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FEW  Y ORE. 

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BY  AUTHORITY, 

NEW  YORK? 

D. APPLETON  &  C?  and  WILEY  &  PUTNAM; 

BOSTON; 

GOULD*  KENDALL  &  LINCOLN. 
ALBANY, 

THURLOW  WEED  PRINTER  TO  THE  STATE 

1842, 


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The  copy  right  of  this  work  is  secured  for  the  benefit  of  the  People  of  the  State  of  New-York. 

SAMUEL  YOUNG, 

Secretary  of  State. 


Albany,  1842. 


ORDER  OF  THE  WORK. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


PART  I. 

ZOOLOGY; 

BY  JAMES  E.  DE  KAY. 


PART  II. 

BOTANY; 


MINERALOGY; 

BY  LEWIS  C.  BECK. 


BY  JOHN  TORRES 

jr&y- - 

V\*v 


ABT 


III 


m 


'Z  i.  t*  /  o‘ 


PARTS  IV.  &  V. 

GEOLOGY  AND  PALAEONTOLOGY ; 

BY  WILLIAM  W.  MATHER,  EBENEZER  EMMONS,  LARDNER  VANUXEM 

AND  JAMES  HALL. 


'  >■>  •>'  a 


INTRODUCTION. 


New-York  is  situated  between  40°  30'  and  45°  of  north  latitude,  and  between 
5°  5'  of  east  and  2°  55'  of  west  longitude  from  the  city  of  Washington.  The 
state  includes  an  area  of  46,200  square  miles,  divided  into  fifty-nine  counties,  and 
subdivided  into  nine  cities,  eight  hundred  and  thirty-five  towns,  and  one  hundred 
and  forty-five  incorporated  villages ;  and  contains  2,428,921  inhabitants  ;  of  whom 
2,378,890  are  free  white  persons,  50,027  are  free  colored  persons,  and  four  are 
colored  slaves.*  The  government  is  a  representative  republic,  with  a  written  con¬ 
stitution,  which  was  framed  by  a  convention  in  1821,  and  approved  by  the  people  in 
a  popular  election  in  1822.  The  few  remaining  descendants  of  the  aborigines 
are  neither  enumerated,  nor  admitted  to  citizenship.  Persons  of  African  descent, 
possessing  freeholds  worth  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  enjoy  the  right  of  suf¬ 
frage.  Aliens  are  excluded  until  they  become  naturalized  according  to  the  laws 
of  congress,  after  five  years’  residence  in  the  United  States.  All  male  citizens 
who  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  resided  in  the  state  one  year, 


Intk. 


1 


*  U.  S.  census,  1840. 


2 


INTRODUCTION. 


vote  for  all  officers  elected  by  the  people,  and  may  be  chosen  or  appointed  to 
places  of  trust  or  profit ;  but  the  governor  must  be  a  native  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  freeholder,  aged  not  less  than  thirty  years,  and  must  have  been  an 
inhabitant  of  this  state  five  years  previously  to  his  election,  unless  absent  on  public 
business ;  and  only  freeholders  can  be  elected  senators.  Elections  are  conducted 
by  ballot.  The  constitution  guarantees  the  franchises  of  citizenship  to  every 
member  of  the  state,  unless  he  be  deprived  of  them  by  the  law  of  the  land  or 
the  judgment  of  his  peers.  Among  those  franchises  are  trial  by  jury,  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  liberty  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  and  free  enjoyment  of  religious 
profession  and  worship.  The  government  can  make  no  discrimination  or  pre¬ 
ference  of  religion,  nor  any  provision  for  an  ecclesiastical  establishment,  and  the 
clergy  are  excluded  from  civil  functions.  A  militia  composed  only  of  citizens 
who  are  enrolled,  and  required  to  appear  under  arms  twice  in  each  year,  con¬ 
stitutes  the  only  force  within  the  state,  relied  on  for  public  defence  or  mainte¬ 
nance  of  the  civil  authorities ;  but  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  guarantees 
to  the  state  security  against  invasion  and  domestic  insurrection.  There  are  four 
departments  of  the  government :  the  legislative,  executive,  administrative  and 
judicial.  The  legislative  power  is  absolute,  except  as  restricted  by  the  federal 
and  state  constitutions.  A  senate  and  an  assembly  constitute  the  legislature. 
The  senate  is  composed  of  thirty-two  members,  who  are  elected  by  the  people 
in  eight  equal  senatorial  districts,  and  remain  in  office  four  years.  One  senator 
is  annually  elected  in  each  district.  The  assembly  consists  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  members,  who  are  elected  by  the  people  in  counties,  each  of  which 
is  represented  in  proportion  to  its  population.  The  lieutenant-governor,  elected 
by  the  people,  presides  and  has  only  a  casting  vote  in  the  senate.  A  speaker 
freely  elected  by  the  assembly  presides  in  that  body.  Bills  originate  in  either 
house,  and  become  laws  when  passed  by  both  houses  and  approved  by  the  gover¬ 
nor,  or  when  they  receive  the  votes  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present  not¬ 
withstanding  the  executive  veto.  Laws  to  create  or  alter  corporations  require 
the  assent  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  members  elected  in  each  house. 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


The  governor  constitutes  the  executive  department,  is  biennially  elected  by 
the  people,  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  militia  and  admiral  of  the  navy,  and  is 
charged  with  the  execution  of  the  laws.  He  annually  communicates  to  the  legis¬ 
lature  the  condition  of  the  state,  and  recommends  such  measures  as  he  deems 
expedient.  He  is  invested  with  power  to  pardon  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  except 
treason,  and  may  suspend  the  execution  of  persons  convicted  of  that  crime  until 
the  pleasure  of  the  legislature  shall  be  made  known.  In  case  of  his  death,  absence 
or  incapacity,  the  executive  functions  devolve  upon  the  lieutenant-governor.  The 
administrative  department  is  intrusted  with  the  fiscal  interests  of  the  state,  and  i6 
divided  among  a  secretary  of  state,  comptroller,  treasurer,  surveyor-general,  attor- 
ney-general,  commissary-general,  commissioners  of  the  canal  fund,  commissioners 
of  the  land-office,  and  canal  commissioners ;  each  of  whom,  by  virtue  of  the  consti¬ 
tution  or  laws,  is  appointed  by  the  legislature  without  the  interposition  of  the  execu¬ 
tive  authority.  There  is  a  court  for  the  trial  of  impeachments  and  the  correction 
of  errors,  which  is  composed  of  the  lieutenant-governor,  senators,  chancellor,  and 
the  justices  of  the  supreme  court.  Articles  of  impeachment  may  be  preferred  by 
the  assembly  against  the  governor  and  all  administrative  and  judicial  officers,  and 
the  votes  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the  court  for  the  trial  of  impeachments 
are  necessary  to  a  conviction.  The  court  may  remove  the  party  convicted  from 
office.  The  same  court  reviews  the  judgments  and  decrees  of  the  supreme  court 
and  the  court  of  chancery.  The  supreme  court  is  a  court  of  law,  having  jurisdic¬ 
tion  in  civil  and  criminal  cases  ;  and  consists  of  three  justices,  each  of  whom  holds 
his  office  until  he  attains  the  age  of  sixty  years.  Issues  of  fact  are  tried  by  jury 
before  circuit  judges  who  hold  circuit  courts,  and  by  the  county  courts  ;  and  such 
issues  in  criminal  cases  are  tried  by  jury  in  courts  of  oyer  and  terminer  and  general 
sessions  in  the  several  counties.  The  supreme  court  reviews  the  judgments  of  all 
inferior  legal  tribunals.  County  courts  of  common  pleas  and  general  sessions  are 
held  by  local  judges,  who  hold  their  offices  five  years,  and  review  the  proceedings 
injustices’  courts.  There  are  four  justices  of  the  peace  in  each  town  ;  they  are 
elected  by  the  people,  and  hold  their  offices  four  years,  and  have  jurisdiction  in 


4 


INTRODUCTION. 


civil  cases,  and  in  litigated  cases  may  render  judgments  not  exceeding  one 
hundred  dollars.  Three  justices  constitute  a  court  of  special  sessions  for  the  trial 
of  small  offences.  Equity  is  administered  by  a  chancellor  and  by  nine  subordinate 
vice-chancellors,  of  whom  six  are  also  circuit  judges.  The  chancellor  and  circuit 
judges  respectively  hold  their  offices  until  the  age  of  sixty  years.  All  judicial 
officers,  except  justices  of  the  peace  in  towns,  are  nominated  by  the  governor, 
and  appointed  by  him  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate.  He  also  ap¬ 
points  in  like  manner  major-generals,  inspectors  of  brigades,  and  officers  of  the 
general  staff  of  the  militia,  except  the  commissary-general.  The  constitution 
may  be  amended ;  and  for  that  purpose  a  resolution  must  be  passed  by  a  majority 
of  the  legislature  at  one  session,  and  at  a  succeeding  session  by  the  votes  of  two- 
thirds  of  all  the  members  elected,  and  be  approved  at  the  next  general  election 
by  a  majority  of  the  people.  The  present  constitution  was  established  in  the 
place  of  one  which  had  been  adopted  in  1777. 

The  Bay  of  New-York  is  supposed  to  have  been  visited  by  Verazzani,  under 
the  patronage  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  1584  *  In  1609,  Champlain,  a  mariner 
in  the  French  service,  explored  the  northern  waters, f  and  Hendrick  Hudson, 
under  a  commission  from  the  States  General  of  the  Netherlands,  ascended  the 
river  whose  name  so  justly  commemorates  the  enterprise  of  that  navigator. f 
The  settlement  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  state,  under  the  name  of  New- 
Netherlands,  was  commenced  in  the  subsequent  year.  The  colony  submitted 
to  the  English  in  1664, §  and  was  regained  by  the  Netherlands  in  1673, ||  but  was 
relinquished  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Westminster  in  the  succeeding  year, 
and  remained  a  province  of  the  British  empire  until  the  thirteen  united  British 
colonies  became  an  independent  confederacy  of  states  in  1776.  During  the 
Dutch  supremacy,  the  province  was  a  mercantile  possession  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company.  Under  the  English,  it  was  by  royal  charter  a  manor  belonging 
to  the  Duke  of  York.  In  1683,  the  discontent  of  the  colonists  induced  the  con- 


J  Id.  §  Id.  II  Id. 


*  Bancroft. 


t  Id. 


INTRODUCTION. 


5 


sent  of  the  proprietor  to  the  institution  of  a  representative  assembly.*  After 
that  period,  restricted  legislative  powers  were  vested  in  the  governor  and  council 
“  and  the  people  met  in  general  assembly.” 

Although  the  States  General  of  the  Netherlands  were  at  the  zenith  of  com¬ 
mercial  power,  and  learning  and  the  arts  were  cherished  in  that  country,  when 
the  colony  was  planted,  its  inhabitants  seem  not  to  have  been  distinguished  by 
intellectual  acquirements  ;f  and  although  the  conquest  occurred  at  a  time  when 
the  English  people  had  attained  even  an  higher  supremacy  in  literature  than  in 
arms,  yet  that  event  seems  not  to  have  resulted  in  an  improvement  of  the  con¬ 
dition  of  society.!  Knowledge  dawned  upon  the  colony  about  the  year  1754, § 
but  was  obscured  during  the  civil  commotions  which  a  little  more  than  twenty 
years  afterwards  resulted  in  its  political  independence. 

Columbia  College  was  established  by  royal  charter,  under  the  name  of  King’s 
College,  in  1754,  under  the  care  of  doctor  Samuel  Johnson  of  Connecticut,  as 
president.  The  governors  of  the  college  were  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
the  first  lord  commissioner  for  trade  and  plantations,  the  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  province,  and  several  other  public  officers,  together  with  the  rector  of  T  rinity 
Church,  the  senior  minister  of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church,  the 
ministers  of  the  German  Lutheran  Church,  of  the  French  Church  and  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  the  president  of  the  college,  and  twenty-four  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  gentlemen  of  the  city.  The  college  was  endowed  with  funds  derived  from 
lotteries,  and  voluntary  contributions  of  private  individuals  in  this  country,  and  in 
England  and  France.  Dr.  Johnson  was  succeeded  as  president  in  1763,  by  the 
reverend  Miles  Cooper,  D.D.  of  Oxford.  He,  in  1767,  acknowledged  that  the 
institution  had  recently  received  great  emoluments  from  his  majesty  king  George 
III.,  from  liberal  contributions  by  many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  in  the  parent, 
country,  from  the  Society  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  foreign  parts,  and 
from  several  public  spirited  gentlemen  in  America  and  elsewhere.  He  gave  also 


I  Id.  §  Id 


*  Bancroft. 


t  Clinton,  Introductory  Discourse. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

this  account  of  the  success  of  the  institution  :  “  That  the  governors  of  the  college 
had  been  enabled  to  extend  its  plan  of  education  almost  as  diffusely  as  that  of 
any  college  in  Europe  ;  there  being  taught  therein  divinity,  national  law,  physic, 
logic,  ethics,  metaphysics,  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  geography, 
history,  chronology,  rhetoric ;  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin  and  modern  languages ; 
the  belles-lettres,  and  whatever  else  of  literature  may  tend  to  accomplish  the 
pupils  both  as  scholars  and  gentlemen.”  At  the  commencement  of  the  revolu¬ 
tion,  the  presidency  devolved  upon  the  right  reverend  Benjamin  Moore,  bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ;  and  the  chair  has  since  been  filled  by  Wil¬ 
liam  Samuel  Johnson,  doctor  Wharton,  William  Harris  and  William  A.  Duer.* 
The  fair  beginning  of  education  in  the  colony  was  arrested  by  the  revolutionary 
war ;  and  the  college  was  not  reorganized  until  1787,  when,  under  the  immediate 
superintendence  of  the  newly  created  regents  of  the  university,  the  institution 
assumed  the  name  of  Columbia  College,  and  its  charter,  with  some  necessary 
alterations,  was  confirmed.! 

Education  was  recognized  as  among  the  proper  responsibilities  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  1784,  by  an  act  “erecting  an  university  within  this  state.”  What 
appears  to  have  been  chiefly  intended  by  this  act,  was  to  convert  King’s,  now 
Columbia  College,  into  a  state  university.  The  principal  officers  of  the  state 
were  made,  ex-officio,  regents,  and  twenty-four  other  persons  were  appointed, 
and  it  was  provided  that  each  religious  denomination  in  the  state  might  appoint 
one  of  its  clergy  to  be  a  regent.  The  regents  were  empowered  to  establish 
colleges  and  schools,  which  should  be  considered  as  jiarts  of  the  university.  This 
law  was  amended  in  November  of  the  same  year,  and  was  revised  in  1787.  The 
provision  authorizing  the  clergy  to  appoint  a  regent  proved  impracticable,  and 
was  repealed.  The  constitution  of  the  university  is  at  present  substantially  such 
as  it  was  made  by  this  last  revision. 

Among  the  many  distinguished  patrons  of  learning  who  have  held  seats  in  the 


*  Historical  sketch  of  Columbia  College,  1826. 


t  Laws  of  New- York,  1784. 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


board  of  regents,  may  be  named  George  Clinton,  John  Jay,  Morgan  Lewis,  Daniel 
D.  Tompkins,  De  Witt  Clinton,  Joseph  C.  Yates,  Martin  Van  Buren,  Enos  T. 
Throop  and  William  L.  Marcy,  former  governors  of  the  state;  Pierre  Van  Cort- 
landt,  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  Jeremiah  Van  Rensselaer,  John  Broome,  John 
Tayler,  Erastus  Root,  James  Tallmadge,  Nathaniel  Pitcher,  Edward  P.  Livingston 
and  John  Tracy,  former  lieutenant-governors ;  Egbert  Benson,  Philip  Schuyler, 
Ezra  L’Hommedieu,  Lewis  Morris,  Matthew  Clarkson,  Benjamin  Moore,  Eilar- 
dus  Westerlo,  Baron  de  Steuben,  Gulian  Verplanck,  Zephaniah  Platt,  James 
Watson,  Abraham  Van  Vechten,  Simeon  De  Witt,  James  Kent,  Henry  Rutgers, 
Ambrose  Spencer,  Peter  Gansevoort,  Solomon  South  wick,  Smith  Thompson, 
John  Woodworth,  John  Lansing  junior,  Samuel  Young,  Nathan  Williams,  William 
A.  Duer,  Harmanus  Bleecker,  Samuel  A.  Talcott,  Peter  B.  Porter,  Robert  Troup, 
Jesse  Buel,  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  John  Sudani,  John  P.  Cushman  and  Washington 
Irving.  The  present  regents  are  the  governor;  Luther  Bradish,  lieutenant- 
governor;  Samuel  Young,  the  secretary  of  state;  Elisha  Jenkins,  James  Thomp¬ 
son,  Peter  Wendell,  John  Greig,  Gulian  C.  Verplanck,  Gerrit  Y.  Lansing,  John 
K.  Paige,  John  A.  Dix,  William  Campbell,  Erastus  Corning,  Prosper  M.  Wetmore, 
James  McKown,  John  L.  Graham,  Amasa  J.  Parker,  John  McLean,  Joseph  Rus¬ 
sell,  John  C.  Spencer,  Gideon  Hawley  and  David  Buel. 

Union  College  at  Schenectady  was  established  by  the  regents  in  1795,  after 
striking  out  a  provision  in  the  plan  submitted,  which  declared  that  a  majority  of 
the  trustees  of  the  college  should  not,  at  any  time,  be  composed  of  persons  of  the 
same  religious  sect  or  denomination.*  The  charter  contained  the  singular  pro¬ 
vision  that  the  clear  annual  value  of  the  real  property  of  the  institution  should  not 
exceed  thirteen  thousand  three  hundred  and  thirty-three  dollars  ;  and  declared  that 
the  trustees  should  not  exclude  any  person  on  account  of  his  particular  tenets  or 
religion,  from  admission  into  the  college.  In  1797,  the  trustees  of  the  college,  as 
appears  from  the  report  of  the  condition  of  the  institution,  gave  instruction  con- 


*  Proceedings  of  the  Regents  of  the  University. 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


cernmg  the  constitution  of  1 1 1  o  United  SttLteSj  und  the  sevei&l  state  constitutions, 
and  proposed  to  substitute  tuition  in  the  F rench  language  for  the  Greek.  In 
1828,  the  trustees  of  the  college  reported  that  they  had  prescribed  two  distinct 
courses,  the  one  embracing  such  classical  studies  as  were  usually  pursued ;  and 
the  other  called  the  scientific  course,  substituting  modern  in  the  place  of  ancient 
languages,  and  including  instruction  in  mathematics,  anatomy,  physiology,  law, 
etc.  Similar  arrangements  were  about  the  same  time  made  in  the  other  collegi¬ 
ate  institutions,  but  the  classical  course  has  nevertheless  continued  to  be  the  chief 
form  of  instruction  in  these  seminaries.  The  first  president  of  Union  College 
was  the  reverend  John  B.  Smith,  D.D.  He  was  succeeded  in  1799  by  the  reve¬ 
rend  Jonathan  Edwards,  D.D.,  who  died  in  1801 ;  when  the  reverend  Jonathan 
Maxcy,  D.D.  was  appointed,  who  retained  the  place  until  1804.  In  that  year 
the  reverend  Eliphalet  Nott,  L.L.D.,  succeeded  to  that  office,  which  he  yet  retains. 
Among  the  patrons  of  this  institution  were  Robert  Yates,  Abraham  Ten  Broeck, 
John  Glenn,  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  Henry  Walton,  Joseph  C.  Yates,  John  Fry, 
Jonas  Platt,  Stephen  N.  Bayard,  Theodore  Romeyn,  John  V.  Henry,  Philip  Van 
Rensselaer,  Guert  Van  Schoonhoven,  James  Emott,  James  Duane,  Samuel  Blatch- 
ford,  Jonas  Coe,  William  James  and  Henry  Yates. 

Hamilton  College,  at  Clinton,  was  founded  by  the  regents  of  the  university  in 
1812,  under  the  care  of  the  reverend  Asahel  Backus,  D.D.  as  president.  His 
successors  have  been  the  reverend  Henry  Davis,  D.D.,  1817 ;  the  reverend  Se- 
reno  E.  Dwight,  D.D.,  1833  ;  the  reverend  Joseph  Penny,  D.D.,  1835  ;  and  the 
reverend  Simeon  A.  North,  A.M.,  who  assumed  that  office  in  1839.  Among  the 
names  of  the  distinguished  patrons  of  the  college  are  those  of  Simon  Newton 
Dexter  and  William  H.  Maynard. 

Geneva  college  was  incorporated  in  1825.  Its  first  president  was  the  reverend 
Jasper  Adams,  D.D.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  reverend  Richard  Sharp  Mason 
in  1830 ;  upon  whose  resignation  in  1835  the  reverend  Benjamin  Hale,  D.D., 
was  appointed  to  that  office.  Among  the  prominent  patrons  of  the  institution 
have  been  James  Reese,  Herman  H.  Bogart,  William  L.  Dezang,  John  C.  Spen- 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


cer,  Abraham  Dox,  Francis  Dwight,  Bowen  Whiting,  David  Hudson,  Thomas  D. 
Burrill,  James  Carter,  Elijah  Miller,  Jesse  Clarke,  John  C.  Rudd,  George  Hos- 
mer,  David  E.  Evans,  Joseph  Fellows,  Jonathan  Childs,  Abraham  M.  Schermer- 
horn,  Samuel  Clark,  the  right  reverend  B.  T.  Onderdonk  and  the  right  reverend 
William  H.  De  Lancey. 

The  University  of  the  city  of  New-York  was  established  in  1830,  under  the 
care  of  the  reverend  J.  M.  Matthews,  D.D.  as  its  chancellor.  The  success  and 
usefulness  of  the  institution  were  for  several  years  impaired  by  internal  contro¬ 
versies  which  were  not  terminated  until  1839,  and  by  pecuniary  embarrassments. 
Doctor  Matthews  having  resigned,  Theodore  Frelinghuysen,  L.L.D.  was  appoint¬ 
ed  his  successor,  and  yet  remains  chancellor  of  the  institution. 

All  these  institutions  have  received  liberal  endowments  from  the  state,  and  they 
educate  annually  about  six  hundred  and  fifty  pupils.  The  colleges  give  instruc¬ 
tion  in  moral,  intellectual  and  political  philosophy ;  in  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin 
and  modern  languages  and  literature ;  in  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
and  chemistry ;  in  mathematics,  analytical  mechanics  and  physical  astronomy  ;  in 
law,  civil  polity  and  history,  and  political  economy.* 

Clinton  Academy  in  Suffolk  county,  and  Erasmus  Hall  Academy  in  Kings 
county,  incorporated  in  1787,  were  the  first  academical  institutions  established  by 
the  regents  of  the  university.  Farmers’  Hall  Academy  in  Orange  county,  and 


*  Complaints  are  often  made  that  the  standard  of  university  education  has  been  lowered  since  its  introduction  among 
us ;  yet  it  cannot  be  admitted  as  in  any  sense  true,  that  the  amount  of  knowledge  communicated  is  less  now  than  at  any 
former  period.  On  the  contrary,  the  assiduity  of  both  instructors  and  pupils,  as  well  as  the  facility  of  instruction,  have 
been  continually  increased.  The  change  which  has  taken  place  consists  in  a  diminution  of  classical  learning  and  of 
mental  science  and  logic,  and,  perhaps,  of  moral  and  political  science,  and  a  substitution  of  more  extensive  instruction  in 
physical  science  and  practical  mathematics.  This  change  has  resulted  from  the  operation  of  our  social  system.  Colle¬ 
giate  education,  instead  of  being  reserved  for  the  few,  who,  favored  by  fortune,  might  desire  to  prosecute  recondite  and 
classical  studies  during  and  after  their  course,  and  to  enter  at  leisure  upon  the  duties  of  active  life,  or  refrain  from  them 
altogether,  is  now  attainable  by  persons  in  almost  every  class,  and  is  sought  not  so  much  for  the  sake  of  knowledge  itself, 
as  because  it  is  among  the  means  of  preparation  to  enter  the  professional  pursuits.  Perhaps,  therefore,  our  system  of  col¬ 
legiate  education  produces  proportionably  a  smaller  number  of  finished  scholars,  while  it  secures  to  the  country  a  larger 
body  of  useful  citizens.  Nevertheless  beneficent  as  the  general  flow  of  knowledge  is,  those  who  have  the  care  of  its  foun¬ 
tains  deserve  well  of  the  country  for  every  effort  to  preserve  them  full  of  pure  learning.  The  labors  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hale, 
president  of  Geneva  College,  and  his  associates;  of  the  Reverend  Dr.  Alonzo  Potter  of  Union  College,  and  generally  of 
the  faculty  and  trustees  of  Columbia  College,  in  this  respect,  merit  especial  commendation. 

Intr.  2 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


North  Salem  Academy  in  Westchester,  were  established  in  1790.  Montgomery 
Academy,  then  in  Ulster  but  now  in  Orange  county,  was  incorporated  in  1791. 
Dutchess  Academy  at  Poughkeepsie,  and  Union  Hall  in  Queens  county,  received 
their  charters  in  1792.  In  1820,  the  number  of  academies  subject  to  the  visitation 
of  the  regents  had  risen  to  30 ;  in  1830,  to  55  ;  in  1841,  to  127 ;  and  the  number 
at  this  time  is  131.  In  1820,  the  number  of  pupils  in  all  the  academic  institutions 
was  2,218  ;  in  1830,  3,735  ;  in  1840,  10,881 ;  and  the  present  number  is  11,306* 
The  income  of  the  public  literature  fund  distributed  to  the  several  academies  in 
1820,  was  two  thousand  five  hundred  dollars,  being  in  the  proportion  ol  three 
dollars  and  ninety  three  cents  to  each  pupil  pursuing  classical  studies ;  in  1830,  it 
was  ten  thousand  dollars,  or  five  dollars  to  every  such  pupil ;  and  the  amount  now 
annually  distributed  is  forty  thousand  dollars,  being  about  three  dollars  and 
seventy-eight  cents  for  every  such  pupiLf 

No  especial  public  patronage  was  bestowed  upon  female  education  until  1821, 
when  the  legislature  incorporated  the  Albany  Female  Academy,  and  conferred 
upon  it  a  donation  of  one  thousand  dollars.  A  law  of  1827,  increasing  the  litera¬ 
ture  fund  and  extending  to  scholars  in  the  higher  branches  of  English  education 
the  advantages  before  enjoyed  exclusively  by  those  pursuing  classical  studies, 
resulted  in  admitting  to  a  participation  in  the  benefits  of  that  fund,  institutions 
devoted  either  entirely  or  in  part  to  the  education  of  females.  The  number  of 
female  pupils  who,  at  the  time  that  law  was  passed,  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  aca¬ 
demic  instruction  under  the  sanction  of  the  regents,  was  one  hundred  and  fifteen ; 
the  number  at  the  present  time  is  fifteen  hundred  and  seventy.  Institutions  ex¬ 
clusively  devoted  to  female  education,  and  subject  to  the  visitation  of  the  regents, 
have  been  founded  in  Albany,  Canandaigua,  Poughkeepsie,  Troy,  Schenectady, 
Utica,  Batavia,  Rochester,  New-York,  Auburn,  Le  Roy,  Fulton  and  Albion.  In 
these  institutions,  instruction  is  given  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  botany,  Biblical  anti- 


*  Minutes  of  the  Regents  of  the  University. 

t  Notes  concerning  colleges  and  academies  were  received  from  Gideon  Hawley,  L.L.D. 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


quities,  callisthenics,  chemistry,  composition,  conic  sections,  criticism,  drawing, 
embroidery,  ecclesiastical  history,  the  French  language,  geography,  geology,  his¬ 
tory,  logic,  music,  mechanics,  mineralogy,  natural  history,  natural  philosophy, 
moral  and  intellectual  philosophy,  painting,  rhetoric  and  technology. 

For  the  impulse  which  the  public  mind  has  received  in  favor  of  female  educa¬ 
tion,  it  is  only  just  to  acknowledge  obligations  to  Mrs.  Emma  Willard  of  Troy, 
the  founder  of  the  first  successful  institution  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  the 
importance  of  the  object ;  and  to  James  Kent,  John  N.  Campbell  and  their  asso¬ 
ciates,  the  founders  and  patrons  of  a  similar  institution  at  the  capital.*  It  is  also 
due  to  the  conductors  and  patrons  of  the  female  academies,  to  acknowledge,  that 
with  far  less  pretension  and  more  limited  public  aid  than  our  colleges,  they  are 
successful  in  maintaining  a  high  standard  of  pure  education  ;  and  that  their  pupils 
exhibit  proficiency  and  acquirements  comparing  favorably  with  the  best  results  of 
collegiate  education.  The  female  academies  have  very  careful  public  examina¬ 
tions  and  annual  celebrations,  in  which  essays  written  by  pupils  are  read  by  per¬ 
sons  appointed  for  that  purpose,  and  medals  and  other  testimonials  of  merit  are 
awarded.  The  benign  influences  of  these  institutions  are  already  observable  in 
the  more  frequent  employment  of  women  as  instructors  of  youth,  in  the  increasing 
respect  which  the  sex  receives,  and  in  the  greater  refinement  of  society. 

The  tendency,  however,  of  a  popular  government,  is  to  favor  rather  the 
diffusion  of  general  knowledge,  and  that  which  is  immediately  useful,  than  the 
advancement  of  pure  science,  and  the  cultivation  of  liberal  and  ornamental  arts. 

In  a  community  where  each  individual  shares  the  responsibilities  of  govern¬ 
ment,  there  is  an  obvious  necessity  for  universal  education.  This  principle  may 
be  discerned  in  the  earliest  legislation  at  the  close  of  the  revolution.  In  1789, 
two  lots  were  set  apart  in  each  township  of  public  lands,  to  constitute  a  local 
fund  for  the  support  of  religious  instruction  and  popular  education.  The  regents 
of  the  university,  in  1793,  submitted  to  the  legislature  the  importance  of  “insti- 


•  Notes  concerning  female  education  wero  furnished  by  A.  Crittenton,  Principal  of  the  Albany  Female  Academy. 


12 


INTRODUCTION. 


tuting  schools  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  children  in  the  lower  branches  of  edu¬ 
cation.”  The  recommendation  was  renewed  in  1795,  with  the  sanction  of  George 
Clinton,  then  governor.  The  legislature  in  the  same  year  appropriated  twenty 
thousand  pounds  ($50,000)  annually  for  live  years,  out  of  the  public  revenue,  to 
encourage  and  maintain,  in  the  several  cities  and  towns,  schools,  in  which  the 
children  of  the  inhabitants  residing  in  the  state  should  “  be  instructed  in  the 
English  language,  or  be  taught  English  grammar,  arithmetic,  mathematics,  and 
such  other  branches  of  knowledge  as  are  most  useful  and  necessary  to  complete 
a  good  English  education.”  The  boards  of  supervisors  were  required  to  raise 
by  tax  in  each  town,  a  sum  equal  to  one-half  of  its  proportion  of  the  moneys 
appropriated  by  the  state ;  and  commissioners  and  trustees  were  directed  to  be 
appointed,  and  required  to  make  annual  reports  to  the  secretary  of  state. 

The  returns  made  in  1798,  showed  that  1,352  schools  had  been  established, 
and  59,660  children  had  been  instructed  therein  in  sixteen  of  the  twenty-three 
counties  into  which  the  state  was  then  divided.  Mr.  Comstock,  a  representative 
from  Saratoga  in  the  assembly  of  1800,  made  an  unsuccessful  motion  that  the 
then  expiring  law  of  1795  should  be  continued.  The  law  therefore  was  suffered 
to  expire  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  earnest  and  repeated  representations  of  gover¬ 
nor  Clinton,  the  legislature  omitted  to  adopt  any  measure  for  the  reestablishment 
of  common  schools  until  1805,  when  a  law  was  passed,  declaring  that  the  nett 
proceeds  of  five  hundred  thousand  acres  of  public  lands  should  be  devoted  to  the 
creation  of  a  permanent  fund  for  the  support  of  common  schools.  The  act 
directed  that  the  lands  should  he  sold,  and  the  moneys  derived  therefrom  loaned 
and  suffered  to  accumulate,  until  the  interest  arising  thereon  should  amount  to 
fifty  thousand  dollars  annually ;  after  which  period,  the  annual  interest  should  be 
distributed  for  the  support  of  common  schools.  The  measure  received  important 
aid  from  the  recommendation  of  Morgan  Lewis,  who  then  filled  the  executive 
chair.  The  fund  thus  established  produced  an  income  in  1810  of  twenty-six 
thousand  dollars;  and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  then  governor,  in  two  successive 
annual  speeches,  urged  the  importance  of  an  immediate  organization  of  the  com- 


INTRODUCTION. 


13 


mon  schools.  A  law  was  passed  in  1811,  authorizing  the  governor  to  appoint 
commissioners  to  devise  a  system  for  that  purpose.  Jedediah  Peck,  John  Murray 
junior,  Samuel  Russell,  Roger  Skinner  and  Robert  Macomb  were  appointed  such 
commissioners;  and  in  1812,  they  submitted  to  the  legislature  a  report,  which 
was  adopted,  and  is  the  basis  of  the  existing  system  of  common  schools. 

The  fund  was  increased  in  1819,  by  various  appropriations,  which  raised  its 
productive  capital  to  about  $1,200,000.  The  new  constitution,  adopted  in  1821, 
not  only  declared  the  school  fund  to  be  inviolable,  and  guaranteed  its  perpetual 
application,  but  added  to  it  all  the  unappropriated  public  lands.  Forty  thousand 
dollars  were  added  to  the  fund  in  1824 ;  and  in  1827,  other  appropriations  were 
made  to  the  amount  of  about  $180,000.*  In  1838,  an  annual  appropriation  of 
$110,000  was  added  to  the  income  of  the  fund,  and  the  principal  was  also  con¬ 
siderably  augmented.  The  invested  and  productive  capital  of  that  fund  is  now 
$2,030,025.  The  sum  annually  distributed  from  the  state  treasury  in  support 
of  common  schools,  is  $201,000.  Adding  to  the  principal  the  unsold  lands, 
valued  at  $200,000  and  principal  moneys  sufficient  to  yield  an  interest  equal 
to  the  amount  annually  appropriated  from  the  treasury,  beyond  the  income  of  the 
invested  and  productive  capital,  the  entire  capital  would  be  $5,820,000.  The 
whole  capital  permanently  invested  for  the  support  of  education  in  colleges,  acade¬ 
mies  and  common  schools,  including  all  endowments,  contributions  from  the  trea¬ 
sury,  and  moneys  derived  from  taxation  in  the  school  districts,  is  $10,500,000.f 

The  chief  features  of  the  common  school  system,  are  the  annual  election  of 
commissioners  of  common  schools  by  the  people  in  the  several  towns ;  the  divi¬ 
sion  of  towns  by  the  school  commissioners,  into  school  districts ;  the  election  of 
trustees  in  such  school  districts,  by  the  inhabitants  thereof;  the  erection  and 
maintenance  of  a  school  house  in  each  district,  with  funds  derived  from  the  tax 
levied  upon  the  inhabitants  by  the  trustees,  in  pursuance  of  a  resolution  passed 
at  an  annual  meeting  of  the  inhabitants  ;  the  employment  of  teachers  whose  qua- 


*  Report  of  A.  C.  Flagg,  superintendent  of  common  schools. 


t  Governor’s  message,  1842. 


14 


INTRODUCTION. 


locations  are  approved  by  inspectors  elected  by  the  people ;  a  contribution  by 
means  of  taxation  in  each  school  district,  of  a  sum  equal  to  that  apportioned  to 
the  district  out  of  the  public  funds ;  the  supplying  of  any  deficiency  in  the  funds 
necessary  for  the  support  of  the  schools,  by  the  charging  of  tuition  fees  upon 
such  parents  and  guardians  as  are  of  sufficient  ability  ;  the  exemption  of  the  poor 
from  all  charges  for  tuition  fees  ;  the  maintenance  of  a  school  in  each  district,  not 
less  than  four  months  in  each  year ;  the  visitation  and  examination  of  schools  by 
the  inspectors,  and  by  a  deputy  superintendent  of  common  schools  for  the  county, 
the  latter  officer  being  appointed  by  the  supervisors  ;  and  a  supervision  and  care 
of  the  entire  school  system  of  tire  state,  by  the  secretary  of  state,  who  is  superin¬ 
tendent  of  common  schools,  and  to  whom  annual  reports  of  the  condition,  progress 
and  statistics  of  each  school  district  are  made  by  the  trustees  thereof ;  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  schools  wherever  necessary  for  the  education  of  children  of  African 
descent ;  the  maintenance  of  normal  schools  in  the  most  flourishing  academical 
institutions,  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  of  both  sexes ;  the  publication  and  dis¬ 
tribution  to  each  school  of  a  periodical  journal,  exclusively  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  education  and  not  of  a  sectarian  or  party  character,  and  in  which  are  published 
the  laws  of  the  state,  the  regulations  established  by  the  superintendent,  and  his 
decisions  upon  questions  affecting  the  organization,  administration  and  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  schools  ;  and  a  comprehensive  annual  report  to  the  legislature  by  the 
superintendent,  of  the  condition  of  the  schools  throughout  the  state.* 

The  whole  number  of  school  districts  in  the  state  is  10,886,  in  which  schools 
are  maintained  during  an  average  period  of  eight  months  in  each  year.  The 
number  of  children  instructed  is  603,583.  The  whole  amount  of  money  expended 
for  the  payment  of  wages  of  teachers  is  $1,043,000  ;  of  which  $560,000  are  public 
money,  and  the  remainder  is  contributed  by  individuals.f 

It  is  apparent  that  the  efficiency  of  the  public  school  system  must  depend 
in  a  great  measure  upon  the  ability,  zeal,  and  efficiency  of  the  superintendent  of 


•  Laws  of  Ncw-York,  1841. 


t  Annual  report  of  S.  S.  Randall,  deputy  superintendent  of  common  schools,  1842. 


INTRODUCTION. 


15 


common  schools.  That  office  was  filled  in  1813  by  the  appointment  of  Gideon 
Hawley,  who  gave  place  in  1821  to  Welcome  Esleeck.  Mr.  Esleeck  held  the 
office  only  a  few  months ;  it  then  devolved  upon  John  Van  Ness  Yates,  who 
retired  in  1826,  when  Azariah  C.  Flagg  succeeded  to  that  trust,  and  retained  the 
same  until  1833.  Mr.  Flagg  was  succeeded  by  John  A.  Dix,  who  gave  place  in 
1839  to  John  C.  Spencer.  Mr.  Spencer  retired  in  1842,  and  the  place  is  now 
filled  by  Samuel  Young.  To  Gideon  Hawley  is  justly  ascribed  the  merit  of 
organizing  the  system,  and  bringing  it  into  successful  operation ;  to  John  Van 
Ness  Yates,  that  of  an  assiduous  and  enlightened  administration  ;  to  John  A.  Dix, 
that  of  codifying  and  interpreting  upon  fixed  and  enlightened  principles  the  vast 
body  of  school  laws ;  and  to  Azariah  C.  Flagg  and  John  C.  Spencer,  high  praise 
is  awarded  for  earnest  and  well-directed  efforts  to  remove  obstacles  which  pre¬ 
vented  the  system  from  becoming  such  as  its  founders  originally  proposed  it 
should  be  :  an  uniform  plan  of  universal  education,  as  well  as  in  the  cities  in 
the  country.  The  latter  gentleman,  during  his  occupancy  of  the  office,  induced 
the  legislature  to  revise  the  entire  system,  and  increase  its  efficiency  and  useful¬ 
ness  by  important  amendments  and  improvements,  and  especially  by  those  which 
secure  more  effectual  visitation  of  the  common  schools  by  the  appointment  of 
local  superintendents.  The  enlightened  efforts  of  George  Clinton,  of  Lewis  and 
of  Tompkins,  have  been  already  acknowledged.  Nor  was  less  zeal  exhibited  by 
De  Witt  Clinton  and  William  L.  Marcy,  successors  in  the  executive  office. 
To  William  A.  Duer  the  system  is  much  indebted,  for  his  successful  efforts  in 
inducing  the  legislature  to  make  the  support  of  schools  by  the  people,  with  public 
aid,  compulsory. 

The  maintenance  of  school  district  libraries  may  now  be  regarded  as  a  cardinal 
feature  of  the  system  of  primary  education  ;  an  improvement  which,  if  not  sug¬ 
gested,  was  brought  into  public  favor  through  the  patriotic  efforts  of  James 
Wadsworth  of  Geneseo,  aided  and  sustained  by  William  L.  Marcy,  under  whose 
administration  this  important  project  was  carried  into  successful  operation. 
Bountiful  and  widely  extended  as  the  provision  for  this  system  seems  to  be,  the 


16 


INTRODUCTION. 


people  of  the  state  of  New- York  are  scarcely  enjoying  its  first  fruits.  When  it 
is  remembered  that  knowledge  exerts  a  self-expanding  and  self-regenerating 
power,  and  that  the  relations  not  only  among  the  several  American  communities, 
but  between  all  regions  of  the  earth,  are  becoming  more  and  more  intimate,  it  is 
perhaps  not  presumptuous  to  suppose  that  the  ripened  fruits  of  the  plan  are  to  be 
developed  in  the  intellectual,  moral  and  social  improvement  of  the  whole  human 
family.* 

The  first  notice  of  a  library  which  we  meet,  bears  date  an  hundred  and  four¬ 
teen  years  ago  ;  when  an  association  in  England,  called  the  “  Society  for  the  Pro¬ 
pagation  of  the  Gospel,”  transmitted  to  Richard  Montgomerie,  governor  of  the 
province,  a  thousand  volumes,  a  gift  from  Dr.  Millington,  rector  of  Newington.f 
The  society  informed  the  governor,  that  the  books  were  intended  as  a  library  for 
the  use  of  the  clergy  and  gentlemen  of  New- York,  Connecticut,  New -Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania ;  and  requested  that  the  assembly  would  provide  a  depository.  The 
subject  was  referred  to  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  New-York,  who  assigned  an 
apartment  in  the  city  hall.  In  1754,  the  sum  of  six  hundred  pounds  was  sub¬ 
scribed  by  an  association  in  the  city  of  New-York,  and  expended  in  the  purchase 
of  seven  hundred  volumes  of  “  new  and  well  chosen  books.”  The  society  was 
incorporated  in  that  year ;  and  it  was  expected  that  its  collection,  containing  the 
two  libraries  which  have  been  mentioned,  would,  by  further  contributions,  “  be¬ 
come  vastly  rich  and  voluminous.”  The  society  still  exists,  and  its  library,  now 
amounting  to  forty  thousand  volumes,  proves  that  the  expectations  of  its  founders 
have  been  fully  realized.  Notwithstanding,  however,  the  advantages  thus  enjoyed 
by  the  citizens  of  the  embryo  metropolis,  the  historian,  in  1762,  gave  this  unfa¬ 
vorable  account  of  the  intellectual  condition  of  the  colonists :  “  Their  schools  are 
in  the  lowest  orders ;  the  instructors  want  instruction ;  and  through  a  long 
shameful  neglect  of  all  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  common  speech  is  extremely 


*  Notes  concerning  common  schools  were  received  from  Gideon  Hawley,  L.L.D.,  and  Samuel  S.  Randall,  Esq.  the 
deputy  general  superintendent, 
t  American  Gazetteer,  1702. 


INTRODUCTION. 


17 


corrupt,  and  the  evidences  of  a  bad  taste,  both  as  to  thought  and  language,  are 
visible  in  their  proceedings  public  and  private.  There  is  nothing  the  ladies  so 
generally  neglect  as  reading,  and  indeed  all  the  arts  for  the  improvement  of  the 
mind  —  a  neglect  in  which  the  men  have  set  the  example.”* 

The  legislature,  in  1796,  passed  an  act  by  which,  after  reciting  that  a  dispo¬ 
sition  for  improvement  in  useful  knowledge  had  manifested  itself  in  various  parts 
of  the  state,  and  for  procuring  and  erecting  social  and  public  libraries,  and  that  it 
was  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  public  that  the  sources  of  information  should 
be  multiplied,  and  institutions  for  that  purpose  encouraged  and  promoted,  provi¬ 
sion  was  made  for  the  incorporation  of  public  library  associations.  Valuable 
libraries  were  established  under  this  law  in  many  of  the  principal  towns ;  and 
they  were  exempted  by  a  subsequent  act,  and  still  remain  free  from  taxation. 

A  state  library,  deposited  in  the  capitol,  was  commenced  in  1818.  The  law 
department  therein  contains  4,273  volumes  ;  and  the  scientific,  literary  and  miscel¬ 
laneous  division  contains  4,218  volumes.  The  collection  has  been  enriched  by 
very  munificent  donations  from  the  government  of  Great  Britain ;  and  the  selec¬ 
tion,  which  has  hitherto  been  made  with  great  care,  is  now  continually  increased 
by  means  of  annual  legislative  appropriations  of  about  three  thousand  dollars. 

But  the  most  important  public  measure  in  relation  to  libraries,  was  the  act  be¬ 
fore  referred  to,  by  which  the  sum  of  $55,000  of  public  money  was  annually  for 
five  years  devoted  to  the  establishment  of  a  school  library  in  each  of  the  eleven 
thousand  school  districts  in  the  state.  Each  district  was  moreover  obliged  to 
raise  a  sum  equal  to  that  apportioned  to  it  from  the  treasury ;  so  that  the  amount 
devoted  to  the  establishment  of  these  collections,  which,  as  they  are  distributed 
so  as  to  bring  a  library  within  the  reach  of  every  family,  may  be  called  domestic 
libraries,  is  $550,000.  The  Messrs.  Harpers,  publishers  in  New-York,  acting 
in  harmony  with  the  intentions  of  the  legislature,  have  already  issued  from  their 
press  two  hundred  volumes,  constituting  a  series  of  popular  works,  chiefly  by 


Intr. 


*  American  Gazetteer,  176*2, 

3 


18 


INTRODUCTION. 


native  authors,  on  subjects  in  the  various  departments  o  1'  science  and  literature, 
and  especially  designed  for  these  libraries.  Mr.  Wadsworth,  already  honorably 
mentioned,  continues  to  favor  the  enterprise  by  an  annual  contribution  to  the 
writers  of  such  works  as  are  approved  by  the  superintendent  of  common  schools. 
By  a  law  of  1841,  each  academy  receives  from  the  treasury  a  sum  of  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars ;  which,  together  with  an  equal  amount  contributed  by 
the  founders  and  patrons  of  the  institutions,  is  applied  to  the  purchase  of  text 
books,  globes,  maps  and  philosophical  apparatus. 

During  the  Dutch  government,  no  press  was  established ;  and  so  late  as  1686, 
Governor  Dongan  was  instructed  to  allow  no  such  establishment  in  the  colony.* 

The  great  English  revolution  of  1688,  and  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary, 
were  hailed  with  enthusiasm  in  the  colonies,  and  awakened  in  New-England  and 
New? York  an  earnest  desire  to  repossess  the  rights  and  franchises  which  had 
been  wrested  by  the  Stuarts,  or  tamely  yielded  to  their  rapacity.  The  popular 
mind  did  not  then  suspect  that  the  despotism  of  absolute  monarchy  had  only  given 
place  to  the  omnipotence  of  parliament.  Although  a  press  had  been  established 
for  scientific  and  literary  purposes  at  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  printing  was  not  commenced  in  Boston,  Phi¬ 
ladelphia  or  New- York,  until  near  the  close  of  that  century  ;  nor  was  any  news¬ 
paper  printed  in  the  American  colonies  before  the  year  1700.  Dr.  Cadwallader 
Golden,  often  mentioned  in  this  memoir,  in  a  letter  written  in  1743  to  Dr.  Frank¬ 
lin,  minutely  explained  an  improvement  he  had  conceived  in  the  art  of  printing, 
which  was  identical  with  the  stereotype  process  introduced  into  France  nearly 
sixty  years  afterwards  by  Mr.  Herhan,  under  letters  patent  from  Napoleon.  Dr. 
Colden’s  letter  was  published  in  Hosack  and  Francis’  American  Medical  and 
Philosophical  Register,  in  1810.  But  it  is  only  just  to  say,  that  subsequent  re¬ 
searches  have  resulted  in  showing  that  a  bible  was  printed  by  Gillett,  with  ste- 


*  Clinton’s  Introductory  Discourse. 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


reotype  plates,  in  Strasburgh,  twenty  years  at  least  before  the  improvement  sug¬ 
gested  itself  to  Dr.  Golden.* 

The  first  newspaper  which  appeared  in  the  colony  of  New-York  was  the 
“  New-York  Gazette,”  by  William  Bradford,  in  1725.  It  was  the  fifth  then  in 
existence  in  the  American  colonies ;  three  having  already  been  established  in 
Massachusetts,  and  one  in  Philadelphia.  Bradford  was  said  to  have  fled  from 
Philadelphia  to  New-York.  He  had  given  offence  by  publishing  a  paper  written 
by  George  Keith.  Keith  had  been  condemned  by  the  city  meeting  of  friends  for 
a  doctrine  which  he  maintained,  and  appealed  to  the  general  meeting  of  that 
society,  and  published  an  address  concerning  the  controversy.  The  address  was 
denounced  as  seditious,  and  Bradford  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for  printing 
it.  The  trial  of  Bradford  is  a  curious  and  not  an  uninstructive  illustration  of  the 
spirit  of  the  age,  and  of  the  imperfect  notions  of  the  liberty  of  the  press  which  pre¬ 
vailed  at  that  day.  Keith  was  adjudged  guilty,  both  in  the  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  courts  without  a  hearing ;  and  one  of  the  judges  having  declared  that  the 
court  could  judge  of  the  matter  of  fact  without  testimony,  directed  the  common 
crier  to  “  proclaim,  in  the  market  place,  the  accused  to  be  a  seditious  person,  and 
an  enemy  to  the  king  and  queen’s  government.”  Bradford  and  Macomb,  an 
associate,  were  charged  with  circulating  the  offensive  pamphlet,  and  demanded 
a  speedy  trial  as  a  right  secured  by  magna  charta.  Being  members  of  the  society 
of  friends,  they  appeared  in  court  covered.  Justice  Cooke  inquired,  “  What 
bold,  impudent  and  confident  men  are  these  to  stand  thus  confidently  before  the 
court?”  Bradford  replied,  “We  are  here  only  to  desire  that  which  is  the  right 
of  every  free  born  English  subject,  which  is  speedy  justice  ;  and  it  is  strange  that 
that  should  be  accounted  impudence.”  Justice  Cooke  answered,  “  If  thou  hadst 
been  in  England,  thou  would  have  had  thy  back  lashed  before  now.”  The  pri¬ 
soners  continued  to  press  for  a  trial.  Justice  Cooke  replied,  “A  trial  thou  shall 
have,  and  that  to  your  cost,  it  may  be.”  When  the  trial  came  on,  Bradford  asked 


•  Hinton. 


20 


INTRODUCTION. 


that  he  might  have  a  copy  of  the  presentment,  and  be  informed  under  what  law 
he  was  prosecuted  ;  but  these  requests  were  denied.  During  the  trial,  “  the  grand 
jury  sat  by  the  prisoners  overawing  and  threatening  them,  when  they  spoke  boldly 
in  their  own  defence,  and  one  of  the  grand  jurors  wrote  down  such  words  as  they 
disliked,  signifying  that  they  would  present  them.  Justice  Cooke  bade  the  grand 
jurors  take  notice  of  such  and  such  words.”  When  the  prisoner’s  counsel  began  to 
say  something  in  regard  to  the  matter,  the  court  directed  an  officer  to  take  him 
away.  The  attorney  for  the  prosecution  concluded  by  saying,  “  It  was  evident 
William  Bradford  printed  the  seditious  paper,  he  being  the  printer  in  this  place, 
and  the  frame  on  which  it  was  printed  was  found  in  his  house.”  Bradford  then 
said,  “  I  desire  the  jury  and  all  present  to  take  notice,  that  there  ought  to  be  two 
evidences  to  prove  the  matter  of  fact,  but  not  one  evidence  had  been  brought  in 
this  case.”  Justice  Jennings  answered,  “the  frame  on  which  it  was  printed  is 
evidence  enough.”  Bradford  replied,  “  But  where  is  the  frame  1  There  has  no 
frame  been  produced  here ;  and  if  there  had,  it  is  no  evidence  unless  you  saw 
me  print  on  it.”  To  which  justice  Jennings  answered,  “  The  jury  shall  have  the 
frame  with  them  ;  it  cannot  well  be  brought  here  ;  and  besides  the  season  is  cold, 
and  we  are  not  to  sit  here  to  endanger  our  health.”  The  jury,  however,  after 
remaining  out  sixty  hours,  resisted  all  the  efforts  of  the  court,  disagreed,  and  w7ere 
discharged.  Soon  after  this  trial,  Bradford  having  in  some  manner  obtained  a 
release,  appeared  in  New-York.  The  sedition  of  the  publication  consisted  in  the 
inquiry,  whether  the  Friends,  in  sending  out  armed  commissions  against  piracy, 
did  not  transcend  the  requirements  of  their  religious  profession. 

Thus  the  foundation  of  the  press  in  New-York  may  be  said  to  have  been  laid 
in  the  maintenance  or  assertion  of  its  primary  rights  and  liberties.  On  arriving 
at  New-York,  Bradford  became  printer  to  the  government,  which  station  he  held 
for  many  years  ;  and  such  is  the  infirmity  of  our  nature,  that  at  a  later  period,  when 
the  only  rival  press  in  the  colony  had  assumed  an  attitude  opposed  to  the  local 
government,  and  was  sought  to  be  crushed  by  prosecution  and  imprisonment,  he 
was  found  on  the  side  of  power  and  privilege,  and  against  the  enfranchisements 


INTRODUCTION. 


21 


of  speech  for  which  he  had  contended  forty  years  before.  Bradford  established  the 
first  paper  mill  in  New-Jersey,  and  the  first  perhaps  in  America.  He  was  about 
seventy  years  old  when  he  began  the  publication  of  the  Gazette,  and  continued  in 
the  active  duties  of  the  paper  for  sixteen  or  seventeen  years.  The  Gazette  was  con¬ 
tinued  after  1742,  with  the  additional  title  of  the  “  Weekly  Post  Boy”  until  1773. 

John  Peter  Zenger  established  in  1733  the  “New-York  Weekly  Journal,”  the 
second  newspaper  in  the  colony.  It  opposed  the  administration  of  governor 
Cosby,  and  supported  the  interest  of  Rip  Van  Dam,  who  had  previously  con¬ 
ducted  the  administration.  Zenger  maintained  an  effective  battery.  “  The 
ballads,  serious  charges,  and,  above  all,  the  home  truths  in  his  democratic  Journal, 
irritated  Cosby  and  his  council  to  madness.”  Zenger  was  confined  several  months 
by  order  of  the  governor  and  council,  for  printing  and  publishing  seditious  libels ; 
treated  with  unwarrantable  severity ;  deprived  of  pen,  ink  and  paper,  and  denied 
the  visits  of  his  friends.  The  popular  feeling,  however,  was  strongly  against 
these  proceedings.  The  assembly,  notwithstanding  the  application  of  the  gover¬ 
nor,  refused  to  concur  with  him  and  his  council.  The  mayor  and  the  magistrates 
also  refused  to  obey  the  mandate  of  the  governor  and  council,  and  to  attend  the 
burning  of  the  libellous  papers  “  by  the  common  hangman  and  whipper,  near  the 
pillory.”  The  grand  jury  manifested  equal  contumacy,  and  ignored  the  present¬ 
ment  against  Zenger.  The  attorney-general  was  then  directed  to  file  an  infor¬ 
mation.  The  judges  refused  to  hear  and  allow  the  exceptions  taken  by  Zenger ’s 
counsel,  and  excluded  them  from  the  bar ;  but  he  was  ably  defended  by  other 
counsel,  and  especially  by  Andrew  Hamilton,  then  a  barrister  of  Philadelphia. 
Zenger  pleaded  not  guilty.  His  counsel  admitted  the  printing  and  publishing  of 
the  papers,  and  offered  to  give  their  truth  in  evidence.  The  counsel  for  the 
prosecution  then  said,  “  The  jury  must  find  a  verdict  for  the  king,”  and  gave  the 
usual  definition  of  a  libel ;  asserting  that,  “  whether  the  person  defamed  was  a 
private  man  or  magistrate,  whether  living  or  dead,  whether  the  libel  was  true  or 
false,  or  whether  the  party  against  whom  it  was  made  was  of  good  or  evil  fame, 
it  was  nevertheless  a  libel.”  He  then  quoted  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 


22 


INTRODUCTION. 


from  one  of  the  epistles  of  Peter,  to  show  that  it  was  a  very  great  offence  to 
speak  evil  of  dignities ;  ”  and  insisted  upon  the  criminality  by  the  “  laws  of  God 
and  man,  of  reviling  those  in  authority,  and  consequently  that  Mr.  Zenger  had 
offended  in  a  most  notorious  and  gross  manner,  in  scandalizing  his  excellency  our 
governor,  who,  said  the  counsel,  is  the  king’s  immediate  representative  and  su¬ 
preme  magistrate  of  this  province.”  Mr.  Hamilton  remarked  in  his  reply,  that 
we  are  charged  with  printing  and  publishing  a  certain  false,  malicious,  seditious 
and  scandalous  libel.  The  word  false  must  have  some  meaning,  or  else  how 
came  it  there ;  and  he  put  the  case,  whether  if  the  information  had  been  for 
printing  a  certain  true  libel,  would  that  be  the  same  thing  1  “  And  to  show  the 
court  that  I  am  in  good  earnest,”  said  he,  “  I  will  agree,  that  if  he  can  prove  the 
facts  charged  upon  us  to  be  false,  I  will  own  them  to  be  scandalous,  seditious  and  a 
libel.”  He  then  further  offered,  that  to  save  the  prosecution  the  trouble  of  prov¬ 
ing  the  papers  to  be  false,  the  defendant  would  prove  them  to  be  true.  To  this, 
chief  justice  De  Lancey  objected,  “  You  cannot  be  admitted  to  give  the  truth  of 
a  libel  in  evidence ;  the  law  is  clear  that  you  cannot  justify  a  libel.”  Mr.  Hamilton 
maintained,  that  leaving  the  court  to  determine  whether  the  words  were  libellous 
or  not,  rendered  juries  useless  or  worse.  “  It  was  true,”  he  said,  “  in  times  past, 
it  was  a  crime  to  speak  truth,  and  in  that  terrible  court  of  star-chamber  many 
worthy  and  brave  men  suffered  for  so  doing ;  and  yet  even  in  that  court,  and  in 
those  bad  times,  a  great  and  good  man  durst  say,  what  I  hope  will  not  be  taken 
amiss  in  me  to  say  in  this  place,  to  wit,  ‘  The  practice  of  information  for  libels 
is  a  sword  in  the  hands  of  a  wicked  king  and  an  arrant  coward,  to  cut  down  and 
destroy  the  innocent.  The  one  cannot,  because  of  his  high  station,  and  the  other 
dare  not,  because  of  his  want  of  courage,  defend  himself  in  another  manner.’  ”  * 
The  jury,  after  a  short  consultation,  returned  a  verdict  of  not  guilty,  to  the  great 
mortification  of  the  court  and  of  Zenger’s  persecutors,  but  with  great  satisfaction 


*  Nearly  /0  years  afterwards,  another  Hamilton  maintained  this  great  and  now  undeniable  principle  with  eloquence 
and  power,  which  may  be  said  to  have  conquered  at  last  this  great  concession  to  the  liberty  of  the  press. 


INTRODUCTION. 


23 


to  the  people.  The  common  council  of  the  city  conferred  upon  Mr.  Hamilton  the 
public  thanks  and  the  freedom  of  the  corporation,  for  that  signal  service  which 
he  cheerfully  undertook  under  great  indisposition  of  body,  and  generously  per¬ 
formed,  refusing  either  fee  or  reward.* 

Such  was  the  struggle  which  the  press  had  to  maintain  only  one  hundred  years 
ago,  and  only  forty  years  before  the  revolution  gave  to  its  freedom  the  sanction 
of  government  and  the  impress  of  authority.  Gouverneur  Morris,  in  speaking  of 
these  occurrences  to  Dr.  Francis,  remarked,  “that  the  trial  of  Zenger  was  the 
germ  of  American  freedom,  the  morning  star  of  that  liberty  which  subsequently 
revolutionized  America.”  Zenger  died  in  1746.  His  newspaper  was  conducted 
by  his  widow,  and  afterwards  by  his  son,  until  1752,  when  it  was  discontinued. 
The  “New-York  Gazette  and  Weekly  Post  Boy”  was  revived  by  James  Parker 
in  1742,  and  was  continued  by  successive  proprietors  until  1773.  It  was  ably 
conducted,  and  had  an  extensive  circulation  ;  and  though  free,  never  transcended 
the  bounds  of  decorum  as  they  were  defined  at  that  day.  The  paper  combated 
the  stamp  act,  and  with  several  contemporaries  throughout  the  colonies,  appeared 
in  mourning  on  the  21st  of  October,  1765,  on  account  of  the  passage  of  that  law. 
The  “New-York  Evening  Post”  appeared  in  1746,  but  was  soon  discontinued. 
The  New-York  Mercury  was  commenced  by  Hugh  Game,  and  was  discontinued 
at  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  after  an  existence  of  thirty-one  years  under 
the  patronage  of  its  founder.  William  Wyman,  in  1759,  established  the  “New- 
York  Gazette,"  which,  after  a  fitful  existence,  expired  in  1767.  The  American 
Chronicle  was  commenced  by  S.  Farley  in  1761,  and  discontinued  the  next  year; 
and  the  “New-York  Packet,”  begun  in  1763,  had  only  a  brief  existence.  In 
1766,  John  Holt  issued  “  The  New-York  Journal  and  General  Advertiser;”  and 
in  1768,  “  The  New-York  Chronicle  ”  was  commenced  by  Alexander  and  James 
Robinson,  and  continued  until  1772,  when  the  printers  removed  to  Albany,  and 
established  there  “  The  Albany  Post  Boy,”  which  continued  until  1776.  James 


»  Dunlap's  History  of  New-York. 


24 


INTRODUCTION. 


Rivington,  in  1773,  commenced  his  newspaper  career  with  a  large  and  handsome 
sheet  bearing  the  comprehensive  title  of  “  Rivington’s  New-York  Gazeteer,  or  the 
Connecticut,  New-Jersey,  Hudson’s  River  and  Quebec  Weekly  Advertiser and 
in  January,  1776,  the  publication  of  the  New-York  Packet  and  American  Adver¬ 
tiser  was  begun  by  Samuel  Loudon. 

At  the  advent  of  the  revolution,  therefore,  there  were  only  four  newspapers  in 
existence  in  the  colony,  to  wit,  Gaine’s  Mercury,  Holt’s  Journal  and  Advertiser, 
Rivington’s  Gazeteer,  and  Loudon’s  Packet ;  and  as  these  reflect  the  spirit  of  that 
epoch,  and  are  characteristic  of  the  phases  of  the  mighty  struggle,  a  few  facts  in 
relation  to  them  may  not  be  thought  devoid  of  interest.  Gaine,  who  was  a  native 
of  Ireland,  continued  to  print  and  sell  books  in  Hanover  square  until  his  death 
in  1807,  a  period  of  nearly  sixty  years.  Exact,  punctual  and  industrious,  he  ac¬ 
quired  a  large  estate,  and  transmitted  a  reputation  for  personal  honesty,  thrift  and 
tact,  not  often  disturbed  by  excessive  aspirations  of  patriotism.  Approaching  the 
revolution,  he  was  ostensibly  neutral ;  but  with  a  desire  to  keep  the  strongest  side, 
he  alternately  printed  for  the  people  and  for  the  loyal  authorities,  as  each  seemed 
to  preponderate.  Although  he  removed  with  his  press  to  New-Jersey  on  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  the  British  army,  he  returned  when  they  had  gained  possession  of  the 
city ;  and  emboldened  by  their  successes,  pursued  the  natural  impulses  of  his 
mind,  and  gave  to  the  royal  cause  the  best  efforts  of  his  pen  and  press.  His 
request  to  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  city  after  its  evacuation  by  the  British 
army  was  granted ;  but  his  traits  of  character  were  happily  hit  off’  in  a  poem 
which  appeared  on  the  1st  of  January,  1783,  professing  to  be  the  humble  petition 
of  Gaine  to  remain  in  the  city,  in  which  his  early  profession  and  attachment  to 
the  cause  of  the  country,  his  subsequent  adhesion  to  the  royal  cause,  and  his  final 
appeal  were  humorously  and  satirically  described.  It  concluded, 

“  As  matters  have  gone,  it  was  plainly  a  blunder, 

But  then  I  expected  the  whigs  must  knock  under, 

And  I  always  adhere  to  the  sword  that  is  longest, 

And  stick  to  the  party  that’s  like  to  be  strongest.” 

1  he  Mercury,  ot  course,  did  not  survive  the  revolution. 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 


Rivington  was  an  English  bookseller,  a  man  of  the  world  and  of  good  talents, 
who  established  his  business  in  New-York  in  1761,  and  in  1773  commenced  the 
publication  of  the  Gazette  on  a  large  medium  sheet  folio.  The  paper  surpassed 
its  contemporaries  in  enterprise,  and  in  its  original  essays  and  its  various  intelli¬ 
gence  ;  and  soon  came  to  be  extensively  patronized  in  all  the  principal  towns. 
But  when  the  king’s  arms  were  substituted  for  the  early  vignette,  and  the  descrip¬ 
tive  words  in  the  title,  “  ever  open  and  uninfluenced,”  were  erased,  and  the  paper 
gave  unequivocal  demonstrations  of  hostility  to  the  popular  cause,  a  body  of  armed 
men  from  Connecticut,  in  November,  1775,  entered  the  city  on  horseback,  beset 
the  printer’s  habitation,  destroyed  his  press,  and  threw  his  types  into  heaps  or  con¬ 
verted  them  into  bullets.  Two  years  afterwards,  he  returned  from  England  with 
new  materials,  and  renewed  his  paper,  which  now  appeared  twice  a  week  on  a 
sheet  of  royal  size,  surmounted  with  the  royal  arms,  and  entitled  “  The  Royal 
Gazette,  published  by  James  Rivington,  printer  to  the  king’s  most  excellent  ma¬ 
jesty."  This  paper  was  conducted  with  exceeding  virulence  against  the  “  rebels.” 
It  was  the  leading  royal  press  in  the  colonies,  issued  from  the  chief  seat  of  British 
power,  and  attained  precedence  as  the  acknowledged  official  organ,  and  neces¬ 
sarily  became  very  obnoxious  to  the  prevailing  party.  At  length  foreseeing  the 
result,  Rivington  sought  to  conciliate  the  whigs,  and  succeeded  so  far  as  to  ensure 
the  toleration  of  his  residence  in  the  city ;  but  his  paper,  although  it  discarded 
the  emblems  and  appendages  of  royalty,  expired  in  1783.  The  wits  and  satirists 
of  the  revolutionary  press  conferred  an  unenviable  immortality  upon  its  editor. 

But  there  are  more  grateful  aspects  in  the  history  of  the  republican  press 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  country.  The  New-York  Journal  and  Advertiser, 
published  by  Holt  and  Parker,  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  discussions  and 
agitations  of  the  day,  animating  the  people  in  their  resistance  to  tyranny,  and 
preparing  them  for  the  trials  and  sufferings  of  the  great  struggle.  At  the 
memorable  period  of  the  stamp  act,  Holt,  who  then  conducted  the  paper,  added 
to  its  title  the  significant  motto,  “  the  united  voice  of  all  Ins  majesty’s  free  and 
loyal  subjects  in  America,  liberty,  property,  and  no  stamps.”  In  1774  Holt  dis- 

Intr.  4 


26 


INTRODUCTION. 


carded  from  the  Journal  the  cut  of  the  king’s  arms,  and  substituted  in  its  stead 
the  device  of  a  snake  severed  into  parts,  with  the  motto  “  unite  or  die.”*  If 
ill vi noton  suft’ered  at  die  hands  of  the  exasperated  colonists,  Holt  was  visited 
with  the  royal  vengeance  in  forms  scarcely  less  destructive.  On  the  approach 
of  the  British  army  in  1776,  he  was  obliged  to  quit  the  city  and  leave  his  pro¬ 
perty  to  be  destroyed  by  the  enemy.  After  a  short  interval,  the  Journal  reap¬ 
peared  in  Kingston.  Driven  thence  by  the  capture  and  destruction  of  that  place 
in  the  same  year,  Holt  continued  the  paper  at  Poughkeepsie  until  the  termination 
of  the  war,  when  he  returned  to  New-York.  He  died  in  1784.  His  paper, 
continued  by  his  widow  and  descendants  several  years,  at  length  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Thomas  Greenleaf. 

Early  in  the  present  century,  the  well  known  “American  Citizen,”  edited 
with  distinguished  ability  by  James  Cheetham,  appeared.  The  New-York 
Packet,  by  Samuel  Loudon,  a  native  of  Ireland,  was  a  spirited  auxiliary  of  the 
popular  cause.  That  Journal  was  published  at  Fishkill  while  the  city  of  New- 
York  was  in  possession  of  the  enemy. 

During  the  same  period,  Robertson  &  Co.  of  the  Royal  American  Gazette, 
and  Lewis  of  the  New-York  Mercury  and  General  Advertiser,  made  such  an 
arrangement  with  the  publishers  of  the  other  papers  as  to  form  a  daily  publica¬ 
tion.  But  these  newspapers  were  all  discontinued  at  the  peace  of  1783.  There 
were,  therefore,  at  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  nearly  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  after  the  introduction  of  printing  in  Massachusetts,  and  nearly  a  cen¬ 
tury  after  its  establishment  in  Pennsylvania,  only  three  newspaper  publications 
in  the  state  of  New-York.  These  were  Holt’s  and  Loudon’s,  then  respectively 
published  at  Poughkeepsie  and  Fishkill,  and  the  New-York  Gazetteer,  which 
was  commenced  in  Albany  in  May,  1782,  by  Valentine  &  Webster,  and  was 
succeeded  two  years  afterwards  by  the  Albany  Gazette,  published  by  Charles 
R.  Webster,  and  has  been  continued  by  him  and  Websters  &  Skinners  until  the 


*  Thomas’  History  of  Printing. 


INTRODUCTION. 


27 


present  date,  1842.  Thirty-nine  newspapers  were  printed  at  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  revolution  in  all  the  American  colonies. 

The  earlier  newspaper  press  was  extremely  circumscribed  in  its  scope  and 
powers.  A  newspaper  rarely  exceeded  in  size  half  a  sheet  of  foolscap.  It  was 
a  mere  compilation,  often  crude  enough,  with  “  the  freshest  advices  foreign  and 
domestic.”  How  “  fresh,”  the  reader,  in  this  day  of  railroads,  steam  packets, 
and  second  and  third  daily  editions,  will  leam  not  without  amusement,  from  the 
fact  that  sixteen  years  after  a  newspaper  was  established  in  Boston  it  proposed 
to  issue  a  half  sheet  every  other  week ;  by  which  hazardous  enterprise  it  was 
hoped  that  the  time  between  the  paper  and  the  latest  European  news,  then 
thirteen  months,  might  be  reduced  to  five.  For  many  years  the  “  Boston  News 
Letter  ”  contained  no  more  than  two  advertisements.  Until  the  close  of  the  re¬ 
volution,  no  newspaper  was  issued  oftener  than  once  a  week  ;  but  with  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  political  events,  the  press  assumed  a  higher  position,  and  put  forth  greater 
energies.  It  was  yet  restricted,  its  rights  scarcely  understood,  its  power  not  ap¬ 
preciated,  and  its  freedom  curtailed  by  judicial  decisions ;  nevertheless,  it  was 
advancing  in  character  and  importance.  The  trial  of  Zenger,  the  passage  of  the 
stamp  act,  the  claim  of  parliamentary  right  to  tax  the  colonies  without  represen¬ 
tation  and  without  consent,  and  the  resistance  to  those  claims  on  great  principles, 
called  forth  the  patriotism  of  the  colonists  ;  and  the  press,  having  then  become 
the  organ  of  an  indomitable  spirit  of  freedom,  assumed  a  more  elevated  tone,  and 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  carrying  the  cause  of  the  revolution  to  its  tri¬ 
umphant  consummation. 

So  rapid  was  the  increase  of  newspapers,  that  in  1810  the  number  of  such 
publications  in  the  United  States  amounted  to  three  hundred  and  fifty-nine,  of 
which  sixty-six  were  printed  in  this  state.  These  journals,  like  those  published 
during  the  revolution,  with  rare  exceptions,  were  controversial,  and  of  a  political 
and  partizan  character.  The  ability  displayed  in  their  columns  exceeded  that 
which  the  press  exhibited  during  the  revolution,  in  a  proportion  equal  to  the 
sphere  to  be  supplied  ;  but  the  public  taste  had  not  yet  become  sufficiently  refined 


28 


INTRODUCTION. 


to  reject  invective,  and  to  choose  always  facts  and  arguments  in  preference  to 
scandal  and  recrimination.  One  or  more  newspapers  were  then  published  in  the 
capital  of  each  county,  and  their  names  will  recal  quite  vivid  recollections  of 
the  civil  and  political  divisions  of  the  state,  as  they  then  existed. 

In  the  city  of  New- York  there  were  seven  daily  newspapers :  The  New- York 
Gazette  and  General  Advertiser  by  Lang  &  Turner,  the  New-York  Evening 
Post  by  William  Coleman,  the  Commercial  Advertiser  by  Zachariah  Lewis,  all 
of  which  supported  the  federalist  party ;  the  Public  Advertiser  and  the  Colum¬ 
bian  edited  by  Charles  Holt,  devoted  to  the  republican  party  ;  and  the  American 
Citizen  by  James  Cheetham,  and  the  Mercantile  Advertiser,  which  were  neutral 
as  to  politics.  There  were  also  published  in  the  city  one  semi-weekly  and  five 
weekly  papers ;  these  were  the  New-York  Herald,  the  Spectator,  the  Republi¬ 
can  Watchtower,  the  New-York  Journal,  the  Columbian  for  the  country,  and 
the  Price  Current.  In  the  city  of  Albany  there  were  three  semi-weekly  news¬ 
papers :  The  Albany  Gazette  by  Websters  &  Skinners,  the  Balance  and  New- 
York  State  Journal  by  Croswell  &  Frary,  engaged  in  defending  the  policy  of 
the  federalists ;  and  the  Albany  Register  by  Solomon  South  wick,  maintaining  the 
republican  cause.  All  the  other  newspapers  in  the  state  were  published  weekly, 
and  were  as  follows :  At  Sag-Harbor,  the  Suffolk  Gazette,  a  republican  paper  by 
Alden  Spooner ;  at  Brooklyn,  the  Long-Island  Star,  of  the  same  politics,  by 
Thomas  Kirk  ;  at  Saratoga,  the  Saratoga  Gazette  ;  at.  Watertown,  the  American 
Eagle,  by  Henry  Coffeen ;  at  Peekskill,  the  Westchester  Gazette,  a  republican 
paper  by  Robert  Cromble  ;  at  Somers,  the  Somers  Museum,  a  federal  journal  by 
Milton  F.  Cushing;  at  Goshen,  the  Orange  County  Gazette,  a  republican  paper 
by  Hopkins  &  Heron,  and  the  Spirit  of  Seventy-six  and  Patriot,  by  Timothy  B. 
Crowell;  at  Newburgh,  the  Political  Index,  a  republican  paper  by  Ward  M.  Gas- 
lay  ;  at  Kingston,  the  Ulster  Gazette,  a  federal  paper  by  Samuel  S.  Freer,  and 
the  Plebeian,  a  republican  journal  by  Jesse  Buel ;  at  Poughkeepsie,  the  Political 
Barometer,  republican,  by  Joseph  Nelson,  and  the  Poughkeepsie  Journal,  federal, 
by  Paraclete  Potter ;  at  Hudson,  the  Northern  Whig,  federal,  by  F rancis  Steb- 


INTRODUCTION. 


29 


bins,  and  the  Bee,  republican,  by  H.  Holland  ;  at  Catskill,  the  American  Eagle, 
federal,  by  M.  Elliot  &  Co.,  and  the  Catskill  Recorder,  republican,  by  Macky 
Croswell;  at  Lansingburgh,  the  Lansingburgh  Gazette,  by  Tracy  &  Bliss; 
at  Troy,  the  Troy  Gazette,  a  federal  paper  by  Eldad  Lewis,  also  the  Farmers’ 
Register,  a  republican  paper  by  Francis  Adancourt,  and  the  Northern  Budget, 
neutral,  by  Oliver  Lyon  ;  at  Salem,  the  Northern  Post,  federal,  by  Dodd  &  Rum- 
sey,  and  the  Washington  Register,  republican,  by  John  P.  Reynolds ;  at  Platts¬ 
burgh,  the  American  Monitor,  republican,  by  George  W.  Nichols;  at  Waterford, 
the  Waterford  Gazette,  by  Horace  H.  Wadsworth  ;  at  Ballston,  the  Advertiser, 
republican,  by  Samuel  R.  Brown,  and  the  Independent  American,  federal,  by 
William  Childs ;  at  Schenectady,  the  Mohawk  Advertiser,  federal,  by  Ryer 
Schermerhorn,  and  the  Schenectady  Cabinet,  republican,  by  Isaac  Riggs ;  at  Johns¬ 
town,  the  Montgomery  Republican,  federal,  by  Asahel  Child,  and  the  Montgomery 
Monitor,  republican,  by  Daniel  C.  Miller ;  at  Herkimer,  the  Bunkerhill,-  republi¬ 
can,  by  George  Gordon  Phinney,  and  the  American,  federal,  by  .1.  H.  &  H. 
Prentiss ;  at  Utica,  the  Utica  Patriot,  federal,  by  Ira  Merrell,  and  the  Columbia 
Gazette,  republican,  by  Thomas  Walker;  at  Oxford,  the  Chenango  Patriot;  at 
Cazenovia,  the  Pilot,  republican,  by  Baker  &  Newton ;  at  Peterborough,  the 
Freeholder,  federal,  by  Jonathan  Bunce  &  Co.;  at  Manlius,  the  Manlius  Times, 
tederal,  by  Leonard  Kellogg;  at  Canandaigua,  the  Ontario  Repository,  federal, 
by  James  D.  Bemis,  and  the  Genesee  Messenger,  republican,  bv  John  A.  Stevens; 
at  Batavia,  the  Cornucopia,  republican,  by  Peck  &  Blodget;  at  Geneva,  the 
Geneva  Gazette,  federal,  by  James  Bogart;  at  Cooperstown,  the  Otsego  Herald, 
republican,  by  Elihu  Phinney,  and  the  Cooperstown  Federalist,  federal,  by  J.  H. 
&  H.  Prentiss;  at  Owego,  the  American  Farmer,  neutral,  by  Stephen  Mack; 
at  Schoharie,  the  True  American,  federal,  by  Thomas  M.  Tilden,  and  the  Ame¬ 
rican  Herald,  republican,  by  Derrick  Van  Veghten  ;  at  Sherburne,  the  Republi¬ 
can  Messenger,  republican,  by  Pettit  &  Percival.*  Papers  published  at  Troy, 


*  Thomas’  History  of  Printing. 


30 


INTRODUCTION. 


which  is  nearly  equidistant  from  the  northern  and  southern  boundaries  of  the 
state,  were  then  organs  of  the  north ;  and  there  were  four  newspapers  printed  in 
the  region  west  of  Onondaga,  where  now  more  are  published  than  in  1810 
supplied  the  whole  state. 

The  number  of  newspapers  now  published  within  this  state  is  upwards  of 
three  hundred,  being  an  hundred  times  more  than  were  printed  in  the  state  at 
the  close  of  the  revolution,  and  eight  times  the  number  printed  in  the  United 
States  at  that  period.  The  more  important  publications  are,  in  the  city  of  New- 
York,  the  Courier  and  Enquirer,  by  James  Watson  Webb;  the  Journal  of  Com¬ 
merce,  by  Hale  and  Halleck ;  the  New- York  Express,  by  Brooks  and  Town¬ 
send;  the  Standard,  by  John  I.  Mumford;  and  the  New-Era,  by  Jared  W.  Bell; 
morning  papers :  the  Commercial  Advertiser,  by  William  L.  Stone;  the  Even¬ 
ing  Post,  by  William  C.  Bryant;  and  the  American,  by  Charles  King;  evening 
papers,  published  upon  the  old  system  for  regular  subscribers :  the  New-York 
Tribune,  by  Horace  Greely ;  the  Sun,  by  Moses  Y.  Beach ;  and  the  Plebeian, 
by  Levi  D.  Slamm,  published  upon  the  new  plan  of  selling  indiscriminately  for 
cash :  in  the  city  of  Albany,  the  Albany  Daily  Advertiser,  formerly  the  Albany 
Gazette ;  the  Albany  Argus,  by  Edwin  Croswell ;  and  the  Albany  Evening 
Journal,  by  Thurlow  Weed:  in  the  city  of  Troy,  the  Troy  Daily  Whig  and 
Troy  Budget:  in  the  city  of  Utica,  the  Oneida  Observer  and  the  Oneida  Whig  : 
in  the  city  of  Rochester,  the  Rochester  Democrat  and  Rochester  Daily  Adver¬ 
tiser  ;  and  in  the  city  of  Buffalo,  the  Buffalo  Commercial  Advertiser  and  the 
Mercantile  Courier. 

There  is  scarcely  more  resemblance  between  the  press  as  it  now  exists,  and 
that  institution  as  it  was  at  the  close  of  the  revolution,  than  between  the  present 
aspect  of  our  inland  regions  and  the  forest  garb  they  wore  while  inhabited  only 
by  the  Iroquois.  Then  the  art,  employed  chiefly  in  printing  the  colonial  statutes, 
almanacks,  occasional  sermons,  and  volumes  of  devotional  psalmody,  and  publish¬ 
ing  a  semi-weekly  record  of  events,  was  only  auxiliary,  in  the  hands  of  its 
managers,  to  the  more  important  object  of  selling  books,  pamphlets,  stationery, 


INTRODUCTION. 


31 


and  sometimes  other  merchandise  :  Now,  labor-saving  machines,  with  mechanical 
and  brute  power,  are  substituted  for  the  arm  of  the  pressman ;  and  with  the  aid  of 
stereotype  foundries,  the  press  has  departments  distinctly  separated,  and  as 
numerous  as  the  divisions  and  subdivisions,  classes,  combinations,  interests,  occu¬ 
pations,  studies  and  tastes  of  society.  The  book  press  seizes  with  avidity  all  new 
publications,  whether  designed  to  instruct  or  only  to  amuse,  whether  foreign  or 
domestic,  and  prints  and  reprints  and  scatters  them  over  the  continent  with  in¬ 
conceivable  rapidity.  Works  of  fiction  most  adapted  to  the  popular  taste  are 
now  printed  and  sold  at  prices  less  than,  fifty  years  ago,  were  charged  to  subscri¬ 
bers  for  the  perusal  of  such  volumes  by  circulating  libraries.  The  commercial 
press,  morning  and  evening,  records  with  accuracy  every  occurrence  and  every 
indication  which  affects  trade;  and  the  advertising  columns  are  indispensable 
auxiliaries  in  every  operation  of  commerce  or  finance.  The  political  press, 
divided  between  contending  parties,  and  again  subdivided  with  nice  adaptation 
to  the  tempers  and  the  tastes,  the  passions  and  the  prejudices  of  the  community, 
conducts  party  warfare  with  energy,  zeal  and  unsparing  severity ;  and  the  com¬ 
batants,  faithful  throughout  all  changes,  abide  the  trials  and  share  the  fortunes  of 
their  respective  parties.  The  religious  press  furnishes  to  Jew  and  Christian, 
Protestant  and  Catholic,  and  to  each  of  the  sects  and  denominations  of  those  orand 

O 

divisions  of  the  church,  a  devoted  organ  more  effective  than  an  army  of  mis¬ 
sionaries.  The  moral,  the  scientific,  the  literary,  the  legal,  the  medical,  the  agri¬ 
cultural,  the  military,  the  abolition,  the  temperance,  the  colonization  and  the 
association  newspapers  each  represent  a  portion  of  society  desirous  to  inculcate 
peculiar  views  of  truth,  and  promote  reforms  which  it  deems  essential  to  the 
general  welfare.  The  emigrants  from  every  foreign  country  communicate  with 
each  other  through  organs  furnished  by  the  press,  and  preserve  mutual  sympa¬ 
thies  and  endearing  recollections  of  their  father-lands.  The  press  was  dependent 
on  European  facts,  sentiments,  opinions,  tastes  and  customs  :  now  it  is  in  all  things 
independent,  and  purely  American.  It  was  metropolitan :  note  it  is  universal. 
The  newspaper  in  each  important  town  conveys  intelligence  of  all  interesting 


32 


INTRODUCTION. 


incidents  which  occur  within  its  vicinity,  to  the  central  press,  and  receives  in  return 
and  diffuses  information  gathered  from  all  portions  of  the  world. 

The  press  studies  carefully  the  conditions  of  all  classes,  and  yields  its  reports 
with  such  a  nice  adaptation  of  prices  as  to  leave  no  portion  of  the  community 
without  information  concerning  all  that  can  engage  their  curiosity  or  concern 
their  welfare.  It  no  longer  fears  the  odious  information,  or  the  frowns  of  power ; 
but  dictates  with  boldness  to  the  government,  and  combines  and  not  unfrequently 
forms  the  public  opinion  which  controls  every  thing.  Yet  the  press  is  not  despotic. 
Its  divisions  distract  its  purposes,  and  prevent  a  concentration  of  its  powers  upon 
any  one  object.  That  the  newspaper  press  is  capricious  and  often  licentious, 
will  scarcely  be  denied ;  yet  if  it  assails,  it  arms  the  party  assaulted  with  equal 
weapons  of  defence,  and  yields  redress  for  the  injuries  it  inflicts.  The  ability, 
learning  and  spirit  with  which  the  press  is  now  conducted,  strikingly  contrast 
with  the  dullness  and  superficial  learning  of  its  earlier  period.  Its  editors,  no 
longer  regarded  as  mere  chroniclers  of  events  or  pains-taking  mechanics,  hold 
rank  as  a  liberal  profession,  and  exert  a  just  influence  upon  the  multifarious  inte¬ 
rests  of  society.  Nor  are  the  sweeping  allegations  of  indecorum,  venality  and 
violence  brought  against  the  press  in  any  sense  just.  That  it  sometimes  offends 
propriety,  decency  and  candor,  is  unhappily  too  true,  but  it  reflects  in  all  things 
the  character  of  the  country  ;  and  while  the  ignorant,  the  prejudiced,  the  malevo¬ 
lent  and  the  vulgar  cannot  be  deprived  of  its  weapons,  it  never  withholds  its  resist¬ 
less  influence  from  truth,  wisdom,  justice  and  virtue.  Every  improvement  of  the 
public  morals  and  every  advance  of  the  people  in  knowledge  is  marked  by  a  cor¬ 
responding  elevation  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  standard  of  the  press ;  and 
it  is  at  once  the  chief  agent  of  intellectual  improvement,  and  the  palladium  of 
civil  and  religious  liberty.* 

There  were  in  New-York  in  1762,  two  Dutch  Reformed  Churches,  and  reli¬ 
gious  worship  was  celebrated  therein  in  the  language  of  the  Netherlands.  These 


Not**B  on  the  History  of  the  Press  until  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  were  received  from  Edwin  C roswell,  Esq. 


INTRODUCTION. 


33 


and  all  other  associations  of  that  denomination  acknowledged  subordination  to 
the  classis  of  Amsterdam,  which  some  times  permitted,  and  other  times  refused 
powers  of  ordination.  The  expenses  attending  the  journeys  of  candidates  for 
ordination  to  Holland,  and  the  reference  of  disputes  concerning  doctrine  and 
discipline,  to  foreign  judicatories,  induced  a  portion  of  the  clergy,  even  at  that 
day,  to  seek  a  domestic  organization.  There  were  also  two  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches  which  were  more  independent ;  but  still  the  bishop  was  obliged  to  go  to 
England  for  orders,  before  he  could  exercise  his  ecclesiastical  functions ;  and 
rectors  were  required  to  be  instituted  and  inducted,  agreeably  to  the  king’s  instruc¬ 
tions  to  the  governor,  and  the  canonical  rights  of  the  bishop  of  London.  The 
presbyterians  had  one  church,  and  aimed  at  ecclesiastical  independence,  but  all 
such  efforts  were  defeated  by  the  opposition  of  the  episcopalians ;  and  to  save 
their  little  edifice  and  grounds,  the  former  conveyed  the  glebe  in  1730  to  the 
moderator  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  church  of  Scotland  and  others,  as  a 
committee  of  that  body,  and  received  from  it  a  declaration  that  “  the  property 
was  held  on  condition  that  it  should  be  free  and  lawful  for  the  presbyterians  in 
the  city  of  New-York  and  its  vicinity  to  convene  in  the  edifice  for  the  worship  of 
God  in  all  the  parts  thereof,  and  for  the  dispensation  of  all  the  gospel  ordinances.” 
Besides  these  churches,  there  were  a  small  French  church,  two  German  Lutheran 
societies,  a  Friends’,  a  Moravian  and  Anabaptist  meeting  houses,  and  an  obscure 
synagogue.  But  the  dependence  of  the  church  had  one  advantage.  Many  of  the 
clergy  had  received  a  transatlantic  education,  while  this  country  was  destitute  of 
proper  seminaries,  and  the  reproach  of  ignorance  did  not  attach  to  the  theological 
profession.* 

One  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  revolutionary  cause,  was 
found  in  the  apprehensions  indulged  by  persons  connected  with  the  English  esta¬ 
blished  church,  that  religion,  here  deprived  of  the  sustaining  support  of  the  mother 
country,  must  languish,  and  infidelity  and  vice  disappoint  the  hopes  of  those  who 


Intr. 


*  American  Gazetteer,  1762. 

5 


34 


INTRODUCTION. 


had  disseminated  the  principles  of  civil  liberty.  Experience  has  shown  that  this 
was  a  capital  error,  and  that  independence  has  been  even  more  beneficial  to  the 
necessary  diffusion  of  religious  instruction  throughout  the  continent,  than  to  the 
political  progress  of  society.  We  need  only  refer  to  the  condition  of  the 
church  in  the  city  of  New- York  previous  to  the  revolution,  to  show  how  incom¬ 
petent  a  colonial  religious  establishment  would  have  been  to  educate  and  send 
abroad  the  clergy  and  missionaries  required  among  a  growing  people.  The 
apprehensions  to  which  we  have  referred  were  by  no  means  general  among  the 
episcopalians,  who  soon  became  sensible  of  the  injury  which  their  church  was 
receiving  from  that  source,  and  from  a  prevalent  prejudice  that  the  episcopal 
form  of  government  had  a  peculiar  affinity  for  monarchical  institutions.  The  best 
efforts  of  the  clergy  were  put  in  requisition  to  refute  these  prejudices,  and  in 
many  of  the  pamphlets,  written  for  that  purpose,  may  be  found  very  able  argu¬ 
ments  against  a  union  of  the  church  and  the  state,  and  in  defence  of  the  cardinal 
principle  that  religion  is  best  promoted,  and  most  fruitfuf  of  blessings,  when  wholly 
independent  of  the  patronage  and  control  of  government. 

Soon  after  the  revolution,  all  the  religious  denominations  in  the  state,  with  one 
exception,  had  risen  to  ecclesiastical  independence.  Candidates  for  the  clergy, 
for  many  years,  obtained  their  theological  education  in  the  private  study  of  some 
approved  divine  of  their  particular  sect.  But  provision  was  early  made  to  guard 
against  the  admission  of  unqualified  candidates,  by  an  open  examination  before 
the  body  which  conferred  orders.  The  advantages,  however,  which  would  be 
afforded  by  public  institutions  for  theological  education  were  too  obvious  to  be 
overlooked.  The  “  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of 
New-York,”  was  established  in  1801,  through  the  efforts  of  the  reverend  John 
M.  Mason,  D.D.,  and  was  the  first  theological  institution  in  the  United  States. 
Dr.  Mason  was  elected  the  only  professor  of  the  school  in  1804,  and  it  went  into 
actual  operation  in  1805.  It  received  a  valuable  theological  library,  procured  in 
Europe  in  1802,  by  the  personal  solicitations  of  its  founder.  He  relinquished 
his  office  after  about  fifteen  years.  The  school  was  removed  to  Newburgh,  and 


INTRODUCTION. 


35 


received  a  charter  in  1825.  It  has  three  professors  and  eleven  students,  and  a 
collection  of  4,000  volumes.  The  Lutherans,  in  1815,  established  the  Hartwick 
Theological  Seminary,  at  Hartwick  in  Otsego  county.  It  had  two  professors, 
some  ten  or  twelve  students,  and  a  library  of  1,000  volumes.  The  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States,  was  instituted 
in  the  city  of  New-York  in  1817.  It  was  removed  to  New-Haven  in  1820,  but 
restored  to  New-York  in  1821,  and  was  then  incorporated.  It  has  now  five  pro¬ 
fessors,  seventy-four  students,  and  about  7,260  volumes  in  its  libraries.  It  has 
given  to  the  church  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  ministers.  The  Presbyterian 
Theological  Seminary,  at  Auburn,  was  founded  in  1821.  It  has  four  professors, 
sixty-nine  students,  and  libraries  containing  5,000  volumes,  and  has  sent  forth  into 
the  vineyard  of  Christ  three  hundred  and  forty-four  laborers.  The  presbyterian 
“  New-York  Theological  Seminary,”  in  the  city  of  New-York,  was  established 
in  1836,  and  has  four  professors,  ninety  students,  and  libraries  containing  12,000 
volumes.  The*  Baptist  Association  have  founded  an  academical  institution  at 
Hamilton ;  the  Methodists  a  similar  one  at  Lima ;  and  the  Catholics  a  like  insti¬ 
tution  at  Rose-Hill ;  with  a  laudable  purpose  respectively  of  elevating  the  stan¬ 
dard  of  education  among  their  clergy. 

Although  the  various  divisions  of  the  church  have  generally  observed  forbear¬ 
ance  towards  each  other,  and  a  good  degree  of  harmony  has  prevailed  among 
their  own  communions,  there  has  been  enough  of  controversy  to  test  the  learning 
and  skill  of  the  clergy  in  polemic  divinity.  The  first  instance  of  this  kind 
occurred  in  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church,  and  is  known  in  its  annals 
as  the  “  coetus  and  conferentic  controversy.”  The  inconveniences  of  dependence 
upon  the  classis  of  Amsterdam,  before  mentioned,  induced  certain  ministers,  in 
1737,  to  propose  the  plan  of  a  coetus  or  assembly  of  ministers  and  elders,  which 
should  have  merely  powers  of  advice  and  admonition.  This  plan  which  was 
adopted  and  approved  by  the  church  in  Holland,  called  forth  the  exertions  of  the 
reverend  Theodore  J.  Freelinghuysen.  The  arrangement  proved  inefficient, 
and,  in  1754,  the  church  was  distracted  by  two  parties,  the  one  called  the  coetus 


36 


INTRODUCTION. 


insisting  on  casting  off  ecclesiastical  connection  with  the  classis  of  Amsterdam ; 
the  other,  the  “  conferentia,”  which  struggled  to  maintain  that  connection.  The 
weight  of  learning  was  on  the  side  of  the  latter ;  but  zeal,  industry  and  more 
practical  preaching  distinguished  the  former.  The  controversy  was  finally  settled 
in  1772,  chiefly  through  the  agency  of  the  reverend  Dr.  John  H.  Livingston  and 
the  reverend  Dr.  Laidley  of  New-York,  and  the  reverend  Dr.  Eilardus  Westerlo 
of  Albany,  and  the  reverend  Dr.  Theodoric  Romeyn  of  Schenectady. 

In  1805,  Dr.  William  Linn  commenced,  in  the  Albany  Sentinel,  a  series  of 
strictures  upon  a  work  then  recently  published  by  the  reverend  John  H.  Hobart, 
afterwards  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  entitled  “  A  Companion 
for  the  Altar,”  in  which  the  peculiar  claims  and  tenets  of  the  Episcopal  ministry, 
in  regard  to  divine  ordination,  were  set  forth.  Mr.  Hobart’s  doctrines  were  de¬ 
fended  with  great  ability  by  Thomas  Y.  How,  Esq.,  under  the  signature  of  “  A 
Layman  of  the  Episcopal  Church,”  and  by  the  reverend  Frederick  Beasly  of 
Albany,  under  the  name  of  “  Cyprian.”  Dr.  Linn  rejoined,  and  thus  drew  into 
the  controversy  bishop  Moore,  who  assumed  the  name  of  “  Cornelius bishop 
White  of  Pennsylvania,  under  the  name  of  “  Detector,”  and  Mr.  Hobart,  under 
the  signature  of  “  Vindex.”  Dr.  Linn,  under  the  signatures  of  “  Umpire  ”  and 
“Inquirer,”  defended  himself  with  great  ability  against  these  new  antagonists. 
These  essays  constitute  a  part  of  our  theological  learning.  In  1806,  the  reverend 
John  M.  Mason,  D.D.,  reviewed  these  essays  in  the  Christian’s  Magazine.  What¬ 
ever  may  be  thought  of  the  merit  of  the  controversy,  it  is  universally  admitted 
that  the  review  was  written  with  extraordinary  force  and  brilliancy,  logical  acu¬ 
men  and  point.  It  excited  great  interest,  and  the  whole  controversy  is  worthy  of 
a  reperusal.  Dr.  Mason  is  remembered  as  a  man  of  ardent  temperament,  great 
genius,  high  literary  attainments  and  deeply  versed  in  all  the  learning  of  his  pro¬ 
fession,  and  as  a  fearless  commentator  on  the  tendency  of  passing  events.  He 
employed  the  whole  powers  of  his  intellect  in  expounding  the  scriptures,  and 
excelled  in  eloquence  and  persuasion  all  his  contemporaries.*  The  reverend 


*  M.  C.  Patterson’s  Address  on  Primary  Education. 


INTRODUCTION. 


37 


Dr-  Samuel  Miller,  in  1807,  published  letters  on  the  constitution  and  order  of  the 
Christian  ministry,  which  engaged  him  in  a  controversy  concerning  that  important 
doctrine  with  Thomas  Y.  How,  the  reverend  Dr.  Bowden  of  Columbia  College, 
the  reverend  Dr.  Kemp  of  Maryland,  and  Dr.  Hobart,  afterwards  bishop.  Dr. 
Miller’s  portion  of  this  controversy  is  held  in  high  estimation  by  that  portion  of 
the  church  whose  views  accord  with  his  own.  The  “  Triangle,”  by  the  reverend 
Mr.  Samuel  Whelpley,  is  still  remembered  as  a  masterly  performance. 

In  pulpit  eloquence,  the  reverend  Dr.  Mason’s  discourse  upon  the  death  of 
Hamilton,  and  baccalaureate  addresses’  by  the  reverend  Eliphalet  Nott,  D.D., 
president  of  Union  College,  are  productions  of  a  high  order.* 

A  colonial  writer,  to  whom  we  have  before  referred,  describes  the  medical 
profession  as  worthy  of  very  little  respect,  and  declares  “  that  pretenders  have 
recommended  themselves  to  a  full  practice  and  profitable  subsistence.  This,” 
he  adds,  “  is  the  less  to  be  wondered  at,  as  the  profession  is  under  no  kind  of 
regulation.  Loud  as  the  call  is,  they  have  no  law  to  protect  the  lives  of  the 
king’s  subjects.  Any  man  at  his  pleasure  sets  up  for  a  physician,  apothecary  and 
chirurgeon.  Candidates  are  neither  examined  nor  licensed,  nor  are  they  even 
sworn  to  fair  practice.” 

Nevertheless,  we  find  occasional  notices  of  medical  prescribers  who  had  enjoyed 
the  advantages  of  sound  education  at  foreign  universities,  and  who  dispensed  the 
benefits  of  their  knowledge  in  this,  their  adopted  country.  Megapolensis,  Dupie, 
Dubois,  Beekman,  Magrath,  John  Bard,  Middleton,  Clossy,  and  Farquhar  were 
justly  conspicuous.  Dr.  Cadwallader  Colden,  who  was  surveyor-general,  and 
subsequently  lieutenant-governor  of  the  province,  was  eminent  not  only  as  a 
philosopher  and  a  naturalist,  but  as  a  physician  and  medical  writer.  We  are 
indebted  to  him  for  the  first  scientific  account  which  we  have  of  the  climate  and 
diseases  of  the  city  of  New-York.  We  have  in  this  work  satisfactory  evidence, 
that  owing  to  the  “  clearness  ”  and  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  its  vigor  in  the 
spring  season,  consumption  of  the  lungs  is  not  an  endemical  disease,  and  hence 


♦  Notes  concerning  the  clergy  were  received  from  the  reverend  Dr.  J.  N.  Campbell  and  the  reverend  T.  C.  Reed. 


38 


INTRODUCTION. 


it  results  that  the  prevalence  of  pulmonary  affections  has  been  produced  by  erro¬ 
neous  personal  and  social  habits.  Dr.  Colden’s  elaborate  paper  on  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  fever  of  New-York,  which  prevailed  in  1742  ;  his  account  of  the 
plant  called  “  water  dock,”  and  his  earnest  recommendation  of  the  cooling  pro¬ 
cess,  in  the  cure  of  fevers,  an  innovation  on  the  therapeutic  measures  of  that  age, 
are  yet  held  in  high  estimation* 

Dr.  John  Bard,  already  mentioned,  published  an  able  essay  on  the  nature  and 
cause  of  malignant  pleurisy,  which  proved  very  fatal  on  Long  Island  in  1749, 
and  astonished  his  medical  brethren  in  New-York  in  1795,  by  identifying  at  once 
the  pestilence,  which  then  ravaged  the  city,  with  the  malignant  yellow  fever,  of 
which  not  a  case  had  occurred  within  his  observation,  since  its  previous  visit  in 
1742. 

His  son  Samuel  Bard,  while  a  student  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  received 
the  Hope  medal  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  acquirements  in  botany,  and  his 
inaugural  dissertation,  de  viribus  opii,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  erudite  Haller. 
He  made  other  contributions  to  medical  science,  of  which  his  “  Inquiry  into  the 
nature,  cause  and  cure  of  the  angina  suffocativa,”  or  sore  throat,  a  disease  attended 
with  great  mortality  in  New-York,  will  perhaps  be  longest  remembered. 

Dr.  Jacob  Ogden,  of  Long  Island,  in  1769  and  1774,  addressed  to  the  public, 
letters  on  the  same  disease,  which  are  worthy  of  reference,  because  they  urge 
with  boldness  the  mercurial  practice,  which,  although  it  had  been  before  sug¬ 
gested  by  Dr.  Douglass,  had  not  yet  obtained  any  general  favor. 

Dr.  Richard  Bayley,  in  1781,  published  a  letter  to  Dr.  William  Hunter  of 
London,  on  “Angina  Trachealis,”  or  the  croup,  setting  forth  a  new  mode  of  cure 
of  that  very  alarming  and  too  often  fatal  inflammation,  and  subsequent  expe¬ 
rience  in  this  and  other  countries  has  confirmed  the  utility  of  the  discovery. 

In  1769,  a  medical  faculty  was  projected  and  associated  with  the  academic 
corps  of  King’s,  now  Columbia  College.  This  measure  awakened  an  active  spirit 


*  Dr.  Francis’  Discourse  before  the  New-York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History. 


INTRODUCTION. 


