have been prepared by the author exclusively for his American publishers, and in uniform style. They include nineteen articles, viz. : FIRST SERIES : — Thomas De Quincy. — Tennyson and his Teachers. — Mrs. Barrett Brown- ing.—Recent Aspects of British Art. —John Ruskin. — Hugh Miller. — The Modern Novel; Dickens, fee. — Ellis, Acton, and Currer Bell. m> Serii s : — Charles Kingslcy. — S. T. Coleridge. — T. 13. Macaulay. — Alison. — Wel- — Plato. — Characteristics of Christian Civilization. — The Modern University. — The Pulpit and the Press. — Testimony of the Rocks : a Defence. "VISITS TO EUROPEAN CELEBRITIES. By the Rev. William B. Spr , ■■ b, D. D. 12mo, cloth, $1.00 ; cloth, gilt, $1.50. A series of graphic and life-like Personal Sketches of many of the most distinguished men and women of Europe, portrayed as the Author saw them in their own homes, and under the most advantageous circumstances. Besides these " pen and ink " sketches, the work contains the novel attraction of a facsimile of the signature of each of the persons introduced. (2 8) WORKS FOIi BIBLE STUDENTS. KITTO'S POPULAR CYCLOPEDIA OP BIBLICAL LITERA- TURE. Condensed from the larger work. By the Author, Jons Kirro, D. D. As- sisted by James Taylor, D. D., of Glasgow. With over five hundred Illustrations. One volume, octavo, 812 pp. Cloth, $3.00 ; sheep, §3.50 ; cloth, gilt, $4.00 ; half calf, $400. A Dictionary of the Bible. Serving, also, as a Commentary, embodying the products of the best and most recent researches in biblical literature in which the scholars of Europe and America have bten engaged. The work, the result of immense labor and research, and enriched by the contributions of writers of distinguished eminence in the various departments of sacred liter- ature, has been, by universal consent, pronounced the best work of its class extant, and the one best 6uited to the advanced knowledge of the present day in all the studies connected with theological science. It is not only intended for ministers and theological students, but it is also particularly adapted to parents, Sabbath-school teachers, and the great body of the religious public. THE HISTORY OP PALESTINE, from the Patriarchal Age to the Present Time ; with Chapters on the Geography and Natural History of the Country, the Cus- toms and Institutions of the Hebrews. By John Kitto, D. D. With upwards of two hundred Illustrations. 12mo, cloth, $1.25. D3"~ A work admirably adapted to the Family, the Sabbath, and the week-day School Library. ANALYTICAL CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIP- TTJRES ; or, the Bible presented under Distinct and Classified Heads or Topics. By John Eadie, D. D., LL. D., Author of " Biblical Cyclopaedia," "Ecclesiastical Cyclopae- dia," " Dictionary of the Bible," etc. One volume, octavo, 840 pp. Cloth, $3.00 ; sheep, $3.50 ; cloth, gilt, $4.00 ; half Turkey morocco, $4.00. The object of this Concordance is to present the Scriptures entire, under certain classified and exhaustive heads. It differs from an ordinary Concordance, in that its arrangement depends not on words, but on subjects, and the verses are printed in full. Its plan does not bring it at all into competition with such limited works as those of Gaston and Warden ; for they select doc- trinal topics principally, and do not profess to comprehend as this the entire Bible. The work also contains a Synoptical Table of Contents of the whole work, presenting in brief a system of biblical antiquities and theology, with a very copious and accurate index. The value of this work to ministers and Sabbath-school teachers can hardly be over-estimated ; end it needs ouly to be examined, to secure the approval and patronage of every Bible student. CRUDEN'S CONDENSED CONCORDANCE. A Complete Concord- ance to the Holy Scriptures. By Alexander Cruden. Revised and Re-edited by the Rev. David King, LL. D. Octavo, cloth backs, $1.25 ; sheep, $1.50. The condensation of the quotations of Scripture, arranged under the most obvious heads, while it diminishes the bidh of the work, greatly facilitates the finding of any required passage. " We have in this edition of Cruden the best made better. That is, the present is better adapted to the purposes of a Concordance, by the erasure of superfluous references, the omission of unne- cessary explanations, and the contraction of quotations, &c. It is better as a manual, and is better adapted by its price to the means of many who need and ought to possess such a work, than the formur large and expensive edition." — Puritan Recorder. A COMMENTARY ON THE ORIGINAL TEXT OP THE ACTS OP THE APOSTLES. By Horatio B. Hackett, D. D., Prof, of Biblical Liter- ature and Interpretation, in the Newton Theol. Inst. [C7"A new, revised, and enlarged edition. Royal octavo, cloth, $2.25. 1ST Thig most important and very popular work has been thoroughly revised ; large portions entirely re-written, with the addition of more than one hundred pages of new matter; the result of the author's continued, laborious investigations and travels, since the publication of the first edition. 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