39 


of  inquiry  into  the  sciences  tributary  to  the  healing  art.  Middleton,  Bard,  Smith, 
Tennant,  Clossy  and  Jones,  the  first  professors,  were  eminent  in  their  respective 
departments.  Middleton  exhibited  research  and  learning  in  a  comprehensive 
discourse  on  the  history  of  medicine.  Clossy  had  written  with  success  on  morbid 
anatomy.  The  first  instance  in  which  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  was 
conferred  in  this  state  was  in  1771,  when  Samuel  Kissam  received  that  honor. 
A  copy  of  his  inaugural  dissertation  on  the  anthelmintic  virtue  of  the  phaseolus 
zuratensis  siliqua  hirsuta,  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  New-York  Historical 
Society.  The  medical  school  connected  with  King’s  College  was  visited  with 
the  same  misfortunes  which  befel  that  institution  during  the  revolutionary  war. 
Efforts  made  by  the  regents  of  the  university,  after  the  return  of  peace,  to  re¬ 
organize  the  medical  faculty,  were  unsuccessful.  In  1792,  however,  the  trustees 
announced  the  reestablishment  of  the  school,  and  doctors  Bailey,  Post,  Ham- 
mersly,  Rodgers,  Mitchill,  Hosack  and  Stringham  labored  assiduously  as  profes¬ 
sors  during  several  years.  The  “  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons”  in  the 
city  of  New-York  was  founded  under  a  charter  granted  by  the  regents  of  the 
university  in  1807.  Nicholas  Romayne,  as  president  of  this  new  school,  delivered 
an  inaugural  discourse,  evincing  varied  knowledge  and  very  original  views  on  the 
physiology  of  the  different  races  of  the  human  species.  Smith,  Hosack,  De 
Witt,  Miller,  Bruce  and  others,  professors  in  this  institution,  gave  it  a  high  repu¬ 
tation,  and  secured  popular  approbation  of  its  instructions  ;  but  a  rivalry  between 
it  and  the  medical  school  of  Columbia  College  was  justly  regarded  as  a  public 
misfortune,  and  in  1813  the  two  institutions  were  combined.  In  the  new  faculty, 
anatomy  was  assigned  to  Dr.  Post,  the  practice  of  physic  to  Hosack,  chemistry 
and  pharmacy  to  Dr.  Macneven,  surgery  to  Dr.  Mott,  materia  medica  to  Dr. 
Francis,  obstetrics  to  Dr.  Osborn,  mineralogy  to  Dr.  Mitchill,  and  medical  juris¬ 
prudence  to  Stringham.  The  school  flourished  many  years,  but  at  length,  in 
1826,  professional  rivalry,  and  the  deaths  of  some  of  the  professors,  so  embar¬ 
rassed  the  survivors  that  they  resigned  their  chairs,  and  retired  with  the  thanks 
of  the  regents  for  their  eminent  ability  and  assiduity. 


40 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  regents  appointed  a  new  faculty,  consisting  of  doctors  Watts,  J.  A.  Smith, 
Stevens,  Dana,  J.  M.  Smith,  Delafield  and  John  B.  Beck ;  and  Dr.  Watts 
became  president  of  the  institution,  which,  with  some  changes  in  its  corps  of 
teachers,  still  continues  to  dispense  medical  knowledge.  The  faculty  which  had 
retired,  established  a  new  school  under  the  sanction  of  Rutgers  College  of  New- 
Jersey,  and  gave  lectures  for  a  time  in  the  city  of  New-York,  which  were  re¬ 
ceived  with  high  favor  ;  but  a  charter  being  denied  them,  they  discontinued  their 
labors  in  1829. 

The  University  of  the  city  of  New-York  has  recently  established  a  medical 
faculty,  in  which  Dr.  Mott  lectures  on  surgery,  Dr.  Patterson  on  anatomy,  Dr. 
Paine  on  the  materia  medica,  Dr.  Draper  on  chemistry,  Dr.  Revero  on  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  physic,  and  Dr.  Bedford  on  obstetrics.  About  four  hundred  pupils  are 
now  annually  educated  in  the  medical  profession  in  the  city  of  New-York. 

The  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the  western  district  was  founded 
at  Fairfield,  in  Herkimer  county,  in  1812,  under  a  charter  granted  by  the  regents. 
The  institution  flourished  many  years,  but  has  recently  been  discontinued,  and 
its  professors  transferred  to  the  new  Medical  College  recently  established  at  Al¬ 
bany.  The  faculty  of  this  institution  combines  much  talent  and  learning. 

A  faculty  of  medicine  equally  respectable  and  efficient  has  been  established  at 
Geneva  College,  and  is  diffusing  medical  knowledge  very  extensively  to  the 
numerous  candidates  for  the  honors  of  the  profession  in  the  western  region  of  the 
state.  The  medical  schools  last  mentioned  have  received  liberal  aid  from  the 
public  treasury,  and  deservedly  continue  to  enjoy  the  nurturing  care  of  the 
regents  of  the  university. 

Returning  from  this  brief  account  of  institutions  for  medical  education  to  our 
notice  of  the  early  progress  of  the  healing  art,  we  find  a  short  paper  written  by 
Michaelis  during  the  revolutionary  war,  showing  the  importance  of  opium  as 
applicable  to  certain  conditions  of  the  human  system,  being  an  essay  containing 
interesting  results  of  his  practice  among  the  foreign  troops.  North,  a  physician 
attached  to  the  British  army  in  New-York,  about  the  same  time,  introduced  his 


INTRODUCTION. 


4L 


apparatus  for  facilitating  the  inhaling  of  medicated  vapors,  since  so  widely  ap¬ 
proved  in  Europe.  Magrath,  an  Irish  physician  in  the  same  city,  deserved  to  be 
remembered  for  his  strenuous  efforts  to  introduce  the  cooling  process  of  treat¬ 
ment  of  febrile  diseases.  Surgery  found  an  intrepid  operator  in  McKnight.  Bai¬ 
ley,  Bard  and  Treat  were  distinguished  in  clinical  toil,  and  Crosby  and  Dingley 
are  remembered  as  skilful  practitioners. 

Dr.  Addams  published  in  1791  the  first  American  tract  on  the  subject  of  yellow 
fever.  The  subsequent  recurrence  of  that  pestilence  in  1795,  called  forth  essays 
by  many  medical  writers ;  among  whom  were  Buel,  E.  H.  Smith,  Mitchill,  Sea¬ 
man  and  Bayly.  The  latter  aimed  to  establish  a  distinction  between  infectious 
and  contagious  diseases,  until  that  time  too  generally  confounded  by  physicians. 

The  dreadful  ravages  of  the  yellow  fever  in  the  United  States,  and  reports 
too  fearfully  authentic  of  calamities  inflicted  by  a  like  plague  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  and  in  the  West  Indies,  had  created  a  spirit  of  philosophic  inquiry  into  the 
origin  of  the  disease,  when  Dr.  Priestly  arrived  in  this  country.  Recognised  as 
the  author  of  the  gaseous  philosophy,  which  was  expected  to  throw  new  light 
upon  the  subject,  his  presence  stimulated  the  eagerness  of  research  into  the  nature 
of  fevers  and  of  pestilence  in  general.  Dr.  Mitchill  put  forth  a  treatise  on  the 
qualities  of  the  nitrous  oxide  gas,  and  entered  into  a  controversy  with  Priestly 
concerning  the  nature  of  phlogiston.  The  recurrence  of  the  disease  with  undi¬ 
minished  virulence  in  1798,  1801,  1803,  1805,  1819  and  1822,  prolonged  the 
discussion  thus  commenced.  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  written,  the 
nature  of  the  pestilence  is  a  mystery  yet  to  be  unfolded ;  but  it  is  just  to  affirm 
that  the  learning,  talents  and  clinical  acumen  which  the  subject  has  called  forth, 
reflect  honor  upon  the  professors  of  the  healing  art. 

The  writings  of  Dr.  Miller,  and  his  new  nomenclature  of  febrile  and  pestilen¬ 
tial  diseases,  have  had  a  wide  circulation.  The  numerous  contributions  to  medi¬ 
cal  science  by  Dr.  Hosack,  have  had  much  influence  on  the  minds  of  professional 
and  general  readers ;  and  he  is  distinguished  for  having  projected  a  new  classi¬ 
fication  of  contagious  diseases. 

Intr. 


6 


42 


INTRODUCTION. 


Ill  1816,  a  new  topic  of  inquiry  was  presented  here,  as  well  as  in  Europe, 
involving  the  question  whether  the  human  system  was  susceptible  of  the  yellow 
fever  a  second  time.  Dr.  Francis,  then  in  London,  addressed  a  letter  of  inquiry 
on  the  subject  to  the  medical  faculty  of  the  United  States;  and  the  result  of  the 
testimony  acquired,  seemed  to  show  that,  after  one  visitation,  the  constitution  has 
aenerally  an  exemption  from  that  disease.  Dr.  T ownsend,  in  his  treatise  on  the 
yellow  fever  as  it  manifested  itself  in  1822,  corroborated  this  conclusion ;  but 
after  all,  on  a  point  of  such  deep  interest  to  humanity,  further  inquiry  seems 
desirable. 

Dr.  Hugh  Williamson’s  “  Observations  on  the  climate  in  different  parts  of 
America,  compared  with  the  climate  in  corresponding  parts  of  the  European  con¬ 
tinent,”  is  a  work  of  much  interest.  His  exposition  of  the  meliorating  effects  of 
cultivation  of  the  earth  upon  the  temperature  of  the  country,  is  very  cheering  to 
the  philanthropist.  The  disquisitions  of  Dr.  Samuel  Forry,  on  the  climate  of 
the  United  States,  and  its  endemic  influences,  challenges  the  attention  of  the 
philosopher  as  well  as  of  the  physician. 

A  disease  designated  by  several  names,  as  “spotted  fever,”  “malignant  typhus,” 
“typhoid  pneumonia,”  and  other  appellations,  prevailed  extensively  in  1812 
and  1813.  Monographs  on  this  pestilence  were  given  to  the  public  by  North, 
Hosack,  Hudson,  Arnell,  and  several  other  contributors  to  the  New- York  Medical 
Repository,  and  to  other  periodical  journals. 

The  appearance  of  the  cholera  asphyxia,  in  1832,  at  New-York  and  at  Albany, 
and  shortly  afterwards  its  extensive  ravages  in  other  parts  of  this  state,  and  the 
United  States,  awakened  medical  ardor,  and  the  new  enemy  was  encountered 
with  energy  and  with  clinical  acumen.  It  numbered  four  thousand  victims  in  New- 
York,  and  was  proportionably  not  less  fatal  in  Albany.  Francis,  Paine,  McNaugh- 
ton  and  Reese  were  distinguished  by  their  examinations  into  the  origin  and  nature 
of  the  disease.  It  is  deeply  to  be  regretted  that  we  are  still  without  a  direct  and 
perfect  history  of  this,  and  the  various  other  epidemics  which  have  prevailed  at 
different  periods.  The  influenza  spread  over  our  territory  in  1807,  in  1811,  and 


INTRODUCTION. 


43 


in  several  subsequent  years.  The  scarlet  fever  and  the  measles  have,  during 
the  last  twelve  years,  been  unusually  rife,  and  the  varioloid,  or  modified  small 
pox,  has  again  and  again  intruded,  and  sometimes  with  great  malignity.  Have 
the  two  former  diseases  acquired  more  power  with  their  increasing  virulence  1  Has 
the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  varioloid  a  tendency  to  impair  confidence  in  the 
efficacy  of  vaccination  ?  These  are  inquiries  in  which  the  happiness  of  man¬ 
kind  are  deeply  interested. 

Previously  to  the  revolution,  and  for  some  time  afterwards,  the  art  of  surgery 
was  neglected.  The  United  States  furnished  no  schools,  and  chirurgical  know¬ 
ledge  was  confined  to  those  who  had  received  a  foreign  education.  A  post  mor¬ 
tem  anatomical  examination  is  recorded  as  early  as  1691.  The  subject  was  the 
body  of  governor  Sloughter,  who  had  suddenly  died  under  circumstances  cre¬ 
ating  a  suspicion  of  poison.  The  account  of  the  dissection  is  sufficiently  minute 
and  satisfactory  to  do  away  the  imputation,  and  the  pathological  conclusions  of 
the  surgeons  concerning  the  cause  of  death  corresponded  with  the  received 
doctrines  of  that  age.  The  earliest  anatomical  dissection,  for  the  purpose  of 
imparting  knowledge,  was  performed  in  1750,  by  doctors  John  Bard  and  Peter 
Middleton ;  the  subject  was  a  convicted  felon. 

John  Jones,  already  mentioned  as  one  of  the  faculty  of  King’s  College,  first 
performed  the  operation  of  lithotomy  in  the  city  of  New-York.  He  produced, 
in  1775,  “Plain  Remarks  upon  Wounds  and  Fractures,”  which  was  the  first  sur¬ 
gical  treatise  printed  in  America,  and  became  a  text  book.  Dr.  Bayley,  in  1782, 
successfully  performed  the  operation  of  amputating  the  arm  at  the  shoulder  joint, 
which  had  not  before  been  attempted  in  this  country.  Dr.  McKnight,  in  1790, 
accomplished  a  bold  and  difficult  operation  in  obstetrics,  until  then  unattempted 
here,  except  in  a  case  thirty  years  previous,  when  it  was  performed  by  Dr.  John 
Bard. 

Surgery  is  now  taught  in  all  our  medical  schools,  and  facilities  are  afforded  in 
them  all,  for  the  study  of  practical  anatomy.  Yet  there  is  a  deficiency  of  advan¬ 
tages  for  imparting  that  perfect  clinical  instruction  that  can  only  be  given  in  an 


44 


INTRODUCTION. 


infirmary,  where  the  various  surgical  operations  are  performed  for  the  relief  of 
patients.  The  New- York  Hospital  is  the  only  institution  in  the  state  possessing 
such  advantages.  This  institution  was  founded  in  1770,  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr. 
Bard,  but  the  war  prevented  its  being  open  for  the  reception  of  patients  until 
1791.  The  students  of  the  medical  schools  in  New-York  enjoy  the  advantages 
it  affords.  Among  the  surgeons  who  have  acquired  reputation  since  the  revolu¬ 
tion,  we  may  name  Dr,  Wright  Post,  who  has  the  merit  of  having,  in  1817,  first 
performed  successfully  the  operation  of  tying  the  subclavian  artery.  In  1818, 
Dr.  Mott  tied  the  arteria  innominata,  in  the  person  of  a  patient  who  had  a  sub¬ 
clavian  aneurism,  an  operation  never  before  attempted,  The  difficulty  of  per¬ 
forming  this  operation,  without  fatal  consequences,  results  from  its  effects  to  stop 
almost  the  whole  direct  supply  of  blood  from  one  side  of  the  head,  and  from  one 
arm.  The  patient  died  twenty-six  days  after  the  operation,  in  consequence  of 
secondary  haemorrhage;  but  it  satisfactorily  appeared  that  the  ligature  had  not 
prevented  a  necessary  supply  of  blood,  and  thus  one  source  of  apprehension  con¬ 
cerning  this  operation  was  removed.  It  has  been  repeated  once  by  Graefe  of 
Berlin.  His  patient  died  sixty-seven  days  after  the  operation.  Dr.  Mott,  in 
1827,  applied  a  ligature  to  the  common  iliac  artery,  to  cure  an  aneurism ;  an 
operation  never  before  attempted  for  that  purpose ;  and  in  1828,  he  exscinded 
the  clavicle  in  a  case  of  osteosarcoma  of  that  bone ;  an  operation,  until  that  time, 
unknown  in  surgery. 

P omeroy  White,  of  Hudson,  was  the  first  surgeon  in  this  country  who  tied  the 
internal  iliac  artery.  We  cannot  leave  these  notices  of  chirurgery,  without  men¬ 
tioning  the  high  merits  in  that  department  of  Alexander  H,  Stevens,  John  C. 
Cheesman  and  J.  R.  Rodgers. 

Physiology  has  only  recently  engaged  attention  in  this  state,  A  young  Cana¬ 
dian  received  a  musket  shot  in  the  side,  which  carried  away  a  portion  of  the 
walls  of  the  thorax,  and  perforated  the  stomach.  He  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  this  injury  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Beaumont,  a  surgeon  in  the  army,  residing  in 
this  state ;  but  a  fistulous  opening  in  the  stomach  remained,  through  which  articles 


INTRODUCTION. 


45 


of  food  might  be  introduced  or  withdrawn,  and  the  aperture  permitted  visual 
observations  of  the  organ.  The  case  was  rare,  and  almost  unique  in  the  annals 
of  medical  science,  and  certainly  in  no  other  instance  had  such  an  one  been  made 
so  profitable  to  physiology.  By  a  series  of  observations  and  experiments,  con¬ 
tinued  for  a  long  time,  Beaumont  arrived  at  these  results :  1st.  The  existence  of 
a  gastric  juice  secreted  by  the  stomach,  and  exciting  a  solvent  action  on  food. 
2d.  That  this  gastric  juice  is  found  in  the  stomach  only  when  it  is  excited  by  the 
presence  of  food  or  other  irritants.  3d.  The  period  required  by  the  stomach 
for  digesting  different  substances,  the  effects  of  various  agents  and  the  pheno¬ 
mena  attending  the  different  stages  of  digestion.  These  observations  were  made 
at  intervals  from  1825  to  1833,  and  were  published  in  the  latter  year  at  Platts¬ 
burgh.  The  government  of  the  United  States  made  a  marked  acknowledgment 
of  this  eminent  contribution  to  medical  science. 

Dr.  Dyckman’s  dissertation  on  the  pathology  of  fluids  is  held  in  high  estima¬ 
tion.  In  the  same  class  of  publications  may  be  noted  “  An  Essay  on  Poisons,” 
by  Henry  W.  Ducachet ;  and  “  Experiments  on  the  Blood,”  by  Dr.  Macneven. 
Investigations,  to  considerable  extent,  have  been  made  by  Dr.  Francis,  on  the 
hydrostatic  test  of  Hunter,  to  ascertain  the  viability  of  fetile  and  infantile  life. 

Independently  of  the  connection  of  physiology  with  the  medical  art,  the 
science  has  recently  acquired  interest  as  a  part  of  general  education  in  our  col¬ 
leges  and  academies,  and  forms  the  subject  of  a  popular  treatise  written  by  Dr. 
Lee,  of  New-York,  and  introduced  into  the  school  district  library.  The  diffu¬ 
sion  of  such  knowledge  throughout  the  country,  reacts  upon  the  profession, 
and  encourages  its  members  to  more  careful  and  accurate  investigation  of  the 
physical  constitution. 

Dr.  Stringham  of  Columbia  College,  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur¬ 
geons  in  the  city  of  New-York,  delivered  very  interesting  lectures  upon  medical 
jurisprudence.  The  course  of  instruction  upon  the  same  science  has  been  con¬ 
tinued  in  that  institution  by  John  W.  Francis  and  John  B.  Beck.  Dr.  Francis 
has  published  several  essays  on  subjects  falling  within  that  department ;  and  has 


46 


INTRODUCTION. 


dwelt  upon  its  relations  to  the  science  of  obstetrics  in  his  edition  of  the  work  of 
Dr.  Denman.  Dr.  Blatchford  of  Troy,  in  1817,  published  an  essay  on  feigned 
diseases,  which  contains  the  results  of  much  curious  observation.  T.  Romeyn 
Beck  and  John  B.  Beck  have  given  us,  under  the  name  of  the  former,  a  volume 
on  the  science  of  medical  jurisprudence,  which  has  contributed  to  modify,  in 
many  important  features,  our  code  of  criminal  law ;  and  is  admitted  in  Europe 
to  be  the  best  work  on  the  subject  written  in  our  language,  and  to  display  more 
discriminating  and  patient  research,  free  from  ostentation  of  learning,  than  any 
work  in  the  same  department  now  extant. 

The  periodical  medical  journals  merit  at  least  a  passing  notice.  The  Medical 
Repository  was  begun  by  Drs.  Smith,  Mitchill  and  Miller,  in  1797,  and  con¬ 
tinued  through  twenty-three  annual  volumes.  The  American  Medical  and  Phi¬ 
losophical  Register  appeared  in  1810,  and  was  conducted  by  Dr.  Hosack  and 
Dr.  Francis.  The  New-York  Medical  and  Philosophical  Journal  was  published 
in  1809  and  the  two  succeeding  years,  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Smith, 
Dr.  De  Witt  and  Dr.  Macneven.  The  New-York  Medical  and  Physical  Jour¬ 
nal  was  commenced  in  1822,  and  continued  several  years,  by  Drs.  Francis,  Beck 
and  Dyckman.  The  New-York  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  extending  to 
four  volumes,  was  published  anonymously  in  1840  and  ’41.  The  New-York 
Medical  Gazette  is  a  contemporaneous  work.* 

So  intimate  has  been  the  connection  between  political  science  and  jurispru¬ 
dence,  and  so  much  have  the  members  of  the  legal  profession  been  identified 
with  the  patriots  and  statesmen  who  have  overthrown  a  system  incompatible  with 
the  development  of  the  state,  and  perfected  a  republican  government  in  its  place, 
that  we  shall  not  assign  to  the  bar  a  distinct  place  in  these  notes,  but  shall  occa¬ 
sionally  advert  to  its  condition  and  progress  in  a  brief  sketch  of  the  political  his¬ 
tory  of  the  state. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  germ  of  New-York  was  a  shoot  from  a  commercial 
aristocracy.  The  Dutch,  who  had  no  popular  liberty  nor  representative  legisla- 


*  Notes  concerning  Surgery  and  Physiology  were  furnished  by  Thomas  Hun,  M.D. 


INTRODUCTION. 


4? 


tion  at  home,  bestowed  no  thought  on  colonial  representation.  The  company  by 
whom  the  colony  was  founded  had  an  ab»  olute  power  over  its  government.* 

The  form  of  government  established  was  essentially  feudal.  Charters  were 
given  to  patroons,  conveying  large  grants  of  land  to  be  occupied  by  a  tenantry, 
over  whom  the  proprietor  exercised  military  and  judicial  authority,  personally 
presiding  in  his  courts  of  justice  ;  but  in  important  cases  an  appeal  was  re¬ 
served  to  the  governor.!  Such  jurisprudence,  as  was  then  known  in  the  colony, 
was  derived  from  the  Roman  civil  law.J  The  institution  of  human  slavery 
was  contemporaneous  with  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  “  the  company  pledging 
itself  to  furnish  the  colonial  manors  with  negroes,  if  the  traffic  should  prove 
lucrative.”  No  legal  provision  was  made  for  the  diffusion  of  religion  or  knowledge. 
The  jealous  spirit  of  commercial  monopoly  in  Holland  forbade  the  colonies  to 
make  any  woolen,  linen  or  cotton  fabric,  on  penalty  of  exile  ;  and  to  impair  the 
monopoly  was  punishable  as  a  perjury.§  The  first  fruits  of  such  a  charter  were 
seen  in  the  venality  of  the  directors  and  agents  of  the  company,  who  soon  ap¬ 
propriated  to  themselves,  under  pretence  of  founding  settlements,  all  the  impor¬ 
tant  points  where  the  natives  came  to  traffic,  and  jars  and  dissensions  between 
the  feudal  possessors  and  the  government  necessarily  followed.  Nor  did  the  inha¬ 
bitants  of  the  province  immediately  gain  political  advantages  from  the  conquest 
by  the  English.  Nichols,  by  whom  the  reduction  of  the  colony  was  effected,  and 
who  was  the  first  English  governor,  during  his  short  stay  in  New-York,  enriched 
himself  as  did  many  of  his  successors,  by  making  new  grants  of  land  and  exacting 
compensation  for  confirming  those  previously  made.  The  governor  chose  his  own 
council,  and  exercised  executive  and  legislative  powers.  A  court  of  assize  was 
constituted,  but  the  justices  were  appointed  by  the  governor  and  dependent  on 
him,  and  served  only  to  increase  his  importance  while  diminishing  his  responsi¬ 
bilities.  He  called  a  convention  of  two  deputies  from  each  town,  but  conceded 
to  that  body  no  legislative  powers  ;  and  the  assembly,  after  settling  the  civil  divi- 


*  Bancroft. 


t  Barnard’s  Discourse. 


t  Kent. 


§  Bancroft. 


48 


INTRODUCTION. 


sions  of  the  colony,  concluded  their  labors  with  a  loyal  address  to  the  proprietor 
and  retired,  without  having  transcended  the  limits  assigned  by  his  representative. 
Yet  the  inhabitants  had  suffered  so  long  the  inconveniences  of  arbitrary  govern¬ 
ment,  and  indulged  such  high  expectations  of  participating  in  the  enjoyments  of 
the  rights  of  subjects,  on  becoming  a  part  of  the  British  empire,  that  a  spirit  of 
liberty  was  awakened  among  them,  which  was  never  afterwards  to  be  repressed. 

Governor  Lovelace,  the  successor  of  Nichols,  continued  to  exercise  the  same 
unlimited  authority,  and  levied  taxes  and  imposed  duties,  without  consulting  the 
inhabitants.  The  people  assembled,  in  many  places,  and  addressed  to  the  court 
of  assize,  petitions,  in  which  they  reprobated  their  exclusion  from  legislation,  and 
the  principle  of  taxation  without  consulting  the  people,  as  inconsistent  with  the 
English  constitution.  Failing  to  obtain  any  important  concessions,  the  inhabitants 
in  several  towns  resolved  to  withhold  payment  of  taxes.  These  resolutions  were 
laid  before  the  court  of  sessions  of  the  West  Riding,  whose  jurisdiction  then 
extended  over  Staten  Island,  Newtown  and  Kings  county.  That  court,  assisted 
by  the  colonial  secretary,  and  one  of  the  council,  adjudged  the  representations 
scandalous,  illegal  and  seditious ;  and  the  papers  having  been  laid  by  the  governor 
before  his  council,  were,  in  pursuance  of  their  orders,  burned  by  the  common 
hangman.* 

The  new  patent  granted  to  the  Duke  of  York,  in  1674,  made  no  concession 
of  popular  rights,  but  confirmed  his  power  to  enact  all  such  ordinances  as  he  or 
his  assigns  should  think  fit,  reserving  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  king  and  his  council. 
No  person  could  trade  with  the  province,  without  the  proprietor’s  permission,  and 
he  was  authorized  to  establish  such  imposts  as  he  should  think  necessary.  The 
arbitrary  proceedings  of  Andros,  in  1675,  called  forth  meetings,  in  which  the 
people  expressed  a  firm  determination  to  persist  in  their  claims  for  a  representa¬ 
tive  legislature.  Those  claims  were  submitted,  by  the  governor,  to  his  patron. 
James  replied,  “I  cannot  but  suspect  assemblies  would  be  of  dangerous  conse- 


*  DtTNLiP. 


INTRODUCTION. 


49 


quence ;  nothing  being  more  known,  than  the  aptness  of  such  bodies  to  assume 
to  themselves  many  privileges  which  prove  destructive  to,  or  very  often  disturb 
the  peace  of  the  government,  where  they  are  allowed ;  neither  do  I  see  any  use 
for  them.  Things  that  need  redress  may  be  sure  to  find  it  at  the  quarter  sessions, 
or  by  appeals  to  myself.”  The  discontent  of  the  colonists  was  not  allayed  by  this 
answer.  The  governor  proceeded  to  England  for  instructions,  and  returned  with 
the  information  that  the  proprietor  had  condescended  to  limit  to  a  term  of  three 
years  the  existing  arbitrary  imposts ;  a  concession,  which  only  served  to  excite 
universal  disgust.  The  influence  of  William  Penn,  however,  prevailed  upon  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  he  granted,  in  1G83,  what  was  called  a  “charter  of  liberties.” 
It  declared  that  supreme  legislative  power  should  forever  reside  in  the  governor, 
a  council,  and  the  people ;  and  gave  to  freeholders  and  freemen  the  privilege  of 
voting  for  representatives.  The  assembly  consisted  of  seventeen  members,  a 
number  which  was  gradually  increased  to  twenty-seven  before  the  commencement 
of  the  revolution ;  and  the  charter  declared  that  no  tax  should  be  assessed  on 
any  pretence  whatever,  without  consent  of  the  assembly.  But  the  governor  was 
appointed  by  the  proprietor,  and  the  council  were  appointed  by  the  governor, 
and  both  the  governor  and  proprietor  retained  the  right  to  negative  all  bills,  and 
to  prorogue  and  dissolve  the  assembly.  No  sooner  had  the  duke  ascended  the 
throne  of  E norland,  than  he  sought  to  overturn  the  constitution  which  had  thus 
been  founded.  He  decreed  a  direct  tax  upon  the  colony,  by  ordinance,  and 
instructed  the  governor  to  reorganize  the  council,  and  to  make  laws,  levy  taxes,  and 
control  the  militia,  with  the  consent  of  the  council  alone  ;  and  added  to  these 
instructions  an  injunction  to  suffer  no  printing  press  to  be  established  in  the  colony. 

The  revolution  of  1G88  was  hailed  throughout  the  colony  as  the  harbinger  of 
liberty.  The  general  assembly  was  again  reorganized,  and  the  government 
assumed  forms  somewhat  conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  law  and  order;  but 
still  denying  to  the  people  rights  enjoyed  by  their  fellow  subjects  in  England, 
and  maintaining  a  policy  injurious  to  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  colony. 
The  governor  was  directed  by  queen  Anne  to  take  especial  care  that  the  Al- 

Intr.  7 


50 


INTRODUCTION. 


mighty  should  be  devoutly  and  duly  served  according  to  the  rites  of  the  church 
of  England,  and  to  give  all  possible  encouragement  to  trade  and  traders,  “  par¬ 
ticularly  to  the  Royal  African  Company  in  England which  company  was 
expressly  desired  by  the  queen,  “  to  take  especial  care  that  the  colony  should 
have  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  merchantable  negroes,  at  moderate  rates.” 
No  commodities  were  allowed  to  be  imported  into  the  colonies,  or  exported 
thence,  but  in  vessels  built  in  England,  or  in  some  one  of  her  colonies,  and  navi¬ 
gated  by  British  crews.  The  colonies  were  prohibited  from  exporting  to  any 
other  country  than  England,  and  imposts  were  established  by  the  royal  government. 

In  1703,  the  assembly,  justly  complaining  of  the  misapplication  of  the  colonial 
revenue,  insisted  upon  the  establishment  of  a  treasury.  Governor  Cornbury 
refused  to  comply  with  this  demand,  saying  to  the  assembly  that  “  they  talked 
of  their  rights,”  but  he  knew  of  “  no  rights  they  had  as  an  assembly  but  such  as 
the  queen  was  pleased  to  allow.”  But  the  governor  was  nevertheless  dependent 
upon  the  assembly  for  supplies,  and  that  body,  unmoved  equally  by  executive 
influence  and  prerogative,  became  continually  more  democratic. 

The  judiciary  of  the  colony  consisted  of  such  inferior  courts  as  those  held  by 
justices  of  the  peace,  courts  of  sessions,  and  courts  of  common  pleas,  and  the 
supreme  court,  which  was  as  it  now  is,  a  court  of  general,  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction.  In  1712,  governor  Hunter,  by  the  advice  of  his  council,  and  with¬ 
out  the  consent  of  the  assembly,  and  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  royal 
power,  erected  a  court  of  chancery,  assumed  to  himself  the  powers  of  chan¬ 
cellor,  and  appointed  the  requisite  number  of  masters,  with  an  examiner,  regis¬ 
ter  and  clerks. 

The  effect  of  this  institution  was  to  increase  the  power  of  the  crown,  and  to 
diminish  that  of  the  assembly.  That  body  thereupon  protested  against  the  esta¬ 
blishment  of  the  court,  as  an  act  of  royal  usurpation  ;  but  the  lords  of  trade  who 
then  had  superintendence  over  the  affairs  of  the  colony,  affirmed  her  majesty’s 
right  to  institute  as  many  courts  as  she  thought  proper.  The  controversy  on  this 
subject  formed  one  of  the  grounds  of  the  division  of  parties  until  the  revolution. 


INTRODUCTION. 


51 


The  ignorance  aud  venality  of  the  governors,  and  the  extortions  practised  in  the 
court,  tended  greatly  to  increase  the  popular  odium  ;  but  governor  Burnet  was 
exempt  from  these  reproaches. 

In  1724  a  collision  arose  between  the  governor  and  the  assembly,  upon  his 
refusing  to  administer  oaths  to  a  member  named  De  Lancey,  who  had  been 
returned  as  a  member  of  the  assembly,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  a  subject 
of  the  crown.  The  assembly  claimed  the  right  to  judge  of  the  qualifications  of 
its  members.  This  right  of  the  assembly  was  not  afterwards  questioned. 

It  is  recorded,  to  the  honor  of  governor  Montgomerie,  who  entered  upon  his 
administration  in  1728,  that  he  declined  to  officiate  as  chancellor  until  he  received 
positive  directions  from  the  ministry.  About  this  period  in  the  history  of  the 
colony,  the  legal  profession  begins  to  claim  attention. 

Our  first  lawyer  was  Adrian  Vanderdonk.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
at  Leyden,  and  came  to  America  in  a  bark  belonging  to  the  patroon  of  Rensse- 
laerwyck,  in  1642.  He  resided  in  the  last  mentioned  manor  several  years,  filling 
the  office  of  scout,  which  combined  to  some  extent  the  duties  of  judge  and  sheriff. 
He  subsequently  removed  to  New-York,  then  New- Amsterdam,  where  he  acted 
as  chamber  counsel,  the  government  denying  to  him  permission  to  appear  in  the 
courts,  because  there  was  no  other  lawyer  to  confront  him.  He  signalized  him¬ 
self  in  1650,  by  a  remonstrance  to  the  States  General,  upon  the  abuses  of  power 
in  the  colony,  and  in  1653  by  his  description  of  the  New-Netherlands.  The  bar 
of  the  colony  in  1716,  admitted  to  its  honors  William  Smith,  the  father  of  the 
historian,  and  James  Alexander,  father  of  Lord  Stirling,  who  afterwards  rose  to 
eminence. 

Rip  Van  Dam,  lieutenant-governor,  performed  the  executive  duties  in  the  in¬ 
terval  between  the  death  of  Montgomerie  and  the  arrival  of  colonel  Cosby,  who 
was  appointed  the  successor.  Cosby  had  instructions  to  relinquish  to  V  an  Dam 
one  half  of  the  salary  and  perquisites  of  the  office,  which  had  accrued  during 
his  administration  ;  and,  upon  V an  Dam’s  refusal  to  refund,  assumed  to  clothe  the 
judges  of  the  supreme  court  with  the  dignity  of  barons  and  the  powers  and  juris- 


52 


INTRODUCTION. 


diction  of  exchequer,  similar  to  those  of  the  court,  of  exchequer  in  England, 
in  order  to  facilitate  a  recovery  by  the  governor  of  his  claims  against  his  prede¬ 
cessor.  Smith  and  Alexander,  of  counsel  for  Van  Dam,  excepted  to  the  exche¬ 
quer  jurisdiction  of  the  court.  Lewis  Morris,  then  chief  justice,  supported  the 
exceptions,  but  was  overruled  by  judges  De  Lancey  and  Pliillipse.  This  decision, 
overruling  the  plea  of  Van  Dam,  excited  high  indignation  among  the  people. 
The  governor,  nevertheless,  removed  the  chief  justice,  whom  he  could  not  over¬ 
awe,  and  the  subservient  De  Lancey  was,  without  consulting  the  council,  appointed 
chief  justice  ;  a  promotion  for  which  he  manifested  his  gratitude,  by  directing  all 
his  efforts  to  procure  the  indictment  and  conviction  of  Zenger  for  the  libel  be¬ 
fore  mentioned,  and  the  detection  of  the  authors  of  other  libels  in  the  Weekly 
Journal.  In  1735,  Alexander  and  Smith,  who  appeared  as  counsel  for  Zenger, 
filed  exceptions  to  the  commission  of  the  judges,  De  Lancey  and  Pliillipse,  on 
the  ground  that  the  tenure  specified  in  the  commission  was  during  pleasure,  and 
not  during  good  behavior,  and  for  other  causes.  The  judges  met  the  exceptions 
with  the  answer,  “  You  have  brought  it  to  that  point  that  either  we  must  go  from 
the  bench,  or  you  from  the  bar,”  and  excluded  the  contumacious  lawyers,  as  has 
been  already  mentioned.  These  proceedings,  together  with  those  on  the  sub¬ 
sequent  trial  of  Zenger,  gave  new  violence  to  the  political  dissensions  already 
raging  in  the  colony. 

A  bill  was  passed  in  the  assembly  for  the  frequent  meeting  and  calling  of  the 
general  assembly ;  but  the  council  amended  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to'  change  its 
effect,  and  it  failed  to  become  a  law.  In  1735,  Mr.  Garre tson,  a  member  from 
Kings  county,  submitted  a  report  to  the  effect,  that  the  maintenance  of  a  court 
of  chancery  within  the  colony,  without  consulting  the  general  assembly,  was  con¬ 
trary  to  law,  unwarrantable,  and  of  dangerous  consequence  to  the  liberties  and 
the  property  of  the  people,  and  the  house  concurred  in  the  report.  Still  gover¬ 
nor  Cosby,  finding  the  assembly  more  practicable  than  he  had  a  right  to  expect, 
from  the  temper  of  the  times,  a  succeeding  one  would  be,  continued  that  body, 
for  a  period  of  six  years,  refusing  to  dissolve  it,  or  issue  new  writs  of  election ; 


INTRODUCTION. 


53 


which  term  was  prolonged  three  years  by  his  successor.  These  grievances  justly 
irritated  the  people,  and  are  recorded  in  the  declaration  of  independence  among 
the  wrongs  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  king  of  Great  Britain. 

The  general  assembly  of  1737,  truly  represented  the  spirit  which  then  per¬ 
vaded  the  people  ;  and  its  proceedings  are  regarded  as  constituting  an  important 
era  in  the  history  of  American  legislation.  In  their  address  to  the  governor, 
they  affirmed  that  none  ought  to  represent  the  people  but  such  as  were  freely  and 
fairly  chosen  by  them ;  that  elections  ought  to  be  frequent ;  that  experience  had 
shown  the  danger  of  trusting  the  same  men  too  long  with  power ;  and  that  pro¬ 
per  checks  and  balances  were  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  liberty  and 
happiness  of  any  country.  The  assembly  distinctly  informed  the  representative 
of  the  crown,  that  they  would  not  raise  sums  unfit  to  be  raised,  nor  put  what 
they  should  raise  into  the  power  of  the  governor  to  misapply,  if  they  could  pre¬ 
vent  it ;  that  they  would  not  at  any  one  time  make  provision  for  the  support  of 
government  for  a  period  longer  than  a  year,  nor  would  they  even  for  that  period, 
until  such  laws  should  be  passed  as  were  necessary  to  the  safety  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  colony.  They  asserted  the  importance  of  having  an  agent  at  the  court  of 
Great  Britain,  appointed  and  paid  by  the  house,  independently  of  the  governor. 
They  firmly  remonstrated  against  the  continuance  of  the  court  of  chancery,  as 
then  constituted,  declaring  that  the  governors  in  maintaining  that  court,  without 
the  consent  of  the  assembly,  had  treated  that  body  with  unreasonable  neglect 
and  contempt,  and  affirmed  that  some  of  the  governors  were  wholly  unfit  for  the 
duties  of  chancellor  or  of  any  other  station,  though  buoyed  up  and  bloated  with 
flatteries  by  the  instruments  of  their  misrule  and  oppression.  The  house  now 
first  adopted  the  important  principle  of  recording  the  votes  of  members.  They 
passed  a  bill  to  appoint  an  agent  to  the  court  of  Great  Britain,  which  was  lost  by 
non-concurrence,  as  to  its  principal  features,  by  the  council ;  demanded  from 
that  body  satisfaction,  for  the  insult  it  had  offered  by  transmitting  messages  by  the 
clerk,  instead  of  a  committee,  limited  supplies  granted  to  the  period  of  one  year, 
and  inhibited  the  treasurer  from  paying  any  part  of  the  funds  collected,  until 


54 


INTRODUCTION. 


proper  laws  should  be  passed  for  that  purpose.  They  passed  a  bill  for  the  fre¬ 
quent  election  of  representatives,  and  the  governor  being  intimidated  gave  it  his 
assent,  but  it  was  afterwards  disallowed  by  the  crown.  After  coming  into  direct 
collision  with  the  governor,  the  assembly  was  ordered  to  attend  him,  when  he,  in 
an  angry  strain  of  invective  and  abuse,  pronounced  their  proceedings  presumptu¬ 
ous,  daring  and  unprecedented,  and  saying  that  he  could  not  look  upon  them 
without  astonishment,  nor  with  honor  suffer  them  to  sit  any  longer,  he  declared 
the  house  dissolved. 

One  of  our  best  historians*  pronounces  a  high  eulogium  upon  this  legislative 
body,  declaring  that  its  members  properly  appreciated  their  own  dignity,  and 
that  neither  ministerial  smiles  nor  frowns  could  sway  them  from  the  path  of 
duty.  Yet  the  record  contains  one  spot  which  the  friends  of  rational  liberty 
would  wish  to  see  effaced.  On  a  question  concerning  a  contested  seat,  the  assem¬ 
bly  resolved  that  Jews  could  neither  vote  for  representatives  nor  be  admitted  as 
witnesses. 

The  election  showed  that  the  assembly  had  not  misunderstood  the  feelings  or 
sentiments  of  their  constituents ;  and  the  new  legislature  firmly  adhered  to  the 
principles  which  had  been  asserted.  The  maintenance  of  those  principles  ren¬ 
dered  the  executive  dependent  upon  the  legislature,  and  thus  an  important  step 
was  taken  towards  that  independence  which  was  afterwards  established. 

The  institution  of  domestic  slavery  now  began  to  produce  its  fruits  of  suspicion 
and  fear.  By  the  laws  regulating  that  institution,  every  colored  person  was  a 
slave,  and  a  slave  could  not  be  a  witness  against  a  free  man.  The  persons  thus 
held  in  servitude  were  punishable  by  their  masters  to  any  extent  short  of  priva¬ 
tion  ol  life  or  limb.  The  disabilities  of  the  slave  were  hereditary,  and  the  race 
was  therefore  plunged  into  hopeless  bondage  and  degradation.  This  oppression 
was  supposed  to  be  justified  by  the  assumption  that  those  thus  injured  were  of 
“  the  accursed  seed  of  Cain.”  Several  fires  having  occurred  in  1741,  the  negroes 


*  John  Van  Ness  Yates. 


INTRODUCTION. 


55 


were  suspected  as  incendiaries.  The  magistrates,  the  police,  and  the  common 
council,  were  seized  with  a  panic  which  extended  itself  to  the  judges  of  the 
supreme  court  and  throughout  the  city.  All  the  members  of  the  bar,  consisting 
of  Bradley,  the  attorney-general,  and  Alexander,  Smith,  Chambers,  Nichols, 
Lodge  and  Jamieson,  were  summond  to  attend  and  aid  the  court.  The  lawyers, 
sharing  the  panic,  volunteered  to  assist  the  public  prosecutor  by  turns,  and  left 
the  accused  defenceless.  Convictions  were  easily  procured  upon  confessions, 
and  the  testimony  of  perjured  informers  extorted  by  threats  and  promises.  The 
court  forgot  not  only  its  own  dignity,  but  the  claims  of  justice  and  humanity. 
Four  white  persons,  implicated  in  the  supposed  crimes,  were  executed.  Eleven 
negroes  were  burned  at  the  stake,  eighteen  were  hanged,  and  fifty  were  trans¬ 
ported  and  sold  into  foreign  slavery. 

The  legislature  in  1741  manifested  a  disposition  to  inquire  into  the  defects  of 
the  jurisprudence  of  the  colony,  and  Daniel  Horsmanden,  who  was  then  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court,  was  authorized  to  collect  and  revise  the  laws  in  force,  with 
notes  and  references  ;  but  that  duty  was  not  performed.  It  is  asserted  that  the 
inconveniences  resulting  from  his  continuance  in  office,  in  advanced  age  and 
under  growing  infirmities,  was  the  cause  of  the  adoption  of  a  principle  still  con¬ 
tinued  in  our  constitution,  which  disqualifies  a  judge  on  his  attaining  the  age  of 
sixty  years  —  a  fact  exceedingly  interesting,  as  an  illustration  of  the  permanent 
influence  which  occasional  circumstances  may  exert  upon  the  legislation  of  a 
country. 

In  1743,  a  law  was  passed  for  the  relief  of  imprisoned  debtors,  and  legacies 
were  made  recoverable  in  courts  of  common  law.  The  practice  of  instituting 
prosecutions  by  information ,  which  had  been  constantly  regarded  with  jealousy 
since  the  trial  of  Zenger,  gave  rise  to  a  bill  for  regulating  such  proceedings,  but 
it  was  lost  in  the  council  through  the  influence  of  the  lieutenant-governor.  The 
ministry,  distrusting  the  loyalty  of  a  people  so  bold  in  the  assertion  of  their  rights, 
availed  themselves  of  the  alarm  excited  by  the  renewal  of  hostilities  by  France, 
with  a  view  to  place  the  pretender  upon  the  throne,  and  required  that  a  law 


56 


INTRODUCTION. 


should  be  passed,  obliging  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  to  take  the  oaths  pre¬ 
scribed  by  parliament,  for  the  security  of  the  government  and  of  the  protestant 
relioion.  The  assembly  complied,  after  a  spirited  debate,  in  which  the  measure 
was  resisted,  because  it  seemed  to  impeach  the  loyalty  of  the  province.  The 
collisions  between  the  ministry  and  the  governor  on  one  side,  and  the  assembly 
on  the  other,  continued  without  abatement.  The  governor,  in  1749,  renewed  his 
demand  for  provision  for  the  support  of  government  for  live  years,  and  when  the 
house  refused,  threatened  the  members  with  punishment,  declaring  that  the  crown 
could  abridge  their  rights  and  privileges  at  pleasure.  The  assembly  resolved 
that  the  governor’s  conduct  was  arbitrary,  illegal  and  a  violation  of  their  privi¬ 
leges. 

In  the  instructions  to  governor  Osborne,  in  1753,  the  ministry  persisted  in  all 
the  obnoxious  demands  which  had  been  so  long  and  uncompromisingly  opposed 
by  the  assembly.  The  year  1754  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  assemblage 
of  the  congress  of  deputies  of  the  several  American  colonies,  at  Albany,  to  devise 
a  plan  of  union  for  common  defence  against  the  French  and  Indians.  A  project 
for  a  confederacy  of  the  American  colonies  was  prepared  by  Franklin.  It  em¬ 
braced  Massachusetts,  New-Hampshire,  Connecticut,  Rhode-Island,  New-York, 
New-Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North-Carolina  and  South-Caro- 
lina ;  and  proposed  that  each  colony  should  retain  its  constitution,  but  a  general 
government  should  be  established,  with  a  president-general  and  council,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  a  grand  council  to  be  composed  of  representatives 
elected  by  the  assemblies  of  the  several  states.  The  apportionment  of  members 
in  that  council  is  worthy  of  notice,  because  it  shows  the  relative  population  and 
strength  of  the  colonies  at  that  period,  varying  essentially  from  the  relative  im por- 
tance  of  the  several  states  at  the  present  time.  Massachusetts  was  allowed  seven 
representatives,  New-Hampshire  two,  Connecticut  five,  Rhode-Island  two,  New- 
York  four,  New-Jersey  three,  Pennsylvania  six,  Maryland  four,  Virginia  seven, 
North-Carolina  four,  South-Carolina  four.  The  powerful  machine  thus  projected 
for  the  support  of  the  British  throne,  was  twenty-one  years  afterwards  successfully 


INTRODUCTION. 


57 


put  in  motion  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  parliament ;  and  it  is  not  impossible 
that  the  adaptation  of  the  plan  to  such  a  purpose,  induced  its  rejection  by  the 
ministry,  while  the  fear  that  it  would  strengthen  the  royal  power  caused  it  to  be 
disapproved  with  equal  promptness  by  the  colonial  assemblies.* 

The  passage  of  the  stamp  act  in  17G5,  which  levied  imposts  in  violation  of  a 
principle  which  all  the  American  colonies  had  asserted,  and  thus  far  persever- 
ingly  maintained ;  and  which  provided  for  the  execution  of  that  impolitic  mea¬ 
sure  by  means  and  agents  equally  obnoxious,  produced  universal  exasperation. 

The  act  was  printed  and  circulated  in  the  streets  of  New-York,  with  the  title 
of  “  The  Folly  of  England  and  the  Ruin  of  America.”  A  congress  of  deputies  met 
in  New-York  in  October,  1765.  New-York  wras  represented  by  Robert  R.  Li¬ 
vingston,  John  Cruger,  Philip  Livingston,  William  Bayard,  and  Leonard  Lispe- 
nard.  Cadwallader  Colden,  then  lieutenant-governor,  announced  that  the  con¬ 
gress  was  unconstitutional,  unprecedented  and  unlawful,  and  he  should  give  it  no 
countenance.  The  congress  solemnly  protested  that  the  people  of  the  colonies 
were  entitled  to  all  the  rights  of  Englishmen  ;  that  no  taxes  could  be  imposed 
upon  them  without  their  consent ;  that  their  only  legislative  representatives  were 
the  provincial  assemblies ;  and  that  the  stamp  act,  passed  by  the  parliament  of 
Great  Britain,  without  the  consent  of  those  assemblies,  was  subversive  of  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  people.  The  manifestations  of  popular  indignation 
and  resistance,  obliged  the  lieutenant-governor,  Colden,  to  surrender  the  stamps 
which  had  been  sent  over  for  the  use  of  the  province  —  a  concession  which  he 
made  under  protest,  and  to  avert  the  calamities  of  a  civil  war.  The  law  was 
successfully  resisted,  and  in  the  subsequent  year  was  repealed  ;  but  the  moment 
of  the  final  controversy  was  now  hastening,  and  every  effort  of  the  ministry  to 
maintain  the  power  of  the  crown,  served  only  to  inflame  a  spirit  of  resistance 
which  had  become  general  throughout  the  colonies. 


Intr. 


*  Donlap, 
8 


58 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  press  was  brought  into  political  action,  and  prepared  the  public  mind  for 
a  conflict  of  arms.  The  royal  cause  was  sustained  by  Dr.  Miles  Cooper,  the  pre¬ 
sident  of  the  college,  and  other  clergymen  of  the  Episcopal  church.  William 
Livingston,  afterwards  governor  of  New-Jersey,  Gouverneur  Morris,  and  others, 
defended  the  rights  of  the  colonies.  John  Jay,  having  received  an  accomplished 
education,  and  already  acquired  high  rank  at  the  bar,  engaged  on  the  same  side ; 
and  at  the  same  time,  John  Morin  Scott  and  Alexander  .Hamilton,  who  then 
was  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  entered  the  controversy.  On  the  25th  of  July, 
1774,  Philip  Livingston,  John  Alsop,  Isaac  Low,  James  Duane  and  John  Jay, 
were  appointed  delegates  to  the  first  congress  at  Philadelphia.  That  body,  in 
adopting  a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  people  of  the  colonies,  laid  the  founda¬ 
tions  of  independence  and  union.  The  committee  who  reported  that  paper, 
were  Richard  Henry  Lee  of  Virginia,  and  Messrs.  Jay  and  Livingston  of  New- 
York.  An  address  was  also  made  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  This  state 
paper,  which  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Jay,  was  distinguished  alike  for  its  elevated 
tone  and  glowing  language. 

The  general  assembly  of  New-York  was  convened  in  1775.  Being  in  the 
interest  of  the  crown,  that  body  refused  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  representatives 
of  the  colony  in  the  general  congress,  and  by  this,  and  other  manifestations  of 
pusillanimity,  so  effectually  forfeited  all  claims  to  the  public  confidence,  that  the 
New-York  committee  of  safety  recommended  that  a  provincial  congress  should 
be  elected  by  the  people.  Mr.  Jay,  being  a  member  of  this  committee,  and  now 
a  third  time  elected  a  delegate  to  the  general  congress,  surrendered  himself  to 
the  public  service.  He  distinguished  himself,  and  aided  the  popular  cause,  by 
preparing  an  address  to  the  people  of  Canada,  invoking  their  neutrality  ;  and 
afterwards  by  a  similar  address,  which  was  made  by  congress  to  their  fellow' 
subjects  in  Jamaica  and  Ireland.  These  papers  were  among  the  most  effective 
of  those  issued  by  congress ;  and  which  at  once  inspired  the  people  of  the  colo¬ 
nies  with  confidence  and  zeal  in  their  cause,  and  secured  the  respect  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  people  of  the  mother  country. 


INTRODUCTION. 


59 


The  inhabitants  of  Queens  county,  on  Long  Island,  had  refused  to  appoint 
delegates  to  the  provincial  congress,  and  the  subject  arrested  the  attention  of  the 
general  congress.  Mr.  Jay,  from  a  committee,  submitted  a  report,  with  a  bold 
and  denunciatory  preamble,  “  Whereas,  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Queens 
county,  in  the  colony  of  New-York,  being  incapable  of  resolving  to  live  and  die 
freemen,  and  being  more  disposed  to  quit  their  liberties  than  to  part  with  a  little 
proportion  of  their  property,  necessary  to  defend  them,  have  deserted  the  Ame¬ 
rican  cause  by  refusing  to  send  deputies  as  usual  to  the  convention  of  that  colony, 
and  evinced  by  a  public  declaration  an  unmanly  design  of  remaining  inactive 
spectators  of  the  present  contest,  vainly  flattering  themselves,  perhaps,  that  should 
Providence  declare  for  our  enemies,  they  may  purchase  their  favor  and  mercy 
at  an  easy  rate ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  war  should  terminate  in  favor  of 
America,  that  then  they  may  enjoy,  without  expense  of  blood  or  treasure,  all  the 
blessings  resulting  from  that  liberty,  which  they  in  the  day  of  trial  had  abandoned, 
and  in  the  defence  of  which  many  of  their  more  virtuous  neighbors  and  country¬ 
men  had  nobly  died ;  and  it  being  reasonable  that  those  who  refuse  to  defend 
their  country  should  be  excluded  from  its  protection,  and  be  prevented  from 
doing  it  an  injury,”  &c.  The  committee,  therefore,  recommended  measures 
for  putting  the  inhabitants  of  Queens  county,  who  had  voted  against  sending 
deputies  to  the  provincial  congress,  out  of  the  protection  of  the  united  colonies,  and 
to  disarm  and  subject  the  disaffected.  The  paper  is  a  happy  illustration  of  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  and  of  the  talents  of  its  author.  At  the  close  of  the  year 
1775,  when  all  of  the  southern  portion  of  New-York  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  the  American  army  had  retired  from  Westchester,  baffled  in  its  attempt 
in  Canada,  and  general  Washington  was  retreating  through  New-Jersey,  the 
proclamation  of  the  British  commander  offering  protection  and  rewards  to  the 
timid  and  irresolute,  the  pen  of  Mr.  Jay  was  again  called  into  requisition  by  the 
congress  of  the  United  States,  and  was  effectually  exercised  in  a  glowing  address 
to  their  constituents ;  a  document  of  such  extraordinary  power,  that,  if  it  stood 
alone,  it  would  be  an  ample  vindication  of  the  firmness  and  patriotism  of  congress. 


60 


INTRODUCTION. 


To  such  labors  Mr.  Jay  added  the  preparation  of  the  first  constitution  of 
the  state  of  New-York,  which  was  adopted  by  the  convention  in  1777.  This 
work,  although  it  was  forty-four  years  afterwards  superseded  by  another,  cor¬ 
recting  some  defects  disclosed  in  its  operation,  nevertheless  asserted  the  chief 
popular  rights,  defined  the  relative  powers  of  the  various  departments,  and  esta¬ 
blished  the  great  principles  of  fundamental  law  as  they  yet  exist,  and  will  con¬ 
tinue  for  all  time  to  come. 

It  is  time,  however,  to  notice  other  actors  who  had  come  upon  the  stage.  Philip 
Schuyler  had  secured  to  himself  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  French  language, 
then  a  rare  accomplishment  in  this  country,  together  with  varied  learning  and 
extensive  knowledge  of  the  exact  sciences.  His  favorite  studies  were  finance, 
military  engineering  and  political  economy.  He  had  been  distinguished  in  the 
provincial  military  service,  and  first  drew  to  himself  the  attention  of  his  fellow- 
citizens,  by  his  efforts  in  the  general  assembly  in  1775,  in  the  debates  which 
brought  the  struggle  between  the  ministerial  and  whig  parties  to  a  crisis.  George 
Clinton,  afterwards  governor,  and  Nathaniel  Woodhull,  afterwards  president  of 
the  provincial  congress,  were  associated  with  Schuyler  in  these  debates,  which 
involved  not  only  the  immediate  causes  of  irritation,  but  also  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  British  constitution,  and  of  free  representative  government.  To 
the  spirit  manifested  on  that  occasion  by  the  indomitable  minority,  may  be  attri¬ 
buted  in  a  great  measure  the  acquiescence  of  the  people  in  the  bold  recommenda¬ 
tion  for  discarding  the  general  assembly  and  instituting  a  new  provincial  legisla¬ 
ture.  Thus  was  the  boundary  passed,  a  constitution  subverted,  and  the  colony, 
with  her  sister  provinces,  arrayed  in  open  defiance  of  the  British  government. 

On  the  9th  of  July,  1776,  the  provincial  congress  ratified  the  declaration  of 
independence,  and  immediately  assumed  the  title  of  the  convention  of  the  state 
ol  New-York.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  constitution,  and  that 
task  was  entrusted  to  John  Jay,  James  Duane,  Gouverneur  Morris,  and  Robert 
R.  Livingston.  The  draft  of  the  constitution  was  in  the  handwriting  of  Mr.  Jay 
and  was  submitted  by  Mr.  Duane;  and  those  individuals,  together  with  Gouver- 


INTRODUCTION. 


61 


neur  Morris  and  Robert  R.  Livingston,  who  also  were  eminent  lawyers,  gave  to 
that  instrument  the  form  in  which  it  was  adopted  by  the  convention.  Upon  pro¬ 
mulgating  the  constitution,  the  convention  appointed  a  council  of  safety,  which 
was  invested  with  all  the  powers  requisite  for  the  security  and  preservation  of  the 
state,  until  a  governor  and  legislature  should  be  duly  chosen  and  qualified  to  act 
under  the  new  constitution.  This  council,  thus  invested  with  absolute  power, 
nobly  justified  the  confidence  reposed  in  them  by  the  convention,  by  the  wisdom, 
firmness,  energy  and  moderation  which  they  displayed  in  that  trying  emergency. 
Their  names  were  John  Morin  Scott,  Robert  R.  Livingston,  Christopher  Tappen, 
Abraham  Yates,  junior,  Gouverneur  Morris,  Zephaniah  Platt,  John  Jay,  Charles 
De  Witt,  Robert  Harpur,  Jacob  Cuyler,  Thomas  Tredwell,  Pierre  Van  Cort- 
landt,  Matthew  Cantine,  John  Sloss  Hobart  and  Jonathan  B.  Tompkins. 

George  Clinton  was  elected  governor,  John  Jay  appointed  chief  justice,  and 
Robert  R.  Livingston  chancellor,  under  the  new  constitution.  Philip  Schuyler 
was  appointed,  in  1775,  a  representative  in  the  congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  soon  afterwards  major-general  in  the  continental  army.  Mr.  Jay  subsequently 
filled  the  trusts  of  chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  governor  of  New-York  and 
minister  to  the  court  of  St.  James.  The  name  of  Schuyler,  although  eclipsed 
during  the  revolutionary  contest  by  personal  and  partizan  jealousies,  is  neverthe¬ 
less  destined  to  maintain  a  place  in  the  military  annals  of  that  period,  second  only 
to  his,  who  is  without  a  compeer  in  the  homage  of  mankind.  Woodhull  fell  a  martyr 
in  battle,  sustaining  the  cause  he  had  so  ably  maintained  in  the  councils  of  the 
state.  The  genius  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  as  well  as  that  of  Robert  R.  Livingston, 
will  be  found  impressed  upon  many  a  page,  in  which  we  are  hereafter  to  record 
the  social,  moral  and  physical  improvement  of  the  State. 

If  to  Massachusetts  belongs  the  honor  of  cradling  the  revolution,  and  to  Vir¬ 
ginia  that  of  having  given  birth  to  the  author  of  the  declaration  of  independence, 
and  to  the  immortal  chief  who  conducted  the  armies  until  its  establishment,  New- 
York  may,  with  equal  justice,  lay  claim  to  the  honor  of  having  produced  the 
statesman  who  chiefly  secured  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  and  put 


62 


INTRODUCTION, 


it  into  effectual  and  successful  operation.  Alexander  Hamilton,  while  yet  a  stu¬ 
dent  in  Columbia  College,  defended  the  republican  cause  in  a  series  of  essays, 
marked  with  so  much  ability  and  wisdom,  that  they  were  attributed  to  the  pen 
of  John  Jay,  who  was  then  in  the  fore  ground  in  the  councils  of  the  state  and  the 
union.  Of  the  talents  exhibited  by  Hamilton,  as  a  confidential  aid-de-camp  of 
the  commander-in-chief,  we  have  not  room  to  speak.  In  1782,  the  ardent  yet 
discreet  Hamilton,  became  a  member  of  the  bar,  and  was  elected  a  delegate 
to  congress,  and  acquired  a  commanding  influence  in  that  body.  In  1786,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  this  state,  and  in  the  same  year  was  a  delegate 
to  the  convention  which  formed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  Disap¬ 
pointed  in  procuring  the  adoption  of  what  he  deemed  essential  features  of  such 
an  instrument,  he  nevertheless  acquiesced  in  the  decisions  of  the  convention,  and 
gave  his  free  and  unreserved  assent  to  the  constitution  as  it  was  promulgated  by 
that  august  body.  It  was  a  mighty  task  to  prepare  a  form  of  government  which 
should  guaranty  the  union,  the  liberties,  and  the  happiness  of  a  rising  people  ;  but 
a  greater  task  remained.  That  people  consisted  of  thirteen  states,  each  of  which 
had  a  separate  constitution,  local  interests,  and  peculiar  institutions,  and  was 
jealous  of  every  thing  which  might,  in  the  remotest  degree,  tend  to  diminish 
power  and  influence,  deemed  essential  to  popular  liberty  and  self  preservation. 
Whatever  rendered  the  constitution  acceptable  to  one  or  several  states,  awakened 
the  jealousies  of  others,  while,  throughout  the  whole  union,  the  people  divided  into 
two  angry  and  violent  parties ;  the  one  apprehending  that  the  federal  power 
would  be  too  weak  to  preserve  the  national  security  —  the  other,  that  that  power 
would  be  too  oppressive,  and  result  in  despotism,  even  more  unendurable  than 
that  which  had  been  so  recently  overthrown.  To  reconcile  these  conflicting 
opinions  and  interests,  and  procure  the  assent  of  the  states  to  the  constitution 
which  had  been  proposed,  and  when  adopted  to  carry  it  into  successful  opera¬ 
tion,  under  circumstances  the  most  disheartening,  was  the  task  assumed  by 
Hamilton.  He  addressed  to  the  people  a  series  of  letters  under  the  signature  of 
the  F  ederalist,  in  which  he  received  important  aid  and  cooperation  from  James 


INTRODUCTION. 


63 


Madison  and  John  Jay.  In  this  admirable  work  he  expounded  the  principles  of 
the  constitution,  and  pointed  out  its  application  in  all  the  various  exigencies  of 
peace  and  war,  and  of  domestic  prosperity  and  discontent ;  and  such  were  the 
sagacity  and  forecast  thus  manifested,  that  the  Federalist  still  remains,  after  a 
lapse  of  half  a  century,  a  great  and  authoritative  commentary  on  the  federal  com¬ 
pact.  These  labors  were  followed  by  others  equally  effective  in  the  convention 
of  this  state,  which  resulted  in  the  acceptance  of  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States  by  that  body  :  efforts  in  which  he  was  ably  seconded  by  Robert  R.  Li¬ 
vingston,  while  that  measure  was  resisted  with  great  ability  by  Melancton  Smith 
and  his  associates. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  were  not  unaware  of  the  difficulties  which 
would  attend  the  organization  of  the  new  government,  and,  therefore,  with  the 
greatest  unanimity,  called  Washington  from  his  retirement  to  preside  in  the  public 
councils  in  that  emergency.  While  wisdom  and  energy  were  required  in  every 
department,  that,  which  was  to  be  entrusted  with  the  subjects  of  finance,  was  sur¬ 
rounded  with  the  worst  embarrassments.  The  federal  government  and  the 
state  governments  were  alike  hopelessly  encumbered  with  debts,  and  the  credit 
of  both  was  prostrate.  There  was,  as  yet,  no  plan  of  l-evenue,  no  currency. 
The  country  was  filled  with  imported  fabrics,  while  every  department  of  domes¬ 
tic  industry  was  deranged.  In  what  manner  could  a  sufficient  revenue  be 
provided  for  the  necessary  expenditures  of  the  government  in  so  trying  an 
emergency,  and  how  was  the  exhausted  credit  of  the  country  to  be  restored, 
and  its  prosperity  to  be  renewed  and  invigorated  ?  These  were  among  the 
leading  questions,  to  be  settled  by  the  first  congress  that  assembled  after  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  constitution ;  and  they  involved  controversies  in  political  economy, 
rendered  still  more  difficult  by  conflicting  interests  and  discordant  views  concern¬ 
ing  the  fiscal  principles  and  powers  of  the  government.  Washington,  with  that 
sagacity  which  never  erred,  had  assigned  these  subjects  to  the  consideration  of 
Alexander  Hamilton,  the  first  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

The  work  of  Adam  Smith,  on  the  Wealth  of  Nations,  published  the  year 


64 


INTRODUCTION. 


before  the  revolution,  though  very  deficient  in  methodical  arrangement,  and  on 
many  points  extremely  discursive,  was,  nevertheless,  justly  considered  as  consti¬ 
tuting  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  political  economy,  and  establishing  land¬ 
marks  for  the  guidance  of  subsequent  investigation. 

Hamilton  discussed,  with  surpassing  ability,  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  government 
in  four  reports.  The  first  of  which  was  on  the  public  credit ;  the  second,  on  a 
national  bank ;  the  third,  upon  manufactures;  and  the  fourth,, on  the  establishment 
of  a  mint.  To  point  out  the  proper  means  for  paying  the  public  debts  of  the  union 
and  of  the  states  was  the  object  of  the  first  report.  He  recommended  that  no  discri¬ 
mination  should  be  made  between  the  creditors  of  the  United  States  and  those  of 
the  several  members  of  the  confederacy,  and  that  the  new  system  of  finance 
should  include  the  payment  of  all  by  the  general  government. 

The  report  on  a  national  bank  commenced  with  the  proposition  that  such  an 
institution  would  be  of  primary  importance,  for  a  prosperous  administration  of 
the  finances,  and  of  eminent  utility,  connected  with  the  operations  for  the  support 
of  public  credit,  and  maintained  the  expediency  of  establishing  such  an  institu¬ 
tion,  in  a  train  of  powerful  arguments,  derived  from  a  view  of  the  benefits  which, 
it  was  alleged,  resulted  to  trade  and  industry  from  public  banks,  as  well  as  those 
affecting  credit,  which,  as  was  supposed,  such  an  institution  would  afford  in  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  the  country.  The  whole  subject  of  banking,  the  uses 
and  relation  of  specie  and  circulating  notes,  their  respective  advantages  and  in¬ 
conveniences  as  a  currency,  the  arguments  in  favor  of  banks,  and  the  objections 
to  which  they  were  obnoxious,  were  all  thoroughly  discussed.  The  president 
had  required  written  opinions  from  the  members  of  the  cabinet,  concerning  the 
constitutionality  of  a  bank.  Mr.  Jefferson,  secretary  of  state,  and  Mr.  Randolph, 
attorney-general,  in  their  opinions  denied  the  power  of  congress  to  establish  such 
an  institution.  Hamilton’s  report  may  be  considered  a  reply  to  these  opinions, 
and  whatever  may  be  the  merits  of  that  still  vexed  question,  this  paper  is  univer¬ 
sally  conceded  to  be  an  able  vindication  of  the  side  of  the  argument  which  the 
author  adopted. 


INTRODUCTION. 


65 


In  the  report  on  manufactures,  Hamilton  reviewed  at  length  the  positions 
assumed  by  Adam  Smith,  “that  individuals  were  better  judges,  than  statesmen 
or  lawgivers  could  be,  of  the  species  of  industry  which  their  capital  could  em¬ 
ploy  to  the  greatest  advantage ;  that  as  every  individual  was  constantly  exerting 
himself  to  find  out  the  most  advantageous  use  for  his  capital,  the  study  of  his  own 
advantage  would  necessarily  lead  him  to  prefer  that  employment  which  must  be 
most  beneficial  to  the  general  society.  That  every  individual,  who  had  embarked 
his  capital  in  the  support  of  domestic  industry,  naturally  aimed  so  to  direct  it  that 
it  might  yield  the  greatest  possible  profit;  that  what  was  prudent  and  economical 
in  a  private  family  could  scarcely  be  otherwise  in  that  of  a  great  country ;  that 
if  a  foreign  country  could  furnish  us  with  a  commodity  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  we 
could  manufacture  it,  it  would  be  for  our  interest  to  purchase  it  with  some  part 
of  the  produce  of  our  own  industry,  employed  in  a  more  profitable  manner  than 
in  making  the  commodities  referred  to;  and  that  to  give  the  monopoly  of  home 
market  to  the  produce  of  domestic  industry  in  any  art  or  manufacture,  would 
be  giving  an  artificial  direction  to  private  capital  that  must  be  either  useless  or 
injurious.”  From  which,  and  similar  positions  of  a  like  nature,  Smith  had  drawn 
the  conclusion  that  the  application  of  private  capital  and  labor  ought  to  be  as 
little  as  possible  controlled  or  restrained  by  regulations  of  government.  Hamil¬ 
ton  discussed  these  doctrines  with  great  ability.  He  admitted  that  if  the  reason, 
by  which  the  principle  of  free  trade  was  defended,  had  more  generally  governed 
the  conduct  of  nations,  they  might  have  advanced  with  greater  rapidity  to  pro¬ 
sperity  and  greatness  than  they  had  done  by  the  pursuits  of  maxims  too  widely 
different.  But  he  insisted  that  most  theories  had  very  many  exceptions,  and 
that  very  cogent  reasons  might  be  urged  against  the  hypothesis  that  manufactures 
would  grow  up  without  the  aid  of  government,  “  as  soon  and  as  fast  as  the  natural 
state  of  things  and  the  interest  of  the  community  may  require.”  He  showed,  as 
objections  to  its  truth,  the  influence  of  habit,  the  fear  of  failure  in  untried  enter¬ 
prise,  the  difficulties  inseparable  from  competition  with  those  who  have  attained 
perfection  in  the  business  to  be  undertaken,  and  the  bounties,  premiums  and  arti- 
Intr.  9 


66 


INTRODUCTION. 


ficial  encouragements  with  which  foreign  governments  supported  their  own  sub¬ 
jects,  in  divisions  of  industry  in  which  they  might  be  rivalled  or  surpassed.  He 
also  examined  the  hypothesis  of  the  superior  productiveness  of  agriculture,  and 
maintained  with  elaborate  reasoning  that  the  general  arguments  brought  to  esta¬ 
blish  it  were  not  satisfactory.  He  discussed  the  relative  advantages  of  foreign 
and  domestic  markets,  and  the  circumstances  peculiar  to  the  condition  of  the 
country,  which,  in  his  judgment,  rendered  the  interposition  pf  the  government  for 
the  protection  of  national  industry  expedient  and  necessary.  On  all  these  ques¬ 
tions  the  report  covered  the  whole  ground  of  controversy,  and  so  full  and  forcible 
was  its  argument,  that  it  is  now  referred  to  as  authority,  and  as  a  text  book  by 
those  who  maintain  the  necessity  of  protecting  American  industry. 

General  Hamilton’s  report  on  the  establishment  of  a  mint  discussed,  1st,  What 
ought  to  be  the  money  unit  of  the  United  States ;  2d,  The  proper  proportion 
between  gold  and  silver ;  3d,  The  composition  and  proportion  of  alloy  in  each 
metal ;  4th,  How  the  expense  of  coinage  should  be  defrayed  ;  5th,  The  number, 
denomination,  sizes,  and  devices  of  the  coins ;  and  6th,  Whether  foreign  coins 
should  be  permitted  to  be  current,  and  at  what  weight. 

These  reports  of  general  Hamilton  determined  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  United 
States.  The  federal  government  funded  its  own  debt  and  those  of  the  states.  A 
bank  was  established,  and  throughout  its  career,  rendered  to  the  government  and 
to  the  commerce  of  the  country  the  services  contemplated.  A  tariff  for  revenue, 
incorporated  upon  the  principle  of  protecting  domestic  industry  was  established, 
and  a  mint  was  founded  which  furnished  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  precious  metals 
for  the  proper  coinage  of  the  government.  The  credit  of  the  union  and  of  the 
states  was  speedily  renewed  and  invigorated,  and  the  public  debt  incurred  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  largely  increased  in  the  war  of  1812,  was  finally  paid  off  and 
discharged  during  the  presidency  of  general  Jackson;  and  the  universal  prosperity 
consequent  upon  the  measures  thus  adopted,  is  now  a  subject  of  history. 

The  legislature  of  New-York,  as  soon  as  the  revolutionary  conflict  had  ended, 
devoted  itsell  to  the  duty  of  modifying  the  jurisprudence  and  civil  polity  of  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


67 


state,  in  harmony  with  the  principles  of  the  constitution  and  the  beneficent  spirit 
of  the  age.  Peter  Van  Schaack,  an  eminent  lawyer,  had  been  directed,  in  1774, 
to  revise  the  statute  laws  of  the  province,  a  task  which  he  performed  with  ability 
and  accuracy. 

It  would  be  impossible,  on  this  occasion,  to  review  in  detail  the  changes  of 
municipal  law  which  have  been  made  ;  changes  so  great  as  to  have  created  a 
code  as  peculiarly  distinct  and  national  as  the  civil  law  or  the  common  law  of 
England.  The  entire  criminal  code  has  been  revised  and  ameliorated,  by  the  sub¬ 
stitution  of  a  humane  penitentiary  system,  with  moral  discipline  and  religious 
instruction  established  in  lieu  of  a  system  which  denounced  the  penalty  of  death 
for  almost  every  form  of  municipal  offence ;  and  the  new  system  has  been  re¬ 
cently  improved  by  establishing  a  separate  institution  for  the  reformation  of 
female  offenders,  under  the  exclusive  care  of  persons  of  their  own  sex.  The 
relations  of  debtor  and  creditor  have  been  modified,  and  while  frauds  and  dis¬ 
honesty  have  been  subjected  to  rightful  punishment,  the  honest  but  unfortunate 
debtor  is  relieved  from  oppression.  The  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant  have 
been  divested  of  every  remnant  of  feudal  service,  and  conformed  to  the  equal 
spirit  of  republican  institutions.  The  laws  concerning  insane  persons,  copied 
from  an  English  statute  passed  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  by  which  those  un¬ 
happy  persons  who  were  bereft  of  reason  were  classed  with  “  vagrants  and  dis¬ 
orderly  persons,”  and  required  to  be  imprisoned  to  protect  society  against  their 
violence,  have  been  modified ;  and  an  institution  has  been  erected  in  which  they 
are  cured  of  their  mental  and  physical  maladies,  with  all  the  aids  which  modern 
science  has  devised  in  that  interesting  department  of  the  healing  art. 

Preferences  of  primogeniture  and  of  sex  in  regard  to  descents  have  been  abo¬ 
lished,  and  judicious  precautions  have  been  adopted  to  prevent  the  too  great  ac¬ 
cumulation  and  too  long  duration  of  estates.  The  rights  of  married  women  have 
been  enlarged.  The  alienation  of  land  has  been  relieved  from  embarrassments 
and  obstructions ;  and  the  general  registration  of  deeds  and  incumbrances  has  re¬ 
sulted  in  promoting  the  convenience  of  acquiring  and  the  disposing  of  real  estate. 


68 


INTRODUCTION. 


Joint  tenancies  have  been  changed  into  tenancies  in  common.  Lands  mortgaged 
for  the  payment  of  debts  have  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  mortgagee  and 
executor.  Obstructions  in  the  way  of  executions  upon  property,  have  been  re¬ 
moved.  Technicalities  in  conveyances  have  been  dispensed  with.  The  intri¬ 
cate  statutes  in  regard  to  uses  and  trusts,  have  been  simplified.  The  system  of 
pleadings  and  practice  in  courts  of  law  and  equity,  has  been  rendered  less 
tedious  and  expensive. 

Samuel  Jones  was  distinguished  as  the  prominent  leader  in  these  improve¬ 
ments  in  jurisprudence,  and  especially  as  the  author  of  the  statute  for  the  amend¬ 
ment  of  the  law  and  the  better  advancement  of  justice,  and  the  laws  relating  to  real 
estate.  But  there  is  one  feature  in  this  progress  of  improvement  too  prominent 
to  be  passed  without  more  special  notice.  The  first  public  evidence  that  justice 
was  awakened  in  regard  to  the  bondage  of  the  African  race,  was  manifested  in 
a  law  passed  during  the  revolution,  by  which  slaves  were  invited  to  enlist  in  the 
provincial  forces,  with  the  consent  of  their  masters,  under  a  promise  of  emanci¬ 
pation  after  the  term  of  their  military  service.  When  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  was  formed,  enlightened  men  throughout  the  union  could  not  close 
their  eyes  against  the  evils  which  must  obviously  flow  from  guaranteeing,  in  that 
instrument,  the  perpetual  maintenance  of  slavery ;  and  while  a  portion  of  the 
states  refused  to  enter  the  compact,  except  upon  receiving  concessions  which  they 
deemed  sufficient  to  secure  themselves  against  an  early  abolition  of  slavery  by  the 
power  of  the  general  government,  this  state,  and  others,  refused  to  assent  to  a  phra¬ 
seology  which  could  be  construed  to  forbid  emancipation ;  and  all  agreed  to  confer 
upon  congress  the  right  to  inhibit  the  importation  of  slaves  after  the  year  1808. 
The  right  of  suffrage,  under  the  first  constitution  of  this  state,  was  granted  to  free 
citizens,  without  distinction  on  the  ground  of  color  or  descent.  Mr.  Jay  was 
absent  when  the  constitution  prepared  by  him  was  adopted  by  the  convention. 
In  a  letter  addressed  to  two  members  of  that  body  soon  afterwards,  Mr.  Jay, 
after  objecting  to  some  features  of  the  constitution,  said,  “the  other  parts  I 
approve,  and  only  regret  that  like  a  harvest  cut  before  it  was  all  ripe,  some  of 


INTRODUCTION. 


69 


the  grains  have  shrunk.  I  should  have  been  for  a  clause  against  the  continuance 
of  domestic  slavery.”  In  1788,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  which  struck  at  the 
foreign  slave  trade,  but  not  at  the  existence  of  the  institution  of  slavery  itself. 
This  act  declared  “that  if  any  person  should  sell,  within  this  state,  any  negro  or 
other  person,  who  had  been  imported  or  brought  into  the  state  after  the  first  of 
June,  1785,  such  seller  should  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  public  offence,  and  the 
person  so  imported  or  sold  should  be  reprieved.”  Having  been  elected  to  the 
office  of  governor  in  1795,  John  Jay  diligently  prosecuted  his  philanthropic  pur¬ 
pose  of  procuring  the  abolition  of  slavery.  Unwilling  to  expose  that  measure  to 
the  spirit  of  party,  he  did  not  recommend  it  in  his  first  speech,  but  it  was  intro¬ 
duced  by  one  of  his  friends  into  the  house  of  assembly.  After  a  protracted 
discussion,  the  bill  was  defeated,  and  a  resolution  was  passed  “  that  it  would  be 
unjust  to  deprive  any  citizen  of  his  property  without  a  reasonable  pecuniary 
compensation  to  be  rendered  at  the  expense  of  the  state.”  The  effort  was  re¬ 
newed  in  1797,  but  was  successfully  resisted,  and  no  vote  was  taken  on  the 
merits  of  the  question.  John  Jay  had  long  since  declared,  “  that  were  he  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  legislature,  he  would  introduce  a  bill  for  the  gradual  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  would  never  desist  from  urging  its  passage  until  it  became  a  law,  or 
he  ceased  to  be  a  member.”  ■  True  to  the  principle  thus  avowed,  he,  in  1798, 
caused  a  bill  to  be  introduced  for  the  fourth,  and,  happily,  for  the  last  time.  It 
was  passed  by  majorities  of  ten  in  the  senate  and  twenty-six  in  the  assembly,  and 
may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  crowning  event  of  John  Jay’s  administration. 
Slavery,  however,  still  lingered,  under  some  reservations  contained  in  the  law, 
until  in  March,  1817,  during  the  administration  of  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  the 
annihilation  of  this  form  of  bondage  was  effectually  secured  by  an  act  emancipating 
“  every”  negro,  mulatto  or  mustee  within  the  state,  born  before  the  fourth  of  July, 
1799.  The  new  constitution  of  the  state  adopted  in  1821  took  a  retrogade  step 
in  requiring  of  colored  persons  a  property  qualification  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars  as  a  condition  of  suffrage,  while  white  citizens  were  allowed  to  vote  with¬ 
out  any  such  possessions.  In  1840,  with  a  Hew  to  the  better  protection  of  per- 


70 


INTRODUCTION. 


sons  unlawfully  claimed  by  virtue  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  as 
fugitives  from  service  in  other  states,  the  legislature  extended  to  those  claimed 
as  such  fugitives  the  privilege  of  a  jury  to  try  the  question  of  servitude.  In 
1841,  a  law,  which  until  then  had  been  in  force,  permitting  persons  from  other 
states,  traveling  within  this  state,  to  exercise  rights  as  masters  over  slaves  attend¬ 
ing  them,  for  a  period  not  exceeding  nine  months,  was  repealed ;  and  about  the 
same  time  the  executive  authority  decided  that  the  state  could  not  surrender,  as 
a  fugitive  from  justice,  a  person  charged  with  stealing  a  slave  as  property  ;  be¬ 
cause  this  state  could  not  admit  that  by  the  force  of  any  human  constitution  or 
laws,  one  human  being  could  become  the  property  of  another. 

Robert  R.  Livingston  filled  the  office  of  chancellor  from  1777  to  1801  ;  John 
Lansing  junior,  from  1801  to  1814 ;  James  Kent,  from  the  latter  year  to  1823  ; 
Nathan  Sanford,  from  that  period  to  1826,  when  Samuel  Jones  was  appointed, 
who,  in  1828,  gave  place  to  Reuben  H.  Walworth,  the  present  chancellor. 

The  office  of  chief  justice  -was,  in  1777,  assigned  to  John  Jay,  who  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  1779  by  Richard  Morris,  who  performed  its  duties  until  1790,  when 
Robert  Yates  was  appointed.  His  successor  was  John  Lansing  junior,  who  held 
the  office  from  1798  to  1801,  when  the  office  devolved  upon  Morgan  Lewis,  who 
was,  in  1804,  succeeded  by  James  Kent,  who  being  appointed  chancellor  in 
1814,  resigned  the  office  of  chief  justice,  and  was  succeeded  by  Smith  Thomp¬ 
son,  afterwards  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  now  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  Ambrose  Spencer  was  appointed  chief  justice  in 
1819,  and  in  1823  was  succeeded  by  John  Savage,  who  resigned  in  1837,  and 
Samuel  Nelson,  the  present  chief  justice,  was  thereupon  appointed.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  persons  have  filled  the  offices  of  justices  of  the  supreme  court,  and  were 
appointed  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  named :  Robert  Yates,  John  Sloss  Ho¬ 
bart,  John  Lansing  junior,  Morgan  Lewis,  Egbert  Benson,  James  Kent,  John 
Cozine,  Jacob  Radcliff,  Brockholst  Livingston,  Smith  Thompson,  Ambrose  Spen¬ 
cer,  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  William  W.  Van  Ness,  Joseph  C.  Yates,  Jonas  Platt, 


INTRODUCTION. 


71 


John  Woodworth,  Jacob  Sutherland,  William  L.  Marcy,  Samuel  Nelson,  Greene 
C.  Bronson  and  Esek  Cowen. 

The  office  of  attorney-general  has  successively  devolved  on  Egbert  Benson, 
Richard  Varick,  Aaron  Burr,  Morgan  Lewis,  Nathaniel  Lawrence,  Josiah  Ogden 
Hoffman,  Ambrose  Spencer,  John  Woodworth,  Matthias  B.  Hildreth,  Abraham 
Van  Vechten,  Martin  Van  Buren,  Thomas  J.  Oakley,  Samuel  A.  Tallcott, 
Greene  C.  Bronson,  Samuel  Beardsley,  Willis  Hall  and  George  P.  Barker. 

While  the  legislature  was  busily  engaged  in  modifying  the  municipal  law,  the 
higher  courts  were  not  less  assiduous  in  expounding  the  new  statutes.  But  the 
materials  for  writing  the  judicial  history  of  the  state  previously  to  1805,  are  very 
scanty,  and  are  chiefly  traditionary.  The  practice  in  the  supreme  court  was 
modeled  after  that  of  the  king’s  bench  in  England,  and  its  complexity  and  un¬ 
certainty  rendered  it  difficult  of  attainment.  Not  only  was  the  practice  in  the 
court  of  chancery  more  mysterious,  but  the  principles  of  equity,  and  the  rules 
controling  their  application,  were  to  be  learned  by  the  few  only  who  at  that  day 
had  access  to  expensive  English  works.  The  science  of  the  law  at  that  early 
period  was  less  understood  than  now,  while  its  professors  were  held  in  high  vene¬ 
ration,  as  the  priests  of  mysteries  too  profound  to  be  explored  by  common  minds. 
In  1794,  “A  treatise  on  the  practice  of  the  supreme  court  of  judicature  of  the 
state  of  New-York,  in  civil  actions,”  was  published  “by  William  Wyche,  of  the 
Honorable  Law  Society  of  Grey’s  Inn,  London,  and  citizen  of  the  United  States  of 
America,”  and  with  the  motto  “  Lex  mundi  harmonia.”  This  little  work  was 
well  executed,  and  there  are  yet  some  among  us  who  found  it  useful  in  relieving 
them  from  the  difficulties  of  separating  what  was  applicable  here  from  the  intri¬ 
cate  forms  of  practice  in  the  English  courts. 

William  Coleman  and  George  Caines,  in  1794,  commenced  collecting  reports 
of  cases  of  practice  in  the  supreme  court,  and  published  the  results  in  1805. 
George  Caines  also  gathered  notices  of  important  cases  adjudicated  in  the  court 
for  the  correction  of  errors.  The  same  author,  in  1808,  published  a  treatise  on 
the  practice  of  the  supreme  court.  The  occasional  reports  thus  published,  pre- 


72 


INTRODUCTION. 


pared  the  way  for  more  regular  and  careful  reports  by  William  Johnson,  of  the 
decisions  made  in  the  three  higher  tribunals  of  the  state.  Those  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  court  for  the  correction  of  errors,  now  fill  fifty  volumes,  of  which 
twenty  were  published  by  Mr.  Johnson,  nine  by  Esek  Cowen,  twenty  by  John 
L.  Wendell,  and  one  by  Mr.  Hill,  the  present  reporter. 

Chancellor  Kent  introduced  the  system  of  reporting  in  the  court  of  chancery, 
and  we  have  now  fifteen  volumes  of  such  reports,  seven  of  which  were  prepared 
by  William  Johnson,  one  by  Samuel  Miles  Hopkins,  and  seven  by  Alonzo  C. 
Paige.  These  various  reports  contain  a  large  mass  of  adjudications  on  constitu¬ 
tional  law  and  statutory  enactments  and  the  application  of  the  common  law,  and 
principles  of  equity,  to  the  multifarious  questions  of  rights  and  duties  arising  in  a 
rapidly  increasing  community ;  and  are  held  in  the  highest  respect  by  the  people 
of  this  state,  and  deemed  a  necessary  part  of  the  library  of  every  lawyer  in  the 
United  States.  The  talents  and  learning  of  judge  Benson  have  always  been  held 
in  high  respect ;  but  the  honor  of  introducing  method  and  order  into  our  juris¬ 
prudence,  and  elucidating  its  principles  and  their  application,  rests  chiefly  with 
James  Kent  and  Ambrose  Spencer,  and  their  associates  on  the  bench  of  the  su¬ 
preme  court.  Since  their  retirement  from  the  judiciary,  the  responsibilities  of 
judges  have  vastly  increased  in  regard  to  the  number  of  causes  to  be  heard  and 
adjudicated ;  and  although  generally  it  is  hazardous  to  speak  of  contemporaries, 
yet  we  may  safely  affirm  that  the  courts  have  continued  to  maintain  an  eminent 
character  for  profound  and  varied  learning. 

The  names  of  some  of  our  lawyers  have  been  already  mentioned.  We  may 
add  those  of  Richard  Harrison,  Richard  Yarick,  Thomas  Addis  Emmet,  John 
Wells,  John  V.  Henry,  Elisha  Williams,  Abraham  Van  Vechten,  Henry  R.  Storrs, 
Samuel  Miles  Hopkins,  Thomas  R.  Gold,  who  are  deeply  lamented  not  only 
as  eminent  lawyers,  but  as  useful  and  honored  citizens.  Our  contemporaries 
will  perhaps  allow  us  to  add  the  names  of  some  who,  although  living  have  with¬ 
drawn  from  the  contests  of  the  forum,  and  whose  established  fame  is  now  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


73 


property  of  the  bar  of  the  state,  such  as  Samuel  Jones,  Thomas  J.  Oakley,  Mar¬ 
tin  Van  Buren,  John  Duer  and  John  C.  Spencer. 

Chancellor  Kent  retired  from  the  arduous  and  honorable  duties  of  the  court 
of  chancery,  unwearied  by  judicial  labors  and  unimpaired  by  age,  although  he 
had  reached  the  climacteric  at  which  the  constitution  declares  an  incumbent 
disqualified.  He  then  employed  himself  in  reducing  to  a  system  the  confused 
mass  of  American  jurisprudence,  as  it  was  found  in  the  reports  of  the  United 
States  tribunals,  and  of  the  courts  of  more  than  twenty  of  the  states.  This 
great  work  he  accomplished  so  successfully,  that  his  commentaries  have  super¬ 
seded,  as  an  elementary  book,  all  other  compilations,  and  is  received  with  the 
respect  due  to  authority  throughout  the  union.  Our  law  libraries  are  chiefly 
made  up  of  English  works,  reprinted  with  notes  of  American  decisions  and  statutes. 
There  have  been  few  original  publications  on  elementary  law,  and  the  list  of 
writers  in  the  legal  profession  is  by  no  means  extensive.  We  have  a  profound 
and  philosophical  essay  on  the  law  of  contracts  by  Gulian  C.  Verplanck,  who 
has  also  distinguished  himself  by  many  elaborate  opinions,  delivered  while  he  was 
a  senator,  in  the  court  of  errors ;  a  treatise  on  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  by  Alfred  Conkling ;  an  essay  on  new  trials,  and  a  treatise  on  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  the  supreme  court,  by  David  Graham  junior ;  a  manual  of  law  for  the 
use  of  business  men,  by  Amos  Dean  ;  “  The  office  and  duties  of  masters  in  chan¬ 
cery,”  and  a  treatise  on  the  practice  in  chancery,  by  Murray  Hoffman ;  Blake’s 
chancery  practice;  Dunlap’s  practice;  and  a  work  on  the  same  subject,  by  Paris 
&  Duer. 

Leaving  this  imperfect  notice  of  the  bar  and  its  learning,  and  returning  to  the 
subject  of  political  science,  we  may  mention  “A  sketch  of  the  finances  of  the 
United  States,  by  Albert  Gallatin,”  published  in  1796,  which,  on  account  of  the 
general  views  it  contains  in  respect  to  revenue  and  taxation,  deserves  to  be  classed 
among  discussions  in  the  science  of  political  economy.  The  sketch  referred  to 
contained  a  very  comprehensive  and  lucid  view  of  the  financial  system  of  the 
United  States,  as  put  in  operation  after  the  organization  of  the  government  under 

Intr.  10 


74  INTRODUCTION. 

the  constitution.  It  did  not  merely  set  forth  the  actual  condition  of  the  finances, 
but  was  interspersed  with  much  clear  and  forcible  reasoning  in  relation  to  the 
wisdom  of  particular  features  of  the  revenue  system,  as  it  then  existed.  The 
subjects  of  taxation  and  public  debt  and  their  effects,  the  different  species  of 
revenue,  and  the  expenditures  of  the  government,  were  discussed  by  Mr.  Gallatin 
with  a  degree  of  ability  and  acuteness,  which  indicated  a  familiar  acquaintance 
with  financial  questions,  and  strong  powers  of  reasoning.  The  work  contained 
pointed  objections  to  some  of  the  early  measures  of  the  federal  government, 
which  were  recommended  by  general  Hamilton,  and  particularly  the  assumption 
of  the  debts  of  the  states  by  the  general  government ;  but  its  tone  throughout  was 
calm,  dignified  and  elevated. 

From  its  bearing  upon  one  of  the  great  questions  of  the  day,  viz.  the  extent  to 
which  protection  to  the  manufacturing  industry  of  the  United  States  was  neces¬ 
sary  —  the  following  position  assumed  by  Mr.  Gallatin  is  deemed  worthy  of 
notice :  “  As  every  further  increase  of  population  in  many  of  the  states  dimi¬ 
nishes  the  relative  quantity  of  land  and  of  produce  raised,  and  promotes  the 
establishment  of  manufactures ;  our  exports  of  raw  materials,  our  importations  of 
those  articles  we  can  manufacture,  and  the  revenue  raised  upon  such  articles, 
although  all  of  them  gradually  augmenting,  will,  unless  favored  by  accidental 
causes,  increase  in  a  ratio  less  than  our  population.”  He,  however,  maintained 
that  for  the  purposes  of  revenue  the  impost  should  be  the  principal  reliance  of  the 
country ;  and  that  when  this  was  carried  as  far  as  prudence  would  dictate,  the 
great  source  of  taxes  upon  consumption  must  be  considered  as  nearly  exhausted, 
and  that  the  other  great  branch  of  revenue,  lands,  must  be  made  to  contribute 
by  direct  taxation.  On  the  subject  of  public  debt,  and  its  effects,  Mr.  Gallatin’s 
observations  are  able  and  philosophical. 

In  the  year  1826,  a  discourse  was  delivered  at  Schenectady,  before  the  lite¬ 
rary  societies  of  Union  College,  by  Samuel  Young,  Esq.  on  the  subject  of  political 
economy.  It  traced  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  science  through  its  various 
phases,  from  the  commercial  or  mercantile  theory,  to  the  more  orderly  and  ra- 


INTRODUCTION. 


75 


tional  system  introduced  by  Adam  Smith.  The  discourse  was  written  with 
purity  and  beauty  of  language,  and  illustrated  with  great  clearness  the  received 
principles  of  the  science.  Mr.  Young  pointed  out  the  evil  effects  of  a  public 
debt  upon  a  community,  and  the  indispensable  duty  of  governments  to  practise 
the  most  rigid  frugality  and  economy.  He  objected  to  usury  laws  as  tending  to 
promote  the  very  evil  they  were  designed  to  eradicate,  and  to  eleemosynary  esta¬ 
blishments,  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  as  encouragements  to  pauperism. 
The  general  scope  of  Col.  Young’s  address  was  in  harmony  with  the  principles 
stated  by  Adam  Smith,  though  he  conceded  that,  in  the  incipient  stages  of  a  do¬ 
mestic  manufacture,  it  might  need  and  properly  receive  the  aid  of  government, 
being  left,  as  soon  as  it  had  passed  the  precarious  period  of  infancy,  to  that  free 
competition  and  that  keen  sighted  self-interest,  which  he  believed  to  be  the  best 
regulators  of  human  industry. 

An  essay  on  credit,  currency  and  banking,  by  Eleazer  Lord,  published  in 
1834  ;  a  treatise  on  political  economy,  by  the  reverend  Alonzo  Potter ;  and  sug¬ 
gestions  on  the  banks  and  the  currency,  published  within  the  last  year,  by  Albert 
Gallatin,  deserve  a  place  among  the  writings  of  citizens  of  New-York,  in  the 
department  of  political  economy.  These  several  works  discuss  questions  which 
yet  remain  subjects  of  political  controversy,  and  present  the  various  arguments 
by  which  many  conflicting  opinions  of  the  day  are  supported ;  but  all  are  distin¬ 
guished  by  the  spirit  of  candid  inquiry,  or  honest  conviction.* 

The  convention  which  assembled  in  1821  to  revise  the  constitution  of  the 
state,  presented  an  occasion  when  many  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
science  of  government  before  regarded  as  settled,  were  subjected  to  a  close  and 
searching  examination.  Rufus  King,  who  had  been  long  distinguished  as  a  senator 
from  this  state  in  the  senate  of  the  United  States,  and  as  a  representative  of  the 
United  States  at  the  court  of  St.  James,  expressed  in  an  opening  speech  what 
were  probably  the  prevalent  feelings  of  the  convention.  “Although,”  said  he, 


*  Notes  on  the  history  of  the  science  of  political  economy  were  received  from  the  Honorable  John  A.  Dix,  and  from 
Horace  Greeley,  Esq. 


76 


INTRODUCTION. 


“I  fully  concur  in  the  fitness  and  expediency  of  this  convention  ;  and  although  I 
am  fully  of  opinion  that  the  change  of  circumstances  and  political  relations  in 
our  country  have  imperiously  required  the  interposition  of  the  people  to  revise 
the  constitution,  yet  it  is  my  hope  that  the  convention  may  proceed  with  great 
caution  and  moderation.  Not  only,”  said  he,  “are  the  great  principles  of  free 
government  which  arise  from,  and  are  sustained  by,  the  intelligence  and  virtue 
of  the  people,  denied  by  the  great  nations  of  the  old  world,  but  a  contrary  and 
most  slavish  doctrine  is  proclaimed  and  enforced  by  them;  a  doctrine  which 
falsely  assumes  that  a  select  portion  of  mankind  only  are  set  apart  by  Providence, 
and  made  solely  responsible  for  the  government  of  mankind.  In  contradiction 
to  this  theory  it  is  our  bounden  duty  to  make  it  manifest  to  all  men,  that  a  free 
people  are  capable  of  self-government ;  that  they  can  make,  and  abate,  and  re¬ 
make  their  constitution ;  and  that,  at  all  times,  our  public  liberties,  when  impaired, 
may  be  renovated,  without  destroying  those  securities  which  education  and  man¬ 
ners,  our  laws  and  constitutions,  have  provided.” 

The  governor,  chancellor,  chief  justice  and  justices  of  the  supreme  court, 
under  the  old  constitution,  were  a  council  to  revise  bills  which  passed  both 
houses ;  and  bills  which  were  returned  with  objections  failed  to  become  laws, 
unless  they  received  the  votes  of  two-thirds  of  the  members.  A  committee  pro¬ 
posed  to  abolish  this  part  of  the  constitution,  and  to  confide  the  revising  power 
to  the  executive  alone,  but  to  retain  the  provision  declaring  that  bills  should 
become  laws  if  passed  by  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  both  houses.  The  pro¬ 
position  to  abolish  the  council  of  revision  was  unanimously  adopted.  Ambrose 
Spencer,  then  chief  justice,  admitted  the  expediency  of  separating  the  judges 
from  the  legislative  power,  but  opposed  with  zeal  the  vesting  the  power  in  the 
governor,  unless  he  was  made  more  independent  of  the  legislature.  Peter  R. 
Livingston  strenuously  labored  to  obtain  such  a  modification  of  the  proposed 
amendment  as  would  permit  bills,  returned  with  objections,  to  pass,  if  they  should 
then  receive  the  votes  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  elected  to  each  house. 
Jonas  Platt,  then  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  and  member  of  the  council  of 


INTRODUCTION. 


77 


revision,  very  earnestly  insisted  upon  some  more  effective  check  on  hasty  and 
improper  legislation  than  he  thought  would  be  secured  by  the  veto  of  the  governor 
dependent,  (as  it  was  supposed  he  would  be,)  on  the  legislature.  Erastus  Root 
opposed  these  views  and  supported  the  amendment,  declaring,  with  his  customary 
energy,  that  he  deprecated  the  firmness  which  grew  out  of  an  independence  of 
the  popular  voice  to  oppose  the  popular  will.  Chancellor  Kent  expressed  his 
apprehension  “  that  the  sober  minded  people  of  the  state  would  not  be  satisfied 
to  see  so  important  a  column  of  the  constitution  destroyed,  without  having  it 
replaced  by  something  more  efficient  in  its  character,  and  useful  in  its  operation,” 
than  the  qualified  veto  which  was  proposed.  James  Tallmadge  supported  the 
proposition  in  a  speech  of  great  ability,  and  evincing  deep  research  into  the  history 
of  government.  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  who  was  the  president  of  the  convention, 
approved  the  principle  of  a  qualified  negative  upon  legislation,  but  opposed  the 
conferring  that  power  upon  the  governor  alone,  and  proposed  to  establish  a 
council  to  consist  of  the  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  and  attorney-general  and 
others.  He  also  proposed  to  confine  the  powers  of  the  governor’s  veto  to  cases 
in  which  unconstitutional  laws  were  offered  for  his  signature.  Abraham  Van 
Vechten,  Samuel  Young  and  John  Duer,  approved  the  plan  proposed  by  the 
committee,  and  it  was  finally  adopted. 

Under  the  former  constitution,  the  pardoning  power  was  vested  in  the  governor, 
except  in  capital  cases.  That  power  was  now  conferred  on  the  governor,  with 
unlimited  power  to  pardon  in  all  cases  except  treason ;  after  a  debate  in  which 
Mr,  Tompkins,  Ogden  Edwards,  David  Buel  junior,  Samuel  Nelson  and  Peter 
R.  Livingston,  endeavored  to  procure  an  amendment,  by  which  the  governor 
should  be  obliged  to  assign  reasons  for  granting  executive  clemency  ;  which  pro¬ 
position  was  opposed  by  Mr.  Kent,  Mr.  Platt  and  others,  Mr.  Root  endeavored 
to  retain  the  legislative  power  of  pardon  in  capital  cases. 

The  power  to  prorogue  the  legislature,  conferred  by  the  old  constitution,  was 
abolished,  on  motion  of  Mr.  Root;  but  the  convention  was  at  one  time  almost 
equally  divided  on  the  question. 


78 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  term  of  the  executive  office,  under  the  old  constitution,  was  three  years. 
It  was  now  reduced  to  two;  thirty-one  members  voting  in  favor  of  continuing 
the  term  three  years ;  sixty-one  voting  to  fix  the  term  at  two  years,  and  fifty- 
nine  for  reducing  it  to  one  year. 

Mr.  Root  made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  procure  a  provision  in  the  constitution, 
inhibiting  courts  from  granting  new  trials,  after  two  verdicts  had  been  rendered. 
Mr.  Duer  made  a  like  effort  to  incorporate  in  the  constitution  an  article,  declar¬ 
ing  that  indictments  should  not  be  found  for  what  was  resolved  in  meetings  of  the 
people,  peaceably  convened  to  consider  the  action  of  the  government. 

The  debates  in  the  convention  disclosed  the  fact,  that  there  were  three  opinions 
among  its  members  on  the  question  of  suffrage.  One  of  them  contemplated  re¬ 
taining  the  qualification  of  a  freehold,  valued  at  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  as 
a  condition  of  suffrage  for  senators.  Nineteen  members  voted  for  this  proposition, 
viz.  Messrs.  Bacon,  Fish,  Hees,  Hunter,  Huntington,  Jay,  Jones,  Platt,  Rhinelan¬ 
der,  Rose,  Sanders,  I.  Smith,  Spencer,  Sylvester,  Van  Horne,  Van  Ness,  Van 
Vechten,  E.  Williams  and  Woods.  A  second  opinion  was  favorable  to  universal 
suffrage  by  white  persons.  This  opinion  was  supported  by  Mr.  Root,  Mr.  Tomp¬ 
kins,  Mr.  Radcliff  and  Mr.  Young.  The  third  opinion  was  conservative  and  mid¬ 
way  between  the  extremes ;  and  it  was  supported  by  Mr.  V an  Buren,  King, 
Sutherland,  Duer,  Nelson  and  Nathan  Williams.  The  result  was  a  compromise 
between  these  conflicting  opinions.  But  so  strong  was  the  popular  sentiment  in 
favor  of  universal  suffrage,  that  the  constitution  was  amended  five  years  after¬ 
wards,  so  as  to  dispense  with  all  other  restrictions  than  those  which  are  specified 
in  our  synopsis  of  that  instrument.*  The  exclusion  of  colored  persons  from  suf¬ 
frage,  unless  they  had  freeholds  valued  at  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  was 
carried  by  a  vote  of  seventy-one  to  thirty-three,  and  was  based  upon  the  ground 
that  the  African  race  were  in  a  condition  of  hopeless  degradation  and  ignorance. 
The  proposition  was  opposed  with  great  zeal  and  ability  by  Peter  A.  Jay. 


Hammond’s  History. 


INTRODUCTION.  79 

One  of  the  chief  causes  of  discontent  under  the  old  constitution,  was  the  man¬ 
ner  in  which  the  appointing  power  had  been  exercised  by  the  council  of  appoint¬ 
ment,  which  consisted  of  the  governor  and  four  senators  chosen  by  the  assembly. 
The  council  was  abolished  with  great  unanimity,  many  offices  were  rendered 
elective,  and  the  power  to  fill  others  was  distributed  among  several  departments 
and  functionaries,  without  important  division  among  the  members  as  to  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  distribution. 

It  would  be  inconvenient  to  extend  our  notice  of  the  convention.  What  has 
been  written,  will,  perhaps,  be  sufficient  to  show  the  spirit  which  prevailed  in  its 
deliberations,  and  to  indicate  some  of  the  members  who  were  influential  in  giving 
direction  to  its  measures. 

The  year  1825  was  signalized  by  the  commencement  of  an  undertaking  which 
marks  an  era  in  the  jurisprudence  of  the  state.  An  act  was  passed,  directing  that 
all  the  existing  statute  laws  should  be  revised  and  reduced  into  the  form  of  a 
code,  to  be  submitted  to  the  legislature  for  review.  This  important  duty  was 
confided  to  John  Duer,  Benjamin  F.  Butler  and  Henry  Wheaton.  Mr.  Wheaton 
resigned  the  trust,  and  his  place  was  filled  by  John  C.  Spencer.  The  gentlemen 
thus  constituting  the  commission,  were  three  years  engaged  in  performing  its 
duties ;  and  the  legislature,  on  receiving  their  reports  from  time  to  time,  passed 
upon  the  same,  until  in  January,  1829,  a  perfect  code  was  completed  in  four 
parts,  as  follows  :  Part  I.  Concerning  the  territorial  limits  and  divisions,  the  civil 
polity,  and  the  internal  administration  of  the  state  ;  Part  II.  Concerning  the  ac¬ 
quisition,  the  enjoyment,  and  the  transmission  of  real  and  personal  property,  the 
domestic  relations,  and  other  matters  connected  with  private  rights ;  Part  III. 
Concerning  courts  and  ministers  of  justice,  and  proceedings  in  civil  cases ;  and 
Part  IV.  Concerning  crimes  and  punishments,  proceedings  in  criminal  cases  and 
prison  discipline.  The  execution  of  this  intricate  and  extensive  work,  has  been 
regarded  by  many  enlightened  men  as  a  great  advance  towards  the  establishment 
of  an  unique  and  complete  code.  But  the  public  mind  is  not  now  engaged  in 
considering  the  practicability  or  expediency  of  such  a  measure. 


80 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  geographical  position  of  the  United  States,  and  our  principles  of  govern¬ 
ment,  are  alike  unfavorable  to  conquest  and  military  ambition.  The  popular 
mind  has  its  action,  therefore,  directed  towards  physical  improvement  and  the 
melioration  of  the  condition  of  society  ;  and  in  this  state  it  has  been  especially 
engaged  in  improving  those  interior  communications  necessary  to  the  mainte¬ 
nance  of  intimate  political  and  social  relations,  the  exchange  of  supplies,  and  pro¬ 
vision  for  the  public  defence. 

The  destiny  of  our  country  seems  to  have  been  opened  to  the  mind  of  Wa¬ 
shington,  with  a  clearness  almost  equal  to  that  with  which  the  varied  career  of 
the  chosen  people  was  revealed  to  their  prophetic  leader  on  the  sublime  occasion 
when  he  was  required  to  resign  the  trust  he  had  so  long  faithfully  discharged. 
Washington  saw,  that  although  the  settlements  of  the  United  States  had  been 
clustering  on  the  Atlantic  coast  during  almost  two  centuries,  yet  the  region,  far 
more  extensive,  fertile  and  salubrious,  which  lay  beyond  the  proper  borders  of  the 
thirteen  states,  would  become  the  home  of  the  larger  portion  of  the  American 
family;  and  that  if  the  natural  barriers  between  that  region  and  the  east  should 
remain  unchanged,  the  west  would,  at  no  distant  period,  refuse  political  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  maritime  states  ;  but  that  if  those  barriers  could  be  surmounted  by 
roads,  and  pierced  by  canals,  connecting  the  inland  lakes  and  rivers  with  tide 
water,  the  wealth  and  population  of  the  whole  country  would  be  vastly  increased  ; 
ample  provision  would  be  made  for  defending  every  part  of  our  extended  bor¬ 
ders  ;  and  the  states,  new  and  old,  would  be  bound  “  in  an  indissoluble  union  of 
interest  and  affection.”  In  1783,  when  he  had  proceeded  up  the  difficult  navi¬ 
gation  of  the  Mohawk  to  F ort  Stanwix,  now  the  site  of  the  village  of  Rome,  and 
had  crossed  to  Wood  creek,  which  flows  into  Oneida  lake,  and  thence  had 
descended  to  the  sources  in  this  state  of  the  Susquehannah,  he  gave  expression  to 
this  glowing  thought :  “  T aking  a  contemplative  and  extensive  view  of  the  vast 

inland  navigation  of  the  United  States,  I  could  not  but  be  struck  with  the  im¬ 
mense  diffusion  and  importance  of  it,  and  with  the  goodness  of  that  Providence 


INTRODUCTION. 


81 


who  has  dealt  his  favors  to  us  with  so  profuse  a  hand.  Would  to  God  we  may 
have  wisdom  to  improve  them  !”* 

Ideas  like  these  soon  afterwards  engaged  the  attention  of  philosophic  minds 
throughout  the  states,  and  it  was  perceived  that  in  thus  improving  the  inland 
navigation  of  the  continent,  the  route  for  a  communication  between  the  inland 
waters  and  the  sea,  which  should  secure  to  itself  the  trade  of  the  valley  between 
the  Allegany  mountains  and  the  Mississippi,  would  become  an  object  of  zealous 
competition. 

The  ocean,  receiving  homage  through  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio, 
the  Potomac,  the  Susquehannah,  the  Delaware,  the  Hudson  and  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  seemed  to  invite  through  those  various  channels  the  accomplishment  of  the 
stupendous  project. 

By  removing  obstructions  to  the  navigable  flow  of  the  continuous  waters  of 
the  great  lakes  and  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  ship  navigation  might  be  grasped  six 
hundred  miles  up  that  river,  and  extended  around  the  Falls  of  Niagara  into  the 
waters  of  Lake  Erie. 

Citizens  of  Pennsylvania  proposed  to  accomplish  the  same  great  purpose,  by 
alternative  land  and  water  communications,  surmounting  the  Alleganies,  and  em¬ 
ploying  in  the  transit  between  the  Delaware  and  the  lakes  the  waters  of  the 
Susquehannah  and  the  Allegany. 

The  project  of  Maryland  comprehended  a  diversion  of  trade  from  the  Penn¬ 
sylvania  route  at  Pittsburgh,  and  a  passage  to  tide  water  through  the  Potomac. 

The  comprehensive  sagacity  of  Washington,  as  early  as  1784,  marked  out  a 
plan  for  securing  to  Virginia  the  trade  of  the  regions  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes, 
by  connecting  the  navigable  waters  of  James  river  by  portages,  or  other  commu¬ 
nications,  with  those  of  the  Kenhawa,  the  Muskingum,  and  the  rivers  flowing 
into  lake  Erie.f 

The  Mississippi  offered  an  easy  descending  navigation  almost  from  the  shores 
of  the  lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  But  the  keys  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 


*  Washington’s  letter  to  the  Marquis  of  Chastellux. 

Intr.  11 


t  Washington’s  letter  to  Governor  Harrison. 


82 


INTRODUCTION. 


Mississippi,  which  were  the  most  obvious  channels,  were  held  by  foreign  powers, 
and  neither  their  enterprise  nor  the  condition  of  their  colonies  favored  the  spirit 
of  competition  which  had  been  awakened  in  the  new  republic. 

New-York  furnished  a  navigation  through  the  Hudson,  one  hundred  and 
eighty  miles  from  tide  water,  and  facilities  for  constructing  a  continuous  channel 
for  inland  navigation  across  an  almost  level  isthmus,  which  separated  the  great 
eastern  lakes  from  the  valley  through  which  that  river ,  poured  its  deep  and 
ample  volume  into  the  ocean ;  an  isthmus,  which  in  its  various  width  no  where 
exceeded  three  hundred  and  sixty  miles. 

The  proximity  of  the  great  lakes  to  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  was  understood 
at  a  very  early  period.  Governor  Burnet,  in  1720,  found  the  Six  Nations  receiv¬ 
ing  from  French  traders  by  the  way  of  Montreal,  merchandise  which  had  been 
carried  there  from  Albany.  The  friendship  of  the  Indians  naturally  followed 
this  commerce.  Burnet,  with  a  view  to  detach  the  Iroquois  from  the  French 
interest,  caused  a  fort  to  be  erected  at  Oswego,  and  trading  houses  to  be  built  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Oswego  river,  “  on  account  of  its  water  communications,  and 
for  the  facility  of  transportation  between  the  lakes  and  Schenectady,  there  being 
but  three  portages  in  the  whole  route,  and  two  of  them  very  short.”*  Dr.  Cadwal- 
lader  Colden,  then  surveyor-general  of  the  province,  addressed  to  governor  Bur¬ 
net  a  memoir  on  the  fur  trade,  which  contained  an  account  of  the  western  rivers, 
portages  and  lakes,  and  in  which  we  find  this  very  bold  suggestion :  “  If  one  con¬ 
siders  the  great  length  of  the  river  (the  Mississippi),  and  its  numerous  branches, 
he  must  say,  that  by  means  of  the  river  and  the  lakes,  there  is  opened  to  his  view 
such  a  scene  of  inland  navigation  as  cannot  be  paralleled  in  any  part  of  the 
world.”f  Kalm  and  Carver,  early  European  travellers,  were  struck  with  the 
same  peculiar  features  of  our  territory.  Sir  Henry  Moore,  governor  in  1768.  in 
a  speech  to  the  provincial  assembly,  noticed  the  difficulties  of  trade  with  the  Iro¬ 
quois,  in  consequence  of  the  obstructions  in  the  navigation  between  Schenectady 


»  DUNL4P. 


t  C.  D.  Colden’s  Memoir  of  N.  Y.  Canals. 


INTRODUCTION. 


83 


and  Fort  Stanwix,  ‘'occasioned  by  the  falls  of  Canajoharie,”  under  which  de¬ 
scription  was  undoubtedly  meant  the  rapids  at  Little  Falls;  and  he  suggested 
that  “  the  obstructions  could  easily  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  sluices  upon  the 
plan  of  the  great  canal  of  Languedoc.” 

In  1784,  Christopher  Colles,  of  New-York,  submitted  to  the  legislature  pro¬ 
posals  for  removing  obstructions  to  the  navigation  of  the  Mohawk  river,  so  that 
boats  of  burthen  might  pass  the  same.  That  body  mingled  considerations  of  eco¬ 
nomy  with  those  of  enterprise  in  their  views  of  the  subject,  and  offered  to  secure 
to  the  projector  and  his  associates,  the  perpetual  profits  to  be  derived  from  the 
navigation  of  the  river,  if  improved  by  them.  At  the  next  session  the  legislature 
granted  to  Mr.  Codes  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars,  to  enable  him  to  pro¬ 
secute  his  examination  of  the  river.  He  appeared  again  before  that  body,  and 
before  the  public,  with  a  proposition  to  form  an  association  to  improve  the  inland 
navigation  between  Oswego  and  Albany ;  and  the  publication  is  said  to  have  ex¬ 
hibited  good  foresight  of  the  advantages  which  would  result  from  the  proposed 
connection,  as  wed  as  a  right  understanding  of  the  facility  with  which  it  could 
be  accomplished.  But  no  public  action  crowned  his  labors.  The  plan  he  pro¬ 
posed  was  thought  quite  too  visionary.  He  died  in  obscurity,  and  was  interred 
in  “the  burying  ground  of  strangers,”  about  1820,  while  the  project  he  had  pro¬ 
mulgated  was,  on  a  vastly  more  extended  scale,  proceeding  to  its  consummation* 

George  Clinton,  governor,  in  1791,  stated  to  the  legislature  that  the  frontier 
settlements,  freed  from  apprehensions  of  danger,  were  rapidly  increasing,  and 
must  soon  yield  extensive  resources  for  profitable  commerce,  and  that  this  con¬ 
sideration  forcibly  recommended  the  policy  of  continuing  to  facilitate  the  means 
of  communication  with  them,  as  well  to  strengthen  the  bands  of  society,  as  to 
prevent  the  produce  of  those  fertile  districts  from  being  diverted  to  other  mar¬ 
kets.  The  senate  and  assembly  thereupon  appointed  a  committee  to  inquire 
what  obstructions  in  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers  ought  to  be  removed.  The 


*  C.  D.  Colden’s  Memoirs. 


84 


INTRODUCTION. 


committee,  consisting  of  Ezra  L’Hommedieu,  John  Cantine,  Philip  Schuyler  and 
Alexander  Webster,  of  the  senate ;  James  Livingston,  Jonathan  Brown,  Jacob 
Delamater,  John  D.  Coe,  Zina  Hitchcock,  Samuel  L.  Mitchill  and  John  Smith, 
of  the  assembly,  reported  a  bill,  entitled  “  An  act  concerning  roads  and  inland 
navigation,”  which  became  a  law,  and  which  directed  the  commissioners  of  the 
land-office  to  cause  the  country  to  be  explored,  between  Fort  Stanwix  and  Wood 
creek,  in  Herkimer  county,  and  a  similar  survey  to  be  made  between  the  Hudson 
and  Wood  creek,  in  Washington  county.  The  law  further  directed  the  commis¬ 
sioners  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  expense  of  constructing  canals  on  those  routes. 
The  commissioners  submitted  a  favorable  report,  and  governor  Clinton,  at  the  next 
session,  commended  the  subject  earnestly  to  the  consideration  of  the  legislature. 
Thereupon  a  law  was  passed,  entitled  “  An  act  for  establishing  and  opening  lock 
navigation  within  this  state.”  The  act  commenced  with  the  terse  recital  “  Where¬ 
as  a  communication  by  water  between  the  southern,  northern  and  western  parts 
of  this  state  will  encourage  agriculture,  promote  commerce  and  facilitate  a  gene¬ 
ral  intercourse  between  the  citizens and  provided  for  the  incorporation  of  two 
associations,  the  Western  Inland  Lock  Navigation  Company,  and  the  Northern 
Inland  Lock  Navigation  Company.  The  purpose  of  the  western  company  was 
to  open  a  lock  navigation  from  the  Hudson  river  to  Lake  Ontario  and  the  Seneca 
lake;  and  that  of  the  northern  company  was  to  connect  the  same  river  with 
Lake  Champlain.  The  act  appointed  as  directors  in  the  two  companies,  Philip 
Schuyler,  Leonard  Gansevoort,  Jeremiah  Van  Rensselaer,  Elkanah  Watson, 
John  Tayler,  Jellis  A.  Fonda,  William  North,  Goldsbrow  Banyar,  Daniel  Hale, 
John  Watts,  Walter  Livingston,  Dominick  Lynch,  James  Watson,  Matthew 
Clarkson,  Ezra  L’Hommedieu,  Melancton  Smith,  David  Gelston,  Stephen  Lush, 
Cornelius  Glen,  Silas  Talbot,  John  Frey,  Douw  Fonda,  John  Sanders,  Nicholas  J. 
Roosevelt,  Daniel  McCormick,  Marinus  Willet,  Jonathan  Lawrence,  Philip  Van 
Cortlandt,  James  Clinton,  Abraham  Ten  Broeck,  John  Williams,  Stephen  Van 
Rensselaer,  Jacobus  Van  Schoonhoven,  John  Van  Rensselaer,  Abraham  G.  Lan¬ 
sing,  Henry  Quackenbush,  Robert  R.  Livingston,  Philip  Livingston,  James  Duane, 


INTRODUCTION. 


85 


Alexander  Macomb,  Samuel  Jones,  Nicholas  Low,  Dirck  Lefferts,  William  Duer, 
Barent  Bleecker,  Henry  Livingston,  Peter  Gansevoort,  Peter  B.  Tearce,  Alex¬ 
ander  Webster,  George  Ray,  Thomas  Tillotson,  Matthew  Scott,  Zephaniah  Platt, 
John  Thurman,  Albert  Pawling  and  Zina  Hitchcock.  Out  of  this  array  of  names 
combining  so  large  a  representation  of  the  talents,  learning,  patriotism,  enterprise, 
political  influence  and  wealth  of  this  state,  it  is  not  invidious  to  select  that  of 
Philip  Schuyler,  who,  now  enjoying  well  earned  military  fame,  exhibited  the  most 
untiring  devotion  to  the  physical  improvement  of  his  country.  The  capital  stock 
of  both  the  companies  was  $50,000,  a  sum  so  small  as  to  show  a  very  inadequate 
estimate  of  the  difficulties  of  the  comprehensive  scheme  which  was  then  sha¬ 
dowed  forth. 

The  art  of  constructing  canals  was  little  understood,  and  the  topography  of  the 
country  was  not  accurately  ascertained.  The  enterprise  of  the  western  com¬ 
pany  fell  into  discredit.  Many  of  the  stockholders  forfeited  their  shares,  but  a 
few,  more  persevering,  prosecuted  the  undertaking,  and  established  an  imperfect 
canal  a  little  less  than  three  miles  long,  with  five  locks,  around  the  Little  Falls ; 
a  canal  of  one  and  a  quarter  miles,  at  the  German  flats ;  a  canal  one  mile  and 
three-fourths,  from  the  Mohawk  to  Wood  creek,  and  several  wooden  locks  on  that 
stream.  So  defective  were  these  works,  that  they  were  twice  reconstructed 
during  the  short  period  which  intervened  before  the  commencement  of  the  Erie 
canal ;  and  yet  so  costly,  that  the  company  expended  four  hundred  thousand  dol¬ 
lars  in  opening  a  passage  for  loaded  boats  of  small  burthen,  from  Schenectady  to 
the  Oneida  lake.  Although  steadily  favored  by  the  legislature  with  loans  and 
subscriptions  of  stock,  the  company,  becoming  discouraged  and  exhausted,  relin¬ 
quished  the  design  of  extending  their  navigation  to  Lake  Ontario.  In  1798,  an 
association  was  incorporated  to  construct  a  canal  around  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  on 
an  application  by  James  Watson,  Charles  Williamson,  John  Williams,  Effingham 
Embree  and  their  associates ;  but  the  law  was  not  executed.  The  Northern 
Inland  Lock  Navigation  Company,  after  a  brief  effort  to  procure  subscriptions, 
abandoned  the  enterprise  with  which  that  association  had  been  charged. 


86 


INTRODUCTION. 


During  several  years  after  the  western  company  had  commenced  its  improve¬ 
ments,  charters  were  granted  to  associations  which  proposed  to  remove  obstruc¬ 
tions  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Seneca  and  other  rivers;  but  none  of  those  com¬ 
panies  achieved  any  effective  improvement,  except  the  Seneca  Lock  Navigation 
Company,  which  made  an  imperfect  navigation  between  the  Oswego  river  and 
the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  lakes. 

To  Gouverneur  Morris,  history  will  assign  the  merit  of  first  suggesting  a  direct 
and  continuous  communication  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson.  In  1800,  he  an¬ 
nounced  this  idea  from  the  shore  of  the  Niagara  river  to  a  friend  in  Europe,  in 
the  following  enthusiastic  language  :  “  Hundreds  of  large  ships  will,  in  no  distant 
period,  bound  on  the  billows  of  these  inland  seas.  Shall  I  lead  your  astonishment 
to  the  verge  of  incredulity  l  I  will.  Know  then  that  one-tenth  part  of  the  ex¬ 
pense  borne  by  Britain  in  the  last  campaign,  would  enable  ships  to  sail  from 
London  through  the  Hudson  river  into  Lake  Erie.  As  yet  we  only  crawl  along 
the  outer  shell  of  our  country.  The  interior  excels  the  part  we  inhabit  in  soil,  in 
climate,  in  every  thing.  The  proudest  empire  of  Europe  is  but  a  bauble  com¬ 
pared  to  what  America  may  be,  must  be.”*  The  praise  awarded  to  Gouverneur 
Morris  must  be  qualified  by  the  fact,  that  the  scheme  he  conceived  was  that  of  a 
canal  with  an  uniform  declination,  and  without  locks,  from  Lake  Erie  to  the 
Hudson.f  Morris  communicated  his  project  to  Simeon  De  Witt  in  1803,  by 
whom  it  was  made  known  to  James  Geddes  in  1804.  It  afterwards  became  the 
subject  of  conversation  between  Mr.  Geddes  and  Jesse  Hawley,  and  this  commu¬ 
nication  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  series  of  essays  written  by  Mr. 
Hawley,  under  the  signature  of  Hercules,  in  the  Genesee  Messenger,  continued 
from  October,  1807,  until  March,  1808,  and  which  first  brought  the  public  mind 
into  familiarity  with  the  subject.!  These  essays,  written  in  a  jail,  were  the 
grateful  return,  by  a  patriot,  to  a  country  which  punished  him  with  imprisonment 
for  being  unable  to  pay  debts  owed  to  another  citizen,  and  displayed  deep  re- 


*  Elkanah  W atson’s  History  of  the  Canals. 


t  Colden’s  Memoirs. 


t  Letter  of  Simeon  De  Witt. 


INTRODUCTION. 


8? 


search,  with  singular  vigor  and  comprehensiveness  of  thought,  and  traced  with 
prophetic  accuracy  a  large  portion  of  the  outline  of  the  Erie  canal.* 

In  1807,  Albert  Gallatin,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury,  in  pursuance  of  a 
recommendation  made  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  president  of  the  United  States, 
reported  a  plan  for  appropriating  all  the  surplus  revenues  of  the  general  govern¬ 
ment  to  the  construction  of  canals  and  turnpike  roads  ;  and  it  embraced  in  one 
grand  and  comprehensive  view,  nearly  without  exception,  all  the  works  which 
have  since  been  executed  or  attempted  by  the  several  states  in  the  union.  This 
bold  and  statesmanlike,  though  premature,  conception  of  that  eminent  citizen, 
will  remain  the  greatest  among  the  many  monuments  of  his  forecast  and  wisdom. 

In  1808,  Joshua  Forman,  a  representative  in  the  assembly  from  Onondaga  county, 
submitted  his  memorable  resolution,  “  Whereas  the  president  of  the  United 
States  did,  by  his  message  to  congress,  delivered  at  their  meeting  in  October  last, 
recommend  that  the  surplus  moneys  in  the  treasury,  over  and  above  such  sums 
as  could  be  applied  to  the  extinguishment  of  the  national  debt,  be  appropriated 
to  the  gi’eat  national  project  of  opening  canals  and  making  turnpike  roads :  And 
whereas  the  state  of  New- York,  holding  the  first  commercial  rank  in  the  United 
States,  possesses  within  herself  the  best  mode  of  communication  between  the 
Atlantic  and  western  waters,  by  means  of  a  canal  between  the  tide  waters  of  the 
Hudson  river  and  Lake  Erie,  through  which  the  wealth  and  trade  of  that  large 
portion  of  the  union,  bordering  on  the  upper  lakes,  would  forever  flow  to  our 
great  commercial  emporium :  And  whereas  the  legislatures  of  several  of  our 
sister  states  have  made  great  exertions  to  secure  to  their  own  states  the  trade  of  that 
widely  extended  country  west  of  the  Allegany,  under  natural  advantages  vastly 
inferior  to  those  of  this  state :  And  whereas  it  is  highly  important  that  those  advan¬ 
tages  should  as  speedily  as  possible  be  improved,  both  to  preserve  and  increase 
the  commercial  and  national  importance  of  this  state  :  Therefore,  resolved,  if  the 
honorable  the  senate  concur  herein,  that  a  joint  committee  be  appointed  to  take 

*  Jesse  Hawley  lived  to  see  the  Erie  canal  completed,  and  two-thirds  of  it  reconstructed  and  enlarged.  He  died  in 
1841. 


88 


INTRODUCTION. 


into  consideration  the  propriety  of  exploring  and  causing  an  accurate  survey  to 
be  made  of  the  most  eligible  and  direct  route  for  a  canal,  to  open  a  communica¬ 
tion  between  the  tide  waters  of  the  Hudson  river  and  Lake  Erie,  to  the  end 
that  congress  may  be  enabled  to  appropriate  such  sums  as  may  be  necessary  to 
the  accomplishment  of  that  great  national  object.” 

This  resolution  was  adopted,  and  John  Tayler,  John  Nicholas  and  Jonathan 
Ward,  on  the  part  of  the  senate,  and  Thomas  R.  Gold,-  William  W.  Gilbert, 
Obadiah  German  and  James  L.  Hogeboom,  on  the  part  of  the  assembly,  consti¬ 
tuted  the  committee. 

Mr.  Gold  submitted  a  report,  not  less  eloquent  in  language  than  elevated  in 
sentiment,  in  which  he  stated,  that  while  the  subject  presented  to  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  in  removing  natural  barriers,  and  drawing  together  and 
preserving  in  political  concord  the  distant  parts  of  a  widely  extended  empire ; 
an  object  inviting  to  patriotism,  and  interesting  to  its  reputation,  the  commercial 
interests  of  this  state  impelled  to  the  most  strenuous  efforts  in  promoting  the  same 
object.  That  in  tracing  the  vestiges  of  ancient  states,  in  whose  councils  munifi¬ 
cence,  guided  by  wisdom,  presided,  the  remains  of  commercial  improvement  in 
public  canals,  and  other  undertakings,  marked  the  advanced  state  of  society,  and 
attested  the  empire  of  the  arts  of  peace ;  that  while  military  achievement  had 
shed  lustre  on  nations,  works  of  public  utility,  tending  to  the  happiness  and  wel¬ 
fare  of  society,  recorded  the  exercise  of  superior  virtues,  and  afforded  better 
monuments  of  true  and  lasting  glory  ;  that  with  these  sentiments  the  citizens  of 
this  state  had  witnessed  with  high  satisfaction  the  conduct  of  the  executive  of 
the  United  States,  in  recommending  an  appropriation  of  a  portion  of  the  surplus 
revenue  for  improving,  by  canals,  the  inland  navigation  of  the  country ;  and  that 
while  this  state  would  forbear  to  derogate  from  the  claims  of  others,  she  felt 
warranted  in  presenting  to  the  government  of  the  Union,  her  own  territory,  as 
preeminently  distinguished  for  commercial  advantages. 

In  pursuance  of  a  recommendation  by  the  committee,  a  resolution  unanimously 
passed  both  houses,  directing  the  surveyor-general,  Simeon  De  Witt,  to  cause  an 


INTRODUCTION. 


89 


accurate  survey  to  be  made  of  the  various  routes  proposed  for  the  contemplated 
communication.  But  how  little  the  magnitude  of  that  undertaking  was  under- 
stood,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  appropriation  made  by  the  resolu¬ 
tion  to  defray  the  expenses  of  its  execution,  was  limited  to  the  sum  of  six  hun¬ 
dred  dollars. 

There  was  then  no  civil  engineer  in  the  state.  James  Geddes,  a  land  surveyor, 
who  afterwards  became  one  of  our  most  distinguished  engineers,  by  the  force  of 
native  genius  and  application  in  mature  years,  levelled  and  surveyed  under  in¬ 
structions  from  the  surveyor-general,  with  a  view  to  ascertain,  first,  whether  a 
canal  could  be  made  from  the  Oneida  lake  to  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  mouth  of 
Salmon  creek  ;  secondly,  whether  a  navigation  could  be  opened  from  the  Oswego 
falls  to  Lake  Ontario,  along  the  Oswego  river ;  thirdly,  what  was  the  best  route 
for  a  canal  from  above  the  Falls  of  Niagara  to  Lewiston;  and  fourthly,  what 
was  the  most  direct  route,  and  what  the  practicability  of  a  canal  from  Lake  Erie 
to  the  Genesee  river,  and  thence  to  the  waters  running  east  to  the  Seneca  river. 
The  topography  of  the  country  between  the  Seneca  river  and  the  Hudson,  was 
at  that  time  comparatively  better  known.  Mr.  Geddes’  report  showed  that  a 
canal  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson  was  practicable,  and  could  be  made  with¬ 
out  serious  difficulty.  In  1810,  on  motion  of  Jonas  Platt,  of  the  senate,  who 
was  distinguished  throughout  a  pure  and  well  spent  life,  by  his  zealous  efforts  to 
promote  this  great  undertaking,  Gouverneur  Morris,  De  Witt  Clinton,  Stephen 
Van  Rensselaer,  Simeon  De  Witt,  William  North,  Thomas  Eddy  and  Peter  B. 
Porter,  were  appointed  commissioners  “  to  explore  the  whole  route  for  inland 
navigation  from  the  Hudson  river  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  to  Lake  Erie.”  Cad- 
wallader  D.  Colden,  a  contemporary  historian,  himself  one  of  the  earliest  and 
ablest  advocates  of  the  canals,  awards  to  Thomas  Eddy  the  merit  of  having 
suggested  this  motion  to  Mr.  Platt,  and  to  both  these  gentlemen  that  of  engaging 
De  Witt  Clinton’s  support,  he  be'ing  at  that  time  a  member  of  the  senate.* 


Intr. 


*  Colden’s  Memoir, 

12 


90  INTRODUCTION. 

Another  writer*  commemorates  the  efficient  and  enlightened  exertions,  at  this 
period,  of  Hugh  Williamson,  who  wrote  with  reference  to  the  contemplated 
improvement,  papers,  entitled  “  Observations  on  Navigable  Canals,”  and  also 
“  Observations  on  the  Means  of  Preserving  the  Commerce  of  New-York,”  which 
were  published  in  magazines  of  that  day.  The  canal  policy  found,  at  the  same 
time,  earnest  and  vigorous  supporters  in  the  American  and  Philosophical  Regis¬ 
ter,  edited  by  Dr.  David  Hosack  and  Dr.  John  W.  Francis. 

The  commissioners,  in  March,  1811,  submitted  their  report  written  by  Gou- 
verneur  Morris,  in  which  they  showed  the  practicability  and  advantages  of  a 
continuous  canal  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson,  and  stated  their  estimate  of 
the  cost  at  five  millions  of  dollars,  a  sum  which  they  ventured  to  predict  would 
not  exceed  five  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  commodities  which,  within  a  cen¬ 
tury,  would  be  annually  transported  on  the  proposed  canal.  We  may  pause 
here  to  remark,  that  the  annual  value  of  the  commodities  carried  on  the  canals, 
instead  of  requiring  a  century  to  attain  the  sum  of  one  hundred  millions,  reached 
that  limit  in  twenty-five  years.  “  By  whom,”  added  the  commissioners,  “  shall 
the  needful  expense  of  the  construction  of  the  work  be  supported?  We  take 
the  liberty  of  entering  our  feeble  protest  against  a  grant  to  private  persons  or 
companies.  T oo  great  a  national  interest  is  at  stake.  It  must  not  become  the 
subject  of  a  job  or  a  fund  for  speculation.  Among  many  other  objections  there 
is  one  insuperable,  that  it  would  defeat  the  contemplated  cheapness  of  transpor¬ 
tation.  *  *  *  *  *  ]y  remains  to  determine  whether  the  canal  shall  be  at 

the  cost  of  the  state  or  of  the  union.  If  the  state  were  not  bound  by  the  federal 
band  with  her  sister  states,  she  might  fairly  ask  compensation  from  those  who 
own  the  soil  along  the  great  lakes,  for  giving  permission  to  cut  the  canal  at  their 
expense  ;  or  her  statesmen  might  deem  it  still  more  advisable  to  make  the  canal 
at  her  own  expense,  and  take  for  the  use  of  it  a  transit  duty,  raising  or  lowering 
the  impost,  as  circumstances  might  direct,  for  her  own  advantage.  This  might 


*  Dr.  Hosack. 


INTRODUCTION. 


91 


be  the  better  course  if  the  state  stood  alone,  but  fortunately  for  the  peace  and 
happiness  of  all,  this  is  not  the  case.  We  are  connected  by  a  bond  which,  if  the 
prayers  of  good  men  are  favorably  heard,  will  be  indissoluble.  It  becomes 
proper,  therefore,  to  resort  for  the  solution  of  the  present  question  to  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  distributive  justice.  That  which  presents  itself  is  the  trite  adage,  that 
those  who  participate  in  the  benefit  should  contribute  to  the  expense.  The  com¬ 
missioners  presume  not  to  go  one  step  farther.  The  wisdom,  as  well  as  the  jus¬ 
tice,  of  the  national  legislature,  will  no  doubt  lead  to  the  exercise,  on  their  part, 
of  prudent  munificence ;  but  the  proportion,  the  condition,  the  compact,  in  short, 
must  be  the  subject  of  treaty.” 

On  the  presentation  of  this  report,  De  Witt  Clinton  introduced  a  bill,  which 
became  a  law  on  the  8th  of  April,  1811,  under  the  title  of  “An  act  to  provide 
for  the  improvement  of  the  internal  navigation  of  this  state.”  This  law  began 
with  the  expressive  recital,  that  “  Whereas,  a  communication  by  means  of  a  canal 
navigation  between  the  great  lakes  and  Hudson’s  river,  will  encourage  agricul¬ 
ture,  promote  commerce  and  manufactures,  facilitate  a  free  and  general  inter¬ 
course  between  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  tend  to  the  aggrandize¬ 
ment  and  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  consolidate  and  strengthen  the  union ;” 
and  added  Robert  R.  Livingston  and  Robert  Fulton  to  the  board  of  commis¬ 
sioners,  and  authorized  them  to  consider  all  matters  relating  to  such  inland  navi¬ 
gation,  with  powers  to  make  application  in  behalf  of  the  state  to  congress,  or  to 
any  state  or  territory,  to  cooperate  and  aid  in  the  undertaking,  and  to  ascertain 
whether  loans  could  be  procured  on  advantageous  terms  on  the  credit  of  the 
state,  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  the  canal,  and  the  terms  on  which  the 
Western  Inland  Lock  Navigation  Company  would  surrender  their  rights  and 
property. 

Two  of  the  commissioners,  Mr.  Morris  and  Mr.  Clinton,  repaired  to  the  fede¬ 
ral  capital,  and  submitted  the  subject  to  the  consideration  of  the  president  (Mr. 
Madison)  and  of  congress.  In  1812,  the  commissioners  reported  that,  although 
it  was  uncertain  whether  the  national  government  would  do  any  thing,  it  cer- 


92 


INTRODUCTION. 


tainly  would  do  nothing  which  would  afford  immediate  aid  to  the  enterprise ; 
that  Tennessee  had  instructed  her  representatives  in  congress  to  support  any 
laudable  application  for  aid  in  relation  to  the  canal  navigation  between  Hudson’s 
river  and  the  great  lakes ;  that  New-Jersey  had  declined  to  render  assistance, 
because  she  had  not  sufficient  means  to  complete  her  own  plans  of  improvement 
already  projected ;  that  Connecticut,  for  the  reasons  that  she  could  not  supply 
money,  and  that  she  reposed  full  confidence  in  the  wisdom  of  her  representatives 
in  congress,  deemed  it  inexpedient  to  take  any  measures  on  the  subject ;  that 
Massachusetts,  in  language  characteristic  of  the  impartial  and  dignified  wisdom 
of  conscious  greatness,  had  instructed  her  representatives  to  use  their  influence 
in  favor  of  the  application  of  New-York;  that  Ohio  fully  approved  the  plan, 
while  the  youthful  territory  of  Michigan  (looking  probably  down  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  as  well  as  across  to  the  Hudson)  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  proposed 
communication  was  not  so  desirable  as  a  canal  around  the  cataracts  of  Niagara, 
and  another  passing  the  falls  of  Oswego. 

The  commissioners  then  submitted  that,  having  offered  the  canal  to  the  national 
government,  and  that  offer  having  virtually  been  declined,  the  state  was  now  at 
liberty  to  consult  and  pursue  the  maxims  of  policy,  and  these  seemed  to  demand 
imperatively  that  the  canal  should  be  made  by  herself,  and  for  her  own  account, 
as  soon  as  the  circumstances  would  permit ;  and  that,  whether  the  subject  was 
considered  with  a  view  to  commerce  and  finance,  or  on  the  more  extensive  scale 
of  policy,  there  would  be  a  want  of  wisdom,  and  almost  of  piety,  in  neglecting  to 
employ  for  public  advantage,  those  means  which  Divine  Providence  had  placed 
so  completely  within  her  power.  They  estimated  the  ultimate  income  of  the 
canal  at  one  million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars ;  a  revenue  adequate 
to  defray  the  cost  of  the  enterprise.  With  the  earnestness  so  characteristic  of 
Mr.  Morris,  the  report  proceeds  :  “  Things  which  twenty  years  ago  a  man  would 
have  been  laughed  at  for  believing,  we  now  see.  At  that  time  the  most  ardent 
mind,  proceeding  on  established  facts  by  the  unerring  rules  of  arithmetic,  was 
obliged  to  drop  the  pen  at  results  which  imagination  could  not  embrace.  Under 


INTRODUCTION.  93 

circumstances  of  this  sort,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  those  microcosmic  minds 
which,  habitually  occupied  in  the  consideration  of  what  is  little,  are  incapable 
of  discerning  what  is  great,  and  who  already  stigmatize  the  proposed  canal  as  a 
romantic  scheme,  will  not  unsparingly  distribute  the  epithets,  absurd,  ridiculous, 
chimerical,  on  the  estimate  of  what  it  may  produce.  The  commissioners  must, 
nevertheless,  have  the  hardihood  to  brave  the  sneers  and  sarcasms  of  men,  who, 
with  too  much  pride  to  study,  and  too  much  wit  to  think,  undervalue  what  they 
do  not  understand,  and  condemn  what  they  cannot  comprehend.”  The  com¬ 
missioners,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  philosophic  prophecy,  add,  “  The  life  of  an 
individual  is  short.  The  time  is  not  distant,  when  those  who  make  this  report 
will  have  passed  away.  But  no  term  is  fixed  to  the  existence  of  a  state ;  and 
the  first  wish  of  a  patriot’s  heart  is,  that  his  own  may  be  immortal.  But,  what¬ 
ever  limit  may  have  been  assigned  to  the  duration  of  New-York,  by  those  eternal 
decrees  which  established  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected 
that  she  will  be  blotted  from  the  list  of  political  societies  before  the  effects  here 
stated,  shall  have  been  sensibly  felt.  And  even  when,  by  the  flow  of  that  perpetual 
stream  which  bears  all  human  institutions  away,  our  constitution  shall  be  dissolved 
and  our  laws  be  lost,  still  the  descendants  of  our  children’s  children  will  remain. 
The  same  mountains  will  stand,  the  same  rivers  run.  New  moral  combinations 
will  be  formed  on  the  old  physical  foundations,  and  the  extended  line  of  remote 
posterity,  after  a  lapse  of  two  thousand  years,  and  the  ravage  of  repeated  revolu¬ 
tions,  when  the  records  of  history  shall  have  been  obliterated,  and  the  tongue  of 
tradition  have  converted  (as  in  China)  the  shadowy  remembrance  of  ancient 
events  into  childish  tales  of  miracle,  this  national  work  shall  remain,  bearing  tes¬ 
timony  to  the  genius,  the  learning,  the  industry  and  intelligence  of  the  present 

JJ 

age. 

Passing  the  advantages  w'hich  the  state  must  derive  from  opening  a  scene  so 
vast  to  the  incessant  activity  of  her  citizens,  the  commissioners  discussed  and 
proved  her  fiscal  ability  to  complete  the  enterprise.  Impressed  with  the  same 
expansive  views  which  were  exhibited  in  the  first  efforts  of  the  legislature  in 


94 


INTRODUCTION. 


1792,  the  commissioners  adverted  to  the  proposed  connection  of  Lake  Cham¬ 
plain  with  the  Hudson  river,  as  one  which  would  certainly  tend  to  preserve  bro¬ 
therly  affection  in  the  great  American  family,  and  through  the  reciprocal  advan¬ 
tages  it  would  afford  to  New- York  and  Vermont,  would  strengthen  the  bonds  of 
our  union  with  the  eastern  states. 

On  the  nineteenth  of  June,  1812,  a  law  was  enacted,  reappointing  the  com¬ 
missioners,  and  authorizing  them  to  borrow  money  and  deposit  it  in  the  treasury, 
and  to  take  cessions  of  land,  but  prohibiting  any  measures  to  construct  the  canals. 

In  the  senate,  James  W.  Wilkin,  of  Orange  county,  moved  to  reject  the  bill. 
The  motion  was  lost,  fifteen  to  eleven.  The  assembly  divided  on  the  first  section, 
which  contained  the  principle  of  the  bill,  and  it  was  sustained  by  a  vote  of  fifty- 
one  to  forty-two.  On  its  being  returned  to  the  senate,  with  an  amendment, 
Erastus  Root,  of  Delaware,  moved  to  postpone  the  consideration  of  the  amend¬ 
ment  until  the  next  session,  which  would  have  been  equivalent  to  rejecting  the 
bill.  This  motion  received  thirteen  votes,  while  sixteen  were  recorded  against  it. 

From  1812  to  1815,  the  country  suffered  the  calamities  of  war,  and  projects 
of  internal  improvement  necessarily  gave  place  to  the  patriotic  efforts  required 
to  maintain  the  national  security  and  honor.  But  those  plans  were  not  altogether 
forgotten,  at  least  by  those  who  distrusted  their  wisdom.  Although  there  was 
much  incredulity  in  regard  to  the  Erie  canal,  during  all  the  period  which  we 
have  been  considering,  yet  the  design  met  little  or  no  opposition,  so  long  as  it  was 
supposed  that  the  necessary  expenditures  would  be  made  by  the  federal  govern¬ 
ment.  But  a  severe  scrutiny  was  encountered,  when  it  was  avowed  that  the 
means  for  accomplishing  so  large  a  work  must  be  derived  from  taxation,  or  from 
the  use  of  the  public  credit.  Erastus  Root,  in  1813,  submitted  a  resolution,  by 
which  the  commissioners  were  to  be  called  upon  for  a  further  report  of  their 
proceedings.  The  commissioners,  in  their  report  in  1814,  reaffirmed  their  con¬ 
fidence  in  the  feasibility  of  the  enterprise,  and  adverted  to  the  facilities  which 
would  be  found  for  extending  the  communication  to  the  valleys  watered  by  the 
Susquehannah  and  its  branches,  whence  they  inferred  that  Pennsylvania  would, 


INTRODUCTION. 


95 


at  a  proper  time,  cooperate  in  the  enterprise.  The  commissioners  also  announced 
that  grants  of  land  would  be  made  by  the  Holland  Company  of  100,632  acres  ; 
by  Le  Roy  Bayard  and  McEvers,  2,500  acres  ;  by  the  heirs  of  the  Pulteney 
estate,  a  large  tract,  and  by  governor  Hornby,  3,500  acres.  These  cessions  were 
ultimately  realized,  with  a  liberal  donation  from  Gideon  Granger. 

Mr.  Root  introduced  a  bill  into  the  senate  which  two  days  afterwards  passed 
that  body,  repealing  so  much  of  the  act  then  in  force  as  authorized  the  commis¬ 
sioners  to  borrow  five  millions  of  dollars.  This  repeal  was  a  virtual  abandon¬ 
ment  of  the  policy  of  internal  improvements.  The  divisions  in  the  assembly 
show  a  majority  of  eighteen  in  favor  of  the  repeal ;  and  in  the  senate  the  majority 
was  eight.  In  1816,  after  the  close  of  the  war,  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  governor, 
in  his  annual  speech,  submitted  for  the  consideration  of  the  legislature,  the  expe¬ 
diency  of  prosecuting  the  canals.  Citizens  in  various  parts  of  the  state,  and 
especially  in  New-York,  Albany  and  Troy,  and  in  the  towns  and  counties  situ¬ 
ated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  proposed  routes,  now  earnestly  applied  for  vigorous 
measures  to  accomplish  the  objects  so  long  delayed.  Among  these  petitions  was 
a  memorial  by  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  New-York,  from  the  pen  of  De  Witt 
Clinton. 

The  memorialists  declared,  that  since  the  object  was  connected  with  the  essen¬ 
tial  interests  of  the  country,  and  calculated  in  its  commencement  to  reflect  honor 
on  the  state,  and  in  its  completion  to  exalt  it  to  an  elevation  of  unparalleled  pros¬ 
perity,  they  were  fully  persuaded  that  centuries  might  pass  away  before  a  subject 
would  be  again  presented  so  worthy  of  all  the  attention  of  the  legislature,  and  so 
deserving  of  all  its  patronage  and  support  —  that  the  improvement  of  intercourse 
between  different  parts  of  the  same  country,  had  always  been  considered  the  first 
duty,  and  the  most  noble  employment  of  government  —  that  canals  united  cheap¬ 
ness,  celerity,  certainty  and  safety  in  the  transportation  of  commodities — that  they 
operated  upon  the  general  interests  of  society,  in  the  same  way  as  machines  for 
saving  labor  in  manufactures ;  and  as  to  all  the  purposes  of  beneficial  communi¬ 
cation,  they  diminished  the  distances  between  places,  and  therefore  encouraged 


96 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  cultivation  of  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  country  —  that  they  created  new 
sources  of  internal  trade,  and  augmented  the  old  channels,  thus  tending  to  en¬ 
large  old  and  erect  new  towns,  increase  individual  and  aggregate  wealth,  and 
extend  foreign  commerce.  The  memorialists  attributed  the  prosperity  of  ancient 
Egypt  and  China  to  their  inland  navigation,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that 
England  and  Holland,  if  deprived  of  their  canals,  would  lose  the  most  prolific 
sources  of  their  prosperity  and  greatness.  Inland  navigation,  they  said,  was  to 
the  same  community  what  exterior  navigation  was  to  the  great  family  of  man¬ 
kind  ;  and  that  as  the  ocean  connected  the  nations  of  the  earth  by  the  ties  of 
commerce  and  the  benefits  of  communication,  so  did  lakes,  rivers  and  canals 
operate  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  country.  Applying  these  general  argu¬ 
ments  in  favor  of  inland  navigation,  they  showed  that  a  great  chain  of  mountains 
passed  through  the  territory  of  the  United  States,  and  divided  it  into  eastern  and 
western  America ;  that  the  former,  on  account  of  the  priority  of  its  settlement,  its 
vicinity  to  the  ocean,  and  its  favorable  position  for  commerce,  had  many  advantages, 
while  the  latter  had  a  decided  superiority  in  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  benignity 
of  its  climate,  and  the  extent  of  its  territory  ;  that  to  connect  these  great  sections 
by  inland  navigation,  to  unite  our  Mediterranean  seas  with  the  ocean,  was  evi¬ 
dently  an  object  of  the  first  importance  to  the  general  prosperity  ;  that  the 
Hudson  river  offered  superior  advantages  for  effecting  this  connection,  because 
it  afforded  a  tide  navigation  through  the  Blue  ridge  or  eastern  chain  of  moun¬ 
tains,  and  ascended  above  the  eastern  termination  of  the  Catskill  or  great  western 
chain,  and  that  no  mountains  interposed  between  it  and  the  great  western  lakes, 
while  the  tide  in  no  other  river  or  bay  in  the  United  States  ascended  higher  than 
the  Granite  ridge,  or  within  thirty  miles  of  the  Blue  ridge.  After  showing  the 
importance  of  the  Hudson  as  a  natural  channel  of  trade,  one  hundred  and  seventy 
miles  in  length,  the  petitioners  showed  that  the  canal  would  be  virtually  an  exten¬ 
sion  of  that  channel  three  hundred  miles  through  a  fertile  country,  embracing  a 
great  population,  and  abounding  with  all  the  productions  of  industry  ;  and  they 
asked,  if  the  work  was  so  important  when  viewed  in  relation  to  this  state  alone, 


INTRODUCTION. 


97 


how  unspeakably  beneficial  must  it  appear  when  the  contemplation  should  be  ex¬ 
tended  to  the  great  lakes,  and  the  country  that  surrounded  them ;  waters  extending 
two  thousand  miles,  and  a  country  containing  more  territory  than  all  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  at  least  as  much  as  France.  After  demonstrating  that  New- 
Orleans  and  Montreal  were  the  only  formidable  rivals  of  New-York  for  the 
great  prize  of  the  western  trade,  and  showing  the  advantages  in  that  competition 
which  New-York  would  derive  from  the  proposed  Erie  canal,  a  glowing  view  of 
its  prospective  benefits  was  presented.  Leaving  to  her  rivals  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  the  western  trade,  New-York,  said  the  memorialists,  would  engross 
more  than  sufficient  to  render  her  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  world. 
The  whole  line  of  the  canal  would  exhibit  boats  loaded  with  the  various  produc¬ 
tions  of  our  soil,  and  with  merchandise  from  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  great  manufac¬ 
turing  establishments  would  spring  up ;  agriculture  would  establish  its  granaries, 
and  commerce  its  warehouses,  in  all  directions ;  villages,  towns  and  cities  would 
line  the  banks  of  the  canal  and  the  shores  of  the  Hudson  from  Erie  to  New- 
York  ;  the  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  would  become  glad,  and  the  desert 
would  blossom  as  the  rose. 

The  petitioners  then  presented  the  superior  advantages  of  a  continuous  canal 
from  the  Hudson  to  Lake  Erie,  over  one  which  would  terminate  at  Lake  Ontario, 
with  a  passage  between  that  lake  and  Lake  Erie  around  the  falls  of  Niagara. 
They  then  showed  that  the  work  might  be  completed  by  the  use  of  the  credit  of 
the  state,  provision  being  made  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  money  borrowed  until 
the  canal  should  become  productive  of  revenue.  They  urged  with  earnestness 
the  immediate  commencement  of  the  work.  Delays,  said  they,  are  the  refuge 
of  weak  minds ;  and  to  procrastinate  on  this  occasion  is  to  show  a  culpable  inat¬ 
tention  to  the  bounties  of  nature,  a  total  insensibility  to  the  blessings  of  Provi¬ 
dence,  and  an  inexcusable  neglect  of  the  interests  of  society.  If,  they  added,  it 
were  intended  to  advance  the  views  of  individuals,  or  to  foment  the  divisions  of 
party  ;  if  the  scheme  promoted  the  interests  of  a  few  at  the  expense  of  the  prospe¬ 
rity  of  many  ;  if  its  benefits  were  limited  as  to  place,  or  fugitive  as  to  duration, 

Intr.  13 


98 


INTRODUCTION. 


then  indeed  it  might  be  received  with  cold  indifference,  or  treated  with  stern 
neglect ;  but  the  overflowing  blessing  from  this  great  fountain  of  public  good  and 
national  abundance,  would  be  as  extensive  as  our  country,  and  as  durable  as 
time.  The  petitioners  enforced  their  eloquent  appeal  for  an  immediate  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  enterprise,  by  the  considerations  that  it  could  not  be  prose¬ 
cuted  at  any  future  time  with  less  expense ;  that  the  longer  it  was  delayed,  the 
greater  would  be  the  difficulty  in  surmounting  the  interests  which  would  rise  up 
in  opposition ;  that  there  was  an  urgent  necessity  for  immediately  diminishing 
the  expense  of  transportation ;  that  it  would  raise  the  value  of  the  national  do¬ 
main,  and  thus  cause  the  speedy  extinguishment  of  the  national  debt  and  a 
diminution  of  taxes,  leaving  a  considerable  source  of  revenue  to  be  expended  in 
other  works  of  improvement,  in  encouraging  the  arts  and  sciences,  in  patronizing 
the  operations  of  industry,  in  fostering  the  inventions  of  genius,  and  in  diffusing  the 
blessings  of  knowledge ;  that  New-York  was  both  Atlantic  and  western,  and  the 
only  state  in  which  an  indissoluble  union  of  interest  between  the  great  sections  of 
the  confederacy  could  be  formed  and  perpetuated  ;  that  she  would  justly  be  con¬ 
sidered  an  enemy  to  the  human  race,  if  she  did  not  exert  for  this  purpose  the 
high  faculties  which  the  Almighty  had  put  into  her  hands ;  and  lastly,  that  the 
enterprise,  as  to  the  countries  which  it  would  connect,  and  as  to  the  consequen¬ 
ces  which  it  would  produce,  was  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  mankind. 
While,  they  remarked,  the  chiefs  of  powerful  monarchies  had  projected  or 
executed  designs  which  had  attracted  the  admiration  of  the  world,  it  remained  for 
a  free  state  to  create  a  new  era  in  history,  and  to  erect  a  work  more  stupendous, 
more  magnificent  and  more  beneficial  than  any  hitherto  achieved  by  the  human 
race. 

Two  vacancies  had  occurred  in  the  canal  commission  ;  Robert  R.  Livingston 
having  died  in  1815,  which  event  was  followed  by  the  lamented  death  of  Robert 
Fulton,  whereby  the  friends  of  internal  improvement  were  deprived  of  the  further 
cooperation  of  one,  whose  services  in  perfecting  steam  navigation  had  conferred 
such  signal  benefits  on  the  human  race.  The  board  of  commissioners  was  now 


INTRODUCTION. 


99 


composed  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  De  Witt  Clinton, 
Simeon  De  Witt,  William  North,  Thomas  Eddy,  Peter  B.  Porter  and  Charles  D. 
Cooper.  They  submitted  a  report,  from  which  Mr.  Morris  withheld  his  signature, 
for  the  reason,  as  was  said,  that  his  idea  of  an  uniform  declivity  from  Lake  Erie 
to  the  Hudson,  was  abandoned.*  They  expressed  a  confident  belief  that  the  public 
mind  was  now  prepared  for  a  commencement  of  the  Erie  canal ;  announced 
that  they  had  assurances  that  a  loan  of  one  million  of  dollars,  at  an  interest  of 
six  per  cent,  could  be  obtained,  and  subsequent  sums  as  fast  as  should  be  required  ; 
suggested  the  expediency  of  constructing  first  the  middle  section,  extending  from 
Rome  to  the  Seneca  river,  because  it  would  yield  a  large  revenue,  and  trade 
might  be  thereby  diverted  from  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  again  urged 
the  simultaneous  prosecution  of  the  Champlain  canal. 

The  joint  committee  on  canals,  at  this  session,  consisted  of  William  Ross, 
George  Tibbits,  Philetus  Swift  and  Peter  R.  Livingston,  of  the  senate,  and  Jacob 
R.  Van  Rensselaer,  Thomas  J.  Oakley,  William  Thompson,  James  Lynch,  Ben¬ 
jamin  Mooers,  Myron  Holley,  William  D.  Ford  and  George  Warner,  of  the 
assembly.  Mr.  Van  Rensselaer,  from  that  committee,  introduced  a  bill  provid¬ 
ing  for  the  immediate  commencement  of  both  canals,  and  pledging  ample  funds 
for  that  purpose.  The  bill,  after  being  discussed  four  weeks,  passed  the  assembly 
by  the  decisive  vote  of  ninety-one  to  eighteen.  Those  who  voted  in  the  affirma¬ 
tive,  were  Aaron  Adams,  Truman  Adams,  Joshua  Ballard,  Asa  C.  Barney,  Joseph 
Bayley,  John  H.  Beach,  William  C.  Bouck,  Isaac  Brayton,  Philip  Brasher,  John 
Brown  junior,  Thomas  Brown,  Oliver  Brown,  William  Campbell,  Israel  Cha¬ 
pin,  Jonathan  Childs,  Nathan  Christie,  Abel  Cole,  George  Cramer,  Silas  Crippen, 
David  Dill,  William  A.  Duer,  Henry  Fellows,  William  D.  Ford,  Michael  Fre- 
ligh,  James  Ganson,  Isaac  Gere,  Job  Greene,  David  E.  Gregory,  George  Hall, 
Nathan  Hall  junior,  Nicoll  Halsey,  William  Hamilton,  Michael  Harris,  Isaac 
Hayes,  Nathaniel  P.  Hill,  Peter  A.  Hilton,  Henry  Hopkins,  Eliphalet  S.  Jackson, 


•  Colben’s  Memoir. 


100 


INTRODUCTION. 


Peter  A.  Jay,  Oliver  Judd,  Alexander  Kelsey,  Nathan  Kimball,  Herman  Knick- 
erbacker,  Edward  W.  Laight,  Jacob  L.  Larzelere,  Thomas  Lawyer,  Henry 
Leavenworth,  Henry  B.  Lee,  Henry  Livingston,  James  Lynch,  Samuel  I.  Mc- 
Chestney,  John  McFadden,  Arunah  Metcalf,  Elijah  Miles,  Green  Miller,  Samuel 
Milliman,  Benjamin  Mooers,  Andrew  Morris,  Roderick  Morrison,  Thomas  J.  Oak¬ 
ley,  Elias  Osborn,  John  I.  Ostrander,  James  Palmer,  William  Parks,  Timothy  H. 
Porter,  James  Powers,  Edmund  G.  Rawson,  John  Reid,  Jacob  Roggen,  Abraham 
Rose,  David  Russell,  Reuben  Sanford,  John  Schoolcraft,  Barnabas  Smith,  Jesse 
Smith,  Joseph  Smith,  Roger  Sprague,  James  Stevenson,  Selah  Strong,  Thomas  C. 
Taylor,  William  Thompson,  Jacob  R.  Van  Rensselaer,  George  Warner,  Elizur 
Webster,  Dirck  Westbrook,  Roswell  Weston,  John  Whiting,  Mason  Whiting, 
Nathan  Williams,  Isaac  Wilson  and  Augustus  Wyncoop.  Those  who  voted  in 
the  negative  were  Gamaliel  H.  Barstow,  James  Burt,  Phineas  Carl,  Stephen  Car¬ 
man,  Richard  Cowson,  Chillus  Doty,  Zechariah  Hoffman,  Benjamin  Isaacs,  Wil¬ 
liam  Jones,  Daniel  Kissam,  Abraham  Miller,  William  Munroe,  William  Requa, 
Amos  Stebbins,  Richard  Van  Horne,  Harmanus  A.  Van  Slyck,  John  B.  Van 
Wyck,  William  Woodward. 

When  the  bill  reached  the  senate,  Martin  Van  Buren  proposed  an  amendment 
which  would  limit  the  powers  of  the  commissioners  to  the  consideration  and 
adoption  of  measures  requisite  to  facilitate  the  preparations  for  constructing  the 
canals,  the  employment  of  engineers  to  explore  and  examine  the  routes ;  to  mak¬ 
ing  application  to  sister  states  and  territories  for  aid,  and  to  proprietors  of  land, 
corporations  and  citizens,  for  grants  of  land,  or  donations  of  money;;  and  to  gene¬ 
ral  inquiries  concerning  finances.  This  amendment  prevailed,  by  a  vote  of 
twenty  to  nine,  and  the  bill  passed  the  senate,  after  being  further  amended  so 
as  to  constitute  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  De  Witt  Clinton,  Samuel  Young,  Joseph 
Ellicott  and  Myron  Holley  commissioners,  and  to  appropriate  twenty  thousand 
dollars  for  the  purposes  contemplated.  As  thus  amended,  the  bill  received  the 
votes  of  David  Allen,  Russel  Atwater,  Jacob  Barker,  Stephen  Bates,  Bennet 
Bicknell,  Francis  A.  Bloodgood,  Moses  I.  Cantine,  Archibald  S.  Clark,  Lucas 


INTRODUCTION. 


101 


Elmendorf,  Chauncey  Loomis,  Peter  H.  Radcliff,  William  Ross,  Henry  Seymour, 
Samuel  Stewart,  Philetus  Swift,  Martin  Van  Buren,  Abraham  Van  Vechten,  Sa¬ 
muel  Verbryck  and  Gerrit  Wendell.  Those  who  voted  against  the  bill  were 
James  Cochran,  Darius  Crosby,  Jonathan  Dayton,  Parley  Keyes,  Peter  R.  Living¬ 
ston  and  David  Ogden.  The  bill  received  the  concurrence  of  the  assembly,  and 
became  a  law,  after  an  ineffectual  effort  to  induce  the  senate  to  recede  from  their 
amendments. 

The  commissioners  selected  De  Witt  Clinton  to  be  their  president,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  Samuel  Young  their  secretary,  and  Myron  Holley  their  treasurer ;  divided 
the  canal  route  into  three  sections,  middle,  eastern  and  western,  and  appointed 
engineers  for  each  section.  In  1817  they  made  a  detailed  report  of  the  survey. 
They  estimated  the  cost  of  the  Erie  canal  at  four  million  five  hundred  and 
seventy-one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirteen  dollars,  and  showed  that  its 
entire  length  would  be  three  hundred  and  fifty-three  miles  ;  that  the  surface  of 
Lake  Erie  was  five  hundred  and  sixty-four  feet  higher  than  the  Hudson,  and 
one  hundred  and  forty-five  feet  higher  than  Rome ;  and  that  the  aggregate  rise 
and  fall  would  be  six  hundred  and  sixty-one  feet,  which  would  require  the  con¬ 
struction  of  seventy-seven  locks.  The  dimensions  of  the  canal,  as  established, 
were  forty  feet  width  at  the  surface,  twenty-eight  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  four 
feet  depth. 

The  commissioners,  although  they  spoke  discouragingly,  did  not  yet  relinquish 
the  hope  of  aid  from  the  federal  government,  and  from  sister  states ;  and  they 
recorded  the  enlightened  and  generous  resolution  of  Ohio,  to  aid  as  far  as  her 
resources  would  justify,  in  the  construction  of  a  work,  the  advantages  of  which  to 
herself  and  to  the  union  she  so  clearly  discerned.  The  commissioners  further 
reported,  that  although  they  had  not  accurate  information,  they  had  no  doubt 
that  loans  of  money  sufficient  for  the  construction  of  the  work  could  be  obtained, 
and  that  ample  funds  could  be  commanded  for  the  payment  of  interest  and  the 
extinguishment  of  the  debt,  without  taxation. 


102 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  commissioners,  at  the  same  session,  submitted  a  further  report,  showing 
that  the  estimated  cost  of  the  Champlain  canal  was  eight  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  thousand  dollars,  and  recommending  its  immediate  construction.  The  joint 
legislative  committee  on  the  canals  consisted  of  Peter  R.  Livingston,  George 
Tibbits  and  Philetus  Swift,  of  the  senate ;  and  William  D.  Ford,  Nathaniel  Pen¬ 
dleton,  Jonathan  Child,  Henry  Eckford  and  Gideon  Wilcoxson,  of  the  assembly. 
Mr.  Ford  made  an  elaborate  report  in  favor  of  the  immediate  commencement 
and  vigorous  prosecution  of  both  works  ;  submitted  a  scheme  of  finance,  which 
formed  the  basis  of  the  plan  ultimately  adopted,  and  brought  in  a  bill  entitled 
‘‘  An  act  concerning  navigable  communications  between  the  great  western  and 
northern  lakes  and  the  Atlantic  ocean.”  This  bill,  which,  after  a  very  full  dis¬ 
cussion  in  both  houses,  became  a  law,  provided  for  an  immediate  commencement 
of  the  canals ;  and  thus,  after  a  struggle  of  ten  years,  the  ascendancy  of  the  policy 
of  internal  improvement  was  complete. 

The  sentiments  of  mingled  hope  and  apprehension  on  the  part  of  the  legislature, 
in  finally  adopting  that  policy,  were  thus  expressed  in  the  preamble  to  the  law  : 
“  Whereas,  navigable  communications  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Champlain,  and 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  by  means  of  canals  connected  with  the  Hudson  river,  will 
promote  agriculture,  manufactures  and  commerce,  mitigate  the  calamities  of 
war,  and  enhance  the  blessings  of  peace,  consolidate  the  union,  and  advance  the 
prosperity  and  elevate  the  character  of  the  United  States :  And  whereas,  it  is  the 
incumbent  duty  of  the  people  of  this  state,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  means 
which  the  Almighty  has  placed  in  their  hands  for  the  production  of  such  signal, 
extensive  and  lasting  benefits  to  the  human  race  :  Now,  therefore,  in  full  confi¬ 
dence  that  the  congress  of  the  United  States,  and  the  states  equally  interested 
with  this  state  in  the  commencement,  prosecution  and  completion  of  those  im¬ 
portant  works,  will  contribute  their  full  proportion  to  the  expense ;  and  in  order 
that  adequate  funds  may  be  provided,  and  properly  arranged  and  managed,  for 
the  prosecution  and  completion  of  all  the  navigable  communications  contemplated 
by  this  act.”  The  act  constituted  a  canal  fund  to  consist  of  such  appropriatons, 


INTRODUCTION. 


103 


grants  and  donations,  as  might  be  made  by  the  legislature,  by  the  federal  govern¬ 
ment,  by  states,  and  by  corporations,  companies  and  individuals,  and  placed  it 
under  the  management  of  a  board  of  commissioners  of  the  canal  fund,  “  to  be 
composed  of  the  lieutenant-governor,  comptroller,  secretary  of  state,  attorney- 
general,  surveyor-general  and  treasurer.”  The  board  was  authorized  to  borrow 
moneys  on  the  public  credit,  at  an  interest  not  exceeding  six  per  centum,  and  not 
exceeding  in  one  year  a  sum  which,  together  with  the  income  of  the  fund,  should 
amount  to  four  hundred  thousand  dollars.  For  the  moneys  to  be  borrowed,  the 
comptroller  was  to  issue  transferable  stock.  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  De  Witt 
Clinton,  Samuel  Young,  Joseph  Ellicott,  and  Myron  Holley,  were  reappointed 
commissioners,  under  the  denomination  of  canal  commissioners.  The  comp¬ 
troller  was  directed  to  pay  to  them  the  moneys  to  be  borrowed,  and  the  income 
of  the  canal  fund,  reserving  always  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest  on  loans.  The 
canal  commissioners  were  empowered  to  establish  and  collect  reasonable  tolls 
whenever  any  portion  of  the  work  should  be  completed.  The  fee  simple  of  the 
canals  was  to  be  vested  in  the  people,  provision  being  made  to  indemnify  the 
proprietors  of  lands.  The  commissioners  were  also  to  take  measures  for  vesting- 
in  the  people  the  title  of  the  property  of  the  Western  Inland  Lock  Navigation 
Company,  paying  that  association  for  the  same  out  of  the  canal  fund.  A  duty  of 
twelve  and  a  half  cents  per  bushel  on  all  salt  to  be  manufactured  in  the  then  west¬ 
ern  district  of  the  state,  a  tax  on  steamboat  passengers,  the  unappropriated  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  all  lotteries,  the  nett  proceeds  from  the  property  and  tolls  of  the  Western 
Inland  Lock  Navigation  Company,  the  nett  revenues  of  the  canals,  all  grants  and 
donations,  and  all  duties  upon  sales  at  auction  —  after  deducting  existing  appro¬ 
priations  of  thirty-three  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  —  were  pledged  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  works  and  the  payment  of  the  interest,  and  the  final  redemp¬ 
tion  of  the  stock  to  be  issued  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  growing  power  and  influence  of 
the  western  and  northern  portions  of  the  state  were  chiefly  effective  in  securing 
the  commencement  of  the  canals.  The  representatives  from  other  regions  in 


104 


INTRODUCTION. 


yielding  the  acknowledgment  of  that  influence,  still  entertained  so  much  distrust 
of  the  productiveness  of  the  works,  that  they  insisted  upon  incorporating  in  the 
law  a  provision  for  levying  a  tax  of  $250,000  upon  the  lands  lying  along  the 
routes  of  the  canals,  and  within  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  on  each  side 
thereof.  This  provision  undoubtedly  affected  the  votes  upon  the  passage  of  the 
law.  In  the  assembly  sixty-four  members  voted  for,  and  thirty-six  against  it. 
Those  in  the  affirmative  were,  Henry  Albert,  David  I.  Ambler,  Isaac  Barber, 
Wheeler  Barnes,  John  H.  Beach,  Abijah  Beckwith,  John  Brown  junior,  John  H. 
Burhans,  Abram  Camp,  William  Campbell,  Daniel  Carpenter,  Jonathan  Childs, 
Gerret  Cuck,  Rowland  Day,  John  D.  Dickinson,  William  A.  Duer,  Tunis  B.  El- 
dridge,  James  Faulkner,  James  Finch,  Henry  Fonda,  William  D.  Ford,  James 
Ganson,  Archer  Green,  Henry  Gross,  Burton  Hammond,  Elihu  Hedges,  Peter  A. 
Hilton,  James  Houghtaling,  Hezekiah  Hulburt,  Samuel  Jackson,  Jacob  L.  Larze- 
lere,  Joshua  Lee,  Newton  Marsh,  Moses  Maynard,  Greene  Miller,  John  Miller,  Ben¬ 
jamin  Mooers,  Zebulon  Mott,  Cyrenus  Noble,  Jonathan  Olmsted,  John  I.  Ostran¬ 
der,  Humphrey  Palmer,  Nathaniel  Pendleton,  Nathaniel  Pitcher,  John  Pixley, 
Henry  Platt,  Timothy  H.  Porter,  Jedediah  Prendergast,  William  B.  Rochester, 
James  Roseburgh,  George  Rosenkrantz,  Isaac  Sears,  Richard  Smith,  Gideon 
Tabor,  Elijah  Turner,  Ebenezer  Wakeley,  Ebenezer  W.  Walbridge,  Rufus 
Watson,  James  Webb,  Asa  Wells,  Gideon  Wilcoxson,  Elisha  Williams,  Isaac 
Wilson  and  David  Woods.  Those  who  voted  in  the  negative  were,  Cornelius 
A.  Blauvelt,  Levi  Callender,  Stephen  Carman,  William  Cook,  Richard  C.  Cor¬ 
son,  Clarkson  Crolius,  Chillus  Doty,  James  Emott,  John  Gale,  Cornelius  Heeny, 
William  Jones,  Martin  Keeler,  Daniel  Kissam,  John  McFadden,  Asa  Mann, 
Elijah  Miles,  Abraham  Parsons,  John  Pettit,  Samuel  B.  Romaine,  Samuel  Russell, 
Reuben  Sanford,  Isaac  Sargent,  Edward  Smith  junior,  Joseph  Smith,  Samuel  A. 
Smith,  Justus  Squire,  Amos  Stebbins,  Christopher  Tappen  junior,  John  Town¬ 
send,  John  Victory,  George  Warner,  Elizur  Webster,  Ebenezer  White  junior 
and  Ebenezer  Wood. 

In  the  senate  the  vote  on  the  law  was  eighteen  to  nine.  In  the  affirmative 


INTRODUCTION. 


105 


were,  David  Allen,  Stephen  Bates,  Bennet  Bicknell,  Moses  I.  Can  tine,  James 
Cochran,  Ralph  Hascall,  Ephraim  Hart,  Parley  Keyes,  John  Knox,  William 
Mallory,  John  I.  Prendergast,  William  Ross,  Farrand  Stranahan,  Samuel 
Stewart,  Peter  Swart,  George  Tibbits,  Martin  Van  Buren  and  Abraham  Van 
Vechten ;  and  in  the  negative,  Henry  Bloom,  Walter  Bowne,  Darius  Crosby, 
Jonathan  Dayton,  John  D.  Ditmis,  Lucas  Elmendorf,  Peter  R.  Livingston,  John 
Noyes  and  Isaac  Ogden. 

The  geographical  classification  of  members  voting  for  and  against  the  law 
was  as  follows : 


Southern  district, 
Middle  “ 


In  the  Senate. 


Affirmative.  Negative. 

5 

.6  3 


Eastern  district, 
Western  “ 


Affirmative.  Negative. 

..  7 

..  5  1 

18  9 


In  the  Assembly. 


Suffolk, - 

1 

Schenectady, _ 

1 

Queens, _  _ 

3 

Schoharie, _ 

2 

Richmond, _ 

1 

Montgomery, _ 

4 

New- York, _ 

7 

Herkimer, _ 

3 

Westchester, _ 

3 

Lewis  and  Jefferson, _ 

3 

Rockland, _ 

1 

Otsego, _ 

5 

Putnam, _  __  _ 

1 

Chenango,  Broome  and  Tioga,.  . 

2 

1 

Dutchess,  _ 

..  2 

2 

Madison, _  _ 

3 

Orange, _ 

..  3 

1 

Oneida, _ 

4 

Ulster  and  Sullivan, _ 

..  1 

1 

Onondaga, _ _ 

3 

1 

Greene, _ 

2 

Cortland, _ 

1 

Columbia, _ 

..  4 

Cayuga, . . 

3 

1 

Rensselaer, _ _ 

..  5 

Seneca, _ 

2 

Albany, _ 

..  4 

Ontario,..  _ 

3 

Washington  and  Warren, _ 

..  2 

3 

Genesee, _ 

2 

1 

Saratoga, _  _ 

..  1 

1 

Steuben  and  Allegany, _ 

2 

Essex, _  . 

1 

Niagara,  Cattaraugus  and  Chau- 

Clinton  and  Franklin, _ 

.  1 

tauque, _ 

2 

St.  Lawrence, _ 

64 

36 

Intr. 


14 


106 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  ground  was  broken,  for  the  construction  of  the  Erie  canal,  on  the  fourth 
day  of  July,  1817,  at  Rome,  with  ceremonies  marking  the  public  estimation  of 
that  great  event.  De  Witt  Clinton,  having  just  before  been  elected  to  the  chief 
magistracy  of  the  state,  and  being  president  of  the  board  of  canal  commissioners, 
enjoyed  the  high  satisfaction  of  attending,  with  his  associates,  on  the  auspicious 
occasion. 

In  his  annual  speech  to  the  legislature  in  1818,  he  congratulated  the  people  on 
the  commencement  of  the  canals,  rapidly  reviewed  the  progress  already  made 
in  their  construction,  remarked  briefly  on  their  advantages,  and  earnestly  urged 
that  the  state  was  required  to  persevere,  by  every  dictate  of  interest,  by  every 
sentiment  of  honor,  by  every  injunction  of  patriotism,  and  by  every  consideration 
which  ought  to  influence  the  councils  and  govern  the  conduct  of  a  free,  high- 
minded,  enlightened  and  magnanimous  people.  The  senate  responded  favor¬ 
ably  to  these  sentiments,  and  the  answer  of  the  assembly  was  in  terms  of  spirited 
congratulation. 

The  commissioners  made  a  report,  showing  that  they  had  engaged  Isaac 
Briggs,  an  eminent  mathematician,  as  an  engineer  on  the  middle  section,  and 
had  let  the  work  to  be  done  in  small  portions,  by  contract. 

At  this  session,  laws  were  passed,  authorizing  the  construction  of  the  Chitte- 
nango  canal  for  navigation,  and  as  a  feeder  to  the  Erie  canal ;  and  an  examination 
of  the  outlet  of  Buffalo  creek,  with  a  view  to  form  a  harbor  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Erie  canal  into  Lake  Erie,  and  making  improvements  of  the  financial  system 
adopted  at  the  previous  session.  The  act  relating  to  the  last  mentioned  subject, 
authorized  the  comptroller  to  borrow  one  million  of  dollars  for  the  general  uses 
of  the  treasury,  and  to  issue  therefor  stock  redeemable  on  the  first  of  January, 
1828.  When  this  law  was  under  consideration  in  the  assembly,  Erastus  Root 
moved  that  the  power  of  the  commissioners  of  the  canal  fund  to  borrow  money 
for  canal  purposes,  should  be  suspended  until  the  redemption  of  the  stock  debt 
to  be  created  under  the  law.  This  was  the  last  effort  made  in  the  legislature  to 


INTRODUCTION. 


107 


arrest  the  prosecution  of  the  canals.  The  motion  was  lost,  only  twenty-one 
members  voting  therefor. 

In  1819,  governor  Clinton  announced  to  the  legislature,  that  the  progress  of 
the  public  works  equalled  the  most  sanguine  expectations,  and  that  the  canal 
fund  was  flourishing.  He  recommended  the  prosecution  of  the  entire  Erie  canal. 
Enlarging  upon  the  benefits  of  internal  navigation,  he  remarked,  that  he  looked 
to  a  time  not  far  distant,  when  the  state  would  be  able  to  improve  the  navigation 
of  the  Susquehannah,  the  Allegany,  the  Genesee  and  the  St.  Lawrence ;  to  assist 
in  connecting  the  waters  of  the  great  lakes  and  the  Mississippi ;  to  form  a  junc¬ 
tion  between  the  Erie  canal  and  Lake  Ontario  through  the  Oswego  river;  and 
to  promote  the  laudable  intention  of  Pennsylvania  to  unite  the  Seneca  lake  with 
the  Susquehannah ;  deducing  arguments  in  favor  of  such  enterprises,  from  the 
immediate  commercial  advantages  of  extended  navigation,  as  well  as  from  its 
tendency  to  improve  the  condition  of  society,  and  strengthen  the  bonds  of  the 
union.  Henry  Yates  junior,  in  the  senate,  and  John  Van  Ness  Yates,  in  the 
assembly,  on  behalf  of  the  proper  committees,  submitted  answers  concurring  in 
the  opinions  expressed  by  the  chief  magistrate,  and  the  same  were  adopted. 

Joseph  Ellicott,  having  resigned  the  office  of  canal  commissioner,  Ephraim 
Hart  was  appointed  in  his  place,  ad  interim,  and  subsequently  Henry  Seymour 
was  called  to  fill  the  vacancy. 

The  canal  commissioners,  in  their  report,  gave  an  interesting  account  of  their 
proceedings,  represented  that  the  work  on  the  middle  section,  under  the  care  of 
Benjamin  Wright  as  principal  engineer,  had  been  conducted  with  great  success; 
and  that  Canvass  White  and^Nathan  S.  Roberts,  who  had  previously  bee  nassis- 
tant  engineers,  were  assigned,  on  account  of  their  eminent  skill,  to  higher  duties. 
Mr.  White  was  distinguished  at  this  time  for  his  discovery  of  the  manner  of  pre¬ 
paring  a  hydraulic  cement  from  a  peculiar  species  of  limestone  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  canal.  He  was  the  inventor,  also,  of  the  improvement  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  upper  gates  of  canal  locks,  which  has  been  said  to  be  the  only  im- 


108 


INTRODUCTION. 


provement  in  the  mechanical  construction  of  canals,  made  since  the  building  of 
the  Languedoc  canal. 

The  commissioners  recommended  that  a  navigable  communication  should  im¬ 
mediately  be  opened  from  the  Erie  canal  to  the  salt  works  at  Salina,  and  that 
the  militia  law  should  be  so  modified  as  to  excuse  laborers  on  the  canals  from 
military  duty,  and  sustained  the  recommendation  by  the  governor  of  the  simul¬ 
taneous  prosecution  of  all  portions  of  the  Erie  canal. 

The  joint  committee  on  internal  improvements  consisted  of  Jabez  D.  Ham¬ 
mond,  Henry  Seymour  and  Walter  Bowne,  senators,  and  Ezekiel  Bacon,  Jacob 
Rutsen  Van  Rensselaer,  John  Doty,  Jedediah  Miller  and  Asahel  Warner,  of  the 
assembly.  Mr.  Bacon  submitted  a  report,  and  introduced  a  bill,  embodying  the 
recommendations  of  the  canal  commissioners.  This  bill  became  a  law,  twenty- 
five  members  of  the  assembly  voting  against  the  section  which  empowered  the 
canal  commissioners  to  commence  the  eastern  and  western  portions  of  the  Erie 
canal  and  the  branch  canal  from  the  Erie  canal  to  Salina.  A  survey  was  also  autho¬ 
rized  from  the  mouth  of  the  Oswego  river,  up  the  same,  the  Seneca  river  and 
the  outlet  of  the  Onondaga  river,  with  a  view  to  improve  the  navigation  of  those 
streams.  This  was  the  first  legislative  step  towards  the  construction  of  the  Os¬ 
wego  canal. 

At  this  session  a  law  was  passed,  suspending  the  collection  of  the  local  canal 
tax,  until  further  directions  should  be  given  by  the  legislature. 

An  act  was  also  passed,  granting  a  loan  to  citizens  of  Buffalo,  to  be  applied  to 
the  construction,  under  the  direction  of  the  canal  commissioners,  of  a  harbor 
at  that  place,  and  providing  for  the  assumption  of  the  harbor,  if  it  should  ulti¬ 
mately  be  deemed  expedient. 

On  the  twenty-third  of  October,  1819,  the  portion  of  the  Erie  canal  between 
Utica  and  Rome  was  opened  to  navigation,  and  on  the  twenty-fourth  of  Novem¬ 
ber  the  Champlain  canal  admitted  the  passage  of  boats.  Thus  in  less  than  two 
years  and  five  months  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  of  artificial  navigation  had 
been  finished,  and  the  physical  as  well  as  the  financial  practicability  of  uniting 


INTRODUCTION. 


109 


the  waters  of  the  western  and  northern  lakes  with  the  Atlantic  ocean,  was  esta¬ 
blished  to  the  conviction  of  the  most  incredulous. 

Governor  Clinton  announced  these  gratifying  results  to  the  legislature  in  1820, 
and  admonished  them  that  while  efforts  directly  hostile  to  internal  improvements 
would  in  future  be  feeble,  it  became  a  duty  to  guard  against  insidious  enmity ; 
and  that  in  proportion  as  the  Erie  canal  advanced  towards  completion,  would  be 
the  ease  of  combining  a  greater  mass  of  population  against  the  further  exten¬ 
sion  of  the  system.  Attempts,  he  remarked,  had  already  been  made  to  arrest 
the  progress  of  the  Erie  canal  west  of  the  Seneca  river,  and  he  anticipated  their 
renewal  when  it  should  reach  the  Genesee.  But  the  honor  and  prosperity  of 
the  state  demanded  the  completion  of  the  whole  of  the  work,  and  it  would  be 
completed  in  five  years,  if  the  representatives  of  the  people  were  just  to  them¬ 
selves  and  to  posterity.  Referring  to  the  local  tax,  he  submitted  whether  it 
comported  with  the  magnanimity  of  government  to  resort  to  partial  or  local  im¬ 
positions  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a  magnificent  work,  identified  with  the  gene¬ 
ral  prosperity.  The  commissioners  informed  the  legislature  that  they  had  em¬ 
ployed  David  Thomas  to  survey  the  proposed  harbor  at  Buffalo,  and  that  plans 
for  a  similar  improvement  at  Black  Rock  had  been  received. 

The  committee  on  internal  improvements  in  the  senate,  consisted  of  Jabez  D. 
Hammond,  Gideon  Granger  and  Stephen  Barnum  ;  and  the  committee  on  canals 
in  the  assembly,  of  George  Huntington,  John  T.  Irving,  David  Austin,  Elial  T. 
Foote  and  Thomas  J.  Oakley. 

A  law  was  passed,  suspending  the  collection  of  the  tax  on  steamboat  passen¬ 
gers,  and  imposing,  by  way  of  commutation,  on  the  North  River  Steamboat 
Company  an  annual  tax  of  five  thousand  dollars,  for  the  benefit  of  the  canal 
fund.  This  company  then  enjoyed,  by  grant  from  the  legislature,  a  monopoly 
of  steam  navigation  upon  all  the  waters  within  the  state,  as  a  reward  to  Robert 
Fulton,  Robert  R.  Livingston  and  their  associates,  as  public  benefactors.  The 
grant  was  afterwards  adjudged  by  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  to  be 
void,  so  far  as  it  affected  navigation  in  tide  waters,  because  it  conflicted  with  the 


110 


INTRODUCTION. 


constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  same  law  appropriated  twenty -five 
thousand  dollars  for  the  improvement  of  the  Oswego  river;  and  by  other  acts, 
Grand  island  on  the  Niagara  river,  and  a  portion  of  the  reservation  at  the  Onon¬ 
daga  salt  springs,  were  directed  to  be  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the  canal  fund  ;  and 
the  legislature  prescribed  a  general  system  of  police  for  the  management  and 
protection  of  the  canals. 

By  an  arrangement  made  by  the  commissioners,  and  sanctioned  by  the  legisla¬ 
ture,  three  of  the  five  commissioners  were  charged  with  active  duties,  to  be  com¬ 
pensated  by  salaries,  while  the  other  commissioners  were  relieved  from  such  du¬ 
ties.  The  acting  commissioners  designated  were  Mr.  Young,  Mr.  Seymour  and 
Mr.  Holley.  During  the  same  year  the  title  of  the  Western  Inland  Lock  Naviga¬ 
tion  Company,  to  its  property  and  privileges,  was  transferred  to  the  state,  and  a 
compensation  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  eight  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
dollars  was  paid  for  the  same. 

In  November,  1820,  governor  Clinton  congratulated  the  legislature  upon  the 
progress  of  the  public  works.  He  urged  the  adoption  of  plenary  measures  to  com¬ 
plete  the  Erie  canal  within  three  years,  enforcing  the  recommendation  by  the 
consideration,  that  Ohio  would  thereby  be  encouraged  to  pursue  her  noble 
attempt  to  unite  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie  with  the  Ohio  river.  The  canal  com¬ 
missioners  showed  in  their  report  that  the  Erie  canal  was  navigable  from  Utica 
to  the  Seneca  river,  a  distance  of  ninety-six  miles,  and  that  its  tolls,  during  four 
months,  had  amounted  to  five  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty-four  dollars. 

An  effort  was  made  in  the  assembly  to  abrogate  the  local  tax,  which  failed  ;  a 
result  showing  that  distrust  of  the  productiveness  of  the  canals  still  lingered  in  the 
halls  of  the  legislature.  This,  however,  was  the  last  effort,  and  the  law  has  been 
suffered  to  remain  ever  since,  unexecuted  and  unrepealed.  William  C.  Bouck 
was,  during  the  same  session,  appointed  an  acting  canal  commissioner. 

Governor  Clinton,  in  1822,  referred,  in  his  speech,  to  the  difficulties  and  em¬ 
barrassments  which  had  been  encountered  with  regard  to  the  most  eligible  routes 
for  the  canals,  and  the  most  proper  designations  for  the  termini  of  the  Erie 


INTRODUCTION. 


Ill 


canal ;  assuring  the  legislature,  however,  that  the  canal  board  had  not  been  led 
astray  by  local  considerations  or  ephemeral  expedients,  and  that  they  would  be 
able  to  combine  the  accommodation  of  flourishing  cities  and  villages  with  the 
promotion  of  the  general  convenience  and  welfare.  He  noticed  the  efforts  on 
the  part  of  Illinois  to  connect  the  river  of  that  name  with  Lake  Michigan,  and 
those  of  Ohio  to  unite  with  Lake  Erie  the  river  which  formed  her  southern 
boundary,  commending  those  efforts  to  the  munificent  patronage  of  the  national 
government,  and  the  favorable  countenance  of  New- York.  He  recommended 
also  the  institution  of  a  board  of  public  improvements,  to  be  composed  of  enlight¬ 
ened  and  public  spirited  citizens,  and  invested  with  power  to  establish  and  faci¬ 
litate  all  useful  channels  of  communication,  and  all  eligible  modes  of  improve¬ 
ment. 

The  tolls  on  the  portion  of  the  Champlain  canal  which  had  been  completed, 
amounted,  in  the  previous  year,  to  one  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty-six 
dollars. 

The  legislature  at  this  session  directed  the  canal  commissioners  to  open  a  boat 
navigation  between  the  village  of  Salina,  the  Onondaga  lake  and  the  Seneca 
river.  These  improvements  when  completed,  together  with  those  previously 
directed,  created  an  artificial  canal  from  the  Erie  canal  to  Lake  Ontario,  and 
constituted  a  portion  of  what  afterw'ards  became  known  as  the  Oswego  canal. 

Acts  were  also  passed  to  encourage  the  construction  of  harbors  at  Buffalo 
creek  and  Black-Rock,  and  to  adapt  the  Glen’s  Falls  feeder  of  the  Champlain 
canal  to  boat  navigation. 

On  the  first  of  January,  1823,  the  government  went  into  operation  under  the 
new  constitution,  Joseph  C.  Yates  having  been  elected  to  the  office  of  governor. 
The  constitution  declared  that  rates  of  toll  not  less  than  those  set  forth  by  the  canal 
commissioners,  in  their  report  of  1821,  should  be  collected  on  the  canals,  and  that 
the  revenues  then  pledged  to  the  canal  fund  should  not  be  diminished  nor  di¬ 
verted  before  the  complete  payment  of  the  principal  and  interest  of  the  entire 
canal  debt,  a  pledge  which  placed  the  public  credit  on  an  impregnable  basis. 


112 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  appeared  at  the  commencement  of  the  session  of  the  legislature  in  1823, 
that  the  public  debt  amounted  to  $5,423,500,  of  which  $4,243,500  were  for 
moneys  borrowed  to  construct  the  canals.  The  commissioners  reported  that 
boats  had  passed  on  the  Erie  canal  a  distance  of  more  that  two  hundred  and 
twenty  miles,  and  that  as  early  as  the  first  of  July  ensuing,  that  channel  would 
be  navigable  from  Schenectady  to  Rochester.  The  tolls  collected  in  1822,  upon 
the  Erie  canal,  were  $60,000,  and  upon'the  Champlain  canal,  $3,625.  The  im¬ 
provements  of  the  outlet  of  Onondaga  lake  had  been  completed,  and  the  Glen’s 
Falls  feeder  was  in  a  course  of  rapid  construction.  Among  the  benefits  already 
resulting  from  the  Erie  canal,  the  commissioners  showed  that  the  price  of  wheat 
west  of  the  Seneca  river  had  advanced  fifty  per  cent.  T o  appreciate  this  result, 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  that  wheat  is  the  chief  staple  of  New-York,  and 
that  far  the  largest  portion  of  wheat-growing  lands  in  this  state  lie  west  of  the 
Seneca  river. 

Attempts  were  again  made  in  both  branches  to  provide  for  collecting  the  local 
tax.  The  proposition  was  lost  in  the  senate  by  a  vote  of  nineteen  to  ten,  and  in 
the  assembly  by  a  division  of  sixty -five  to  thirty-one. 

The  legislature  expressed  by  resolution  a  favorable  opinion  of  the  inland  navi¬ 
gation  which  New- Jersey  proposed  to  establish  between  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  rivers.  A  loan  of  $1,500,000  was  authorized  for  canal  purposes ;  a 
survey  of  the  Oswego  river  was  directed  to  be  made,  and  estimates  of  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  completing  the  canal  from  Salina  to  Lake  Ontario.  An  association  to 
construct  such  a  canal  was  incorporated,  and  authority  given  to  the  commis¬ 
sioners  to  take  the  work  when  completed,  leaving  the  use  of  its  surplus  waters 
to  the  corporators ;  and  the  eastern  termination  of  the  Erie  canal  was  fixed  at 
Albany. 

The  canal  commissioners  reported  in  1824  that  the  Champlain  canal  was 
finished ;  that  both  canals  had  produced  revenues  during  the  previous  year  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty-three  thousand  dollars,  and  that  the  commissioners  had 


INTRODUCTION. 


113 


decided  that  the  Erie  canal  ought  to  be  united  with  the  Niagara  river  at  Black 
Rock,  and  terminate  at  Buffalo. 

Myron  Holley  now  resigned  the  office  of  canal  commissioner,  and  laws  were 
passed  appropriating  one  million  of  dollars  for  canal  purposes,  and  directing  a 
survey  for  a  canal  from  Lake  Champlain  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  with  a  view  to 
complete  the  inland  navigation  between  that  river  and  the  Hudson. 

On  the  twelfth  of  April,  1824,  John  "Bowman  presented  to  the  senate  a  con¬ 
current  resolution,  that  “  De  Witt  Clinton,  Esq.  be  and  he  is  hereby  removed  from 
the  office  of  canal  commissioner and  it  was  carried  on  the  same  day  through  the 
senate,  by  a  vote  of  twenty-one  to  three,  and  through  the  assembly  by  a  vote  of 
sixty-four  to  thirty-four. 

As  soon  as  a  partial  navigation  of  the  canals  had  commenced,  the  government 
of  the  United  States  asserted  a  pretension  to  exact  tonnage  duties  thereon.  The 
legislature  of  this  state,  at  its  adjourned  session,  instructed  its  senators  and  repre¬ 
sentatives  in  congress  to  use  their  utmost  endeavors  to  prevent  such  unjust  and 
impolitic  exactions;  and  the  claim  of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
although  not  formally  relinquished,  has  never  since  been  urged. 

On  the  reassembling  of  the  legislature  in  January,  1825,  De  Witt  Clinton, 
who,  in  November  of  the  preceding  year,  had  been  again  called  to  the  office  of 
chief  magistrate,  congratulated  the  legislature  upon  the  prospect  of  the  imme¬ 
diate  completion  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  the  reasonable  certainty  that  the  canal 
debt  might  soon  be  satisfied,  without  a  resort  to  taxation,  without  a  discontinu¬ 
ance  of  efforts  for  similar  improvements,  and  without  staying  the  dispensing  hand 
of  government  in  favor  of  education,  literature,  science  and  productive  industry. 
Earnestly  renewing  his  recommendation  that  a  board  of  internal  improvement 
should  be  instituted,  he  remarked  that  the  field  of  operations  was  immense,  and 
the  harvest  of  honor  and  profit  unbounded ;  and  that  if  the  resources  of  the 
state  should  be  wisely  applied  and  forcibly  directed,  all  proper  demands  for  im¬ 
portant  avenues  of  communication  might  be  satisfied.  The  primary  design  of 
our  system  of  artificial  navigation,  which  was  to  open  a  communication  between 

Intr.  15 


114 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  Atlantic  anil  the  great,  lakes,  was  already,  he  observed,  nearly  accomplished, 
but  would  not  be  fully  realized  until  Lake  Ontario  should  be  connected  with  the 
Erie  canal  and  with  Lake  Champlain  ;  and  the  importance  of  these  improve¬ 
ments  would  be  appreciated  when  it  was  understood  that  the  lake  coast,  not  only 
of  this  state,  but  of  the  United  States,  was  more  extensive  than  their  sea  coast. 
The  next  leading  object,  he  remarked,  should  be  to  unite  the  minor  lakes  and 
secondary  rivers  with  the  canals,  and  to  effect  such  a  connection  between  the 
bays  on  the  sea  coast  as  would  ensure  the  safety  of  boat  navigation  against  the 
tempests  of  the  ocean  in  time  of  peace,  and  against  the  depredations  of  an  enemy 
in  time  of  war.  He  pointed  out,  as  portions  of  this  great  system,  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  canals  to  connect  the  Seneca,  the  Cayuga,  the  Canandaigua  and  other 
lakes  in  the  vicinity,  with  the  Erie  canal,  and  of  a  navigable  channel  from  the 
Hudson  to  the  Delaware ;  an  union  of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Susquehannah  with 
the  Genesee  and  the  Allegany  rivers ;  a  connection  of  the  Erie  canal  with  the 
Susquehannah  river,  through  the  Chenango  valley  ;  of  the  same  river  with  the  Se¬ 
neca  lake;  of  the  Erie  canal  at  Buffalo  with  the  Allegany  river,  at  the  confluence 
of  that  stream  with  the  Conewango,  and  of  the  Black  river  with  the  Erie  canal ; 
and  the  construction  of  a  navigable  communication  between  Gravesend  bay  and 
other  inlets  of  the  sea,  on  the  shore  of  Long  Island.  To  these  suggestions  he 
added  others,  concerning  the  importance  of  an  uninterrupted  navigation  of  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Hudson  river,  and  a  road  through  the  southern  tier  of  coun¬ 
ties  from  tide  water  to  Lake  Erie. 

Of  this  comprehensive  plan,  the  Oswego  canal,  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  canal, 
the  Crooked  Lake  canal,  the  Chemung  canal,  the  Chenango  canal,  and  the  De¬ 
laware  and  Hudson  canal,  are  already  completed ;  the  Black  River  canal,  the 
Genesee  Valley  canal,  the  New- York  and  Erie  railroad,  and  the  Long  Island 
railroad,  are  now  in  process  of  construction ;  while  for  the  Ogdensburgh  and 
Lake  Champlain  railroad,  the  Connewango  canal,  the  improvement  of  the  north¬ 
ern  branches  of  the  Hudson,  and  the  projected  continuation  of  the  Chemung 
and  Chenango  canals,  surveys  have  been  made  under  legislative  authority. 


INTRODUCTION. 


115 


Railroads,  recently  adopted  in  Europe  for  general  purposes  of  transportation, 
were  at  that  time  unknown  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic ;  but  the  system  of  inter¬ 
nal  improvement  marked  out  by  Clinton,  has  been  found  eminently  practicable 
with  the  application  of  that  invention. 

The  public  debt  for  the  canals  in  1825,  amounted  to  seven  and  a  half  millions 
of  dollars,  (all  of  which,  it  must  be  recorded  to  the  honor  of  the  state  and  the 
country,  had  been  borrowed  of  American  capitalists,)  and  the  annual  interest 
thereon  to  three  hundred  and  seventy-six  thousand  dollars.  The  governor  esti¬ 
mated,  that  the  tolls  for  the  year  would  exceed  three  hundred  and  ten  thousand 
dollars;  that  the  duties  on  salt  would  amount  to  one  hundred  thousand  dollars, 
and  that  these,  with  the  other  income  of  the  canal  fund,  would  produce  a  reve¬ 
nue  exceeding  by  three  hundred  thousand  dollars,  the  interest  on  the  canal  debt. 
He  stated  also,  that  ten  thousand  boats  had  passed  the  junction  of  the  canals 
near  tide  water  during  the  previous  season.  Remarking  that  the  creative  power 
of  internal  improvement  was  manifested  in  the  flourishing  villages  which  had 
sprung  up  or  been  extended ;  in  the  increase  of  towns,  and  above  all  in  the  pros¬ 
perity  of  the  city  of  New-York ;  and  noticing  the  fact,  that  three  thousand  build¬ 
ings  had  been  erected  in  that  city  during  the  preceding  year,  Clinton  predicted 
that  in  fifteen  years  its  population  would  be  doubled,  and  that  in  thirty  years  that 
metropolis  would  be  the  third  city  in  the  civilized  world,  and  the  second,  if  not 
the  first,  in  commerce. 

Adverting  to  the  efforts  which  Ohio  was  making  to  connect  Lake  Erie,  which, 
he  remarked,  might  now  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation  of  the  Erie  canal,  with 
the  Ohio  river,  he  declared,  that  he  should  welcome  the  commencement  and 
hail  the  consummation  of  that  work  as  among  the  most  auspicious  events  in  our 
history  ;  and  closed  his  review  of  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the  state,  with 
the  exclamation :  “  How  emphatically  does  it  behove  us,  in  the  contemplation 
and  enjoyment  of  these  abundant  blessings,  to  remember  that  we  derive  them  all 
from  the  great  fountain  of  benevolence!” 

The  canal  commissioners  alluding  to  the  pressure  of  business  on  the  eastern 


116 


INTRODUCTION. 


section  of  the  canal,  and  the  probability  of  its  rapid  increase,  announced  to  the 
legislature  that  it  would  be  necessary  before  long  to  exclude  passenger  boats 
from  this  part  of  the  line,  unless  double  locks  were  made  through  the  whole 
distance,  and  remarked  that  even  then  the  crowd  of  boats  in  the  spring  and  fall 
would  produce  great  inconvenience  and  delay.  Reasoning  that  in  many  places  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  construct  double  locks,  and  that  in  others  it  would 
be  attended  with  great  expense,  they  inferred  that  in  a  very  few  years  it  would 
be  proper  and  perhaps  indispensable  to  make  a  parallel  canal  along  the  valley  of 
the  Mohawk.  They  showed,  that  in  1820  the  tolls  on  ninety-four  miles  of  the 
Erie  canal  were  $5,000  ;  in  1821,  on  the  same  distance,  $23,000  ;  in  1822,  on  one 
hundred  and  sixteen  miles,  $57,000 ;  in  1823,  on  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles, 
$105,000  ;  and  in  1824,  on  two  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  had  reached  the  sum 
of  $294,000.  They  submitted  tables,  in  which  they  estimated  the  tolls  on  a 
basis  of  the  increase  of  population,  and  the  progress  of  agricultural  improvement, 
and  predicted  that  in  1836  two  millions  of  people  would  be  within  the  influence 
of  the  Erie  canal ;  that  its  tolls  would  in  that  year  reach  the  sum  of  one  million 
of  dollars ;  and  that,  if  the  rates  should  not  be  reduced,  they  would  amount  in 
1846,  to  two  millions  of  dollars,  and  in  1856,  to  four  millions. 

At  this  session,  Samuel  Dexter  junior  introduced  a  bill  into  the  assembly  for 
exploring  a  route  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  Black  river  with  the  Erie  canal; 
Jacob  Adrian  Van  Der  Heuvel  brought  in  a  bill  to  construct  a  canal  from  Pots¬ 
dam,  in  St.  Lawrence,  to  the  Oswegatchie,  and  to  improve  the  navigation  of  that 
river ;  and  Thurlow  W eed  proposed  a  survey  with  a  view  to  connect  the  Allegany 
river  at  Olean  with  the  Erie  canal  at  Rochester,  by  a  navigable  communication 
through  the  valley  of  the  Genesee  river.  Laws  were  passed  at  the  same  session, 
authorizing  the  construction  of  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  canal,  adopting  the 
Oswego  canal  as  a  state  work,  and  providing  for  surveys  for  most  of  the  other 
improvements  recommended  by  the  governor  ;  and  the  legislature,  in  view  of  the 
approaching  completion  of  the  main  arteries  of  the  system  of  inland  navigation, 
directed  that  all  the  laws,  reports  and  documents  relative  to  the  canals,  requisite 


INTRODUCTION. 


117 


for  a  complete  official  history  of  these  works,  with  necessary  maps  and  profiles, 
should  be  carefully  collected  and  published.  This  duty  was  performed  with 
much  accuracy  by  a  legislative  committee,  with  the  assistance  of  John  Van  Ness 
Yates,  then  secretary  of  state,  who  had  been  one  of  the  most  constant  and  effi¬ 
cient  friends  of  the  policy,  of  whose  history  he  thus  became  the  guardian. 

On  the  26th  of  October,  1825,  the  Erie  canal  was  in  a  navigable  condition 
throughout  its  entire  length,  affording  an  uninterrupted  passage  from  Lake  Erie 
to  tide  water  in  the  Hudson.  Thus  in  eight  years  artificial  communications  four 
hundred  and  twenty-eight  miles  in  length,  had  been  opened  between  the  more 
important  inland  waters,  and  the  commercial  emporium  of  the  state.  This  au¬ 
spicious  consummation  was  celebrated  by  a  telegraphic  discharge  of  cannon, 
commencing  at  Lake  Erie,  and  continued  along  the  banks  of  the  canal  and  of  the 
Hudson,  announcing  to  the  city  of  New-York,  the  entrance  on  the  bosom  of  the 
canal  of  the  first  barge  that  was  to  arrive  at  the  commercial  emporium  from  the 
American  Mediterraneans.  Borne  in  this  barge,  De  Witt  Clinton  and  his  co¬ 
adjutors  enjoyed  the  spectacle  of  a  free  people  rejoicing  in  the  assurances  of 
prosperity  increased,  and  national  harmony  confirmed  ;  and  were  hailed,  in  their 
passage,  through  towns  and  cities  they  might  almost  be  said  to  have  called  into 
existence,  with  the  language  of  irrepressible  gratitude  and  affection. 

The  governor,  suppressing  all  feelings  of  self-gratulation,  announced  these 
events  to  the  legislature  of  1826,  as  evidences  of  the  ability,  as  well  as  the  dis¬ 
position  of  republican  governments  to  promote  the  welfare  of  mankind.  He 
congratulated  the  representatives  of  the  people  that  the  spirit  of  internal  im¬ 
provement  continued  in  full  power  here,  and  had  diffused  itself  into  other  states. 
He  announcdd  that  the  Oswego  canal,  and  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  canal,  had 
been  diligently  prosecuted ;  the  proposed  canal  between  the  Hudson  and  Dela¬ 
ware  rivers,  a  work  encountering  formidable  physical  difficulties,  was  in  success¬ 
ful  progress,  under  the  care  of  an  incorporation  which  sought  a  trade  with  the  coal 
districts  of  Pennsylvania,  and  that  commissioners,  appointed  at  a  previous  session, 
were  surveying  a  road  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson,  and  works  scarcely 


118 


INTRODUCTION. 


less  intimately  connected  with  the  prosperity  of  this  state  and  the  success  of  her 
system  of  improvements  were  in  process  of  construction  by  the  state  of  Ohio. 

The  whole  cost  of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals  was  stated  at  $9,130,000 ; 
the  canal  debt  at  $7,738,000,  and  its  annual  interest  at  $413,000.  The  canal 
commissioners  reported  that  the  tolls,  during  the  preceding  year,  were  $566,221; 
and  they  estimated  them  for  the  current  year  at  $750,000,  which,  with  the  other 
revenues  of  the  canal  fund,  would  make  the  sum  of  $1,100,000,  and  after  pay¬ 
ing  all  expenses  and  interest,  leave  applicable  to  the  reduction  of  the  principal, 
$575,000. 

The  year  1826  was  distinguished  by  the  commencement  of  the  railroad  policy 
in  the  state  of  New- York.  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  and  others  were  incorpo¬ 
rated  with  power  to  construct  a  railroad  from  Albany  to  Schenectady,  and  the 
right  to  enjoy,  for  fifty  years,  the  profits  of  the  enterprise ;  but  the  state  reserv¬ 
ing  the  right  to  assume  the  road  on  paying  to  the  company  the  excess  of  the  cost, 
with  interest  thereon,  over  the  profits  of  the  work.  This  important  feature  has 
been  incorporated  in  all  the  charters  since  granted  for  the  construction  of  rail¬ 
roads,  and  circumstances  are  now  occurring  which  indicate  its  importance. 

The  legislature  in  1827,  was  occupied,  so  far  as  internal  improvements  were 
concerned,  with  the  policy  of  aiding  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Comjaany ; 
with  discussing  the  most  eligible  route  for  a  connection  between  the  Erie 
canal  and  the  Susquehannah  river,  and  with  considering  the  merits  of  the  pro¬ 
jected  state  road  through  the  southern  counties.  Then,  and  during  several  suc¬ 
cessive  years,  the  general  policy  of  internal  improvement  being  scarcely  ques¬ 
tioned,  the  public  mind  was  engaged  rather  with  the  comparative  merits  of 
various  projects,  than  in  digesting  and  perfecting  a  system. 

In  1835,  the  debt  of  the  state,  incurred  in  the  construction  of  the  Erie  and 
Champlain  canals,  had  virtually  been  paid.  Moneys  derived  from  the  revenues 
of  the  canal  fund,  equal  to  the  canal  debt,  had  accumulated  and  been  invested 
for  the  security  of  the  public  creditors  ;  and  the  revenues  arising  from  salt  and 
auction  duties  were  now,  by  an  amendment  of  the  constitution,  diverted  to  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


119 


general  purposes  of  the  treasury ;  and  the  state  was,  therefore,  in  the  full  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  those  revenues,  as  well  as  such  as  were  derived  from  the  canals. 

It  was  now  found  that  the  locks  and  other  mechanical  structures  on  the  Erie 
canal,  were  worn  by  time  and  use  ;  inconveniences  were  experienced  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  its  limited  dimensions  and  inadequate  lockage ;  and  notwithstanding  its 
eminent  productiveness,  it  had  failed  to  accomplish  fully  the  objects  of  its  construc¬ 
tion,  inasmuch  as  a  considerable  amount  of  western  trade  continued  to  seek  mar¬ 
kets  by  other  routes.  It  was  obvious,  moreover,  that  the  capacity  of  that  channel 
should  be  increased  to  reduce  the  expenses  of  transportation.  The  legislature, 
therefore,  directed  that  an  enlargement  should  be  undertaken  whenever  the 
canal  board  should  be  of  opinion  that  the  public  interest  required  such  an  im¬ 
provement  ;  and  it  was  referred  to  the  discretion  of  the  board  to  fix  the  dimen¬ 
sions  of  the  new  channel.  The  canal  board  adopted  the  dimensions  of  seventy 
feet  width  and  seven  feet  depth,  with  double  locks.  The  act  of  1835  limited, 
however,  the  expenditures  for  the  enlargement,  to  the  annual  surplus  of  the  canal 
tolls,  which,  after  1837,  was  to  be  annually  diminished  by  a  considerable  sum, 
to  be  devoted  to  the  uses  of  the  treasury.  In  1836,  the  legislature  directed  the 
long  contemplated  construction  of  the  Genesee  Valley  canal  and  of  the  Black 
River  canal ;  and  during  this  year  those  improvements  were  commenced,  and  the 
enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal  was  prosecuted.  A  loan  of  the  public  credit,  to  the 
amount  of  three  millions  of  dollars,  was,  at  the  same  session,  made  to  a  company 
which  had  been  incorporated  in  1832,  for  the  construction  of  a  railroad  between 
the  Hudson  river  and  Lake  Erie,  through  the  southern  range  of  counties. 

The  canal  commissioners,  in  1837,  reported  the  progress  which  had  been 
made  in  the  construction  of  the  Genesee  Valley  and  Black  River  canals,  and  the 
enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  recommended  the  more  speedy  prosecution 
of  the  latter  work. 

In  1838,  the  governor,  William  L.  Marcy,  announced  that  the  canal  commis¬ 
sioners  were  devoting  to  the  enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal,  all  the  means  placed 
within  their  control ;  that  no  new  contracts,  however,  had  been  entered  into 


120 


INTRODUCTION. 


during  the  preceding  year,  and  that  some  failures  and  delays  had  occurred  with 
respect  to  those  previously  made.  He  remarked,  that  the  best  interests  of  the 
state  appealed  with  great  earnestness  for  the  early  completion  of  that  important 
improvement,  and  he  was  persuaded  that  a  larger  sum  than  the  existing  appro¬ 
priation  might  be  advantageously  expended  without  causing  an  interruption  or 
delays  in  navigation.  Adverting  also  to  the  advantages  of  the  canal  as  a  channel 
for  western  trade,  he  declared  that  both  duty  and  interest  indicated  the  pro¬ 
priety  not  only  of  making  it  adequate  to  the  public  wants,  but  of  doing  so  at  the 
earliest  practicable  period. 

Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  William  C.  Bouck,  Jonas  E aril  junior,  John  Bowman 
and  William  Baker  were  then  canal  commissioners.  They  urged  the  vigorous 
prosecution  of  the  enlargement  as  a  measure  of  enlightened  economy  and  fore¬ 
sight.  But  apprehensions  were  found  in  the  legislature,  that  the  policy  recom¬ 
mended  could  not  be  pursued  without  committing  too  deeply  the  credit  of  the 
state.  Although  the  feasibility  of  the  New-York  and  Erie  railroad  had  been  de¬ 
monstrated,  yet  that  important  enterprise  had  not  sufficiently  gained  the  confi¬ 
dence  of  the  community,  to  secure  subscriptions  and  payments  upon  its  capital 
stock,  sufficient  for  its  prosecution,  without  a  modification  of  the  conditions  upon 
which  the  company  then  enjoyed  a  loan  of  public  credit.  To  some  extent 
that  enterprise  was  regarded  as  one  of  local  character,  and  it  therefore  found 
little  favor  in  remote  regions  of  the  state.  The  enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal 
assumed  a  similar  aspect,  in  the  view  of  those  who  desired  the  former  improve¬ 
ment.  A  general  suspension  of  specie  payments,  by  banking  institutions  through¬ 
out  the  union,  had  occurred  in  1837 ;  and  a  commercial  revulsion  unprecedented 
in  the  history  of  the  country,  and  the  effects  of  which  have  not  yet  entirely  passed 
away,  was  paralyzing  the  energies  of  men  in  every  department  of  industry  and 
enterprise.  Under  these  circumstances  all  questions  before  the  legislature,  in 
relation  to  the  public  works,  were  merged  in  the  important  consideration  of  the 
financial  ability  of  the  state.  The  comptroller,  Azariah  C.  Flagg,  in  his  annual 
report,  examined  the  resources  and  condition  of  the  treasury,  and  earnestly  re¬ 
commended  a  system  of  finance,  of  which  taxation  should  be  a  part,  the  adoption 


INTRODUCTION. 


121 


of  which  would,  in  his  opinion,  ensure  the  prompt  payment  of  the  interest,  and 
the  ultimate  redemption  of  the  principal  of  the  public  debt. 

Samuel  B.  Ruggles,  chairman  of  the  committee  on  ways  and  means  of  the 
assembly,  submitted  a  report,  in  which  he  examined  the  condition  of  the  finances, 
and  reviewed  the  progress  of  internal  improvements.  In  this  paper  he  showed 
that,  on  the  first  of  July,  1836,  the  revenues  of  the  canal  fund  had  accumulated 
to  a  sum  sufficient  to  pay  the  canal  debt ;  which  incident  it  was  declared  ought 
to  be  regarded  as  the  crowning  event  in  the  canal  policy  of  the  state,  and  as 
fixing  an  important  era  in  its  history.  He  further  showed  that  when  the  canals 
were  commenced,  the  state  possessed  productive  property  valued  at  $2,740,000, 
yielding  a  revenue  of  $419,900;  a  school  fund  of  $982,000;  and  a  literature 
fund  of  $26,000 :  that  when  the  canals  were  commenced,  the  nett  income  of  the 
treasury  was  reduced  to  $180,000  annually,  by  the  diversion  of  the  salt  and 
auction  revenues  to  the  canal  fund :  that  a  tax  which  had  previously  been  laid  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  late  war,  was  then  continued :  that  in  1826,  the  rapid 
increase  of  the  canal  tolls  began  to  exhibit  itself,  and  the  state  tax  was  discon¬ 
tinued,  on  the  ground  that  the  balance  remaining  of  the  general  fund,  $2,740,000, 
would  sustain  the  government,  until  the  debt,  for  which  the  salt  and  auction  du¬ 
ties,  and  canal  tolls  were  pledged,  should  be  extinguished ;  and  that  those  reve¬ 
nues  would  then  be  liberated  and  placed  at  the  service  of  the  state  :  that  by  the 
exhaustion  of  the  general  fund,  in  defraying  the  ordinary  expenses  of  the  govern¬ 
ment,  and  by  loans  for  the  same  purpose,  the  sum  of  $3,156,000  had  been  ex¬ 
pended  ;  but  that  the  salt  and  auction  duties,  which  had  been  received  between 
the  years  1817  and  1836,  and  paid  to  the  public  creditors,  amounted  to  upwards 
of  $5,000,000 ;  that  those  duties,  to  the  amount  of  $5,000,000,  were  virtually 
invested  in  the  canals  as  a  substitute  for  the  $3,156,000  expended  during  the 
same  period  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  government :  and  that  the  state,  since 
the  year  1825,  had  created  a  debt,  then  yet  outstanding,  for  the  construction  of 
lateral  canals,  amounting  to  $3,555,000.  He  further  showed  that,  in  the  twenty 
years  since  the  commencement  of  the  canals  in  1817,  the  productive  property  of 
Intr.  16 


122 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  state  had  increased  from  $2,973,617  to  $22,157,742,  or,  after  deducting  the 
then  existing  state  debt,  to  $17,624,986  ;  that  the  annual  revenue  had  increased 
from  $419,907  to  $1,413,846  :  that  during  the  same  period,  $500,000  had  been 
expended  upon  public  buildings,  the  school  and  literature  funds  had  been 
doubled,  the  state  tax  discontinued,  and  the  people  relieved  from  burthen  or 
expense  in  supporting  the  government :  that  after  applying  $400,000  of  the  canal 
tolls  annually  to  the  support  of  the  government,  there  would  remain,  applicable 
to  purposes  of  internal  improvement,  an  annual  nett  revenue  of  $787,103  ;  that 
that  sum  alone  would  pay  the  annual  interest  on  $15,643,000  :  that  any  augmen¬ 
tation  in  the  revenue  of  the  canals  would  increase  the  financial  ability  of  the 
state :  that  every  $500,000  of  revenue  would -serve  as  a  basis  of  finance  to  sustain 
$10,000,000  of  debt :  and  that,  assuming  the  opinions  of  the  canal  commissioners 
expressed  in  their  report  of  that  year,  that  the  canals  soon  after  the  completion 
of  the  enlargement  would  yield  tolls  to  the  amount  of  $3,000,000  per  annum, 
the  sum  of  thirty  millions  of  dollars  might  be  borrowed,  expended,  and  finally 
reimbursed  within  twenty  years  ;  or  the  sum  of  forty  millions  might  be  so  bor¬ 
rowed,  expended,  and  reimbursed  within  twenty-eight  years.  This  view  of  the 
financial  ability  of  the  state  was  illustrated  by  estimates  of  the  tolls  and  nett  re¬ 
venue  of  the  canals  during  a  series  of  years,  based  upon  the  experience  of  the 
increase  since  their  completion.  In  this  table  it  was  assumed  that  the  nett  reve¬ 
nues  from  the  canals  for  1838  would  be  $800,000 ;  that  it  would  increase  at  the 
rate  of  $100,000  per  annum,  until  1842  ;  that  after  that  time,  owing  to  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  the  enlargement,  and  other  works  of  internal  improvement,  and  the 
increase  of  commerce,  until  1845,  it  would  increase  at  the  rate  of  $200,000  per 
annum  ;  and  from  1845,  until  1849,  at  the  rate  of  $300,000  per  annum ;  at  which 
time  the  nett  revenue  would  reach  the  sum  of  $3,000,000. 

The  sources  from  which  this  large  accession  of  revenue  was  to  be  anticipated, 
were  pointed  out  as  existing  in  the  extensive  and  rapidly  increasing  communities 
growing  up  around  the  western  lakes.  The  surprising  progress  already  made 
by  that  interior  group  of  states,  in  population,  wealth  and  productive  power,  was 


INTRODUCTION. 


123 


shown,  and  the  pecuniary  results  to  be  realized  from  their  further  and  necessary 
increase,  were  also  predicted.  The  comparative  advantages  of  the  enlarged 
Erie  canal,  as  an  outlet  for  the  trade  of  those  interior  communities,  to  the  Atlan¬ 
tic,  over  its  present  course  down  the  Mississippi  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  were  also 
dwelt  upon ;  and  the  importance  of  completing  that  work  with  all  practicable 
despatch,  was  earnestly  urged  upon  the  legislature.  The  important  commercial 
effects  to  be  produced  by  completing  the  different  lines  and  systems  of  artificial 
communication  then  in  progress  through  those  inland  states,  were  also  adverted 
to,  together  with  the  fiscal  and  political  advantages  to  be  derived  by  this  state  in 
procuring  the  transit  through  its  territory  for  all  time  to  come,  of  the  immense 
trade  of  this  vast  interior  region. 

In  accordance  with  the  conclusions  of  this  report,  a  law  was  passed  in  183S, 
appropriating  four  millions  of  dollars  for  the  prosecution  of  the  enlargement  of 
the  Erie  canal.  Laws  were  also  passed  at  the  same  session,  loaning  the  credit 
of  the  state  to  the  Catskill  and  Canajoharie,  the  Auburn  and  Syracuse,  and  the 
Ithaca  and  Owego  railroad  companies,  to  the  extent  of  eight  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  and  modifying  the  loan  to  the  New- York  and  Erie  Railroad  Company. 

An  obvious  propriety  requires,  that  the  writer  of  these  notes  should  pass  with¬ 
out  comment,  over  the  period  that  remains  to  be  filled  up  with  the  progress  of  inter¬ 
nal  improvement.  Samuel  B.  Ruggles  was  appointed  canal  commissioner  in  1839, 
to  fill  the  place  rendered  vacant  by  the  widely  lamented  death  of  the  venerated 
Stephen  Van  Rensselaer.  In  1840,  Asa  Whitney,  Simon  Newton  Dexter,  David 
Hudson,  George  H.  Boughton  and  Henry  Hamilton,  became  canal  commission¬ 
ers.  The  present  board  consists  of  Jonas  Earll  junior,  James  Hooker,  George 
W.  Little,  Benjamin  Enos,  Stephen  Clark  and  Daniel  P.  Bissell.  In  1840,  the 
conditions  of  the  loan  to  the  New-York  and  Erie  Railroad  Company  were  fur¬ 
ther  modified,  and  appropriations  were  made  to  carry  on  the  construction  of  the 
canals ;  and  during  the  three  years,  from  1839  to  1842,  all  those  works  were 
vigorously  prosecuted. 


124 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  tolls  on  all  the  canals  in  this  state,  during  the  season  of  navigation  in  1841, 
were  $2,034,878,  exceeding  those  of  1840  by  $259,831,  equal  to  an  increase  of 
fourteen  and  a  half  per  cent ;  and  those  of  1831,  by  the  sum  of  $811,077,  equal 
to  an  increase  in  ten  years,  of  more  than  sixty-six  and  one  quarter  per  cent. 

The  New-York  and  Erie  railroad,  four  hundred  and  fifty-one  miles  in  length, 
is  now  one-half  completed,  and  may  be  brought  into  use  in  1844,  if  prosecuted 
with  the  same  energy  as  heretofore.  The  enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal  is  one- 
half  finished  ;  nearly  all  its  mechanical  structures  having  been  already  replaced 
with  works  of  great  strength  and  durability,  and  it  may  be  finished  within  three 
years,  if  prosecuted  with  due  diligence.  The  Auburn  and  Rochester  railroad 
has  been  brought  into  profitable  operation;  portions  of  the  Long  Island  railroad, 
nearly  half  of  the  Genesee  Valley  canal,  and  the  eastern  section  of  the  New-York 
and  Erie  railroad,  have  been  opened,  and  are  now  usefully  employed.  Our  rail¬ 
way  communications  were  extended  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  within  the  last 
year,  and  their  present  aggregate  length  is  seven  hundred  and  forty-seven  miles ; 
and  the  total  length  of  our  canal  navigation  is  eight  hundred  and  three  miles. 
Meanwhile,  enlightened  citizens  of  this  state  and  of  Pennsylvania  have  opened 
an  active  and  prosperous  exchange  of  gypsum,  salt,  coal  and  iron,  by  the  Che¬ 
mung  canal,  and  by  the  Ithaca  and  Owego  railroad.  There  is  reason  to  expect 
that  the  continuous  line  of  railroad,  now  reaching  from  Albany  to  Batavia,  will 
be  extended  to  Lake  Erie  within  the  year ;  while  the  citizens  of  Albany  and  Bos¬ 
ton  have  connected  our  interior  thoroughfares  with  the  system  of  similar  works 
in  the  eastern  states,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  miles  of  canals,  and 
eight  hundred  miles  of  railways ;  thus  opening  to  us  facilities  for  social  intercourse 
with  the  people  of  those  prosperous  communities,  and  convenient  access  to  their 
manufactures,  granaries,  seaports  and  fisheries.  This  important  union  of  the 
two  great  northern  systems  was  regarded  as  marking  an  era  in  the  progress  of 
internal  improvement,  so  important,  and  excited  so  deep  an  interest,  that  the 
governors  and  legislatures  of  the  states  whose  combining  enterprise  had  secured 
the  auspicious  result,  assembled  at  Springfield,  in  Massachusetts,  a  point  equi- 


INTRODUCTION. 


125 


distant  from  their  respective  capitals,  and  there  exhibited  the  spectacle,  no  less 
sublime  than  novel,  of  the  governments  of  two  communities,  represented  by  their 
executive  and  legislative  authorities,  uniting  in  mass  to  exchange  felicitations 
upon  the  completion  of  works  which  guaranteed  domestic  tranquillity,  ensured 
their  safety  from  external  aggression,  and  bound  their  citizens,  already  allied  by 
common  blood  and  common  language,  in  perpetual  bonds  of  commercial,  politi¬ 
cal  and  social  union. 

Agricultural  improvement  did  not  engage  public  attention  until  after  the  revo¬ 
lution.  An  association  was  instituted  in  1791,  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture, 
arts  and  manufactures,  and  was  incorporated  in  1793.  Among  the  founders 
were  John  Jay,  Robert  R.  Livingston,  George  Clinton,  Samuel  L.  Mitchill,  Ezra 
L’Hommedieu,  Egbert  Benson,  John  McKesson,  Samuel  Jones,  Thomas  Tillot- 
son,  Aquila  Giles,  Philip  Van  Cortland,  Edward  Livingston,  John  Thurman, 
Simeon  De  Witt,  Horatio  Gates  and  Richard  Varick.  The  name  of  De  Witt 
Clinton  appears  in  the  catalogue  of  1798.  The  transactions  of  the  society  con¬ 
tain  many  excellent  papers,  and  exhibit  the  then  condition  of  agriculture.  The 
society  found  the  art  of  culture  without  method.  No  sufficient  means  of  diffus¬ 
ing  proper  intelligence  existed.  Although  the  publications  of  the  society  had  a 
limited  circulation,  yet  they  stimulated  inquiry.  The  low  condition  in  which 
agriculture  was  found,  when  these  efforts  commenced,  may  be  learned  from  a 
report  to  the  British  board  of  agriculture,  made  by  William  Strickland,  in  1794, 
after  extensive  travel  in  this  state.  “  The  course  of  crops,”  says  he,  “  is  as  fol¬ 
lows:  First  year,  maize  or  indiancorn;  second,  rye  or  wheat,  succeeded  im¬ 
mediately  by  buckwheat,  which  stands  for  seed ;  third,  flax  or  oats,  or  a  mixed 
crop ;  then  a  repetition  of  the  same  thing,  as  long  as  the  land  will  bear  any  thing, 
after  which  it  is  laid  by  without  seed  for  old  field  :  Or,  burn  the  woods,  (that  is, 
clear  the  land  from  timber;)  then,  first,  wheat,  second,  rye,  then,  maize  for  four  or 
five  years,  or  as  long  as  it  will  grow ;  then,  lay  it  by,  and  begin  on  fresh  wood 
land  ;  Or,  burn  the  woods ;  then  wheat  four  or  five  years ;  then  one  or  two  of 
maize,  or  as  long  as  it  will  grow ;  then  lay  by  four  or  five  years  for  old  field, 


126 


INTRODUCTION. 


without  seeds.  ******  Manure  is  scarcely  made  use  of,  but  what 
little  is  collected  is  given  to  the  maize,  which  requires  every  support  that  can  be 
given  it.  Clover  is  just  beginning  to  be  cultivated,  in  consequence  of  which  good 
pasture  and  plenty  of  hay  take  the  place  of  old  field,  and  by  the  use  of  gypsum 
astonishing  crops  are  obtained.  The  average  produce  of  wheat  in  New-York 
has  been  stated  to  me,  by  very  intelligent  persons,  at  twelve  bushels  per  acre; 
which  agrees  with  the  general  opinion,  and  I  believe  is  as  high  as  it  ought  to  be 
stated.  The  average  of  Dutchess  county,  which,  under  a  proper  cultivation, 
would  be  a  most  productive  as  it  is  a  most  beautiful  county,  has  been  stated  at 
sixteen  bushels  :  twenty  bushels  per  acre  are  every  where  a  great  crop.  The 
average  of  maize  may  be  about  twenty-five  bushels  ;  thirty  bushels  per  acre  is  a 
great  crop.  With  such  agriculture  as  has  been  stated,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  the  produce  should  be  so  small,  and  yet  it  will  be  found  that  the  average 
of  this  state  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other  in  the  union.  *****  The 
wheat  of  New-York  is  esteemed  the  best  in  the  United  States,  and  that  grown  on 
the  banks  and  branches  of  the  Mohawk,  the  best  in  the  state.” 

To  this  graphic  sketch  it  must  be  added,  that  farmers,  at  the  period  referred 
to,  were  destitute  of  proper  implements  of  husbandry.  The  cast  iron  plough 
had  not  been  invented ;  and,  not  to  mention  more  important  instruments,  now 
considered  indispensable,  the  horse  hay  rake,  the  threshing  machine,  the  roller 
and  the  cultivator,  were  unknown ;  or  if  any  of  them  had  been  invented,  they 
were  so  imperfect  and  so  little  used  as  to  produce  no  effect  on  the  general  state  of 
agriculture.  T o  understand  the  progress  since  made  in  the  art  of  cultivation,  as 
well  as  to  mark  the  existing  defects  in  our  system,  we  must  consider  separately 
subjects  which,  when  combined,  constitute  the  basis  of  improved  tillage.  In  all 
new  countries,  where  the  soils  abound  in  the  elements  of  fertility,  manure  is  un¬ 
dervalued.  No  care  is  bestowed  in  preserving  and  using  it,  until  diminished 
crops,  from  an  impoverished  soil,  expose  the  error  which  has  been  committed. 
Although  this  error  has  been  somewhat  checked  in  a  portion  of  the  state,  it  still 
prevails  in  the  newer  regions  where  the  natural  fertility  seems  to  be  inexhaust- 


INTRODUCTION. 


127 


ible.  Nevertheless,  the  contrast  in  this  respect  to  the  picture  before  presented, 
is  full  of  encouragement.  Barns  and  yards  are  now  constructed  with  a  view  to 
the  accumulation  and  preservation  of  manure,  and  extensive  experiments  have 
been  made  to  ascertain  the  manner  in  which  the  greatest  possible  benefit  can  be 
derived  from  its  use.  Discrimination  prevails  in  the  application  of  whatever  is 
used  for  that  purpose,  to  the  different  species  of  plants.  Indian  corn  and  roots 
are  now  cultivated  with  the  immediate  application  of  fresh  manures,  while  the 
grain  crops  are  cultivated  upon  grounds  previously  prepared,  by  incorporating 
the  nutriment  with  the  soil.  Several  substances  are  now  extensively  used  as 
manure  with  beneficial  results,  such  as  poudrette  and  peat,  and  especially  gyp¬ 
sum,  which,  although  fifty  years  ago  known  to  be  a  stimulant  to  vegetation,  was 
regarded  as  operating  to  exhaust  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  More  gypsum  is  now 
prepared  and  sold  in  the  counties  of  Onondaga  and  Cayuga  alone,  than  twenty 
years  since  was  used  throughout  the  whole  state.  It  has  been  found  by  expe¬ 
rience  that  the  deep  ploughing,  and  complete  pulverization,  now  performed  with 
ease  by  means  of  improved  instruments,  expose  the  soil  more  completely  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  furnish  a  better  range  or  pasture  for  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  thus  operate  favorably  in  regard  to  both  the  certainty  and  abundance 
of  production.  The  present  mode  of  draining  lands  already  capable  of  cultiva¬ 
tion,  is  wholly  a  modern  improvement ;  that  process  having  heretofore  been 
confined  to  swamps  and  marshes.  The  sub-soil  plough  Jias  been  invented  with 
express  reference  to  freeing  soils  from  water  and  deepening  them,  without  bringing 
to  the  surface  the  sub-soil  which  is  unfit  at  first  for  purposes  of  vegetation.  Our 
agriculturists  have  also  learned  that  the  mechanical  mixture  of  the  earths,  by 
effectual  ploughing,  conduces  to  fertility.  But  in  no  respect  has  there  been  a 
more  decided  advance  in  husbandry,  than  in  the  attention  paid  to  the  rotation  of 
crops.  The  practice  of  exhausting  land  with  a  succession  of  similar  or  varied 
crops,  and  then  “  laying  it  by  for  old  field,”  is  no  longer  known.  The  impor¬ 
tance  of  an  alternation  of  crops  with  a  seeding  of  grasses,  as  a  part  of  the  rotative 
system,  is  universally  acknowledged,  and  has  not  only  been  demonstrated  by  scien- 


128 


INTRODUCTION. 


tific  theory,  but  is  now  generally  approved  and  adopted;  and  a  system  of 
rotation,  in  which  crops  cultivated  with  the  hoe,  alternate  with  the  grains,  has 
been  recently  found  an  economical  substitute  for  the  former  process  of  summer- 
fallowing.  A  great  advance  in  farming  has  been  effected  by  the  introduction  of 
root  crops  into  field  culture.  It  is  true  that  the  labor  of  cultivation  is  expensive, 
but  it  is  abundantly  repaid  by  increased  production,  and  the  superior  condition  in 
which  the  soil  is  preserved.  Our  farmers  have  generally  been  very  negligent  in 
regard  to  improving  the  breed  of  domestic  animals.  Recently,  however,  the 
efforts  of  a  few  public  spirited  persons  in  introducing  cattle,  swine  and  sheep 
from  improved  stocks  in  Europe,  have  been  crowned  with  high  success.  The 
race  of  horses  has  been  less  improved.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  has  passed 
when  efforts  in  this  important  department  of  agriculture  must  encounter  popular 
prejudice  and  ridicule.  In  England  the  advance  in  weight  of  cattle,  sheep  and 
lambs,  has  averaged  at  the  Smithfield  market,  as  estimated  by  different  indivi¬ 
duals,  at  different  times,  as  follows :  In  1810,  cattle,  twenty-six  stone  six  pounds; 
1830,  thirty-nine  stone  four  pounds ;  1840,  forty-six  stone  twelve  pounds :  in 
1810,  sheep  and  lambs,  two  stone;  1830,  three  stone  eight  pounds ;  1840,  six 
stone  six  pounds.  Although  it  cannot  be  affirmed  that  an  equal  advance  has 
been  made  here,  yet  very  beneficial  effects  have  resulted  as  well  from  the  greater 
care  practised  in  feeding  and  raising  stock,  as  from  the  introduction  of  improved 
breeds  from  abroad.  The  merino  blood  in  sheep  has  been  so  extensively  diffused 
since  its  introduction  here  in  1809,  that  it  is  supposed  none  of  the  former  race 
of  that  animal  remains  unmixed  in  the  country.  Among  the  animals  which  have 
been  introduced,  are  the  Short  horns,  Hereford,  Devon  and  Ayshire  cattle  ;  the 
South  down,  Leicester  and  Coteswold  sheep  ;  the  Berkshire,  Irish  grazier  and 
Kenilworth  swine ;  and  pure  bloods  or  crosses  of  some  of  these  animals  are 
found  in  every  county,  if  not  in  every  town  in  the  state.  At  the  present  time, 
thirty-five  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  is  not  considered  a  great  crop,  and  the  pro¬ 
duct  frequently  reaches  forty  and  even  fifty  bushels.  Seventy-five  or  eighty 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre  is  not  an  extraordinary  yield.  We  cannot  speak  with 


INTRODUCTION. 


129 


confidence  of  the  increase  of  root  crops  ;  since,  with  the  exception  of  the  potato, 
all  culture  of  that  kind  is  still  in  its  infancy.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that 
provision  has  not  hitherto  been  made  for  obtaining  statistics  concerning  the 
quantity  of  land  under  cultivation,  and  the  number  of  acres  devoted  to  particular 
crops  and  their  extent ;  since  the  information  which  might  have  been  thus  derived 
would  have  been  not  merely  useful  in  ascertaining  the  present  condition  of  agri¬ 
culture,  but  eminently  conducive  to  its  future  improvement. 

The  chief  step  in  the  improvement  of  the  plough,  was  the  invention  by  Jethro 
Wood,  which  consisted  in  substituting  in  the  construction  of  that  instrument, 
cast  iron  for  wood  and  wrought  iron.  The  new  plough  thus  produced,  was 
more  manageable,  and  more  easily  drawn ;  and  the  apprehensions  that  its  strength 
would  not  be  found  sufficient  to  resist  the  power  applied  to  draw  it,  were  ulti¬ 
mately  found  to  be  groundless.  The  utmost  skill  of  mechanism  has  also  been 
applied  in  ascertaining  the  form  best  adapted  to  equalize  the  friction  and  resist¬ 
ance  with  the  work  to  be  performed.  Land  is  now  more  perfectly  and  quickly 
tilled  with  the  labor  of  two  horses,  than  with  double  that  power  applied  to  the 
implement  before  in  use.  Moore’s  plough,  for  use  upon  an  inclined  surface, 
performs  its  work  with  as  much  ease  and  completeness  as  similar  labor  is  per¬ 
formed  upon  a  plain.  The  threshing  machine,  a  modern  invention,  has  already 
become  indispensable  to  the  farmer.  With  the  horse  hay-rake  in  the  meadow, 
labor  is  performed  equal  to  that  of  six  men ;  while  as  a  gleaner  of  the  harvest 
field,  its  use  annually  more  than  repays  its  cost.  The  cultivator  has  greatly 
reduced  the  expense  of  producing  indian  corn.  Modern  improvements  of  the 
harrow  have  diminished  the  weight  of  that  instrument,  and  given  it  greater  effi¬ 
ciency  in  pulverizing  the  soil.  The  heavy  wrought  hoe,  and  the  clumsy  three¬ 
pronged  iron  fork,  have  given  place  to  the  steel  plate  polished  hoe,  and  to  the 
steel  fork  with  four  or  six  tines.  We  have  machines  which,  with  the  application 
of  horse  power,  clear  in  a  perfect  manner  ten  or  fifteen  acres  of  grain  per  day  ; 

Intr.  17 


130 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  drill-barrows  which  have  reduced  the  labor  and  waste  of  sowing  and  plant¬ 
ing.  There  has  been  a  marked  improvement  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
fruits  :  Our  farmers  are  not  all  of  them  satisfied  now  as  formerly  with  the  apple 
orchard,  but  have  their  fruit  gardens,  in  which,  with  the  arts  of  grafting,  inocula¬ 
ting  and  transplanting,  fine  varieties  of  pears,  plums,  cherries  and  other  exotic 
and  domestic  fruits  are  produced.  The  dwellings  of  our  farmers  are  now,  much 
less  frequently  than  heretofore,  constructed  as  if  magnitude  was  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  object  in  their  erection.  Farm  houses  may  now  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
state,  combining  elegance  with  comfort  and  convenience,  and  refined  taste  is 
manifested  in  the  planting  and  preservation  of  shade  trees.  The  location  and 
the  adaptation  of  barns  and  other  outbuildings  are  now  especially  regarded. 

While  the  society  of  1793,  gave  to  agriculture  the  impulse  which  has  resulted 
so  propitiously,  it  is  now  apparent  that  that  institution  was  defective  in  omitting 
to  establish  fairs,  or  gatherings,  in  which  farmers  and  patrons  of  the  art  might 
exchange  friendly  greetings,  and  become  acquainted  with  improvements  of  tillage 
and  implements.  In  1819,  under  the  administration  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  and 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  his  recommendations,  an  act  was  passed,  appropriating 
ten  thousand  dollars  annually,  for  four  years,  to  improve  agriculture,  the  arts  and 
manufactures.  A  board  of  agriculture  was  established,  and  provision  was  made 
to  induce  the  organization  of  societies  throughout  the  state.  The  anniversaries 
of  these  institutions  were  the  farmers’  holidays,  when  lectures  and  addresses 
were  delivered,  and  premiums  were  awarded  to  those  who  produced  the  finest 
animals,  the  largest  and  best  crops,  the  most  useful  inventions,  and  superior 
domestic  fabrics ;  but  the  societies  soon  languished  and  became  extinct.  The 
chief  fault  of  the  law  of  1819  was,  that  it  did  not  hold  out  sufficient  inducement 
to  voluntary  effort.  The  distribution  of  the  public  money  was  unconditional, 
and  when  it  ceased,  the  societies  were  without  funds.  Nevertheless,  the  act  of 
1819  was  followed  by  very  beneficial  results.  Among  these,  were  the  improve¬ 
ment  of  the  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  the  invention  of  many  useful  implements 
of  husbandry,  and  the  introduction  of  new  methods  of  culture.  In  1841,  a  new 


INTRODUCTION. 


131 


effort  was  put  forth  by  the  legislature.  An  appropriation  was  made  of  eight 
thousand  dollars  annually,  for  five  years,  to  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  the 
American  Institute  of  New-York,  and  societies  in  the  other  counties  in  the  state ; 
on  condition,  however,  that  they  should  respectively  devote  to  the  improvement 
of  agriculture,  funds,  otherwise  acquired,  equal  to  the  sums  contributed  from  the 
treasury.  The  effects  of  this  beneficent  law  are  already  seen  in  the  interesting 
volume  containing  the  transactions  of  the  state  agricultural  societies  for  1841,  in 
the  general  attention  to  agricultural  science,  and  in  the  annual  exhibitions  and 
fairs  of  the  state  agricultural  society,  and  the  several  county  associations. 

Agricultural  journals  also  recently  established,  have  contributed  much  to  the 
promotion  of  that  important  object.  Among  those  in  this  state  which  have 
exerted  the  most  efficient  influence,  the  Ploughboy,  by  Solomon  Southwick,  the 
Cultivator,  to  which  the  late  Jesse  Duel  assiduously  devoted  the  energies  of  his 
philosophic  mind,  and  the  Genesee  Farmer,  edited  for  many  years  by  Luther 
Tucker  and  Willis  Gaylord,  and  now  conducted  with  equal  ability  by  Henry 
Coleman,  have  been  eminently  successful.  These  journals  have  not  merely  dif¬ 
fused  information  concerning  the  processes  of  agriculture,  but  they  have  assigned 
to  the  farmer  his  proper  position  and  just  influence  in  society,  and  shown  him  the 
importance  of  intellectual  acquirement.  They  have  elevated  the  occupation  in 
popular  respect  to  the  dignity  of  a  profession,  and  it  is  no  longer  regarded  as  one 
of  toilsome  service,  but  as  one  of  true  honor,  enjoyment  and  usefulness.  Here 
too,  as  in  Europe,  agriculture  has  advantages  from  a  more  intimate  connexion 
with  science.  To  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  belongs  the  honor  of  making  chemistry 
subservient  to  the  art.  It  now  seems  strange  indeed,  that  while  every  process 
in  the  growth  of  plants,  from  their  germination  to  their  maturity,  is  purely  the 
result  of  chemical  action,  scarcely  an  inquiry  was  bestowed  upon  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  that  action,  until  it  engaged  the  attention  of  that  philosopher.  Davy 
was  followed  by  that  more  profound  investigator,  Chaptal,  and  he  by  Liebig  and 
Johnston.  The  works  of  those  authors,  together  with  Dana’s  volume  on  manures, 
which  is  of  even  greater  practical  usefulness,  have  now  attained  very  general 


132 


INTRODUCTION. 


circulation ;  and  though  they  contain  many  theories  which  have  yet  to  undergo 
the  test  of  more  accurate  investigation,  they  have  already  opened  to  our  citizens 
a  new  and  most  interesting  department  of  science.  The  district  school  library 
has  afforded  facilities  for  introducing  our  farmers,  in  every  school  district  in  the 
state,  to  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  all  that  is  valuable  in  these  works. 

An  opinion  generally  prevails  that  production  is  altogether  greater  in  Great 
Britain  than  here,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  improved  land,  and  to  population. 
The  number  of  improved  acres  of  land  in  the  state  of  New-York  is  ten  millions ; 
in  Great  Britain,  ninety-eight  millions.  This  state  annually  produces  thirty-nine 
millions  of  bushels  of  wheat,  barley,  oats  and  rye.  Great  Britain  produces  two 
hundred  and  sixty-two  millions.  New-York  produces  two  millions  of  cattle,  and 
five  millions  three  hundred  and  eighty-one  thousand  sheep.  Great  Britain  pro¬ 
duces  ten  millions  of  cattle,  and  forty-four  millions  of  sheep.  It  thus  appears 
that  New-York  is  more  productive  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  unproved 
land,  than  Great  Britain.  The  comparison,  however,  would  not  hold  good  if 
instituted  with  the  strictly  agricultural  districts  of  England.  The  United  States 
produces  an  average  of  eighteen  and  a  half  bushels  of  grain  for  each  person, 
while  Great  Britain  produces  in  the  proportion  of  twelve  bushels  for  each  person. 
But  it  must  be  remembered,  that  in  addition  to  the  grains  which  have  been 
already  mentioned,  and  which  are  common  to  both  countries,  the  United  States 
has  a  bread  crop  consisting  of  four  hundred  millions  of  bushels  of  indian  corn,  of 
which  the  state  of  New-York  produces  eleven  and  a  half  millions,  while  Great 
Britain  has  no  corresponding  crop  adapted  to  human  sustenance.  The  United 
States  produces  twenty-one  millions  of  swine,  a  larger  number  than  is  to  be  found 
in  all  Europe.  Of  these,  two  millions  are  produced  in  this  state ;  and  this  compared 
with  similar  productions  in  Great  Britain,  increases  the  proportion  of  this  state 
in  productions  adapted  to  human  sustenance.  It  may  be  useful  to  place  on  record 
for  future  reference,  as  well  as  to  excite  attention  to  the  importance  of  agricul¬ 
tural  statistics,  an  account  of  the  annual  productions  of  the  state  as  derived  from 


INTRODUCTION. 


133 


the  recent  census,  which,  although  not  altogether  reliable  for  accuracy,  is  still  the 
nearest  approximation  to  the  truth  that  can  be  found. 


Bushels  of  wheat, _ 

_  12,309,041 

Pounds  of  hops, _ 

447,250 

“  barley, _ 

_  2,301,041 

U 

beeswax, _ 

52,795 

“  oats, _ 

_  21,896,205 

Horses  and  mules, _ 

474,543 

“  rye, - 

_  2,723,241 

Neat  cattle, _ 

1,911,244 

“  buckwheat, _ 

.  2,325,911 

Sheep, 

5,118,777 

“  indian  corn, _ 

.  11,441,256 

Swine, 

1,900,065 

“  potatoes, _ 

-  30,617,000 

Value  of  poultry, _ 

§1,153,413 

Tons  of  hay, _ _ 

-  3,472,118 

u 

dairy  products, _ 

§10,496,021 

“  hemp  and  flax, _ 

_  1,508 

a 

home-made  family  goods, . 

§4,636,547 

Pounds  of  silk  cocoons, _ 

_  3,425 

iC 

productions  in  market  gar- 

“  sugar, _ 

.  11,102,070 

dens, _ 

§499,126 

Gallons  of  wine, _ 

-  5,162 

(C 

nursery  and  florist  produce, 

§75,980 

Pounds  of  wool, _ 

-  9,845,295 

If,  in  a  survey  of  the  progress  and  present  condition  of  agriculture,  we  find  in  it 
many  errors  of  theory  to  condemn,  and  many  absurd  prejudices  and  practices  to 
be  removed,  we  also  find  grounds  to  hope  for  its  continual  advancement.  It  is  a 

science  which  appeals  to  us  not  merely  by  our  desire  to  increase  the  public 

< 

wealth,  enlarge  the  public  intelligence,  and  elevate  the  standard  of  public  -virtue, 
but  as  the  surest  guarantee  for  the  perpetuity  of  that  policy  of  peace  and  domes¬ 
tic  contentment  which  is  indispensable  to  the  existence  of  democratic  institutions. 

Horticulture  was  practised  as  a  merely  useful  art  from  an  early  period.  A 
great  variety  of  fine  fruits  and  plants  was  introduced  soon  after  the  war  of  the 
revolution,  by  William  Prince  and  James  Bloodgood,  the  proprietors  of  two  of 
the  oldest  and  most  extensive  nurseries  in  the  state.  Many  of  our  citizens,  whom 
pleasure  or  business  called  abroad,  sent  home  rare  and  valuable  varieties  of  trees 
and  plants.  Chancellor  Livingston,  and  other  members  of  the  same  family,  took 
especial  pains  to  introduce  seeds  of  plants  likely  to  prove  desirable  here,  and 
the  trees  thus  planted,  among  which  are  many  fine  varieties  of  cherries  and 
other  fruits,  may  still  be  seen  at  the  manor  garden  in  Clermont. 

The  New- York  Horticultural  Society  was  founded  by  a  combination  of  ama¬ 
teurs  and  practical  gardeners,  in  1818.  The  first  president  was  Thomas  Storm, 


134 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  amono-  its  most  efficient  members  were  Dr.  Hosack,  De  Witt  Clinton,  Dr. 
Mitchill,  and  Martin  Hoffman ;  and  also  Messrs.  Wilson,  Bridgeman  and  Hogg, 
who  were  practical  gardeners.  Under  the  fostering  care  of  this  society,  horti¬ 
culture  acquired  a  rapid  growth.  The  New-York  Farmer  and  Horticultural 
Repository,  edited  by  S.  Fleet,  one  of  the  first  gardening  newspapers,  was  an 
organ  of  this  society. 

The  Domestic  Horticultural  Society  was  established  in  western  New-York  in 
the  year  1828.  John  Greig,  of  Canandaigua,  was  its  first  president ;  and  among 
its  earliest  and  most  valuable  members  was  David  Thomas,  of  Cayuga,  before 
mentioned  as  an  engineer  on  the  Erie  canal.  Mr.  Thomas  is  a  scientific  and 
practical  cultivator.  A  society  was  established  at  Newburgh  during  the  same 
year,  and  another  at  Albany  in  1829.  The  late  Jesse  Buel  was  the  first  president 
of  the  latter,  and  although  mainly  distinguished  as  an  agriculturist,  contributed 
much,  both  by  his  writings  and  by  means  of  a  nursery  which  he  established,  to 
promote  the  increase  of  horticultural  knowledge  in  the  northern  and  western 
portions  of  the  state. 

At  the  present  time  the  taste  for  horticulture  is  very  generally  diffused,  and 
particular  departments  are  assigned  to  the  subject  in  the  annual  exhibitions  of 
the  American  Institute  in  New-York,  and  the  State  Agricultural  Society.  There 
are  five  societies  devoted  to  its  interests,  and  no  less  than  twenty  commercial 
gardens  or  nurseries ;  the  most  extensive  general  nurseries  at  present  in  the 
Union  being  those  of  Messrs.  Wilcomb  &  King,  (formerly  Bloodgood’s),  at 
Flushing,  L.  I.,  and  Messrs.  Downing,  at  Newburgh. 

The  “  Economy  of  the  Kitchen  Garden,”  by  William  Wilson,  the  first  origi¬ 
nal  work  on  the  subject  published  in  the  state,  appeared  in  1828 ;  and  “  A  Short 
Treatise  on  Horticulture,”  by  William  Prince,  in  the  same  year.  Since  that 
time,  the  “Gardeners’  Assistant,”  by  Thomas  Bridgeman,  has  gone  through  eight 
editions.  “A  Treatise  on  the  Vine,”  published  in  1830,  and  the  “  Pomological 
Manual,”  in  1831,  by  William  R.  Prince,  have  been  among  the  most  useful  and 
interesting  works  published  in  the  country.  Mr.  Loudon’s  valuable  gardening 


INTRODUCTION. 


135 


works  have  had  considerable  influence  in  diffusing  horticultural  knowledge,  in 
the  absence  of  native  treatises  better  adapted  to  our  climate ;  and  the  gardening 
works  of  English  authors  still  have  a  large  circulation  in  the  state.  Never¬ 
theless,  horticulture,  as  an  art  of  design,  has  received  very  sparing  attention. 
Fine  foreign  trees  and  plants  have  been  cultivated  in  many  places  with  success, 
but  examples  of  elegant  arrangement  haver  arely  occurred.  The  late  M.  A. 
Parmentier,  of  Brooklyn,  Long  Island,  who  emigrated  from  Holland  and  esta¬ 
blished  a  botanical  nursery,  (since  destroyed,)  first  attempted  to  introduce  the 
natural  style  of  laying  out  grounds.  One  of  the  best  specimens  of  his  taste  is 
the  seat  of  the  late  Dr.  Hosack,  at  Hyde  Park,  on  the  Hudson.* 

During  the  past  year  a  desideratum  in  horticulture  has  been  supplied  by  “  A 
Treatise  on  Landscape  Gardening,”  with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  country 
residences,  by  A.  J.  Downing ;  and  more  recently  we  have  been  favored  with  a 
volume  entitled  “  Designs  for  Cottage  Residences,”  by  the  same  author. 

Civil  engineering  has  been  admitted  to  rank  as  a  liberal  profession  within  our 
own  times,  both  here  and  in  England.  Canals  and  railroads  have  been  constructed 
so  rapidly,  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  among  the  engineers, 
and  award  to  each  the  merit  justly  due.  We  have  mentioned  a  discovery  of 
valuable  hydraulic  cement.  We  may  add,  that  very  accurate  knowledge  has 
been  obtained  of  the  comparative  strength,  durability  and  economy  of  materials, 
and  that  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  our  public  works,  is  the  nice  adapta¬ 
tion  of  means  to  the  ends  to  be  accomplished. 

The  aqueduct  by  which  the  city  of  New-York  is  supplied  with  water,  will  be 
an  enduring  monument,  and  a  description  of  that  work  will,  perhaps,  convey  the 
best  information  which  can  be  given  of  the  present  condition  of  mechanical 
science.  The  conduit  commences  at  the  Croton  river,  in  Westchester  county, 
where  a  dam  has  been  constructed,  raising  the  water  of  that  stream  40  feet 
above  its  natural  level,  and  166  feet  above  mean  tide.  The  aqueduct  is  pro¬ 
longed  down  the  valley  of  the  Croton  to  the  shore  of  the  Hudson,  thence  through 


*  Notes  on  Agriculture  were  received  from  Willis  Gaylord,  Esq.  and  notes  on  Horticulture  from  A.  J.  Downing,  Esq. 


136 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  villages  of  Sing-Sing,  Tarrytown,  Dobb’s  ferry  and  Yonkers,  where,  leaving 
the  Hudson  and  crossing  the  valley  of  Sawmill  river  and  Tibbitts  brook,  it  gains 
the  summit  between  the  Hudson  and  East  rivers,  and  continues  on  that  summit 
to  the  Harlem  river,  a  distance  of  32 ‘880  miles  of  continuous  masonry.  Iron 
pipes  are  then  laid  1450  feet,  on  an  arched  bridge,  across  the  valley  of  the 
Harlem  river,  at  an  elevation  of  114  feet  above  high  tide.  After  crossing  the 
valley,  the  aqueduct  of  masonry  is  resumed  and  continued  two  miles  to  the  Man¬ 
hattan  valley,  which  is  passed  with  iron  pipes,  descending  102  feet  to  the  bottom 
of  the  valley,  and  continued  rising  again  to  its  ojiposite  side,  the  distance  across 
the  valley  being  O' 792  mile.  The  masonry  conduit  is  again  resumed,  and  cross¬ 
ing  the  Asylum  ridge  and  the  Clendinning  valley,  is  continued  2' 173  miles  to  the 
receiving  reservoir  at  Yorkville.  This  basin  is  1826  feet  long  and  836  feet 
wide,  and  including  its  embankments,  contains  an  area  of  thirty-five  acres  divided 
into  two  parts ;  from  thence  iron  pipes  are  laid  beneath  the  surface  of  streets 
2T76  miles,  to  the  distributing  reservoir  at  Murray  hill,  three  miles  from  the 
City  Hall. 

This  reservoir  is  420  feet  square,  and  covers  four  acres.  It  is  divided 
into  two  equal  parts,  and  has  an  average  elevation  of  44 '05  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  adjacent  streets.  The  length  of  the  aqueduct,  including  the  iron 
pipes  and  reservoir,  from  the  Croton  dam  to  the  receiving  reservoir,  is  45 '562 
miles ;  and  including  the  elevated  surface  of  the  Croton  river,  and  the  large 
mains  conducting  the  water  from  the  distributing  reservoir  through  the  central 
parts  of  the  city,  the  entire  length  is  50  miles,  of  which  the  masonry  conduit 
constitutes  37 '067  miles.  The  rocks  through  which  the  line  of  the  aqueduct 
passes  are  two  marble  quarries  in  Westchester,  and  for  the  residue  of  the  route 
gneiss  of  many  varieties.  A  large  portion  of  the  open  cutting,  and  nearly 
all  the  tunnel  cutting,  have  been  made  through  rocks,  more  than  400,000  feet 
of  which  have  been  excavated.  The  formation  of  the  ground  is  very  irre¬ 
gular.  There  are  on  the  line  sixteen  tunnels,  varying  in  length  from  160  feet  to 
1263  feet,  and  being  in  aggregate  length  6841  feet.  The  height  of  the  ridges 


INTRODUCTION. 


137 


above  the  great  level  at  the  tunnels,  ranges  from  25  feet  to  75  feet.  In  West¬ 
chester  county,  the  line  of  the  aqueduct  is  crossed  by  twenty-five  streams,  at 
depths  varying  from  12  to  70  feet  below  the  grade  line.  Besides  these  there 
are  numerous  other  brooks  and  valleys  of  less  depth,  over  which  culverts  are 
constructed.  The  most  important  valleys  on  the  Manhattan  island,  over  which 
the  aqueduct  passes,  are  the  Manhattan  valley,  Clendinning  valley  and  Bowne’s 
valley. 

The  bottom  of  the  aqueduct  is  an  inverted  arch ;  the  chord  or  span  line  is  6 
feet  9  inches,  and  the  versed  sine  9  inches  ;  the  masonry  of  the  side  walls  rises 
four  feet  above  the  springing  line  of  the  inverted  arch,  with  a  bevel  of  one  inch  to 
a  foot  rise,  or  four  inches  on  each  side,  which  makes  the  width  at  the  top  of  the 
side  walls  7  feet  5  inches.  These  walls  form  the  abutments  of  the  roofing  arch, 
which  is  a  semicircle,  having  a  radius  of  3  feet  8J  inches,  or  a  chord  line  of  7 
feet  5  inches.  The  greatest  interior  width  of  the  aqueduct  is  7  feet  5  inches, 
and  the  greatest  height  8  feet  5£  inches.  The  area  of  the  interior  is  53 '34 
square  feet. 

The  plan,  dimensions  and  kind  of  masonry,  are  as  follows :  In  excavation,  a 
bed  of  concrete  masonry  is  laid  down  as  a  foundation ;  it  is  laid  level  across  the 
bottom,  3  inches  thick  at  the  centre  of  the  inverted  arch,  and  curved  on  its  upper 
surface  to  form  a  bed  for  the  arch,  which  brings  it  12  inches  thick  at  the  spring 
line,  and  is  carried  3  inches  thick  under  the  side  walls,  or  abutments.  The 
abutments  are  2  feet  8  inches  thick  at  the  spring  line  of  the  inverted  arch,  and 
2  feet  at  the  top  or  spring  line  of  the  roofing  arch.  The  inverted  arch  is  of  brick 
4  inches  thick ;  the  roofing  arch  is  also  of  brick  8  inches  thick.  The  abutments 
or  side  walls  are  of  rubble  stone,  with  a  brick  facing  of  4  inches  thick.  Span¬ 
drels,  of  stone,  are  carried  up  solid  from  the  exterior  angle  of  side  walls  on  a 
line  that  is  tangent  to  the  arch.  When  the  bed  of  concrete  is  formed  for  the 
inverted  arch,  a  heavy  course  of  plastering  is  laid  over  it,  on  which  the  arch  is 
laid.  When  the  stone  work  of  the  side  walls  was  up,  the  face  that  received  the 
brick  lining  had  its  irregularities  filled  with  successive  courses  of  plastering,  and 

Intr.  18 


138 


INTRODUCTION. 


finally  an  uniform  course  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness  over  the  whole,  in 
front  of  which  the  brick  facing  was  laid  up.  A  course  of  plastering  was  also  put 
over  the  roofing  arch.  The  concrete  masonry  was  formed  by  mixing  one  part 
hydraulic  cement,  three  parts  clean  sand,  and  three  parts  fine  broken  stone. 
The  masonry  was  all  laid  up  in  hydraulic  cement.  The  mortar  for  the  stone 
work  was  composed  of  one  measure  of  cement  to  one  of  clean  sharp  sand ;  and 
that  for  the  brick  and  plastering  consisted  of  one  part  of  cement  to  two  of  sand. 

The  area  of  a  cross  section  of  the  masonry  is, 

Concrete  masonry, _  4,605  square  feet. 

Stone  inside  walls, _  21,572  “ 

Do  in  spandrels, _  2,690  “ 

- 28,867 

Brick  in  arches  and  side  facing, _  13,658  square  feet. 

Total, . .  42,525  “ 

In  embankment  the  concrete  masonry  is  laid  on  foundation  walls,  has  one  foot 

extra  thickness  and  three  feet  in  extra  width.  The  base  of  the  side  walls  is  also 
increased,  and  the  proportion  of  cement  to  sand  in  concrete  and  mortar  for  stone 
work,  is  I  to  2J  feet. 

The  proportion  of  embankment  to  excavation  on  the  line  of  the  aqueduct,  is 
about  as  one  to  eight.  The  aqueduct  is  covered  with  earth  of  sufficient  depth  to 
protect  it  from  frost.  To  pass  streams,  there  are  one  hundred  and  fourteen  cul¬ 
verts,  the  aggregate  length  of  which  is  7,959  feet,  and  varying  in  span  from 
11  feet  to  25  feet.  There  are  five  road  culverts  from  1  to  20  feet  span.  All 
the  culverts  are  constructed  in  the  most  improved  manner,  laid  in  hydraulic 
cement. 

There  are  thirty-three  ventilators,  to  give  free  circulation  of  air  through  the 
aqueduct.  They  rise  fourteen  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  tapering 
towards  the  top,  and  are  of  circular  form,  constructed  of  well  dressed  stone,  and 
have  an  aperture  of  fifteen  inches  in  diameter :  they  are  placed  at  a  distance 
from  each  other  of  one  mile. 

There  are  six  waste-weirs,  constructed  of  well  dressed  stone,  having  cast-iron 


INTRODUCTION. 


139 


gates  and  gate  frames  fitted  to  stone  jambs  and  lintels.  The  frames  are  faced 
with  brass  lor  the  gates  to  work  against.  The  gates  are  operated  by  a  wrought- 
iron  screw  rod,  with  a  brass  nut  working  in  a  cast-iron  socket.  The  water  falls 
from  the  gates  into  a  well,  and  is  carried  off  through  a  culvert.  The  waste-weirs 
are  protected  by  stone  buildings  with  brick  arch  roofs. 

The  dam  in  the  Croton  river,  as  first  constructed,  was  provided  with  a  waste- 
weir  90  feet  wide,  which,  in  the  high  flood  of  January,  1841,  proved  insufficient 
to  pass  the  water,  and  a  breach  was  made  in  the  embankment  about  200  feet 
long.  This  breach  was  then  filled  by  a  structure  of  hydraulic  stone  masonry, 
adopting  180  feet  thereof  as  an  additional  waste-weir.  The  greatest  height  of 
the  weir  of  the  dam  is  40  feet  above  the  low  water  mark,  and  55  feet  above  the 
bed  of  the  river.  The  width  of  masonry  at  low  water  line  of  the  river  is  61  feet. 
The  form  on  the  lower  face  commences  on  a  curve  described  by  a  radius  of  55 
feet,  and  continues  to  within  about  10  feet  of  the  top,  when  a  reversed  curve,  on  a 
radius  of  10  feet  carries  the  face  over  and  meets  the  back  line  of  the  wall.  The 
back  line  is  carried  up  vertically,  with  occasional  offsets.  The  main  body  of  the 
work  is  laid  up  of  rough  stone ;  the  curve  face  of  large  and  closely  cut  stone 
with  four  heavy  courses  at  the  bottom  dovetailed  together ;  the  joints  cut  to  the 
line  of  radius  of  curve.  Above  the  masonry  an  embankment  of  masonry  is  filled 
in  in  width  275  feet  on  the  bottom,  with  a  slope  of  1  to  5  on  the  up-stream  face. 
The  north  end  of  the  new  weir  is  terminated  by  an  abutment  which  rises  12 
feet  above  it. 

From  the  toe  of  the  masonry  an  apron  is  extended  35  feet,  composed  of  hewn 
timber,  well  secured,  and  filled  for  16  feet  from  the  stone  work,  with  concrete 
masonry ;  and  the  remainder  with  loose  stone,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a 
course  of  six  inch  white  elm  plank.  A  second  apron  is  made,  extending  30  feet 
further.  At  300  feet  below  the  main  dam  is  a  second  dam  nine  feet  high,  which 
sets  the  water  over  the  apron  of  the  main  dam,  and  thus  forms  a  pool  to  check 
the  water  as  it  falls  over  the  weir.  About  120  feet  of  the  foundation  of  the  dam 
is  of  concrete  masonry,  laid  down  on  a  very  firm  hardpan,  and  the  remainder 


140 


INTRODUCTION. 


upon  timber  piers,  the  spaces  between  which  are  filled  with  concrete  masonry. 
The  dam  sets  the  water  of  the  river  back  about  five  miles,  and  forms  a  reservoir 
covering  about  400  acres. 

The  gateway  which  guards  the  entrance  to  the  aqueduct,  is  placed  on  the 
solid  rock,  in  a  situation  not  exposed  to  the  floods.  The  gate  chamber  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  double  set  of  gates ;  one  set  of  guard  gates  set  in  cast-iron  frames ; 
the  other,  a  set  of  regulating  gates  made  of  gun  metal,  set  in  frames  of  the  same 
material.  The  gates  are  all  18  by  40  inches,  and  there  are  nine  in  each  set,  and 
they  are  operated  by  means  of  wrought-iron  screw  rods.  The  gate  chamber 
and  bulkheads  are  constructed  of  well-dressed  masonry  laid  in  hydraulic  cement. 
The  water  is  conducted  from  the  reservoir  into  the  gate-house  by  a  tunnel  cut 
180  feet  through  the  rock,  and  flows  into  the  bulkhead  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
tunnel  from  a  level  averaging  10  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  reservoir.  The 
builders  of  this  dam  were  McCullough,  Black,  McManus  and  Hepburn. 

The  Sing-Sing  kill,  the  bottom  of  which  is  66  feet  below  the  grade  line  of  the 
aqueduct,  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  resting  on  a  single  arch  of  88  feet  span  and  33 
feet  rise.  The  form  of  the  arch  is  an  oval  drawn  from  five  centres.  The  bridge 
is  constructed  of  well  dressed  masonry  laid  in  hydraulic  cement.  The  builder 
was  Andrew  Young,  of  Philadelphia. 

The  width  of  the  Harlem  river,  where  the  aqueduct  crosses  it,  is  620  feet  at 
ordinary  high  water  mark.  The  shore  on  the  southern  side  is  a  rock  rising  from 
the  water’s  edge,  at  an  angle  of  about  thirty  degrees,  to  a  height  of  220  feet. 
On  the  northern  side  a  strip  of  table  land  forms  the  shore,  and  extends  back 
from  the  river  four  hundred  feet  to  the  foot  of  the  rocky  hill,  which  rises  at  an 
angle  of  about  twenty  degrees,  to  the  level  of  the  aqueduct.  The  table  land  is 
elevated  about  30  feet  above  the  river.  The  channel  of  the  river  to  which  the 
water  is  reduced  at  very  low  tides,  is  300  feet  wide,  and  the  greatest  depth  is 
16  feet.  The  bridge  which  is  now  in  progress  of  construction,  crosses  this  valley 
on  eight  arches,  each  of  80  feet  span,  resting  on  piers  that  are  (at  each  extre¬ 
mity  and  in  the  centre)  twenty  feet  wide  at  the  spring  line  of  arches,  with  in- 


INTRODUCTION. 


141 


termediate  piers  that  are  14  feet  wide  at  the  spring  line.  On  the  south  of  this 
range  ot  large  arches,  there  is  one,  and  on  the  north,  there  are  six  arches,  each 
ol  50  feet  span,  resting  on  piers  seven  feet  wide  at  the  spring  line,  and  two  abut¬ 
ments  that  terminate  the  arch  work  of  the  bridge.  From  the  abutments  a  con¬ 
tinuous  line  of  wall  of  dry  stone  work  is  extended  to  the  gate  chambers  on  each 
side.  The  length  of  the  bridge  is  1450  feet.  The  height  of  the  river  pier  above 
high  water  line,  is  60  feet  to  the  spring  of  the  arches,  and  95  feet  above  the 
lowest  foundation.  The  arches  are  semicircular,  and  the  height  100  feet  to  the 
soffit  or  under  side  at  crown  ;  to  the  top  of  the  parapets  114  feet  above  ordinary 
high  water,  and  149  feet  above  the  lowest  foundation.  The  width  on  the  top  of 
the  parapets  is  21  feet.  The  space  between  the  parapets  is  arranged  to  receive 
and  protect  from  frost  two  cast  iron  pipes,  each  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  lying 
12  feet  below  the  grade  line  of  the  aqueduct,  and  connected  at  each  end  of  the 
bridge  with  the  masonry  aqueduct  by  gate  chambers.  To  make  the  capacity 
of  the  pipes  for  conveying  water  equal  to  that  of  the  aqueduct,  an  extra  fall  of  two 
feet  has  been  given  across  the  bridge,  and  the  aqueduct  on  the  southern  side 
is  depressed  two  feet  below  the  grade  to  accommodate  this  arrangement.  The 
utmost  care  and  skill  have  been  bestowed  in  securing  durable  foundations  for  the 
piers.  The  material  of  the  bridge  is  well  dressed  granite.  While  the  bridge 
remains  unfinished,  the  water  is  conveyed  in  iron  pipes  in  the  shape  of  an  in¬ 
verted  syphon.  The  immense  and  expensive  structure  which  has  been  de¬ 
scribed,  was  deemed  necessary,  by  the  legislature,  to  prevent  obstruction  of 
navigation  of  the  Harlem  river. 

The  greatest  depression  of  the  Clendinning  valley  is  50  feet  below  the  top  of 
the  aqueduct,  and  the  valley  is  1,900  feet  across.  Streets  cross  the  line  of  the 
aqueduct  in  this  valley  at  right  angles.  The  aqueduct  passes  the  valley  on  a 
bridge,  and  archways  are  constructed  over  three  of  the  streets.  The  archways 
for  each  street  are  one  for  carriage  way  of  thirty  feet  span,  and  an  arch  on  each 
side  for  side  walks  of  ten  and  a  half  feet  span.  The  style  of  masonry  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Sing-Sing  bridge.  That  part  of  the  bridge  which  has  no 


142 


INTRODUCTION. 


provision  for  street  arches  is  composed  of  a  continuous  wall  of  masonry,  carried 
up  on  a  bevel  of  one-twelfth  its  rise  to  the  grade  line  of  the  aqueduct,  where  it 
is  thirty  feet  wide.  The  outside  or  face  of  this  wall,  for  one  foot  in  breadth,  is 
laid  in  hydraulic  mortar,  and  the  remainder  is  dry  masonry,  consisting  of  courses 
of  large  stone,  with  the  interstices  thoroughly  filled  with  small  broken  stones. 

The  receiving  reservoir  is  formed  with  earth  banks,  the  interior  having 
regular  rubble  walls,  and  the  outside  is  protected  by  a  stone  wall  laid  up  on  a 
slope  of  one  horizontal  to  three  vertical ;  the  face  laid  in  cement  mortar,  and  the 
inside  dry.  The  inside  is  protected  by  a  dry  slope  wall  laid  on  the  face  of  the 
embankment,  which  slopes  one  and  one-half  horizontal  to  one  vertical.  The  em¬ 
bankments  are  raised  four  feet  above  the  top  water  line,  and  vary  in  width  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-one  feet.  Vaults  or  brick  archways  are  constructed,  in  which 
iron  pipes  are  laid,  so  arranged  that  the  pipes  from  the  northern  division  of  the 
reservoir  connect  with  those  of  the  southern  division,  and  thence  pass  off  to  the 
distributing  reservoir,  and  to  supply  the  adjacent  districts.  The  vault  on  the 
eastern  side  is  540  feet  long  and  is  16  feet  span  ;  that  on  the  western  side  is  400 
feet  long  and  8  feet  span.  The  pipes  are  all  provided  with  stop-cocks,  and  so 
arranged  that  they  can  receive  water  from  either  division,  except  one  pipe  from 
each  division  leading  to  the  distributing  reservoir.  A  pipe  is  put  through  the 
division  bank  with  a  stop-cock,  to  allow  the  water,  or  not,  to  pass  from  one  divi¬ 
sion  into  the  other.  The  aqueduct  insersects  the  reservoir  at  right  angles  with 
its  westerly  line,  and  252  feet  south  of  the  northwesterly  corner.  At  this  point 
a  gate  chamber  is  constructed,  with  one  set  of  gates  to  pass  the  water  into  the 
northern  division,  and  another  set  to  pass  it  into  a  continued  conduit  of  masonry 
constructed  within  the  embankment  of  the  reservoir,  to  the  angle  of  the  south¬ 
ern  division,  which  the  water  there  enters  by  a  brick  sluice.  This  arrangement 
gives  the  power  of  directing  the  water  into  either  division,  or  both,  at  the  same 
time.  A  waste-weir  is  constructed  in  the  division  bank.  It  has  not  been  deemed 
necessary  to  complete  the  excavation  of  this  reservoir.  It  has  at  present  a  capa¬ 
city  for  150,000,000  imperial  gallons. 


INTRODUCTION. 


143 


The  distributing  reservoir  is  built  upon  ground  higher  than  any  part  of  the 
city  south  of  it.  The  walls  are  built  upon  a  foundation  sunk  five  feet  below  the 
grade  of  the  streets,  and  are  of  hydraulic  stone  masonry,  constructed  with  open¬ 
ings,  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  masom-y  and  give  a  more  enlarged  base.  The 
openings  are  made  by  an  exterior  and  an  interior  wall,  connected  at  every  ten 
feet  by  cross  walls,  which  are  carried  up  to  within  seventeen  feet  of  the  top,  and 
then  connected  by  a  brick  arch  thrown  from  one  to  the  other,  and  the  spandrels 
between  them  levelled  up  solid,  and  a  course  of  concrete  put  on  the  whole  six 
inches  thick,  which  reaches  a  level  ten  feet  below  the  top  on  which  the  exterior 
wall  is  carried  up  single  to  the  top.  The  exterior  wall  has  a  bevel  of  one  to  six, 
and  is  uniformly  four  feet  thick  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  connecting 
arches.  The  inner  wall  is  carried  up  plumb  with  off-sets ;  the  lower  section  six 
feet  thick  ;  the  middle  section  five  feet  thick.  The  span  between  the  exterior  and 
interior  walls  at  41  feet  below  the  top  is  14  feet,  or  24  feet  from  the  outside  of 
exterior  to  the  inside  of  interior  walls,  and  the  span  between  them  at  the  spring 
of  the  connecting  arches,  in  consequence  of  the  bevel  of  the  exterior  wall,  is 
reduced  to  9  feet  and  9  inches ;  and  from  outside  of  exterior  to  inside  of 
interior  walls,  17 '75  feet.  The  cross  walls  are  four  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  and 
have  an  off-set  of  six  inches  on  each  side,  at  eight  feet  below  the  spring  line  of 
the  connecting  arches,  and  have  openings  at  a  suitable  level  near  the  bottom,  to 
allow  the  construction  of  drains,  and  to  permit  persons  to  pass  in  and  examine 
the  work. 

On  each  corner  of  the  reservoir,  pilasters  40  feet  in  width  are  raised,  project¬ 
ing  four  feet  from  the  main  walls,  and  in  the  centre  on  the  streets  and  on  the 
•5th  avenue,  are  pilasters  60  feet  wide,  and  projecting  six  feet.  The  pilaster  in 
the  centre  on  the  5th  avenue,  rises  seven  feet  above  the  main  wqll,  and  all  the 
others  four  above.  Doors  are  placed  in  the  central  pilasters  on  40th  and  42d 
streets,  which  give  access  to  the  pipe  chambers.  In  the  central  pilaster  an  en¬ 
trance  is  made  by  a  door  to  a  stairway  that  leads  to  the  top  of  the  walls.  On 
the  outside  walls  is  an  Egyptian  cornice,  which  accords  with  the  general  style  of 


144 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  work.  Inside  of  the  walls  of  masonry,  a  thorough  puddled  embankment  of 
suitable  earth  is  formed,  58  J  feet  wide  at  the  line  of  the  reservoir  bottom,  and 
sloping  on  the  inside  face  li  to  I  per  24  feet  high,  and  making,  with  the  walls  on 
top,  a  width  of  17  feet;  the  face  of  the  banks  is  lined  with  a  course  of  rubble 
hydraulic  masonry  15  inches  thick,  and  coped  with  dressing  stone.  The  bottom 
is  an  impervious  hardpan,  on  which  two  feet  of  puddled  earth  is  laid,  and  this 
covered  by  12  inches  of  hydraulic  cement.  The  reservoir  is  divided  into  two 
divisions  by  a  wall  of  hydraulic  masonry  ;  the  wall  is  19  feet  thick  at  the  bottom, 
6 1  feet  at  top  water  line,  and  4  feet  at  the  top.  In  this  wall  a  waste-weir  is  placed, 
with  a  well  of  two  falls,  together  52  feet,  from  which  the  waste  water  enters  a 
sewer  and  passes  off  about  one  mile  to  the  Hudson.  In  each  division  there  is  a 
waste  cock  to  draw  the  water  from  the  bottom.  The  reservoir  is  designed  for  36 
feet  of  water,  and  when  full,  will  stand  115  feet  above  mean  tide.  The  walls  rise 
four  feet  above  the  water  line.  An  iron  railing  is  to  be  placed  around  the  walls 
on  the  top  of  the  cornice.  The  capacity  of  this  reservoir  is  20,000,000  imperial 
gallons. 

The  general  declivity  of  the  aqueduct  is  0-021  foot  per  hundred,  or  a  fraction 
over  13J  inches  per  mile.  The  .Croton  reservoir,  which  has  received  the  name 
of  Croton  lake,  is  available  for  500,000,000  imperial  gallons  of  water,  above  the 
level  that  would  allow  the  aqueduct  to  discharge  35,000,000  gallons  per  day. 
The  flow  of  the  Croton  river  is  about  27,000,000  of  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours 
at  the  lowest  stages.  The  work  was  commenced  in  May,  1837,  and  so  far  com¬ 
pleted  that  the  water  was  admitted  into  the  distributing  reservoir  on  the  fourth 
of  July  last.  The  survey,  plans  and  estimates  of  the  work  were  made  by  pro¬ 
fessor  Douglass,  who  was  succeeded  as  chief  engineer  by  John  B.  Jervis.  The 
aqueduct  has  been  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  city  of  New-York,  under 
the  direction  and  supervision  of  commissioners  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
senate.  The  following  persons  have  been  commissioners :  Stephen  Allen,  Walter 
Bowne,  Benjamin  M.  Brown,  Saul  Alley,  Charles  Dusenbury,  William  M.  Fox, 
Thomas  T.  Woodruff  and  Samuel  R.  Childs.  The  present  commissioners  are. 


INTRODUCTION. 


145 


Samuel  Stevens,  John  D.  Ward,  Benjamin  Birdsall  and  Zebedee  Ring.  The 
cost  of  the  work  is  about  twelve  millions  of  dollars.* 

In  1823,  a  place  was  assigned  to  the  science  of  civil  engineering  in  the  pro¬ 
gramme  of  studies  at  the  United  States  military  academy  at  West-Point.  This 
excellent  national  institution  traces  its  origin  to  the  recommendation  of  Washing¬ 
ton.  It  was  founded  in  1802,  and  having  received  especial  care  and  attention 
under  the  administration  of  Jefferson,  was  enlarged  in  1812,  on  the  earnest  recom¬ 
mendation  of  Madison.  The  school  consists  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  cadets, 
divided  into  four  companies,  and  taught  in  the  field  all  the  duties  of  the  military 
profession.  They  are  divided,  for  theoretical  instruction,  into  four  classes,  and 
four  years  are  required  to  complete  the  entire  course  of  studies.  That  course 
includes  mathematics,  the  French  language,  English  composition,  rhetoric,  geo¬ 
graphy,  topographical  drawing,  natural  and  experimental  philosophy,  chemistry, 
landscape  drawing,  engineering,  the  science  of  war,  ethics,  constitutional  law, 
infantry  tactics,  artillery,  pyrotechny,  mineralogy  and  geology.f 

Although  our  civil  architecture  is  open  to  criticism,  yet  several  of  our  state  and 
municipal  edifices  furnish  evidence  of  improving  taste.  The  custom  house,  the 
exchange,  the  university  and  the  halls  of  justice  in  New-York ;  the  exchange, 
public  edifices  and  academic  structures  in  Albany,  and  the  lunatic  asylum  at 
Utica,  and  the  state  prison  at  Auburn,  although  they  exhibit  departures  from 
severe  canons,  are  nevertheless  believed  to  be  creditable  to  the  enterprise  of  our 
citizens.  Not  much  can  be  said  in  praise  of  the  monumental  branch.  Notwith¬ 
standing  some  puerility  of  detail,  when  we  compare  St.  Paul’s  and  the  old  Tri¬ 
nity  with  more  recent  structures,  we  might  infer  that  sacred  architecture  was 
declining.  Our  domestic  architecture  has  improved  with  the  increase  of  wealth 
in  private  life.  While  we  cannot  now,  or  ever  hereafter,  compare  with  the 
palaces  of  individuals  who  enjoy  hereditary  wealth  and  rank  in  other  countries, 

*  An  account  of  the  Croton  aqueduct,  prepared  by  J.  B.  Jervis,  chief  engineer,  was  received  from  Samuel  Stevens, 
the  president  of  the  board  of  commissioners.  See  plates  of  the  aqueduct  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

+  Notes  concerning  the  Military  Academy  were  received  from  Colonel  De  Russy,  U.  S.  A. 

Intr.  19 


146 


INTRODUCTION. 


we  may  safely  claim,  that  for  suitableness  to  our  social  state,  and  for  all  that  can 
minister  to  domestic  convenience  and  comfort,  the  edifices  of  our  citizens  are  not 
surpassed  in  any  other  community.*  Our  naval  architecture  may  perhaps  justly 
be  regarded  as  a  peculiar  triumph  of  American  genius.  Our  packet  ships  en¬ 
gaged  in  foreign  trade,  and  especially  the  steam  palaces  which  float  upon  the 
Hudson  river,  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  lakes,  combine  the  elements  of  strength 
and  beauty  with  great  speed  and  perfection  of  internal  arrangements.  While 
the  civilized  world  is  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  advantages  of  steam  naviga¬ 
tion,  the  people  of  New- York,  at  least,  need  not  to  be  reminded  of  their  obliga¬ 
tions  to  her  own  eminent  citizens,  Robert  Fulton,  John  Stevens  and  Robert  R. 
Livingston.  Experiments  on  steam  navigation  were  commenced  in  1791,  by 
John  Stevens,  of  Hoboken.  He  invented  the  first  tubular  boiler.  His  first 
attempts  were  made  with  a  rotary  engine,  for  which,  however,  he  speedily  sub¬ 
stituted  one  of  Watts’.  With  various  forms  of  vessels,  and  different  modifica¬ 
tions  of  propelling  apparatus,  he  impelled  boats.  In  1797,  chancellor  Livingston 
built  a  steamboat  on  the  Hudson,  and  the  legislature  granted  an  exclusive  privi¬ 
lege  of  steam  navigation,  on  condition  that  he  should,  within  a  year,  produce  a 
vessel  impelled  by  steam  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  per  hour.  Being  unable  to 
perform  this  condition,  the  privilege  failed.  Livingston  and  Stevens  united  their 
efforts  with  Nicholas  Roosevelt  in  1800,  but  without  success.  Chancellor  Living¬ 
ston  pursued  his  favorite  object  in  Paris,  where  he  engaged  the  efforts  of  Fulton. 
Fulton,  after  a  trial  of  various  other  apparatus  for  propulsion,  decided  that  the 
paddle  wheels  possessed  the  greatest  advantage.  He  then  planned  a  mode  of 
attaching  wheels  to  W atts’  engine,  and  finding  the  experiment  successful  in  a  trial 
on  the  Seine,  it  was  determined  by  him  and  Livingston  to  build  a  large  boat 
upon  the  Hudson.  He  then  proceeded  to  England,  and  personally  superintended 
the  construction  of  a  new  engine  by  Watts  and  Bolton.  This  engine  was  re¬ 
ceived  in  New- York  in  1806,  and  the  vessel  prepared  for  it  was  set  in  motion  in 

*  Notes  on  Civil  Engineering  and  Architecture  were  received  from  Prof.  Mahan,  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
of  West-Point, 


INTRODUCTION. 


147 


1807,  the  legislature  having  extended  the  law.  During  this  time  Stevens  had 
persevered  in  his  efforts  at  home,  and  only  three  or  four  days  after  Fulton’s  suc¬ 
cess  was  established,  Stevens  had  a  boat  in  motion  with  the  required  velocity ; 
and  as  his  experiments  were  entirely  separate  from  those  of  Fulton,  he  seems 
justly  entitled  to  divide  the  honor  which,  by  the  popular  judgment,  is  exclu¬ 
sively  awarded  to  Fulton  * 

The  labors  in  hydrography  of  Edmund  M.  Blunt  and  his  sons,  deserve  espe¬ 
cial  notice.  The  American  Coast  Pilot  was  first  published  in  1796,  and  was 
then  a  small  pamphlet  of  about  eighty  pages,  containing  an  account  of  the  chief 
harbors  in  New-England,  with  sailing  directions,  and  has  been,  by  labors  and 
additions  through  forty  years,  augmented  to  a  volume  of  about  one  thousand 
pages,  giving  an  accurate  account  and  directions  for  navigating  the  eastern  coast 
of  America,  from  Labrador  to  Cape  Horn,  including  that  of  the  West  India  islands. 

While  the  country,  and  especially  this  state,  has  been  steadily  rising  into  great 
commercial  and  maritime  importance,  the  government,  until  1830,  manifested  a 
total  neglect  of  hydrographical  science ;  yet  through  the  persevering  enterprise 
of  Mr.  Blunt,  there  are  to  be  found  in  the  Coast  Pilot  as  full  and  complete 
directions  for  the  navigation  of  the  American  coast,  as  those  furnished  with  the 
aid  of  government  in  other  countries. 

No  actual  surveys  were  made  of  this  part  of  the  American  coast,  until  1822, 
when  Mr.  Blunt  surveyed  the  harbor  of  New-York,  and  its  eastern  entrance. 
In  1827  he  extended  his  surveys  to  Long  Island  Sound,  and  made  an  elaborate 
survey  of  the  coasts  of  that  arm  of  the  sea,  which  has  proved  to  be  a  survey  of 
the  greatest  utility  to  commerce.  Some  estimate  may  be  formed  of  the  extent 
of  this  private  enterprise,  when  it  is  recollected  that  the  coast  to  be  surveyed 
was  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length,  and  that  many  islands  and  bays  are 
comprehended  in  the  survey. 

Since  that  time  the  great  triangulation  of  the  coast,  by  the  authority  of  the 
federal  government,  has  been  extended  over  the  same  coast,  under  the  direction 


Encyclopedia  Americana. 


148 


INTRODUCTION. 


of  professor  Hasler  as  principal,  and  James  Ferguson  of  Albany,  and  Edmund 
Blunt  of  New-York,  assistants. 

The  charts  used  throughout  the  United  States,  both  of  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  the  West  Indies,  are  published  by  E.  and  G.  W.  Blunt,  and  they 
have  entirely  superseded  the  foreign  charts,  being  original  drawings,  continuing 
the  new  discoveries  and  corrections  with  the  general  outline  adopted  in  the 
English  charts. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  is  proper  to  state  that  directions  have  been 
given  for  an  accurate  triangulation  of  the  Niagara  river  at  Niagara  falls,  and  the 
result  will  be  given  in  one  of  the  following  volumes. 

Unhappily  there  is  not  in  this,  nor  in  any  other  country,  a  taste  sufficiently 
general  for  the  study  of  the  useful  arts.  Occasionally  a  brilliant  invention  arrests 
the  attention  of  mankind,  and  homage  is  involuntarily  yielded  to  a  discoverer 
who  has  contributed  to  the  well-being  and  happiness  of  our  race.  But  the  laws 
of  mechanics,  although  fixed,  invariable  and  easy  of  comprehension,  remain  un¬ 
studied  and  unregarded.  Neglecting  inquiry  into  the  processes  by  which  results 
have  been  attained,  society  is  content  to  pay  its  tribute  of  admiration  for  the 
results  themselves.  Inventions  are  brought  into  general  use,  and  curiosity  con¬ 
cerning  the  inventor,  and  the  progress  of  his  discovery,  ceases  altogether ;  or  if, 
like  the  printing  press  and  the  steam  engine,  the  invention  marks  a  new  era  in 
the  march  of  civilization,  a  confused  association  of  the  author’s  name  with  his 
invention  takes  possession  of  the  public  mind,  and  millions  repeat  his  praises 
without  at  all  inquiring  into  the  justice  of  the  award.  Although  mechanical  in¬ 
ventors  are  busy  among  us,  we  have  few  trophies  of  the  genius  of  our  citizens 
besides  the  application  of  the  steam  engine  to  navigation.  MacAdam,  the  in¬ 
ventor  of  the  well-known  improvement  in  the  mode  of  constructing  common 
roads,  was  a  native  of  New-York,  although  his  genius  received  its  development 
in  England,  whence  we  have  received  his  invention.  Paul  K.  Hodge  has 
published  a  work  called  “  The  Steam  Engine,  its  origin  and  gradual  improve¬ 
ment  from  the  time  of  Heron  to  the  present  day,  as  adapted  to  manufactures,  lo- 


INTRODUCTION. 


149 


comotion  and  navigation,”  which  is  held  in  high  esteem.  The  author  has  the 
merit  of  having  invented  the  steam  fire-engine,  a  machine  of  great  importance  in 
populous  cities.  James  Renwick  has  written  several  valuable  treatises,  among 
which  we  may  mention  “  The  Application  of  the  Science  of  Mechanics  to  Prac¬ 
tical  Purposes and  also  a  work  “  On  the  Steam  Engine.”  Alexander  S.  Byrne 
has  published  “  Observations  on  the  best  mode  of  propelling  ships.”  William  C. 
Redfield’s  “  Essays  on  Meteorology,”  and  on  “  The  Causes  of  Hurricanes,”  have 
attracted  much  attention  in  that  abstruse  and  unexplored  field  of  science.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  he  has  ably  defended  his  theory  in  opposition  to  that  of 
professor  Espy.  The  labors  of  professor  Davies  in  the  science  of  pure  mathe¬ 
matics,  and  those  of  professor  Mahan  in  that  of  mixed  mathematics,  and  its  ap¬ 
plications  in  civil  engineering  and  kindred  departments,  conducted,  as  they  have 
been,  at  the  United  States  military  academy  in  West-Point,  are  claimed  as  a 
valuable  portion  of  the  scientific  property  of  the  state.  Doctor  Nott’s  improve¬ 
ment  of  furnaces  for  burning  anthracite  coal,  has  been  especially  useful  in  the 
manufacture  of  machinery  and  in  the  improvement  of  steam  navigation,  as  well 
as  conducive  to  health  and  the  comforts  of  social  life.  An  important  and 
valuable  work  has  just  issued  from  the  press,  entitled  i:  A  descriptive  and  histo¬ 
rical  account  of  hydraulic  and  other  machines  for  raising  water,  ancient  and 
modern,”  by  Thomas  Ewbank  of  New-York.  The  author,  who  is  deeply  versed 
in  mechanical  science,  has,  by  a  collection  of  rare  and  curious  facts  in  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  invention,  presented  in  a  spirited  yet  unaffected  manner,  attempted  to 
disturb  the  popular  indifference  to  mechanism,  and  to  invest  that  science  with 
the  interest  of  history  and  the  charm  of  romance.  His  extensive,  minute  and 
accurate  account  of  the  more  important  engines  and  machines  now  in  use,  ren¬ 
ders  his  work  exceedingly  useful  to  the  student  in  that  department.* 

From  notices  of  practical  applications  of  science,  we  pass  to  a  brief  review  of 
the  progress  of  literature,  and  shall,  for  obvious  reasons,  dwell  most  upon  such 
productions  as  especially  illustrate  points  in  the  character,  condition  or  circum- 


♦  Notes  on  the  Useful  Arts  were  received  from  Rcfus  W.  Griswold,  Esq. 


150 


INTRODUCTION. 


stances  of  the  state.  The  history  of  the  races  which  inhabited  the  American 
continent  previously  to  the  planting  of  the  European  colonies,  is  a  vast  field  im¬ 
perfectly  explored.  Ancient  fortifications  erected  anterior  to  the  discovery  of 
America,  have  been  found  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  De  Witt  Clinton,  after 
personal  examination,  described  the  ruins  of  fortifications  in  Pompey,  Onondaga 
county.  In  several  parts  of  that  town,  there  are  remains  of  ancient  populous 
settlements.  The  site  of  the  ruins  is  on  the  high  ground  which  divides  the 
waters  which  flow  into  Chesapeake  bay,  from  those  which  seek  the  ocean 
through  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  and  the  formations  between  this  ridge  and 
the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  indicate  an  abrasion  of  rocks,  and  a  recession  of  the 
waters  by  which  the  valley  has  been  exposed.  The  ruins  are  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  interior  of  the  continent ;  from  an  examination  of  which  our  anti¬ 
quarians  have,  with  great  unanimity,  deduced  the  opinion  that  a  vast  population, 
many  ages  since,  existed  on  the  continent,  having  large  towns,  possessing  military 
defences,  and  pursuing  agriculture,  and  more  advanced  in  civilization  than  the 
aboriginal  nations  which  have  inhabited  the  same  country  since  the  European 
discovery.  Many  interesting  relics  found  in  such  ruins  have  been  preserved  in 
the  Albany  Institute,  especially  utensils  made  of  pottery.  There  is  another  class 
of  ruins  which  furnish  traces  of  visits  by  Europeans,  of  which  there  is  no  histo¬ 
rical  account.  The  Indians  found  in  the  settlement  of  the  colony,  have  no 
reliable  tradition  concerning  either  of  these  descriptions  of  ruins.  A  few  rude 
characters  etched  upon  the  rocks  are  all  the  enduring  hieroglyphics,  found  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  continent  east  of  the  Hudson ;  and  these  are  unintelligible, 
although  the  learned  and  ingenious  Schoolcraft  supposes  that  he  has  discovered 
a  key  to  unlock  the  mystery.  Monuments  every  where  remain,  but  they  bear 
no  records  of  the  eloquent,  the  wise  and  the  brave,  who  may  have  flourished  in 
a  long  lapse  of  ages.  Even  the  origin  of  the  present  aboriginal  races  is  involved 
in  mystery,  and  the  curious  and  learned  are  equally  divided  on  the  question, 
whether  the  ancestors  of  these  races  were  drifted  upon  the  southern  division  of 
the  continent,  from  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  or  whether  they  were  of 


INTRODUCTION. 


151 


Tartar  origin,  and  found  their  way  there  by  crossing  Behring’s  straits.  Yet 
another  theory  derives  the  aborigines  from  the  Northmen  of  Europe.  This 
theory  is  based  upon  the  resemblance  of  the  American  Indians  to  the  Esqui¬ 
maux,  and  between  the  Esquimaux  and  the  Laplanders.  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchill 
maintained  this  hypothesis.  Henry  Wheaton,  now  minister  of  the  United 
States  at  the  court  of  Berlin,  has  pursued  investigations  which,  together  with 
those  of  the  Swedish  antiquaries,  have  produced  a  general  conviction  that  the 
Northmen  visited  the  shores  of  New-England  several  centuries  before  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  America  by  Columbus ;  and  it  is  argued  that  if  the  bold  adventurers 
in  the  age  of  Eric  the  Red  could  traverse  the  North  seas  from  Norway  to 
Greenland,  and  thence  to  the  American  coast,  spirits  equally  brave  might  have 
done  the  same  ages  before.  Other  speculators  have  attempted  to  trace  the 
descent  of  the  American  Indians  from  the  Canaanites  driven  from  Palestine  by 
Joshua.  Grotius  and  Martyr  believed  that  Yucatan  was  first  peopled  by  Chris¬ 
tian  Ethiopians ;  while  some  regard  those  races  as  descendants  of  the  long  lost 
ten  and  a  half  tribes  of  the  children  of  Israel.* 

The  first  colonial  historian  of  the  Six  Nations  was  Cadwallader  Colden,  and 
his  work  is  valuable  although  it  reaches  only  to  a  very  short  period  subsequent 
to  the  peace  of  Ryswick.  The  work  is  certainly  good  authority  as  a  record  of 
facts,  and  manifests  a  benevolent  spirit  and  an  inquiring  genius.  It  is  especially 
interesting  also  because  it  shows  that  each  of  the  Five  Nations  was  a  distinct  re¬ 
public,  while  they  were  all  bound  in  a  confederacy  with  a  grand  central  council 
at  Onondaga.  Colden,  however,  is  supposed  to  have  erred  in  adopting  the  French 
opinion,  that  the  Five  Nations  had  only  recently  occupied  the  country  in  which 
they  were  found  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  continent.  David  Cusick, 
an  educated  T uscarora  Indian,  about  twenty  years  ago  published  a  history  of  the 
Six  Nations,  derived  from  their  traditions.  This  work,  which  as  a  merely  literary 
work  is  without  merit,  nevertheless  establishes  the  fact,  if  any  reliance  can  be 
placed  on  Indian  tradition,  that  the  five  nations  resided  in  the  country  now  con- 


*  Adair,  Boudinot,  Miller,  M.  M.  Noah. 


152 


INTRODUCTION. 


stituting  western  New-York,  for  a  very  long  period  anterior  to  the  first  visit  of  the 
Europeans.  But  Cusick’s  chronology  is  almost  as  wild  as  that  of  the  Chinese 
or  the  Hindoos,  for  he  gives  accounts  of  the  reigns  of  a  long  line  of  kings,  reach¬ 
ing  through  a  period  of  thousands  of  years.  There  are  two  points,  however,  in 
the  traditions  of  the  Six  Nations  which  are  both  curious  and  important,  to  wit,  the 
resemblance  between  their  cosmogony  and  that  of  the  Hindoos,  and  the  fact  that 
the  Noachian  deluge  is  incorporated  in  their  legends,  as  it  has  been  found  in  all 
the  barbarous  nations  on  the  eastern  continent.  A  discourse,  pronounced  before 
the  Historical  Society  of  New-York,  in  the  year  1811,  by  De  Witt  Clinton,  pre¬ 
sents  the  most  useful  compendium  of  the  history  of  the  Six  Nations.  Sir  William 
Johnson  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  Arthur  Lee  of  Virginia,  upon  the  manners, 
customs  and  government  of  the  Six  Nations,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  the  work 
is  extant.  The  reverend  Samuel  F.  Jarvis,  then  of  New-York,  but  now  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  in  1819,  produced  a  learned  and  eloquent  treatise  on  the  religion  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  in  the  form  of  a  discourse  before  the  New-York  Histo¬ 
rical  Society.  William  Smith,  in  his  History  of  New-York,  has  given  the  history 
of  the  Six  Nations,  but  it  is  little  more  than  a  compendium  of  Colden’s  writings 
on  the  same  subject. 

The  most  elaborate  and  authentic  modern  work  upon  the  origin  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  red  man,  and  the  antiquities  of  that  race,  is  that  recently  given  to  the  public 
by  Alexander  W.  Bradford.  His  researches  and  inquiries  embrace  the  wide 
region  from  the  snow  huts  of  the  Esquimaux  to  the  palace  of  the  Incas.  His 
conclusions  are,  that  all  the  various  nations  and  tribes  inhabiting  America  at  the 
time  of  its  discovery  were  derived  from  one  primitive  civilized  source,  and  that 
the  emigration  to  this  continent  proceeded  from  southeastern  Asia  through  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  across  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  This  theory, 
however,  has  yet  to  abide  the  test  of  inquiry. 

George  Gatlin  spent  several  years  among  the  aboriginals  of  the  far  west,  and 
his  volumes  are  curious  and  interesting,  regarded  as  a  sketch  of  the  living 
manners  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  forest.  In  the  department  of  Indian  philology, 


INTRODUCTION. 


153 


Albert  Gallatin  has  given  us  an  elaborate  and  invaluable  essay  upon  the  struc¬ 
ture  of  the  American  languages,  illustrating  the  tongues  of  fifty-three  nations. 

William  L.  Stone  has  had  the  felicity  to  appropriate  to  himself  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Indian  biography.  His  first  work  was  “  The  Life  of  Joseph  Brant, 
or  Thayendanegea.”  The  title,  however,  does  not  convey  a  just  idea  of  the 
work,  which  is  a  complete  history  of  the  Iroquois  confederacy  during  the  life 
of  the  hero.  Brant  was  the  leader  of  the  Indian  auxiliaries  of  the  British 
army  during  the  revolution.  The  work  is  rich  in  historical  information,  con¬ 
cerning  the  border  scenes  of  that  eventful  struggle.  The  next  work,  by  the 
same  author,  was  the  Life  and  Times  of  Red  Jacket,  or  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  the 
last  great  orator  of  the  Iroquois  confederacy.  In  this  work  the  history  of  the  Six 
Nations  is  resumed  at  the  period  of  the  death  of  Brant,  and  continued  until  the 
late  dissolution  of  the  league.  The  speeches  of  Red  Jacket,  preserved  in  this 
volume,  will  for  all  time  become  more  interesting  as  authentic  exhibitions  of  the 
rhetorical  art,  as  it  existed  in  a  barbarian  community.  The  Life  of  the  Seneca 
White  Woman,  called  by  the  Indians  Deh-he-wa-mis,  by  James  G.  Seaver,  is 
especially  valuable  for  the  light  it  throws  upon  the  history  of  Sullivan’s  campaign 
in  the  Genesee  country  in  1779.  The  affecting  story  of  Wyoming  is  known  to 
every  reader  of  Campbell’s  touching  and  most  beautiful  poem.  But  for  an  au¬ 
thentic  narrative  of  the  painful  events  which  the  poet  celebrated,  we  are  indebted 
to  William  L.  Stone.  William  W.  Campbell’s  Annals  of  Tryon  County  is  a  valu¬ 
able  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  state,  and  especially  instructive  concerning 
the  trials  and  sufferings  of  our  frontier  population  exposed  to  Indian  barbarities 
during  the  war  of  the  revolution.  Edwin  James  has  given  us  a  narrative,  by 
John  Tanner,  a  Virginian,  who  was  captured  by  the  Indians  in  his  childhood, 
which  abounds  in  information  concerning  the  Indians  in  the  interior  of  the  con¬ 
tinent,  and  especially  their  manners,  sentiments  and  customs.  Tanner  became 
entirely  assimilated  to  the  Indians,  and  this  interesting  book  was  written  from 
his  own  lips,  and  may  be  deemed,  therefore,  a  production  of  Indian  autobiogra¬ 
phy.  Washington  Irving’s  Memoir  of  Philip  of  Poconoket,  a  fierce  yet  magna- 

Intr  20 


154  INTRODUCTION. 

nimous  warrior,  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  Massachusetts,  and  who  fell  in  a 
chivalrous  effort  to  drive  the  intruding  white  man  from  the  continent,  is  writter 
with  all  the  benevolent  spirit  and  taste  of  its  accomplished  author.  Henry  R, 
Schoolcraft,  a  native  of  this  state,  but  now  a  citizen  of  Michigan,  has  been  a  phi¬ 
losophic  and  enthusiastic  student  of  the  languages  and  unwritten  literature  ol 
the  red  men.  Besides  many  important  contributions  to  our  reviews,  he  has  given 
us  in  his  work,  under  the  fanciful  title  of  Algic  Researches,  a  library  of  Indian 
romance,  very  precious,  and  such  as  no  other  than  its  author  could  have  gathered 
and  so  tastefully  arranged.  Much  assiduity  has  been  manifested  in  collecting 
materials  for  the  history  of  New-York.  The  description  of  the  New-Nether- 
lands,  by  Adrian  Vanderdonck,  translated  by  Jeremiah  Johnson,  abounds  in  cu¬ 
rious  and  interesting  information  concerning  the  early  condition  of  the  colony, 
and  its  relations  with  the  Indians  and  with  the  other  provinces.* 

The  earliest  English  accounts  of  the  colony  which  remain,  is  “  A  Brief  De¬ 
scription  of  New-York,  formerly  called  New-Netherlands,”  by  Daniel  Denton,  a 
small  quarto  printed  in  London  in  1607.  The  author  informs  us  that  the  book 
was  written  with  the  object  of  giving  “  some  directions  and  advice  to  such  as 
shall  go  there,  an  account  of  what  commodities  they  shall  take  with  them,  and 
the  profit  and  pleasure  that  may  accrue  to  them  thereby.”  There  is  a  copy  of 
this  curious  work  in  the  state  library. 

It  is  perhaps  not  generally  known  that  the  name  of  the  city  of  New-York, 
which  was  assumed  in  1664  was,  in  1673,  changed  to  New-Orange.  This  fact 
appears  from  “A  View  of  the  City  of  New-Orange,  as  it  was  in  the  year  1673, 
with  explanatory  notes,  by  Joseph  W.  Moulton.”  This  pamphlet  abounds  in  very 
curious  and  apparently  very  authentic  information  concerning  the  manners,  cus¬ 
toms  and  habits  of  the  period  to  which  it  relates.  A  pamphlet  was  published  in 
New-York,  in  1799,  entitled  “A  Description  of  the  Settlement  of  the  Genesee  Coun¬ 
try  in  the  state  of  New-York,”  in  a  series  of  letters  from  a  gentleman  to  his  friend. 


*  Notes  on  Antiquities  and  the  Press  were  received  from  the  Honorable  Gabriel  Forman.  Notes  on  Female  Bio¬ 
graphy  and  Indian  History  were  received  from  William  L.  Stone,  Esq. 


INTRODUCTION. 


155 


It  is  valuable,  as  containing  a  history  of  the  progress  of  the  settlement  of  western 
New-York  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  Joseph  W. 
Moulton,  about  twenty-five  years  since,  associated  with  John  Van  Ness  Yates,  to 
produce  a  history  of  New-York,  and  the  excellence  of  the  volume  published  has 
caused  a  very  general  regret  that  the  purpose  of  the  authors  was  relinquished. 

In  1829,  there  appeared  a  work  entitled  “  The  Natural,  Statistical  and  Civil 
History  of  the  State  of  New-York,”  in  three  volumes,  by  James  Macaulay.  This 
work,  although  very  comprehensive,  was  supposed  to  be  inaccurate,  and  it  has 
not  obtained  rank  as  a  standard  work.  William  Dunlap  subsequently  attempted 
to  execute  a  history  of  the  state,  and  he  collected  very  valuable  materials,  but 
his  talents  and  acquirements  were  not  equal  to  so  ambitious  an  undertaking. 
More  recently  Jabez  D.  Hammond  has  published  two  very  interesting  volumes, 
containing  the  political  history  of  the  state  of  New-York,  from  the  adoption  of 
the  constitution  until  1840.  The  work  is  written  with  candor  and  with'  studied 
accuracy. 

“  A  Sketch  of  the  first  settlement  of  the  towns  on  Long  Island,”  by  Silas  Wood, 
is  a  very  valuable  and  authentic  work.  “  The  History  of  Long  Island,”  by  Ben¬ 
jamin  F.  Thompson,  published  in  1S39,  is  rich  in  local  incidents  and  illustra¬ 
tions  of  public  characters.  “  Sketches  of  Rochester,  with  Notices  of  Western 
New-York,”  by  Henry  O’Reilly,  published  in  1838,  contain  very  useful  informa¬ 
tion  concerning  the  settlement  of  the  western  counties.  The  publications  of  the 
New-York  Historical  Society  deserve  a  conspicuous  place  among  the  historical 
productions  of  the  state.  This  society  was  formed  in  1804,  and  received  a 
charter  from  the  legislature  in  1809.  Among  its  founders  were  De  Witt  Clinton, 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins  and  Rufus  King,  bishop  Moore,  the  reverend  Dr.  Hobart 
afterwards  bishop,  the  reverend  Drs.  Millers  and  Kunrey,  Drs.  Mitchill  and 
Hosack,  and  other  eminent  citizens.  The  society  subsequently  received  liberal 
aid  from  the  state.  They  have  collected  a  large  and  valuable  library  of  historical 
works,  in  manuscript  as  well  as  printed  volumes,  and  have  already  published 
six  volumes  of  transactions.  At  the  instance  of  the  Historical  Society,  the  legisla- 


156 


INTRODUCTION. 


ture  authorized  the  appointment  of  an  agent  to  visit  Europe,  and  select  and  tran¬ 
scribe  documents  in  the  archives  of  European  states,  which  might  tend  to  illus¬ 
trate  our  colonial  history.  John  Romeyn  Brodhead,  who  was  appointed  to  per¬ 
form  that  duty,  has,  through  the  liberality  of  the  governments  of  the  Netherlands 
and  of  Great  Britain,  explored  the  archives  of  those  countries,  and  collected  a 
mass  of  valuable  official  papers,  commencing  with  the  discovery  of  the  colony, 
and  reaching  to  the  close  of  the  revolution.  The  agent  is  now  in  Paris,  and  is 
improving  the  generous  permission  given  him  by  the  king  of  the  French  to  ex¬ 
plore  the  public  offices  in  that  city,  for  materials  for  perfecting  that  part  of  our 
history  which  relates  to  the  wars  between  the  English  and  French,  many  scenes 
of  which  occurred  in  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  this  state.  The  legisla¬ 
ture  also,  on  the  suggestion  of  the  Historical  Society,  has,  within  the  present, 
year,  completed  the  publication  of  the  legislative  history  of  the  state,  by  giving 
to  the  press  the  journals  and  correspondence  of  the  revolutionary  provincial  con¬ 
gress,  the  council  of  safety  and  committee  of  safety.  But  the  attention  of  our 
historians  has  not  been  exclusively  confined  to  our  own  state.  Francis  L.  Hawks, 
under  the  title  of  “  Contributions  to  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  United 
States,”  has  written  the  history  of  the  church  in  Virginia  and  Maryland.  J.  Fen- 
nimore  Cooper’s  History  of  the  Navy  of  the  United  States,  is  justly  regarded  as 
a  national  work.  “’Notices  of  the  War  of  1812,”  by  John  Armstrong,  late 
secretary  of  war,  were  published  in  two  volumes. 

The  life  of  Philip  Schuyler  is  yet  unwritten,  if  we  except  the  sketch  con¬ 
tained  in  chancellor  Kent’s  historical  discourse.  We  have  also  only  a  brief  eulo¬ 
gistic  notice  of  chancellor  Livingston.  The  fame  of  John  Jay  has  been  more 
fortunate,  the  life  of  that  Christian  statesman  having  been  fully,  impartially 
and  elegantly  written  by  his  son,  William  Jay,  of  Westchester  county.  We  are 
indebted  to  that  indefatigable  national  biographer,  Jared  Sparks,  for  ample 
volumes  giving  us  the  personal  and  political  history  of  Gouverneur  Morris.  John 
C.  Hamilton  has  produced  two  volumes,  bringing  down  the  life  of  Alexander 
Hamilton  to  the  period  when  the  federal  constitution  was  formed.  The  work  is 


INTRODUCTION. 


157 


executed  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  subject,  and  praise  can  go  no  higher.  Theo¬ 
dore  Sedgwick,  junior,  has  given  us  a  very  interesting  work  in  the  life  of  William 
Livingston,  a  native  and  long  a  citizen  of  this  state,  afterwards  governor  of  New- 
Jersey.  Dr.  David  Hosack  wrote  an  obituary  memoir  of  De  Witt  Clinton : 
the  work  is  rather  an  eulogy  than  a  biography,  but  the  appendix  to  the  volume 
contains  a  vast  mass  of  materials  illustrating  the  history  of  the  state  during  the 
career  of  Clinton.  James  Renwick  has  written  the  life  of  Clinton,  in  a  popular 
form,  and  it  has  found  a  place  in  the  school  district  library.  To  Samuel  L. 
Knapp  we  are  deeply  indebted  for  a  life  of  Thomas  Eddy,  who,  as  has  been 
seen,  was  distinguished  in  promoting  the  canal  policy,  and  who  for  his  disinte¬ 
rested  and  efficient  zeal  in  the  cause  of  humanity,  received  from  his  contempo¬ 
raries  the  name  of  the  American  Howard.  He  was  the  projector  of  the  Society 
for  the  Reformation  of  Juvenile  Delinquents  in  the  city  of  New- York,  under 
whose  government  is  the  House  of  Refuge ;  an  institution  justly  pronounced  by 
De  Witt  Clinton  the  “  best  penitentiary  ever  devised  by  the  wit  and  established 
by  the  benevolence  of  man.”  The  fame  of  Robert  Fulton  found  worthy  guar¬ 
dians  in  Cadwallader  D.  Colden  and  professor  Renwick.  Maryland  owes  great 
obligations  to  Henry  Wheaton,  of  New-York,  for  a  memoir  which  does  ample 
justice  to  the  eloquence,  the  patriotism,  talent  and  professional  learning  of  her 
son  William  Pinckney.  It  would  be  supererogatory  to  speak  of  the  Life  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  by  Washington  Irving. 

Among  the  scanty  materials  for  ecclesiastical  history  which  we  possess,  we 
refer  with  pleasure  to  the  Life  of  the  reverend  John  H.  Livingston,  by  Alexander 
Gunn;  the  Life  of  the  reverend  Samuel  J.  Mills,  a  devoted  missionary  of  the  Colo¬ 
nization  Society,  by  Gardiner  Spring;  and  the  Life  of  the  right  reverend  John  H. 
Hobart,  by  McVickar,  and  also  a  Life  of  the  same  distinguished  prelate  by  Ber¬ 
rien. 

Among  the  productions  of  the  prolific  pen  of  the  late  Robert  C.  Sands,  is  a  Life  of 
that  celebrated  naval  captain,  John  Paul  Jones.  Aaron  Burr  was  a  living  mystery : 
his  life  has  been  written  by  Matthew  L.  Davis,  with  distinguished  accuracy.  It 


158  INTRODUCTION. 

is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  peculiarity  of  the  subject  that  such  an  account,  given  with 
even  the  partiality  of  private  friendship,  has  resulted  in  diminishing  the  interest 
which  was  universally  felt  in  regard  to  colonel  Burr  so  long  as  he  lived,  and  which 
perhaps  would  have  long  survived  him  if  his  life  had  remained  unwritten.  The 
autobiography  of  colonel  T rumbull  throws  light  upon  some  portions  of  our  revolu¬ 
tionary  history,  and  upon  many  public  characters  during  that  period,  as  well  as 
upon  the  progress  of  the  fine  arts.  Henry  C.  Van  Schaack  has  performed  a  filial 
duty  with  great  propriety  in  his  life  of  his  father,  Peter  Van  Schaack.  The 
writer’s  object  was  to  vindicate  the  purity  of  motive  of  that  eminent  lawyer  in 
his  neutrality  during  the  revolution.  The  work  adds  very  interesting  materials 
for  the  full  history  of  the  great  conflict,  which  yet  remains  to  be  written. 

The  National  Portrait  Gallery  of  distinguished  Americans,  by  James  Herring, 
consisting  of  four  volumes,  embellished  with  one  hundred  and  forty  portraits,  is 
a  work  creditable  to  the  literature  and  to  the  arts  of  the  country.  We  can  only 
notice,  in  passing,  De  Witt  Clinton’s  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Philip  Livingston,  and 
the  same  author’s  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  George  Clinton,  and  similar  sketches  of 
Dr.  Hugh  Williamson  and  Dr.  Bard,  by  David  Hosack ;  of  John  Wells,  by  Wil¬ 
liam  Johnson ;  and  of  general  James  Clinton,  by  William  W.  Campbell.  William 
L.  Stone’s  account  of  the  noted  fanatic  and  religious  impostor  Matthias,  contains 
many  facts  which  will  be  useful  to  the  student  in  mental  philosophy.  William 
Dunlap  has  left  valuable  materials  for  biographical  literature,  in  his  History  of 
the  American  Theatre,  and  also  in  his  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design. 

We  must  acknowledge  and  lament  our  deficiencies  in  female  biography.  Still, 
what  works  of  that  kind  we  possess,  are  exceedingly  interesting.  Among  these  is 
a  memoir  of  Mrs.  Ann  Elizabeth  Bleecker,  published  in  1793,  by  her  daughter 
Margaretta  V.  Faugeres.  We  are  indebted  to  Mrs.  Grant  of  Scotland  for  the 
Life  of  an  “American  Lady,”  by  which  designation  was  intended  Mrs.  Schuyler, 
the  wife  of  colonel  Schuyler  of  Albany.  The  work  is  not  without  interest  as 
mere  biography,  but  it  is  also  exceedingly  instructive  concerning  the  manners 
and  customs  which  prevailed  in  the  colony  during  the  period  which  was  included 


INTRODUCTION. 


159 


in  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  people  of  this  state  will  cherish  in  grateful  remembrance  Isabella  Graham, 
a  Scottish  lady,  who  passed  the  greater  portion  of  her  life  in  New- York,  minis¬ 
tering  to  the  poor,  and  alleviating  the  sorrows  of  the  afflicted ;  and  who  was 
prominent  among  the  founders  of  the  orphan  asylum  in  that  city.  A  memoir  of 
her  life  has  been  written  by  Divie  Bethune.  The  poet  Southey  has  said  that 
the  annals  of  English  literature  did  not  furnish  a  more  brilliant  example  of  pre¬ 
cocious  genius  than  Lucretia  Maria  Davidson.  Her  biography  has  been  written 
by  Miss  Sedgwick.  That  it  has  been  written  well  and  justly,  xhe  name  of  the 
authoress  is  a  sufficient  guaranty.  The  genius  of  Margaret  Miller  Davidson,  a 
younger  sister  of  Lucretia,  at  a  very  early  age  produced  fruits  equally  ripe,  and 
which  have  been  gathered  and  given  to  the  public  by  the  kind  and  gentle  hand 
of  Washington  Irving.  We  conclude  these  notes  of  female  biography  with  men¬ 
tioning  two  works  recently  published,  one  a  Memoir  of  Lucy  Hooper,  with 
Selections  from  her  Poetical  Remains,  by  John  Keese.  The  memoir  is  a  discri¬ 
minating  narrative  of  the  life  and  character  of  a  young  lady  of  genius,  and  of 
deep  and  pure  affections.  The  other  work'is  the  “  The  Missionary’s  Daughter,” 
being  a  memoir  of  Lucy  Goodale  Thurston,  by  Mrs.  A.  P.  Cummings.  The 
subject  was  a  daughter  of  one  of  the  devoted  band  of  missionaries  in  the  Sand¬ 
wich  Islands,  whose  brief  history  is  affecting  and  instructive. 

Our  library  of  travels  is  already  quite  voluminous.  At  the  hazard  of  omit¬ 
ting  many  equally  deserving  of  notice,  we  mention  the  following : 

Travels  in  England,  France,  Spain,  and  the  Barbary  States,  in  1813,  Y4,  '15, 
by  Mordecai  M.  Noah;  1819.  A  Tour  from  the  city  of  New-York  to  Detroit, 
by  William  Darby  ;  1819.  Travels  to  the  Sources  of  the  Mississippi,  &c.  under 
Gov.  Cass,  in  1820,  by  Henry  A.  Schoolcraft;  1821.  Travels  to  the  Central 
Portions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  &c.  in  1821,  by  the  same;  1825.  Narrative 
of  an  Expedition  to  the  Source  of  the  Mississippi,  in  1832,  under  H.  A.  School¬ 
craft,  by  the  same ;  1834.  Narrative  of  the  Loss  of  the  American  brig  Com¬ 
merce  on  the  Coast  of  Africa,  in  1815,  by  Capt.  James  Riley.  A  year  in  Europe. 


160 


INTRODUCTION. 


1818-19,  by  John  Griscom  ;  1823.  Letters  from  Europe,  &c.  by  N.  H.  Carter , 
New- York,  1827.  (Two  editions.)  A  Year  in  Spain,  by  Alex.  S.  McKenzie ; 
Boston,  1829.  Narrative  of  Four  Voyages  to  the  South  Sea  and  the  Pacific, 
1822-31,  by  Benj.  Morrell ;  New-York,  1831.  Voyages  Round  the  World,  be¬ 
tween  1792  and  1832,  by  Edward  Fanning;  New-York,  1832.  Voyage  of  the 
U.  S.  Frigate  Potomac,  1831-34,  by  J.  N.  Reynolds ;  1835.  A  Winter  in  the 
West,  by  a  New-Yorker,  [Charles  F.  Hoffman;]  1835.  The  Old  World  and 
the  New,  or  a  Journal  of  Reflections  and  Observations,  made  in  a  Tour  in  Eu¬ 
rope,  by  Orville  Dewey ;  1836.  Sketches  of  Turkey  in  1831-32,  by  Jas.  E.  De 
Kay  ;  New-York,  1833.  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petrgea,  and  the 
Holy  Land,  by  John  L.  Stephens;  1836.  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Greece,  Tur¬ 
key,  Russia  and  Poland,  by  the  same;  1837.  Journal  of  an  Exploring  Tour 
beyond  the  Rocky  Modntains,  1835-37,  by  Samuel  Parker ;  1838.  Incidents  of 
Travel  in  Central  America,  Chiapas  and  Yucatan,  by  John  L.  Stephens;  1841. 
Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  &c.  or  a  Journal  of  Travels  in  the  year  1838, 
by  Edward  Robinson  and  Eli  Smith,  drawn  up  by  E.  Robinson;  1841.  Letters 
from  the  Old  World,  by  Mrs.  Haight ;  New-York,  1840.  Letters  from  Abroad, 
&c.  by  C.  S.  Sedgwick ;  New-York,  1841.  Travels  in  England,  &c.  by  J.  Fen- 
nimore  Cooper.  Travels  in  Switzerland,  &c.  by  the  same.  Travels  in  Europe, 
by  Valentine  Mott ;  1842.  The  American  in  Egypt,  with  rambles  through  Ara¬ 
bia  Petrsea  and  the  Holy  Land,  during  the  years  1839  and  1840,  by  James 
Ewing  Cooley ;  1842. 

With  regard  to  these  works  we  may  remark,  that  Schoolcraft’s  publications 
are  among  the  best  accounts  of  the  western  wilderness ;  that  McKenzie’s  lively 
and  graphic  sketches  of  Spanish  society  have  not  been  surpassed ;  Dr.  De  Kay’s 
volume  upon  Turkey  is  replete  with  information  valuable  to  the  general  reader 
as  well  as  to  the  naturalist ;  that  Hoffman  is  successfully  creating  a  national  taste 
for  works  descriptive  of  our  own  scenery,  and  illustrative  of  our  own  own  history ; 
the  letters  of  Mrs.  Haight,  are  written  with  vivacity  and  elegance;  Stephens, 
Robinson  and  Dewey,  forsook  customary  routes  of  travellers,  and  struck  across  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


161 


deserts  of  Egypt  to  the  land  of  Edom,  and  have  laid  open  to  our  observation  the 
city  of  the  dead.  Of  the  American  travels  of  Stephens,  and  the  noble  spirit  which 
prompts  his  researches  into  the  antiquities  of  Central  America,  we  could  not 
speak  with  too  high  praise.* 

In  the  department  of  classical  learning,  the  state  has  one  student  preeminently 
distinguished,  Charles  Anthon  of  Columbia  College.  His  fame  is  not  only  widely 
diffused  throughout  the  United  States,  but  his  acquirements  and  labors  are  justly 
appreciated  by  the  scholars  of  Europe.  His  critical  and  learned  commentaries 
upon  the  works  of  the  more  popular  classic  authors  are  too  familiar  to  need  a 
reference.  As  the  author  of  a  classical  dictionary,  more  accurate  and  extensive 
than  any  heretofore  published,  and  as  a  diligent  inquirer  in  the  great  department 
of  the  affiliation  of  languages,  he  has  won  for  himself  the  highest  rank  among 
American  classical  scholars. 

In  the  department  of  translations  from  modern  languages,  doctor  A.  Sidney 
Doane,  distinguished  for  his  writings  upon  medical  subjects,  has  won  for  himself 
high  reputation. 

We  are  not  altogether  without  historical  romance.  In  this  department  may 
be  mentioned  Paulding’s  “Dutchman’s  Fire  Side,”  Cooper’s  “Spy”  and  “Pio¬ 
neers,”  and  Hoffman’s  “  Greyslaer.”  In  other  departments  of  fiction,  the  Sketch 
Book,  Bracebridge  Hall,  the  Conquest  of  Grenada,  and  other  works  by  Irving ; 
the  numerous  productions  of  Cooper,  the  writings  of  Paulding,  the  graceful 
romances  of  Theodore  S.  Fay,  and  Indian  Sketches  and  the  Hawk  Chief,  by  John 
T.  Irving  junior,  have  been  received  with  much  popular  favor:  while  in  satire, 
Knickerbocker’s  History  of  New-York,  by  Irving ;  Salmagundi,  by  Paulding, 
Irving  and  others ;  the  Bucktail  Bards,  by  Duer,  Bonner  and  Verplanck ;  and 
the  Essays  of  Croaker  &  Co.  by  Drake,  Halleck  and  Clinch,  are  very  agreeable 
productions. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  a  popular  taste  for  poetry  has  not  yet  been  created. 


Intr. 


*  Notes  on  History  and  Travels,  were  received  from  Georoe  Folsom,  Esq. 

21 


162 


INTRODUCTION. 


We  have  no  epic  that  has  attained  eminent  celebrity ;  yet  the  less  elaborate  and 
the  fugitive  pieces,  when  collected,  constitute  a  treasure  not  unworthy  of  public 
acknowledgment.  Sacred  song  has  seldom  excelled  the  beautiful  fragment  com¬ 
mencing  “Father  of  Light,”  written  by  William  Livingston,  in  1747.  “Vice,” 
a  satire  by  Gulian  Verplanck,  which  appeared  in  1774,  is  distinguished  for  taste, 
elegance  and  irony.  In  1778,  Anne  E.  Bleecker  published  several  fugitive 
pieces,  of  which  “  A  Thanksgiving  after  escape  from  Indian  perils,”  and  some 
others  are  preserved.  Anthony  Bleecker,  who  contributed  freely  to  periodical 
literature  from  1800  to  1825,  claims  remembrance  for  an  ode  which  assisted 
to  make  the  wild  and  beautiful  scenery  of  T  renton  falls  known  to  his  country¬ 
men.  Our  national  lyric  “  The  American  Flag,”  “  The  Culprit  Fay,”  and  other 
poems,  by  J.  Rodman  Drake,  will  prove  to  succeeding  generations,  that  this  utili¬ 
tarian  age  is  sometimes  illumined  by  brilliant  imaginative  genius.  The  refined 
sentiment  and  mellifluous  measure  of  “  Yamoyden,”  “  The  Dead  of  1832,”  and 
“  Weehawken,”  are  relied  upon  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  lamented  Robert 
C.  Sands.  A.  H.  Bogart,  author  of  an  “Anacreontic,”  in  imitation  of  Moore; 
Jonathan  Lawrence  junior,  who  has  left  among  other  poems,  “  The  Clouds,” 
“  Look  aloft,”  “  Morning  among  the  hills,”  and  an  “  Ode  to  May  William  Leg¬ 
gett,  author  of  an  exquisite  sacred  melody,  and  elegiac  verses  entitled  “  Love’s 
Remembrancer;”  James  G.  Brooks,  among  whose  remains  are  “Greece,”  “Joy 
and  Sorrow,”  “An  Ode  to  the  dying  year,”  and  other  unambitious  and  touching 
poems ;  Willis  Gaylord  Clark,  author  of  many  beautiful  pieces,  among  which 
all  American  readers  will  remember  as  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  author, 
“  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,”  “  The  Burial  place  at  Laurel  hill,”  “  The  Early 
Dead,”  and  “The  Death  of  the  Firstborn;”  James  Nack,  in  whom  even  the 
privations  of  speech  and  hearing  could  not  repress  the  utterance  of  inspiration ; 
John  Rudolph  Sutermeister,  whose  “Faded  Hours”  were  prophetic  of  his 
early  death;  John  B.  Van  Schaick,  the  writer  of  “Joshua  commanding  the  sun 
and  moon  to  stand  still ;  ”  the  sisters,  Lucretia  Maria  Davidson  and  Margaret 
Miller  Davidson ;  and  Lucy  Hooper,  author  of  many  beautiful  poems,  will 


INTRODUCTION. 


163 


long  be  remembered  as  sweet  minstrels,  whose  voices  were  hushed  in  an  early 
grave.  Since  death  disarms  envy,  we  have  spoken  with  freedom  of  these 
departed  votaries  of  the  divine  art ;  but  prudence,  and  a  respect  for  contem¬ 
poraneous  opinion,  exact  more  caution  in  our  notice  of  living  poets.  Bryant, 
to  whom  is  assigned  the  palm  in  philosophic,  descriptive  and  didactic  verse ; 
Halleck,  the  versatile  author  of  “Alnwick  Castle,”  “Fanny,”  and  “Marco 
Bozzaris Paulding,  whose  “  Backwoodsman  ”  may  be  regarded  as  a  national 
poem;  Charles  F.  Hoffman,  whose  “Vigil  of  Faith”  is  the  fruit  of  early  culti¬ 
vated  genius,  and  who  has  thrown  the  charms  of  poetry,  as  well  as  of  romance, 
over  our  own  almost  unknown  mountains  and  lakes ;  Alfred  B.  Street,  known  as 
the  author  of  “Nature,”  “A  Forest  Walk,”  and  “The  Grey  Forest  Eagle;” 
Edward  Sanford,  author  of  the  spirited  “  Address  to  Black  Hawk ;  ”  Peter  H. 
Myers,  author  of  “  Ensenore  ;  ”  George  W.  Doane  and  William  Croswell,  writers 
of  sacred  lyrics  ;  Theodore  S.  Fay,  John  Inman  and  Park  Benjamin,  not  unsuc¬ 
cessful  in  poetry,  though  engaged  in  other  fields  of  literature ;  J  ames  0.  Rock¬ 
well,  author  of  “The  Lost  at  Sea;”  Samuel  Woodworth,  writer  of  a  touching- 
effusion,  “  The  Old  Oaken  Bucket,”  which  our  domestic  affections  will  not  permit 
to  lose  a  place  in  our  literature ;  Elizabeth  F.  Ellet,  author  of  “  The  Daughter 
of  Herodias;”  Mary  E.  Brooks  and  her  sister,  Mrs.  Hall,  known  to  our  readers 
as  Norna  and  Hinda ;  and  Emma  C.  Embury,  who  has  given  us  the  chaste  and 
affecting  verses  entitled  “  Christ  in  the  T empest ;  ”  all  are  writers  whose  fame  is 
cherished  by  the  generous  and  refined  portion  of  the  American  community.* 
The  history  of  the  fine  arts  in  New-York,  unfortunately,  is  scarcely  more 
than  an  account  of  a  controversy  concerning  the  manner  of  promoting  them. 
The  American  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  was  established  in  the  city  of  New-York 
in  1800,  and  was  incorporated  in  1808,  with  liberal  legislative  patronage. 
Among  the  founders  of  the  institution,  were  Robert  R.  Livingston,  John  R.  Mur¬ 
ray,  De  Witt  Clinton,  Charles  Wilkes,  Fobert  Fulton,  William  Cutting,  Edward 
Livingston,  Rufus  King,  David  Hosack,  and  James  Fairlie.  The  object  of  the 


*  Notes  on  Literature  were  received  from  Charles  F.  Hoffman,  Esq.,  and  Alfred  B.  Street,  Esq. 


164  INTRODUCTION. 

association  was  to  combine  influence  and  patronage  in  favor  of  the  fine  arts. 
Addresses  were  delivered  at  the  annual  exhibitions  of  the  academy.  Of  these, 
the  discourse  of  De  Witt  Clinton  in  1816,  and  that  pronounced  by  Gulian  C. 
Verplanck  in  1824,  are  very  valuable  contributions  to  our  literature.  Many  of 
our  artists  conceived  the  opinion  that  the  objects  of  the  society  would  be  better 
promoted  by  an  association,  conducted  by  professional  individuals,  than  by  the 
academy,  the  operations  of  which  were  mainly  conducted  by  patrons.  Hence 
arose,  in  1825,  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  the  members  and  officers  of 
which  are  artists.  This  association,  under  the  presidency  of  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse, 
has  procured  valuable  collections  in  both  the  antique  and  life  schools ;  and  its 
usefulness  has  been  signally  manifested  in  the  gratuitous  instruction  it  has  im¬ 
parted  to  more  than  four  hundred  students.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  has  ceased  to  exist.  Its  place,  however,  is  well  supplied  by  the  Apollo 
Association,  consisting  of  both  artists  and  patrons :  an  institution  which  cheers 
and  encourages  genius,  without  incurring  jealousy  or  censure. 

Painting,  engraving  and  sculpture  were  scarcely  known  here  before  the  revo¬ 
lution.  William  Dunlap,  a  painter  of  considerable  merit,  has  shown  in  his  curi¬ 
ous  and  interesting  history,  that  West  and  Coply,  in  their  early  years,  executed 
some  portraits  in  the  city  of  New-York;  but  the  state  cannot  lay  claim  to  any 
honor  from  the  birth,  education  or  fame  of  these  distinguished  men.  Peter  R. 
Maverick,  an  engraver,  in  1783,  found  insufficient  occupation,  although  he  seems 
to  have  enjoyed  a  monopoly  in  the  business  of  his  profession.  In  about  1794, 
Cornelius  Tiebout  engraved  some  portraits  on  copper.  Andrew  Anderson,  of 
New-York,  introduced  wood  engraving  in  1794. 

We  need  scarcely  remark,  that  although  we  are  very  far  from  having  esta¬ 
blished  an  American  school,  and  although  we  confess  our  inferiority  not  only  to 
the  ancient  masters  but  to  modern  European  artists,  yet  the  genius  of  our  citi¬ 
zens  has  applied  itself  to  the  study  of  the  arts  with  all  the  assiduity  and  zeal 
which  mark  the  national  character,  and  their  success  in  that  department  may 
be  expected  to  increase  as  rapidly  as  national  taste  and  patronage  will  permit. 


INTRODUCTION. 


165 


All  artists  and  amateurs  in  our  country  concede  the  palm  to  Peter  Yanderlyn, 
among  whose  performances  will  be  remembered  his  “  Ariadne  ”  and  his  “  W ash- 
ington.” 

Music  was  long  since  admitted  in  every  plan  of  female  education ;  but  owing 
to  a  strange  perverseness,  has  been  almost  universally  neglected  in  the  education 
of  the  other  sex.  Just  sentiments,  however,  are  beginning  to  prevail.  Ele¬ 
mentary  instruction  is  now  given  in  many  of  our  primary  schools,  and  it  may 
reasonably  be  hoped  that  soon  there  will  be  none  in  which  this  tasteful  and  refining 
art  will  be  omitted. 

It  remains  to  notice  the  progress  of  the  physical  sciences.  The  notes  on  these 
subjects  will  be  the  more  brief,  because  they  are  fully  investigated  in  the  work 
which  follows  this  introduction. 

The  earliest  publication  relating  to  the  botany  of  New-York,  was  Cadwallader 
Colden’s  account  of  the  indigenous  plants  of  Orange  county  and  its  vicinity, 
published  in  1744.  It  is  contained  in  the  “Acta  Societatis  Regiae  Scientiarum 
Upsaliensis,”  and  fills  two  quarto  volumes.  The  catalogue  embraced  several 
hundred  species,  which  were  carefully  described.  The  “  Plantas  Coldenhamiae  ” 
were  frequently  quoted  by  Linnteus.  The  traveller  Ivalm,  who  visited  this 
country  in  1747,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Swedish  government,  collected  a 
large  number  of  plants  and  transferred  them  to  his  preceptor  Linnaeus,  by  which 
distinguished  naturalist  they  were  described  in  the  “  Species  Plantarum”  and 
“  Systema  Vegetab ilium.”  Wangenheim,  a  Hessian  surgeon  in  the  British  army, 
during  the  American  revolution,  collected  many  plants  in  New-York,  and  in 
other  portions  of  the  United  States,  of  which  he  published  accounts  in  1781  and 
1787.  The  Michaux,  elder  and  junior,  travelled  in  New-York  in  1792  and  in 
1803.  The  former  published  in  Paris,  in  1803,  the  “  Flora  Borealis  Americana.” 
The  latter,  in  1810  and  subsequent  years,  gave  a  description  of  our  indigenous 
forest  trees,  in  his  splendid  work  entitled  “Arbres  Forestiers  de  l’Amerique 
Septentrionale.”  C.  W.  Eddy  of  New-York,  published  in  the  “  Medical  Repo¬ 
sitory,”  in  1806,  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  growing  about  Plandome  on  the 


166 


INTRODUCTION. 


northern  side  of  Long  Island,  in  which  several  new  species  were  mentioned.  In 
1811,  John  Le  Conte  published  in  the  “American  Medical  and  Philosophical 
Register,”  a  list  of  four  hundred  and  sixty-eight  plants  growing  on  the  island  of 
New-York.  A  catalogue  of  plants  indigenous  in  the  state  of  New-York,  was 
published  in  1814,  by  Jacob  Green.  Frederick  Pursh  explored  portions  of  the 
state,  and  incorporated  the  results  of  his  examinations  in  his  valuable  work  enti¬ 
tled  “  Flora  Americas  Septentrionalis,”  published  in  1814.  Nuttall,  author  of 
the  “  Genera  of  North  American  Plants,”  and  other  learned  works  relating  to  the 
botany  of  this  country,  has  materially  aided  in  perfecting  the  flora  of  the  state. 
In  1817,  the  “Lyceum  of  Natural  History”  in  New-York,  ajspointed  a  com¬ 
mittee  to  prepare  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  growing  within  thirty  miles  of  the 
metropolis.  The  duty  was  performed  by  John  Torrey,  M.D.,  and  the  results 
published  at  Albany  in  1819.  The  localities,  times  of  flowering,  synonyms  and 
characteristics  of  new  species,  were  included  in  the  account.  Amos  Eaton,  in 
1818,  published  his  “  Manual  of  Botany  for  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.” 
This  work  has  passed  through  eight  editions,  the  last  of  which  was  greatly  en¬ 
larged,  and  appeared  under  the  title  of  “  North  American  Botany.”  The  great 
circulation  which  this  book  has  obtained,  is  a  gratifying  evidence  of  increasing 
interest  in  this  useful  department  of  natural  history.  Doctor  Torrey  published 
in  New-York,  in  1823,  a  volume  designed  to  be  a  part  of  a  series  entitled  “  Flora 
of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.”  The  work  comprised  only  the  first  twelve 
classes  of  the  Linnean  system,  and  the  author  then  relinquished  his  purpose 
under  a  conviction  that  he  would  better  advance  the  cause  of  science  by  adopting 
the  natural  method,  and  by  describing  the  flora  of  the  whole  of  North  America. 

The  “  Botany  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States”  was  published  by  doctor 
Lewis  C.  Beck  in  1833,  and  has  greatly  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  accu¬ 
rate  botanical  knowledge.  James  Hall  and  John  Wright  published,  in  1836,  a 
catalogue  of  plants  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  Troy.  This  work  forms  a  useful 
manual  for  persons  pursuing  the  study  of  botany  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson, 
and  contains  the  names  of  most  of  the  plants  indigenous  in  the  river  counties 


INTRODUCTION. 


167 


north  of  the  Highlands.  Doctors  John  Torrey  and  Asa  Gray  have  been  many 
years  engaged  in  collecting  and  preparing  materials  for  a  complete  “  Flora  of 
North  America.”  The  first  volume  of  their  work,  comprising  the  polypetalous 
division  of  the  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  plants,  was  published  at  intervals 
between  1838  and  1840.  The  authors  adopt  the  natural  system,  and  the  work  has 
been  executed  in  a  manner  entirely  in  harmony  with  its  high  design.  Besides 
these  more  elaborate  works,  other  contributions  to  botanical  science  have  appeared 
from  time  to  time  in  scientific  journals.  Among  these  we  refer  to  papers  in 
“  Silliman’s  Journal,”  by  doctor  Gray,  David  Thomas  and  others;  descriptions  of 
new  and  rare  plants  in  the  state  of  New-York,  by  doctor  Gray,  published  in  the 
“  Annals  of  the  New-York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History;”  catalogues  of  the  indi¬ 
genous  plants  of  particular  counties  or  towns,  printed  in  the  reports  of  the  regents 
of  the  university ;  and  especially  papers  by  professor  Dewey  and  doctor  Knies- 
kern,  contained  in  the  last  annual  report.  Many  valuable  papers  on  practical 
botany,  and  its  relations  to  agriculture,  are  to  be  found  in  agricultural  journals. 

The  science  of  zoology  in  this  state  owes  its  origin  to  Samuel  L.  Mitchill, 
who,  in  1813,  commenced,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  completed,  an  elaborate 
account  of  the  fishes  of  New-York.  This  paper  was  given  to  the  public  in  the 
“  Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  New-York.”  The 
work,  although  strictly  local,  and  limited  chiefly  to  a  description  of  the  fishes 
found  in  the  waters  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  New-York,  became  a  standard 
of  reference  and  conrparison  for  succeeding  laborers  in  the  field  of  ichthyology. 
That  science  not  only  received  from  the  labors  of  doctor  Mitchill  a  great  im¬ 
pulse,  but  its  votaries  here  won  for  themselves  regard  from  the  savans  of  the  old 
world,  and  were  encouraged  to  persevere  in  their  labors,  even  under  disadvan¬ 
tageous  and  almost  discouraging  circumstances.  To  that  impulse  may  be  attri¬ 
buted  the  formation  of  the  “  Lyceum  of  Natural  History”  in  the  city  of  New- 
York  in  1818.  In  connection  with  this  department  of  natural  history,  it  would 
be  unjust  to  pass  without  notice  the  efforts  and  researches  of  De  Witt  Clinton, 
who,  although  engrossed  in  public  duties,  devoted  himself  with  assiduity  to  the 


168 


INTRODUCTION. 


pursuit  of  natural  science,  and  especially  to  the  study  of  natural  history.  The 
results  of  some  of  his  investigations  are  contained  in  a  letter  to  doctor  Mitchill, 
published  in  the  “  Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society.” 

Although  the  study  of  ornithology  has  not  been  pursued  with  the  especial  ob¬ 
ject  of  determining  the  species  of  birds  indigenous  in  the  state,  still  in  the  com¬ 
prehensive  treatises  which  have  issued  from  the  press,  there  is  no  deficiency  of 
information  on  that  interesting  subject.  The  labors  of  Wilson,  Bonaparte,  Au¬ 
dubon,  Cooper  and  De  Kay,  in  this  department,  are  too  well  known  to  require 
more  than  a  reference  on  this  occasion. 

Similar  remarks  apply  to  the  history  of  the  mammalia  of  the  state.  Although 
investigations  in  that  department  have  been  made  by  many  distinguished  indi¬ 
viduals,  none  have  confined  their  observations  to  species  peculiar  to  the  state, 
except  William  Cooper,  who  has  published  a  treatise  of  the  “Cheiroptera  of 
New-York.”  Bachman,  of  South  Carolina,  in  researches  extending  over  most  of 
the  states,  has  made  interesting  discoveries  in  the  families  of  many  smaller  quadru¬ 
peds  in  this  State. 

The  reptile  species,  particularly  the  Tortoise,  was  described  by  Le  Conte,  in 
the  “Annals  of  the  New-York  Lyceum,”  in  1829.  His  paper  contains  descrip¬ 
tions  of  seventeen  species  of  tortoises,  although  only  a  small  number  of  them  be¬ 
long  exclusively  to  New-York. 

Barnes,  whose  early  death  was  deeply  lamented,  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  U nionidse  of  our  lakes  and  rivers.  His  descriptions  were  accurate,  and 
may  be  considered  as  the  first  successful  attempt  to  classify  the  numerous  species 
of  this  family  of  Mollusca.  They  were  published  in  the  “  American  Journal  of 
Science.”  For  a  knowledge  of  the  mollusca  of  our  seacoast,  we  are  indebted 
to  doctor  Jay  of  New-York.  Professor  Bailey,  of  West-Point,  has  also  published 
very  interesting  results  of  his  researches  among  the  living  Infusoria. 

The  investigations  made  in  meteorology  by  our  scholars  deserve  marked 
acknowledgments.  They  seem  to  have  begun  under  an  impulse  which  that 
science  received  in  1780,  from  the  Meteorological  Society  of  the  Palatinate  (in 


INTRODUCTION. 


169 


Germany),  under  the  patronage  of  the  elector  Charles  Theodore.  Simeon  De 
Witt,  who  appears  often  in  this  memoir  as  a  friend  of  science,  published  in  1792 
a  “  Plan  of  a  Meteorological  Chart  for  exhibiting  a  comparative  view  of  the  cli¬ 
mate  in  North  America,  and  the  progress  of  vegetation.”  This  plan  contained 
suggestions  which  have  since  been  found  useful,  but  we  are  not  informed  what 
portion  of  them  was  original.  Mr.  De  Witt,  Gardner  Baker,  Jonathan  Eights 
and  John  Griscom  contributed,  from  1795  until  1814,  very  useful  papers  in  this 
department,  which  were  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Agriculture  and  the  Useful  Arts.  In  March,  1825,  the  regents  of 
the  university,  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  De  Witt,  adopted  the  system  in  pursuance 
of  which  the  academies  have  since  that  time  made  daily  observations  upon  the 
weather  and  the  wands,  together  with  notices  of  the  progress  of  vegetation,  and 
the  occurrence  of  remarkable  atmospheric  phenomena.  T.  Romeyn  Beck,  Jo¬ 
seph  Henry,  professor  Ten  Eyck,  Benjamin  F.  Jocelyn,  W.  C.  Redfield,  Mat¬ 
thew  Henry  Webster,  Charles  Dewey,  James  H.  Coffin,  and  others,  have  assidu¬ 
ously  collated  the  facts  obtained  by  academical  and  other  observations,  and  the 
success  of  their  labors  has  received  the  praise  of  transatlantic  as  well  as  Ameri¬ 
can  philosophers.* 

Dr.  Franklin’s  experiments  proving  the  identity  of  electricity  and  lightning, 
signalized  the  commencement  of  American  chemical  science.  A  chair  of  chemis¬ 
try  was  established  in  the  medical  school  founded  in  New-York  before  the 
revolution;  and  the  science  received  a  new  impulse  from  the  labors  of  Dr. 
Priestley,  who,  driven  by  popular  bigotry  and  violence  from  his  own  country, 
renewed  his  learned  studies  in  his  retreat  at  Northumberland  in  Pennsylvania. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  after  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  that 
the  importance  of  chemistry  was  fully  appreciated  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic. 


*  Notes  on  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy  were  received  from  Lewis  C.  Beck,  M.D.;  Notes  on  Meteorology,  from  T. 
Romeyn  Beck,  LL.D.;  Notes  on  Scientific  Societies,  from  Horace  B.  Webster,  Esq.;  Notes  on  Natural  History,  from 
John  W.  Francis,  M.D.;  Notes  on  Zoology,  from  Ebenezer  Emmons,  M.D.;  Notes  on  Botany,  from  John  Torrey, 
M.D.;  and  Notes  on  Geology,  from  James  Hall,  A.M.,  and  L.  C.  Beck,  M.D.;  and  Notes  on  the  Progress  of  Know¬ 
ledge,  from  Samuel  Blatchpord,  Esq. 

Intr. 


22 


170 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  in  this  state  it  was  not  admitted  to  a  place  in  collegiate  education  until  1813, 
when  it  was  introduced  at  Union  College.  Since  that  time  no  faculty  of  arts  or 
of  medicine  has  been  considered  complete  without  a  professorship  of  chemistry, 
and  it  is  now  very  generally  taught  to  pupils  of  both  sexes  in  academies  and  in 
many  of  the  common  schools. 

The  trustees  of  the  Albany  Academy  are  entitled  to  the  praise  of  first  intro¬ 
ducing  chemistry  into  our  seminaries  of  that  grade.  The  more  popular  expe¬ 
riments  in  electro-magnetism  began  in  that  institution  with  the  construction  of 
an  electro-magnet  capable  of  sustaining  a  weight  of  several  hundred  pounds. 
Our  chemists  have  not  been  inactive,  although  their  studies  have  been  crowned 
with  no  brilliant  discoveries,  and  their  very  useful  papers  will  be  found  in  most 
of  the  scientific  journals  in  the  country. 

Few  subjects  in  this  department  are  more  intricate  in  their  nature  than  the 
minute  analysis  of  mineral  waters.  The  mineral  springs  at  Ballston,  Saratoga, 
Avon,  Sharon,  Massena  and  other  places,  have  elicited  memoirs  embracing  details 
of  their  chemical  constituents,  as  well  as  essays  on  their  respective  sanative  qua¬ 
lities.  The  springs  at  Ballston  and  Saratoga  have  acquired  extensive  reputation, 
from  the  publications  of  Seymour,  De  Witt  and  Steele.  Francis,  Hadley  and 
Salisbury  have  made  known  the  virtues  of  those  at  Avon.  The  waters  at 
Sharon  have  been  subjected  to  chemical  analysis  by  Chilton ;  and  Dr.  McNeven’s 
publications  on  the  waters  at  Schooley’s  mountain,  have  conferred  upon  them 
much  celebrity. 

Mineralogy,  although  intimately  connected  with  geology,  was  cultivated  long 
before  the  latter  grew  into  a  distinct  branch  of  knowledge.  To  the  late  Samuel 
L.  Mitchill  belongs  the  honor  of  introducing  mineralogy  in  this  state.  The  first 
and  second  volumes  of  the  Medical  Repository,  published  in  1798  and  1799, 
contain  his  sketch  of  the  mineralogical  history  of  the  state  of  New-York,  which, 
although  meagre  when  compared  with  our  present  knowledge,  shows  that  diligent 
investigation  of  facts  had  commenced.  In  the  latter  year  a  mineralogical  society 
was  formed  in  New-York  under  his  auspices,  with  the  efficient  aid  of  Samuel 


INTRODUCTION. 


171 


Miles  Hopkins  and  George  I.  Warner.  And  the  ardor  of  Dr.  Mitchill’s  zeal  is 
illustrated  in  his  description  of  the  object  of  the  association,  which  he  said  “was 
to  arm  every  hand  with  a  hammer,  and  every  eye  with  a  microscope.”  The 
Medical  Repository,  from  1803  to  1809,  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Useful  Arts,  from  1793  until  1804,  contained  many  papers  which 
contributed  to  excite  the  general  interest  now  manifested  in  the  study  of  the  sci¬ 
ence.  Among  these  we  may  specify  a  “  Memoir  of  the  Onondaga  Salt  Springs, 
and  Manufactures  in  the  State  of  New-York,  by  Benjamin  De  Witt “  Obser¬ 
vations  on  the  Natural  History  of  Kinderhook  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  by 
David  Warden,”  in  1803;  “  Mineralogical  Description  of  the  Walkill  and  Sha- 
wangunk  Mountains  in  New-York,”  by  Samuel  Akerly;  “Descriptions  of  Fluate 
of  Lime  and  Oxyde  of  Manganese  in  the  State  of  New-York,”  in  1808  ;  and 
“  Mineralogical  Notices  of  Onondaga,  New-York,”  1809.  But  the  effort  which 
proved  most  successful  in  this  department,  was  the  establishment  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Mineralogical  Journal  in  1810,  conducted  by  Archibald  Bruce.  This  work 
was  continued  until  1814,  and  was  enriched  by  the  learned  investigations  of 
Mitchill,  Bruce,  Akerly,  Chilton,  John  Griscom,  Benjamin  Silliman,  David  R. 
Arnell  and  others. 

An  address  by  T.  Romeyn  Beck,  before  “  The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Useful  Arts,”  on  the  mineralogical  resources  of  the  United  States,  published  in 
1813,  exhibited  a  very  full  view  of  the  mineral  productions  within  the  state 
known  at  that  time.  Professor  Cleveland’s  elementary  treatise  on  mineralogy 
and  geology,  published  in  1816,  is  still  a  standard  work.  Dr.  Mitchill,  in  1818, 
published  a  reprint  of  Phillips’  elementary  introduction  to  mineralogy,  with  notes. 
Professor  Silliman,  in  the  same  year,  established  the  “American  Journal  of 
Science,”  which  most  useful  periodical  is  still  continued.  Mineralogy  has  always 
held  a  prominent  place  in  that  journal,  and  it  contains  many  valuable  papers, 
showing  the  progress  of  the  science  in  this  state.  The  Lyceum  of  Natural  His¬ 
tory,  established  in  New-York  in  1818,  and  a  similar  institution  founded  at 
Albany,  contain  rich  collections  of  minerals.  The  latter,  through  the  liberality 


172 


INTRODUCTION. 


of  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  and  William  Caldwell,  has  acquired  a  library  which 
contains  almost  every  important  work  in  the  department  of  natural  science. 
From  the  period  when  the  geological  survey  commenced,  the  progress  of  mine¬ 
ralogy  has  been  identified  with  that  of  geology,  and  the  present  condition  of  that 
science  will  appear  in  that  portion  of  the  following  work  devoted  to  the  subject. 

The  history  of  geology  in  this  country  commences  with  the  year  1807.  Wil¬ 
liam  McClure,  a  native  of  Scotland,  who  had  emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
revisited  Europe  in  1803.  Imbued  with  a  love  for  the  study  of  natural  history, 
and  possessing  ample  fortune,  he  traversed  large  portions  of  Europe,  acquiring 
geological  knowledge.  Prepared  by  these  researches,  he  undertook,  on  his 
return  to  this  country  in  1807,  at  a  time  when  scientific  pursuits  were  little  ap¬ 
preciated,  to  accomplish  by  his  own  enterprise  a  geological  survey  of  the  United 
States.  His  observations  were  made  in  almost  every  state  and  territory  in  the 
union ;  and  not  only  in  populous  districts,  where  the  comforts  which  the  traveller 
requires  were  afforded,  but  also  in  forests  and  dreary  solitudes,  unaffected  by 
all  the  privations  to  which  he  was  exposed.  The  unlettered  inhabitants  of 
remote  districts,  seeing  him  engaged  in  breaking  fragments  from  rocks,  sup¬ 
posed  him  to  be  a  lunatic  escaped  from  confinement.  The  facts  which  he 
accumulated,  were  communicated  to  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and 
published  in  their  “  Transactions”  in  1809.  The  author  continued  his  investi¬ 
gations  during  a  series  of  many  years.  But  in  pursuing  his  valuable  discoveries, 
he,  like  his  successors,  was  influenced  not  so  much  by  a  desire  to  obtain  a  correct 
classification  of  our  strata,  as  to  identify  them  with  those  of  the  eastern  conti¬ 
nent.  The  publication  of  Mr.  McClure  called  into  the  field  a  few  laborers,  and 
engaged  the  attention  of  friends  of  science.  De  Witt  Clinton,' in  his  Introduc¬ 
tory  Discourse,  delivered  in  1814  before  the  “  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society 
of  New-York,”  censured  the  legislature  for  having  refused,  at  a  recent  session, 
to  lend  its  aid  to  the  prosecution  of  searches  for  coal  within  this  state ;  and  in 
considering  the  objects  worthy  the  attention  of  that  association,  he  remarked  that 
“  Men  of  observation  and  science  ought  to  be  employed  to  explore  our  country. 


INTRODUCTION. 


173 


with  a  view  to  its  geology,  mineralogy,  botany,  zoology  and  agriculture/’  The 
“  American  Journal  of  Science,”  the  “  American  Monthly  Journal  of  Geology,” 
by  Mr.  Featherstonhaugh,  and  the  transactions  of  scientific  associations  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  New-York  and  Massachusetts,  were  very  efficient  in  enlightening  the 
public  mind  concerning  the  importance  of  mineralogy  and  geology.  A  board  of 
agriculture  having  been  established  by  the  legislature,  under  the  recommendation 
of  De  Witt  Clinton,  he  proposed  in  his  annual  message,  in  1819,  that  that  board 
should  be  authorized  to  make  a  statistical  survey  of  the  state,  and  describe  its 
animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Not  at  all  doubting  that  coal  would 
be  found  to  compensate  for  the  waste  of  fuel  in  the  western  portion  of  the  state, 
then  destitute  of  facilities  for  communication  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  he  urged 
that  premiums  should  be  offered  to  promote  a  search.  Private  liberality,  how¬ 
ever,  anticipated  this  recommendation.  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  in  1820,  autho¬ 
rized  Amos  Eaton  and  T.  Romeyn  Beck  to  make  an  agricultural  and  geological 
survey  of  the  county  of  Albany.  The  result  of  their  examination  was  a  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  rocks  and  minerals  of  the  county,  with  an  analysis  of  a  variety  of 
soils,  together  with  remarks  upon  the  condition  of  agriculture.  In  the  succeed¬ 
ing  year,  professor  Eaton,  with  the  same  liberal  patronage,  completed  a  similar 
survey  of  Rensselaer  county.  In  1823,  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Van  Rensselaer 
took  a  wider  range,  and  professor  Eaton  was  authorized  to  extend  his  survey 
throughout  the  region  traversed  by  the  Erie  canal.  His  report  proposed  a  gene¬ 
ral  geological  nomenclature,  and  contained  a  description  of  the  strata  extending 
from  Boston  to  Buffalo.  This  publication  marked  an  era  in  the  progress  of  geo¬ 
logy  in  the  country.  It  is  in  some  respects  inaccurate,  but  it  must  be  remem¬ 
bered  that  its  talented  and  indefatigable  author  was  without  a  guide  in  explor¬ 
ing  the  older  formations ;  and  that  he  described  rocks  which  no  geologist  had,  at 
that  time,  attempted  to  classify.  Rocks  were  then  classified  chiefly  by  their 
mineralogical  characters,  and  the  aid  which  the  science  has  since  learned  to 
derive  from  fossils  in  determining  the  chronology  and  classification  of  rocks,  was 
scarcely  known  here,  and  had  only  just  begun  to  be  appreciated  in  Europe.  We 


174 


INTRODUCTION. 


are  indebted,  nevertheless,  to  professor  Eaton  for  the  commencement  of  that  in¬ 
dependence  of  European  classification  which  has  been  found  indispensable  in 
describing  the  New- York  system.  For  he  remarks,  “  After  examining  our  rocks 
with  as  much  care  and  accuracy  as  I  am  capable  of  doing,  I  venture  to  say  that 
we  have  at  least  five  distinct  and  continuous  strata,  neither  of  which  can  with  pro¬ 
priety  take  any  name  hitherto  given  and  defined  in  any  European  treatise  which 
has  reached  this  country.”  Connected  with  the  report  there  was  a  view  of  the 
section  of  the  rocks  extending  in  the  line  of  the  canal  through  the  state,  and 
another  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  Pittsfield  in  Massachusetts,  for  the  latter  of 
which  we  are  indebted  to  Edward  Hitchcock,  who  has  since  completed  a  geolo- 
logical  survey  of  Massachusetts,  under  the  direction  of  the  government  of  that 
state.  Professor  Eaton  enumerated  nearly  all  the  rocks  in  western  New-York. 
in  their  order  of  succession ;  and  his  enumeration  has,  with  one  or  two  excep¬ 
tions,  proved  correct.  It  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  he  recognized,  at  so  early 
a  period,  the  old  red  sandstone  on  the  Catskill  mountains ;  a  discovery,  the  re¬ 
ality  of  which  has  since  been  proved  by  fossil  tests.  Had  he  followed  up  this 
discovery,  he  could  not  have  failed  to  learn  what  an  immense  series  of  rocks  lay 
below  the  old  red  sandstone,  at  that  time  entirely  unclassified. 

The  munificence  of  Mr.  Van  Rensselaer,  in  producing  such  results,  is  illus¬ 
trated  by  this  remark  addressed  to  him  in  professor  Eaton’s  report :  “You  have 
furnished  every  facility  for  perfecting  the  work.  You  have  set  no  limits  to 
my  expenses,  nor  those  of  the  engravers  and  printers.”  The  public  mind  was 
now  becoming  prepared  for  the  state  surveys  which  have  since  been  effected. 
North  Carolina  has  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  to  send  geologists  into  the 
field.  Professor  Olmstead’s  report  upon  the  economical  geology  of  that  state 
was  published  in  1825.  Since  that  time,  South  Carolina,  Massachusetts,  Tennes¬ 
see,  Virginia,  Maine,  Rhode  Island,  New-Hampshire,  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Delaware,  Kentucky,  Georgia,  Arkansas  and  Iowa,  and  perhaps  other 
states  and  territories  have  been  explored.  In  1835,  the  assembly  of  this  state, 
upon  the  motion  of  Charles  P.  Clinch,  a  representative  from  New-York,  passed 


INTRODUCTION. 


175 


a  resolution  directing  the  secretary  of  state  to  report  to  the  legislature,  at  its 
next  session,  the  most  expedient  method  for  obtaining  a  complete  geological 
survey  of  the  state,  which  should  furnish  a  perfect  and  scientific  account  of  rocks 
and  soils  and  their  localities,  and  a  list  of  all  its  mineralogical,  botanical  and 
zoological  productions,  and  for  procuring  and  preserving  specimens  of  the  same, 
with  an  estimate  of  the  expense  of  the  undertaking.  John  A.  Dix,  secretary  of 
state,  in  January,  1836,  submitted  a  report  in  pursuance  of  this  resolution.  That 
luminous  and  satisfactory  document  led  to  the  passage  of  the  act  of  the  15th  of 
April,  1836,  in  the  execution  of  which,  and  of  the  acts  of  May  8th,  1840,  and 
of  April  9th,  1842,  the  survey  has  been  made.*  William  L.  Marcy,  governor, 
arranged  the  plan  of  the  survey  in  the  summer  of  1836,  and  assigned  its  depart¬ 
ments  as  follows :  The  zoological  department  to  James  E.  De  Kay  ;  the  botanical 
department  to  John  Torrey;  the  mineralogical  and  chemical  department  to 
Lewis  C.  Beck ;  the  geological  department  to  William  W.  Mather,  Ebenezer 
Emmons,  Timothy  A.  Conrad,  and  Lardner  Vanuxem.  This  arrangement  was 
subsequently  altered  by  the  institution  of  a  palceontological  department,  under 
the  care  of  Mr.  Conrad,  and  by  the  appointment  of  James  Hall  to  supply  his 
place  as  a  geologist.  The  results  of  the  survey  appear  in  the  following  volumes, 
and  in  eight  several  collections  of  specimens  of  the  animals,  plants,  soils,  minerals, 
rocks  and  fossils,  found  within  the  state,  one  of  which  collections  constitutes  a 
museum  of  natural  history  at  the  capital  of  the  state,  and  the  others  are  dis¬ 
tributed  among  its  collegiate  institutions.  . 

It  cannot  be  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the  benefits  secured  by  the  survey.  It 
is  not  more  necessary  to  know  what  resources  are  withheld  from  us  than  to  un¬ 
derstand  those  which  Providence  has  been  pleased  to  bestow.  In  regard  to  the 
narrow  purpose  in  which  the  survey  originated,  it  is  no  unprofitable  result  to 
know  that  coal  cannot  be  found  within  the  state,  and  that  we  must  depend  for 
supplies  of  that  mineral  on  trade  with  the  countries  with  which  we  are  connected. 


*  It  may  be  stated  with  just  pride,  that  the  law  of  1836,  appropriating  the  sum  of  $104,000  to  the  survey,  was  passed  by 
the  assembly  unanimously.  A  further  appropriation  of  $26,000  was  made  by  the  law  of  1842. 


176 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  want  of  coal,  however,  is  compensated  by  the  discovery  of  rich  deposits  of 
salt,  lime,  marl,  peat  and  gypsum,  and  of  plumbago,  copper,  zinc,  lead  and  iron. 
The  field  within  which  economical  science  has  recently  pursued  its  investigations, 
with  results  so  well  calculated  to  exalt  our  sentiments  of  wonder,  gratitude  and 
devout  veneration,  and  so  propitious  to  the  future  welfare  and  happiness  of  our 
race,  is  greatly  enlarged,  and  many  obstructions  to  those  investigations  are  re¬ 
moved.  Although  thus  far  the  survey  has  resulted  only  in  adding  accumulations 
to  the  mass  of  facts  already  accpiired,  yet  even  that  is  no  unworthy  contribution 
to  human  knowledge  ;  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  a  spirit  of  inquiry  has  been  sti¬ 
mulated,  which  will  not  rest  content  until  that  philosophical  classification  of  facts 
shall  be  made,  which  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  read  with  accuracy  the  impe¬ 
rishable  pages  on  which  the  physical  history  of  the  earth  is  written.  What 
new  light  the  discoveries,  thus  to  be  made  in  cosmogony,  will  throw  upon  the 
designs  of  the  Creator  and  the  destiny  of  our  race,  cannot  now  be  conjectured  ; 
but  it  is  enough  to  stimulate  and  reward  our  highest  efforts,  to  know  that  while 
the  range  of  research  is  infinite,  the  human  mind  is  perpetually  progressive. 


In  submitting  to  the  people  of  New-York  the  results  of  the  scientific  survey, 
conducted  under  their  patronage,  it  has  been  thought  proper  and  even  necessary 
to  record  the  incidents  connected  with  the  origin  and  progress  of  that  enterprise ; 
and  since  it  is  a  national  characteristic  to  be  careless  in  regard  to  the  preservation 
of  memorials  of  our  social  progress,  the  occasion  has  been  deemed  a  proper  one  for 
collecting  from  various  sources  some  facts,  which  might  illustrate  the  advance  of 
civilization  and  refinement  within  our  limits.  The  review  which  has  been  taken  of 
that  progress,  comprehends  a  geographical  and  political  description  of  the  state ; 
a  sketch  of  the  history  of  education,  of  the  system  of  public  instruction  in  colleges, 
academies  and  common  schools,  and  of  the  foundation  and  endowment  of  libra¬ 
ries  ;  a  history  of  the  press ;  a  notice  of  the  theological  profession,  with  a  sketch 
of  theological  learning;  an  account  of  medical  science  and  the  medical  pro- 


INTRODUCTION. 


177 


lession ;  a  political  history  of  the  state,  from  the  time  of  the  Dutch  colonial  go¬ 
vernment  to  the  revolution ;  a  notice  of  the  establishment  of  the  constitution  of 
1777 ;  an  account  of  the  formation  and  establishment  of  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  the  organization  and  early  administration  of  the  federal 
government,  so  far  as  concerns  the  action  of  this  state  and  of  its  citizens  ;  notices 
of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  of  the  amelioration  of  the  criminal  code,  and  of  the 
progress  of  jurisprudence,  with  an  account  of  the  judiciary  and  of  the  legal 
profession  ;  a  reference  to  contributions  by  citizens  of  New-York  to  political  and 
financial  science ;  accounts  of  the  formation  of  the  constitution  of  1821,  and  of 
the  codification  of  our  statute  laws  in  1827  and  1828 ;  a  history  of  internal  im¬ 
provements  within  the  state,  from  the  period  of  their  conception,  which,  as  con¬ 
stituting  a  peculiar  and  interesting  feature  in  our  physical  progress,  have  been 
deemed  worthy  of  extended  and  detailed  remark  ;  accounts  of  the  improvement 
and  present  condition  of  agriculture,  of  the  development  of  agricultural  science, 
and  of  the  introduction  of  horticulture  ;  a  sketch  of  civil  engineering,  with  a  full 
description  of  the  recently  constructed  Croton  aqueduct;  notices  of  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  the  steam  engine  to  navigation,  and  of  improvements  in  the  steam  en¬ 
gine  ;  of  sacred,  civil,  academic  and  domestic  architecture ;  of  antiquarian  curio¬ 
sities,  and  of  Indian  history  ;  of  the  materials  collected  for  the  history  of  the 
state ;  of  the  studies  and  productions  of  our  citizens  in  the  departments  of  history, 
classical  learning,  mathematical  science,  pure  and  mixed  biography,  travels,  ro¬ 
mance  and  general  literature,  poetry  and  the  fine  arts ;  and  of  researches  in  our 
zoology,  botany,  meteorology,  chemistry  and  mineralogy ;  wutli  an  account  of  the 
inception,  progress  and  consummation  of  the  survey,  to  which  those  researches 
gave  birth. 

This  review,  although  circumscribed  and  imperfect,  furnishes  gratifying  proof 
that  a  republican  government  is  not  unfavorable  to  intellectual  improvement. 
Intelligent  and  patriotic  citizens  were  invited  to  furnish  the  materials  necessary 
for  the  work,  and  portions  of  it  consist  substantially  of  such  materials,  in  the 

Intr.  23 


178 


INTRODUCTION. 


form  in  which  they  were  received,  little  labor  having  been  bestowed  upon  them 
beyond  that  of  compilation.  The  laudable  objects  of  those  citizens,  as  well 
as  my  own  design,  will  have  been  attained,  if  any  thing  valuable  shall  be  preserved 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost ;  if  the  attachment  of  our  citizens  to  the  state  and 
its  institutions  shall  be  increased  and  confirmed,  or  if  any  new  incentives  shall  be 
furnished  for  perseverance  in  the  career  which  is  here  recorded. 

WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD. 

Albany,  1842. 


I 


» 


' 


■ 


I 


NOTE. 


[The  subject  of  the  penitentiary  discipline  in  the  state  of  New- York,  is  too  important  to  be  passed  with 

only  such  very  general  reference  as  could  be  made  to  it  in  the  foregoing  introduction.  The  following 

account  was  furnished  by  the  Hon.  John  L.  O’Sullivan  ] 

The  Penitentiary  System  of  New-York,  as  it  has  now  existed  for  a  period  of  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  has  presented  one  of  the  institutions  of  the  state  which  have  been  the  subject  of 
the  highest  interest  to  the  stranger  and  pride  to  its  own  citizens.  The  two  great  establishments 
in  which  it  is  to  be  seen  in  operation,  on  a  larger  scale  than  in  any  of  the  other  states  of  the 
union,  are  situated  at  the  villages  of  Auburn  and  Sing-Sing ;  the  former  for  the  reception  of 
convicts  from  the  western,  the  latter  from  the  eastern  district  of  the  state.  The  Mount- 
Pleasant  prison,  at  Sing-Sing,  on  the  Hudson,  about  thirty-three  miles  north  of  the  city  of 
New-York,  has  also  a  separate  building  for  the  reception  of  female  convicts  from  the  whole 
state.  The  former  of  these  establishments,  at  the  village  of  Auburn,  in  the  county  of  Cayuga, 
situated  169  miles  west  of  Albany,  and  139  east  of  Buffalo,  and  about  seven  miles  south  of 
the  line  of  the  Erie  canal,  was  the  first  in  the  union  in  which  the  peculiar  system  now  prevail¬ 
ing  in  both  was  adopted,  or  at  least  carried  out  to  that  degree  of  completeness  and  efficiency, 
which  has  become  the  just  subject  of  the  admiration  of  the  civilized  world.  It  has,  therefore, 
given  its  name  to  the  system,  notwithstanding  that  its  leading  features  were  by  no  means 
novel  to  the  science  of  prison  discipline,  or  original  with  the  founder  of  this  institution.  It 
has  constituted  the  model  from  which  most  of  the  other  states  of  the  union  have  derived  the 
plans  of  the  penitentiaries  which  most  of  them  have,  of  late  years,  been  led  to  establish,  under 
the  stimulus  of  an  example  so  successful  in  itself  and  so  honorable  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  ; 
arid  in  the  vehement  controversy  which  has  been  waged,  through  many  modes  of  publication, 
between  the  respective  partisans  of  this  system  and  of  the  rival  system  in  operation  in  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  it  is  always  and  every  where  designated  as  the  Auburn  system.  A 
brief  sketch  of  its  origin,  as  well  as  of  its  present  condition,  will  not  be  deemed  misplaced. 

Previously  to  the  year  1786,  the  different  states  of  this  union  were  governed,  in  the  main,  by 
the  sanguinary  criminal  code  which  all  as  colonies  had  inherited  from  their  mother-country. 
In  that  year,  Pennsylvania,  in  which  had  been  more  widely  sown  than  in  any  other  the  seeds 
of  that  philanthropic  wisdom  which  so  peculiarly  marked  the  character  of  its  immortal  founder, 
as  well  as  of  the  religious  communion  of  which  he  was  an  ornament,  was  the  first  to  lead  the 


182 


NOTE  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


way  to  her  sister  republics  in  the  direction  of  reform  in  criminal  law  and  penal  discipline.  A 
new  criminal  code  was  created,  the  most  interesting  feature  of  which  was  the  abolition  of 
the  former  barbarism  of  capital  punishment,  for  all  offences  short  of  the  highest  felonies, 
treason,  murder,  rape  and  arson.  In  a  few  years,  under  the  auspices  of  such  intellects  and 
such  hearts  as  those  of  a  Benjamin  Franklin,  a  Benjamin  Rush,  a  William  Bradford  and  a 
Caleb  Lowndes,  a  still  further  amelioration  took  place.  The  year  1790  was  marked  by  im¬ 
portant  mitigations  of  the  former  corporeal  severities  inflicted;  and  in  1794,  the  penalty  of 
death  was  restricted  to  the  single  crime  of  murder  in  the  first  degree.  The  first  penitentiary 
erected  in  the  state  was  the  Walnut-street  prison  in  Philadelphia,  in  the  year  1790  ;  in  which 
imprisonment  at  hard  labor  was  substituted  for  the  ancient  modes  of  punishment  for  crime  by 
the  gallows,  the  lash,  and  the  brand.  A  certain  degree  of  classification  was  adopted  for 
prisoners,  according  to  their  offences  and  characters  ;  while  solitary  cells  were  provided  for 
those  who,  for  the  more  heinous  grades  of  crime,  were  condemned  to  that  penalty,  as  also 
for  those  whose  violent  resistance  to  the  ordinary  discipline  of  the  prison  required  unusual 
means  of  restraint  or  punishment.  The  solitary  cells  were  without  the  provision  of  labor, 
which  in  the  other  portions  of  the  establishment  was  designed  to  afford  one  of  its  chief  refor¬ 
matory  influences. 

New-York  was  not  slow  to  follow  in  the  track  of  a  more  enlightened  penal  policy,  in  which 
Pennsylvania  thus  bore  off  the  honor  of  leading  the  way.  The  year  1796  marks  the  first 
prominent  era  in  the  history  of  penitentiary  reform  in  this  state.  In  his  first  message  to  the 
legislature,  on  the  6th  January,  Governor  Jay  recommended  the  mitigation  of  the  criminal 
code,  and  the  erection  of  establishments  for  the  employment  and  reformation  of  criminals. 
Two  years  previously,  two  citizens  of  New-York,  distinguished  for  their  humanity  and  libe¬ 
rality,  Thomas  Eddy,  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  General  Schuyler,  alike  in  peace  and  in 
war,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  founders  of  this  commonwealth,  had  visited  the  Philadel¬ 
phia  prison  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  its  tendency,  structure, 
and  its  internal  arrangements  ;  and  so  favorable  was  the  impression  produced  on  their  minds, 
that  the  latter  gentleman,  who  was  then  in  the  senate  of  the  state,  immediately  drafted  a  law 
for  the  erection  of  a  penitentiary  in  the  city  of  New-York.  This  bill,  “for  making  altera¬ 
tions  in  the  criminal  law  of  this  state,  and  the  erecting  of  state  prisons,”  in  harmony  with 
the  recommendation  of  the  governor,  was  brought  forward  in  the  senate,  and  ably  and  suc¬ 
cessfully  sustained  by  Ambrose  Spencer,  the  subsequent  eminent  chief  justice  of  the  state, 
and  finally  became  a  law  on  the  26th  of  March,  1796.  This  law  directed  the  establishment 
of  two  state  prisons,  the  one  at  Albany  and  the  other  at  New-York ;  though  the  idea  of  the 
former  was  afterwards  abandoned,  and  the  whole  appropriation  expended  in  New-York,  under 
a  commission  consisting  of  Matthew  Clarkson,  John  Murray  junior,  John  Watt,  Thomas  Eddy 
and  Isaac  Stoutenburgh.  This  establishment  (known  as  Newgate)  was  opened  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  its  inmates  on  the  25th  of  November,  1797.  The  building  was  204  feet  in  length,  a 
wing  projecting  from  each  end,  and  from  those  wings  two  other  smaller  wings.  The  whole 
structure  was  of  the  Doric  order,  containing  54  rooms,  12  feet  by  18;  besides  the  cells  for 


NOTE  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


183 


solitary  confinement,  on  the  ground  floor.  Criminals  sentenced  to  imprisonment  had  hereto¬ 
fore  been  simply  confined  in  the  jails  of  the  counties  in  which  they  were  convicted.  The 
law  of  1796  effected  at  the  same  time  an  important  amelioration  in  our  criminal  code.  Pre¬ 
viously  to  that  period  there  were  no  less  than  sixteen  species  of  crime  punishable  with  death. 
Corporeal  punishment  was  used,  and  in  many  cases  felonies  which  were  not  capital  on  their 
first,  became  so  on  their  second  commission.  In  fourteen  of  these  offences,  imprisonment  for 
life,  or  for  shorter  periods,  was  substituted  for  the  capital  penalty,  which  was  only  retained 
for  treason  and  murder.  The  model  afforded  by  the  Philadelphia  and  New-York  prisons  was 
soon  successively  imitated  by  other  states.  The  state  prison  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  was 
erected  in  1800;  that  at  Windsor,  Vermont,  in  1808;  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in  1811  ;  at 
Concord,  New-Hampshire,  in  1812;  and  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1816. 

But  this  system,  the  object  of  so  much  sanguine  hope  to  its  philanthropic  projectors,  was 
no  where  crowned  with  success.  It  is  in  the  state  of  New-York  in  particular,  that  we  are 
here  to  regard  its  operation.  The  great  body  of  the  convicts  were  thrown  together  in  the 
prison,  in  numbers  which  soon  became  improperly  crowded,  and  were  kept  at  work  through 
the  day.  The  only  punishment  which  their  keepers  had  a  right  to  inflict  for  violations  of  the 
discipline,  was  solitary  confinement  with  bread  and  water.  A  small  proportion  of  them,  who 
before  the  reform  of  the  penal  laws  would  have  been  sentenced  to  death,  were  confined  in 
perpetual  solitude,  unrelieved  by  the  solace  of  labor.  The  system  was  found  not  only  totally 
ineffective  to  reform,  but  on  the  contrary  most  perniciously  active  to  corrupt  and  to  harden.  It 
was  an  enormous  drain  on  the  public  treasury.  It  soon  ceased  to  have  any  terrors  for  the 
depraved  ;  while  to  young  offenders  thrown  for  the  first  time  into  the  midst  of  the  polluted 
atmosphere  and  the  fatal  society  assembled  in  the  rooms  of  the  prison,  it  was  certain  and  irre¬ 
coverable  ruin.  And  partly  from  the  increase  of  population,  but  in  probably  a  still  greater 
degree  from  the  tendency  of  the  system  itself  to  manufacture  new  rogues  and  to  continue  old 
ones,  it  became  so  overstocked,  as  soon  to  make  it  necessary  annually  to  pardon  out  large 
numbers  of  offenders  for  no  other  reason  than  to  accommodate  the  reception  of  the  fresh  in¬ 
flux.  Though  adapted  to  the  suitable  accommodation  of  not  more  than  between  three  and  four 
hundred,  it  was  at  times  occupied  by  upward  of  seven  hundred — crowded  and  herded  to¬ 
gether  beyond  any  possibility  of  proper  classification.  A  report  made  to  the  legislature  in 
1817,  by  commissioners  appointed  to  examine  into  the  subject,  stated  that,  within  a  period  of  five 
years,  740  had  been  pardoned,  while  only  77  had  been  discharged  by  the  expiration  of  their 
sentences.  In  the  two  years,  1816  and  1817,  the  number  of  pardons  was  573.  A  report 
made  to  the  senate  in  1822,  by  the  Hon.  Samuel  Miles  Hopkins,  states  the  whole  number  of 
convicts  committed  since  1796  to  have  been  5,069,  of  which  number  there  had  been  pardoned 
not  less  than  2,819.  The  necessary  effect  of  such  a  system  to  promote  the  multiplication  of 
crime,  need  scarcely  be  adverted  to.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  state,  that  of  twenty-three  convicted 
of  second  and  third  offences  in  the  year  1815,  twenty  had  been  previously  pardoned,  and  only 
three  discharged  by  the  ordinary  course  of  law.  The  average  number  of  deaths  was  about 
seven  per  cent.  Fires  and  insurrections  were  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence. 


184 


NOTE  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


The  first  suggestion  of  the  necessity  of  another  penitentiary  in  the  interior  of  the  state, 
was  made  in  the  annual  report  of  the  officers  of  the  prison  in  1809.  The  friends  of  the  ex¬ 
isting  system,  notwithstanding  the  annually  developed  evidence  of  its  total  failure  for  every 
other  than  the  worst  purposes,  still  clung  to  their  old  ideas  ;  and  the  admitted  evils,  manifest 
in  the  existing  establishment,  being  ascribed  to  its  crowded  condition,  when  the  erection  of  a 
second  prison,  at  the  village  of  Auburn,  was  determined  upon  in  1816,  it  was  hoped  that  am¬ 
pler  space  of  accommodation,  and  smaller  subdivisions  of  numbers,  would  yet  produce  the 
salutary  results  originally  expected.  The  south  wing  of  this  building  was  completed  in  1818  ; 
containing  sixty-one  double  cells,  and  twenty-eight  rooms.  Each  of  which  was  to  contain 
from  eight  to  twelve  prisoners.  But  for  reasons  obvious  to  those  at  all  familiar  with  the 
vicious  tendencies  of  imprisoned  convicts,  this  plan  was  soon  found  to  be  the  most  fatal  that 
could  be  adopted ;  and  it  was  evident  that  it  would  be  better  to  throw  fifty  criminals  together 
in  the  same  room,  than  to  divide  them  in  small  numbers,  and  especially  in  pairs.  The  sub¬ 
ject  was  much  discussed  at  about  this  period,  both  in  the  legislature  and  the  community  at 
large ;  and  in  1819  the  erection  of  the  north  wing  was  ordered,  to  consist  entirely  of  cells  for 
solitary  confinement.  By  a  law  of  this  year,  too,  for  the  first  time  the  use  of  the  whip  was 
permitted  when  deemed  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  discipline  of  the  prisons. 

At  about  the  same  period  the  public  attention  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  also  was  much 
engaged  with  the  same  subject.  In  the  year  1817,  the  manifest  failure  of  the  old  system,  as 
prevailing  in  the  Walnut-street  prison,  led  to  the  passage  of  a  law  for  the  construction  of  the 
Western  penitentiary  at  Pittsburgh,  and  in  1821  for  the  Eastern  penitentiary  at  Cherry-Hill, 
near  Philadelphia  ;  in  which  it  was  determined  to  adopt  entirely  the  system  of  uninterrupted 
solitary  confinement.  Desirous  of  making  a  similar  experiment,  the  legislature  of  New-York, 
on  the  2d  April,  1821,  directed  the  agent  of  the  Auburn  prison  to  select  a  number  of  the  most 
hardened  criminals,  and  to  lock  them  up  in  solitary  cells,  night  and  day,  without  interruption 
and  without  labor  ;  and  in  December  of  the  same  year,  a  sufficient  number  of  cells  were  com¬ 
pleted  for  the  purpose,  and  eighty  criminals  placed  in  them. 

The  result  of  this  experiment,  which  was  founded  on  the  recommendation  of  a  committee 
of  the  legislature,  was  disastrous  in  the  extreme.  Human  nature  could  not  endure  the 
solitary  horrors  of  such  a  doom.  Within  the  year,  five  of  the  eighty  died;  one  became 
insane  ;  another,  watching  an  opportunity  when  his  keeper  opened  his  door  for  some  neces¬ 
sary  purpose,  in  a  fit  of  despair  precipitated  himself  from  the  gallery,  running  the  almost 
certain  chance  of  destruction  by  the  fall ;  and  the  rest  sank  into  a  state  of  such  deep  de¬ 
pression,  and  of  failing  health,  that  their  lives  must  have  been  sacrificed  had  they  been 
kept  longer  in  this  situation.  Under  these  circumstances  the  governor  pardoned  twenty-six, 
and  the  remainder  were  withdrawn  from  their  cells  during  the  day  to  work  in  the  shops  of 
the  prison.  From  this  period,  1823,  this  system  of  uninterrupted  solitude  was  abandoned  at 
Auburn. 

The  failure  of  this  experiment  for  a  time  seemed  to  endanger  the  success  of  the  whole  peni¬ 
tentiary  system.  The  ardent  hopes  of  its  friends  were  nearly  exhausted;  and  even  some,  whose 
feelings  revolted  at  the  idea  of  capital  punishment,  began  to  fear  that  it  would  again  become 


NOTE  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


185 


necessary  to  resort  to  the  more  frequent  use  of  the  scaffold.  But,  as  it  is  stated  in  a  report 
by  the  late  agent  of  the  Mount-Pleasant  prison,  Mr.  Robert  Wiltse,  made  in  March,  1834, 
(from  which  document  we  have  already  drawn  considerably  in  the  preparation  of  this  narra¬ 
tive,)  Capt.  Elam  Lynds,  who  was  at  this  time  the  agent  of  the  Auburn  prison,  was  too  wise 
to  give  up  the  idea  that  the  beneficial  moral  influences  of  solitude  might  yet  be  combined 
with  some  successful  system  of  congregated  labor.  He  felt  convinced  that  this  result  could 
be  attained  by  a  union  of  the  two  opposite  principles — by  confining  the  convicts  to  solitary 
cells  at  night  and  on  Sundays,  and  compelling  them  to  work  during  the  day  in  large  work¬ 
shops  in  absolute  silence,  and  under  such  a  vigilant  inspection  as  should  preclude,  so  far  as 
possible,  all  intercourse  in  any  manner  between  them. 

It  has  been  a  subject  of  some  controversy,  who  was  entitled  to  the  credit  of  having  origi¬ 
nated  this  system ;  a  point  necessarily  difficult  to  decide,  when  it  is  considered  how  naturally, 
during  the  progress  of  its  experimental  growth,  the  suggestions  which  might  proceed  infor¬ 
mally  from  the  various  minds  engaged  in  and  about  it,  would  flow  into  one  general  current  of 
opinion,  common  perhaps  to  several.  Capt.  Lynds,  having  unquestionably  been  the  first  to 
complete,  mature  and  execut  e  the  plan,  has  generally  received  from  public  opinion  the  credit 
of  its  invention;  an  honor  which  justice  would  probably  require  to  be  divided  with  Mr.  John 
D.  Cray,  one  of  the  master-workmen  or  architects  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  building. 

The  experiment  was  tried.  Capt.  Lynds,  a  man  of  remarkable  energy  and  firmness  of 
character,  who  had  formerly  served  in  the  army  of  the  United  States,  and  who  retained  all 
the  habits  of  rigid  and  severe  military  discipline  there  to  be  acquired,  assembled  the  convicts 
together,  and  giving  them  the  rules  by  which  their  conduct  must  be  governed,  told  them  that 
they  must  henceforth  labor  diligently,  and  labor  in  perfect  silence  and  non-intercourse ;  and 
that  for  every  infringement  of  the  rules,  a  swift  and  summary  punishment  should  follow,  of 
corporeal  chastisement.  This  was  soon  proved  to  be  no  unmeaning  threat,  and  in  a  short 
time,  seconded  by  the  able  and  unwavering  exertions  of  his  assistant-keepers,  he  succeeded  in 
establishing  this  new  discipline  with  a  degree  of  efficiency  scarcely  conceivable  to  those  who 
had  not  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  it.  Inspected  in  1824  by  a  committee  of  the  legisla¬ 
ture,  a  high  eulogium  was  passed  upon  it,  and  it  was  sanctioned  by  the  formal  approbation 
of  that  body. 

The  Auburn  system ,  therefore,  in  its  mature  and  complete  state,  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  year  1824. 

But  it  was  soon  found  that  its  adoption  must  render  necessary  the  construction  of  another 
prison  for  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state,  that  of  Auburn  containing,  as  it  was  enlarged  in 
1824,  only  550  cells.  An  act  was  therefore  passed  to  that  effect  on  the  7th  of  March,  1824  ; 
under  which  three  commissioners  were  appointed,  Stephen  Allen,  Samuel  Miles  Hopkins  and 
George  Tibbits,  to  select  a  suitable  site.  The  village  of  Sing-Sing,  on  the  Hudson  river, 
thirty-three  miles  from  New-York,  was  selected,  and  a  piece  of  ground  purchased  containing 
an  inexhaustible  quarry  of  white  marble,  which  it  was  designed  to  make  not  only  the  material 
for  the  construction  of  the  building  by  the  hands  of  the  convicts  themselves,  but  also  a  profi- 

Intr.  24 


186 


NOTE  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


table  article  on  which  their  future  labor  should  be  employed  for  the  benefit  of  the  state.  To 
Capt.  Lynds,  who  had  chiefly  presided  over  the  construction  of  the  Auburn  prison,  as  well  as 
having  performed  the  whole  service  of  organizing  its  system  of  discipline  and  labor,  was 
entrusted  the  charge  of  bringing  forth  the  new  establishment,  as  it  were,  out  of  the  bowels 
of  the  earth.  Were  it  possible  to  question  its  truth,  as  a  literal  historical  fact,  the  manner 
in  which  he  carried  this  into  effect  would  be  deemed  incredible.  According  to  his  own  plan, 
he  was  directed  to  take  a  hundred  of  the  convicts  from  the  Auburn  prison,  to  remove  them  to 
the  selected  site,  to  purchase  materials,  employ  keepers  and  guards,  and  make  them  com¬ 
mence  the  construction  of  their  own  future  abode.  The  novel  spectacle  was  exhibited  on  the 
14th  May,  1825,  of  the  arrival  of  this  band  on  the  open  ground  which  was  to  be  the  theatre 
of  operations,  without  a  place  to  receive,  or  even  a  wall  to  enclose  them.  The  remarkable 
moral  energy  of  the  man  effected  it  with  a  success  which  must  always  remain  astonishing. 
The  first  day  sufficed  to  erect  a  temporary  barrack  for  shelter  at  night,  and  ever  after  they 
continued  in  unpausing  labor,  watched  by  a  small  number  of  guards,  but  held  under  per¬ 
petual  government  of  their  accustomed  discipline,  and  submission  to  the  power  whose  vigi- 
lent  eye  and  unrelaxing  hand  they  felt  to  be  perpetually  upon  them  and  around  them.  It  was 
finished  according  to  the  original  plan,  in  1829,  containing  800  cells  ;  to  which  200  more 
were  ordered  to  be  added  by  an  act  of  the  following  year.  Another  story  being  therefore 
raised  for  this  purpose,  the  final  completion  of  this  vast  and  massive  edifice,  was  in  the  year 
1831.  A  sufficient  number  of  cells  having  been  completed  in  May,  1828,  the  convicts  in  the 
old  prison  at  New-York  were  removed  to  Sing-Sing,  and  that  building  abandoned  and  sold. 

In  the  year  1825,  the  legislature  directed  the  erection  of  another  building  at  Sing-Sing, 
adjacent  to  the  main  prison,  though  unconnected  with  it,  for  the  reception  of  the  female  con¬ 
victs,  who  heretofore  had  been  kept  together  by  the  city  of  New-York,  at  its  local  prison 
establishment  at  Bellevue,  at  a  cost  to  the  state  of  $100  per  annum  for  each  prisoner.  They 
were  there  in  a  miserable  and  disorderly  state  ;  that  mode  of  maintenance  being  found  replete 
with  all  the  evils  which  it  had  been  the  object  of  the  improved  penitentiary  system,  as  applied 
to  the  males,  to  reform.  This  was  completed,  in  an  elegant  style  of  architecture,  in  1840, 
and  the  convicts  removed  to  it,  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  matron,  whose  admirable 
management  soon  brought  them  to  a  condition  of  good  order,  neatness  and  industry,  before 
supposed  impossible  by  those  who  had  witnessed  their  former  character  and  conduct. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  fill  the  present  pages  with  descriptions  of  these  vast  establishments  of 
penitentiary  labor,  beyond  a  few  simple  general  features  common  to  both.  The  cells  rise  in 
tiers  above  each  other  to  the  height  of  five  stories.  These  central  structures  are  surrounded 
with  an  outer  shell  or  envelope  of  a  second  wall,  about  eleven  or  twelve  feet  distant  from  the 
interior.  Along  the  front  of  each  range  of  cells  runs  a  gallery.  The  size  of  the  cells  is 
seven  feet  in  depth,  by  three  and  a  half  in  width,  and  seven  in  height ;  all  of  stone,  with  iron 
doors,  of  an  open  diamond  grating  from  top  to  bottom,  for  the  combined  objects  of  security, 
ventilation  and  light.  To  these  buildings  are  attached  spacious  workshops,  surrounding  the 
large  court-yards  of  the  prisons,  in  which  different  branches  of  mechanical  industry  are  pursued, 


NOTES  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


187 


with  the  aid  of  machinery,  in  some  instances  on  a  very  large  scale ;  the  whole  being 
enclosed  in  high  outer  walls,  vigilantly  guarded  by  armed  sentries.  The  convicts  wear  a  pe¬ 
culiar  striped  prison  uniform,  of  coarse  woollen  fabric,  manufactured  within  the  prisons. 
Their  movements  to  and  fro  at  the  regular  hours  in  the  daily  routine  of  the  life  of  the  pri¬ 
sons,  are  all  made  in  single  file,  with  the  lock-step,  and  with  the  heads  turned  all  in  one 
direction,  facing  the  constant  eye  of  the  keeper  of  each  respective  division,  for  the  prevention 
of  intercommunication.  At  Sing-Sing  they  eat  their  meals  singly  in  their  cells  ;  at  Auburn, 
in  large  eating  halls,  at  tables  at  which  they  are  seated  back  to  back,  and  fronting  only  their 
keepers.  The  food  is  plentiful  and  healthy,  though  coarse.  A  scrupulous  cleanliness  reigns 
through  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  establishments.  The  health  of  the  prisoners  is  good  ; 
the  average  of  deaths  being  about  two  per  cent  per  annum.  Each  prison  is  provided  with 
a  chaplain,  whose  whole  time  is  devoted  to  his  interesting  though  arduous  pastoral  charge, 
and  under  whose  direction  they  receive  instruction  on  the  Sabbath  in  Sunday  schools.  The 
cells  have  always  been  supplied  with  bibles ;  since  the  accession  of  the  present  executive  of 
the  state,  and  by  his  direction,  other  books  have  been  added,  suitably  selected  for  instruction 
and  moral  improvement.  For  many  years  the  establishments  have  not  only  defrayed  the  cost 
of  their  own  maintenance,  but  have  continued  to  earn  annually  a  large  excess  to  the  benefit 
of  the  general  revenues  of  the  state.  The  mode  employed  of  using  the  labor  of  the  con¬ 
victs  is  to  let  it  out  at  certain  rates  per  diem,  for  fixed  periods,  to  contractors  in  the  different 
branches  of  industry  pursued. 

The  proper  limits  of  the  present  occasion  forbid  the  expansion  of  this  brief  account  with 
any  further  details  of  the  operation  of  the  system,  whose  gradual  growth  has  been  thus 
related.  As  has  been  already  remarked,  the  conflict  of  opinion  between  the  supporters  of 
the  Auburn  system,  of  social  labor  in  silence  by  day,  with  solitary  confinement  by  night,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  system,  of  uninterrupted  solitary  confinement  with  labor,  has  been  carried 
on  with  no  small  degree  of  both  earnestness  and  ability.  The  advocacy  of  the  Auburn  sys¬ 
tem  has  been  chiefly  sustained  by  the  Boston  Prison  Discipline  Society,  the  annual  reports  of 
which  have  continued,  from  the  institution  of  that  society  in  1 825,  to  hold  it  up  to  the  admi¬ 
ration  and  imitation  of  the  world,  in  terms  of  unqualified  eulogium.  The  prisons  have  been 
visited  by  many  thousands  of  strangers,  from  foreign  countries  as  well  as  from  the  other 
states  of  this  Union,  attracted  by  the  celebrity  which  they  have  acquired ;  and  even  those 
whose  preference  has  inclined  in  favor  of  the  theory  of  the  Pennsylvania  system,  have  not 
failed  to  accord  a  high  degree  of  praise  to  the  many  admirable  features  characterizing  ours, 
as  well  as  to  the  excellent  management  with  which  they  have  been  practically  administered. 
The  following  States  have  since  erected  penitentiaries  for  the  most  part  in  imitation  of  the 
model  thus  afforded  :  Maine,  New-Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Mary¬ 
land,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Illinois  and  Ohio;  together  with  the  two  provinces  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  ;  not  to  speak  of  numerous  city  prisons  and  county  jails. 

We  are  far  from  desirous  of  pronouncing  even  an  opinion  in  relation  to  this  controversy. 
There  are  undoubtedly  some  features  in  the  Auburn  system  which  its  best  friends  would 


188 


NOTE  ON  PENITENTIARIES. 


gladly  see  amended,  if  it  could  be  done  consistently  with  the  efficient  maintenance  of  the 
general  whole  of  which  these  are  particular  parts  ;  nor  can  it  be  pretended  that  the  object  of 
the  prevention  of  intercourse  between  the  convicts,  by  a  thousand  modes  of  communication 
beyond  the  reach  of  any  degree  of  vigilance,  either  has  been  or  ever  can  be  attained,  to  the 
degree  supposed  by  many  who  simply  witness  the  apparent  silence  that  reigns  throughout  the 
work-shops. 

At  the  last  session,  provision  was  made  for  the  appointment  of  a  commissioner  to  examine 
certain  locations  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  practicability  of 
employing  the  convicts,  in  a  new  prison  proposed  to  be  erected,  in  the  labor  of  mining.  The 
system  may  therefore  be  represented  as  still  in  a  somewhat  unsettled  state  ;  and  a  short  period 
may  witness  the  application  to  it  of  changes,  of  which  it  might  not  be  easy  to  predict  either 
the  extent  or  the  nature,  even  if  it  were  proper  here  to  engage  in  any  speculation  of  this  cha¬ 
racter.  . 

A  few  words,  before  passing  from  this  subject,  are  due  to  another  excellent  institution 
which  occupies  a  not  unimportant  position  in  the  penitentiary  system  of  the  state  —  the  insti¬ 
tution  for  the  reformation  of  juvenile  delinquents,  in  the  city  of  New-York,  commonly  known 
as  the  House  of  Refuge.  This  was  the  first  establishment  of  this  kind  in  the  union,  having 
been  founded  in  the  year  1824  ;  though  it  presented  an  example  which  was  speedily  followed 
by  other  states.  It  grew  out  of  the  philanthropic  efforts  of  a  private  association  of  gentlemen 
in  New-York,  who  were  incorporated  March  29,  1824,  under  the  title  of  the  “  Society  for 
the  Reformation  of  Juvenile  Delinquents;”  among  whom  it  will  not  be  deemed  invidious  to 
particularize  as  among  the  most  prominent  and  active,  the  late  Thomas  Eddy  and  Cadwallader 
D.  Colden,  and  also  Mr.  Charles  G.  Haines,  who,  as  chairman  of  a  voluntary  committee,  was 
the  author,  in  1824,  of  a  very  able  and  valuable  report  on  the  history  and  discipline  of  peniten¬ 
tiaries  in  the  United  States,  from  which  much  aid  has  been  derived  in  the  hasty  preparation  of 
these  pages.  It  was  founded  on  a  basis  of  private  subscription,  aided  by  annual  assistance  from 
the  state ;  and  is  administered  by  officers  chosen  by  the  society,  and  superintended  by  its 
constant  vigilance,  under  a  system  of  general  laws  for  its  government,  enacted  by  the  legisla¬ 
ture.  It  thus  partakes  of  the  character  partly  of  a  private,  though  mainly  of  a  public  institu¬ 
tion  ;  while  it  has  been  one  of  very  eminent  utility  for  the  rescue  of  thousands  from  a  career 
of  crime  and  ruin.  It  is  conducted  for  the  most  part  on  the  general  plan  of  the  Auburn  esta¬ 
blishment,  though  moderated  in  severity,  and  adapted  to  the  different  class  of  subjects  em¬ 
braced  within  its  action  ;  children  of  both  sexes  are  received  in  it  under  the  age  of  sixteen.  It 
is  a  just  subject  of  pride  to  both  the  state  and  the  city,  as  well  as  of  gratitude  to  its  founders 
and  supporters. 


-A 


/ 


ZOOLOGY 


OF 

NEW-YORK, 

OR  THE 

NEW-YORK  fACNAi 


COMPRISING  DETAILED  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  ALL  THE  ANIMALS  HITHERTO  OBSERVED  WITHIN  THE 
STATE  OF  NEW-YORK,  WITH  BRIEF  NOTICES  OF  THOSE  OCCASIONALLY  FOUND  NEAR 
ITS  BORDERS,  AND  ACCOMPANIED  BY  APPROPRIATE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


BY  JAMES  E.  DE  MY. 


PART  I.  MAMMALIA. 


ALBANY: 

PRINTED  BY  W.  &  A.  WHITE  &  J.  VISSCHER. 


1842. 


'  1  MOOS 


To  William  H.  Seward, 

Governor  of  the  State  of  New-  York. 

SIR, 

I  submit  a  Report  on  the  Zoology  of  the  State ; 

And  have  the  honor  to  be, 

With  great  respect, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

JAMES  E.  DE  KAY. 

The  Locusts,  Queens  Co.,  L.  I. 

January  1,  1842. 


PREFACE. 


The  examination  of  the  Quadrupeds,  (or  as  they  are  with  more  exactness, 
although  perhaps  with  less  elegance  named,  the  Mammalia  or  Mammiferous 
animals)  of  the  United  States,  has,  until  recently,  attracted  comparatively  little  at¬ 
tention  among  our  own  citizens.  A  few  isolated  species  had  been  casually  noticed, 
a  few  detached  facts  recorded ;  and  here  and  there,  over  this  widely  extended 
country,  a  few  zealous  observers,  aware  of  the  general  apathy  at  home,  had 
transmitted  their  observations  to  distinguished  foreign  naturalists.  Such  instances 
were,  however,  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence.  The  chief  historians  of  our 
animals  have  been  foreigners,  either  accidentally  led  to  our  shores  by  motives 
entirely  unconnected  with  scientific  pursuits,  or  naturalists  sent  out  under  the 
patronage  of  their  respective  governments,  to  collect  and  describe  our  animals. 
In  the  first  class  may  be  mentioned  De  Liancourt,  De  Chastellux  and  others ;  in 
the  second,  Bose,  Kalm,  Michaux  and  Pal.  de  Beauvois.  To  these,  and  to  other 
European  naturalists  who  have  described  through  the  imperfect  and  often  dis¬ 
torted  medium  of  preserved  specimens,  we  are  indebted  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  knowledge  which  we  possess  respecting  many  of  our  own  animals. 

Of  late  years,  the  attention  of  our  countrymen  has  been  more  directed  to  the 
study  of  Zoology.  The  establishment  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  at 
Philadelphia,  forms  an  epoch  in  this  department  of  knowledge.  This  was  soon 
succeeded  by  the  formation  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New-York, 
and  by  others  in  Boston,  Baltimore,  New-Haven  and  Salem.  The  American 
Journal  of  Science,  which,  under  the  efficient  guidance  of  Professor  Silliman, 
has  now  reached  its  forty-third  volume,  is  a  rich  mine  to  the  American  naturalist, 
and  has  contributed  to  promote  and  extend  a  taste  for  such  inquiries. 

Pref.  1 


V) 


PREFACE. 


At  the  commencement  of  the  Survey,  the  services  of  an  eminent  naturalist, 
Mr.  Abraham  Halsey,  of  New-York,  were  engaged  for  the  department  of  zoo¬ 
logy  ;  but  before  he  had  entered  upon  its  duties,  other  engagements  and  occupa¬ 
tions  demanded  his  attention,  and  he  resigned  his  office.  We  may  be  permitted 
to  express  our  regret  that  circumstances  should  have  prevented  him  from  under¬ 
taking  a  task,  which  could  not  have  been  committed  to  an  abler  hand. 

In  the  execution  of  this  part  of  the  work,  I  have  to  acknowledge  my  obliga¬ 
tions  to  Maj.  Le  Conte,  for  the  valuable  hints  he  has  suggested,  and  the  oppor¬ 
tunities  which  he  has  afforded  of  examining  his  drawings,  manuscripts  and  spe¬ 
cimens.  To  Dr.  Emmons,  of  the  geological  department  of  the  Survey,  I  am 
obliged  for  his  numerous  specimens  and  communications.  His  many  sterling 
qualities  can  scarcely  be  appreciated,  except  by  those  who,  like  myself,  have 
been  the  companion  of  his  journies  through  the  uninhabited  and  as  yet  unknown 
forests  of  the  northern  district.  T o  Prof.  Hall,  also  of  the  Survey,  I  am  indebted 
for  several  specimens,  and  for  valuable  communications  on  the  zoology  of  the 
State.  Mr.  J.  G.  Bell  and  Mr.  W.  Cooper  of  New-York,  Dr.  Harlan  of  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Linsley  of  Elmwood  Place,  Connecticut,  have  also  in 
various  ways  facilitated  my  inquiries.  I  must  also  record  my  obligations  to  the 
Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New-York,  for  the  opportunities  which  their 
valuable  collection  has  afforded  me  of  comparison  and  description. 

Having  thus  briefly  adverted  to  the  sources  of  information,  in  connection  more 
especially  with  the  Mammalia  of  the  State,  it  may  be  deemed  proper  to  give  a 
concise  sketch  of  the  region  whose  animals  we  have  undertaken  to  describe. 

New-York,  one  of  the  twenty-six  States  of  the  North  American  Confederacy, 
lies  wholly  within  the  temperate  zone.  Its  figure  may  be  compared  to  that  of 
an  irregular  triangle,  with  its  apex  touching  the  Atlantic,  and  one  of  its  sides 
bounded  by  two  of  the  great  inland  seas,  and  by  their  outlet  to  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  Its  connection  with  the  Atlantic  is  extended  easterly  one  hundred 
and  forty  miles,  by  a  low  sandy  spur  called  Long  Island.  Including  this  easterly 
prolongation,  the  State  of  New-York  may  be  said  to  extend  through  eight  de¬ 
grees  of  longitude,  and  to  be  included  between  40°  30'  and  45°  of  north  latitude. 
It  contains  more  than  46,000  square  miles,  a  surface  larger  in  extent  than  that 
contained  in  Poland  or  Scotland,  or  Naples  and  Sicily  ;  three  times  larger  than 
the  Swiss  Confederacy,  and  nearly  equal  in  extent  to  that  of  England.  Although 
situated  within  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  which  include  the  greater  part  of 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


Italy,  the  south  of  France,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Spain;  yet  from  the  well 
established  fact  of  the  more  southerly  position  of  the  isothermal  lines  on  the 
western  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  its  mean  annual  temperature  cannot  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  above  mentioned  countries,  but  rather  with  those  lying  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  farther  north.  The  result  of  ten  years’  observations  at 
New-York,  gives  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  or  about  five  months,  as  the 
mean  duration  of  winter ;  but  in  the  interior  or  northern  district,  many  of  the 
counties  have  scarcely  a  month  without  frost.  This,  it  will  readily  be  perceived, 
must  exercise  a  great  influence  upon  the  number  and  distribution  of  its  animals ; 
for  while  it  has  the  summer  heats  of  Spain  and  Italy,  the  rigor  of  its  winters 
equals  those  of  the  northern  portions  of  Europe.  From  this  diversity  of  climate, 
it  results  that  we  have  in  the  State  similar  classes  of  animals  with  those  found  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  at  the  same  time  other  families  existing  chiefly 
in  its  southern  portions.  The  families  Cervidce  and  Mustelidce  may  serve  as 
examples  of  the  one,  while  the  Vespertilionidce  and  Muridce  will  illustrate  the 
other. 

Varieties  of  surface  are  also  well  known  to  be  favorable  to  the  multiplication 
of  animal  species,  and  in  this  respect,  the  State  of  New-York  offers  a  great  diver¬ 
sity  ;  for  although  few  of  its  mountains  exceed  the  height  of  five  thousand  feet, 
yet  from  the  peculiarity  of  climate  alluded  to  above,  their  summits  have  a  tem¬ 
perature  much  lower  than  mountains  of  even  higher  altitude  in  corresponding 
parallels  in  Europe.  The  surface  of  New-York  is  considerably  elevated,  much 
of  it  lying  on  the  great  Allegany  table  land.  The  diversity  of  surface  is,  how¬ 
ever,  so  great,  that  for  the  purposes  of  more  intelligible  description,  we  may 
consider  it  as  divided  into  four  principal  zoological  districts,  each  sufficiently  dis¬ 
tinct  in  itself,  but  of  course  so  much  blended  at  the  lines  of  separation  as  not  to 
be  contradistinguished. 

1.  The  Western  District ,  includes  that  portion  of  the  State  which  is  bounded 
on  the  west  and  north  by  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
boundary  line  separating  it  from  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  ;  and  it  extends  east¬ 
ward^’  until  it  is  lost  in  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  on  the  north,  and  the  moun¬ 
tainous  parts  of  the  Hudson  district.  A  large  portion  of  this  district  is  an  elevated 
region,  furrowed  by  valleys  running  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  supposed 
once  to  have  been  the  outlets  of  a  great  inland  ocean,  but  now  the  beds  of  rivers 
which,  pursuing  opposite  courses,  discharge  themselves  on  the  one  hand  through 


Vlll 


PREFACE. 


Lake  Ontario  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  on  the  other  into  the  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays,  and  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  central  portion  of  this 
district  is  a  level  table  land,  rising  in  its  southern  parts  into  elevations  of  from  a 
thousand  to  twelve  hundred  feet  above  tide,  and  abruptly  subsiding  on  its  western 
borders  to  the  level  of  the  great  lakes.  In  the  western  part,  we  have  the  Cat¬ 
taraugus  and  Tonawanda  streams  pouring  into  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara  river; 
the  sources  of  the  Allegany  river  ;  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Ohio,  itself  a  tribu¬ 
tary  to  the  Mississippi ;  and  another  branch  of  the  Allegany  takes  its  rise  from 
Chautauque  lake,  a  sheet  of  water  sixteen  miles  in  length,  1291  feet  above  tide, 
and  726  above  Lake  Erie.  Eastward  of  these  is  the  Genesee  river,  which, 
taking  its  rise  in  Pennsylvania,  crosses  the  whole  district  in  a  north  direction,  and 
empties  into  Lake  Ontario.  As  we  proceed  eastwardly,  we  cross  successively,  in 
the  southern  portions  of  this  district,  the  Canisteo,  Conhocton,  Chenango,  and 
great  western  branch  or  principal  source  of  the  Susquehannah,  which  takes  its 
rise  in  the  Otsego  lake,  a  sheet  of  water  nine  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  varying 
from  three  quarters  of  a  mile  to  three  miles.  The  central  portions  of  this  district 
are  occupied  by  a  series  of  ten  to  twelve  lakes,  stretching  generally  to  north  and 
south,  varying  from  fifteen  to  thirty-eight  miles  in  length ;  all  discharging  them¬ 
selves  by  one  common  outlet,  the  Oswego  river,  into  Lake  Ontario.  On  its  ex¬ 
tremely  eastern  border  rises  the  Mohawk,  a  tributary  of  the  Hudson,  which  con¬ 
nects  it  zoologically  with  the  Hudson  river  district.  The  great  inland  seas  of 
Erie  and  Ontario,  the  one  two  hundred  and  seventy  miles  in  length,  with  a 
breadth  from  twenty  to  fifty  miles ;  and  the  other  one  hundred  and  ninety  miles, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  forty  miles,  exercise  a  great  influence  on  its  climate 
and  consequent  zoological  character.  The  surface  of  Lake  Erie,  which  is  three 
hundred  and  thirty-four  feet  above  Lake  Ontario,  discharges  its  waters  through 
the  rapids  and  falls  of  Niagara  river,  into  that  lake,  within  a  distance  of  thirty-six 
miles.  This  entire  district  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and  is  covered  by  a  vigorous 
growth  of  forest  trees  in  the  uncultivated  portions.  Without  entering  into  details 
which  would  find  a  more  appropriate  place  in  a  topographical  survey,  it  will  be 
perceived,  that  while  on  the  one  hand  the  vicinity  of  such  large  masses  of  water 
must  ameliorate  its  climate,  its  fertile  soil  irrigated  by  so  many  streams  will  fur¬ 
nish  the  means  of  subsistence  to  numerous  species  of  animals.  It  is  zoologically 
connected  by  its  valleys  and  water  courses  with  the  great  basin  of  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  and  we  accordingly  find  in  this  district  animals  common  to  both,  although 


PREFACE. 


IX 


not  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  the  region  next  to  be  described.  Among  the 
Mammalia,  we  find  the  Northern  Lynx,  the  Deer  Mouse  and  Porcupine ;  while 
all  the  lakes  in  the  interior  of  this  district,  which  empty  into  the  Lake  Ontario, 
formerly  abounded  with  Salmon,  which  found  their  way  from  the  sea  through 
the  Gulf  and  River  St.  Lawrence.  In  its  southern  portions  it  is  similarly  con¬ 
nected  with  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  intermediate  regions  are  watered 
by  the  streams  which  empty  into  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake. 

2.  The  Northern  District  comprises,  as  its  name  imports,  the  northern  portion 
of  the  State,  which  forms  an  irregular  truncated  triangle,  bounded  on  its  western 
side  by  Lake  Ontario  and  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  on  its  eastern  side  by  Lake 
Champlain  and  Lake  George,  and  lying  north  of  the  Mohawk  valley.  This 
district,  in  its  southern  and  southeastern  portions,  rises  into  numerous  conical 
peaks  and  short  ranges,  attaining  in  some  places  an  elevation  of  more  than  five 
thousand  feet.  Towards  Lakes  Champlain  and  George,  these  subside  suddenly 
to  the  level  of  those  sheets  of  water.  To  the  north  and  northwest,  this  descends 
by  a  gradual  and  almost  imperceptible  slope  towards  the  River  St.  Lawrence. 
This  slope  is  watered  by  the  Oswegatchie,  the  Moose  and  Black  rivers,  the  Ra- 
quet  and  Grass  and  St.  Regis  rivers,  all  arising  from  numerous  lakes  embosomed 
in  the  mountainous  regions  of  its  southern  parts.  Lake  Champlain,  a  part  of  its 
eastern  boundary,  extends  north  and  south  one  hundred  and  forty  miles,  is  twelve 
miles  wide  in  its  broadest  part,  and  discharges  its  water  through  the  Sorel  river 
into  the  St.  Lawrence.  Into  the  southern  part  of  this  lake  is  also  poured  the  wa¬ 
ters  of  Lake  George  or  Horicon,  thirty-seven  miles  long,  and  varying  from  one 
to  seven  miles  in  breadth.  The  cluster  of  mountains  in  its  southeastern  portions 
may  be  considered  as -an  offset  from  the  great  Appalachian  system,  which,  de¬ 
scending  through  the  States  of  Maine,  New-Hampshire  and  Vermont,  passes 
southwesterly  between  the  Western  and  Hudson  river  districts,  and  is  continued 
under  the  name  of  the  Allegany  range  of  mountains.  In  this  region  too  we  find  the 
Sacondaga,  Cedar,  Jessup,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Hudson,  within  a  short 
distance  of  those  which  pour  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  This  mountainous  region 
comprises  the  counties  of  Essex,  Hamilton,  Herkimer  and  Warren,  and  the 
southern  part  of  the  counties  of  Clinton,  Franklin  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  has 
been  estimated  to  contain  an  area  of  about  six  thousand  square  miles.  Its  zoolo¬ 
gical  character  is  strongly  impressed  by  the  features  just  alluded  to.  The  chief 
growth  of  trees  in  this  district  are  the  Spruce,  Tine,  Larch,  Balsam,  Fir  and 


X 


PREFACE. 


Cedar.  We  find  in  this  district  many  of  the  fur-bearing  animals,  such  as  the 
Sable,  the  Fisher,  and  the  Beaver.  Here  too  roam  the  Moose,  the  Wolverine, 
and  others  now  only  found  in  high  northern  latitudes.  It  also  forms  the  southern 
limits  of  the  migration  of  many  arctic  birds ;  and  we  accordingly  meet  here  with 
the  Canada  Jay  and  Spruce  Grouse,  the  Swan,  the  Raven  and  the  Arctic  Wood- 

3.  The  Hudson  Valley  District ,  includes  those  counties  watered  by  the  River 
Hudson  and  its  tributaries.  Its  chief  tributary,  the  Mohawk,  after  a  course  of 
about  one  hundred  and  forty  miles,  enters  the  Hudson  from  the  west,  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  ocean.  The 
shape  of  this  district  is  of  course  modified  by  the  length  and  direction  of  the 
Mohawk  river,  and  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  letter  rj  inverted.  Smaller 
than  either  of  the  two  preceding,  it  is  nevertheless  of  much  zoological  interest. 
At  its  upper  portion,  it  is  connected  with  the  Northern  district,  and  contains  many 
animals  in  common  with  the  States  bordering  on  the  eastern  margin.  Along  its 
western  border,  it  becomes  elevated  into  high  ranges  of  mountains,  called  the 
Kaaterskills,  some  of  which  attain  an  elevation  of  nearly  four  thousand  feet, 
containing  deer,  wolves,  panthers  and  bears.  By  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk,  it 
is  zoologically  connected  with  the  Western  district;  and  this  connection  is  be¬ 
coming  daily  more  obvious,  by  the  great  artificial  water  channels  which  reflect  so 
much  honor  on  the  zeal  and  enterprise  of  her  citizens.  Thus  the  Soft-shelled 
Turtle  and  Rock  Bass  of  Lake  Erie  is  now  found  in  the  Hudson;  in  the  same 
way  that  the  Yellow  Perch,  the  Muskallonge,  and  others  peculiar  to  the  great 
lakes,  have,  by  means  of  the  Ohio  canal,  found  their  way  into  the  Mississippi 
through  the  Ohio.  On  the  south  it  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic,  and  accord¬ 
ingly  we  find  it  teeming  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  ocean.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Hudson  river  appears  to  form  a  natural  geographic  limit  to  the  extension  of 
some  species,  at  least  in  any  considerable  numbers.  Thus,  the  Opossum  of  the 
South  rarely,  if  ever,  outsteps  this  boundary ;  among  reptiles,  the  Chain  Snake 
and  Brown  Swift,  and  the  Buzzard  and  many  other  species  among  the  birds. 
From  the  north  also  this  river  appears  to  be  a  barrier  to  their  progress  south ; 
but  these  will  be  more  fully  detailed  in  the  course  of  the  following  pages. 

4.  The  Atlantic  District  comprises  Long  Island,  with  a  medium  breadth  of  ten 
miles,  extending  in  a  northeasterly  direction  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Its  in¬ 
sular  position  influences  its  climate,  and  we  accordingly  find  a  great  difference 


PREFACE. 


XI 


between  its  temperature  and  that  of  the  main  land.  It  is  a  low  sandy  region, 
with  extensive  plains,  and  rising  along  its  northern  borders  into  hills  of  moderate 
elevation,  at  but  one  point  only  exceeding  three  hundred  feet  in  height.  Although 
much  smaller  than  any  of  the  preceding  districts,  yet  it  possesses  some  zoological 
features  of  interest.  Its  insular  position,  and  its  early  settlement,  has  occasioned 
the  extirpation  of  the  larger  quadrupeds,  such  as  the  Otter,  Wolf  and  Bear  ;  but 
deer  are  still  numerous.  It  is  more  remarkable  for  the  abundance  and  variety  of 
its  birds,  than  for  the  number  of  its  mammalia.  Here  we  find  the  extreme 
southern  limits  of  the  migrations  of  the  arctic  species,  and  the  northernmost 
termination  of  the  wanderings  of  the  birds  of  the  torrid  zone.  Thus  we  find  in 
winter  in  this  district,  the  Eider  Duck,  the  Little  White  Goose,  the  Great  Cor¬ 
morant,  the  Auk,  and  many  others  from  the  Arctic  ocean.  During  the  heats  of 
summer,  we  meet  with  the  Turkey  Buzzard  and  Swallow-tailed  Kite,  the  Fork¬ 
tailed  Flycatcher  from  the  tropical  wilds  of  Guiana,  and  numerous  others  from 
the  south.  It  seems  also  to  be  the  boundary  between  the  fishes  and  other  classes 
of  the  northern  and  tropical  seas,  and  occasionally  furnishes  specimens  from  either 
extremity. 

In  conclusion,  we  have  to  make  a  few  observations  respecting  the  illustrations 
which  accompany  this  work.  These  were  all  executed  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Hill,  and 
with  the  exceptions  which  are  noted  in  their  proper  places,  were  taken  from  the 
animal  itself,  either  alive,  or  from  specimens  carefully  mounted  by  persons  who 
had  been  conversant  with  their  habits  during  life.  In  some  classes,  where  the 
colors  were  fleeting,  several  individuals  were  successively  employed,  in  order  to 
secure  with  more  certainty  their  evanescent  hues.  The  outlines  in  all  cases  were 
taken  with  the  camera  lucida,  which  we  conceive  to  be  the  best  and  most  ex¬ 
peditious  mode  hitherto  devised.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  figures  are  not  on 
a  uniform  scale,  and  that  a  small  animal  is  often  represented  apparently  larger 
than  one  of  greater  bulk.  This  could  not  be  remedied,  except  by  drawing  them 
all  on  a  scale  which  would  have  involved  an  expense  of  time  and  means  utterly 
useless,  and  inadequate  to  the  purposes  of  the  Survey.  This  apparent  defect  is 
remedied  by  a  notice  on  the  plate,  of  the  scale  upon  which  the  species  is  drawn  ; 
and  the  measurements  throughout  the  work  are  uniformly  given  in  feet,  inches, 
tenths  and  hundredths,  which  correspond  with  those  employed  by  the  English. 

It  was  originally  proposed  to  employ  the  most  eminent  engravers  upon  the 
illustrations,  in  order  to  render  the  work  more  worthy  of  the  State  under  whose 
auspices  it  was  undertaken,  and  at  the  same  time  to  furnish  specimens  of  the 


XU 


PREFACE. 


state  of  this  particular  branch  of  the  fine  arts  at  the  period  of  publication.  This 
was,  however,  soon  found  to  involve  an  enormous  expense,  and  to  be  accompanied 
with  a  delay  utterly  incompatible  with  the  early  publication  of  the  work.  Most 
of  the  Mammalia,  and  a  few  of  the  Birds  and  Fishes,  are  thus  executed ;  but  we 
hope  that  in  the  lithographies  furnished  by  Mr.  G.  Endicott,  the  naturalist  will 
not  regret  a  departure  from  the  original  plan. 

In  one  instance  I  have  introduced  the  figure  of  a  species  not  known  with  cer¬ 
tainty  to  exist  in  the  United  States,  and  for  which  an  explanation  may  appear 
necessary.  I  allude  to  the  Manati,  or  Sea  Cow  of  South  America.  The  exceed¬ 
ingly  rare  opportunity  which  I  had  of  examining  this  animal  in  a  living  state,  of 
having  a  faithful  drawing  made,  and  of  being  subsequently  enabled  to  enter  into 
some  of  the  osteological  details,  was  too  valuable  to  be  allowed  to  escape.  It 
was  thought  that  it  would  be  interesting  to  the  American  naturalist,  to  be  thus 
enabled  to  compare  it  with  the  Florida  Manati,  from  which  it  has  been  strongly 
suspected  to  be  specifically  distinct.  I  was,  moreover,  desirous  of  giving  an 
accurate  illustration  of  one  of  the  herbivorous  cetacea,  a  group  the  least  known 
of  all  the  class  Mammalia. 

I  may  possibly  have  attached  more  importance  to  the  various  popular  names 
given  in  different  districts,  than  will  perhaps  be  acknowledged  by  the  technical 
naturalist.  It  has  been  objected  to  their  use,  that  they  are  often  unmeaning  or 
absurd,  and  often  doubtful  in  their  application.  The  careful  collator  of  syno- 
nimes  will,  however,  doubtless  have  discovered  that  the  same  charge  may  often  be 
applied  to  names  drawn  up  with  technical  nicety,  and  in  conformity  with  the  laws 
of  nomenclature.  As  this  work  is  intended  for  general  readers,  I  have  introduced 
popular  names  whenever  they  could  be  obtained.  The  greater  part  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  animals  is  derived  from  persons  unskilled  in  natural 
history ;  and  the  fact  that  the  same  popular  name  is  variously  employed  in  diffe¬ 
rent  districts,  will  often  enable  us  to  avoid  error.  A  familiar  example  of  this  is 
afforded  by  the  history  of  the  Wolverine.  Under  this  name  three  different  ani¬ 
mals,  the  Northern  Lynx,  the  Wolverine  proper  and  the  Bay  Lynx  have  been 
described,  and  their  habits  strangely  confounded  by  writers  who  were  not  aware 
that  the  same  popular  name  had  been  applied  in  different  districts  to  them  all. 

In  consulting  authorities,  we  have  taken  pains  to  cite  all  the  American  writers 
within  our  reach.  The  student  is  frequently  at  a  loss  where  to  find  descriptions 
of  such  animals  as  may  come  under  his  notice ;  and  these  are  distributed  through 


PREFACE. 


XI U 


so  many  journals,  magazines  and  other  periodicals  entirely  unconnected  with 
natural  history,  that  we  hope  their  citation  will  be  favorable  received.  In  set¬ 
tling  the  weight  due  to  contradictory  statements,  we  have  endeavored  to  avoid 
the  influence  which  is  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  verba  magistri;  and  in 
all  cases  have  freely,  and  we  trust  not  offensively,  expressed  our  opinions  when 
our  own  observations  have  been  at  variance  with  those  of  previous  writers. 

JAMES  E.  DE  KAY. 


The  Locusts,  Queens  County. 
January  1,  1842. 


Pref. 


2 


TABULAR  VIEW 


OF  THE 

GENERA  OF  MAMMALIA  OBSERVED  IN  THE  STATE  OF  NEW-YORK. 


Orders. 

Marsupiata, 


Carnivora, 


Rodentia, 


Ungulata, 


Cetacea, 


Families. 

Didelphids, _ 

Vespertilionids, 

Sorecids, _ 

Ursidae, _ 

Mustelidae, _ 

Lutrids, _ 

Can  ids _ 

Felidae, _ 

Phocids, _ 

Sciurids, _ 

Arctomids, _ 

Gerbillids, _ 

Castorids, _ 

Hystricidas, _ 

Murids, _ 

Leporids, _ 

Elephantids, _ 

Suids, _ 

Equids, _ 

Bovids, _ 

Caprids, _ 

Cervids, _ 

Balsnids, _ 

Delphinids, _ 


{ 

| 


\ 

i 


$ 


{ 

{ 

{ 


Genera. 

Didelphis. 

Vespertilio. 

Condylura. 

Scalops. 

Sorex. 

Otisorex. 

Ursus. 

Procyon. 

Gulo. 

Mephitis. 

Mustek. 

Putorius. 

Lutra. 

Canis. 

Lupus. 

Vulpus. 

Felis. 

Lyncus. 

Phoca. 

Stemmatopus. 

Sciurus. 

Pteromys. 

Arctomys. 

Meriones. 

Castor. 

Fiber. 

Hystrix. 

Mus. 

Arvicola. 

Lepus. 

Elephas. 

Mastodon. 

Sus. 

Equus. 

Bos. 

Ovis. 

Cervus. 

Elaphus. 

Rangifer. 

Balsna. 

Physeter. 

Rorqualus. 

Globicephalus. 

Phocsna. 

Delphinus. 


THE  NEW-YORK  FAUNA 


CLASS  I.  MAMMALIA. 

VIVIPAROUS,  OR  BRINGING  FORTH  THEIR  YOUNG  ALIVE.  SUCKLE  THEIR  YOUNG  BY  MAMMAE  OR 
TEATS,  AND  HENCE  THE  NAME.  FURNISHED  WITH  WARM  RED  BLOOD.  HEART  WITH  TWO 
AURICLES  AND  TWO  VENTRICLES  J  BREATHING  BY  LUNGS.  BODY  USUALLY-  COVERED  WITH 
HAIR,  AND  FURNISHED  IN  MOST  CASES  WITH  FOUR  FEET. 

The  characters  assigned  to  this  class  are  sufficiently  distinctive  ;  and  yet,  with  the  single 
exception  of  suckling  their  young,  none  are  absolute  or  invariable.  Thus  in  the  Manis  and 
Armadillo  of  South  America,  the  body  is  covered  with  scales  ;  in  the  Manatus  of  Florida, 
there  are  but  two  feet ;  and  these  in  the  Whales,  Porpoises,  &c.  are  reduced  to  the  shape 
and  functions  of  fins.  In  the  totality  of  the  characters,  however,  we  obtain  a  correct  idea  of 
the  class  under  consideration. 

According  to  the  generally  received  arrangement  of  the  animals  of  this  class,  it  is  divided 
into  seven  orders.*  The  characters  of  two  of  these  are  derived  from  the  number  or  structural 
functions  of  their  extremities ;  of  three,  from  the  form,  disposition  or  entire  absence  of  their 
teeth ;  of  the  sixth,  from  the  nature  of  the  coverings  of  their  feet ;  and  of  the  seventh,  from 
the  form  of  their  body,  and  the  element  in  which  the}'  live,  and  the  peculiar  shape  and  arrange¬ 
ment  of  their  extremities. 


*  From  the  time  of  Aristotle  to  the  present  day,  Man  has  invariably  been  placed  at  the  head  of  this  class.  There  are  not 
wanting,  however,  many  eminent  naturalists,  who  are  unwilling  to  see  Man  standing  as  a  representative  of  a  Genus,  or  even  of 
of  an  Order  among  his  kindred  brutes;  who  are  not  disposed  to  admit  that  Man,  created  in  the  image  of  God,  has  any  affinity 
with  the  beasts  that  perish  ;  or  that,  because  he  possesses  certain  zoological  characters  which  are  entirely  secondary  and  subor¬ 
dinate,  he  should  be  classed  with  brutes,  when  his  noblest  attribute,  reason,  destroys  every  vestige  of  affinity,  and  places  him 
immeasurably  above  them  all. 

Fauna. 


1 


2 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


In  any  natural  arrangement,  the  most  appropriate  distinction  of  eacli  order  would  seem  to 
be  that  which  is  derived  from  the  same  set  of  organs.  This  has,  however,  been  attempted  in 
vain ;  and  we  are  accordingly  left  at  liberty  to  select  from  the  various  systems  that  which 
may  seem  best  adapted  to  the  great  end  proposed  by  all  naturalists,  the  knowledge  of  species, 
and  their  relations  to  each  other. 

The  animals  arranged  under  the  Order  Quadrumana,  comprising  Lemurs,  Monkeys,  &c. 
are  rarely  found  on  this  continent  beyond  the  tropical  regions,  and  of  course  are  not  known 
within  our  territorial  limits.  Lichtenstein  asserts  that  none  have  been  seen  beyond  the  twenty- 
ninth  degree  of  north  latitude. 


ORDEIl  II.  MARSUPIATA. 

Carnivorous  and  herbivorous .  Thumb  of  the  hind  feet  opposable  to  the  toes,  the  nail  small 
or  wanting.  Many  of  the  females  with  abdominal  pouches  opening  externally,  and  sup¬ 
ported  by  peculiar  bones  attached  to  the  pubis.  Teeth  various,  but  usually  numerous. 
Tail  long,  naked  or  hairy,  generally  prehensile. 

Obs.  The  natural  position  of  the  animals  belonging  to  this  order,  has  long  exercised  the 
ingenuity  of  naturalists.  Their  internal  organization  is  so  varied  and  peculiar,  that  as  Cuvier 
observes,  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  class  containing  several  orders  running  parallel  with 
the  orders  of  the  ordinary  quadrupeds.  Some  species,  by  their  teeth,  naturally  belong  to  the 
Order  Carnivora ;  whilst  others  can  only  be  arranged  (in  a  system  derived  from  the  teeth 
alone)  with  the  Order  Rodentia ;  and  this  has  in  fact  been  attempted  by  some  naturalists. 

We  have  ventured  to  place  this  order  here,  as  it  seems  to  form,  by  the  structure  of  its  feet 
and  tail,  a  natural  passage  from  the  Quadrumana. 

FAMILY  DIDELPHIDJE. 

Three  kinds  of  teeth,  forming  nearly  a  continuous  series.  Tail  long,  naked  or  hairy,  usually 
prehensile.  Female  with  a  loose  fold  of  skin  on  the  abdomen,  forming  a  sac  or  pouch  for 
the  reception  of  her  young. 

Obs.  The  animals  of  this  family  are  found  in  America,  Australia  and  the  Indian  Archi¬ 
pelago.  The  sac  or  pouch  is  supported  by  two  bones  attached  to  the  pubis  ;  and  it  is  worthy 
of  note,  that  the  male,  who  has  no  pouch,  nevertheless  possesses  these  marsupial  bones.  It 
is  stated  by  geologists,  that  the  earliest  mammiferous  animals  whose  remains  are  found  in  the 
ancient  strata  belong  to  this  order.  None  have  been  found,  we  believe,  in  North  America, 


FAMILY  DIDELPHIDAL 


3 


and  they  are  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  any  part  of  the  world.*  There  are  about  fifty  living 
species,  distributed  among  ten  or  twelve  genera,  which  have  been  described  by  different  natu¬ 
ralists  ;  but  one  only  is  found  in  the  United  States. 

GENUS  DIDELPHIS.  Linneus. 

Muzzle  pointed ;  ears  large  and.  membranous.  Internal  toe  of  the  hind  foot  opposable,  with¬ 
out  a  nail.  Tail  half  hairy  and  scaly.  Teats  varying  in  number,  and  placed  within  the 
pouch.  Teeth,  48-50:  Incisors,  ;  Canines,  | ;  Cheek  teeth, 

THE  AMERICAN  OPOSSUM. 

Didelphis  virginiana. 

PLATE  XV.  FIG.  2 

Virginian  Opossum.  Pennant,  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  73;  Hist.  Quad.  Vol.  2,  p.  18,  pi.  63. 

Le  Sarigue  a  oreilles  bicolores.  Cuvier,  R£gne  Animal,  Vol.  1,  p.  172.  Ed.  prima. 

Didelphis  virginiana.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  119.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  7  (.figure). 

Virginian  Opossum.  Griffith’s  Cuv.  Vol.  3,  p.  24  (figure). 

Characteristics.  Greyish  white.  Fur  woolly,  intermixed  with  long  white  hair.  Ears  black  ; 
base  and  margin  flesh  color.  Length  two  feet. 

Description.  Head  long  and  pointed,  with  the  facial  outline  nearly  straight ;  long  black 
bristles  on  the  sides  of  the  nose,  over  each  eye  and  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks.  Eyes  oblique, 
and  placed  near  the  facial  outline.  Nostrils  separated  by  a  groove.  Ears  thin,  membranous. 
Gape  of  the  mouth  wide,  and  exhibiting  most  of  the  teeth.  Nails  rather  short,  and  curved 
on  all  the  toes,  except  on  the  thumb  or  inner  toe  of  the  posterior  extremities.  In  the  figure 
given  by  Godman,  this  is  represented  as  clawed,  but  his  generic  character  asserts  the  con¬ 
trary.  Soles  of  the  hind  feet  furnished  with  large  fleshy  tubercles.  Mammas  or  teats  are, 
according  to  Desmarest,  thirteen  in  number,  and  disposed  in  a  circle  around  a  central  one  ; 
according  to  Godman,  there  arc  eight  on  each  side,  which  we  suppose  to  be  the  normal  num¬ 
ber.  Tail  enlarged  at  the  base,  where  it  is  hairy  for  about  four  inches ;  the  remaining  part 
scaly,  and  covered  with  a  few  inconspicuous  short  rigid  hairs.  Fur  of  two  kinds ;  a  short 
woolly  hair  beneath,  intermixed  with  longer  and  more  rigid  hairs,  but  all  arc  very  soft. 
Incisors  ten  above,  the  two  anterior  rather  cylindrical,  longest;  an  interspace  between  the 
incisors  and  the  canine,  which  is  compressed  and  pointed  ;  the  first  jaw  tooth  smallest,  the 
four  first  compressed,  the  three  last  transversely  broader.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  eight  inci¬ 
sors  rounded  and  directed  forwards,  with  no  interspace  between  them  and  the  canine.  The 
cheek  teeth  with  regular  points,  and  not  transversely  dilated. 

Color.  Greyish  white,  darker  along  the  sides  ;  on  the  face  and  abdomen,  lighter  grey. 
This  color  is  produced  by  the  intermixture  of  the  short  wool,  which  is  white  at  the  base  and 


*  Broderip,  Zool.  Journ.  Vol.  3,  page  408. 


4 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


black  at  the  tips,  with  the  long  white  hairs.  On  the  back,  and  on  the  legs,  this  color  be¬ 
comes  of  a  deeper  hue,  with  various  shades  of  intensity,  sometimes  even  approaching  to 
black.  Ears  black  at  base,  the  borders  white. 

Length  of  head  and  body,  15'0-20  0. 

Length  of  tail, _  lO'O-l^'O. 

Weight, .  10-14  lbs. 

The  Opossum  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  moving  with  great  agility  among  the  branches  of  trees, 
and  using  his  tail  as  a  means  of  support,  in  the  same  way  that  it  is  employed  by  the  members 
of  the  Family  Cebidm,  or  Monkeys  of  South  America.  On  the  ground  his  movements  are 
clumsy  and  slow,  and  he  appears  to  depend  more  upon  cunning  than  upon  strength  or  activity 
for  the  means  of  escape.  When  surprised  on  the  ground,  he  compresses  himself  into  the 
smallest  possible  space,  and  remains  perfectly  quiet.  If  discovered,  and  even  handled  in  this 
state,  it  still  counterfeits  death,  and  takes  the  first  opportunity  to  effect  its  escape.  From 
this  and  other  traits  of  cunning,  has  arisen  the  local  phrase  of  “  playing  possum,”  to  designate 
any  adroit  cheat. 

The  singular  and  anomalous  organization  of  this  animal,  and  its  consequent  peculiarities  of 
reproduction,  have  long  excited  much  attention  among  scientific  inquirers.  The  young  are 
found  in  the  external  abdominal  sac,  firmly  attached  to  a  teat  in  the  form  of  a  small  gelati¬ 
nous  body,  not  weighing  more  than  a  grain.  It  was  for  a  long  time  believed  that  there 
existed  a  direct  passage  from  the  uterus  to  the  teat,  but  this  has  been  disproved  by  dissection. 
Another  opinion  is,  that  the  embryo  is  excluded  from  the  uterus  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
placed  by  the  mother  to  the  teat ;  and  a  third,  that  the  embryo  is  formed  where  it  is  first 
found.  Whether  this  transfer  actually  takes  place,  and,  if  so,  the  physiological  considera¬ 
tions  connected  with  it,  still  remain  involved  in  great  obscurity. 

I  do  not  find  with  whom  the  Latin  specific  name  originated.  It  is  usually  attributed  to 
Pennant,  who,  in  his  History  of  Quadrupeds,  calls  it  the  Virginia  Opossum,  and  refers  to 
Linneus  under  the  name  of  Didelphis  marsupialis .  In  Gmelin,  it  stands  as  Didelphis  opos¬ 
sum. 

The  Opossum  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  temperate  regions  of  North  America.  Although  it 
is  abundant  in  New-Jersey,  I  have  never  seen  it  in  this  State,  but  have  heard  that  it  has 
been  noticed  in  the  southern  counties  on  the  west  side  of  the  River  Hudson,  and  it  will  pro¬ 
bably  be  found  in  the  western  counties.  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has  ever  been  observed  east  of 
the  Hudson.  It  inhabits  chiefly  wooded  districts,  and,  as  might  be  inferred  from  its  struc¬ 
ture,  passes  most  of  its  life  on  trees.  It  feeds  on  birds  and  their  eggs,  on  wild  fruits,  espe¬ 
cially  the  persimon  (Diospyros  virginiana.)  It  is  an  excellent  article  of  food,  resembling  in 
flavor  that  of  a  sucking  pig.  When  pressed  by  hunger,  it  occasionally  prowls  round  the 
barnyard,  and  commits  ravages  among  the  poultry.  Its  westerly  distribution  extends  to  the 
Pacific,  as  it  has  been  found  in  California,  and  it  is  asserted  to  be  common  in  Mexico,  and 
inhabits  all  the  intertropical  regions  ;  but  it  is  possible  that  it  may  have  been  confounded  with 
two  other  closely  allied  species  found  in  South  America. 


FAMILY  VESPERTILIONIDjE. 


5 


ORDER  III.  CARNIVORA. 


Furnished  with  sharp  and  strong  claws.  Three  kinds  of  teeth,  differing  considerably  from 
each  other.  Living  exclusively  on  animal  substances,  and  the  more  exclusively  so  as  their 
teeth  are  furnished  with  acute  points.  No  thumbs  on  the  fore  feet  opposable  to  the  other 
fingers. 

This  order  embraces  animals  exceedingly  varied  in  form,  such  as  the  Bat  and  Seal,  Shrew- 
moles,  and  Bears.  It  represents  the  Order  Ferae  of  Linneus,  and  a  portion  of  his  Primates. 
In  this  State,  we  have  the  representatives  of  eight  families. 

FAMILY  I.  VESPER TILION1DVE. 

Anterior  fingers  excessively  prolonged ;  the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities  connected  by 
a  more  or  less  naked  expansion  of  the  skin,  adapted  to  flight.  Tivo  pectoral  mammae. 
Penis  external,  pendulous.  Incisors  varying  in  number.  Summits  of  the  cheek  teeth 
ending  in  sharp  points.  Prey  upon  the  wing.  Hybernate. 

This  is  a  natural  and  very  numerous  group,  comprising  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
species,  distributed  over  the  globe.  These  are  arranged  by  modern  systematic  writers  under 
twenty-seven  genera,  and  this  has  been  subsequently  carried  to  forty-eight  genera.  Their 
habits  are  nocturnal,  feeding  almost  exclusively  upon  winged  insects.  Some  species,  however, 
are  occasionally  seen  flying  about  in  open  daylight.  We  have  noticed  five  species  in  the 
State  of  New-York,  all  included  under  one  genus. 

GENUS  VESPERTILIO.  Linneus. 

Incisors  two  to  four  above  and  six  beneath ;  anterior  cheek  teeth  simple  conic ;  the  posterior 
with  sharp  points.  No  nasal  appendages ;  the  ears  lateral  and  distinct.  The  index  finger 
of  one  joint.  Tail  rarely  exceeding  the  interfemoral  membrane. 

Obs.  In  this  latitude,  the  Bat,  on  the  approach  of  winter,  retreats  to  cavities  in  trees,  or  to 
caverns,  and  becomes  perfectly  torpid.  They  bring  forth  from  one  to  three  at  a  birth,  in  the 
months  of  June  and  July.  Period  of  gestation  unknown. 


6 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  NEW-YORK  BAT. 

Vespertilio  noveboracensis. 

PLATE  I.  FIG.  2.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

New-York  Bat.  Pennant,  Arctic  Zoology,  Yol.  1,  184. 

Vespertilio  noveboracensis.  Linneus,  Syst.  Gen. 

Red  Bat.  Wilson,  Am.  Ornithology,  Yol.  6,  plate  50. 

Vespertilio  rufus.  Warden,  Disc.  U.  S.  Vol.  5,  C08. 

Vespertilio  noveboracensis.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  20. 

V.  id.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Yol.  1,  68,  figure. 

Taphozous  rufus.  Harlan,  Faun.  Am.  p.  23. 

New-York  Bat.  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  New-York,  Vol.  3,  57.  Kirtland,  Zool.  Report,  p.  175.  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep. 

1840,  p.  9. 

Characteristics.  Color  reddish  tawny.  Brachial  membrane  naked  above,  except  near  the  body 
and  at  the  base  of  the  phalanges.  A  patch  of  white  hairs  at  the  insertion 
of  the  wings. 

Description.  Ears  broad,  with  an  obtuse  tip  and  a  naked  anterior  lobe.  Nostrils  tubular, 
with  a  few  short  black  whiskers  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks.  Interfemoral  membrane  broader 
than  long,  including  the  entire  tail,  and  is  supported  by  a  bony  process  from’  the  tibia  on  each 
side  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  This  process  is  most  obvious  from  beneath.  The  membrane 
is  naked  beneath  for  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  extent ;  hairy  above.  Hind  feet  with  five 
subequal  toes,  of  which  the  interior  is  shortest.  Brachial  membrane  entirely  naked,  except 
near  the  thumb.  Dental  formula  :  Incisors,  | ;  canines,  §  ;  cheek  teeth,  T8¥  =  30. 

Color,  of  the  head  and  cheeks  reddish  tawny,  which  is  also  the  general  color  of  the  fur  on 
the  body  above,  frequently  mixed  with  white,  and  producing  a  light  cream  or  hoary  color, 
and  often  a  bright  chesnut  red.  A  small  portion  of  the  brachial  membrane  nearest  the  body, 
and  the  whole  of  the  interfemoral  membrane,  together  with  the  legs,  covered  with  tawny  hair  ; 
this  is  longest,  and  varied  with  white,  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  Beneath,  the  general  color  is 
somewhat  lighter,  and  the  fur  extends  but  a  short  distance  down  the  interfemoral  membrane. 
A  white  patch  of  hair  on  the  sides  of  the  body  near  the  insertion  of  the  wings,  most  con¬ 
spicuous  on  the  under  side.  The  brachial  membrane  is  dark  brown,  with  lighter  colored 
reticulations,  and  entirely  denuded,  except  near  the  thumb-nail  above  and  a  short  distance 
along  the  course  of  the  forefinger,  where  we  may  observe  a  few  white  hairs.  On  the  under 
side  of  this  membrane  is  a  patch  of  light  tawny  hair  at  the  base  of  the  phalanges,  and  extend¬ 
ing  sparsely  along  the  forearm. 

Total  length, .  3'0-  4’0. 

Length  of  tail, .  1  ‘5-  1'8. 

Spread  of  wings, . .  10'0-12'0. 

This  is  the  most  common  species  in  our  State,  and  can  scarcely  be  confounded  with  any 
other  unless  it  may  be  with  the  Hoary  Bat.  It  is  usually,  however,  smaller,  but  resembles  it  in 


FAMILY  VESPERTILIONIDJi). 


7 

its  dentition,  and  frequently  in  its  external  markings,  even  to  the  white  spot  at  the  insertion  of 
the  wings.  Its  strongest  distinctive  character  is  to  be  found  in  its  general  tawny  hue,  and 
the  absence  of  a  hairy  patch  at  the  elbow  or  first  joint  of  the  forearm.  One  of  the  specimens, 
which  furnished  us  with  the  preceding  description,  is  among  the  largest  we  have  seen,  ap¬ 
proaching  very  nearly  in  size  to  the  hoary  bat. 

The  geographical  range  of  this  species,  as  far  as  it  has  yet  been  noticed,  extends  between 
the  thirty-third  and  forty-second  parallels  of  latitude,  and  from  Massachusetts  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  According  to  Kirtland,  it  is  comparatively  a  rare  animal  in  Ohio.  Except  in  the 
northern  mountainous  districts,  it  occurs  in  every  part  of  this  State. 


THE  HOARY  BAT. 

Vespertilio  pruinosus. 

PLATE  II.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Vespertilio  pruinosus.  Say,  Long’s  Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Vol.  1,  p.  168. 

V.  id.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  221.  Godman,  Am.  Nat,  History,  Vol.  1,  p.  68,  figure  3. 

V.  id.  Richardson,  Fauna  Boreali  Americana,  Vol.  1,  p.  1. 

V.  id.  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyceum  N.  Y.  Vol.  4,  p.  54. 

V.  id.  Wheatland,  Essex  Journal  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  I,  p.  76.  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep.  1840,  p.  8. 

Characteristics.  Greyish  above.  Margin  of  the  interfemoral  membrane  naked  ;  a  small  white 
hairy  patch  at  the  elbow  and  wrist  above.  Lips  and  chin  black.  Throat 
with  a  fawn-colored  band. 

Description.  Body  robust.  Ears  broad,  short  and  rounded  ;  naked  on  the  superior  margins, 
hairy  within,  and  with  a  tuft  of  fawn-colored  hair  behind  the  anterior  margin,  which  is  broadly 
dilated  and  free  at  the  base.  Tragus  or  inner  ear  hairy  externally,  convex  on  its  outer  margin, 
concave  on  its  inner  margin,  and  terminating  in  an  obtuse  tip.  Wing  membrane  naked  above 
the  small  tufts  noted  in  the  specific  phrase.  Interfemoral  membrane  hairy,  except  along  the 
external  margins.  Beneath,  the  humeral  membrane  is  covered  with  dense  hair  except  on  the 
margin ;  at  the  insertion  of  the  wings  behind  the  humerus,  there  is  a  broad  patch  of  hair 
extending  to  the  elbow,  and  forming  a  band  0'4  broad,  along  the  course  of  the  forearm  to 
the  wrist ;  the  remaining  part  of  this  membrane  is  naked.  Forearm  longer  than  the  tail, 
which  is  entirely  included  in  the  membrane.  Richardson,  however,  states  that  in  the 
specimen  which  he  examined,  there  was  a  very  slight  smooth  projection  of  the  tail.  This 
may  be  the  case  in  prepared  specimens,  but  I  have  not  noticed  it  in  recent  subjects.  Tibial 
processes  stout,  and  0-8  long.  Dental  formula:  Incisors,  f  ;  canines,  f;  cheek  teeth, 
a#  =  34. 

Color.  Upper  part  of  the  head,  light  yellowish ;  the  parts  surrounding  the  mouth  and 
nose,  deep  blackish  brown  ;  posterior  part  of  the  cars  two  colors,  light  yellowish  at  the 
base,  black  along  the  margins ;  internally  there  are  short  greyish  hairs ;  margin  black  and 
naked,  except  on  the  portion  near  the  nose,  where  there  is  a  patch  of  short  light  yellowish 


8 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


hairs.  Body  and  inlerfemoral  membrane  above  covered  with  hair,  black  at  the  base,  then 
light  yellowish,  subsequently  black,  and  finally  tipped  with  white.  From  this  results  a  gene¬ 
ral  grey  or  hoary  appearance,  which  suggested  the  specific  name.  Towards  the  margin  of 
the  interfemoral  membrane,  this  hoary  color  passes  into  faint  reddish.  Humeral  membrane 
dusky,  with  a  reddish  tint  near  the  shoulder.  Beneath,  a  buff  colored  band  or  cravat  sur¬ 
rounds  the  neck ;  the  breast  colored  like  the  back,  and  passing  into  clay  yellow  on  the  abdo¬ 
men  and  the  anterior  part  of  the  interfemoral  membrane. 


Total  length, . 

..  4*8. 

Thumb  nail, _ _ 

...  0-4. 

Length  of  tail, _ 

..  1'6. 

Tibia, . . . . , 

...  0'8. 

Fore  arm, . 

..  2-0. 

Spread, . . 

...  15'5. 

This  is  the  largest  species  observed  in  this  State.  It  appears  to  be  less  nocturnal  than 
many  of  the  other  species,  and  retires  quite  late  to  its  winter  quarters.  On  the  12th  December 
of  this  year,  (1841,)  I  noticed  two  flying  about  quite  actively  shortly  before  noon.  It  is  not 
a  common  species.  Its  geographical  range  is  very  extensive.  It  was  first  discovered  by 
Nultall,  at  Council  Bluff  on  the  Missouri ;  subsequently  seen  in  Georgia  by  Le  Conte,  and 
since  noticed  in  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts.  It  was  found  by  Richardson  as  far  north 
as  the  fifty-fourth  degree  of  latitude.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  habits. 

THE  LITTLE  BROWN  BAT. 

Vespertilio  subulatus. 

PLATE  III.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Vespertilio  subulatus.  Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  2,  p.  65. 

V.  carolinensis ,  var.  Harlan,  Fauna  Amer.  p.  22.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  71. 

V.  domesticus.  Green,  Cab.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  290. 

V.  lucifugus.  Le  Conte,  McMurtrie’s  Cuvier,  Vol.  1,  p.  431. 

V.  subulatus.  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  Nat.  Hist.  N.  Y.  Vol.  4,  p.  61. 

Say's  Bat.  Richardson,  Fauna  Bor.  Am.  Vol.  1,  p.  3. 

Characteristics .  Small  olive  brown  above  ;  greyish  beneath.  The  fore-arm  and  tail  sube¬ 
qual.  Tragus  awl-shaped. 

Description.  Head  short  and  broad.  Ears  membranous,  longer  than  broad,  ovate  ;  poste¬ 
rior  margin  broadly  emarginate,  somewhat  narrowed  at  the  tip.  Within  sparsely  hairy  ;  more 
densely  so  at  the  base,  and  ascending  sparsely  along  the  anterior  margins,  which  are  plaited. 
Tragus  linear,  subulate,  from  O' 2 -O' 3  in  length,  ending  in  an  obtuse  tip.  Interfemoral 
membrane  broad ;  naked,  including  the  tip  of  the  tail.  In  dried  specimens  this  tip  appears 
beyond  the  membrane.  Fur  remarkably  soft  and  silky,  and  the  membranes  very  thin  and 
delicate.  Dental  formula  :  Incisors,  £ ;  canines,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  }§  =  38. 

Color.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  mouth  and  chin  the  hair  is  of  a  deep  brown,  approaching 
to  black.  Beneath,  the  fur  is  deep  brownish  black  at  the  base,  and  light  yellowish  at  the 


FAMILY  VESPERTILIONIDJE. 


9 

tips,  forming,  by  its  admixture  with  other  hairs,  a  uniform  yellowish  grey.  Above,  the  fur 
is  also  brownish  black  at  bjse,  and  olive  brown  on  the  surface. 


Total  length, _ 

_ 3-3. 

Forearm,  . 

.  1-0. 

Tibia, . . 

_ 0-7. 

Spread, . 

. 9-0. 

Tail, . . 

_  1-0. 

The  Little  Brown  Bat  appears  to  be  subject  to  great  variation  in  size  and  color.  Usually 
they  are  scarcely  one-half  the  preceding  dimensions.  I  have  received  from  Prof.  Emmons, 
several  specimens  of  this  species,  obtained  in  September  from  the  northern  districts.  They 
are  smaller,  and  of  a  dark  hue  approaching  to  black.  The  plaits  on  the  anterior  margins  of 
the  ear  were  not  observed.  The  fur  longer  than  in  the  specimen  described  above,  which  was 
the  same  employed  by  Mr.  Cooper  in  his  Monography.  The  ears  appeared  to  be  proportiona- 
bly  longer  ;  but  in  the  black  color  surrounding  the  mouth,  and  in  the  other  characters,  no 
difference  could  be  observed.  In  one  of  the  specimens,  the  dorsal  surface  was  varied  with 
black  and  grey  ;  and  in  another,  dark  brown  intermixed  with  olive  brown. 

The  Little  Brown  Bat  can  scarcely  be  confounded  with  any  other  species  found  in  this  State, 
unless  it  be  with  the  Carolina  bat.  It  is  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  Union,  and  ranges 
as  far  as  the  fifty-third  degree  of  north  latitude.  It  has  been  observed  in  New-Hampshire, 
Arkansas  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  on  the  Columbia  river,  in  Georgia, 
Pennsylvania,  Carolina,  &c.  In  this  State,  I  have  obtained  specimens  from  the  northern  and 
western  districts.  It  is  very  numerous  about  Lake  Oneida,  and  in  the  southern  counties. 

THE  SILVER-HAIRED  BAT. 

Vespertilio  noctivagans. 

PLATE  I.  FIG.  1— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Vespertilio  noctivagans,  Le  Conte,  McMurtrie’s  Cuvier,  Vol.  1,  p.  431. 

V.  auduboni ,  Harlan,  Am.  Jour.  Geol.  Vol.  1,  p.  220,  pi.  4. 

V.  •  id.  Id.  Med.  and  Phys.  Researches,  p.  26,  plate. 

V.  noctivagans,  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  N.,  Y.  Yol.  4,  p.  59. 

Characteristics.  Black,  with  silvery  hairs  above  and  beneath  ;  above,  a  whitisli  collar  across 
the  shoulders,  extending  upwards  towards  the  ears.  Tail  beyond  the 
membrane. 

Description.  Body  densely  hairy,  particularly  in  the  region  of  the  neck.  Ears  large,  broad, 
and  obtusely  ovate  ;  the  outer  border  with  a  fold,  producing  a  broad  and  distinct  emargina- 
tion  above,  and  an  abrupt  one  beneath.  Tragus  small,  ovate,  dilated  beneath.  Nostrils  ter¬ 
minal,  sub-bilobate.  Interfemoral  membrane  including  all  but  the  two  last  joints  of  the  tail ; 
densely  hairy  on  the  anterior  part  of  its  upper  surface,  becoming  more  sparse  as  it  approaches 
the  extremity  of  the  tail ;  beneath,  it  is  nearly  naked.  The  bony  processes  of  the  tibia,  sup¬ 
porting  the  sides  of  the  membrane,  are  an  inch  long.  Brachial  membrane  naked,  except  near 

Fauna.  2 


10 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


its  junction  with  the  body.  Feet  hairy,  with  five  subequal  toes.  Dental  formula  :  Incisors, 
a  ;  canine,  l  ;  cheek  teeth,  =  34.  Two  of  the  upper  incisors  have  bilobate  tips,  with  a 
free  space  between  them. 

Color.  Above  of  a  uniform  black  or  brownish  black,  the  wing  membrane  being  of  a  some¬ 
what  lighter  color.  On  the  back  there  is  a  sort  of  collar,  composed  of  white  or  silver-tipped 
hairs  surrounding  the  neck,  ascending  towards  the  ears,  and  descending  in  some  instances  a 
short  distance  down  the  back.  Traces  of  these  white  tipped  hairs  may  be  observed  towards 
the  interfemoral  membrane.  (In  one  individual,  sent  to  me  by  the  Revd.  Mr.  Linsley,  from 
Elmwood,  Connecticut,  the  whole  upper  surface  was  varied  with  white  hairs.)  Beneath, 
these  silvery  hairs  are  distributed  over  the  breast  and  abdomen,  and  more  distinctly  on  the 
sides  towards  the  brachial  membrane. 


Total  length, . 3 '6.  Alar  extent, _ lO'O-ll'O. 

Length  of  tail, .  1  ’  4. 


The  Silver-haired  Bat  is  common  on  Long-Island,  and  the  southern  counties  of  the  State. 
As  far  as  it  is  yet  known,  Connecticut,  and  possibly  Massachusetts,  forms  its  extreme  northern 
range.  It  has  been  observed  in  the  Atlantic  States  as  far  south  as  Georgia.  The  female  from 
which  the  foregoing  description  was  taken,  is  much  larger  than  the  male.  In  common  with 
the  other  species,  it  takes  refuge  during  the  day  in  hollow  trees.  Its  history  is  yet  incom¬ 
plete. 


THE  CAROLINA  BAT. 

Vespertilio  carolinensis. 

PLATE  II.  FIG.  1.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Vespertilio  carolinensis.  Geoffroy,  Ann.  Mas.  Yol.  8,  p.  193,  pi.  47  and  48. 

V.  id.  Le  Conte,  McMurtfie’s  Cuvier,  Yol.  1,  p.  481. 

Carolina  Bat.  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  N.  Y.  Vol.  4,  p.  60.  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep.  1840,  p.  10. 

Characteristics .  Large  ;  chesnut  color  above  ;  forearm  longer  than  the  tail. 

Description.  Ears  large,  naked,  higher  than  broad.  Tips  subacutely  rounded,  emarginate 
on  the  posterior  edge.  Tragus  long  and  sublinear,  resembling  that  of  the  little  brown  bat, 
but  more  obtuse  at  the  tip.  Interfemoral  membrane  naked  above  and  beneath,  and  not  in¬ 
cluding  the  extreme  tip  of  the  tail.  The  bony  processes  supporting  this  membrane  arc  very 
stout,  and  nearly  an  inch  long.  Dental  formula :  Incisors,  £  ;  canines,  § ;  cheek  teeth, 
T\  =  32.  The  two  medial  incisors  notched  or  bifid  towards  the  tip. 

Color.  Jaws  and  snout  dark  brown.  Body  above  bright  glossy  chesnut ;  beneath  of  the 
same  color,  but  of  a  lighter  shade,  and  in  some  lights  appearing  as  if  intermixed  with  grey. 
Base  of  the  fur  brown,  with  a  few  hairs  of  a  greyish  hue. 


FAMILY  VESPERTILIONID.E. 


11 


Total  length, . 

...  3-8. 

Tibial  process, _ 

..  0-9. 

Length  of  tail, . . . . 

...  1-5. 

Spread, . . 

..  12-0. 

Tibia, . 

...  0-8. 

This  species  can  scarcely  be  confounded  with  any  other  species,  unless  it  may  be  with  the 
New-York  bat ;  from  this,  however,  it  is  distinguishable  by  its  greater  size,  and  its  distinct 
color.  The  bony  processes  supporting  the  interfemoral  membrane  are  so  stout  and  long,  as 
to  subtend  that  membrane,  and  alter  its  usual  triangular  form. 

The  Carolina  Bat  is  found  along  the  Atlantic  States,  from  Georgia  to  Connecticut.  I  have 
obtained  it  from  Kings  county,  and  Prof.  Emmons  has  observed  it  at  Albany,  in  the  months 
of  February  and  March.  Its  season  of  torpidity  is  probably  of  short  duration. 

(EXTRA-LIMI  TAL.)* 

V.  monticole.  (Bachman,  Proceed.  Ac.  Sc.  p.  92.)  Fulvous;  smaller  than  svjbulatus ;  ears  shorter : 

tragus  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  ear.  Virginia. 

V.  virginianus.  (Id.  ib.  p.  93.)  Sooty  brown,  above  ash  brown ;  a  little  larger  than  the  preceding ; 
ears  slightly  longer  and  more  acute  ;  incisors  above  simple ;  interfemoral  membrane  naked  ;  a  black 
spot  at  base  of  the  wing.  Virginia. 

Genus  Molossus,  Geoffroy.  Head  and  muzzle  very  large;  canines  varying  from  j  to  J ;  incisors  in 
the  upper  jaw  bifid ;  tragus  small  forward  and  outside ;  interfemoral  membrane  enveloping  about 
half  the  tail ;  nose  simple. 

M.  cynocephalus.  (Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  Vol.  4,  p.  65,  figure.)  Sooty  brown ;  ears  crimped  on  their 
posterior  half;  lips  thick  and  pendent ;  incisors  2.  Southern  States. 

M.  fuliginosus.  (Id.  ib.  p.  67,  figure.)  Sooty  brown;  incisors  f  ;  more  than  half  the  tail  free.  South¬ 
ern  States. 

Genus  Plecottjs,  Geoffroy.  Incisors  | ;  two  large  fleshy  appendages  in  the  form  of  crests,  between 
the  eyes  and  nostrils ;  ears  enormously  dilated,  united  at  their  bases  and  fringed  on  their  internal 
margins ;  tail  projecting  beyond  the  membrane. 

P.  lecontii.  (Id.  ib.  p.  72,  figure.)  Dusky;  beneath  towards  the  tail,  white;  tragus  less  than  half  the 
length  of  the  ears.  Southern  States. 

P.  townsendi.  (Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  7.)  Ferruginous,  beneath  reddish  ash ;  tragus  half  the  length  of  the  ears: 
larger  than  the  preceding.  Columbia  river. 


*  Under  this  head,  we  include  short  notices  of  species  observed  in  the  United  States,  or  the  adjacent  regions,  but  which  we 
have  not  seen  in  this  State.  The  authority  for  the  species  must,  of  course,  rest  with  their  respective  describers. 


12 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


FAMILY  II.  SORECIDJE. 

No  lateral  membranes  performing  the  functions  of  wings.  Incisors  elongated,  or  spoon¬ 
shaped.  Molars  varying  in  shape,  and  with  conical  points.  Muzzle  elongated,  flexible, 
sometimes  surrounded  by  filaments.  Mammae  ventral.  Fur  dense,  occasionally  ivith 
rigid  hairs  or  spines.  Strong  musky  odor.  Ears  rarely  prominent.  Eyes  exceedingly 
minute.  Soles  of  the  hinder  feet  applied  to  the  ground.  Nocturnal ;  subterranean.  Some 
species  hibernate.  Comprises  the  smallest  of  the  quadrupeds. 

This  family  embraces  numerous  small  animals,  such  as  Moles,  Shrews,  Hedge  Hogs,  &c. 
all  allied  by  similar  habits.  They  are  for  the  most  part  nocturnal,  and  form  their  habitations 
under  ground.  They  all  hibernate  ;  and  one  genus,  Centenes,  Jlliger,  from  Madagascar,  is  said 
to  pass  three  of  the  warmest  months  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  torpidity.  They  are  occasion¬ 
ally  injurious  to  the  gardener  and  farmer,  by  destroying  roots  and  seeds,  although  their  chief 
food  is  composed  of  earth  worms,  grubs  and  other  noxious  animals.  In  this  State,  we  have 
observed  species  illustrative  #f  four  genera,  namely,  Condylura,  Scalops,  Sorex  and  Otisorex. 

GENUS  CONDYLURA.  Illiger.  . 

Muzzle  elongated,  with  radiating  cartilages.  Incisors  six  above  and  four  below ;  the  two 
intermediate  above,  largest ;  spoon-shaped.  Cheek  teeth  fourteen  above,  sixteen  below. 
Ears  none.  Feet  five-toed ;  anterior  claws  formed  for  digging. 

Obs.  This  genus  was  established  by  Illiger  for  the  reception  of  a  singular  little  animal 
from  North  America,  which  had  been  hitherto  described  as  a  mole  and  as  a  shrew.  The 
name,  although  founded  on  an  accidental  character,  it  has  been  found  convenient  to  retain. 
We  have  met  with  but  one  species  in  this  State. 

THE  COMMON  STAR-NOSE 

Condylura  oristata. 

PLATE  IV.  FIG.  1.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sorex  cristatus.  Linn.  Ed.  12,  p.  73. 

Long-tailed,  Mole.  Penn.  Syn.  Quad.  Fide  Erxleben. 

Talpa  longicaudata.  Erxleben,  Syst.  p.  118. 

Radiated  Mole.  Penn.  Hist.  Quad.  Vol.  2,  p.  232,  (fig.) 

Taupe  de  Canada.  Delafaille,  Essai  sur  la  Taupe. 

Long-tailed  Mole.  Penn.*  Arctic  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  140. 

Condylure  d  longue  queue.  Desmarest,  Mamra.  p.  158. 

Condylura  cristata.  Harlan,  Fauna  Am.  p.  36. 

C.  longicaudata.  Id.  ib.  p.  39. 

The  Star -nose  Mole.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  History,  Vol.  1,  p.  iOO,  (fig.) 


FAMILY  SORECID^E. 


13 


Condylura  longicaudata.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  p.  13. 

C.  macroura.  Id.  ib.  p.  284,  pi.  24. 

C.  longicaudata  and  macroura .  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  17. 


Characteristics.  Color  of  a  nearly  uniform  brownish  black.  Tail  more  than  half  the  length 
of  the  head  and  body.  Length  7. 

Description.  Body  cylindrical  throughout,  without  any  very  distinct  neck.  Fur  exceed¬ 
ingly  dense  and  fine.  Head  with  a  slender  elongated  muzzle,  terminating  in  a  vertical  circu¬ 
lar  disk,  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty  subequal  cartilaginous  fibres  ;  of  these,  the  two  superior 
and  four  inferior  are  shortest,  and  not  in  the  same  plane  with  the  others.  These  fibres  are 
O' 2  long.  The  eyes  exceedingly  minute,  and  not  easily  discovered  ;  but  they  may  be  found 
by  examining  the  space  above  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  where  tliree  or  four  rigid  subequal 
hairs  are  apparent.  Whiskers  O' 4  long,  light-colored  at  the  tips,  and  curved  forwards.  A 
large  orifice  in  place  of  an  external  ear,  not  projecting  above  the  skin.  Fore  feet  short,  with 
broad  robust  palms  ;  on  their  upper  surface  a  series  of  horny  scales,  somewhat  analagous  to 
those  on  the  feet  of  birds  ;  on  the  edges  of  the  palms,  these  scales  are  accompanied  with  rigid 
hairs.  The  interior  of  the  palms  with  small  circular  scales.  The  fingers  gradually  increase 
in  size  to  the  fourth  from  the  exterior  ;  the  outer  equals  the  second  from  the  interior.  The 
claws  are  flattened,  obtusely  pointed,  and  channelled  beneath.  Hind  feet  placed  far  back, 
and  quite  feeble  ;  the  toes  distinctly  separate  and  scaly  ;  the  claws  long,  sharp,  compressed, 
and  channelled  beneath.  Tail  sub-cylindrical,  sparsely  hairy,  permitting  the  scales  to  be  seen 
beneath,  and  pencilled  at  its  tip.  In  cabinet  specimens,  the  tail  often  appears  knotted 
throughout,  and  strangulated  at  its  base.  The  jaws  present  the  remarkable  peculiarity  of  two 
spoon-shaped  incisors  above  and  four  beneath.  In  the  upper  jaw,  on  each  side  of  these,  are 
two  other  incisors,  the  first  of  which  is  long,  and  resembles  a  canine  tooth ;  the  other  is 
separated  by  a  small  interval  from  the  preceding,  is  very  small,  conic  and  compressed.  The 
incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are  spoon-shaped,  approximated  and  subequal.  The  cheek  teeth  in 
both  jaws  vary  much  in  form  and  size,  the  first  of  the  lower  jaw  being  long  and  pointed  like 
a  canine  tooth. 

Color,  throughout  of  a  nearly  uniform  deep  brownish  black,  varying  somewhat  according 
to  the  light  in  which  it  is  viewed.  The  base  of  all  the  fur  is  of  a  deep  slate  color ;  beneatli 
of  a  lighter  hue,  and  may  be  termed  ashen  or  plumbeous.  Feet  whitish.  I  have  noticed  a 
specimen  which  was  of  a  uniform  soiled  white. 


Total  length,.. ... 

...  7'5. 

Hind  leg, . 

Length  of  tail, _ 

...  2'8. 

Breadth  of  palm, _ 

Of  fore  feet, . 

...  0'7. 

Girth  of  body, . 

The  name  given  by  Illiger,  which  was  founded  on  a  figure  which  exhibited  the  knotted 
appearance  of  the  tail  in  a  desiccated  specimen,  and  therefore  not  characteristic,  it  has  been 
nevertheless  found  convenient  to  retain,  as  designating  a  remarkable  generic  type.  Pennant, 
in  his  Synopsis  of  Quadrupeds,  1771,  published  a  notice  and  figure  of  what  he  terms  the 


14 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


long-tailed  mole.  Linneus,  in  his  12th  edition,  1776,  published  his  description  of  the  Sorex 
cristatus.  The  following  year,  Erxleben  gave  the  name  of  longicaudata  to  Pennant’s  mole. 
We  sujjpose  that  all  these  refer  to  the  same  species,  Linneus  having  described  from  an 
injured  specimen.  In  the  third  edition  of  the  Synopsis,  (possibly  in  the  second,  which  we 
have  not  seen,)  which  was  published  under  the  title  of  the  History  of  Quadrupeds,  Pennant 
introduces  the  Linnean  cristatus,  with  a  deplorable  figure,  and  adds  his  long-tailed  mole 
witli  a  figure  scarcely  superior  to  the  other.  From  his  account,  it  is  apparent  that  he 
described  an  immature  star-nose  for  the  cristatus.  In  his  Arctic  Zoology,  having  in  the 
interval  received  specimens  from  this  country,  he  describes  some  additional  particulars ;  of 
these  the  most  important  diagnostic  character  attributed  to  the  cristatus,  is  “  toes  of  the  hind 
feet  closely  connected and  yet  Desmarest,  Op.  cit.  who  has  given  a  detailed  description, 
expressly  states  “  Pieds  de  derriere,  etc.”  “  Hind  feet  with  the  toes  deeply  divided,  all  the 
toes  free  and  this  accords  with  our  own  observations.  The  account  of  the  longicaudata  by 
Desmarest,  is  evidently  copied  from  Pennant  by  some  culpably  careless  transcriber. 

From  these  observations,  we  would  infer,  1st,  that  the  cristatus  of  Linneus  is  the  only 
species  yet  discovered  in  this  country,  and  is  identical  with  the  long-tailed  mole  of  Pennant ; 
2d,  that  the  name  of  cristatus  is  entitled  to  priority  ;  3d,  that  if  the  name  longicaudata  ever 
appears  in  the  systems,  it  must  be  attributed  to  Erxleben,  and  not  to  Pennant. 

The  C.  macroura  of  Harlan,  although  adopted,  described  in  detail  and  figured  by  Rich¬ 
ardson,  we  cannot,  after  a  careful  comparison  of  descriptions,  acknowledge  to  be  a  distinct 
species.  It  is  well  known  tha't  the  tail  undergoes,  at  certain  seasons,  changes  in  shape  and 
bulk  ;  and  species  founded  on  such  characters  should  be  received  with  great  reserve.  We 
have  specimens  of  the  common  star-nose  differing  in  no  respect  from  the  macroura,  except  in 
its  tail  not  being  quite  as  much  dilated  as  in  the  figure  of  Richardson.  It  is  proper,  however, 
to  add,  that  we  have  not  been  enabled  to  examine  the  individual  from  which  Dr.  Harlan 
drew  up  his  description ;  and  his  account  purports  to  have  been  derived  from  a  cabinet  spe¬ 
cimen. 

The  Star-nose  burrows  in  moist  places  near  the  surface,  forming  elevated  ridges  like  the 
Shrew-mole,  and  chambers  for  rearing  their  young.  These  are  most  numerous  near  the 
borders  of  streams.  When  observed  in  confinement,  they  continually  attempt  to  hide  them¬ 
selves  by  digging,  and  the  cartilaginous  tendrils  around  their  nose  are  in  perpetual  motion. 
Godman  states  that  they  feed  readily  on  flesh,  either  raw  or  cooked,  and  exhibit  no  willing¬ 
ness  to  eat  vegetable  matter. 

The  Star-nose  is  abundant  throughout  New-York,  where  it  is  occasionally  called  the 
Button-nose  Mole.  Its  geographic  limits  are  not  yet  established.  It  is,  however,  known  at 
present  to  be  found  from  Hudson’s  Bay  to  Virginia. 


FAMILY  SORECID^E. 


15 


GENUS  SCALOPS.  Cuvier. 

Muzzle  elongated  and  simple,  flexible,  cartilaginous.  Eyes  minute,  and  scarcely  visible. 
No  external  ears,  but  simply  a  minute  aperture.  Feet  short,  five-toed ;  the  hand  broad, 
with  fingers  joined  together  by  the  integuments  to  the  last  phalanx ;  the  claws  long  and 
flat.  Hind  feet  slender,  with  delicate  hooked  nails.  Teeth  :  Incisors,  §  -  f  ;  cheek  teeth, 
j|  -  ||  =  34  -  46.  A  musky  gland  near  the  vent. 

THE  COMMON  SHREW-MOLE. 

SCALOPS  AQUATICUS, 

PLATE  IV.  FIG  2.— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sorex  aqiiaticus.  Lin.  12  ed.  p.  74. 

Brown  Mole.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  141. 

S.  aquations.  Schreber,  Saugthiere,  pi.  158,  (indifferent.) 

S.  canadensis.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  32. 

The  Shrew-mole.  GodmaN,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  84,  fig.  3. 

Scalops  canadensis.  Richardson,  F.  B-  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  9. 

Shrew-mole.  Emmons,  Massachusetts  Report,  1840,  p.  15. 

Characteristics.  Fur  glossy,  and  like  velvet ;  its  most  usual  color  silvery  grey,  brown. 

Length,  6-8  inches.  —  Var.  a,  bright  tawny;  b,  hoary. 

Description.  Body  cylindrical,  without  any  distinctly  apparent  neck.  Fur  thick,  velvety 
and  lustrous.  Head  small,  with  its  muzzle  elongated  to  a  point.  The  muzzle  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  naked  towards  its  extremity,  which  is  truncated.  The  nostrils 
are  oblong,  and  placed  just  above  its  smooth  truncated  extremity.  Eyes  exceedingly  minute, 
and  completely  concealed  among  the  fur.  No  external  ear ;  the  auditory  opening  entirely 
concealed  in  the  fur  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  behind  the  eye,  and  just  admitting  the 
point  of  a  pin.  Fore  feet  apparently  naked,  but  in  fact  covered  with  short  white  hairs.  I  he 
five  phalanges  are  united  at  the  base  of  the  claws,  which  are  large,  white,  flat,  slightly 
curved,  and  brownish  beneath  near  their  bases.  According  to  Godman,  it  is  furnished  exterior 
to  the  thumb  with  an  additional  bone  articulated  to  the  wrist,  and  a  similar  rudimentary  one 
on  the  external  edge  of  the  hand.  Hind  feet  slender,  thinly  covered  by  hair,  and  with  small 
white  compressed  claws.  Tail  thickest  in  the  middle,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  spaisely 
furnished  with  short  hairs.  The  descriptions  of  the  teeth,  as  given  by  various  authors,  vary 
not  only  in  the  names  given  to  the  different  kinds  of  teeth,  but  likewise  in  the  total  number  , 
the  incisors,  for  instance,  are  confounded  with  the  canines,  these  latter  with  the  molars. 
Hence,  when  the  second  cheek  tooth  on  each  side  is  lost,  the  first,  which  is  closely  in  contact 
with  the  incisor,  is  considered  as  a  second  incisor;  and  thus  confusion  aiises  lrom  the 
inspection  of  a  single  head,  or  from  immature  or  imperfect  ones.  Desmarest  accordingly 
assigns  thirty  teeth  as  the  total  number ;  F.  Cuvier  thirty-six,  in  which  he  is  copied  by  God¬ 
man  ;  and  Richardson,  with  a  fully  developed  skull,  enumerates  forty-four.  We  have  but 


16 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


once  seen  a  skull  with  this  number ;  and  this  formula,  which  has  been  erroneously  printed, 
has,  by  another  error,  been  applied  to  the  star-nose. 

Color.  The  entire  animal  is  covered  with  a  beautiful  glossy,  fur  of  silvery  grey  brown, 
somewhat  lighter  about  the  head,  where  it  assumes  a  slight  yellowish  tinge  ;  but  this  is  far 
from  being  a  constant  character.  Muzzle  of  a  delicate  flesh  color.  Tail  and  feet  whitish. 
Varieties  are  not  uncommon,  of  a  uniform  bright  tawny  or  orange,  and  occasionally  hoary. 


T otal  length, . . . 6 ' 0. 

Tail, _ _ _ _ _ _ l’O. 


This  little  animal,  from  its  appearance  and  habits,  is  commonly  called  a  mole ;  but  from 
this  it  is  widely  different.  It  has  the  burrowing  habits  of  the  common  mole  of  Europe,  but 
does  not  exclusively  occupy  the  vicinity  of  rivers  and  water  courses,  as  its  name  would  seem 
to  imply.  It  may  naturally  prefer  moist  places ;  for  the  earth  is  more  easily  excavated  in 
such  situations,  and  its  favorite  food,  the  earth  worm  ( Lumbricus  terrenus,  Say,)  is  there 
found  in  the  greatest  abundance.  They  have  also  been  observed  in  the  dry  sandy  pine 
barrens  of  New-Jersey,'  in  search  of  the  larva;  of  ants.  Their  burrows  are  usually  from  one 
to  three  inches  from  the  surface,  although  occasionally  much  deeper.  He  is  well  known  as 
the  pest  of  gardeners,  defacing  the  smooth  walks,  and  injuring  the  appearance  of  the  beds. 
It  may  well  be  doubted,  however,  whether  the  good  he  does  in  destroying  grubs,  worms,  etc. 
does  not  more  than  compensate  for  the  injury  he  is  supposed  to  occasion  to  roots  and  germi¬ 
nating  seeds.  It  is  asserted  that  he  has  a  great  aversion  to  the  castor-oil  plant  (Palma 
Christi),  and  that  he  will  avoid  gardens  in  which  they  grow.  Our  own  experience  would 
lead  us  to  attach  little  importance  to  this  remedy. 

The  Shrew-mole,  for  its  size,  is  remarkably  strong,  and  is  capable  of  domestication.  In 
eating,  it  employed  its  flexible  snout  to  thrust  food  into  its  mouth,  and  frequently  burrowed 
in  the  earth  in  order  to  eat  its  food  undisturbed.  An  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of  the 
Shrew-mole  is  given  by  Dr.  Godman,*  to  which  we  refer  the  reader. 

We  take  this  opportunity  to  state,  that  the  existence  on  this  continent  of  the  true  mole  of 
Europe,  has  frequently  been  asserted  and  denied.  Dr.  Harlan,  in  his  Fauna,  p.  43,  has 
published  from  the  manuscripts  of  Bartram,  notes  of  an  animai  which  may  have  reference  to 
a  true  mole.  Of  this  several  varieties  are  noted,  which,  unless  Bartram  had  the  shrew-mole 
in  view,  would  seem  to  indicate  the  existence  of  a  very  common  species.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  Bartram’s  notes  are  silent  respecting  the  dentition,  which  would  have  settled  all  doubts 
on  the  subject.  Godman,  Vol,  1,  p.  106,  discredits  its  existence  ;  and  the  translator  of  the 
American  edition  of  Cuvier’s  Regne  Animal,  coincides  with  this  opinion.  One  of  the  most 
recent  writers  on  our  Mammalia,  states,  however,  that  there  are  several  true  moles  in  the 


Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,  by  J.  D.  Godman,  Philad.  1833. 


FAMILY  SORECID.F.  17 

collection  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  undoubtedly  from  America,  but  the  particular 
district  was  not  known. 

The  Shrew-mole  has  a  wide  geographical  range,  being  found  from  Carolina  to  the  fiftieth 
degree  of  north  latitude,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

GENUS  SOREX.  Linneus. 

Cutting  teeth,  §  ;  the  upper  curved  and  notched  at  the  base.  Head  elongated ;  snout  pro¬ 
duced  and  moveable.  Ears  short,  rounded ,  broader  than  long,  concealed,  occasionally  not 
elevated  above  the  skull.  Feet  short,  with  Jive  nails ;  phalanges  small,  separate,  with 
feeble  hooked  nails.  A  series  of  glands,  exhaling  a  strong  odor,  along  the  flanks.  Cheek 
teeth, 

Obs.  This  genus  contains  some  of  the  smallest  of  our  quadrupeds.  The  English  translator 
of  Cuvier’s  Regne  Animal,  asserts  that  no  genuine  Shrews  are  to  be  found,  except  on  the 
ancient  continent ;  an  assertion  which  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  thirteen  species  have 
been  described  in  North  America,  and  when  farther  investigations  are  made,  the  number  will 
probably  be  much  increased.  It  will  be  found  that  the  characters  of  the  genus  will  require 
careful  revision,  and  several  small  but  distinct  groups  will  be  established.  The  habits  of  the 
animals  of  this  genus  are  nocturnal,  and  they  burrow  for  the  most  part  in  the  ground  like  the 
shrew-mole.  All  are  said  to  be  fond  of  the  water,  swimming  with  great  ease,  and  diving 
well. 

DE  ICAY’S  SHREW. 

SOREX  DEKAYI. 

PLATE  V.  FIG.  3.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sorex  dekayi.  Bachman,  Acad.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  p.  377,  pi.  23,  fig.  4. 

Characteristics.  Uniform  dark  bluish  throughout.  Chin  light  brown.  Feel  reddish  brown. 

Total  length  5  to  6  inches. 

Description.  Body  subfusiform,  tapering  gradually  to  the  snout,  which  is  elongated,  cmar- 
ginate,  and  covered  near  the  extremity  with  short  hairs.  Head  small ;  nostrils  terminal. 
Eyes  visible,  and  O’ 6  distant  from  the  snout.  No  projecting  external  ear.  Whiskers  nu¬ 
merous,  whitish ;  the  longest  were  five-tenths  of  an  inch  long.  The  fore  feet  0  ’  5  long, 
sparsely  hairy,  with  scaly  phalanges  ;  the  internal  toe  or  thumb  is  articulated  high  up,  and 
is  shorter  than  the  external ;  the  second  and  fourth  subequal ;  the  middle  longest ;  claws 
short,  white,  and  feebly  channelled  beneath  for  two-thirds  of  their  length  from  the  tips.  Base 
of  the  claws  enlarged,  and  compressed  laterally.  Hind  legs  placed  very  far  back,  0‘ 6  long, 
and  sparsely  hairy  ;  the  three  middle  claws  subequal.  Tail  very  slender,  subquadrate,  with 
Fauna.  3 


18 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


adpressed  hairs,  and  slightly  pencilled  at  the  tip.  Teeth  white  at  the  base,  piceous  at  the 
tips.  Dental  formula  :  Incisors,  §  ;  cheek  teeth,  =  30.  (Bachman,  in  his  valuable  mono¬ 
graph  cited  above,  attributes  18  cheek  teeth  to  this  species.)  Above,-  the  incisors  are  in¬ 
curved,  pointed,  channelled  behind,  with  a  broad  base  dilated  posteriorly,  and  furnished  with 
a  distinct  point ;  the  four  succeeding  cheek  teeth  on  each  side  small,  with  their  external  points 
most  elevated ;  the  first  of  the  remaining  jaw  teeth  largest  of  all,  with  four  and  occasionally 
five  distinct  points  ;  the  remainder  smaller,  and  irregularly  pointed.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the 
incisors  are  long,  not  contiguous,  and  projecting  horizontally  from  the  jaw ;  they  are  curved, 
with  pointed  tips,  and  channelled  within  ;  the  external  edges  are  sharp,  with  two  and  occa 
sionally  three  distinct  emarginations,  the  base  laterally  compressed.  The  first  jaw  tooth  is  a 
small  pointed  prism,  lying  immediately  on  the  base  of  the  incisor,  and  directed  forwards  ;  the 
next  is  still  over  the  root  of  the  incisor,  somewhat  larger,  with  an  oblique  cutting  edge  ;  the 
third  is  five-pointed,  and  largest  of  all ;  the  last  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  second. 

Color.  Uniform  glossy  slate,  or  if  we  take  a  more  definite  standard,  resembling  the  fur  of 
the  star-nose.  Beneath,  merely  a  shade  lighter ;  and  in  particular  lights  there  is  no  per¬ 
ceptible  difference  in  the  color,  the  whole  appearing  hoary  and  lustrous.  Chin  and  nose  light 
brown.  Feet  flesh-colored. 

Length  of  head  and  body,  .  4'8.  To  the  end  of  the  hairs, O' 9. 

Length  of  tail,  _ 0*8.  Girth, . . . .  2 '7. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Bell  for  an  opportunity  of  examining  other  specimens  of  this  Shrew, 
from  Rockland  county.  In  one,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  was  3 ' 5  ;  of  tail,  0 ' 7.  In 
others,  the  dimensions  were  somewhat  smaller.  The  specimens  from  which  our  description 
is  taken,  were  obtained  from  Queens  county,  and  were  described  and  exhibited  before  the 
Lyceum  of  Natural  History  nearly  fifteen  years  ago.  I  then  gave  it  the  name  of  concolor, 
but  the  description  was  never  published.  Dr.  Bachman,  who  examined  the  same  specimen, 
gave  the  present  name,  which,  by  the  just  and  rigid  rule  of  priority,  must  be  preserved.  It 
is  nearly  allied  to  brevicaudus,  but  is  larger  and  more  robust  in  its  form. 

This  Shrew  is  found  in  Albany  county,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  State.  Its  geo¬ 
graphical  range  along  the  Atlantic  extends  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia. 

THE  SHORT-TAILED  SHREW. 

SOREX  BREVICAUDUS. 

(STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sorex  brevicaudus.  Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.  164. 

Short-tailed  Shrew.  Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  p.  381.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  29.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p. 
79,  figure.  Kiktland,  Ohio  Report,  p.  175.  Linsley,  Am.  Jour.  Sc.  Vol.  39,  p.388.  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep.  1840, 
P.  13. 

Characteristics.  Blackish,  plumbeous  above.  Nose  livid  brown.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as 
hind  feet.  Total  length,  4'0-4'5. 


FAMILY  SORECID^E. 


19 


Description.  Fur  very  long.  Head  large;  eyes  very  minute.  Fore  feet  naked,  the  hind 
ones  sparsely  covered  with  hair.  Nose  emarginate.  Auditory  foramen  large,  with  two  dis¬ 
tinct  half  divisions,  sparsely  hairy.  Nails  nearly  as  long  as  the  toes.  Tail  sparsely  covered 
with  hair.  Teeth  :  Incisors,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  j-f  —  32. 

Color.  Above,  blackish  lead  when  looked  at  from  before,  and  silvery  lead  when  viewed  in 
an  opposite  direction  :  paler  beneath.  Teeth  black  ;  nose  livid  brown  ;  feet  white. 

Length  of  head  and  body, .  3  ’  2  -  3  ’  5. 

Tail, .  0-9-  1-0. 

I  have  seen  several  specimens  of  this  animal  from  the  opposite  shore  of  New- Jersey,  and 
have  heard  of  its  capture  near  Albany,  but  have  never  had  the  fortune  to  meet  with  it  in  this 
State.  Mr.  Linsley,  in  the  work  cited  above,  states  that  he  has  taken  it  in  Connecticut, 
answering  exactly  to  the  description  given  by  Godman. 

Since  the  above  was  written,  I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  a  recent  specimen 
from  Queens  county,  which  I  refer  to  this  species  with  the  following  description  : 

Rostrum  robust,  broad.  Whiskers  numerous,  long,  radiating ;  those  along  the  margin  of 
the  mouth  O’ 5  long.  A  projecting  fleshy  septum  just  anterior  to  the  two  upper  incisors,  and 
extending  nearly  between  them.  Fur  thick,  moderately  long,  dark  brown,  very  sparse  around 
the  region  of  the  mouth  and  on  the  extremities,  rather  allowing  the  skin  beneath  to  be  seen  ; 
rather  more  dense  on  the  tail.  Nose  dark  brown,  bifid.  Eyes  with  a  small  naked  space 
around  them,  O’ 55  distant  from  the  nose.  Auditory  hole  large,  transverse,  narrowed  beneath, 
naked,  with  an  oblique  septum  across  the  upper  half,  and  a  small  lobe  near  the  middle,  about 
0  ’  5  posterior  to  the  eye.  Fore  feet  0  ’  5  long ;  three  toes  subequal,  longest ;  outer  toe  slightly 
longer  than  the  inner.  Tubercles  on  the  palms  six;  two  in  a  line  behind  the  inner  toe,  and 
two  behind  the  outer ;  the  fifth  between  the  base  of  the  second  and  third  toes,  counting  from 
the  outside,  and  the  sixth  is  placed  at  the  base  of  the  fourth  toe.  On  the  hind  feet,  the 
tubercles  are  similar  in  number  and  situation,  but  are  larger  and  more  distinct.  When  the 
animal  lies  on  its  back,  with  the  hind  legs  extended,  the  claws  reach  beyond  the  middle  of  the 
tail.  Tail  cylindrical,  very  slightly  tapering. 


Total  length, .  4 ’00. 

Of  the  tail, .  O’ 75. 

Hind  feet, .  O’ 75. 


THE  SMALL  SHREW. 

SOREX  PARVUS. 

Sorex  parvus.  Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.  163.  Linsley,  Am.  Jour.  Vol.  39,  p.  3?S. 

Small  Shrew.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  78,  pi.  fig.  2. 

Characteristics .  Color  brownish  ash  above,  ash  beneath.  Tail  one-third  the  length  of  head 
and  body.  Total  length  3  0  -  3’5. 


20 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Description.  I  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  this  species ;  but  as  it  has  been 
found  in  Connecticut,  it  will  in  all  probability  be  detected  in  this  State.  We  subjoin  the 
description  given  by  Say,  the  original  describer :  “  Body  above  brownish  cinereous,  beneath 
“  cinereous ;  head  elongated  ;  eyes  and  ears  concealed ;  whiskers  long,  the  longest  nearly 
“  attaining  the  back  of  the  head ;  nose  naked,  emarginate ;  front  teeth  black,  lateral  ones 
“  piceous ;  feet  whitish,  five-toed;  nails  prominent,  acute,  white;  tail  short,  sub-cylindric,  of 
“  moderate  thickness,  slightly  thicker  in  the  middle,  whitish  beneath.  Length  of  head  and 
“body,  2‘4;  of  tail,  0*75.” 

Richardson,  p.  8,  states  that  a  specimen  obtained  at  Behring’s  Straits,  is  probably  to  be 
referred  to  this  species  :  “  Dark  brownish  grey  above,  and  grey  beneath  ;  length  of  head  and 
“  body  2-3,  tail  l'O.” 

Mr.  Linsley,  Op.  sup.  cit.,  describes  his  parvus  with  the  following  dimension  :  “  Head  and 
“  body  2-0,  tail  0'75.”  In  a  letter  to  me,  January,  1842,  he  states,  “though  a  trifle  shorter 
“  than  your  Otisorex  platyrhinus,  it  was  larger  in  bulk ;  nevertheless  it  could  not  have  weighed 
“  over  50  -  60  grains,  the  otisorex  weighing  47  grains.  The  parvus,  I  am  satisfied,  could 
“  not  have  been  the  young  of  dekayi  or  brevicaudus,  from  his  peculiar  construction  being 
“  wholly  unlike  either  of  the  other  three  species ;  besides,  I  have  botli  the  old  and  young  of 
“  the  latter,” 


FORSTER’S  SHREW. 

SOREX  FORSTERI. 

PLATE  XXI.  FIG.  3. 

American  Shrew.  Forster,  Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  G2,  p.  3,  381. 

Sorex  forsteri.  Richardson,  Zool.  Jour.  1828.  Gai'par,  Zool.  Jour.  Vol.  5,  p.  201. 

Forster’s  Shrcw^nousc.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  6. 

Sorex  forsteri.  Bachman,  Ac.  Sciences,  Vol.  7,  p.  380,  pi.  24,  fig.  0. 

Characteristics.  Small;  dark  cinereous,  tipped  with  btown  ;  beneath  cinereous.  Fur  short. 

Ears  broad  and  hairy.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  Length  four 
inches. 

Description.  Body  slender.  Nose  elongated  and  divided  at  the  tip.  Ears  somewhat  shorter 
than  the  fur,  and  concealed  beneath  it.  Whiskers  long,  and  white  and  black.  Fur  fine  and 
short.  Feet  slender,  with  five  white  and  slender  toes.  Tail  foursided,  with  a  slight  pencil 
of  hairs  at  the  tip.  Teeth  piceous  at  the  tips,  as  in  the  most  of  the  species.  Dental  formula  : 
Incisors,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  }§  =  32.  The  two  medial  incisors  above,  with  a  lobe  behind ; 
beneath,  the  two  medial  incisors  with  two  obtuse  lobes. 

Color.  Fur,  for  two-thirds  of  its  length,  dark  ash  above,  and  brown  at  the  tips ;  beneath, 
lighter  ash.  Feet  flesh-colored,  with  short  yellowish  while  hairs.  Tail  dark  brown  above, 
soiled  white  beneath. 


FAMILY  SORECIDAS. 


1 ' 5. 
0-8. 


21 


Total  length, . 4  0.  Of  tail,. 

Length  of  head  and  body, .  2  •  5.  Of  head, 


This  hardy  little  animal  is  found  as  far  north  as  the  sixty-seventh  degree  of  latitude,  and  was 
first  noticed  by  Forster  in  the  work  cited  above,  notwithstanding  the  English  translator  of 
Cuvier  asserts  “  that  no  genuine  Shrews  are  to  be  found  except  on  the  ancient  continent.” 
The  tracks  of  this  species  are  seen  frequently  during  winter  on  the  snow  ;  and  this  has  been 
noticed  by  Richardson,  even  when  the  thermometer  stood  at  40  to  50  degrees  below  zero. 
They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  we  are  as  yet  uncertain  as  to  their  southern 
range. 


THE  CAROLINA  SHREW. 

SOREX  CAROLINENSIS. 

PLATE  XXI.  FIG.  2.  * 

Sorex  caroUnensis.  Bachman,  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  p.  366,  pi.  23,  fig.  1. 

Characteristics.  Uniform  iron  grey.  Tail  short,  flat,  nearly  half  the  length  of  the  head. 

Larger  than  the  preceding. 

Description.  Body  rather  robust.  Snout  long  and  slender,  with  a  bilobate  tip.  No  external 
ears,  but  simply  an  auditory  aperture.  Whiskers  long,  and  in  some  lights  whitish.  Eyes 
exceedingly  minute.  Fore  feet  rather  robust,  covered  sparsely  with  hairs ;  hind  feet  more 
slender.  Nails  moderate,  subequal.  Tail  flat,  with  a  small  thin  pencil  at  tip.  Dental  for¬ 
mula  :  Incisors,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  if  =  36  ;  all  piceous  at  their  tips. 

Color.  A  bright  lustrous  iron-grey  over  the  surface,  the  base  being  of  a  slate  color.  Nose 
and  feet  flesh-colored.  Head  and  body  4'0.  Head  1  ‘0.  Tail  0*4. 

We  have  referred,  with  some  doubts,  specimens  of  a  Shrew  commonly  found  in  this  State, 
to  this  species.  In  this  we  have  followed  Bachman,  until  we  had  an  opportunity  of  examin¬ 
ing  a  specimen  in  a  living  state.  Such  an  occasion  has  not  yet  presented  itself.  In  the  only 
one  which  I  had  an  opportunity  to  examine  with  any  attention,  the  number  of  cheek  teeth 
exceeded  those  assigned  to  this  species  by  Bachman.  According  to  this  author,  their  nests 
are  about  a  foot  under  ground,  and  composed  of  fibres  of  roots  and  grasses.  They  feed  on 
worms,  larvae  of  insects,  etc.  This  species  requires  farther  examination. 


( EXTRA-LIMIT AL. ) 

S.  cinercus.  (Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  p.  373,  pi.  23,  fig.  3.)  Dark  iron-grey  above,  silver  grey 
beneath;  teeth  26;  length  3 "3.  Carolina. 

S.  richardsonii.  (Id.  ib.  p.  383,  pi.  24,  fig.  5.)  S.  parvus.  (Richardson,  Vol.  1,  p.  8.)  Rusty 
brown  above,  beneath  cinereous ;  total  length  4*2;  teeth  32.  N.  IV.  Territory. 


22 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


S.  cooperi.  (Id.  ib.  p.  388,  pi.  24,  fig.  7.)  Dark  brown,  beneath  ash;  nose  long  and  pointed;  tail  as 
long  as  the  head  and  body;  total  length  3  ‘5.  N.  W.  Territory.  The  smallest  quadruped  yet 
observed  in  the  United  States. 

S.  fimbripes.  (Id.  ib.  p.  391,  pi.  24,  fig.  8.)  Dark  brown  above,  fawn-colored  beneath;  feet  broad, 
fringed  at  the  edges  ;  tail  a  little  shorter  than  the  body  ;  total  length  3  '9.  Pennsylvania. 

S.  palustris.  (Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  p.  5.)  Blackish  hoary  above,  lighter  beneath;  total  length  6*2. 
Arctic  Regions. 


GENUS  OTISOREX. 

Ears  large  and  prominent,  beyond  the  fur.  Nose  elongated.  Eyes  distinct.  Tail  quad¬ 
rangular.  Teeth,  33. 

Obs.  We  have  ventured  to  propose  this  group,  founded  upon  a  northern  and  southern 
species,  both  exceedingly  small. 


THE  BROAD-NOSED  SHREW. 

Otisohex  platyrhincs. 

PLATE  V.  FIG.  1.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Characteristics .  Dark  brown,  paler  beneath.  Total  length,  four  inches. 

Description.  Head  large.  Nose  much  elongated,  and  flattened  vertically ;  bordered  on 
each  side  above  with  long  whiskers,  the  tips  of  the  most  posterior  extending  beyond  the  ears  ; 
a  few  shorter  ones  on  the  lower  jaw.  Extremity  of  the  muzzle  naked  and  blackish,  bilobate 
at  the  tip  ;  nostrils  small,  lateral.  Eyes  small,  but  distinct  and  black,  equi-distant  between 
the  tip  of  the  nose  and  the  margins  of  the  ears.  Ears  very  large,  rounded  and  membrana¬ 
ceous,  sub-angular  on  the  upper  margin,  sparsely  covered  within  and  without  with  long  hairs  ; 
a  transverse  membranous  septum  across  the  auditory  foramen,  thinly  covered  with  hair.  Fore 
feet  feeble,  pentadactyle,  0-5  long.  Toes  separate,  covered  with  short,  shining,  whitish 
hairs  ;  internal  shortest ;  the  outer,  second,  fourth  and  third,  counting  from  within,  suc¬ 
cessively  longer.  Nails  moderate,  slightly  curved.  Hind  feet  slender,  O' 8  long,  sparsely 
covered  with  light  rufous  hairs.  Tail  quadrangular,  slightly  constricted  at  its  base,  tapering 
to  a  point,  covered  thinly  with  short  hairs,  but  not  concealing  the  annulations.  Fur  over  the 
whole  body  quite  long  and  thick,  varying  from  O' 2  to  O' 4  inches.  Tongue  long,  sublinear, 
papillose  with  transverse  rugae.  Weight,  45 -50  grains.  Skull  elongated.  Teeth  minute, 
tinged  with  piceous  at  their  tips.  Dental  formula  :  Incisors,  §;  cheekteeth,  if  =  32.  In 
the  upper  jaw  the  incisors  are  short,  with  broad  and  dilated  bases  :  They  have  a  double  tip, 
the  posterior  being  small,  distant  and  tubercular ;  the  five  succeeding  are  small,  the  fifth 
being,  however,  so  exceedingly  minute  as  to  escape  observation,  unless  aided  by  the  lens ; 
the  sixth  with  a  trifid  tip,  and  a  small  dilated  tubercular  heel ;  the  seventh  and  eighth  sub- 


FAMILY  URSID^E. 


23 


equal,  larger  than  the  preceding,  with  the  heel  more  robust ;  the  last  very  small,  with  a  single 
colored  tip  on  its  anterior  margin.  Beneath,  the  incisors  are  in  a  line  with  the  lower  jaw, 
with  two  distant  tubercles  on  the  outer  margin  :  The  first  cheek  teeth  small,  and  lying  on  the 
base  of  the  incisor,  with  a  single  tip  ;  the  second  larger,  with  two  small  eminences  ;  the  third 
largest  of  all,  and  with  three  very  acute  tips  ;  the  two  succeeding  similar  in  shape,  but 
smaller. 

Color.  Dark  cinereous,  slightly  tinged  with  dusky  rufous,  particularly  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  muzzle  and  inferior  portion  of  the  neck  ;  beneath,  ash  grey. 

Length  of  head  and  body, .  2 •  5.  Of  head, . O' 9. 

Length  of  tail, . . .  1'6.  Height  of  ear, . 0*2. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  G.  Bell,  a  zealous  and  acute  observer,  for  the  opportunity  offered 
of  making  the  preceding  description.  It  was  captured  last  summer  at  Tappan,  Rockland 
county,  in  the  cellar  of  a  dwelling  house,  having  taken  up  its  abode  between  the  stones  of  the 
foundation.  It  was  exceedingly  agile  ;  and  when  excited,  emitted  a  shrill,  twittering  squeak. 
It  ate  greedily  of  fresh  meat,  but  died  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  Through  the  politeness 
of  my  friend,  the  Revd.  J.  H.  Linsley  of  Elmwood  Place,  Connecticut,  I  had  an  opportunity 
of  examining  another  specimen,  which  was  obtained  from  a  log  in  the  forest  in  winter,  near 
Stratford.  According  to  Mr.  Linsley,  it  weighed  47  grains  ;  and  he  adds,  “  it  is  the  smallest 
“  quadruped  I  have  seen,  and  probably  the  least  in  America.” 

It  appears  very  closely  allied  to  the  Long-nosed  Shrew  of  Bachman,  but  differs  in  its 
general  color,  its  larger  size,  and  its  proportionally  longer  tail.  Dr.  Bachman  inclines  to  the 
opinion  that  his  species  is  aquatic  in  its  habits. 

(EXTRA-LIMIT AL. ) 

O.  longiroslris.  (Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  p.  370,  pi.  23,  fig.  2.)  Chesnut;  nose  elongated;  total 
length  2 '8.  South  Carolina. 

FAMILY  III.  URSIDJE. 

Six  incisors  in  each  jaw.  Teeth  of  three  kinds.  Feet  with  strong  claws.  Nose  moveable, 

adapted  for  excavating.  Walk  on  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Carnivorous  and  frugivoroiis. 

Some  species  hybernate. 

This  group  comprises  the  Bear,  the  Raccoon,  Badger  and  Wolverine  of  this  country.  They 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  prejudicial  to  man. 


24 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  URSUS.  Linneus. 

Head  large  ;  body  and  limbs  large  and  powerful.  Covered  with  long  shaggy  hair.  Grinders 
varying  in  number,  the  four  last  large  and  tubercular.  No  glandular  pouch  under  the  tail, 
which  is  very  short.  Incisors,  £  ;  canines,  § ;  molars,  ||  =  42. 

THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  BEAR. 

Ursus  americanus. 

PLATE  VI.  FIG.  1. 

Ursus  americanus.  Pallas,  Spicileg.  Zool.  Vol.  14,  p.  6. 

Black  Bear.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  57. 

U.  americanu ^  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  51.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  114.  Plate. 

Ours  gulaire.  Geoffroy,  Mem.  Mus.  (Variety.) 

The  Black  Bear.  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep.  1840,  p.  20. 

Characteristics.  Black  or  brownish  black  ;  a  soiled  brown  or  yellowish  patch  on  each  side  of 
the  nose.  Facial  outline  somewhat  arched.  Young  with  hair  wavy  or 
curled. 

Description.  Ears  high,  oval,  rounded  at  the  tips,  and  distant.  Soles  of  the  feet  short ; 
the  hair  projects  slightly  beyond  the  claws.  Fur  long,  straight,  shining  and  rather  soft. 
Tail  very  short.  Claws  short,  blunt,  somewhat  incurved. 

Color.  Beside  the  general  black  color  of  the  body,  which  is  occasionally  light  brown, 
verging  in  some  instances  into  soiled  yellowish,  the  sides  of  the  nose  are  of  a  fawn  color ; 
occasionally  a  white  dash  on  the  forehead  or  throat,  and  sometimes  a  small  spot  of  the  same 
is  seen  above  the  eyes.  Length  4  to  6  feet. 

The  Bear,  once  so  numerous  in  this  State,  is  now  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  mountainous 
and  thinly  inhabited  districts,  where  they  breed.  The  female,  after  a  gestation  of  about  one 
hundred  days,  brings  forth  two  cubs.  It  does  not  eat  animal  food  from  choice,  and  never 
unless  pressed  by  hunger  :  it  prefers  berries  and  fruits.  In  the  forests  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  State,  a  tornado  will  sometimes  sweep  through  a  region,  prostrating  the  pines  to  an 
extent  of  many  miles.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years,  the  wild  cherry  tree  springs  up  in  great 
numbers  on  this  tract ;  and  in  the  fruit  season,  it  becomes  the  resort  of  numerous  bears.*  It 
also  feeds  upon  the  whortleberry,  grapes,  honey,  persimons  (Diospyros),  and  roots  of  various 
kinds.  Its  fondness  for  sweet  things  is  evident  whenever  it  enters  an  apple  orchard,  invari¬ 
ably  selecting  the  sweetest  kinds.  It  will  also  devour  eggs,  insects,  and  small  quadrupeds 
and  birds  ;  but  when  it  has  abundance  of  its  favorite  vegetable  food,  will  pass  the  carcase  of 


*  The  effects  of  such  a  tornado  we  observed  in  Hamilton  county,  in  the  summer  of  1840,  near  Eighth  lake.  The  course  of 
the  windfall ,  as  it  is  popularly  called,  was  from  west  to  east.  It  extended  thirty  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  half  a  mile 
to  two  miles.  This  occurred  fifteen  years  ago.  It  has  been  subsequently  burned  over,  and  abounds  in  poplar,  white  birch,  wild 
cherries,  wild  raspberries,  etc.,  which  attracted  to  this  district  great  numbers  of  deer  and  numerous  bears. 


FAMILY  URSID.'E. 


a  deer  without  touching  it.  The  Bear  is  an  imitative  animal ;  and  hence,  when  it  meets  a 
man,  it  will  rise  on  its  hind  legs,  but  is  apparently  soon  satisfied  with  the  comparison,  and 
endeavors  to  make  its  escape.  It  is  a  great  traveller,  and  when  pursued  by  tracking,  has 
been  known  to  perform  long  journeys.  It  never  makes  immediately  for  its  retreat ;  but 
approaches  it  in  a  circling  manner.  A  bear  was  started  near  Schroon  some  years  since,  and 
after  a  chase  of  eighteen  days,  was  finally  killed.  Although  seldom  seen  during  the  chase, 
yet  he  appeared  to  be  fully  aware  that  he  was  an  object  of  pursuit,  and  the  worn  and  lacerated 
condition  of  his  feet  testified  to  his  exertions  to  escape.  They  are  numerous  along  the 
borders  of  the  Saranac,  and  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Rockland  and  Greene.  Occasion¬ 
ally  they  invade  the  enclosures  of  the  farmer,  in  search  of  potatoes  and  indian  corn.  Their 
depredations  are,  however,  speedily  checked  ;  for  they  are  timid,  and  will  never  attack  a 
man,  unless  previously  wounded,  or  in  defence  of  their  young.  Some  of  the  hunters  imagine 
that  there  are  two  varieties  of  the  common  Black  Bear,  viz.  the  short-legged  and  the  long- 
legged  ;  but  others  inform  me  that  the  difference  is  owing  entirely  to  the  fact  that  some  are 
fatter  and  more  robust,  which  produces  an  apparent  difference  in  the  length  of  their  legs. 
The  Yellow  Bear  of  Carolina,  and  the  Cinnamon  Bear  of  the  northern  regions,  are  varieties 
of  this  species.  In  this  State,  they  retire  with  the  first  fall  of  snow,  to  caverns,  or  to  the 
hollow  of  some  decayed  tree,  or  beneath  a  prostrate  tree,  during  the  winter,  and  pass  three 
or  four  months  in  a  state  of  torpidity.  In  more  southern  latitudes,  the  hybernation,  is  of 
shorter  duration,  and  ceases  to  occur  when  the  mildness  of  the  winter  enables  them  to  procure 
food.  They  are  fat  when  they  enter  their  winter  quarters,  and  much  emaciated  when  they 
leave  it  in  the  spring.  Indeed  this  condition  of  fatness  is  so  necessary,  that  when  the  supply 
of  food  is  cut  off,  instead  of  retiring  to  winter  quarters,  they  migrate  southwardly  to  warmer 
regions.  Hence  great  numbers  are  occasionally  known  to  enter  our  territory  from  the  north, 
composed  entirely  of  lean  males,  or  females  not  with  young. 

The  flesh  of  the  bear  is  savory,  but  rather  luscious,  and  tastes  not  unlike  pork.  It  was 
once  so  common  an  article  of  food  in  New-York,  as  to  have  given  the  name  of  Bear  market. 
to  one  of  the  principal  markets  in  the  city.  The  female  goes  with  young  seven  months, 
bringing  forth  two  young  in  February  or  March.  The  oil  sells  for  one  dollar  per  pound,  and 
the  skin  from  four  to  twelve  dollars,  according  to  its  value. 

The  engraving  illustrative  of  this  species  was  taken  from  a  very  large  individual  shot  on 
the  Kaaterskill  mountains,  Greene  county,  during  the  winter  of  1839.  It  measured  six  feet 
and  a  half  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail ;  and  at  the  foreshoulders,  measured  three  feet 
two  inches  from  the  ground. 

{EXTRA-LIMIT AL ) 

U.  ferox.  (Say,  Long’s  Exped.  2,  241.  Richardson,  pi.  1  and  2.)  Larger  than  the  preceding 
color  white,  brown  and  black  intermixed;  facial  outline  nearly  straight.  Northern  and  western 
regions. 

U.  maritimus.  (Godman,  pi.  fig.)  White;  facial  outline  somewhat  convex;  ears  small;  soles  of  the 
feet  very  long.  Arctic  Sea. 

Fauna. 


4 


26 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  PROCYON.  Storr. 

Head  short,  triangular,  with  a  fox-like  appearance.  Muzzle  tapering,  and  projecting 
considerably  beyond  the  mouth.  Ears  small.  Tail  long,  bushy,  not  prehensile.  Stand 
on  the  heel  of  the  hinder  leg,  but  walk  on  the  toes.  Mammae  six,  ventral.  Feet  five-toed, 
with  large  and  strong  nails.  A  glandular  pouch  on  each  side  of  the  vent.  Incisors,  £  ; 
canines,  § ;  molars,  if  =  40.  Nocturnal. 

THE  RACCOON. 

Procyon  lotor. 

PLATE  VI.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Linneus,  Beskrifnung  pa  ett  americanst  djur.  Vetensk.  Acad.  Handl.  1747,  p.  277. 

Ursus  americanus ,  cauda  elongata.  Lin.  Analect.  Transalp.  Tom.  2,  p.  35. 

Ursus  lotor.  Lin.  ed.  J2,  p.  35.  Roloff,  Description  d’un  Quadrupede  d’Amerique.  Hist,  de  Acad,  de  Berlin,  1756, 
p.  149.  Sc hultze,  Bemerkungen  iiber  den  waschharen.  Hamburg,  1787. 

Raccoon  Bear.  Pennant,  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  69. 

Procyon  lotor.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  54.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Yol.  1,  p.  163,  (figure.) 

P.  id.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Yol.  1,  p.  36. 

The  Raccoon,  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  25. 

Characteristics.  Brownish;  a  broad  black  patch  across  the  eyes.  Tail  bushy,  and  ringed 
with  black  and  grey.  Total  length  2  to  3  feet. 

Description.  Body  rather  low  on  the  legs,  and  covered  with  long  bushy  hair.  Ears  erect, 
with  rounded  tips.  Head  rounded,  terminating  in  a  pointed  muzzle.  Feet  with  five  toes, 
furnished  with  sharp  curved  claws.  Soles  with  five  stout  tubercles.  Pupils  round.  Female 
larger  than  the  male.  Hair  on  the  legs  and  feet  short. 

Color  varies  somewhat  with  age,  sex  and  season.  In  the  very  fine  specimen  in  the  State 
Collection,  the  color  above  is  a  dark  grey  mixed  with  black.  Ears  dingy  white  ;  muzzle 
black ;  the  chin  and  space  above  the  snout  reddish  white.  The  broad  black  band  across  the 
eyes  unites  under  the  throat ;  the  upper  edge  of  this  band  is  margined  with  white  over  the 
cheeks  and  eyes.  Hair  beneath  long  and  hoary.  Tail  annulated,  with  twelve  alternate 
bands  of  black  and  light,  fulvous  ;  tip  black.  In  the  female,  the  black  markings  on  the  body 
and  tail  are  of  a  deeper  hue.  Total  length  36  inches  ;  tail,  10. 

This  is  a  well  known  animal,  found  in  every  part  of  the  State.  It  has  been  quaintly  de¬ 
scribed  as  having  the  limbs  of  a  bear,  the  body  of  a  badger,  the  head  of  a  fox,  the  nose  of  a 
dog,  the  tail  of  a  cat,  and  sharp  claws  by  which  it  climbs  trees  like  a  monkey.  The  Raccoon 
is  a  restless,  mischievous  animal,  feeding  on  wild  and  domesticated  fowls,  frogs,  lizards,  fish 
and  insects.  From  its  fondness  for  water,  it  is  most  usually  found  in  low  wooded  swamps, 
making  its  lair  in  some  hollow  tree,  and  producing  four  to  six  cubs  at  a  litter  about  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  April.  It  is  susceptible  of  domestication.  Its  fur  is  an  article  of  considerable  value 


FAMILY  URSID.E. 


27 


in  commerce,  being  used  principally  in  the  fabrication  of  hats.  Its  flesh,  when  young  and 
tender,  is  savory,  tasting  not  unlike  pig;  but  in  adults,  is  rank  and  disagreeable.  Occa¬ 
sionally  the  raccoon  commits  great  ravages  among  indian  corn,  while  it  is  in  a  milky  state  ; 
and  this,  together  with  his  occasional  descents  upon  the  barn-yard,  scarcely  compensates  the 
farmer  for  his  zeal  in  digging  up  and  devouring  grubs  or  larvas  of  injurious  insects. 

The  Raccoon  is  found  all  over  North  America.  It  has  been  seen  as  high  as  60°  north  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  southern  limits  are  not  so  well  defined,  although  it  is  said  to  exist  as 
far  as  Paraguay ;  it  may  possibly  be  confounded  with  another  species,  which,  however,  has 
not  yet  been  clearly  identified.  • 

( EXTRA-LIMIT AL. ) 

Genus  Meles,  Brisson.  Body  robust,  low  on  the  legs;  ears  short  and  wide;  anterior  nails  very  large. 
Tail  short,  with  a  glandular  pouch  beneath.  Incisors,  $  ;  canines,  J  ;  molars,  }§  =  38.  Bur¬ 
rowing;  nocturnal. 

M.  labradoria.  American  badger.  (Godman,  1,  176,  fig.  Rich.  pi.  2.)  Hoary;  a  white  stripe 
down  the  forehead ;  a  greyish  brown  or  blackish  patch  includes  the  eye,  and  extends  to  the  tip  of 
the  nose.  Tail  3.  Northern  regions.  Plains  of  Missouri. 

Obs.  In  some  parts  of  this  State,  the  woodchuck  ( Arctomys  monax)  is  called  Badger  ;  but  I  am  not 
aware  that  the  true  Badger  exists  here. 

GENUS  GULO.  Storr,  Cuvier. 

Body  long,  and  low  on  the  legs.  Soles  of  the  hind  feet  capable  of  being  applied  wholly  or  in 
part  upon  the  ground.  Tail  bushy.  A  simple  fold  beneath  the  tail,  instead  of  a  glandular 
pouch.  Feet  five-toed,  with  strong  hooked  claws.  36  -  38  teeth.  Carniverous.  Noc¬ 
turnal. 

Obs.  This  genus  is  arranged  by  some  naturalists  among  the  Mustelidce,  to  which  indeed  it 
bears  by  its  dental  system  a  close  relation.  The  ensemble  of  its  characters  would  seem, 
however,  to  place  it  in  its  present  family,  making  an  easy  transition  to  the  next.  In  the 
latest  systematic  writers,  four  species  are  noted,  most  of  them  peculiar  to  America.  The  two 
from  North  America  appear  to  differ  only  in  color,  and  are  considered  by  many  as  mere 
varieties. 

THE  WOLVERENE. 

Gulo  luscus. 

PLATE  XII.  FIG.  2.  —  (CABINET  OF  THE  LYCEUM  ) 

Carcajou.  La  Hontan,  Voyage,  Vol.  1,  p.  81. 

Ursus  luscus.  Lin.  12  ed.  p.  71. 

Wolverene.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  66-  Lawaon^  Carolina^figuyc^ 

Gulo  arcticus.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  60. 

G.  luscus.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  185,  plate. 

Wolverene.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  41. 


28 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Characteristics.  Color  dark  brown,  passing  into  black,  with  a  lighter  broad  band  on  the  flanks 
and  thighs.  Tail  with  long  pendulous  hairs. 

Description.  Body  stout  and  compactly  made,  with  an  arched  back,  and  little  elevated  from 
the  ground.  Head  small,  broad,  rounded,  suddenly  diminishing  to  the  nose.  Ear's  small, 
rounded,  and  nearly  concealed  among  the  fur.  Eyes  small.  Fur  loose  and  shaggy.  The 
tail,  which  scarcely  exceeds  six  inches,  is  very  bushy,  and  covered  on  its  sides  and  extremity 
with  long  pendulous  hairs.  Legs  short  and  thick  ;  toes  distinct,  and  armed  with  five  hooked 
clqyvs.  Soles  of  the  fore  feet  with  five,  and  hind  feet  with  four  tubercles. 

Color.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  general  color  of  this  animal;  varying  from  light  cream 
to  a  deep  blackish  brown.  Its  usual  color  is  as  follows  :  Blackish  brown,  becoming  deeper 
on  the  sides  of  the  face,  on  the  back  and  extremities ;  more  or  less  white  on  the  chin  and 
between  the  fore  legs.  Hair  on  the  tail,  deep  black  ;  on  the  legs,  brownish  black.  A  pale 
crescent-shaped  band  over  the  head,  between  the  ears  and  the  eyes.  A  broad  band  of  light 
chesnut  along  the  flanks,  becoming  dilated  on  the  thigh,  and  ascending  over  the  rump,  where 
it  meets  with  a  similar  band  from  the  other  side.  The  young  have  a  uniform  downy  cream- 
colored  fur.  Head  and  body,  24' 0  ;  tail  (vertebrae),  6’  0  ;  including  fur,  9 •  0. 

Although  we  have  not  met  with  this  animal,  yet  hunters  who  have  killed  them  repeatedly, 
and  knew  them  well,  have  assured  us  that  they  are  still  found  in  the  districts  north  of  Raquet 
lake.  It  is,  however,  every  where  a  rare  species.  Prof.  Emmons  states  that  they  still  exist 
in  the  Hoosac  mountains,  Massachusetts. 

The  Wolverene  is  a  very  troublesome  and  destructive  animal.  Like  the  Fisher,  it  has 
been  known  to  follow  “a  sable  line”  of  40-50  miles,  destroying  every  trap  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  the  bait.  Much  of  the  fictitious  history  of  this  animal  is  founded  on  the  circum¬ 
stance  that  the  name  of  Wolverene  is  also  applied  to  the  Felis  rafa,  or  Bay  Lynx ;  and  in  this 
we  are  to  account  for  its  habit  of  climbing  trees,  etc.  attributed  to  it  by  Lawson,  Buffon  and 
others.  It  destroys  great  numbers  of  the  smaller  quadrupeds.  The  celebrated  half  breed, 
John  Hunter,  informed  me  that  it  was  called  gwing-gwah-gay  by  the  Indians  of  his  tribe, 
which  he  interpreted  “  a  tough  thing,”  or  as  he  afterwards  explained  it,  “  a  hard  character,” 
in  allusion  to  its  mischievous  disposition.  He  assured  me  that  he  had  known  it  to  be  domes¬ 
ticated,  and  employed  by  the  Indians  to  catch  beaver. 

The  Wolverene  was  formerly  found  as  far  south  as  Carolina,  but  its  southern  limits  at  pre¬ 
sent  do  not  extend  south  of  the  forty-second  degree.  To  the  north,  it  extends  to  the  polar 
seas,  as  high  as  the  seventy-fifth  degree  of  north  latitude. 


FAMILY  MUSTELIDJ2. 


29 


FAMILY  IV.  M  US  TEL  ID/E . 

Comprises  small  carnivorous  animals,  with  long  vermiform  bodies  on  short  feet.  Neck  long. 
Ears  short  and  rounded.  Tail  long,  rarely  bushy.  Digitigrade,  or  walking  on  their 
toes.  All  diffusing  a  strong  odor,  which  in  some  genera  forms  a  defensive  weapon.  In¬ 
cisors,  | ;  canines,  §  ;  cheek  teeth,  =  34  -  36. 

Obs.  This  family  embraces  the  animals  formerly  included  in  the  old  linnean  genus  Mustela, 
and  familiarly  known  in  this  country  under  the  names  of  Mink,  Skunk,  Weasel  and  Marten. 
They  have  been  distributed  by  Cuvier  into  four,  and  by  later  writers  into  fifteen  genera,  in¬ 
cluding  nearly  sixty  species  distributed  over  the  globe.  In  this  State,  we  have  the  types  of 
three  genera  :  Mephitis,  Mustela  and  Putorius. 

GENUS  MEPHITIS.  Cuvier. 

Head  small,  with  a  blunt  muzzle  and  slight  arched  facial  outline.  Fur  coarse  and  shaggy. 
Tail  bushy.  Fore  feet  robust,  with  five  long  stout  claws.  Incisors,  f  ;  canines,  %  ;  cheek 
teeth,  T%  —  32.  Nocturnal.  Burrowing.  Peculiar  to  America. 

Obs.  Were  we  to  place  reliance  upon  figures  and  descriptions,  we  might  enumerate  nineteen 
species ;  all  of  which  are,  however,  considered  mere  varieties. 

THE  SKUNK. 

Mephitis  americana. 

PLATE  XII.  FIG.  1.— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Viverra  mephitis.  Lin.  Gmel. 

Striated  Weasel,  and  Skunk.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  83  and  85. 

Stifling  Weasel.  Loskiel,  p.  85. 

Mustela  americana.  Desmarest,  Mamm.  p.  186. 

Mephitis  id.  Sabine,  Frank.  Jour.  p.  653.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  70. 

M.  id.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  213,  figure. 

M.  id.  var.  hudsonica.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  55. 

Characteristics.  Black  or  brownish  black,  with  an  irregular  whitish  patch  or  stripe  over  the 
shoulders.  Many  varieties  in  its  white  marks.  Length  about  two  feet. 

Description.  Head  small,  when  compared  to  the  mass  of  the  body  ;  arched  on  its  facial  out¬ 
line.  Snout  obtuse.  Eyes  small  and  black.  Ears  small,  broad  and  rounded.  Feet  broad; 
and  covered  with  hair,  concealing  the  strong  and  white  claws  ;  those  on  the  anterior  extremi¬ 
ties  very  robust  and  curved.  Canines  strong  and  conical.  The  great  carnivorous  molar  above, 
with  a  large  internal  tubercle.  Trunk  of  the  tail  of  a  moderate  length-,  about  half  the  length 
of  the  head  and  body. 


30 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Color.  The  variations  in  its  markings  are  so  great,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  construct 
a  specific  phrase,  applicable  to  the  greatest  number  of  these  varieties.  The  specimen  in  the 
State  Collection,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  size  and  the  beauty  of  its  fur,  presents  the  fol¬ 
lowing  appearances  :  Deep  jet  black  over  the  whole  body  and  tail,  with  the  exceptions  to  be 
noted.  A  narrow  longitudinal  white  streak,  rather  more  than  an  inch  in  length,  commences 
between  the  eyes,  and  extends  to  the  nape.  Somewhat  posterior  to  this,  is  a  broad  patch  of  a 
light  cream-color,  commencing  abruptly,  dilated  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  then  narrowing  on 
the  shoulders  where  it  bifurcates.  It  terminates  dilated  on  the  side,  where  the  base  of  the 
hair  appears  tinted  with  flesh-color;  a  few  straggling  while  hairs  on  the  rump.  Tail  with 
white  hairs,  but  black  throughout  so  much  of  outer  ends  as  to  assume  that  color,  except  where 
they  are  entirely  white  and  quite  long.  Total  length,  30" 0;  tail  (vertebras),  9 ' 0 ;  tips  of 
hairs,  13’ 0. 

This  well  known  and  thoroughly  detested  animal  is  supposed  to  exist  throughout  the  whole 
American  continent,  from  the  frozen  regions  of  the  north,  to  Paraguay  and  Chili.  The  pecu¬ 
liar  organs  of  defence  with  which  it  is  provided,  render  it  highly  interesting.  These  fetid  and 
detestable  discharges  do  not  proceed  from  the  bladder ;  nor  is  it  distributed  over  its  enemies 
by  its  tail,  as  is  generally  supposed.  It  proceeds  from  two  anal  glands,  which  open  by  ducts 
into  the  rectum,  and  is  ejected  by  muscular  exertion  at  the  will  of  the  animal ;  the  tail  being 
elevated  at  the  same  time,  in  order  to  prevent  its  coming  into  contact  with  this  yellow  fluid, 
which  must  be  as  disgusting  to  itself  as  it  is  deadly  nauseating  to  its  enemies.  It  is  stated 
by  Godman,  that  this  fetid  discharge  was  perceived  at  night  to  be  luminous.  Fortunately  for 
the  comfort  of  his  neighbors,  he  appears  to  be  a  peaceful  animal,  and  never  emits  his  potent 
odors  unless  attacked  by  an  animal  larger  than  himself.  Some  idea  of  the  subtle  and  far  per¬ 
vading  influence  of  this  fetor  may  be  conceived  from  a  fact  by  Dr.  Wiley  of  Block  Island,  in 
the  Medical  Repository :  He  has  distinctly  perceived  the  smell  of  a  skunk,  although  the 
nearest  land  was  twenty  miles  distant.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  is  often  seen  sporting 
about  on  a  bright  moonlight  night.  He  is  a  good  burrower,  and  for  this  purpose  his  fore  feet 
and  claws  are  well  adapted.  I  have  seen  some  of  their  burrows  running  horizontally  twelve 
to  fifteen  feet  under  ground,  at  about  two  feet  below  the  surface.  The  flesh,  when  carefully 
prepared,  is  very  sweet ;  but  from  the  general  repugnance  to  its  unsavory  habits,  it  is  only 
eaten  by  the  curious  or  the  indigent.  A  person  in  my  neighborhood  took  nineteen  from  one 
burrow,  and  salted  them  for  family  use  during  the  winter.  It  produces  from  six  to  ten  at  a 
litter.  It  feeds  on  birds  and  their  eggs,  on  frogs,  and  on  field  mice  and  other  small  quadrupeds. 
He  is  regarded  as  a  fit  subject  for  extermination,  on  account  of  the  havoc  which  he  causes 
in  the  poultry-house  and  barn-yard.  His  fur  is  coarse,  and  of  no  value  as  an  article  of  com¬ 


merce. 


FAMILY  MUSTELIDjE. 


31 


GENUS  MUSTELA.  Cuvier. 

Head  small,  oval.  Fur  exceedingly  fine.  Tail  usually  long  and  cylindrical.  One  addi¬ 
tional  molar  above  and  below. 


THE  FISHER. 

Mustela  canadensis. 

PLATE  XIII.  FIG.  1.  Skull.  — (CABINET  OF  THE  LYCEUM  ) 

Mustela  canadensis.  LlN.  Gmel.  Vol.  1,  p.  95. 

The  Fisher.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  82. 

M.  pennanti.  Erxleben,  System,  p.  470. 

M.  canadensis.  Harlan,  Faun.  Am.  p.  65. 

Pennant’s  Marten.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  203. 

Pekan  or  Fisher.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  52. 

Pekan  or  Fisher  'Weasel.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1838,  p.  24 ;  of  1840,  p.  38. 

Black  Cat  of  the  New-York  hunters. 

Characteristics.  Greyish  over  the  head  and  anterior  parts  of  the  body  ;  dark  brown  or  black 
behind.  Tail  bushy.  The  largest  of  the  genus. 

Description.  Form  of  the  body  typical.  Head  broad  ;  nose  acute.  Ears  about  three  inches 
from  the  nose,  broad,  rounded  and  distant.  Canines  long,  more  particularly  those  of  the  upper 
jaw ;  penultimate  molar  with  a  process  on  its  inner  anterior  margin.  Fore  feet  shorter  than 
hind  feet,  robust,  and  covered  with  long  hair.  Soles  of  the  feet  thickly  covered  with  short 
hair.  Toes  connected  partially  by  a  short  hairy  web;  the  nails  sharp,  strong,  and  incurved. 
Tail  moderately  long,  bushy  and  acuminated  at  the  tip,  the  hairs  reaching  two  and  a  half  to 
three  inches  beyond  the  vertebra.  Fur  long,  fine  and  lustrous,  increasing  in  length  on  the 
posterior  parts  of  the  animal ;  it  consists  of  two  kinds,  a  short  brown  down,  and  longer  and 
more  rigid  hairs ;  longer  and  blacker  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

Color.  The  markings  are  somewhat  irregular ;  and  there  is  a  variety  which,  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  the  nose  and  feet,  is  entirely  white.  The  general  and  more  usual  distribution  of 
the  colors  is  noted  in  the  specific  phrase.  The  long  rigid  hairs  are  brown  at  the  base,  and 
greyish  towards  the  tips.  This  greyish  color  predominates  so  much  on  the  head,  neck, 
shoulders,  upper  and  anterior  portions  of  the  body,  as  to  give  to  those  parts  a  hoary  appearance. 
Towards  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  and  including  the  tail,  the  color  deepens  into  a  dark 
brown  or  jet  black.  Throat,  legs  and  belly  blackish  brown,  with  occasionally  a  small  white 
spot  on  its  throat,  and  a  trace  of  another  on  the  belly,  sometimes  unspotted  beneath.  Chin  and 
nose  brown.  Ears  margined  with  yellowish  white.  It  is  said  to  be  lighter  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  -Length  of  head  and  body,  24 ‘0  ;  of  tail  (vertebra),  1 1 '0. 

The  Fisher  or  Black  Cat  of  our  hunters,  is  a  large  and  powerful  animal,  standing  nearly  a 
foot  from  the  ground.  It  was  formerly  very  abundant  in  this  State,  but  is  now  confined  to 


32 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


thinly  settled  northern  districts.  Twenty  years  ago,  they  were  numerous  in  the  western  part 
of  the  State,  where  they  are  now  scarcely  ever  seen.  It  is  a  nocturnal  species,  and  lives 
chiefly  on  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  but  also  devours  frogs,  fish  and  serpents.  It  climbs  trees 
with  great  ease,  and  takes  up  its  abode  in  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  It  appears  to  prefer  marshy 
wooded  swamps,  and  the  vicinity  of  lakes  and  water  courses. 

The  name  of  Fisher,  which  has  been  censured  as  not  applicable  to  this  animal,  is,  however, 
that  by  which  it  is  best  known,  and  which  it  has  received  from  its  characteristic  habits. 
Richardson  states  that  it  feeds  on  the  hoards  of  frozen  fish  stored  up  by  the  residents.  We 
are  informed  by  a  person  who  resided  many  years  near  Lake  Oneida,  where  the  Fisher  was 
then  common,  that  the  name  was  derived  from  its  singular  fondness  for  the  fish  used  to  bait 
traps.  The  hunters  were  in  the  practice  of  soaking  their  fish  over  night,  and  it  was  frequently 
carried  off  by  the  fisher,  whose  well  known  tracks  were  seen  in  the' vicinity.  In  Hamilton 
county  it  is  still  numerous  and  troublesome.  The  hunters  there  have  assured  me  that  they 
have  known  a  fisher  to  destroy  twelve  out  of  thirteen  traps  in  a  line  of  not  more  than  fourteen 
miles  in  length.  It  brings  forth  two  young  annually.  The  hunting  season  for  the  fisher  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  State,  commences  about  the  tenth  of  October,  and  lasts  to  the  middle 
of  May,  when  the  furs  are  not  so  valuable.  The  ordinary  price  is  $1 '50  per  skin  ;  but  it  is 
not  so  fine,  nor  so  highly  valued  as  that  of  the  sable.  Its  geographical  range  is  included 
between  the  fortieth  and  seventieth  parallels  of  latitude,  extending  across  the  continent. 

THE  AMERICAN  SABLE. 

Mustela  martes. 

PLATE  XI.  FIG.  2  — PLATE  XIX.  FIG.  2.  Skull.  —  (CABINET  OF  THE  LYCEUM  ) 

Mustela  tnartes.  Lin.  Gmel.  Vol.  1,  p.  95. 

Pine  Marten.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  76.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  67.  Godman,  Vol.  1,  p.  200,  figure.  Richardson, 
F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  51,  (summer  dress.) 

M.  zibbellina?  Godman,  Vol.  1,  p.  208. 

M.  huro.  Fred.  Cuvier. 

Pine  Marten.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1838,  p.  25. 

The  Sable  of  the  New- York  hunters. 

Characteristics.  Varying  in  color  from  tawny  to  brown  or  black.  Head  constantly  lighter. 

Length  20  -  30  inches. 

Description.  Head  long  and  pointed.  ■  Stands  rather  high  on  its  feet.  Ears  broad,  short, 
and  somewhat  acuminated.  Eyes  small  and  black.  Tail  bushy,  and  enlarged  towards  the 
end.  Toes  with  long,  slender  and  compressed  nails,  nearly  concealed  by  the  hair. 

Color,  various,  according  to  age,  season  and  latitude.  The  following  notes  are  derived 
from  four  specimens  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum  : 

No.  1  is  larger  and  higher  colored  than  the  others,  measuring  thirty  inches  in  its  total 
length.  Head,  sides  of  the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  throat  white.  Chin  with  a  slight 


FAMILY  MUSTELID.E. 


33 


tinge  of  brown.  Ears  margined  with  white.  Reddish  brown  behind  the  ears.  The  inside 
of  the  legs,  inferior  and  posterior  parts  of  the  feet,  and  the  palms,  dark  brown.  Tail  ten 
and  a  half  inches  long, ,  the  tip  of  the  hairs  extending  four  inches  beyond  the  vertebra ; 
dark  brown  at  the  tip,  intermixed  with  a  few  white  hairs ;  remainder  of  the  body  and  tail 
yellowish  while,  becoming  deeper  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  body.  Throughout  pale 
yellow.  Claws  white.  The  plate  represents  this  specimen.  _  , 

No.  2  is  smaller,  being  only  twenty-two  inches  in  length.  Head,  chin  and  ears  entirely 
white.  Feet  at  the  base  with  an  obsolete  circle  of  dusky  brown.  A  dusky  indistinct  line 
along  the  dorsal  ridge.  Tail  dusky  for  two-thirds  of  its  length  from  the  tip.  General  color 
bright  orange,  more  vivid  on  the -flanks  and  abdomen.  Palms  light-colored. 

No.  3  and  4  resemble  each  other  in  the  distribution  of  their  colors,  but  are  smaller  than  the 
preceding.  Head  greyish  white  ;  brownish  behind  the 'ears.  General  color  fulvous,  inter¬ 
mixed  on  the  back  and  abdomen  with  brown,  giving  a  dark  hue  to  the  animal.  Legs,  feet 
and  tail  blackish  brown,  the  latter  increasing  in  intensity  towards  its  tip'. 

The  Sable  is  a  very  pretty  and  active  little  animal,  inhabiting  the  elevated  and  wooded 
districts  in  the- northern  parts  of  the  State.  It  lives  entirely  in  trees,  and  brings  forth  six  to 
eight  at  a  litter.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  and  excessively  carnivorous ;  feeding  on  mice, 
birds’ eggs,  squirrels,  etc.  The -females  are  said  to  be  smaller  than  the  males.  It  has  been 
tamed ;  but  from  its  petulant  character,  is  never  docile.  The  fur  is  exceedingly  beautiful, 
and  highly  esteemed.  The  hunters  assure  me,  that  as  you  proceed  north,  the  fur  becomes 
darker  and  more  valuable,  but  this  seems  rather  a  peculiarity  in  certain  districts.  Those 
obtained  in  our  State,  are  more  usually  of  the  color  noted  in  the  figure,  and  sell  for  about 
$1 -25  apiece. 

The  Sable  is  exceedingly  active,  and  destroys  great  quantities  of  squirrels,  the  red  squirrel 
only  occasionally  escaping  by  its  superior  agility.  It  is  so  prolific,  and  finds  the  means 
of  living  with  so  much  ease,  that  it  would  long  since  have  multiplied  to  a  great  extent,  were 
it  -not  hunted  so  perseveringly  for  its  fur.  The  hunting  season  for  the  sable  in  this  State 
begins  about  the  tenth  of  October,  and  ends  in  the  middle  of  April.  The  hunters  assert,  that 
in  the  beech-nut  season,  when  they  are  very  abundant,  the  sable  will  not  touch  bait  of 
any  kind,  ■  believing  that  at  that  time  it  feeds  upon  these  nuts.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  abundance  of  nuts  attracts  great  numbers  of  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  who  are  thus  offered 
an  easy  prey  to  the  sable. 

A  line  of  traps  for  these  animals,  technically  called  “  a  sable  line,”  sometimes  extends 
sixty  or  seventy  miles,  containing  six  to  ten  traps  in  a  mile,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground.  The  construction  of  these  traps  is  exceedingly  simple.  The  hunter  cuts  off  long 
chips  from  the  nearest  tree,  and  drives  them  into  the  ground,  forming  three  sides  of  a  square 
about  six  inches  across  ;  the  top  is  covered  with  spruce  boughs.  The  bait,  which  is  either  a 
bit  of  venison,  mice,  red  squirrel,  or  any  other  small  animal,  is  put  on  the  end  of  a  round 
stick  and  placed  within  the  trap,  resting  on  a  round  stick  lying  on  the  ground  across  the  open 
end  ;  on  this  rests  a  short  upright  stick,  supporting  a  heavy  log  or  small  tree.  Any  distur¬ 
bance  of  the  bait  causes  the  log  to  fall  and  crush  the  animal.  These  traps  are  visited  once  a 
Fauna. 


0 


34 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


fortnight,  and  oftener  if  practicable.  The  fisher  and  wolvrene,  as  we  have  before  remarked, 
will  often  destroy  these  traps,  by  breaking  into  them  behind,  and  eat  up  not  only  the  bait, 
but  the  captured  animal. 

I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  American  Sable  is  very  distinct  from  the  Pine  Marten  of 
Europe,  with  which  it  is  usually  arranged  ;  but  as  I  have  had  no  means  of  making  a  direct 
comparison,  I  shall  adhere  to  the  ancient  name.  Its  geographical  range  extends  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  it  is  found  in  all  the  dry  wooded  districts  between  the  fortieth  and 
sixty-eighth  parallels  of  north  latitude. 


THE  SMALL  WEASEL 

Mustela  pusilla. 

PLATE  XIV.  FIG.  I.  — (ALBANY  MUSEUM.) 

Mustela  ( Putorius )  vulgaris.  Richardson,  (excl.  syn.)  Fauna  Bor.  Am.  Vol.  1,  p.  45. 

P.  vulgaris.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  44. 

Characteristics.  Color  same  as  that  of  P.  noveboracensis  in  its  summer  coat,  but  smaller ; 

unchanging.  Tail  one-fourth  of  the  whole  length.  Length  12-13  inches. 

Description.  Body  vermiform ;  head  somewhat  obtusely  pointed.  Ears  broad,  wide,  and 
slightly  pointed  above.  Eyes  black  and  prominent.  A  series  of  dark  brownish  whiskers  along 
the  upper  lips,  and  another,  consisting  of  five  or  six,  parallel  with  it  above ;  a  small  patch 
of  two  or  three  above  the  eye.  Fore  feet  short,  and  rather  robust ;  claws  acute,  curved,  and 
almost  entirely  concealed  by  the  long  hairs.  Tail  short,  cylindrical,  even  throughout,  not 
bushy;  the  tips  of  hairs  extending  beyond  the  vertebrae.  Teeth  of  the  typical  number  ;  above, 
the  two  outer  incisors  largest,  the  intermediate  ones  equal ;  beneath,  they  are  crowded,  with 
the  two  external  largest,  the  two  intermediate  small,  and  the  remaining  two  behind  and 
somewhat  between  the  external  and  medial  incisors.  In  the  upper  jaw,  the  second  jaw  tooth 
is  small  and  distant,  the  posterior  with  a  large  spur  directed  inwards. 

Color.  Unifonn  throughout  the  year ;  more  glossy,  but  paler  than  in  the  New-York  weasel. 
Upper  part  of  the  head,  neck  and  body,  of  a  light  reddish  brown  ;  the  same  color  prevails  on 
the  outer  and  anterior  part  of  the  fore  legs,  the  whole  of  the  head,  legs,  rump  and  tail.  The 
chin,  a  small  spot  above  the  angle  of  the  jaw  extending  to  the  borders  of  the  upper  lip, 
throat,  belly  and  breast,  white.  On  the  throat  this  color  extends  to  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
appears  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  fore  legs,  becomes  dilated  on  the  anterior  part  of  the 
abdomen,  then  irregularly  contracted,  and  subsequently  throwing  off  an  acute-angled  patch 
of  the  same  color  on  the  upper  and  external  part  of  the  thighs.  Tail  a  shade  darker  at  the  tip. 

Total  length, .  10-8.  Tail  (vertebrae), .  l-8. 

Head  and  neck, _  2-8.  Ditto,  including  fur, _  2*1. 

Body, .  6-0. 


FAMILY  MUSTELINE. 


35 


We  suppose  this  to  be  the  Common  Weasel  of  Richardson,  which  he  states  to  be  identical 
with  the  Common  Weasel  of  Europe.  It  is,  however,  generically  different,  and  we  have 
been  consequently  compelled  to  suggest  a  distinctive  name.  Godman,  Vol.  1,  p.  193,  asserts, 
on  the  authority  of  Charles  Bonaparte,  that  the  Ermine,  in  its  summer  coat,  has  been  usually 
considered  by  naturalists  as  the  M.  vulgaris  of  Europe.  This  is  a  mistake  :  it  is  the  present 
species  which  has  thus  been  confounded. 

It  is  by  no  means  a  rare  animal,  but  is  difficult  to  capture,  and  is  usually  known  under  the 
name  of  the  Little  Weasel.  It  feeds  on  mice,  insects,  young  birds,  eggs,  etc.,  and  possesses 
all  the  voracity  characteristic  of  the  tribe. 

THE  BROWN  WEASEL. 

Mustela  fusca. 

Mustela  fusca .  Bachman,  Proceed.  Ac.  Sc.  1841,  p.  94. 

Characteristics.  Brown  above ;  pure  white  beneath.  Tail  one-fifth  of  the  whole  length. 

Feet  with  long  hairs.  Length,  12"  0. 

Description.  Form  as  in  the  preceding,  but  more  robust.  Feet  remarkably  robust,  and 
densely  covered  with  long  hairs,  which  almost  conceal  the  nails.  Ears  broad  and  rounded. 
Tail  with  no  enlarged  tuft  at  the  end. 

Color.  Dark  fawn  above,  becoming  deeper  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  back ;  the  tip  of 
the  tail  still  darker.  Beneath,  pure  white,  from  the  chin  extending  around  the  mouth,  throat, 
belly,  and  interior  of  the  extremities. 


Head  and  body, .  9  •  1 . 

Tail  (vertebras), .  2  •  8. 

Tail,  including  hairs, . . 3'2. 


In  the  State  Collection  is  a  specimen  of  this  animal,  upon  which  I  made,  in  1840,  two  years 
since,  the  following  note  :  “  Taken  in  May,  in  Suffolk  county  ;  differs  from  pusilla  units  legs, 
“  which  are  very  robust,  and  covered  with  long  hair.  It  resembles  noveboracensis  in  its 
“  markings ;  allied  to  vulgaris  of  Richardson,  (excl.  syn.),  but  his  species  has  slender  feet. 
“  We  wait  for  more  extended  opportunities  of  comparison,  before  considering  it  a  new 
“  species.” 

Recently,  Bachman,  (Op.  cit.)  has  gi\en  this  a  careful  examination,  and  distinguished  it 
as  a  new  species.  We  adopt  his  name. 

(EXTRA-LIMITAL) 

M.  frenata,  Lichtenstein.  (Bachm.  Proc.  Ac.  Sc.)  Light  fawn  above,  yellowish  beneath;  ears  and, 
nose  dark  brown ;  a  white  spot  on  the  head,  and  a  band  above  the  eyes.  Whole  length  18  inches; 
tail  6  •  5.  California. 


36 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  I’UTORIUS.  Cuvier. 

Form  and  habits  of  the  preceding.  Head  sub-globose.  Muzzle  short  and  blunt.  Body 

highly  vermiform.  Neck  very  long.  Tail  long,  cylindrical,  not  bushy.  Cheek  teeth  T\. 

All  with  a  musky  odor.  Nocturnal. 

THE  NEW-YORK  ERMINE 

PUTORItJS  NOVEBORACENSIS. 

PLATE  XII.  FIG.  2,  Winter  dress.  — PLATE  XIV.  FIG.  2,  Summer  dress.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Stoat  Weasel.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  75. 

Mustela  erminea.  Harlan,  Fauna  Am.  p.  62. 

The  Ermine  Weasel.  Godmas,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  VoL  1,  p.  193,  fig.  1,  winter  dress.  Id.  ib.  Vol.  1,  p.  693,  pi.  fig.  2, 
summer  dress. 

Putorius  noveboracensis.  .  Report  N.  Y.  Survey,  1840,  p.  18.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  45. 

•  ‘  ..  '  • 

Characteristics.  Summer,  reddish  brown  above,  yellowish  beneath ;  winter,  white.  Tip  of 
the  tail  black.  Length  16-24  inches. 

Description.  Neck  and  body  long  and  slender.  Forehead  convex.  Whiskers  numerous, 
a  few  extending  as  far  as  the  ears.  Eyes  small,  black  and  lively,  0*7  distant  from  the 
nose.  Ears  low,  broad  and  rounded,  0*5  high,  not  entirely  surrounding  the  auditory  canal, 
which  is  covered  with  long  hair ;  on  the  margin,  the  hairs  are  sparse  and  short.  Legs 
short,  robust,  five-toed,  the  inner  much  the  shortest.  In  winter,  the  sharp  curved  claws- 
and  the  soles  covered  with  hair.  Six  abdominal  and  ventral  teats.  Fur  short  and  soft,  some¬ 
what  coarser  and  longer  on  the  hairy  tail,  which  is  bushy  at  the  end.  Teeth  thirty-four,  as 
in  P.  vison. 

Color.  In  summer  the  head,  neck  and  body  chesnut  brown  above,  darker  behind,  and  in¬ 
creasing  in  intensity  along  the  tail  to  the  tip.  This  brown  color  extends  along  the  flanks,  and 
the  external  parts  of  the  extremities.  Chin  whitish,  passing  into  yellowish  white.  A  whitish 
stripe  commencing  at  the  chin,  expanding  a  little  on  the  throat  towards  the  ears,  broader  over 
the  breast,  covering  the  interior  and  upper  part  of  the  fore  legs,  preserves  nearly  the  same 
breadth  along  the  belly,  and  terminates  on  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  thighs.  This  color 
is  separated  along  its  course  from  the  brown  above  by  a  well  defined  irregular  line,  which 
is  occasionally  dark  brown.  This  is  the  ordinary  state  of  the  fur  during  summer,  which  it 
often  retains  late  in  autumn,  and,  as  I  have  reason  to  believe,  often  through  the  winter.  My 
friend  Mr.  Linsley  has  a  specimen,  which  is  “  entirely  rufous  black,  with  two  white  spots 
“  under  the  throat ;  lower  jaw  white  from  the  point  to  the  rictus.”  In  its  complete  winter 
coat,  it  is  pure  white  along  the  back,  light  sulphur  yellow  along  the  sides  and  beneath, 
including  the  legs.  Tail  jet  black  at  the  tip. 


FAMILY  MUSTELID-D- 


3? 


Length  of  head, _ 2*0.  Tail  (vertebrae), _ 4-0. 

Length  of  neck, .  2'0.  Ditto,  including  fur,.  5'1. 

Length  of  body, _ 6'5. 

These  are,  however,  not  the  largest  dimensions.  I  have  seen  one  from  Dutchess  county, 
and  another  from  Rockland  county,  measuring  sixteen  and  a  half  inches ;  and  my  friend  Mr. 
Linsley  states,  that  he  has  one  measuring  twenty  and  a  half  inches. 

The  habits  of  this  animal,  as  the  ruthless,  destroyer  of  poultry,  are  well  known  ;  but  these 
injuries,  which  are  obvious  and  potent,  are,  we  think,  more  than  counterbalanced  by  their 
destruction  of  hordes  of  mice  which  congregate  in  barns  and  in  stacks  of  grain  exposed  in  the 
fields..  Upon  one  occasion,  we  remember  to  have  seen  an  example  of  fifty  or  sixty  mice, 
whose  lacerated  remains  bore  testimony  to  the  valuable  services  of  this  species. 

I  have  never  seen  the  true  Ermine  in  its  summer  dress,  and  only  know  it  from  Pennant’s 
description  (Arct.  Zool.  Yol.  1,  p.  75) :  “  Ears  edged  with  white ;  head,  back,  side  and  legs, 
“  pale  tawny  brown  ;  under  side  of  body  white  ;  lower  part  of  tail  brown,  end  black.” 

Our  animal  is  exceedingly  active,  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  hiding  under  piles  of  wood 
or  stone.  We  do  not  know  whether  it  makes  a  burrow.  Its  geographical  limits  as  yet  are 
not  settled.  We  suppose  it  to  be  a  northern  animal,  found  as  far  south  as  Pennsylvania.  lit 
its  white  coat,  it  is  called,  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  the  Catamingo,  and  the  White- 
W easel. 

THE  MINK. 

PCTORLDS  YISON. 

PLATE  XI.  FIG.  1.  — PLATE  VIII.  FIG.  3;  a,  b.  Skull.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Mustela  wson.  Lin.  Gmel.  Vol.  1,  p.  9-1. 

Minx  Oner.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  87. 

Vison.  Id.  u  ib.  p.  78. 

M.  vison.  Harlan,  Fauna  Am.  p.  65. 

M.  lutreola.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  206. 

M.  (Putorius)  vison.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  49. 

Characteristics.  Tawny.  Chin  white  or  yellowish  white.  Ears  short,  and  mostly  concealed 
in  the  fur.  Tail  half  as  long  as  head  and  body.  Length  20  "0  -  25 ‘0. 

Description.  Body  long  and  slender.  Head  small  and  rounded.  Ears  broad  and  low,  with 
the  auricular  opening  very  large ;  they  are  nearly  hidden  by  the  fur.  Eyes  small.  Whiskers 
stiff,  shorter  than  the  head.  Muzzle  thick,  and  somewhat  depressed.  Neck  very  long.  Legs 
short  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  animal.  Claws  short,  slightly  curved,  blackish  at  the 
base,  horn-colored  at  the  tips,  and  nearly  concealed  by  long  subrigid  hairs.  Toes  webbed, 
with  short  hairs  on  the  webs  above  and  below.  Tail  thick  at  the  base,  cylindrical,  slender, 
gradually  tapering  to  the  tip.  The  fur  shortest  on  the  head,  longer  behind,  and  is  of  two 
kinds;  a  soft  light  grey  down,  covered  by  longer  lustrous  hairs.  Two  fetid  glands  near  the 


38 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


insertion  of  the  tail.  Six  teats,  ventral.  Teeth  34.  Above,  the  four  intermediate  incisors 
are  alike,  and  subequal ;  the  exterior  larger,  channelled  on  the  outside,  and  somewhat  enlarged 
at  the  base.  Upper  canines  larger  and  longer  than  those  below,  and  in  their  reciprocal  posi¬ 
tion  exterior  to,  and  reaching  below  the  sockets  of  the  lower  canines,  with  no  tubercle  to  their 
bases.  First  cheek  tooth  above  smallest,  with  a  sharp  point,  and  a  broad  shoulder  directed 
outwards,  with  two  fangs  ;  the  second  larger,  with  a  single  point,  and  two  equal  shoulders  ; 
the  third  largest,  with  three  points  in  a  line,  the  middle  largest  and  the  anterior  smallest,  with 
a  fourth  on  an  internal  space  :  this  tooth  is  emarginate  in  front,  almost  receiving  the  posterior 
shoulder  of  the  preceding  tooth.  The  last  cheek  tooth  wider  than  long,  with  two  elevations 
externally  circumscribed  by  a  raised  margin ;  its  internal  projection  has  one  blunt  point,  like¬ 
wise  surrounded  by  a  raised  margin.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  incisors  are  smaller  than  those 
above,  the  two  medial  smallest  and  subequal ;  the  first  cheek  tooth  very  small,  elevated  in 
front,  with  a  slight  ridge  dividing  the  shoulder  behind  ;  the  next  larger,  with  its  posterior 
shoulder  lower  than  that  in  front ;  the  succeeding  one  tricuspid,  triangular,  with  its  shoulders 
equal ;  penultimate  tooth  largest,  tricuspid,  its  posterior  point  truncate  with  a  sharp  ridge  ;  the 
last  smallest,  with  a  central  depression,  and  a  raised  margin  which  is  highest  on  the  outside. 

Color.  Nearly  uniform,  reddish  brown  or  tawny  above,  slightly  paler  beneath.  Chin,  and 
frequently  a  small  spot  on  the  throat,  and  occasionally  one  or  two  smaller  spots  between  the 
fore  legs,  white.  Posterior  portion  of  the  tail  blackish,  frequently  intensely  black  at  the  tip. 


Head  and  body, .  14'0. 

Tail  (vertebras), .  7'0. 

Ditto  (tips  of  fur) .  8' 0. 

Length  of  skull, . . .  2 ' 3. 


Height  at  meatus, .  O' 9. 

Greatest  diameter  behind  meatus,  1  •  1 . 

Extent  over  zygomatic  arches, _ 1 ' 3. 

Skull  in  the  same  line, . O' 5. 


The  Mink  is  a  well  known  animal  in  every  part  of  the  State.  Its  popular  name  is  corrupted 
from  mank,  given  to  it  by  our  early  Swedish  colonists.  It  lives  almost  exclusively  near  ponds 
and  water  courses,  feeding  on  fish,  fresh-water  shells,  aquatic  reptiles,  and  the  eggs  of  tor¬ 
toises.  In  their  habits  they  are  closely  allied  to  the  Otter  ;  so  much  so,  that  Pennant  arranged 
it  under  that  genus,  and  in  his  History  of  Quadrupeds  calls  it  the  Lesser  Otter.  It  swims 
and  dives  with  great  facility,  and  can  remain  a  long  time  under  water.  It  has  a  strong  disa¬ 
greeable  odor,  which,  according  to  Prof.  Emmons,  is  that  of  the  skunk  and  cat  combined. 
Occasionally  it  invades  the  poultry  yard,  and  causes  great  havoc.  It  feeds  also  upon  field 
mice,  and  other  small  quadrupeds.  It  is  said  to  be  capable  of  domestication.  The  hunters 
in  the  north  of  the  State  have  described  to  me  two  varieties  of  the  Mink :  One  they  call 
Mountain  Mink,  which  is  small  and  black  ;  the  other,  which  they  call  the  Water  Mink,  is 
much  larger,  and  of  a  chesnut  red.  From  their  dissimilar  habits,  I  should  be  inclined  to  sus¬ 
pect  the  first  to  be  a  distinct  and  hitherto  undescribed  species. 


FAMILY  LUTRID/E. 


39 


FAMILY  V.  LUTRID.E. 

Embraces  the  Otters,  which  are  amphibious,  with  broad  palmate  feet.  Tail  enlarged  at  the 
base,  and  more  or  less  horizontally  flattened.  Piscivorous ;  valuable  for  their  fur.  Com¬ 
prises  two  genera. 


GENUS  LUTRA.  Ray,  Cuvier. 

Head  broad  and  rounded,  terminating  in  a  blunt  muzzle.  Ears  very  short.  Body  robust. 
Legs  short.  Toes  five  before,  and  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth  behind,  connected  by  a  mem¬ 
brane,  and  armed  with  short  not  retractile  claws.  A  fetid  gland  on  each  side  of  the  vent, 
containing  fetid  matter.  Good  swimmers  ;  live  along  banks  of  streams.  Incisors,  £  ; 
canines,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  }£  =  36. 

Obs.  In  the  latest  systems,  nine  species  are  enumerated,  of  which  three  are  from  America. 
The  existence  of  more  than  one  species  in  America  is,  however,  as  yet  not  clearly  esta¬ 
blished. 


THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  OTTER 

Lutra  canadensis. 

PLATE  III.  FIG.  1.  — PLATE  XXXIII.  FIG.  1,  2,  3.  Views  of  the  skull 

Common  Otter.  Pennant,  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  86. 

Land  Otter.  Warden,  Hist.  U.  S.  Vol.  1,  p.  206. 

Lutra  canadensis.  Sabine,  Franklin’s  Jour.  p.  653. 

L.  braziliensis.  Harlan,  Faun.  p.  72.  Godman,  Vol.  1,  p.  57,  pi.  fig.  2. 

L.  canadensis.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  57.  (Large  Northern  Var.) 

Canadian  Otter.  Griffith,  Cuv.  R.  An.  Vol.  2,  p.  316,  figure. 

American  Otter.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1838,  p.  25 ;  1840,  p.  46. 

Characteristics.  Glossy  brown.  Chin  and  throat  dusky  white.  Tail  shorter  than  the  body. 

Length  three  and  a  half  to  five  feet. 

Description.  Head  globular,  but  not  as  much  as  in  the  European  species.  Lips  thick  and 
fleshy.  Ears  short  and  rounded.  Eyes  small  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  near  together. 
Whiskers  remarkably  rigid.  Body  long,  cylindrical.  Tail  slightly  depressed  at  the  base, 
nearly  one-fourth  of  the  total  length  ;  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  two  oval  glands.  Fur  fine  and 
dense,  intermixed  with  coarser  hairs.  In  their  dentition,  the  Otters  are  eminently  characterized 
by  the  enormous  dilatation  of  the  two  posterior  cheek  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  Our  species, 
in  this  particular,  offers  some  variations  from  the  European  Otter.  The  penultimate  jaw 
tooth,  in  one  species,  has  a  broad  internal  heel  directed  obliquely  forward,  with  a  deep  fissure 
dividing  the  surface  into  two  rounded  and  elevated  portions  ;  and  the  pointed  tubercle  is  broad, 
with  a  high  shoulder  posteriorly,  and  comparatively  little  elevated.  The  last  tubercular  tooth 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


40, 

subquadrate,  nearly  as  large  as  the  preceding,  and  its  greatest  axis  directed  obliquely  back¬ 
wards,  with  four  or  rather  six  distinct  elevated  points  ;  but  the  outer  raised  margin,  which  is 
so  conspicuous  in  the  European  Otter,  appears  to  Ire  indistinct,  or  simply  elevated  into  two 
pointed  tubercles,  or  wanting  entirely,  in  the  American.  With  age  the  anterior  jaw  teeth  be¬ 
come  effaced.  In  a  very  aged  specimen  which  we  have  placed  in  the  State  Collection,  the 
two  anterior  jaw  teeth  on  each  side  (false  molars)  have  disappeared,  and  even  the  canines  are 
worn  down  to  the  sockets.  Length  of  this  skull,  4  •  1  ;  height  at  meatus,  1 ' 7  ;  transverse 
diameter  at  meaths,  2*2;  distance  across  the  zygomatic  arches,  2 ' 9  ;  narrowest  diameter,  0 ' 8. 

Color ,  This  varies  with  the  season  to  a  slight  extent,  but 'is  usually  of  a  dark  glossy  brown, 
and  white  or  light-colored  about  the  face  and  throat.  In  summer,  nearly  black,  lighter  be¬ 
neath.  Tail  darkest  towards  the  tip. 

Head  and  body . 39’0-48-0.  • 

Tail,  .  14-0-  18-0. 

The  females  are  smaller  than  the  males. 

The  American  Otter,  once  so  numerous  in  every  part  of  the  State,  is  now  exceedingly 
scarce.  In  the  counties  of  Kings,  Queens,  Suffolk  and  Richmond,  it  is  now  extirpated.  In 
the  northern  districts,  it  is  yet  sufficiently  numerous  to  become  an  object  of  pursuit.  The 
hunting  season  for  the  otter  commences  there  about  the  twentieth  of  September,  and  continues 
until  the  middle  of  May,  and  its  fur  ranks  in  value  next  to  that  of  the  beaver :  a  good  skin  is 
worth  eight  dollars.  They  are  used  by  hatters  for  the  finer  sort  of  hats,  and  are  also  converted 
into  costly  caps. 

The  Otter  is  a  sagacious,  wary  animal,  selecting  low  swampy  grounds* near  a  pond  or 
running  stream  for  its  abode.  He  makes  an  excavation  in  the  bank,  which  opens  under  water, 
and  a  small  breathing  hole  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Like  the  Beaver,  he  is  too  sagacious 
tQ  be  caught  by  any  bait  in  a  trap  ;  and  accordingly,  the  steel  trap  is  placed  in  the  water  be¬ 
neath  the  exit  from  their -burrow,  or  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  their  slides.  These  otter  slides, 
as  they  are  termed,  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  peculiarities  in  the  history  of  the  animal, 
and  almost  approach  the  fabulous.  In  winter,  they  select  a  high  bank  of  snow,  and  amuse 
themselves  for  hours  in  sliding  down,  head  foremost,  In  summer,  they  choose  a  steep  bank 
by  the  side  of  a  stream,  which  terminates  in  deep  water,  and  indulge  there  in  the  same  recrea¬ 
tion.  I  have  never  seen  the  animal  thus  employed,  but  it  is  universally  believed  among  hunt¬ 
ers  ;  and  I  saw,  in  the  uninhabited  northern  districts  of  the  State,  many  of  the  places  which 
had  been  used  as  slides,  and  which  pointed  out  to  the  keen  eye  of  the  hunter  a  sure  .sign  of 
numerous  otters  in  the  vicinity. 

The  Otter  is  capable  of  being  domesticated,  and  lives  principally  on  fish  and  other  aquatic 
animals.  They  live  in  small  families,  like  the  Beaver.  They  have  two  young  at  a  litter, 
about  the  middle  or  latter  end  of  March,  but  the  period  of  gestation  is  unknown.  The  secre¬ 
tion  from  their  .anal  glands  is  used  as  a  bait. 


FAMILY  CANID2E. 


41 


The  Canadian  Otter,  as  described  by  Richardson,  appears  to  be  a  large  variety,  with  a  uni¬ 
formly  colored  fur  above  and  beneath.  The  figure  given  by  Griffith  represents  it  with  a  white 
nose,  chin  and  abdomen.  I  have  carefully  compared  the  skull  of  the  southern  species  lataxina, 
with  the  New-York  Otter,  and  can  find  no  essential  nor  even  trivial  difference.  If,  then,  as  I 
apprehend,  the  species  described  by  Richardson,  and  the  lataxina,  are  identical  with  the  one 
above  described,  this  Otter  is  found  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  sea. 


(EXTRA-LIMITAL ) 

L.  lataxina.  (Fred.  Cuv.  Die.  Sc.  Nat.  Vol.  27,  p.  243.)  Deep  blackish  brown,  paler  beneath; 
the  long  coarse  hair  uniform  brown  black ;  the  fine  down  brownish  above,  greyish  on  sides  of  the 
head  and  under  side  of  neck.  Carolina,  Kentucky. 

Genus  Enhydra,  Fleming.  Embraces  the  Sea  Otter,  and  characterized  by  having  six  incisors  above, 
and  but  four  beneath.  Cheek  teeth,  }§  =  38.  Body  very  long ;  legs  and  tail  very  short. 

E.  lutris.  Sea  Otter.  (Griff  Cuv.  Vol.  2,  p.  316,  fig.)  Chesnut  brown  or  black ;  twice  the  size  of  the 
common  otter ;  fur  exceedingly  fine.  Total  length  five  feet ;  tail  ten  inches.  North  Pacific  Coast. 

FAMILY  VI.  CANIDsE. 

Muzzle  elongated,  naked,  glandular.  Ears  moderately  large,  and  in  most  of  the  domesti¬ 
cated  species  pendent.  Tongue  smooth  and  soft.  Tail  for  the  most  part  bushy.  Fore 
feet  with  five,  and  hind  feet  with  four  not  retractile  claws.  Cheek  teeth  twelve  above,  and 
fourteen  below. 

Obs.  In  this  family,  we  propose  to  include  the  Dog,  Fox  and  Wolf,  which  are  extremely 
difficult  to  separate  by  positive  characters.  The  former  is  known  only  in  a  domesticated 
state. 


GENUS  CANIS. 

Tail  recurved.  Pupil  of  the  eye  circular.  Vary  indefinitely  in  form,  size  and  color,  the 
result  of  domestication. 

THE  DOMESTIC  DOG. 

Canis  pamiliaris. 

Upwards  of  thirty  varieties  or  races  have  been  enumerated  by  systematic  writers,  nearly  all 
of  which  have  been  introduced  into  this  country.  Of  those  peculiar  to  North  America,  we 
find, 

Var.  a,  borealis.  (Esquimaux  Dog.)  Fur  long,  thick  and  woolly  beneath;  top  of  the  head 
and  back  black  ;  nose,  cheeks,  belly  and  legs  white  ;  ears  short,  erect. 

Fauna.  6 


42  NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 

Var.  b,  lagopus.  White,  with  patches  of  blackish  grey  ;  ears  pointed,  erect ;  foot  broad  and 
hairy ;  tail  bushy. 

Var.  c,  terra-nova.  (Newfoundland  Dog.)  Head  broad ;  nose  blunt ;  ears  long,  soft  and 
pendulous.  Of  this  there  appears  to  be  two  distinct  races  :  One  has  the  breast,  posterior 
part  of  the  thighs  and  tail  with  long  waved  hair,  the  rest  of  the  body  with  smooth  and 
compressed  hair ;  the  other  variety  is  entirely  covered  with  long  waved  silken  hair. 

Var.  d,  canadensis.  Black  and  grey,  mixed  with  white  ;  ears  erect,  long,  shaggy. 

Var.  e,  nova-caledonia.  Spotted;  body  long;  legs  short,  straight ;  ears  erect. 

The  most  conspicuous  among  the  imported  varieties  are,  the  danicus,  or  Spotted  Carriage 
Dog  ;  graius,  or  Greyhound,  of  which  there  are  several  races  ;  extrarius,  or  Spaniel ;  aqua- 
ticus,  or  Curly  Poodle  ;  avicularius,  or  Pointer  ;  molossus,  or  Bulldog  ;  sagax,  or  Hound,  &c. 
In  this  State,  our  hunting  dogs  are  almost  exclusively  derived  from  England.  The  breed 
used  for  deer  is  the  Fox-hound,  and  frequently  a  mixed  breed  between  the  Harrier  and  Stag- 
hound. 


GENUS  LUPUS. 

Eyes  oblique.  Tail  straight..  Pupil  of  the  eye  circular. 

THE  COMMON  AMERICAN  WOLF. 

Lupus  occidentalis. 

PLATE  XXVir.  FIG  2. 

Canis  lupus.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  81. 

The  Common  Wolf.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  255,  fig.  1. 

C.  (Lupus)  occidentalis.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  60. 

C.  lupus.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1838,  p.  26;  1840,  p.  28. 

Characteristics.  Color  various  from  white  to  black,  usually  greyish.  Space  between  the  ears 
greater  than  their  height.  Feet  broad.  Neck  and  tail  with  bushy  hair. 

Description.  Compared  with  the  European  species,  the  body  is  more  robust,  and  the  legs 
shorter  ;  the  muzzle  thicker  and  more  obtuse.  Ears  erect  and  conical. 

Color.  In  this  State,  the  prevailing  color  is  dark  grey,  mixed  with  reddish ;  darker  along 
the  back  ;  shorter  in  summer.  Frequently  whitish  about  the  ears,  throat  and  breast.  Exterior 
of  the  ears  and  legs  with  a  reddish  tinge.  Anterior  part  of  fore  legs  blackish.  Tail  varied 
with  white,  black  and  ferruginous. 

Length  of  head  and  body, _ 36  •  0  -  48  •  0. 

Tail, .  10-0-  12-0. 

Prof.  Emmons  gives  the  total  length  from  a  specimen  in  his  possession,  60' 3. 


FAMILY  CANIDjE. 


43 


The  American  Wolf,  hitherto  confounded  by  our  systematic  writers  with  the  European, 
offers  many  varieties,  which,  as  in  dogs,  seem  to  affect  particular  localities.  In  this  State  we 
have  two  varieties. 

Var.  a.  Grey  Wolf.  White  or  greyish  white  in  winter  ;  in  summer  it  has  short  reddish 
hairs.  This  is  the  most  common  kind. 

Var.  b.  Black  Wolf.  Entirely  black,  more  bulky  and  powerful  than  the  preceding.  Very 
rare. 

The  Wolf,  in  this  State,  confines  its  depredations  chiefly  to  deer  and  other  animals.  In 
some  of  the  southern  counties,  where  they  were  formerly  so  numerous  as  to  require  legislative 
enactments,  they  are  now  entirely  extirpated.  Vanderdonck,  writing  from  New-York  about 
the  year  1645,  says,  that  one  of  the  principal  objections  to  keeping  sheep  in  the  Colony,  was 
the  number  of  wolves.  They  are  still  found  in  the  mountainous  and  wooded  parts  of  the 
State,  and,  we  believe,  are  most  numerous  in  St.  Lawrence  and  the  adjacent  counties.  We 
have  been  assured  by  intelligent  hunters,  that  their  ravages  among  deer  are  so  great  that  they 
destroy  five  to  one  killed  by  man.  They  follow  deer  either  singly,  or  in  packs  of  eight  or 
ten,  with  all  the  ardor  of  a  pack  of  hounds,  and  with  a  prolonged  howl.  They  usually  select 
a  young  or  injured  deer,  and  trust  more  to  tire  him  down,  than  to  overtake  him  by  superior 
speed.  In  the  summer,  their  prey  easily  escapes  by  taking  to  the  water  ;  but  in  winter,  the 
same  instinct  leads  to  his  immediate  capture,  for  on  the  ice  the  wrolf  quickly  overtakes  him. 
Towards  spring,  there  is  scarcely  a  lake  in  the  north  of  the  State  that  has  not  numerous  car¬ 
cases  of  deer  on  its  frozen  surface.  In  most  of  the  counties,  bounties  varying  from  ten  to 
twenty  dollars  per  head  are  offered  for  the  wolf,  paid  partly  by  the  State,  and  partly  by  the 
county  and  the  township. 

Our  wolf  is  equally  voracious  and  cowardly,  flying  before  man.  I  have,  however,  known 
them,  when  satiating  their  hunger  over  the  carcase  of  a  deer,  to  snarl  and  snap  at  the  approach 
of  a  man,  and  only  to  leave  their  prey  reluctantly  when  he  arrived  almost  within  striking 
distance. 


[EXTRA-LIMIT AL ) 

Var.  a.  Dusky  Wolf.  (Say,  Long’s  E.xped.  Vol.  1,  p.  333.  Richardson,  pi.  3.)  Northern  and 
Western  Regions. 

Var.  b.  Pied  Wolf.  (Richardson,  Vol.  1,  p.  68.)  Arctic  Regions. 

Var.  c.  White  Wolf.  (Lewis  and  Clark,  Vol.  1,  p.  107.)  Arctic  and  Western  Regions. 

Var.  d.  Florida  Wolf.  (Bartram,  p.  199.) 

Var.  e.  Yellow  Wolf.  (Lewis  &,  Clark,  Vol.  1,  p.  40.)  Missouri. 

Var.  f.  Prairie  Wolf.  (Say,  Long’s  E.xped.  Vol.  1,  p.  27  and  162.)  Missouri. 


u 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  VULPES. 

Nose  pointed.  Head  more  triangular  than  in  the  preceding.  Pupils  linear.  Eyes  oblique. 
Upper  incisors  nearly  vertical.  Tail  long ,  bushy  and  cylindrical,  without  pendulous  hairs. 
Have  a  fetid  odor,  and  burrow  in  the  earth.  Nocturnal.  Smaller  and  more  numerous 
than  the  preceding. 

THE  RED  FOX. 

VULPES  FULVUS. 

PLATE  VII.  FIG.  1.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Red  Fox.  Lewis  &  Clark,  Vol.  2,  p.  159. 

Canis  fulvus.  Desm.  Mammalogie,  p.  203. 

Red  Fox.  Sabine,  App.  Frankl.  Journey,  p.  G56. 

C.  vulpes?  and  C.  fulvus.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  86  and  89. 

The  Red  Fox.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  276. 

American  Fox.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  91,  pi.  6. 

Canis  (Vulpes  vulgaris)  vulpes  ?  The  Fox.  Id.  ib.  p.  97. 

Cross  Fox.  Id.  il).  p.  93,  (Variety.) 

The  Red  Fox.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  30. 

Characteristics.  Reddish  above,  whitish  beneath.  Ears  behind,  and  anterior  part  of  legs 
varying  from  light  brown  to  deep  black.  Length  3-4  feet. 

Var.  a,  decussatus,  with  black  stripes  across  the  neck  and  shoulders. 

Var.  b,  argentatus,  black  entirely. 

Description,  (from  a  large  male  killed  in  Queens  county,  January.)  Snout  small  and 
pointed.  Length  of  head,  7-0. 

Color.  Anterior  part  of  the  head,  the  flanks  and  back,  bright  reddish,  more  particularly 
along  the  back  and  foreshoulders,  where  the  color  is  more  intense.  Margin  of  the  upper  jaw 
and  chin,  pure  white.  Throat',  breast,  and  a  narrow  space  along  the  belly,  whitish,  mixed 
with  brown  on  the  latter.  Fore  and  hind  feet  black  in  front,  the  black  on  the  latter  extending 
up  on  the  outside  of  the  thigh.  Toes  margined  with  fulvous.  Brush  ample,  reddish,  com¬ 
posed  of  two  sorts  of  hairs  ;  the  one,  black  at  the  base  and  reddish  at  the  tips  ;  the  other, 
much  longer,  entirely  black,  and  giving  to  the  whole  tail  a  dusky  appearance. 


Head  and  body, .  29*0. 

Tail  (vertebne), .  12’0. 

Ditto,  tips  of- hairs, .  16-  0. 


The  Red  Fox  varies  considerably  in  weight  and  size  ;  the  specimen  above  described  weighed 
eleven  pounds,  and  I  have  heard  of  others  weighing  fifteen  pounds,  but  such  are  not  common  : 
the  more  usual  weight  is  from  eight  to  ten  pounds.  Although  this  fox  burrows  well,  yet  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  them  taking  possession  of  the  burrows  of  the  skunk,  for  the  purpose 


FAMILY  CANID^E. 


45 


of  rearing  their  young.  Richardson  states  that  it  burrows  in  summer,  and  in  winter  takes 
refuge  under  a  fallen  tree.  It  brings  forth  four  to  six  young,  about  the  latter  end  of  March 
or  first  of  April,  in  my  neighborhood  :  these  are  at  first  covered  with  a  smoke-brown  fur.  In 
a  litter  which  I  once  saw,  the  tips  of  the  tail  in  all  were  white,  and  like  the  dog,  were  blind 
for  some  days  after  birth.  They  feed  on  the  smaller  quadrupeds  and  birds,  and  are  accused 
of  destroying  lambs.  They  make  occasional  forays  upon  the  barnyard,  but  in  this  respect 
they  are  not  so  daring  as  the  other  species,  and  perhaps  in  some  measure  compensate  for 
these  injuries  by  destroying  field  mice  and  other  noxious  vermin.  Its  flesh  is  rank  and  disa¬ 
greeable.  It  is  to  this  species  we  refer  two  strongly  marked  varieties,  which  have  by  some 
naturalists  been  treated  as  species. 

1 .  The  Cross  Fox.  Color  of  the  preceding,  with  a  dark  stripe  on  the  neck  from  the  head 
to  the  back,  crossed  at  right  angles  by  another  dark  stripe  over  the  shoulders.  This  cross  is 
sometimes  only  feebly  distinct,  and  at  others  well  defined.  It  has  the  size,  form,  habits  and 
fine  fur  of  the  Red  Fox,  and  is  always  considered  by  the  hunters  as  a  variety.  The  caprice 
of  fashion  has  attached  a  great  value  to  this  skin.  While  the  red  fox.  skin  is  valued  at  about 
two  dollars,  the  cross  fox  has  been  known  to  sell  for  twelve,  and  sometimes  as  high  as  fifteen 
dollars.  It  occurs  in  every  part  of  the  State,  but  more  particularly  in  the  northern  districts. 

2.  The  Black  Fox.  (Godman,  Vol.  1,  p.  274,  pi.  fig.  1.)  Almost  entirely  black  ;  the  end 
of  the  tail  and  spots  on  the  breast  occasionally  white,  sometimes  intensely  hoary.  This  is 
very  rare  in  this  State.  I  have  never  met  with  it ;  but  I  have  been  assured  by  hunters,  in 
the  northern  counties,  that  they  have  sometimes  killed  it.  Richardson,  p.  94,  asserts  that  its 
fur  fetches  six  times  the  price  of  any  other  fur  produced  in  North  America.  Its  value  doubt¬ 
less  increases  with  the  intensity  and  purity  of  the  black  color. 

THE  GREY  FOX. 

VULPES  VIRGINIANUS. 

PLATE  VII.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

The  Grey  Fox.  Catesby,  Car.  Vol.  2,  p.  78. 

Canis  virginianus.  GMELIN,  Syst.  Vol.  1,  p.  74. 

C.  cinereo-argentatus.  Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  2,  p.  340. 

C.  virginianus.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  89. 

The  Grey  Fox.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  280  (figure).  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  31. 

Characteristics.  Grey,  varied  with  fulvous  ;  a  patch  of  black  on  each  side,  between  the  eye 
and  nose.  Smaller  than  the  preceding. 

Description.  The  body  is  lower  on  its  legs,  and  its  muzzle  is  more  acute  than  in  the  Red 
Fox.  Tail  thick  and  bushy. 

Color,  generally  hoary  or  silvery  grey,  becoming  darker  from  the  foreshoulders  to  the 
posterior  parts.  Fur  at  base  lead  color,  then  soiled  white,  gradually  becoming  white,  and 
tipped  with  black.  Head  grey.  Ears  yellowish  within,  tinged  with  reddish  around  their 
bases  ;  tips  dark  brown,  yellowish  behind.  On  each  side  of  the  head  a  sub-triangular  patch 


V 


46 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


between  the  eyes  and  nose  ;  near  the  orbits,  this  black  patch  is  produced  upwards  in  a  narrow 
line  towards  the  ears.  Muzzle  black,  yellowish  on  each  side  for  a  small  space  above ;  sides 
of  the  neck  tawny  ;  lower  jaw  black.  Breast  occasionally  spotted  with  white.  Beneath,  light 
colored.  Tail  of  the  general  hue  of  the  body,  slightly  tinged  with  rufous  beneath,  and  occa¬ 
sionally  darker  at  the  tip. 

Head  and  body, .  1 8  ’  0  -  25 ' 0. 

Tail  (vertebras), . . .  7*0-  10’ 0. 

Ditto  (tip  of  hairs), .  9'0-12*0. 

This  species  is  more  common  in  the  southern  counties  than  farther  north.  On  Long  Island 
it  is  very  abundant,  and  is  there  frequently  known  under  the  name  of  the  Plain  or  Grass  Fox. 
It  affords  great  amusement  to  hunters,  but  not  for  the  reasons  assigned  by  Godman ;  namely, 
that  it  is  killed  generally  near  the  place  where  it  is  first  started  :  On  the  contrary,  it  usually 
takes  a  direct  course  for  many  miles,  at  least  on  the  great  plains  ;  and  as  the  ordinary  deer¬ 
hound  is  generally  employed,  I  have  often  known  it  to  escape. 

The  Grey  Fox  is  bolder  and  more  astute,  if  possible,  than  the  red  one,  and  more  frequently 
prowls  about  barn-yards.  Very  little,  however,  is  known  of  his  habits,  beyond  his  destructive 
propensities.  Catesby  asserts  that  they  climb  trees  with  facility.  This  is  probable,  for  I  have 
witnessed  the  same  fact  in  the  Red  Fox,  when  closely  pursued  by  hounds.  The  Grey  Fox 
does  not  extend  far  beyond  42°  north,  and  its  southern  limits  extend  to  Florida. 

(EXTRA-LIMIT AL.) 

C.  velox.  Burrowing  Fox.  (Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.  486.)  Body  slender;  silvery  grey, 
varied  with  fulvous.  Tail  long  and  blackish.  Smallest  of  the  American  Foxes.  Missouri. 


FAMILY  VII.  FFLIDJE. 

Head  short  in  ■proportion  to  its  length,  rounded.  Muzzle  short,  obtuse.  Claws  completely 
retractile.  Exclusively  carnivorous.  Nocturnal. 

Obs.  This  family,  which  corresponds  nearly  with  the  old  linnean  genus  Felis,  has  been 
extended,  by  some  modern  system-mongers,  to  include  Dogs,  Wolves  and  Foxes.  As  we 
understand  it,  it  comprises  four  or  five  genera,  and  about  forty  species.  In  this  State,  we 
have  but  three  representatives  of  this  family,  included  under  two  genera. 


FAMILY  FELIDAE. 


47 


GENUS  FELIS.  Linneus. 

Ears  short  and  distant,  not  tufted.  No  mane.  Tail  long,  varying  occasionally  in  the  same 
species.  Tongue  roughened  with  prickles.  Claws  curved  and  acute.  Cheekteeth  eight 
above,  and  six  below. 

Obs.  The  common  imported  Domestic  Cat  belongs  to  this  genus.  It  is  now  generally 
believed  to  have  been  derived  from  the  F.  maniculata,  Ruppel,  which  still  exists  in  a  wild  state 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Africa.  Ruppel  supposes  it  to  have  been  first  reclaimed  by  the 
Egyptians.  It  is  a  common  opinion  that  we  have,  in  this  country,  wild  cats,  which  have  been 
derived  either  from  the  domestic  cat  resuming  its  primitive  wildness,  or  by  alliance  with  those 
already  in  a  wild  state.  This  is  a  great  error.  We  have  no  small  species,  characterized  by 
a  long  tail,  in  the  country. 


THE  NORTHERN  PANTHER. 

Felis  concolor. 

PLATE  IX.  FIG.  2.  Adult.  —  PLATE  IX.  FIG.  1.  Young. 

Felis  concolor.  Lin.,  Gmel.  Yol.  1,  p.  79. 

Cuguar.  Los  KIEL,  p.  82. 

F.  cougar.  Temminck,  Monog.  de  Mamm.  p.  134. 

F.  concolor.  Harlan,  Fauna  Am.  p.  94. 

The  Cougar.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Yol.  1,  p.  291,  figure. 

F.  concolor,  Desm.  Mammalogie,  p.  218. 

The  Puma ,  or  American  Lion.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  35. 

Characteristics.  Very  large.  Uniform  tawny,  paler  beneath.  Length  7  -  10  feet.  Young, 
spotted  with  brown. 

Description.  Body  long,  cylindrical,  and  rather  slender.  Legs  robust,  and  comparatively 
short.  Ears  somewhat  rounded.  Tail  long,  slender,  cylindrical.  Fur  soft  and  short. 

Color.  Body  and  legs  of  a  uniform  fulvous  or  tawny  hue.  I  have  never  observed  the  spots 
of  a  deeper  hue,  seen  only  in  certain  lights,  which  Temminck  ascribes  to  this  species.  Ears 
light-colored  within,  blackish  behind.  Belly  pale  reddish  or  reddish  white.  Face  sometimes 
with  a  uniform  lighter  tint  than  the  general  hue  of  the  body ;  oftener  with  the  mouth,  clnn, 
and  internal  angle  of  the  eyes  white.  “  Tail  of  the  male  longer  than  the  female,  dark  brown 
“  at  the  extremity.”  {Emmons.) 

Head  and  body, .  53 ' 0  -  84  •  0. 

Tail, .  20-0  -  27-0. 

Description  of  a  young  Panther,  not  more  than  a  week  old,  from  the  Collection  of  Prof. 
Emmons.  Ears  pendulous,  furnished  with  hair  within  and  without,  projecting  beyond  the 
margins.  The  whole  body  covered  with  a  soft  dense  fur,  forming  on  the  sides  of  the  neck 
an  indistinct  collar.  Claws  sharp,  curved,  not  channelled. 


48 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Color.  The  whole  body  light  reddish  grey,  with  oblong  irregular  blackish  brown  spots. 
According  to  Prof.  Emmons,  these  spots  mostly  disappear  at  the  first  shedding  of  the  hair. 
Tail  with  four  annulations  of  the  same  color,  blackish  at  the  tip  ;  beneath,  light  dusky  brown. 
Outside  of  the  legs  irregularly  banded  with  grey 'and  brownish,  the  latter  predominating  on 
the  fore  legs.  Space  between  the  eyes,  light  brown.  Ears  black  exteriorly,  white  within. 
Eyes  large  and  black.  A  space  on  the  middle  portion  of  the  upper  lip,  together  with  the 
whiskers,  white.  Infra-orbital  space  and  the  chin  soiled  grey. 

Head  and  neck, _ 4  5.  Height  of  ears, . 

Body, .  8‘0.  Ditto  at  foreshoulders, 

Tail, . 4‘8.  Girth  round  chest, _ 

In  this  specimen,  only  the  four  lower  incisors  were  developed. 

The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  tail  in  this  species  is  worthy  of  note  ;  amounting,  in 
individuals  of  nearly  the  same  size,  to  several  inches.  In  a  specimen  alluded  to  by  Godman, 
the  head  and  body  was  four  feet  five  inches,  and  the  tail  two  feet  four  inches.  Prof.  Em¬ 
mons  gives  a  total  length  to  one  individual,  of  nine  feet  four  inches.  In  a  female,  the  tail 
was  one  foot  nine  inches  ;  and  in  a  male,  two  feet  three  inches.  Whether  this  is  a  constant 
sexual  distinction,  is  not  yet  sufficiently  determined.  The  largest  individual  of  which  we  have 
any  account,  is  in  the  Museum  at  Utica.  It  was  discovered  on  a  small  island  on  Lake  Fourth, 
Herkimer  county,  and  killed  by  the  hunter  Wood,  just  after  it  had  taken  to  the  water.  When 
recently  killed,  it  had  a  total  length  of  eleven  feet  three  inches. 

The  Cougar  or  Painter,  (a  corruption  of  the  word  Panther,)  is  now  rarely  seen  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  State  ;  though  the  writer  remembers,  when  a  boy,  the  consternation 
occasioned  by  the  appearance  of  one  of  these  animals  in  Westchester  county,  not  more  than 
twenty-five  miles  from  New-York.  In  the  early  settlement  of  this  State,  this  animal  was 
believed  to  be  a  lion ;  and  we  find  in  Yanderdonck’s  History  of  the  New-Netherlands,  the 
following  passage  in  relation  to  this  subject :  “  Although  the  New-Netherlands  lie  in  a  fierce 
“  climate,  and  the  country  in  winter  seems  rather  cold,  nevertheless  lions  are  found  there, 
“  but  not  by  the  Christians,  who  have  traversed  the  land  without  seeing  one.  It  is  only  known 
“  to  us  by  the  skins  of  the  females,  which  are  sometimes  brought  in  for  sale  by  the  natives. 
“  In  reply  to  our  inquiries,  they  say  that  the  lions  are  found  far  to  the  southwest,  fifteen  to 
“  twenty  days  journey ;  that  they  live  in  very  high  mountains,  and  that  the  males  are  too 
“  active  and  fierce  to  be  taken.” 

In  this  State,  the  Panther  is  most  numerous  in  the  rocky  northern  districts,  and  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  counties  of  Herkimer,  Hamilton  and  St.  Lawrence.  They  are  occasionally  seen 
among  the  Kaaterskill  mountains  ;  and  the  specimen  in  the  New-York  Museum,  which  has 
served  as  a  basis  for  many  marvellous  legends,  was  obtained  from  this  locality.  It  appears 
rarely  by  daylight,  unless  hard  pressed  for  food,  but  usually  conceals  itself  behind  fallen  trees 
or  rocks  until  evening.  It  prefers  for  its  usual  retreat,  ledges  of  rocks  inaccessible  to  man, 
which  are  known  familiarly  to  the  hunters  under  the  name  of  panther  ledges.  They  wander, 


..  0-7. 
..  4-8. 
..  7*5. 


FAMILY  FF.LID.F. 


49 


however,  over  large  tracts  of  country  in  search  of  their  prey,  but  rarely  leave  the  forests. 
When  followed  by  dogs,  it  takes  to  the  nearest  tree,  and  looking  down  upon  its  assailants, 
makes  a  noise  like  the  purr  of  a  cat,  but  much  louder.  The  screams  attributed  to  this  ani¬ 
mal  during  the  night,  are  supposed  by  many  hunters  to  proceed  from  some  species  of  owl. 
The  female  brings  forth  two  at  a  litter.  They  prey  upon  deer,  and  all  the  smaller  quadru¬ 
peds,  not  even  refusing  the  Canada  porcupine.  Occasionally  they  take  to  the  water,  but  swim 
deeply  and  badly. 

The  Panther  is  an  animal  of  undoubted  strength  and  ferocity ;  and  under  certain  circum¬ 
stances,  such  as  are  so  graphically  depicted  by  our  celebrated  novelist  Cooper,  may  be 
induced  to  take  a  stand  before  the  hunter.  Notwithstanding  the  various  stories  of  their  fero¬ 
city  and  courage,  I  have  never  yet  met  with  a  well  authenticated  account  of  their  having 
attacked  a  man.  In  this  I  am  sustained  by  the  testimony  of  every  hunter  I  have  conversed 
with ;  they  represent  them  as  uniformly  cowardly,  and  retreating  as  quickly  as  possible  from 
the  face  of  man.  Prof.  Emmons  states,  that  most  of  the  tales  relating  to  its  depredations  are 
fictitious ;  and  that  in  the  part  of  St.  Lawrence  county  where  they  are  mdst  numerous,  no 
instance  is  known  of  their  having  destroyed  a  single  individual,  man  or  child.  I  was  told  by 
a  hunter,  that  upon  one  occasion,  he  met  with  a  female  panther  and  two  of  her  cubs.  They 
were  quite  helpless,  and  he  took  them  up  in  his  arms,  the  mother  following  at  some  distance, 
and  stopping  whenever  he  stopped,  without  venturing  to  attack  him.  In  this  way  she  fol¬ 
lowed  him  for  two  or  three  miles,  when,  as  he  approached  a  settlement,  she  finally  disappeared. 
They  have  been  known,  however,  to  approach  the  shanty  of  the  hunter,  attracted  no  doubt  by 
the  fire  or  the  smell  of  victuals  ;  but  the  smallest  movement  on  the  part  of  the  hunter  would  be 
the  signal  for  their  disappearance.  I  was  told  of  one  in  Warren  county,  that  resorted  to  a  barn, 
from  whence  he  was  repeatedly  dislodged,  and  finally  killed.  He  showed  no  fight  whatever. 
His  mouth  was  found  to  be  filled  with  the  spines  of  the  Canada  porcupine,  which  was  proba¬ 
bly  the  cause  of  his  diminished  wariness  and  ferocity,  and  would  in  all  probability  have  finally 
caused  his  death. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  Cougar,  Panther  or  Catamount,  is  very  extensive.  About 
fifteen  years  ago,  one  was  shot  near  Montpelier  in  Vermont,  apd  a  few  have  been  occasionally 
observed  in  Massachusetts.  Its  present  northern  limits  do  not  probably  extend  beyond  New- 
York.  To  the  south,  its  limits  are  not  well  defined.  It  is  said  to  extend  through  the  inter- 
tropical  regions  to  Paraguay.  It  is  far  from  being  well  established  that  the  northern  and 
southern  species  are  identical. 


Fauna. 


50 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  LYNCUS.  Gray. 

Ears  triangular,  more  or  less  tufted.  Tail  shorter  than  the  head 

THE  NORTHERN  LYNX 

Lyncus  borealis. 

PLATE  X.  FIG.  2. 

Lynx  Cat.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  50. 

Lynx  de  Canada.  Cuv.  Oss.  Foss.  Ed.  altera.  Vol.  4,  p.  443. 

Felis  borealis.  Temminck,  Monographic,  p.  109. 

F.  canadensis.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  98. 

The  Northern  Lynx.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  302,  figure. 

Canada  Lynx.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  101. 

F.  canadensis.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1838,  p.  27 ;  1840,  p.  32. 

Characteristics.  Grey,  with  darker  spots.  Ears  acute,  margined  with  rufous  and  black. 

Tail  shorter  than  the  head.  Soles  hairy.  Generally  larger  than  the  suc¬ 
ceeding. 

Description,  [from  a  fine  adult  male  in  the  Collection  of  Prof.  Emmons.)  Body  raised 
high  on  its  legs.  Head  large  and  rounded.  Ears  triangular,  2'0  high,  3‘5  apart,  with  long 
black  cylindrical  tufts  2  •  3  high.  Eyes  large,  1  •  5  apart.  Whiskers  stiff,  horizontal,  arranged 
in  two  oblique  series,  some  of  the  longest  3 ' 5,  and  white ;  the  posterior  series  brown  horn- 
color.  A  broad  ruff  commences  behind  or  rather  beneath  the  ears,  and  surrounds  the  neck, 
except  behind  the  ears,  where  there  is  comparatively  a  free  interval ;  on  the  sides  of  the  head 
it  is  short,  but  beneath  it  is  from  3' 5  to  4’0  long.  (In  the  female,  this  ruff  is  much  shorter, 
and  not  particolored.)  The  fur  is  of  two  kinds  ;  a  long  fine  wool,  intermixed  with  longer 
subrigid  hairs.  On  the  line  of  the  back,  the  fur  is  1  ’5  long  ;  on  the  belly  it  is  loose  and  pen¬ 
dulous,  and  4‘5  long.  Base  of  the  feet  so  densely  furred  as  to  conceal  entirely  the  soles  and 
claws,  which  latter  are  white,  long,  curved,  acute,  and  channelled  beneath. 

Color.  The  general  color  is  grey,  intermixed  with  rufous  and  black.  Margin  of  the  lips, 
upper  margin  of  the  nose  and  tip  of  the  chin,  bright  rufous.  Nose  black,  and  slightly  fur¬ 
rowed  in  the  centre.  Front  of  the  head  grey.  Eyes  yellowish  in  the  living  state.  Ears 
white  in  front,  margined  with  rufous,  and  behind  this  again  bordered  with  black ;  posterior 
part  of  the  ear,  light  ash ;  ear  tufts  black.  Ruff  white  in  front,  and  behind  this  it  is  longer 
and  darker,  approaching  to  black  beneath ;  on  the  sides  of  the  head  it  is  shorter,  with  a 
greater  admixture  of  rufous.  On  the  back,  the  fur  varies  from  reddish  brown  to  blackish 
brown  at  the  base  ;  then  dark  brown  or  black,  with  hoary  tips.  Sides  light  fulvous  at  base, 
tipped  with  hoary.  Anterior  part  of  fore  and  hind  legs,  light  fulvous.  On  the  belly,  the  long 
loose  hairs  are  soiled  white,  with  a  slight  admixture  of  light  fulvous  at  the  base,  and  here  and 
there  scattered  bunches  of  fulvous  hairs.  Tail  rufous  above  for  more  than  two-thirds  of  its 
length,  tipped  broadly  with  black ;  beneath  rufous,  mixed  with  lighter  colored  hairs. 


FAMILY  FELIDAE. 


51 


Total  length, . 

40-0. 

Length  of  fore  paws, . . 

3-5. 

Length  of  head, _ 

70. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebrae), 

40. 

Ditto  of  fore  legs,.. 

130. 

Ditto  (including  fur),.. 

50. 

Ditto  of  hind  legs,.. 

140. 

Girth  at  foreshoulder,  . 

19-0. 

This  is  the  Loup-cervier  of  the  early  French  writers,  and  the  Big  Grey  Wild-cat  and  Wol¬ 
verene  of  the  New-York  hunters.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  northern  districts  of  the  State, 
preying  chiefly  on  the  northern  hare  and  other  small  quadrupeds,  and  occasionally  devouring 
lambs,  pigs,  etc.  It  is  a  timid  animal,  and  is  easily  killed.  Its  progress  is  said  to  be  a  suc¬ 
cession  of  leaps,  lighting  on  all  four  feet  at  once,  but  not  advancing  with  great  rapidity  :  Hence 
it  is  probable  that  it  usually  obtains  its  prey  by  surprise.  Contrary  to  the  usual  habits  of  its 
family,  it  has  no  dread  of  water,  but  swims  well  and  for  a  long  distance.  It  breeds  once  a 
year,  and  has  two  young  at  a  time.  Its  flesh  is  tender,  but  insipid.  Its  fur  is  much  esteemed, 
and  a  skin  usually  sells  for  from  three  to  four  dollars.  It  is  strictly  a  northern  animal.  Its 
geographical  range  is  between  66°  and  43°  north  latitude. 

THE  WILD  CAT,  OR  BAY  LYNX. 

LYNCU3  RUFUS. 

PLATE  X.  FIG.  1— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

The  Bay  Lynx.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  51.  Id.  Hist.  Quad.  Vol.  1,  p.  303,  pi.  60. 

Mountain  Lynx.  Id.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  51.  (Variety?) 

Ftlis  catus-ferus.  Loskiel,  p.  83. 

Felis  rufa.  Temminck,  Monographie,  p.  141. 

Wild  Cat.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  3,  p.  239,  (figure  in  vol.  1.)  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep.  1838,  p.  27  ;  1840,  p.  34. 

Characteristics.  A  grey  spot,  bordered  with  black,  behind  the  ears.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as 
the  head.  Reddish  yellow  in  summer,  ashy  brown  in  winter.  Soles  naked. 

Description  of  an  adult  male.  Head  large  and  rounded.  Body  rather  slender,  with  the 
legs  disproportionately  long.  Ears  large,  subrotund,  scarcely  acute,  with  long  hairs  within ; 
2"  8  high  and  3' 3  distant,  with  moderate  black  tufts  scarcely  an  inch  long.  Whiskers  nu¬ 
merous,  about  2’0  long,  and  for  the  most  part  white.  Length  of  the  head  6-0,  breadth  4 '8. 
Fore  legs  10' 0  long,  with  five  long,  curved,  acute,  compressed,  channelled  claws  of  a  greenish 
white  color ;  the  internal  claw  placed  higher  up,  and  rather  more  curved  and  robust  than  the 
others.  Hind  feet  12"  0  long,  with  the  soles  uncovered,  and  with  four  claws  resembling  those 
on  the  fore  feet.  Tail  rather  slender,  slightly  curved  upwards,  and  5'5  in  length  to  the  tips 
of  the  hairs.  The  ruff  of  elongated  hairs  surrounding  the  neck,  indistinct,  and  not  so  conspi¬ 
cuous  as  in  the  preceding  species. 

Female  and  young  with  imperfect  tufts  on  the  ears. 

Color.  Generally  rufous,  with  various  shades  of  brown,  and  darker  along  the  dorsal  line, 
being  deepest  about  the  middle  of  the  back.  Head  obscurely  lineated,  with  black  between 
the  ears.  Eyelids  black,  margined  with  yellowish  white.  Sides  of  the  nose  white,  with  four 


52 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


or  five  parallel  narrow  interrupted  lines  of  black,  running  towards  the  cheeks.  Ears  fulvous 
in  front,  black  behind,  with  a  greyish  spot  in  the  centre,  dilated  towards  the  external  margin 
of  the  ear.  Tail  above  of  the  same  general  color  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  indistinctly 
annulated  on  its  sides  with  dark  brown  ;  beneath,  white  ;  tip,  deep  black,  intermixed  with  a 
few  white  hairs.  Outer  sides  of  the  legs  rufous,  obsoletely  barred,  and  spotted  with  reddish 
brown.  Insides  of  the  fore  legs  soiled  white,  barred  with  black.  (Pennant  supposes  these 
bars  and  the  semi-annulated  tail  to  be  constant  specific  characters,  but  this  does  not  accord  with 
my  observations.)  Fore  paws  and  hair  between  the  soles,  dark  brown.  Hind  legs  whitish 
on  the  inside,  obscurely  barred  and  spotted  with  black.  Chin  greyish  ;  throat  bright  fulvous  ; 


belly  whitish,  irregularly  spotted  with  black. 

Total  length, . . . 36 ' 0. 

Length  of  head, .  6-0. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebra), .  5'0. 


This  was  a  large  individual,  and,  as  I  think,  above  the  average  size,  and  more  distinctly 
marked  than  usual.  It  was  captured  in  the  Tonnewanda  swamp,  Genesee  county.  The 
females,  I  am  induced  to  believe,  either  have  no  tufts,  or  lose  them  in  summer.  Even,  how¬ 
ever,  in  the  case  of  the  males,  they  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  resembling  the  round  elon¬ 
gated  tufts  of  the  other  species. 

I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  Hall,  of  the  Geological  Survey,  for  the  specimen  which  furnished 
the  above  description.  Prof.  Emmons  describes  this  species  as  rufous,  with  the  insides  of 
the  legs  spotted  with  brown,  and  a  triangular  patch  of  yellowish  white  bordered  with  blackish 
behind  the  ears.  Godman,  describing  the  animal  as  deep  reddish  with  small  spots  of  blackish 
brown,  speaks  of  nearly  vertical  streaks  of  black  between  the  ears.  I  suppose  the  Moun¬ 
tain  Cat  described  by  Loskiel  as  having  reddish  or  orange-colored  hair,  with  black  streaks,  to 
have  been  the  Bay  Lynx. 

The  F.  t'ufa  of  Richardson,  from  Columbia  river,  can  not  be  referred  to  this  species. 
Several  species  have  been  enumerated  as  inhabiting  the  United  States  but  as  I  have  not  had 
an  opportunity  to  examine  them,  I  must  pass  them  over  in  silence.  It  is  scarcely  worth  while 
to  burthen  our  list  of  American  animals  with  new  names,  proposed  by  greedy  and  unscrupulous 
writers,  for  animals. which  they  have  never  seen,  and  only  know  from  the  brief  notes  of  tra¬ 
vellers.  It  would  be  desirable  if  the  remarks  of  Temminck,  cited  below,*  could  be  continually 
borne  in  mind  by  all  writers,  not  only  in  reference  to  this,  but  every  other  genus. 

The  Wild  Cat  is  one  of  the  animals  alluded  to  by  Vanderdonck,  as  being  very  common  in 
the’  Colony  at  its  first  settlement.  A  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago,  they  were  so  numerous  in 
Suffolk  county,  as  to  require  the  interposition  of  the  Legislature.  An  act  was  passed  in  the 


*  “  Ceux  qui  veulent  decrire  les  Chats  sur  des  individus  isoles,  seront  sans  cesse  exposes  a  multiplier  les  esp&ces.  II  faut 
avoir  vu  un  trds-grand  nombee  de  d^pouilles,  et  s’6tre  adonne  a  des  recherches  et  a  des  comparaisons  souvent  renouvellees,  pour 
emettre  une  opinion  sur  la  difference  specifique  de  ces  animaux,  si  diiffciles  de  distinguer  les  uns  des  autres.”  (Motwgra- 
phies,  cf  c.) 


FAMILY  PHOCIDJL 


53 


General  Assembly,  to  encourage  the  destruction  of  wild-cats ;  and  in  1745,  it  was  still  found 
necessary  to  renew  this  act.  At  present,  it  is  believed  that  they  are  entirely  extirpated  from 
this  and  the  adjacent  counties.  They  are  still  found  in  the  more  northern  and  western  counties, 
in  the  wooded  districts,  where  they  prey  upon  birds  and  the  smaller  quadrupeds. 


FAMILY  VIII.  PHOCIDuF. 

Teeth  various.  Feet  short  and  Jin-shaped,  not  free,  the  phalanges  being  enveloped  in  the 
teguments.  Hind  feet  horizontal.  Rarely  leave  the  water.  Piscivorous. 

Obs.  Some  of  the  species  are  of  great  bulk,  and  all  contribute  in  various  ways  to  the  wants 
of  mankind.  I  am  acquainted  with  the  type  of  but  one  genus  within  this  State. 

GENUS  PHOCA.  Cuvier . 

Head  rounded.  No  external  ears.  Eyes  very  large.  Feet  with  five  toes,  connected  by  a 
thick  membrane.  Mamma,  two,  pectoral.  Tail  short  and  thick.  Teeth  of  three  kinds : 
Incisors,  £ ;  canines,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  j£  —  34.  Cheek  teeth  trenchant,  many-lobed. 

Obs.  To  this  genus,  as  restricted  by  Cuvier,  belong  at  present  about  thirteen  species,  more 
or  less  perfectly  indicated.  The  difficulty  of  examining  the  individuals  of  this  family  must  be 
very  great.  A  recent  English  writer  states,  that  “  little  more  is  known  of  the  Common  Seal, 
“  though  an  inhabitant  of  our  own  seas,  than  of  those  which  are  met  with  in  the  most  distant 
“  latitudes.” 


THE  AMERICAN  SEAL. 

Phoca  concolor. 

PLATE  XVIII.  FIG.  a.— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Phoca  Vitalina  ?  Mitchill,  Am.  Month.  Mag.  Vol.  3,  p.  357. 

Characteristics.  Uniform  dark  slaty  grey.  Young,  entirely  light  yellow.  '  Length,  four  feel. 

Description  (of  a  female  caught  in  the  Sound  near  Sands’  Point.)  Body  elongated,  cylin¬ 
drical,  tapering  gradually  from  the  chest  to  the  tail.  Head  broad  and  rounded,  with  the 
muzzle  broad  and  truncated.  Nostrils  sublunate,  O’ 8  long.  Tongue  deeply  emarginate  at 
tip,  and  ciliated  in  the  notch.  Auditory  opening  1  ’  5  behind  the  eye,  with  a  small  mammillary 
elevation  about  0  *  25  high  on  its  anterior  border.  Whiskers  white,  with  short  bevels  on  the 
edges  ;  disposed  in  five  or  six  rows,  the  posterior  stoutest  and  longest ;  from  4  -  6  in  a  group 
above,  and  somewhat  behind  the  eye.  In  repose,  the  web  of  the  fore  feet  extends  almost  to 
the  tips  of  the  claws ;  these  are  1  ’  5  long,  gradually  decreasing  in  size  from  the  anterior : 
claws  robust,  flattened,  incurved.  When  the  web  is  extended,  the  edge  is  slightly  webbed, 


54 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


almost  straight.  Hind  feet  with  short  flattened  claws,  of  which  the  three  middle  ones  are 
smallest,  none  exceeding  the  membrane,  which,  when  extended,  is  undulated  or  scolloped  ; 
underside,  in  a  state  of  repose,  gathered  into  two  large  folds.  Tail  spatulate,  pointed,  2"  5 
wide  at  the  base. 

Teeth.  Lower  incisors  disposed  in  a  curved  line,  concave  outwards ;  upper  canines  are 
strongest,  and  when  the  jaws  are  closed,  include  the  lower.  First  cheektooth  small,  trilobate; 
the  others  multilobate,  and  increasing  in  size  backwards. 

Color.  Uniform  dark  slaty  grey ;  but  in  the  water,  this  appeared  of  a  glossy  blackish  grey, 
slightly  lighter  beneath.  Fore  foot  horn-color,  mottled  with  darker.  Young,  soiled  yellowish 
white,  with  indistinct  traces  of  longitudinal  marks. 


T otal  length, . _ _  5F0. 

Length  of  tail, . . . .  3 ‘5. 

Weight, .  129  lbs. 


We  cite  few  synoniines,  as  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  previous  naturalists  have  taken 
it  for  granted,  without  due  examination,  that  our  Seal  and  the  European  are  identical.  Among 
the  many  American  seals  which  we  have  examined,  none  have  presented  very  distinctly  the 
blackish  or  brown  spots  indicative  of  the  P.  vitulina,  except  in  one  specimen,  which  was  evi¬ 
dently  a  pup  of  less  than  a  year  old.* 

The  Common  Seal,  or  Sea-dog,  as  it  is  frequently  called,  breeds  in  the  autumn,  bringing 
forth  commonly  two  at  a  birth.  They  are  now  comparatively  rare  in  our  waters,  but  were 
formerly  very  abundant.  A  certain  reef  of  rocks  in  the  harbor  of  New-Yorkis  called  Robin's 
reef,  from  the  numerous  seals  which  were  accustomed  to  resort  there  ;  robin  or  robyn  being  the 
name  in  Dutch  for  seal.  At  some  seasons,  even  at  the  present  day,  they  are  very  numerous, 
particularly  about  the  Execution  rocks  in  the  Sound  ;  but  their  visits  appear  to  be  very  capri¬ 
cious.  The  seal  noticed  above  had  a  nearly  fully  developed  fetus ;  and  as  it  was  killed  on 
the  seventh  of  February,  the  time  of  parturition  may  be  placed  nearly  about  this  period. 
Some  authors  assert  that  this  takes  place  at  any  and  every  period  of  the  year,  but  this  seems 
highly  improbable.  Mr.  Everson  informs  me  that  he  has  taken  them,  almost  every  year,  in 
the  River  Passaic,  in  the  fyke-nets,  much  to  his  regret ;  for  they  generally  do  great  injury 
to  his  net,  and  always  make  an  obstinate  resistance.  We  have  but  few  notices  of  seals  on 
our  coast,  unless  in  mere  paragraphs  in  the  public  journals,  hastily  drawn  up  by  persons 
unacquainted  with  natural  history.  In  the  Kingston  (U.  C.)  Chronicle  of  February,  1823  or 
’24,  there  is  a  notice  of  a  seal  having  been  taken  on  the  ice  on  Lake  Ontario,  near  Cape 
Vincent  (Jefferson  county)  in  this  State.  The  paper  gives  no  description,  but  asserts,  on  the 


*  When  I  drew  up  this  description,  I  was  not  aware  of  the  true  specific  characters  assigned  to  the  Phoca  vitulina  by  Prof.  N ill- 
son,  and  have  had  since  no  opportunity  of  verifying  them  upon  the  Seal  of  the  coast  of  New-York.  These  characters  are,  1,  the 
oblique  position  of  the  molar  teeth,  by  which  the  internal  posterior  margin  of  one  is  in  contact  with  the  outer  anterior  margin  of 
the  next  behind  it;  2,  the  posterior  margin  of  the  palate  deeply  notched  ;  3,  "the  external  process  of  the  nasal  bone  elongated  and 
rounded,  while  the  inner  is  not  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  former,  and  with  its  fellow  makes  a  small  triangle. 


FAMILY  PHOCIDAE. 


55 


authority  of  Indian  traders,  that  seals  have  heretofore  been  seen  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake, 
though  the  circumstance  is  one  of  rare  occurrence.  A  species  of  seal  was  captured,  some 
years  since,  near  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  which  is  mentioned  in  the  newspapers  as  being  beau¬ 
tifully  spotted,  especially  on  the  under  side,  and  referred  to  the  P.  vitulina.  In  August, 
1824,  a  seal  was  exhibited  alive  in  New-York,  which  had  been  taken  in  a  seine  in  the  Che¬ 
sapeake,  near  Elkton,  Maryland.  Dr.  Mitchill,  who  saw  it,  supposed  it  to  be  the  P.  vitulina; 
although,  as  he  states  in  a  newspaper  paragraph,  “  in  the  written  account,  (alluding  to  a 
“description  he  had  drawn  up  in  1818  of  a  seal  taken  near  Amboy,)  there  is  no  note 
“  of  the  natural  mark  in  the  breast  of  the  present  creature,  nor  of  more  than  five  claws  on 
“  the  fore  feet.”  What  this  natural  mark  could  have  been,  or  what  is  meant  by  more  than 
five  claws,  must  be  left  to  conjecture,  or  to  await  the  examination  of  another  individual. 

GENUS  STEMMATOPUS.  F.  Cuvier. 

Form  and  habits  of  the  preceding,  but  the  head  is  furnished  with  a  dilatable  hood.  Teeth 

30  ;  four  incisors  above,  and  two  beneath. 

Under  the  barbarous  name  of  Mirounga,  Mr.  Gray  has  proposed  to  group  together  several 
species  of  this  family,  which  are  characterized  by  “  the  nose  elongated  into  a  trunk,  and  the 
“  teeth  with  simple  roots.”  In  the  present,  state  of  our  knowledge  of  this  family,  we  prefer 
the  name  and  characters  noted  above. 

THE  HOODED  SEAL. 

Stemmatopus  cristatus. 

PLATE  XV.  FIG.  I. 

Phocn  cristata.  Gmelin. 

Hooded  Seal.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  I,  p.  162. 

P.  cristata.  De  Kay,  Ann.  Lyc.  New-York,  Vol.  I,  p.  94,  pi.  7.  King  &  Ludlow,  ib.  p.  99.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  106. 

Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  I,  p.  336,  figure. 

The  Crested  Seal.  Hamilton,  Nat.  Hist.  Amphibious  Carnivora,  p.  197,  pi.  14. 

Characteristics.  Grey,  varied  with  brown.  Nasal  sac  bright  brown.  Feet  blackish  brown. 

Length  6-7  feet. 

Description.  Body  robust,  cylindrical,  tapering  gradually  to  the  tail,  and  covered  with 
flattened  decumbent  hairs.  Head  small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  with  a  moveable  muscular 
bag  on  its  summit,  extending  from  the  muzzle  to  about  five  inches  behind  the  eyes,  and  in 
certain  positions  nearly  covering  the.  internal  canthi.  This  sac  is  twelve  inches  long,  and 
when  fully  distended,  nine  inches  high,  covered  with  short  hairs,  and  with  slight  transverse 
wrinkles.  The  nostrils  are  round,  each  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  pierced  in  the  anterior 
part  of  this  hood.  When  the  hood  or  nasal  sac  is  not  inflated,  the  septum  nasi  can  be  dis¬ 
tinctly  felt,  elevated  into  a  ridge  about  six  inches  high.  Eyes  large,  distant  6‘5  from  the 


56 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


extremity  of  the  muzzle.  Ear  openings  distinct,  two  and  a  half  inches  behind  and  beneath 
the  eyes.  The  cheeks  and  nasal  sac,  with  25  -  30  strong  whiskers  on  each  side,  arranged 
in  rows  converging  forwards  ;  those  of  the  upper  series,  small  and  black  ;  of  the  lower,  very 
stout,  white,  flattened,  and  about  5*0  long:  all  directed  downwards.  Under  the  lens,  they 
exhibit  alternate  short  bevels  on  each  side.  Anterior  swimming  paws  fifteen  inches  long, 
arising  about  twenty  inches  from  the  end  of  the  jaw,  and  furnished  with  five  strong,  com¬ 
pressed,  channelled  claws,  of  which  the  external  is  largest.  Posterior  feet  of  same  length, 
with  their  webs  lunated,  fifteen  inches  wide,  and  furnished  with  five  flattened  nails  not 
extending,  either  in  the  fore  or  hind  feet,  to  the  end  of  the  web.  Tail  three  inches  wide  at 
base,  flattened  and  tapering  to  the  tip,  and  covered  with  hair  similar  to  that  on  the  body. 

Teeth.  The  incisors  above  cylindrical,  contiguous  ;  the  exterior  largest,  and  nearly  half  as 
large  as  the  canine ;  the  upper  canines  larger  than  those  below,  and  more  incurved.  The 
incisors  below,  very  small  and  cylindrical.  Cheek  teeth  in  both  jaws  small,  distant  and 
trenchant,  with  a  notch  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  edge  ;  the  first  remote  from  the  canine, 
and  smallest. 

Color.  Grey  and  dark  brown,  distributed  in  irregular  patches  ;  on  the  abdomen,  the  grey 
predominates.  Eyes  represented  as  dull  greenish.  Nasal  sac  bright  brown  or  rufous.  Fore 
and  hind  feet  of  a  uniform  blackish  brown.  Claws  dark  at  base,  light  horn  at  their  tips. 

Total  length, _ .. _ 90‘5. 

Length  of  tail, _ _  6*5. 

Weight,  . . . . .  5  -  600  lbs. 

This  description  was  taken  from  an  adult  male  captured  near  Eastchester,  about  fifteen 
miles  from  the  city.  It  made  considerable  resistance,  emitted  a  bellowing  noise  when 
attacked,  and  exhibited  no  symptoms  of  fear. 

This  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  regions,  having  been  seen  as  high  as  the  seventieth 
parallel.  The  preceding  must  be  considered  as  the  first  notice  of  its  existence  within  our 
territorial  limits,  where  it  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  rare  and  accidental  visitor. 


(EXTRA-LIMITAL.) 


Genus  Trichecus,  Lin.  Form  and  habits  of  the  preceding  genera.  Four  incisors  above  in  the  young, 
none  below.  Two  canines  enlarged  into  enormous  tusks.  Cheek  teeth,  £  -  J ;  the  last  above 
rudimentary,  deciduous. 

T.  rosmarus.  Walrus  or  Morse.  (Godman,  Yol.  1,  p.  354,  figure.)  Tusks  12  0  -  36  0  long.  Skin 
with  short  yellowish  brown  hair.  Length  12  -  15  feet. 

Obs.  These  were  formerly  numerous  on  our  coast,  but  are  now  scarcely  ever  found  south  of  Cape 
Sable. 


(fossil.) 

T.  virginianus.  (Plate  19,  fig.  1,  a,  b.  Ann.  Lyc.  N.  Y.  Vol.  1,  p.  271.  Cab.  Lyceum.)  Cheek  teeth 
with  obliquely  truncated  crowns,  not  ridged ;  the  second  smaller  than  the  first.  Accomac  county , 

Virginia. 


FAMILY  SCIURIDAE. 


57 


ORDER  IV.  RODENTIA. 

No  canine  teeth.  Incisors  for  the  most  part  two  in  each  jaw,  large,  strong,  and  remote 
from  the  grinders.  (In  Leporidce  there  are  2-4-6  in  the  upper  jaw.)  Cheek  teeth 
twenty-two  at  most.  Toes  distinct,  with  small  conical  claws.  Jaws  moveable  horizon¬ 
tally.  The  greater  number  furnished  with  stout  clavicles.  No  abdominal  pouch. 

This  order  comprises  a  great  number  of  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  living  almost  exclusively  on 
vegetable  food.  According  to  the  latest  enumeration,  there  are  nearly  three  hundred  species 
distributed  over  the  globe.  In  North  America,  upwards  of  seventy  species  have  been 
described  ;  and  we  shall  doubtless  have  many  more  to  add  to  the  list,  for  it  is  among  these 
small  quadrupeds  that  we  are  to  find  new  species.  We  divide  this  order  into  five  families. 

FAMILY  I.  SCIURIDA2. 

Grinders  simple,  with  tubercular  summits.  Upper  incisors  chisel-shaped ;  the  lower  pointed, 
compressed  laterally.  Incisors,  § ;  molars,  Cfi  =  20  or  22.  The  fifth  upper  anterior 
molar  exists  only  in  the  young. 

GENUS  SCIURUS.  Linneus. 

Body  elongated.  Eyes  large.  Ears  erect.  Upper  lip  divided.  Posterior  extremities  longer 
than  the  antericrr,  which  have  four  long  distinct  toes,  and  a  tubercle  covered  with  an  obtuse 
nail  in  place  of  a  thumb.  Eight  teats  ;  two  pectoral,  the  remainder  ventral.  Tail  long, 
with  long  bushy  hair,  often  distichous  or  directed  laterally. 

Obs.  All  the  species  of  this  genus  live  mostly  on  trees ;  for  which  purpose,  their  long 
flexible  toes,  with  acute  nails,  enables  them  to  leap  from  tree  to  tree,  rarely  missing  their 
hold.  They  feed  on  seeds,  nuts,  grain,  and  occasionally  worms.  About  forty  species  have 
been  described. 


THE  LITTLE  GREY  SGUIRREL 

SCIURUS  LF.CCOTIS. 

PLATE  XVIII.  FIG.  I.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION  ) 

Lesser  Grey  Squirrel.  Penn.  Hist.  Quad.  Ed.  secunda. 

Hudson's  Bay  Squirrel.  Var.  a,  Carolina.  Penn.  Ib.  Vol.  2,  p.  147,  Ed.  tertia 
Hudson  Squirrel.  Var.  a,  Carolina.  Id.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  116.  (Variety.) 

Sciurus  cincreus.  Harlan,  Fauna  Am.  p.  173. 

iS.  carolinensis.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  131,  pi.  fig.  2. 

jS.  leucotis.  Gappar,  Zool-  Joum.  Vol.  5,  p.  206.  Bachman,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  1839,  p.  220 
Common  or  Little  Grey  Squirrel.  Emmons,  Mass.  Rep.  1840,  p.  66. 

Fauna.  8 


58  NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 

Characteristics.  Grey  above,  lighter  beneath  ;  sides  of  head  and  legs  tinged  with  rufous. 

Ears  not  pencilled,  soiled  whitish  behind.  Tail  rather  longer  than  the  head 
and  body,  edged  with  white.  Length  15  *0. 

Description.  Forehead  arched.  Ears  somewhat  pointed,  but  rounded,  and  covered  with 
short  hairs  ;  no  pencil  of  hairs  at  the  tips.  Whiskers  black,  as  long  as  the  head.  Tail  large 
and  bushy. 

Color.  This  is  subject  to  great  variations,  depending  upon  age  and  season  ;  but  the  following 
may  be  considered  as  tolerably  constant :  Above,  bluish  grey.  Chin,  throat  and  all  beneath, 
white.  The  sides  of  the  head  and  ears,  the  flanks,  anterior  part  oflhe  forelegs  and  the  sides 
of  the  hind  legs  of  a  ferruginous  or  fawn-color  of  various  shades  of  intensity,  generally  most 
conspicuous  on  the  hind  legs.  Frequently  on  the  lower  part  of  the  cheeks  a  bright  fulvous 
spot,  and  occasionally  an  obscure  stripe  of  brown  on  the  back,  reaching  to  the  base  of  the 
tail.  Tail  edged  with  whitish.  —  Head  and  body,  8 '0.  Tail,  8'5. 

Young.  Space  round  the  eyes,  the  nape,  foreshoulder  and  flanks  light  reddish  brown. 
Summit  of  the  head,  outer  parts  of  the  legs,  the  back  and  rump  blackish.  Belly  and  inner 
part  of  the  legs  brown.  Tail  blackish,  intermixed  with  fulvous,  and  light  fulvous  on  the 
margin.  These  are  usually  mistaken  for  hybrids  between  the  black  and  grey. 

Var.  a.  All  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  tawny. 

Var.  b.  Entirely  dark  brownish  or  black.  This  is  taken  frequently  for  the  Black  Squirrel, 
and  by  others  supposed  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  little  grey  and  black,  but  erroneously 
so.  Common  in  various  counties. 

Var.  c-  A  dark  stripe  on  the  flanks,  margined  above  with  reddish.  Rockland  county. 

Var.  d.  Two  reddish'  lateral  stripes  in  both  the  adult  and  young,  but  more  distinct  in  the 
latter. 

Var.  e.  Abdomen  bright  ferruginous. 

This  well  known  little  animal  is  found  in  every  forest  abounding  in  nuts  of  various  kinds. 
They  prepare  their  retreats  in  the  hollow  part  of  some  tree,  at  a  distance  from  the  ground, 
and  produce  from  four  to  six  at  a  birth.  In  the  season,  they  are  exceedingly  irritable  and 
pugnacious  ;  but  the  popular  belief  that  the  males  emasculate  each  other,  is  unfounded, 
these  parts  (in  the  young  more  especially)  being  often  retracted  within  the  abdomen. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  peculiarities  of  this  species,  is  its  singular  and  distant  migra¬ 
tion  in  large  bodies.  Bachman  (Op.  sup.  cit.  p.  226)  has.  furnished  an  interesting  account 
of  an  extraordinary  migration  of  this  sort,  which  he  witnessed  in  the  autumn  of  1808,  a  short 
distance  above  Albany.  On  that  occasion,  troops  of  squirrels  suddenly  amd  unexpectedly 
made  their  appearance.  They  swam  the  Hudson  in  various  places  between  Waterford  and 
Saratoga.  Those  which  were  noticed  crossing  the  river,  were  swimming  deeply  and  awk¬ 
wardly,  with  their  bodies  and  tails  wholly  submerged.  Many  were  drowned  ;  and  those 
which  were  so  fortunate  as  to  reach  the  opposite  bank,  were  so  wet  and  fatigued,  that  they 
were  readily  killed  with  clubs.  On  that  occasion,  their  migration  did  not  extend  farther  than 


FAMILY  SCIURID^E. 


59 


the  mountains  of  Vermont.  An  unusual  and  general  failure  of  their  requisite  food  is,  of 
course,  the  motive  for  such  migration.  This  species,  in  common  with  the  others,  feed  on 
berries,  seeds  and  nuts,  particularly  hickory  nut  ( Cary  a  alba),  of  which  they  are  very  fond, 
and  make  large  hoards  for  their  winter  supply.  They  also  attack  wheat  and  maize  in  its  unripe 
state.  Their  depredations  in  this  way  are  often  so  considerable  that  parties  of  men  and  boys 
sally  forth  for  what  is  called  a  squirrel  hunt,  and  almost  incredible  numbers  are  thus  destroyed 
in  a  single  day.  In  districts  well  peopled,  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  species  injurious 
to  man. 

The  Squirrel  has  a  wide  geographical  range.  Of  its  western  limits  we  are  not  informed  ; 
but  along  the  Atlantic,  it  is  found  from  Hudson’s  Bay  to  Carolina. 

THE  FOX  SQUIRREL 

SCIURUS  VULPINUS. 

PLATE  XVIII.  FIG.  3.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sciurus  vulpinus.  G.MELIN. 

The  Fox  Squirrel.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  128. 

&.  vulpinus.  Grey  or  Fox  Squirrel.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  06. 

Characteristics.  Grey  above,  white  beneath.  Much  larger  and  more  robust  than  the  preced¬ 
ing.  Length  25  •  0  -  30  •  0. 

Description.  Body  robust.  Eyes  large  and  prominent.  Ears  O’ 6  high;  the  hair  on  the 
posterior  surface  projecting  O’ 2  beyond  the  margins,  but  not  forming  a  distinct  tuft  or  pencil. 
The  whiskers  project  horizontally  two  inches  on  the  sides  of  the  nose  ;  a  few  bristles  over  the 
eyes,  and  a  patch  of  the  same  beneath  and  posterior  to  the  eyes.  Legs  robust,  with  stout, 
compressed,  curved,  dark  brown  claws.  Tail  exceedingly  voluminous. 

Color.  Sides  of  the  nose,  the  chin,  throat  and  abdomen  white.  Summit  of  the  head 
blackish,  occasioned  by  the  predominance  of  long  uniformly  black  hairs.  Sides  of  the  cheeks 
fulvous  ;  the  hair  on  the  ears  of  a  somewhat  brighter  tint.  Nape  and  all  above  of  a  grey 
color,  the  hair  being  dark  slate  at  the  base,  then  light  fawn,  afterwards  black,  and  finally 
white  at  the  tips  ;  intermixed  with  these,  and  much  longer,  are  hairs  uniformly  black  through¬ 
out.  Anterior  parts  of  the  extremities  light  fawn,  becoming  still  lighter  on  the  toes.  rI'ail 
indistinctly  annulated  with  black  and  white,  and  when  viewed  from  above,  appears  bordered 
on  each  side  with  black,  the  white  tips  of  the  hairs  projecting  beyond  this  margination. 
Each  hair  is  distinctly  annulated  with  white  and  black ;  the  last  black  annulation  preceding 
the  white  tip  being  wider,  and  of  a  deeper  hue  than  the  others. 


Length  of  head  and  body, .  13’ 0. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebrae), .  II  •  5. 

Ditto  ditto  (including  fur), .  15 ’5. 


60 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


Many  persons  imagine  that  this  is  but  a  larger  race  or  variety  of  the  Little  Grey  Squirrel ; 
and  indeed  they  agree  in  every  particular,  except  their  size.  Wc  suspect  that  Godman’s  Fox 
Squirrel,  as  well  as  his  Cat  Squirrel,  are  varieties  only  of  the  Hooded  Squirrel,  and  not  to 
be  referred  to  our  northern  animal.  Prof.  Emmons  states  that  its  flesh  is  not  so  sweet  or 
white  as  that  of  the  little  grey  squirrel.  Varieties  are  occasionally  met  with,  tawny,  and  dark 
brown.  Its  habits  and  geographical  distribution  are  the  same  as  in  the  preceding. 

THE  BLACK  SQUIRREL. 

SciURUS  NIGER. 

PLATE  XVII.  FIG.  1. 

Sciurus  niger.  Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.  262.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  177,  (excl.  syn.)  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist, 
(excl.  syn.)  Vol.  2,  p.  133,  figure. 

Black  Squirrel.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  191. 

S.  niger.  Bachman,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  1839,  p.  335. 

The  Black  Squirrel.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  67. 

Characteristics.  Entirely  glossy  black ;  a  shade  lighter  beneath.  Claws  covered  with  hair. 

Hind  legs  with  a  few  scattering  hairs  beneath.  Length  12" 0  -  14 ’0. 

Description.  Body  more  gaunt  and  slender  than  in  the  Little  Grey  Squirrel,  and  the  head 
narrower  between  the  eyes.  Ears  1  •  3  apart,  broad,  with  the  posterior  slope  nearly  straight ; 
tips  subacute,  not  pencilled,  but  with  hairs  of  the  posterior  surface  extending  beyond  them. 
Whiskers  in  two  series  on  the  sides  of  the  nose,  longer  than  the  head,  two  or  three  above  the 
eyes,  and  a  patch  of  three  or  four  on  the  cheeks.  Outer  and  inner  claws  of  fore  feet  subequal, 
the  outer  slightly  shortest ;  a  few  long  black  hairs  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  fore  legs  ;  the 
two  middle  claws  of  the  hind  feet  equal ;  posterior  part  of  hind  leg  nearly  naked.  Tail  cylin¬ 
drical,  scarcely  distichous.  Fur  softer  and  finer  than  in  the  little  grey  squirrel.  Molars  eight 
above. 

Color.  Glossy  jet  black.  Base  of  the  fur  above,  deep  slate  ;  beneath,  it  is  light  grey. 
Palms  flesh  colored. 


Length  of  head  and  body, .  13' 0. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebrae), .  10' 0. 

Ditto  ditto  (including  fur), .  13 ' 0. 


It  is  usually  supposed  that  the  winter  fur  of  this  species  is  most  intensely  and  generally 
black.  The  homogeneousness  of  color  may  be  found  at  all  seasons  ;  for  we  have  killed  them 
in  July  and  August,  in  the  western  part  of  the  State,  intensely  black. 

The  confusion  alleged  to  exist  in  the  descriptions  of  our  Squirrels,  and  more  especially  in 
relation  to  this  species,  maybe  thus  explained:  Catesby  (Nat.  Hist.  Car.  Vol.  2,  p.  73) 
figured  a  species,  subsequently  known  as  a  variety  of  the  Hooded  Squirrel,  S.  capistratus. 
Linneus,  in  his  twelfth  edition,  gives  it  the  name  of  niger,  citing  Catesby,  but  without  any 


FAMILY  SCIURIDiE. 


61 


specific  phrase.  Brisson  (Reg.  An.  Vol.  1,  p.  105)  refers  to  the  same  plate,  which  he  pro¬ 
nounces  excellent.  Pennant  (Arct.  Zool.  Yol.  1,  p.  119)  adopts  the  same  course,  considering 
it  as  «S.  niger .  In  this  he  is  copied  by  Erxleben  (p.  417),  and  by  Schreber  (Saugth.  Vol. 
2,  p.  776),  which  latter  reproduces  Catesby’s  figure.  The  dark  brown  or  black  variety  of 
the  Little  Grey  Squirrel  has  also  been  described  as  the  niger ;  and  from  these  various  sources, 
so  much  confusion  has  arisen,  that  Cuvier,  in  the  first  edition  of  his  Regne  Animal,  supposes 
the  black  and  little  grey  squirrels  to  be  varieties  of  capistratus.  In  the  second  edition,  he  is 
silent  on  the  subject,  and  his  American  editor  supposes  the  black  squirrel  to  be  a  variety  of 
the  grey.  In  the  catalogue  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  which  is  understood  to  have  been  fur¬ 
nished  by  Major  Le  Conte,  the  Black  Squirrel,  as  a  species,  is  suppressed.  Harlan,  Godman 
and  Richardson,  have  very  properly  restored  it  .to  its  place  in  the  systems.  Precise  technical 
naturalists  may,  however,  deem  it  proper  to  restore  the  name  of  niger  to  capistratus,  and  give 
the  present  species  a  new  name.  They  are,  however,  now  so  firmly  established  and  gene¬ 
rally  known,  that  little  would  be  gained  by  the  change.  It  appears  to  be  well  authenticated 
that  it  disappears  before  the  little  grey  squirrel.  We  have  been  assured  by  many  credible 
persons,  that  in  certain  districts  where  formerly  none  but  black  squirrels  were  seen,  their 
place  is  now  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  the  grey  squirrel. 

This  species  appears  to  have  but  a  limited  latitudinal  range.  It  is  found  throughout  the 
western  counties  of  the  State.  Few  are  found  south  of  Pennsylvania.  Westwardly  its  dis¬ 
tribution  has  not  been  ascertained.  Habits  the  same  as  the  preceding. 

THE  RED  SQUIRREL. 

SCIURDS  HUDSONICUS. 

PLATE  XVII.  FIG  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Hudson's  Bay  Squirrel.  Pennant,  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  116.  Id.  Hist.  Quadr.  Vol.  2,  p.  147. 

Sciurus  hudsonicus ,  Var.  e,  vulgaris.  Erxleben,  p.  416. 

Red  Squirrel.  Warden,  Hist.  U.  S.  Vol.  1,  p.  330. 

Red  Barking  Squirrel.  Schoolcraft,  Journal,  p.  273. 

S.  hudsonicus.  Harlan,  p.  185.  Godman,  Vol.  2,  p.  138,  figure. 

The  Chickaree.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  187,  pi.  17.  Bachman,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  1839,  p.  383. 

Common  Red  Squirrel,  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  67. 

Characteristics.  Reddish  above,  white  beneath.  Ears  slightly  tufted.  Tail  shorter  than  the 
body. 

Description.  Forehead  rounded.  Whiskers  numerous,  black,  longer  than  the  head.  Ears 
short,  broad  and  rounded  ;  furnished  with  long  hairs  projecting  beyond  the  margin,  but  rarely, 
if  ever,  distinctly  tufted.  Legs  robust ;  fore  feet  with  the  rudiment  of  a  thumb  nail.  All  the 
claws  sharp,  compressed,  and  much  incurved.  Teeth  as  in  the  other  squirrels;  that  is  to 
say,  ten  molars  above,  the  deciduous  molar  falling  very  early.  Tail  not  as  long  as  the  head 
and  body,  not  very  bushy,  and  somewhat  distichous. 

Color.  Above  deep  reddish  brown,  with  scattering  darker  hairs ;  dark  grey  at  base. 


62 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Cheeks,  and  all  beneath,  white,  separated  along  the  flanks  by  a  black  line,  which  in  some 
individuals  is  very  indistinct :  in  specimens  from  high  northern  latitudes,  it  appears  to  be 
generally  absent.  Tail  deep  reddish  brown  above,  with  blackish  hairs  on  the  borders  ;  on 
the  under  side  it  is  rufous  in  the  middle,  then  black,  and  tipped  with  brown. 


Length  of  head  and  body, .  8'0. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebra), . .  5'0. 

Ditto  ditto,  including  fur, .  6‘5. 


This  familiar  and  well  known  species  is  found  from  the  Arctic  circle  to  the  mountainous 
ranges  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  We  observed,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  a 
remarkable  variety,  which  presented  the  following  appearance  :  The  whole  upper  part  of  the 
head  and  body,  with  the  exception  of  a  large  reddish  spot  on  the  left  flank,  was  of  a  light 
ash  grey ;  the  reddish  spot  was  separated  front  the  while  beneath,  by  a  deep  black  border. 
Tail  white,  intermixed  with  a  few  dark  hairs. 

The  Red  Squirrel  is  a  noisy  little  animal,  and  its  twittering  note  of  chick-a-ree  has  suggested 
one  of  its  popular  names.  It  feeds  on  fir-cones,  hickory  and  other  nuts,  and  also  on  the  seeds 
and  buds  of  trees.  In  the  northern  counties,  its  greatest  enemy  is  the  Sable,  and  from  him  it 
requires  all  its  well  known  agility  to  escape.  It  takes  to  the  water  readily,  and,  as  we  have 
noticed,  swims  tolerably  well.  It  dives,  too,  in  order  to  avoid  a  threatened  blow.  It  feeds  also 
upon  wheat,  rye  and  buckwheat ;  but  its  injuries  to  the  farmer  must  be  very  limited.  Its  habits 
appear  to  be  influenced  by  the  climate  ;  for  at  the  north  it  forms  deep  burrows  in  the  earth, 
under  the  roots  of  trees,  to  protect  itself  from  the  cold ;  whilst  in  this  State,  it  contents  itself 
with  occupying  a  hollow  in  a  tree.  Its  flesh  is  juicy  and  tender,  and  is  generally  preferred, 
as  an  article  of  food,  to  the  other  species.  Its  geographical  range  is  from  the  mountainous 
districts  of  North  Carolina,  to  the  sixty-eighth  degree  of  north  latitude. 

THE  STRIPED  SQUIRREL 

SCIURUS  STRIATUS. 

PLATE  XVI.  FIG.  1.— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sciurus  slriatus.  LlN.  1 2th  ed.  p.  87. 

Striped  Dormouse.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  126. 

Dos  Schwartz  Geslreichte  Erd-Eichhom.  Schreber,  Vol.  2,  p.  790. 

&.  striatus.  Harlan,  p.  183.  Godman,  Vol.  2,  p.  142,  figure. 

jS.  americanus.  Kuhl. 

S.  ( Tamias )  lysteri.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  p.  181,  pi.  15. 

The  Striped  Squirrel.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  68. 

Characteristics.  Reddish  brown  ;  a  black  dorsal  stripe,  and  a  shorter  light-colored  lateral  stripe 
bordered  with  black. 

Description.  Body  shorter  and  more  robust  for  its  size,  than  in  the  preceding  species.  Head 
slightly  rounded  towards  the  nose.  Ears  ovate,  rounded  ;  the  hair  slightly  exceeding  the  mar- 


FAMILY  SCIURIDiE. 


63 


gins,  but  not  in  a  tuft.  Whiskers  few,  and*extending  beyond  the  eyes.  Fore  feet  with  four 
compressed,  curved  claws,  and  the  rudiments  of  a  thumb  ;  the  two  middle  claws  longest  and 
subequal,  all  partially  covered  with  hair ;  soles  with  five  tubercles.  Hind  feet  long,  with  the 
three  middle  toes  subequal.  Tail  slender,  rather  cylindrical  above,  distichous  on  its  lower 
surface.  Molars  eight  above.  Dilatable  cheeks,  not  forming  distinct  pouches. 

Color.  Forehead  tawny  mixed  with  black,  with  a  small  black  spot  above  the  nose.  A  slight 
whitish  mark  above  and  beneath  the  eyelids,  becoming  dilated  towards  the  ears,  with  an  inter¬ 
mediate  black  dash  in  the  same  direction  passing  through  the  eye.  Upper  part  of  the  neck, 
anterior  part  of  the  back,  and  superior  surface  of  the  tail,  grey  mixed  with  black.  Flanks 
greyish,  passing  into  reddish  on  the  rump  and  thighs.  The  cheeks,  throat,  breast,  belly  and 
internal  parts  of  the  fore  legs  ,  and  thighs,  white  more  or  less  mixed  with  light  ash.  A  narrow 
chesnut  brown  dorsal  stripe  commences  between  the  ears,  becomes  dilated  and  darker  on  the 
back,  and  ends  about  an  inch  from  the  tail.  A  short  white  stripe  is  parallel  with  this  on  each 
flank,  bordered  above  and  below  with  black,  the  lower  black  border  frequently  much  dilated. 
These  longitudinal  markings  are  frequently  treated  as  composed  of  five  parallel  black  lines. 
The  space  between  the  lateral  and  dorsal  stripes  grey.  Rump  bright  tawny.  The  under  side 
of  the  tail  fulvous,  bordered  with  black  and  grey. 

Length  of  head, .  1  •  7.  Of  tail  (vertebrae), .  3-  8. 

Ditto  of  body, .  5 '5.  Ditto  (including  fur),  ..  4 '5. 

This  common  species  is  well  known  under  the  various  popular  names  of  Flacky,  Ground 
Squirrel,  Chipping  Squirrel,  Chipmuck ;  the  latter,  we  apprehend,  being  its  aboriginal  name 
in  this  State.  There  appears  to  be  a  doubt  with  some  naturalists,  whether  the  Asiatic  and 
American  animals  are  identical.  Dr.  Richardson  appears  to  consider  their  identity  as  not  yet 
proved  by  actual  comparison,  and  proposes  for  the  American  the  name  of  Tarnias  lysteri, 
giving  Ray  the  authority  for  the  specific  name.  The  descriptive  history  of  this  species  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  this  :  It  was  originally  noticed  by  Ray  in  1683,  in  his  Synopsis  Methodica  Ani- 
malium,  p.  216,  without  giving  it  a  name.  “  Huic  (S.  getulus,  Caii  apud  Gesnerum,  the 
“  Barbary  Squirrel)  similis  est  Sciurus  a  Cla.  Dom.  Lyster  observatus,  et  sic  descriptus  : 
“  Sciurus  e  minoribus  est  rufis  cineriisqtie  pilis  fere  ad  similitudinem  vulgaris  muscovitici 
“  coloratur  ;  in  medio  dorso  unica  linea  ex  toto  nigra  ;  itemque  ad  utrumque  latus  altera  eaque 
“  latiuscuhe  quidem,  at  multo  brevioriis  earumque  etiam  media  albicant.  Huic  cauda  brevis, 
“  corpore  concolore  at  nigrior,  et  raris  pilis  donatus,  etc.”  It  was  subsequently  noticed  by 
Edwards  &  Catesby  ;  by  Linneus,  in  1754  ;  in  the  Mus.  Ad.  Fred.,  by  Pallas;  by  Schreber, 
in  1755;  and  in  the  last  correct  edition  of  the  Sy sterna,  1766,  Linneus  describes  striatus, 
quoting  Catesby  &  Edwards,  and  considering  their  animal  as  identical  with  that  of  Siberia. 
Desmarest  (Diet.  Sc.  Nat.  Yol.  52,  p.  170)  appears  to  doubt  whether  they  are  identical. 
We  may  here  remark,  by  the  way,  that  his  description  of  the  American  striatus  appears  to 
have  been  drawn  up  from  a  young  or  very  small  specimen.  From  Daubenton’s  description 
of  the  Asiatic  species,  the  chief  differences  appear  to  be  the  following :  In  the  latter  the  tail 
is  black  towards  the  extremity,  tipped  with  white  ;  the  intermediate  space  between  the  dorsal 


64 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


and  lateral  stripes,  light  yellow.  These  are  trivial  differences,  such  as  might  occur  between 
two  individuals  of  the  same  species.  The  size  of  the  two  species  sufficiently  coincide. 

The  laborious  compiler  Schreber  describes  carefully  the  Asiatic  Squirrel,  and  the  following 
appears  to  be  the  principal  points  :  “  Eyelids  bare  and  dark  brownish  on  the  margins.  Color 
“  of  the  head,  neck,  sides  and  outer  part  of  legs  yellowish  (griseo-lutescens.)  On  the  sides  of 
“  the  head  are  four  alternate  pale  and  brown  stripes.  Tail  above  blackish,  beneath  yellowish; 
“  along  its  sides,  a  darkish  obsolete  border,  etc.” 

The  genus  Tamias  of  Uliger,  we  deem  founded  on  unimportant  or  insufficient  character,  if 
applied  to  our  species.  Its  habits  might  seem  to  imply  an  organization  somewhat  different 
from  the  other  squirrels  ;  but  neither  the  slight  difference  in  the  deciduous  upper  anterior 
molar,  nor  the  situation  of  the  brain,  are  of  themselves  sufficiently  important.  The  tail  of  the 
Ground  Squirrel  is  distinctly  distichous ;  and  the  cheeks,  though  susceptible  of  great  dilata¬ 
tion,  do  not  form  true  cheek  pouches. 

The  Ground  Squirrel  is  usually  seen  running  along  fences,  and  particularly  attached  to 
stone  walls,  which  afford  him  a  ready  retreat.  Under  these  he  makes  his  burrow,  in  which 
he  lays  up  his  store.  A  favorite  spot  is  the  centre  of  some  decayed  stump.  It  rarely  ascends 
trees,  and  only  when  its  retreat  is  cut  off  from  its  hiding  place.  It  appears  to  be  of  an  irrita¬ 
ble  disposition,  resisting  every  attempt  at  domestication.  Its  food  is  the  same  as  with  the 
other  species.  It  is  stated  by  Prof.  Emmons  to  be  occasionally  injurious  to  maize,  by  destroy¬ 
ing  the  kernel  when  the  plant  is  just  out  of  the  ground. 

It  is  common  over  all  the  State.  Its  geographical  range,  in  this  country,  appears  to  be 
included  between  the  fiftieth  and  thirty-third  parallels  of  latitude. 


(EXTRA-LIMI  TAL. ) 

S.  carolinensis,  Bose.  (Bachman,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  1839,  p.  330.)  Rusty  grey,  white  beneath ;  ears 
nearly  naked ;  anterior  molar  in  upper  jaw  persistent.  Tail  as  long  as  head  and  body.  Smaller 
than  leucotis.  Length  17-0.  Southern  States. 

S.  macrourus.  (Say,  Long’s  Exp.  Vol.  1,  p.  115.)  Black  and  grey  above.  Tail. very  large.  Length 
19  *0  -  20  *0.  Missouri. 

S.  auduboni.  Black  above,  beneath  brownish.  Tail  equal  to  length  of  head  and  body.  Smaller  than 
niger  ;  ears  shorter.  Length  23  -0.  Louisiana. 

S.  quadrivittatus.  (Say,  Op.  cit.  Vol.  2,  p.  45.)  Head  with  four  white  stripes ;  on  the  back,  four 
broad  white  lines  alternating  with  darker  ones.  Head  and  body  4  -2 ;  tail  3-0.  Allied  to  striatus. 
Rocky  Mountains. 

S.  fuliginosus.  (Bachman,  Op.  cit.  p.  380.)  Black  above,  grizzled  with  brownish  yellow.  Tail 
flatfish,  much  shorter  than  the  body.  Length  18  •  5.  Mississippi. 

S.  richardsonii.  (Bachman,  p.  386.  Lewis  &  Clark.)  Rusty  grey  above,  whitish  beneath;  end 
of  tail  black,  and  shorter  than  the  body.  Length  11*2.  Rocky  Mountains. 

S.  douglasii.  (Bachman,  Op.  cit.  p.  382.)  Dark  brown  above,  brighter  buff  beneath.  Tail  shorter 
than  the  body.  Length  14 ‘6.  Columbia  River. 


FAMILY  SCIURID-E. 


05 


S.  capistratus.  (Fox  Squirrel  of  Bachman,  p.  117.)  Usually  grey;  ears  and  nose  white ;  fur  coarse. 
Tail  longer  than  head  and  body.  Length  29-5.  Largest  of  the  genus.  Southern  States,  New- 
Jersey. 

S.  lanuginosus.  (Bachman,  p.  387.)  Yellowish  grey  above,  silver-grey  on  sides,  beneath  white. 
Tail  shorter  than  the  body.  Palms  and  inner  surface  of  toes  thickly  clothed  with  silky  hairs.  Fur 
soft  and  downy.  Length  14 '0.  Columbia  River. 

S.  nigrescetis.  (Bachman,  p.  334.)  Black  above,  slightly  varied  with  grey;  sides  of  the  neck,  upper 
part  of  thigh  and  rump  pale  yellow,  beneath  soiled  grey ;  feet  black.  Tail  longer  than  body. 
Length  27  -5.  California. 

S.  collei.  (Richardson,  App.  Beechy.)  Above  varied  with  black  and  yellow,  beneath  white ;  feet 
white;  cheeks  greyish.  Tail  less  than  length  of  head  and  body.  Length  20*1. 

GENUS  PTEROMYS.  Uliger. 

Teeth  as  in  the  preceding  genus.  Ears  round.  Upper  lip  divided.  Toes  elongated,  deeply 
divided.  The  skin  dilated  on  the  sides  from  the  fore  to  the  hind  legs,  forming  a  sort  of 
parachute  in  the  air. 

Obs.  This  genus  at  present  embraces  nine  species,  of  which  two  are  found  in  America,  one 
in  northern  Europe,  and  the  remainder  in  Java.  Some  of  the  species  are  nocturnal. 


THE  SMALL  AMERICAN  FLYING  SQUIRREL. 

Pteromys  volucella. 

PLATE  XVI.  FIG.  3  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Sciurus  americanus  volansi  Ray,  Synop.  Quad.  p.  215. 

Flying  Squirrel  Penn.  Hist.  Quad.  Vol.  2,  p.  153,  No.  351. 

Sciurus  volucella.  Gmelin. 

Flying  Squirrel.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  120. 

Pteromys  volucella.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  187. 

Common  Flying  Squirrel.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  147,  figure.  Emmons,  Mass:  Report,  1840,  p.  69. 

Characteristics.  Brownish  ash,  tinged  with  cream  color  on  the  body,  above ;  darker  on  the 
membrane,  which  is  bordered  with  white.  Length  9'0  -  10 -0. 

Description.  Head  short  and  rounded  ;  muzzle  rather  obtuse.  Ears  large,  broad,  membra¬ 
nous,  nearly  naked,  and  O’  5  high.  Eyes  large,  brilliant  and  prominent.  Whiskers  numerous, 
some  of  them  three  inches  in  length.  Claws  feeble,  compressed,  convex  and  acute,  nearly 
covered  by  hairs ;  the  two  middle  claws  of  the  fore  feet  subequal,  longest  on  the  hind  feet, 
the  inner  toe  shortest.  Tail  flat,  distichous,  linear,  rounded  at  the  tip,  1  ’2  broad.  The  fur 
particularly  fine  and  soft ;  on  the  extremities  beyond  the  membrane,  it  is  very  short. 

Color.  Head  mouse-grey.  Orbits  of  the  eyes  margined  with  black.  Sides  of  the  nose, 
cheeks,  and  all  beneath  pure  white,  with  occasionally  a  slight  tinge  of  reddish  on  the  under 
Fauna.  9 


66 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


side  of  the  tail.  Body  above  with  a  rufous  tint,  the  dark  slate-colored  hairs  being  tipped  with 
that  color.  On  the  upper  side  of  the  flying  membrane,  the  predominating  color  is  dark  brown, 
varied  slightly  with  faint  reddish  brown,  becoming  darker  near  the  edge,  which  is  bordered 
with  white,  and  occasionally  cream-color.  Tail,  on  its  upper  surface  sometimes  bright  red¬ 
dish,  at  other  times  uniform  with  the  color  of  the  back. 

Length  of  head, . .  1*3.  Of  tail  (vertebra), . 4’0. 

Ditto  of  body, . 4‘0.  Ditto  (including  fur), 5'0. 

The  dimensions  of  this  squirrel  are  usually  smaller  than  in  the  specimen  from  which  the  above 
description  was  taken. 

The  Flying  Squirrel  is  well  known  throughout  this  State.  The  expanded  fold  of  skin  is  in 
many  species  supported  by  a  small  bone,  articulated  to  the  wrist.  In  the  American  species, 
this  is  rudimentary.  By  the  aid  of  this  membrane,  they  are  enabled  to  dart  from  one  tree  to 
another,  not  by  an  actual  movement  of  the  membrane,  as  we  have  seen  among  bats ;  but  by 
sailing  obliquely  downwards,  and  rising  suddenly  when  within  a  few  inches  of  the  tree  upon 
which  they  mean  to  alight.  In  this  sailing  movement,  they  are  aided,  and  perhaps  slightly 
guided  by  their  broadly  expanded  tail.  They  form  their  nests  in  hollow  trees,  from  which  they 
are  easily  roused  by  striking  on  the  trunk.  They  are  of  a  gentle  disposition,  and  easily  domes¬ 
ticated  ;  are  fond  of  warmth,  and  will  sleep  during  the  whole  day,  closely  pressed  against  the 
body  of  their  master.  At  twilight  they  arouse  themselves,  and  afford  mitch  entertainment 
by  sailing  about  the  room,  always  commencing  their  flight  by  climbing  to  a  chair,  table  or 
shelf.  It  brings  forth  three  or  four  at  a  litter,  and  lives  exclusively  on  nuts,  seeds  and  buds. 
It  does  not  appear  to  be  found  far  beyond  the  gceat  lakes,  but  extends  through  the  United 
States.  According  to  Lichtenstein,  it  occurs  in  Mexico. 

( EXTRA-LIMIT AL. ) 

P.  sabrinus.  (Richardson,  Vol.  1,  p.  193,  pi.  18.)  Resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  much  larger. 

Length  12  inches.  Arctic  America ,  Sault  St.  Marie. 

P.  oregonensis.  (Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  8,  p.  101.)  Ears  longer  than  in  sabrinus.  Brown  above, 
beneath  white.  Length  12  inches;  alar  extent  9  inches.  Oregon. 


FAMILY  II.  ARCTOMID.E. 

Head  large,  and  somewhat  flattened.  Ears  short  and  rounded.  Molars  ten  above  and  eight 
below ;  anterior  surface  of  incisors  rounded,  the  upper  surface  ridged  and  tuberculous. 
Body  thick  and  heavy,  with  short  limbs.  Tail  bushy,  moderate  or  short.  Some  species 
with  cheek  pouches.  All  burrow  and  hybernate. 

This  group,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Squirrels,  comprises  many  small  animals,  which 
have  been  indifferently  referred  to  Squirrels  or  Marmots.  America  is  particularly  rich  in 
species,  but  few  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the  Union,  and  but  one  within  ou.r  ktate. 


FAMILY  ARCTOMIDiE. 


67 


( EXTRA-LIMITAL. ) 

Genus  Spermophilits,  F.  Cuvier.  Ample  cheek  pouches,  commencing  at  the  commissure  of  the  lips, 
and  extending  to  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  the  anterior  ridge  on  the  upper  cheek  teeth  nearly  obso¬ 
lete,  and  the  internal  spur  much  developed.  Tail  long  and  linear,  bushy. 

S.  tredecimlineatus,  Mitchill.  (Richardson,  pi.  14.)  Six  to  eight  yellowish  longitudinal  stripes,  the 
intermediate  spaces  with  black  spots.  Length  8-10  inches.  St.  Peters  River. 

S.  lateralis.  (Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  2,  p.  46.  Richardson,  pi.  13.)  A  yellowish  white  stripe 
on  each  flank,  bordered  with  black.  Length  10  -  12.  Rocky  Mountains. 

S.  douglasii.  (Richardson,  Vol.  1,  p.  172.)  Hoary  brown  above,  with  a  black  stripe  between  the 
shoulders;  pale  brown  behind,  with  indistinct  black  marks.  Length  12  -  13.  Columbia  River. 

S.  beecheyi.  (Richardson,  pi.  12.  b.)  Above  reddish  varied  with  blackish,  beneath  brownish  yellow. 
Tail  long,  bushy  and  round.  Length  17  inches.  California-. 

S.  franklini.  (Richardson,  pi.  12.)  Yellowish  brown  above,  thickly  spotted  with  black;  greyish 
white  beneath.  Tail  long.  Length  16  inches.  Arctic  Regions. 

S.  richardsoni,  Sabine.  (Richardson,  pi.  11.)  Yellowish  grey  above,  varied  with  black;  beneath 
pale  orange  ;  very  short  ears.  Length  16  inches.  Arctic  Regions. 

S.  grammurus.  (Say,  Long’s  Exp.  Vol.  2,  p.  72.)  Cinereous  tinged  with  reddish;’  fur  coarse  and 
flattened.  Three  black  lines  on  the  tail.  Length  21  inches.  Rocky  Mountains. 

S.  guttatus,  Temmincjv.  (Richardson,  Vol.  1,  p.  162.)  Clove-brown  above,  spotted  with  white; 
beneath  and  feet  ochraceous;  no  external  ears,  and  short  tail.  An  Spermophilus  ?  Length  10 
inches.  Rocky  Mountains. 

S.  parryi.  (Richardson,  pi.  10.)'  Greyish  above,  pale  rust-color  beneath;  face  chesnut-color ;  ears 
short;  tail  flat.  Length  16  -  18  inches.  Hudson! s  Bay ,  Behring’s  Straits. 

S.  ludovicianus,  Ord.  (Godman,  Vol.  2,  p.  114,  plate.)  Prairie  Dog.  Reddish  brown  above, 
mixed  with  grey  and  black ;  beneath  soiled  white.  Tail  short,  banded  with  brown  near  the  tip. 
Length  19  inches.  Missouri. 

GENUS  ARCTOMYS.  Linneus.  Gmelin. 

Form,  habits  and  teeth  of  the  preceding .  Cheek  pouches  rudimentary.  Living  in  societies. 
Fore  feet  with  four  distinct  toes  and  the  rudiments  of  a  thitrnh  ;  hind- feet  with  five  toes, 
and  all  furnished  with  strong  hooked  and  compressed  nails.  Tail  bushy. 

Obs.  The  distinction  between  this  and  the  preceding  genus  is  exceedingly  obscure. 


68 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  WOODCHUCK. 

Arctomys  monax. 

PLATE  XXI.  FIG.  4.— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Mus  monax,  Lin.  12  Ed.  p.  81. 

Arctomys .  GMELIN. 

Maryland  Marmot.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  111. 

Arctomys  monax.  Harlan,  Fauna  Amer.  p.  158. 

Maryland  Marmot.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  100,  figure.  Griffith,  Regne  Animal  de  Cuvier,  Vol.  3,  p. 

170,  figure. 

The  Woodchuck.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  153.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  64. 

Characteristics.  Adult,  reddish  grey  ;  head  and  neck  reddish  brown  ;  sides  of  the  nose  ashy  ; 

beneath  bright  reddish.  Tail  uniform  with  the  body,  its  tip  slightly  darker, 
Young,  rufous,  or  uniform  black. 

Description.  Body  robust  and  clumsy.  Head  broad,  conical,  tapering  suddenly  to  the  snout, 
which  is  blunt  and  somewhat  truncated.  Ears  short,  broad  and  rounded  as  if  truncated,  two  and 
a  half  inches  apart ;  hairy  within  and  without.  Eyes  moderate,  black.  Whiskers  numerous, 
two  and  a  half  inches  long ;  a  group  of  three  or  four  over  the  eyes,  and  a  more  numerous 
collection  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  cheek  beneath  the  ears.  Toes  well  divided  and  long. 
On  the  fore  feet  the  claws  are  longest,  slightly  curved,  and  the  one  next  to  the  internal  longest. 
Thumb  rudimentary,  with  a  small  nail.  Hind  feet  semipalmate,  with  the  claws  channelled 
towards  the  tips,  the  three  middle  claws  subequal ;  palms  of  the  fore  feet  with  five  tubercles, 
three  in  front  and  two  larger  behind.  On  the  hind  feet,  four  irregular  tubercles  at  the  base  of 
the  toes,  and  two  or  three  unconspicuous  ones  behind.  Length  of  the  soles,  2-  5.  Tail  bushy, 
sub-distichous,  expanded  towards  the  tips.  Fur  composed  of  a  short  wool,  and  mixed  with 
coarse  hairs,  which  are  longest  on  the  foreshoulders  and  flanks  ;  on  the  head,  chin  and  feet, 
short,  subrigid  and  adpressed. 

Color,  subject  to  many  variations,  but  the  following  are  most  constant :  The  short  fur  is 
dark  brown  at  base,  and  ferruginous  at  the  tip  ;  through  this  appear  long  subrigid  hairs,  black 
for  two-thirds  of  their  length,  and  white  at  the  tips.  From  this  results  a  color  which  may  be 
designated  as  reddish  grey.  On  the  summit  of  the  head  the  color  is  of  a  uniform  shining 
reddish  brown,  being  ferruginous  where  it  joins  the  grey  of  the  back  ;  the  reddish  brown 
extends  beneath  the  eyes,  and  within  0‘5  of  the  extremity  of  the  nose.  The  chin  and  space 
around  the  nose,  ash  grey  ;  the  nose  brown.  Upper  parts  of  the  fore  and  hind  legs  and  body 
beneath,  deep  reddish.  Feet  covered  with  blackish  brown  hairs.  Tail  resembling  in  color 
the  upper  part  of  the  body,  darker  towards  the  end,  which  is  tipped  with  reddish.  From  a 
remarkably  fine  adult  specimen  caught  in  May,  and  of  which  we  have  given  a  figure,  we  are 
enabled  to  add  the  following  particulars :  On  the  back  the  hair  dark  slate  at  the  base,  and 
light  rufous  at  the  tips ;  the  longer  hairs  are  black,  annulated  near  the  tips  with  grey  ;  hence 
results  a  general  dusky  grey  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  back,  the  flanks,  sides  of  the  neck, 


FAMILY  ARCTOMID^E. 


09 


and  exterior  of  the  thighs.  Summit  of  the  head,  spaces  round  the  eyes,  and  on  the  rump  and 
tail,  dark  brown  ;  chin,  space  around  the  nose,  and  a  few  scattering  hairs  at  the  internal  base 
of  the  ears  and  over  the  eyes,  grey.  Throat,  abdomen  and  superior  parts  of  the  extremities 
with  long,  shaggy,  bright  reddish  hairs.  Feet  dark  brown,  approaching  to  black.  Ears  with 
sparse  hairs  on  both  sides,  projecting  beyond  the  margins.  A  few  of  the  black  whiskers,  and 
those  above  the  eyes,  extend  as  far  as  the  ears.  Tail  deep  brown,  with  a  shade  of  dark  rufous. 


Length  of  head, . . 

4-5. 

Length  of  fore  claw, .... 

0-6. 

Ditto  of  body, _ 

12-5. 

Ditto  of  hind  claw,  _ _ _ 

0-5. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebras), . . 

5-5. 

Height  of  ear, . 

0-6. 

Ditto,  including  fur,  .... 

73. 

Width  of  ditto,  . . 

0-8. 

Height, . 

7-0. 

Girth  of  body, . . . 

16'0. 

The  young  exhibit  great  varieties  in  their  markings.  Three  apparently  not  fully  grown 
woodchucks,  which  I  obtained  from  the  hemlock  forests  about  Oneida  lake,  and  which  were 
taken  from  the  same  burrow,  and  measured  from  10-11  inches  in  the  length  of  their  head 
and  body,  exhibited  the  following  appearances  : 

No.  1 .  All  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  tail  rufous,  varied  with  grey ;  beneath  bright 
rufous. 

No.  2.  Uniform  jet  black  above  and  beneath,  except  the  space  surrounding  the  chin  and 
mouth,  which  was  cinereous  grey. 

No.  3.  Summit  of  the  head,  posterior  portion  of  the  back  and  tail  dark  brownish.  Throat, 
sides  of  the  neck,  anterior  part  of  the  back,  the  foreshoulders  and  flanks,  grizzled  with  long 
hoary  hairs.  Beneath,  bright  fulvous.  Tail  dark  brown  above  and  beneath. 

The  Woodchuck,  or  Ground-hog,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  common  in  almost  every 
county  in  the  State.  In  some  places  it  appears  to  select  pine  forests  for  its  abode ;  and  in 
others,  it  appears  to  prefer  cleared  lands  and  old  pastures.  It  feeds  on  clover  and  other  suc¬ 
culent  vegetables,  and  hence  is  often  injurious  to  the  farmer.  It  is  said  to  bring  forth  four  or 
five  young  at  a  litter.  Its  gait  is  awkward,  and  not  rapid ;  but  its  extreme  vigilance  and 
acute  sense  of  hearing  prevent  it  from  being  often  captured.  It  forms  deep  and  long  burrows 
in  the  earth,  to  which  it  flies  upon  the  least  alarm.  It  appears  to  be  social  in  its  habits  ;  for, 
upon  one  occasion,  we  noticed  some  thirty  or  forty  burrows  in  a  field  of  about  five  acres. 
These  burrows  contain  large  excavations,  in  which  they  deposit  stores  -of  provisions.  It 
hybernates  during  the  winter,  having  first  carefully  closed  the  entrance  of  its  burrow  from 
within.  It  is  susceptible  of  domestication,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  cleanly  habits.  Its 
cheeks  are  susceptible  of  great  dilatation,  and  are  used  as  receptacles  for  the  food  which  it  thus 
transports  to  its  burrow.  Its  range,  as  far  as  we  have  been  enabled  to  ascertain,  is  from 
Maine  to  Carolina.  It  probably  extends  through  the  western  States. 

We  have  never  seen  the  Quebec  Marmot  noted  beneath,  although  we  have  heard  that  it  has 
been  found  in  this  State.  We  find  no  specific  difference  between  it  and  the  woodchuck, 
except  in  the  color.  From  the  description  given  by  Richardson,  which  is  the  most  recent  and 
complete,  it  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  No.  3  noted  above. 


70 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


( EX  TRA-LIMI TAL. ) 

A.  enipetra.  (Richardson,  pi.  9.)  Hoary  above,  reddish  orange  beneath;  cheeks  whitish.  Tail 
brown  and  hoary,  with  a  black  tip.  Size  of  vionax.  Northern  Regions. 

A.  pruinosus.  (Richardson,  p.  150.)  Long  coarse  fur,  especially  on  the  back  and  shoulders,  where 
it  is  hoary ;  hind  parts  dull  yellowish  brown.  Tail  bushy,  blackish  brown.  Size  of  preceding. 

Rocky  Mountains. 

A.  brachyurus.  (Harlan,  p.  304.)  Above  brownish  grey  tinged  with  red,  and  speckled  with  lighter; 
nose,  feet  and  under  side  of  body  brick  red.  Tail  flat,  red  above,  with  a  white  margin.  Length 
17 ‘0.  Tail  2*5.  Columbia  River. 

FAMILY  III.  GERBILLID/F. 

Fore  feet  very  short.  Hind  feet  disproportionately  long.  Tail  generally  longer  than  the 
body.  Molars  with  tubercular  crowns,  6-8  beneath. 

Obs.  This  forms  a  small  but  distinct  group,  comprising  at  present  about  ten  species, . 
included  under  three  genera. 


GENUS  MERIONES.  Illiger. 

Consisting  of  small  species.  Tail  very  long,  slender,  and  nearly  naked.  Molars  beneath 
six.  Fore  feet  with  a  rudimentary  thumb,  with  a  small  nail.  Ilybernate.  Nocturnal. 


THE  DEER-MOUSE. 

Meriones  americanus. 

PLATE  XXIV.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Labrador  Rat.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  132. 

Dipus  americanus.  Barton,  Am.  Philos.  Trans.  Vol.  1,  p.  114,  figure. 

D.  canadensis.  Davis,  Lin.  Trans.  Vol.  4,  p.  155,  pi.  8,  figs.  5  and  6. 

Gerbillus  canadensis  el  labradorius.  Harlan,  Fauna  Am.  p.  155.  Godma-N,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  94,  figure. 

Meriones  labradorvus.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  144,  pi.  7. 

Gerbillus  canadensis.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report.,  1840,  p.  69. 

Characteristics.  Dark  reddish  brown  above,  yellowish  on  the  sides  ;  beneath  whitish,  tinged 
with  yellow.  Length  8 ' 0  -  9  •  0. 

Description.  Head  narrow,  conical,  with  a  small  projecting  black  muzzle  covered  with 
short  rigid  hairs,  leaving  a  naked  space  about  a  tenth  of  an  inch  wide.  Nostrils  small,  oval 
and  lateral.  Mouth  beneath.  Whiskers  long  and  black,  extending  to  the  ears,  and  even 
beyond  them,  with  a  few  scattering  hairs  before  the  eyes.  Ears  suboval,  nearly  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  long.  Eyes  very  small.  Fore  feet  feeble,  05  long,  with  four  white,  sharp,  com- 


FAMILY  GER15ILLIDJE. 


71 


pressed  straight  nails,  of  which  the  internal  is  shortest ;  a  small  rudimentary  thumb  near  the 
base  of  the  inner  toe.  Hind  legs  slender,  nearly  two  inches  long ;  the  anterior  surface  covered 
with  short  white  hair.  Tail  long,  slender,  cylindrical,  scaly,  with  short  rigid  adpressed  hairs  ; 
slightly  enlarged  at  the  base,  a  few  hairs  extending  O’  3  beyond  the  tip,  which  is  not,  however, 
tufted.  Fur  short,  not  remarkably  line,  longest  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  body.  Teeth  : 
Incisors,  §  ;  molars,  f  =  18.  The  upper  cutting  teeth  yellowish,  and  so  deeply  channelled 
in  the  centre  as  to  produce  an  impression  at  first  that  there  are  four  incisors  above.  The 
anterior  molar  above,  and  the  posterior  beneath,  smallest. 

Color.  Head  dark  brown  above.  Ears  margined  with  fulvous.  Space  beneath  the  nose  on 
each  side,  white.  In  some  specimens  this  is  yellowish,  and  forms  a  yellow  stripe  extending 
backwards  towards  the  ears.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  body  a  broad  dark  brown  dorsal  stripe, 
becoming  yellowish  on  the  sides  and  whitish  beneath.  These  colors  are  almost  distinctly 
separated.  The  dark  color  of  the  back  is  produced  by  intermixture  of  numerous  black  hairs 
on  a  fulvous  ground.  Base  of  hairs  on  the  head,  back  and  sides  slate-colored.  The  white  of 
the  belly  not  unfrequently  mixed  with  cream-color  ;  and  where  it  unites  with  the  hair  on  the 
sides,  it  is  bright  rufous.  Tail  white  beneath,  separated  distinctly  from  the  brown  above. 


Length  of  head, . .  l  •  0. 

Ditto  of  the  body, . . .  2  ’  0. 

Ditto  of  the  tail, . • . 5’0. 


This  curious  little  animal,  although  rarely  seen,  is  not  uncommon  in  every  part  of  the  State. 
It  was  first  noticed  by  Pennant ;  and  subsequently,  either  this  or  a  closer  allied  species  was 
described  by  Zimmerman  in  1780,  under  the  name  of  Dipus  huclsonius,  but  we  have  had  no 
opportunity  of  consulting  his  description.  For  the  next  notice  we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Barton, 
with  a  figure.  Two  years  afterwards,  Davis  published  a  meagre  notice,  with  a  figure. 
Sabine’s  lq.bradorius  was  drawn  up  from  a  mutilated  specimen.  From  the  confusion  existing 
in  relation  to  this  animal,  it  appears  to  be  probable  that  man}7  strongly  marked  varieties,  and, 
as  we  have  seen,  imperfect  specimens,  have  served  as  the  basis  for  the' creation  of  new 
species.  We  refer  to  our  deer-mouse,  the  notice  given  by  Prof.  Peck  in  the  American  Phi¬ 
losophical  Transactions,  Vol.  4,  p.  124.  The  G.  megalops,  leonurus  and  soricinus,  of  a 
grossly  innacurate  and  unscrupulous  foreign  writer  in  the  American  Monthly  Magazine,  p. 
446,  we  consider  as  mere  varieties.  A  careful  and  extended  comparison  of  many  specimens 
from  various  districts  will  be  requisite,  before  we  are  enabled  to  pronounce  with  certainty 
upon  the  existence  of  more  than  one  species. 

The  Deer- mouse  forms  its  nest  under  heaps  of  stone,  or  piles  of  rails,  and  occasionally, 
but  not  often,  in  stacks  of  wheat,  rye  or  maize.  It  brings  forth  four  young,  in  August.  It 
was  called  by  the  Mohegans  of  this  State,  Wah-peh-sous,  or  the  “animal  jumping  like  a 
deer.”  In  fact,  its  leaps  of  ten  to  twelve  feet  at  a  time  are  truly  remarkable,  and  have  occa¬ 
sioned  it  to  be  called  the  Jumping  Mouse.  In  these  leaps,  it  is  of  course  aided  by  its  long 
tail.  We  have  kept  them  for  some  time,  when  they  evinced  a  timid  but  gentle  disposition, 


72 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


sleeping  during  the  day,  and  exceedingly  active  during  the  night.  They  are  said  to  burrow, 
but  their  nails  appear  scarcely  fitted  for  this  office  ;  we  should  rather  think  that  they  take 
possession  of  vacant  burrows,  or  accidental  cavities.  They  have  often  been  noticed  in 
ploughed  grass  lands,  where  the  sods  of  the  furrows,  by  lapping  over  each  other,  form  long 
and  convenient  cavities,  in  which  they  make  their  nests.  Mr.  Jesse  Booth,  of  Orange  county, 
writes  to  me,  that  “  in  cross-ploughing  some  years  since,  my  attention  was  taken  up  by  see- 
“  ing  some  small  thing  move  off  from  near  my  plough,  at  about  the  moderate  walk  of  a  man. 
“  It  went  over  ridges  and  descended  the  hollows  of  the  furrows,  bearing  some  resemblance  to 
“  an  old  withered  oak  leaf.  I  pursued  it,  when  it  proved  to  be  one  of  these  wood-mice,  or 
“jumping  mice;  a  female,  with  four  young  ones  attached  by  their  mouths  to  its  teats.” 
The  same  gentleman  informs  me,  that  “  although  abundant  in  his  neighborhood,  they  do  very 
“  little  damage  in  the  grain  fields.  They  are  never  seen  in  the  clear  daylight,  unless  dis- 
“  turbed.  I  once  saw  two  of  them,”  he  adds  “  between  sunset  and  dark,  jumping  up  in 
“  rapid  succession,  and  making  a  chirping  noise  like  sparrows.” 

It  feeds  on  the  roots  of  grass,  grain,  seeds,  etc. ;  but  its  injuries  to  man  must  be  inconside¬ 
rable.  If  we  are  right  in  supposing  all  the  descriptions  as  applicable  to  one  species,  our  Deer- 
mouse  has  a  considerable  geographical  range,  extending  from  62°  north  to  40°.  It  has  been 
noticed  by  Say  at  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

FAMILY  IV.  CASTORIDjF. 

Body  covered  with  two  sets  of  hair,  a  fine  soft  down  and  long  subrigid  hairs.  Tail  flattened, 
and  covered  ivith  rounded  or  hexagonal  scales.  Hind  feet  longest.  Ears  short.  Aquatic. 
Social.  Some  species  ivith  webbed  feet ;  all  ivith  a  mushy  smell,  arising  from  glands  near 
the  anus. 


GENUS  CASTOR.  Linneus. 

Tail  broad,  oval,  flattened  horizontally .  Molars  sixteen.  Toes  of  the  hind  feet  completely 
webbed.  Teats  four. 


THE  BEAVER. 

Castor  fiber. 

PLATE  XX.  FIG.  1.  —  PLATE  VIII.  FIG.  I,  A  &  B.  Skull. 

Castor  fiber.  Lin.  12  Ed.  p.  78. 

Pond  Dog.  Josselyn,  Voyages,  p.  92. 

Beaver  Castor.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  98. 

C.  fiber.  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.  46.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  122.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  105,  figure. 

C.  [fiber)  americanus.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  105. 

The  Beaver.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  51. 

Characteristics.  Bay  or  yellowish  brown.  Length  two  to  three  feet.  Tail  scaly,  naked,  oval. 


FAMILY  CASTORIDiE. 


73 


Description.  Body  thick  and  clumsy,  enlarging  gradually  from  the  head  backwards.  Head 
broad  and  conical,  flattened  above.  Nose  large  and  obtuse,  divided,  furnished  with  strong 
whiskers.  Eyes  small  and  black.  Ears  short,  rounded,  and  almost  concealed  in  the  fur. 
Neck  short  and  thick.  Fore  feet  small  and  short,  with  separate  toes ;  the  five  claws  stout 
and  compressed,  the  central  one  longest,  the  outer  and  inner  shortest.  Hind  feet  with  elon¬ 
gated  soles;  the  toes  connected  throughout  their  whole  length  by  a  stout  membrane.  Tail 
broad,  flattened,  rather  pointed  at  the  end,  and  (except  at  its  origin,  where  it  is  furnished  for 
some  distance  with  short  hair,)  it  is  covered  with  sub-hexagonal  scales,  not  imbricated,  with  a 
few  scattering  hairs  in  the  interstices.  Incisors  very  robust,  smooth,  flat  and  yellowish  in  front, 
rounded  and  white  behind.  Molars  above  directed  backward  and  outward  ;  of  the  lower  jaw, 
forward  and  inward.  The  surfaces  of  the  molars  represent  elliptical  and  irregular  figures, 
caused  by  the  foldings  of  the  enamel ;  they  are  almost  impossible  to  describe  except  by 
figures,  and  must  change  with  age  and  continued  trituration.  The  fur  consists  of  two  sorts  ; 
one  composed  of  long,  stiff  and  elastic  hairs,  the  other  of  a  fine  soft  down.  Glandular  sacs 
containing  castoreum,  or  a  strong  musky  grease  or  unctuous  substance,  near  the  anus. 

Color.  The  long  and  coarse  hair  chesnut  brown  ;  the  downy  fur  beneath,  light  plumbeous 
or  silver  grey.  There  are  occasional  varieties,  entirely  black,  or  wholly  black  or  mottled. 


Length  of  head  and  body, .  24  •  0  -  36  •  0. 

Ditto  of  tail, . .  8'0-12-0. 


The  Beaver,  whose  skins  once  formed  so  important  an  article  of  commerce  to  this  State, 
as  to  have  been  incorporated  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  old  Colony,  is  now  nearly  extir¬ 
pated  within  its  limits.  The  skins  of  this  animal  even  constituted  a  certain  standard  of 
value,  and  were  a  portion  of  the  circulating  medium.  Thus,  in  1697,  we  find  that  Governor 
Fletcher  made  a  certain  grant  of  a  tract  of  land  on  the  Mohawk,  and  the  consideration  named 
in  the  deed  was  one  beaver  skin  for  the  first  year,  and  five  annually  forever  after.  According 
to  a  letter  from  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  preserved  in  the  Albany  Records,  we  learn, 
that  in  1624,  400  beaver  and  700  otter  skins  were  exported;  the  number  increased  in  1635, 
to  14,891  beaver  and  1,413  otter  skins ;  and  the  whole  number  in  the  ten  years  was  80,183 
beavers  and  7,347  otters,  amounting  in  value  to  725,1 17  guilders.  In  the  same  letter,  the 
directors  complain  that  beavers  have  become  exceedingly  scarce  ;  having  been  sold  at  seven 
guilders  a  piece,  and  even  more.  One  of  the  earliest  legislative  enactments  by  the  rulers  of 
the  Colony,  was  in  reference  to  the  peltry  trade ;  and  I  notice  in  the  same  records  alluded  to 
above,  that  William  De  Kay,  the  ancestor  of  the  writer,  was  appointed  receiver  of  the  duties 
on  beaver  and  bear  skins. 

I  am  informed  by  Mr.  T.  O.  Fowler,  that  in  1815,  a  party  of  St.  Regis  Indians  from  Canada 
ascended  the  Oswegatchie  river  in  the  county  of  St.  Lawrence,  in  pursuit  of  beaver.  In  con¬ 
sequence  of  the  previous  hostilities  between  this  country  and  England,  this  district  had  not 
been  hunted  for  some  years,  and  the  beaver  had  consequently  been  undisturbed.  The  party, 
after  an  absence  of  a  few  weeks,  returned  with  three  hundred  beaver  skins.  These  were 
seen  by  my  informant,  who  adds  that  since  that  time  very  few  have  been  observed. 

Fauna.  10 


74 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


In  the  summer  of  1840,  wc  traversed  those  almost  interminable  forests  on  the  highlands 
separating  the  sources  of  the  Hudson  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  included  in  Hamilton,  Her¬ 
kimer  and  a  part  of  Essex  counties.  In  the  course  of  our  journey  we  saw  several  beaver 
signs,  as  they  are  termed  by  the  hunters.  The  Beaver  has  been  so  much  harassed  in  this 
State,  that  it  has  ceased  making  dams,  and  contents  itself  with  making  large  excavations  in 
the  banks  of  streams.  Within  the  past  year,  (1841,)  they  have  been  seen  on  Indian  and 
Cedar  rivers,  and  at  Paskungameh  or  Tupper’s  lake ;  and  although  they  are  not  numerous, 
yet  they  are  still  found  in  scattered  families  in  the  northern  part  of  Hamilton,  the  southern 
part  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  western  part  of  Essex  counties.  Through  the  considerate 
attention  of  Mr.  A.  McIntyre,  those  yet  existing  in  the  southern  part  of  Franklin  county  are 
carefully  preserved  from  the  avidity  of  the  hunter,  and  there  probably  the  last  of  the  species 
in  the  Atlantic  States  will  be  found.  We  noticed  the  remains  of  an  old  and  large  beaver  dam 
at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Fourth  in  Herkimer  county,  but  it  is  now  nearly  covered  up  by  the 
drift  sand  from  the  lake. 

The  Beaver  exercises  great  ingenuity  in  the  construction  of  its  dwelling ;  but  this  ingenuity 
has  been  much  exaggerated,  and  perhaps  no  animal  has  served  for  the  foundation  of  so  many 
fables.  The  instinct  of  self-preservation  is  doubtless  very  strong,  and  its  sagacity  is  such, 
that  were  it  not  for  the  signs  near  its  abode  made  evident  by  the  stout  twigs  and  trees  gnawed 
and  cut  down,  it  would  never  be  discovered.  Whenever  these  chips  are  noted,  the  wary 
hunter  proceeds  to  examine  the  bank,  in  order  to  detect  at  what  particular  spot  the  beaver 
takes  to  the  water.  The  castor  bags  of  the  beaver,  or  barkstone,  as  it  is  termed  by  the  hun¬ 
ters,  is  then  rubbed  on  twigs  near  the  spot,  and  a  common  steel  trap  is  so  placed  under  the 
water  as  to  spring  when  the  animal  dives  against  it. 

The  Beaver  is  strictly  a  nocturnal  animal,  and  is  exceedingly  active  in  its  movements.  It 
advances  on  land  by  a  series  of  successive  leaps  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  in  which  it  is  powerfully 
assisted  by  its  tail,  which  it  brings  down  with  a  resounding  noise.  It  brings  forth  from  two 
to  four  at  a  birth.  It  feeds  chiefly  upon  the  roots  of  aquatic  plants,  and  the  bark  of  soft- 
wooded  trees,  such  as  the  birch,  poplar,  willow  and  alder.  We  have  been  assured  by  hunters 
that  they  also  feed  on  fish  ;  and  for  this,  their  aquatic  abodes  and  habits  would  appear  well 
adapted.  It  may  be,  that  in  the  selection  of  their  dwellings,  they  design  to  protect  themselves 
against  carnivorous  animals. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  Beaver,  now  so  much  restricted,  once  extended  from  the 
sixty-eighth  to  the  thirtieth  parallel.  In  the  United  States,  its  southern  boundary  does  not 
extend  beyond  the  districts  already  mentioned  in  the  State  of  New-York. 

It  has  been  attempted  to  separate  the  Beaver  of  Europe  and  America  into  two  species.  We 
coincide  entirely  with  Cuvier,  who  made  the  most  scrupulous  comparisons,  and  was  unable  to 
ascertain  the  existence  of  any  specific  differences. 


FAMILY  CASTORIDA). 


75 


(EXTRA-LI MIT AL.) 

(fossil.) 

PLATE  XIX.  FIG.  3,  A,  li. 

C.  (Trogonthcrium?)  ohiocnse.  This  species,  which  belonged  to  an  animal  nearly  six  feet  in  length, 
is  founded  on  the  lower  jaw  of  the  right  side,  found  near  Nashport,  Licking  county,  Ohio,  and  now 
in  the  Zanesville  Atheneum.  From  a  cast  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum,  we  are  enabled  to  give 
the  following  dimensions :  Length,  in  a  straight  line,  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the 
tip  of  the  incisor,  9*5;  length  of  the  denuded  incisor,  following  its  curve,  9*5;  of  its  bevelled  tip, 
1*6;  breadth  of  the  same,  0*6;  breadth  of  molars,  0  *5.  The  incisor  is  traversed  through  its  whole 
length  on  its  anterior  and  exterior  surface,  by  deep  parallel  longitudinal  grooves.  The  molars  are 
nearly  equal,  the  penultimate  smallest.  In  some  respects,  it  appears  allied  to  Hystrix.  It  is,  as  far 
as  we  know,  the  first  instance  of  the  discovery  of  a  fossil  of  this  order  in  America,  and  is  certainly 
one  of  the  largest  known.  In  the  loose  strata  near  the  Sea  of  Azof  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tagan- 
rok,  a  skull  has  been  found,  which  was  at  first  attributed  to  the  Beaver,  and  which  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  our  specimen.  Mr.  Fischer  has  described  it  as  the  type  of  a  new  genus,  which  he 
calls  Trogontherium,  but  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  his  description.  For  further  particulars  in 
relation  to  the  Ohio  specimen,  see  the  American  Journal,  Vol.  31,  p.  80,  (figure ) 

GENUS  FIBER.  Illiger. 

Tail  long,  narrow,  pointed  and  vertically  compressed.  Molars  twelve,  the  crowns  exhibiting 
sections  of  triangular  prisms.  Toes  of  the  hind  feet  partially  webbed.  Teats  six. 

THE  MUSQUASH. 

Fiber  zibethicus. 

PLATE  XX.  FIG.  2  — PLATE  XXXII.  FIG.  3.  Skull.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Castor  zibethicus.  Linn.  12  Ed.  p.  79. 

Mush  Beaver.  Penn.*  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  106. 

Fiber  zibethicus.  Harlan,  Faun.  p.  132.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  58,  figure.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1, 
p.  115. 

Muskrat.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  54. 

Characteristics.  Dark  brown  above,  tinged  with  reddish  ;  greyish  beneath.  Length  eighteen 
to  twenty  inches. 

Description.  Body  robust  and  thickset.  Head  short,  somewhat  arched  above.  Muzzle  short 
and  obtuse,  with  rigid  whiskers  on  each  side.  Eyes  small  and  black.  Ears  low,  rounded, 
broader  than  high,  covered  with  hair,  and  nearly  concealed  in  the  fur.  Neck  short  and  indis¬ 
tinct.  Fore  feet  short,  with  five  claws,  and  covered  with  short  glossy  hairs  to  the  bases  of  the 
nails,  which  are  short,  compressed  and  slightly  curved ;  the  thumb  distinct,  and  furnished 


76 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


with  a  long  nail.  Hind  feet  long,  the  soles  margined  with  long  whitish  hairs  ;  inner  and  outer 
toes  shortest,  subequal ;  the  three  others  much  longer,  and  the  two  middle  ones  united  by  a 
short  web.  Claws  moderate,  slightly  convex,  and  channelled  beneath  ;  a  row  of  stout  and 
coarse  bristles  on  the  edges  of  the  toes.  Tail  vertically  compressed,  thin  on  the  edges,  slightly 
wider  beyond  the  middle,  tapering  gradually  to  its  acute  tip  ;  its  surface  is  covered  with  small 
rounded  scales,  not  concealed  by  the  sparse  white  hairs.  The  fur  consists  of  a  fine  dense 
down,  resembling  that  of  the  beaver,  but  not  so  fine  ;  this  is  intermixed  with  longer  subrigid 
hairs.  Upper  incisors  large,  yellowish,  slightly  rounded,  and  without  grooves ;  the  lower 
rounded,  longer  and  more  pointed.  The  molars  resemble  in  their  structure  those  of  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  family,  but  have  distinct  roots. 

Color.  Dark  brown  above,  intermixed  with  reddish  on  the  sides  of  neck  and  body.  Chin, 
throat  and  posterior  parts  of  the  abdomen  greyish  or  dark  ash.  Edges  of  the  tail  darker  than 
the  rest.  Occasional  varieties  are  found  entirely  black,  wholly  white,  or  varied  with  black  and 
white. 

Total  length, . .• _ 18"  0  -  20 -0. 

Tail  alone, . . .  7‘0-10'0. 

The  Musquash  or  Muskrat  is  so  called  from  its  strong  musky  odor,  which  is  secreted  from 
glands  near  the  anus.  It  is  a  well-known  inhabitant  of  our  swamps  and  low  grounds,  and 
generally  in  every  place  in  the  vicinity  of  water.  Although  it  establishes  its  abode  often  in 
the  vicinity  of  man,  its  watchfulness  is  so  great  that  it  often  escapes  his  snares.  As  might  be 
inferred  from  its  structure,  its  movements  on  land  are  awkward  and  slow,  but  it  swims  and 
dives  with  great  ease  in  the  water.  It,  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  feeding  on  the  roots  of  aquatic 
plants,  and  is  said  to  be  particularly  fond  of  the  calamus  root  (C.  acorus).  It  is  also  extremely 
fond  of  the  fresh-water  muscle  ( Unio),  heaps  of  which,  in  a  gnawed  and  comminuted  state, 
may  be  found  near  their  retreats.  They  form  extensive  holes  or  burrows  in  banks,  and  some¬ 
times  build  small  conical  hillocks,  in  which  they  live  and  rear  their  young.  The  injuries 
which  they  occasion  to  artificial  embankments  by  their  burrows,  which  gradually  render  them 
pervious  to  water,  are  well  known. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  Musquash  is  very  extensive,  being  found  from  30°  to  69° 
north  latitude.  From  some  causes  with  which  we  are  unacquainted,  the  Musquash,  according 
to  Bartram,  is  not  seen  in  the  alluvial  of  Carolina  and  Georgia,  although  it  occurs  much  fur¬ 
ther  south  at  a  distance  from  the  coast.  In  this  State  the  skins  sell  for  twenty-five  cents  apiece, 
and  are  extensively  used  in  the  fabrication  of  hats. 


FAMILY  HYSTRICHLE. 


77 


FAMIL Y  V.  HYS TRICIDJE. 

Clavicles  rudimentary  or  none.  Body  armed  with  rigid  sharp  spines,  intermixed  with  hair. 
Molars  sixteen  ;  their  summits  flat,  with  ridges  of  enamel.  Tail  various,  sometimes  armed 
with  spines.  Tongue  with  spiny  scales. 

Obs.  This  group,  which  is  founded  on  the  old  genus  Hystrix,  comprises'  five  genera, 
founded  on  the  predominance  of  hair  or  spines,  and  the  shape  and  armature  of  the  tail. 

GENUS  HYSTRIX.  Linneus. 

Head  robust,  short,  with  an  obtuse  snout  and  cleft  upper  lip.  Ears  short  and  rounded. 
Eyes  small.  Anterior  feet  with  four  toes,  posterior  with  five,  all  armed  with  robust  curved 
claws.  Spines  nearly,  concealed  in  the  hair.  Tail  prehensile. 

THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  PORCUPINE. 

Hystrix  hddsonius. 

plate  XXVI.  FIG.  1.  — PLATE  VIII.  FIG.  2,  a,  B,  c.  Teeth  and  Skull. 

Hystrix  hudsonius.  Brisson,  Regnum  Animale,  p.  128. 

H.  dorsata.  Lin.  12  Ed.  p.  57. 

Canada  Porcupine.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  109. 

H.  dorsata.  Erxleben,  p.  345. 

H.  cristata.  Loskiel,  p.  84. 

Canada  Porcupine.  Sabine,  Franklin’s  Journey,  p.  664. 

Erethizon  dorsatum.  F.  Cuv.  Mem.  Mus.  Vol.  9,  p.  413. 

Canada  Porcupine.  Cozzens,  Ann.  Lyc.  Nat.  Hist.  New-York,  Vol.  I,  p.  190.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  150, 
figure. 

Hystrix  pilosus.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  214.  Doughty,  Cab.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  241,  pi.  21.  Griffith, 
Rdgne  Animal  of  Cuvier,  Vol.  3,  p.  206,  figure. 

Porcupine.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  71. 

Characteristics.  Varying  from  dull  brown  to  black.  Tail  moderate,  thick,  prehensile.  Length 
two  to  three  feet. 

Description.  Body  robust,  thickset,  with  its  dorsal  outline  arched.  Head  moderate,  conic, 
with  the  nose  truncated,  broad,  and  flattened  above.  Ears  short  and  rounded,  almost  entirely 
hidden  in  the  fur.  Eyes  small  and  black.  Legs  very  short,  with  oval  palms  on  the  fore  feet ; 
four  very  short  toes,  armed  with  long,  curved,  compressed,  blackish  claws,  grooved  beneath, 
the  outer  somewhat  the  smaller.  Hind  feet  with  five  subequal  claws.  Fur  long  and  coarse, 
especially  on  the  back,  sides  and  posterior  parts.  The  great  and  striking  peculiarity  of  this 
animal  consists  in  the  quills  or  spines,  which  arc  intermixed  with  the  hair,  capable  of  being 
erected  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  and  are  so  loosely  adherent  as  to  be  detached  upon  the 
slightest  touch.  These  are  cylindrical,  tapering  at  both  ends  to  an  acute  point.  They  vary 


78 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


in  length  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches,  and  are  white  with  black  tips,  or  entirely  white. 
When  examined  with  a  lens,  they  are  found  to  be  covered  with  minute  barbs,  imbricated,  and 
pointed  towards  the  base.  On  the  crown  of  the  head  and  neck,  these  are  short,  thick  and 
numerous  ;  on  the  shoulders  and  anterior  part  of  the  back,  they  are  few,  slender  and  flexible  ; 
on  the  posterior  part  of  the  back,  and  on  the  thighs,  they  are  very  long,  strong  and  numerous. 
The  upper  part  of  the  tail  is  also  furnished  with  smaller  spines.  The  young  have  long  white 
hairs  in  place  of  spines. 

Teeth.  In  the  upper  jaw,  the  incisors  are  very  strong,  flattened  in  front  abruptly,  and  bevelled 
behind  ;  the  portion  within  the  sockets  three-sided,  nearly  two  inches  long,  describing  the 
segment  of  a  circle  nearly  two  inches  in  diameter  ;  the  bottom  of  the. socket  reaches  beneath 
the  socket  of  the  posterior  molar.  The  first,  third  and  fourth  molars -nearly  equal,  the  second 
smallest.  The  anterior  molar  with  three  large  and  irregular  diverging  prongs,  of  which  the 
internal  is  broad  and  largest ;  the  crown  with  five  cavities  separated  by  waving  plates  of 
enamel,  the  posterior  exterior  cavity  smallest,  oval.  The  second  molar  small,  with  four 
cavities  on  the  crown,  resembling  in  shape  the  two  posterior  molars  ;  but  the  internal  oblique 
cavity  becomes  gradually  effaced  in  'the  posterior  molar,  by  the  absence  or  rather  subsidence 
of  the  internal  wall.  The  fangs  of  this  second  molar  are  also  three  in  number,  with  a  tendency 
in  the  two  outer  to  become  double  ;  in  the  two  last,  the  prongs  are  increased  to  three.  In  the 
lower  jaw,  the  incisors  are  2' 7  long,  and  reach  beneath  the  root  of  the  posterior  molars  ;  they 
project  farther  from  the  jaw  than  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  describe  an  arc  of  a  larger  circle  ; 
the  bevelled  portion  is  also  much  longer.  The  molars  are  similar  in  size  and  configuration 
above,  except  the  second,  which  is  smaller.  They  have  all  four  cavities,  three  of  which  are 
regularly  bounded  by  plates  of  enamel,  and  the  external  cavity  deficient  on  its  outer  margin. 
The  anterior  molar  with  three  prongs,  of  which  the  anterior  is  largest ;  the  whole  periphery 
of  the  crowns  surrounded  by  a  plate  of  enamel,  including  the  plates  which  bound  each  cavity. 
With  age,  the  whole  surface  is  ground  down,  leaving  no  vestige  of  cavity.  The  molars  of 
the  upper  jaw  incline  outwards  ;  of  the  lower,  inwards. 

Color.  Usually  dark  brown,  intermixed  with  black  ;  the  females  are  said  to  be  of  a  darker 
brown.  They  are  often  hoary,  and  occasionally  entirely  white.  The  tail  is  brown  above  and 
beneath,  with  a  few  whitish  hairs  along  its  margin  and  at  its  tip. 


Length  of  head  and  body, . .  24  ■  0. 

Ditto  of  the  tail, .  6‘0. 

Ditto  of  the  skull, .  4-0. 


The  Porcupine  is  an  inoffensive  animal,  and  very  gentle  in  its  manners.  It  feeds  on  the 
leaves  and  bark  of  the  hemlock  (Pinus  canadensis),  the  basswood  (Tibia  glabra),  and  the  ash 
(Fraxinus  sambucifolia).  It  is  also  fond  of  sweet  apples,  maize,  and  will  scarcely  refuse  any 
vegetable  offered  to  them  in  confinement.  They  move  very  sluggishly,  dragging  their  tail  on 
the  ground.  When  irritated,  they  make  a  faint  whining  noise,  and  by  a  strong  cuticular 
muscle  the  spines  of  the  back  and  sides  are  erected  and  extended  in  various  directions  ;  the  tail 


FAMILY  MURID.E. 


79 


is  also  erected,  and  by  a  very  sudden  movement  he  is  enabled  to  strike,  leaving  the  loosened 
spines  in  the  body  of  his  opponent.  From  their  peculiar  structure,  they  penetrate  at  every 
movement  until  they  reach  a  vital  part.  Hence  it  is  rarely  attacked,  although  the  hunters 
easily  kill  it  by  a  blow  on  its  nose.  The  Indians  esteem  its  flesh,  which  resembles  young 
pork  very  highly.  It  dwells  in  hollow  trees,  or  in  caves  under  rocks,  and  is  said  to  bring  forth 
two  at  a  litter  in  April  or  May.  The  spines  are  employed  extensively  by  the  Indians,  after 
having  been  dyed  of  various  colors,  to  form  ornaments  for  their  dresses. 

The  Porcupine  is  found  as  far  north  as  67°.  It  is  found  in  all  the  Northern  States ;  in 
New-York,  Pennsylvania,  the  northern  parts  of  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  through  the  western 
regions  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  this  State,  more  particularly  in  the  northern  and  western 
counties,  they  are  quite  numerous.  The  first  name  given  in  accordance  with  the  binary  sys¬ 
tem,  is  that  proposed  by  Brisson,  and  by  the  law  of  priority  it  must  be  restored. 

FAMILY  VI.  MURID JE. 

Clavicles  robust,  and  fully  developed.  Fur  not  uniformly  soft,  but  without  spines  or  rigid 
hairs.  Molars  usually  six  above  and  six  beneath,  but  various.  Some  of  the  genera  are 
provided  with  cheek  pouches.  Tail  cylindrical,  usually  naked  or  sparsely  haired,  of 
various  lengths.  Mostly  composed  of  small  burrowing  animals. 

This  family  comprises  numerous  species,  which  are  confessedly  difficult  to  group  together 
by  common  characters.  They  may,  however,  be  divided  into  two  great  sections,  characterised 
by  the  presence  or  absence  of  cheek  pouches.  Under  those  with  cheek  pouches,  we  arrange 
the  genera  Geomys  and  Diplostoma.  The  other  division  embraces  the  genera  Mas,  Arvicola, 
Sigmodon,  Neotoma,  Gecrrychus,  and  Aplodontia.  The  field  for  discovery  in  this  family  is  still 
far  from  being  exhausted.  The  representatives  of  only  three  genera  are  found  in  this  State. 

GENUS  MUS.  Linneus. 

Molars  six  above  and  six  beneath,  with  tuberculous  summits.  Tail  scaly,  nearly  naked, 
longer  or  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  Ears  usually  naked  or  slightly  furred. 

Obs.  Three  of  the  species  have  been  introduced. 

THE  BROWN  RAT. — (Introduced.) 

MVS  DECOMANUS. 

Mus  decumanus.  Pallas. 

Brown  Rat.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  130. 

Common  Broum  or  Norway  Rat.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  78. 

Brown  Rat.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  141.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  63 

Characteristics.  Grayish  brown  above,  tinged  with  yellow ;  beneath  whitish.  Tail  not 
quite  as  long  as  the  body,  and  with  180  rings.  Length  19-20  inches. 


80 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Description.  Body  robust.  Ears  rounded,  as  broad  as  long,  and  nearly  naked.  Eyes 
black,  large  and  prominent.  Tail  naked  and  scaly,  with  a  short  hair  under  each  ring;  it  is 
sometimes  as  long  as  the  body,  but  usually  shorter. 

Color.  Hair  dusky  ash  at  the  roots,  yellowish  with  a  reddish  tinge  at  the  tips,  intermixed 
with  longer  hairs  of  a  uniform  brown,  from  which  results  a  yellowish  gray  brown  color  above. 
Beneath,  soiled  white,  inclining  to  cinereous.  Feet  pale  flesh-color. 


Length  of  head, . .  2 '5. 

Ditto  of  body, . . . 9'0. 

Ditto  of  tail, .  8'5.. 


This  well  known  and  dreaded  pest  of  our  dwellings  came  originally  from  Asia.  It  appeared 
in  Europe  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
imported  into  England  with  its  Hanoverian  race  of  kings.  In  this  country,  it  was  introduced 
with  the  foreign  mercenaries  during  the  revolutionary  war.  They  are  now  numerous  in  all 
the  States,  and  have  extended  to  Canada.  It  takes  to  the  water,  and  swims  with  great  ease. 
In  cities  it  infests  the  wharves,  and  hence  is  frequently  known  as  the  Dock  Rat.  The  name 
decumanus,  we  apprehend,  was  not  given  on  account  of  its  size  ( decimanus ),  but  from  decu- 
inanits,  in  allusion  to  the  tithe  of  every  thing  taken  by  this  voracious  animal.  (See  Cicero 
contra  Verres.) 

The  Rat  is  a  bold,  voracious  and  cunning  animal,  and  appears  to  be  as  fond  of  flesh  as  of 
vegetables.  It  brings  forth  twelve  to  sixteen  at  a  litter.  The  best  mode  of  destroying  them 
is  said  to  be,  mixing  plaster  of  paris  largely  with  dry  flour  ;  this  will  harden  in  the  stomach, 
and  destroy  them  in  a  short  time.  Another  mode  is  to  mix  powdered  nux  vomica  with  indian 
meal,  and  add  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  rhodium  to  the  mixture.  Arsenic  is  frequently  employed, 
but  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the  fatal  accidents  to  which  it  frequently  gives  rise. 

THE  BLACK  RAT. — (Introduced.) 

MUS  RATTUS. 

Mus  rattus.  Linn.  12  Ed.  p.  83. 

Black  Rat.  Pennant,  Arct.  Zoology,  Vol.  1,  p.  129.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  148.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist. 

Yol.  2,  p.  83.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Yol.  1,  p.  140.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  63. 

Characteristics.  Greyish  black  above  ;  ash-colored  beneath.  Tail  somewhat  longer  that!  the 
body.  Length  15-16  incites. 

Description.  Head  long  ;  muzzle  more  acute  than  in  the  preceding  species  ;  lower  jaw  very 
short.  Ears  oval,  broad  and  naked,  nearly  half  as  long  as  the  head.  Whiskers  long.  Fore 
feet  with  four  toes,  and  a  claw  in  place  of  thumb.  Tail  longer  than  the  body,  and  covered 
with  scales  in  the  form  of  rings.  Feet  plantigrade.  Mamms  twelve. 

Color.  Deep  iron-grey  or  greyish  black  above  ;  lighter  beneath,  usually  cinereous.  Feet 
and  tail  dusky,  with  white  hairs  covering  the  tops  of  the  feet. 


FAMILY  MURID jE.  81 


Length  of  the  head,  . . .  1  •  5. 

Ditto  of  body, _ _ _ _ 5- 5. 

Ditto  of  tail, .  7  9. 


This  animal  is  also  supposed  to  have  originally  been  derived  from  Europe,  and  thence  trans¬ 
mitted  to  America.  It  is  smaller  than  the  preceding,  and  is  generally  thought  to  have  disap¬ 
peared  before  it ;  at  any  rate,  it  is  now  exceedingly  rare.  It  is  said  to  breed  several  times  in 
the  year,  producing  from  six  to  twelve  at  a  litter.  Like  the  preceding,  it  is  omnivorous. 

THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  RAT. 

MUS  AMERICAXUS. 

PLATE  XXL  FIG.  1.  —  (COLLECTION  OF  J.  G.  BELL.) 

Characteristics.  Black  above,  leaden  beneath.  Ears  .higher  than  broad.  Tail  shorter  than 
the  body.  Length  15  inches. 

Description.  Ears  large,  dilated  and  rounded,  almost  entirely  naked,  sparsely  furnished 
with  short  hairs.  Whiskers  black,  numerous,  extending  to  the  hind  head.  Fore  feet  feeble, 
with  five  tubercles  on  the  soles.  Claws  horn-colored,  small,  acute,  incurved  ;  the  toe  next 
to  the  internal  longest.  Hind  feet  with  four  tubercles  arranged  quadrilaterally  ;  toes  longer 
and  more  robust  than  on  the  fore  feet ;  claws  stouter,  and  not  so  much  incurved.  Muzzle 
bifid.  Nostrils  lateral.  Tail  cylindrical,  tapering  regularly  to  the  tip  :  the  annulations  about 
_  a  hundred  and  forty,  covered  sparsely  with  short  hairs,  which  extend  0  •  2  beyond  the  tip. 

Teeth.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  incisors  are  longer  than  those  above.  The  molars  gradually 
diminish  in  size  ;  the  first  largest,  with  two  cavities  ;  the  anterior  trilobate  in  front,  and  sepa¬ 
rated  by  a  waved  transverse  ridge  from  the  adjacent  tooth  ;  the  second  with  two  smaller  ca¬ 
vities,  separated  in  the  same  manner.  The  posterior  tooth  smallest,  with  two  cavities,  the 
ultimate  space  rounded. 

Color.  Above  uniformly  black,  the  fur  at  the  base  slightly  fulvous  ;  beneath,  of  a  uniformly 
leaden  hue.  Incisors  yellowish.  Fore  toes  whitish,  with  a  rufous  tinge  on  the  inside. 


Length  of  head, . 

_ 2-4. 

Height  of  ear, . . . 

0-75. 

Ditto  of  body, . . 

_ 7-0. 

Width  of  ditto, _ _ 

0-45. 

Ditto  of  tail, . 

_ 6-0. 

Girth  of  body  at  shoulders, 

o 

o 

We  cite  no  synonimes,  as  we  believe  the  species  to  have  been  either  unobserved,  or  con¬ 
founded  with  the  imported  Black  Rat  of  Europe.  It  is  very  rare.  •  The  only  specimen  I  have 
ever  seen  was  brought  to  me  in  a  recent  state  by  Mr.  John  Bell,  when  the  fur  was  distinctly 
black.  After  having  been  mounted  for  several  months,  the  fur  assumed  a  more  brownish  hue. 
It  appears  to  differ  from  the  decumanus  in  its  teeth,  the  number  of  its  annulations,  position  of 
the  mouth,  and  proportion  of  its  ears  ;  from  the.  rattus,  in  its  dentition,  relative  length  of  ears, 
and  tail. 

Fauna.  11 


82 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  COMMON  MOUSE. 

Mus  MUSCULUS. 

Mus  musculus.  Lin.  12  Ed.  p.  83. 

Mouse.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  131.  Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.262.  Harlan,  p.  149.  Godman,  Am.  Nat. 

Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  84.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  62. 

Characteristics.  Dusky  grey  above,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellow  ;  beneath  ash  grey.  Ears 
about  half  the  length  of  the  head.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  body. 

This  familiar  little  species  has  also  been  introduced  from  Europe  into  this  country,  since 
its  discovery.  It  has  every  where  followed  the  footsteps  of  man,  and  is  now  extended  to  our 
most  western  settlements.  It  breeds  several  times,  or  what  is  more  probable,  at  various  sea¬ 
sons  of  the  year,  bringing  forth  from  six  to  ten  at  a  litter.  It  may  be  treated  rather  as  a  trouble¬ 
some  than  as  an  extensively  injurious  animal.  It  is  omnivorous,  and  lives  equally  on  flesh 
and  vegetables ;  apparently,  however,  preferring  the  latter. 

THE  JUMPING  MOUSE. 

MUS  LEUCOFUS. 

PLATE  XXIII.  FIG.  1.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

The  Rustic  Mouse.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist. 

Mus  leucopus.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  142. 

Arvicola  emmonsi.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  p.  61. 

Characteristics.  Brownish  above  ;  feet  and  all  beneath  white.  Ears  large.  Tail  hairy,  as 
long  or  longer  than  the  body.  Length  six  inches. 

Description.  Head  rather  large,  with  a  pointed  muzzle.  Eyes  moderate.  Ears  large, 
rounded  above,  membranous  and  naked  on  the  upper  margin  within  and  without.  Whiskers 
numerous,  blackish  brown  at  the  base,  whitish  at  the  tips,  longer  than  the  head.  Fore  feet 
four-toed,  with  five  tubercles  ;  the  thumb  is  rudimentary,  not  furnished  with  a  claw.  Hind 
feet  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  with  five  toes,  and  with  short,  feeble  and  curved  claws  nearly 
concealed  by  long  white  hairs.  Tail  slender,  hairy,  subquadrate,  slightly  tapering.  Incisors 
not  grooved.  Molars  tuberculated,  the  first  in  each  jaw  largest ;  they  gradually  diminish  in 
size  to  the  most  posterior,  which,  when  worn,  presents  a  circular  disk  on  the  crown,  and  is 
scarcely  tuberculated.  Fur  fine  and  rather  long. 

Color.  Light  reddish  brown  above,  intermixed  with  some  entirely  black  hairs  along  the 
back,  which  gives  to  that  region  a  much  darker  appearance.  The  light  reddish  fur  above  is 
dark  slate  at  the  roots  ;  it  is  separated  from  the  light  color  beneath  by  a  tolerably  well  defined, 
and  occasionally  a  darker  line.  All  beneath,  including  the  feet,  the  anterior,  inner  and  poste¬ 
rior  parts  of  the  thighs,  and  the  inferior  and 'lateral  portions  of  the  tail,  pure  white.  This 
color  is  plumbeous  at  the  base. 


83 


FAMILY 

MURID.E. 

Total  length, . . 

....  6-0. 

Length  of  hind  feet, _ 

..  1-5. 

Length  of  head, . 

...  l'O. 

Ditto  of  whiskers, . 

..  1-5. 

Ditto  of  body, . 

_  2'5. 

Ditto  of  tail, . . . 

..  2-5. 

Ditto  of  fore  feet,  . . . . 

...  0'8. 

This  little  mouse,  from  the  distribution  of  its  colors,  and  its  slender  proportions,  has  a  deli¬ 
cate  and  beautiful  appearance.  It  is  very  agile,  jumping  in  the  manner  of  the  deer-mouse ; 
and  is  called,  in  common  with  that  animal,  the  jumping  mouse.  It  seems  to  prefer  forests 
and  wooded  places,  but  is  often  found  in  meadows  or  cultivated  grounds,  where  grain  and 
seeds  of  grasses  abound.  When  this  mouse  was  first  submitted  to  me,  I  referred  it  to  the  M. 
agrarius  of  Godman  ;  but  upon  consulting  the  original  description,  it  was  plainly  evident  that 
it  could  not  be  referred  to  that  species,  although  Godman  evidently  had  the  jumping  mouse  in 
view  when  he  drew  up  his  description.*  I  had  not  at  that  time  the  work  of  Richardson  to 
refer  to,  and  hastily  pronouced  it  to  be  new,  giving  it  the  name  of  emmonsi,  after  the  eminent 
naturalist  who  had  first  brought  it  to  my  notice. 

The  Jumping  Mouse  is  found  in  every  part  of  the  State,  and  is  said  to  build  its  nest  in  trees. 
In  the  northern  regions,  according  to  Richardson,  it  becomes  an  inmate  of  the  dwellings  at 
the  fur  establishments,  and  makes  hoards  of  grain  in  various  places,  such  as  the  pocket  of  a 
coat,  a  shoe,  etc.  We  have  never  heard  of  its  entering  dwellings  in  the  cultivated  portions  of 
our  State,  but  this  is  probably  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  cat,  or  of  rats.  It  is  found  from 
Hudson’s  Bay  to  Pennsylvania,  and  through  the  Western  States  to  the  mouth  of  Columbia 
river. 


GENUS  ARVICOLA.  Lacepede. 

Grinders  flat  on  tlieir  croions,  the  enamel  forming  angidar  ridges  on  the  surface.  Ears 
furry.  Tail  round  and  hairy ,  shorter  than  the  body. 

Obs.  This  genus,  which  was  first  separated  from  Mus  by  Lacepede,  comprises  many 
species  known  under  the  vague  names  of  Field  Mice  and  Field  Rats ;  all,  however,  differ¬ 
ing  from  the  Mice  proper,  by  the  structure  of  their  teeth,  and  the  length  and  hairy  covering 
of  the  tail.  The  species  are  numerous  in  the  United  States,  but  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently 
observed  and  discriminated. 


*  According  to  Erxleben,  p.  398,  the  agrarius  has  small  ears,  a  constant  black  line  on  the  back,  the  thumb  with  a  nail,  tail  half 
the  length  of  the  body,  etc. 


84 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  MARSH  MEADOW-MOUSE 

ARVICOLA  RIPARIUS. 

PLATE  XXII.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION  ) 

Arvicola  nparius.  Ord,  Acad.  Sc.  Philad.  Vol.  4,  p.  305. 

Marsh  Campagnol.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  67. 

Characteristics.  Glossy,  tawny  brown  above  ;  light  plumbeous  beneath.  Tail  less  than  half 
the  length  of  the  head  and  body.  Length  three  to  three  and  a  half  inches. 

Description.  Body  short  and  robust,  more  particularly  about  the  shoulders.  Head  large. 
Muzzle  elongated,  truncate  at  its  extremity.  Eyes  distinct,  and  0-3  distant  from  the  end  of 
the  muzzle.  Mouth  beneath,  not  terminal.  Whiskers  numerous,  white,  and  O’ 6  long. 
Ears  distinct,  broad,  subacute,  and  lined  within  and  without  with  long  hairs  extending  beyond 
the  margins ;  this,  together  with  the  long  fur  surrounding  them,  almost  conceals  them  from 
observation.  All  the  feet  very  short  and  slender.  Fore  feet  0  •  6  long,  and  clothed  with  short 
adpressed  hairs;  the  claws  small,  acute,  curved,  channelled  beneath,  and  dilated  at  their 
bases ;  the  thumb  rudimentary,  and  furnished  with  a  short  triangular  claw ;  the  two  middle 
toes  longest,  subequal.  Hind  feet  placed  very  far  back,  0-8  long,  and  clothed  with  short 
rigid  adpressed  hairs,  extending  to  the  tips  of  the  nails  ;  the  three  middle  toes  subequal. 
Tail  very  slender,  equal  throughout,  subquadrate,  not  flattened,  scaly,  with  short  hairs 
scarcely  concealing  the  scales,  and  extending  about  0  •  2  beyond  the  vertebras ;  not  forming, 
however,  a  tuft,  as  is  erroneously  given  in  the  plate.  Fur  rather  fine  and  soft,  O' 2  long  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  body.  The  nose,  jaws  and  chin  furnished  with  short  hair. 

Teeth.  The  upper  incisors  short,  scarcely  higher  than  broad  ;  their  flat,  chisel-shaped  points 
directed  towards  each  other,  and  their  bases  somewhat  diverging.  The  lower  incisors  slender, 
0'13  in  length  above  their  sockets,  cylindrical,  pointed,  and  directed  forwards  horizontally. 
The  anterior  and  posterior  molars  smallest,  and  all  with  zigzag  lines  of  enamel ;  the  middle 
molar  is  composed  of  four  flattened  prisms. 

Color.  Above  a  glossy  tawny  brown,  plumbeous  at  the  base,  intermixed  with  others  longer 
and  totally  black.  Chin  and  all  beneath,  leaden  grey.  Feet  dark  brown  ;  soles  black.  Tail 
deep  blackish  brown,  imperceptibly  passing  into  a  shade  lighter  beneath. 

Length  of  head  and  body, . .  —  2‘5. 

Ditto  of  tail, . - . 0‘7. 

Total  length, .  3*2. 

The  Bank  Meadow-mouse  of  Richardson,  which  he  refers  to  the  riparius  of  Ord,  I  cannot 
think  is  identical  with  it.  It  is  much  larger,  being  nine  inches  in  total  length,  and  has  white 
feet  and  a  flattened  tail.  The  very  small  size  of  the  specimen  which  I  first  obtained,  and  from 
which  the  dimensions  given  above  were  taken,  induced  me  to  suspect  that  it  was  new ;  but 
later  observations  on  others  have  satisfied  me  of  its  identity  with  the  riparius.  Mr.  Ord  gives 


FAMILY  MURIDAE. 


85 


the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  five  inches ;  of  the  tail,  two  inches.  He  states  that  the 
female  has  four  pectoral  and  four  abdominal  teats,  and  brings  forth  eight  young  at  a  litter.  It 
frequents  marshy  places,  living  chiefly  on  the  seeds  of  plants  growing  in  such  localities.  It 
burrows  in  the  banks  for  its  retreat,  and  for  rearing  its  young. 

The  Marsh  Meadow-mouse  is  not  uncommon  in  various  parts  of  the  State.  I  have  seen 
specimens  from  Oneida,  Seneca  and  Otsego  counties.  At  present,  it  is  known  to  extend  from 
Delaware  Bay  to  the  forty-third  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  it  will  probably  be  found  in  all 
the  Eastern  States. 

THE  TAWNY  MEADOW-MOUSE. 

Arvicola  rufescens. 

PLATE  XXII.  FIG.  1. 

Characteristics.  Light  reddish  brown  above ;  slate  beneath.  Tail  longer  than  the  head. 

Length  6-7  inches. 

Description.  Body  robust.  Head  large,  conical,  with  an  arched  forehead.  Nose  bluntly 
pointed ;  nostrils  bilobate,  subterminal,  and  beset  with  short,  erect  and  rigid  hairs.  Mouth 
beneath,  the  upper  lip  fringed  with  short  white  incurved  hairs,  and  on  the  cheeks  are  long 
white  bristles.  Whiskers  as  long  as  the  head,  brownish,  and  occasionally  whitish  at  the  tips. 
Eyes  small  and  black,  nearly  equidistant  between  the  ears  and  muzzle.  Ears  large,  much 
dilated  and  rounded,  covered  with  long  hairs  extending  beyond  the  margins.  The  fur  anterior 
to  the  ear  is  very  long ;  and  when  the  ears  lie  back,  although  large,  they  are  nearly  concealed 
in  the  fur.  Fore  feet  very  slender,  O’ 8  long,  with  four  separated  slender  toes,  and  a  rudi¬ 
mentary  thumb  furnished  with  a  small  nail.  Soles  with  five  tubercles,  three  arranged  in  a 
triangle,  and  the  two  others  transversely.  Claws  curved  and  retracted  at  their  tips  ;  external 
toe  shortest,  the  second  longest,  the  two  middle  subequal.  Hind  feet  placed  far  back,  1  •  1  in 
length ;  the  internal  toe  shortest,  almost  rudimentary,  and  the  claws  more  broadly  channelled 
throughout  their  entire  length.  Soles  with  six  tubercles,  the  external  very  small.  Tail  very 
slender,  subquadrate,  slightly  tapering,  with  sparse  rigid  hairs  scarcely  concealing  the  scales  ; 
tip  moderately  pencilled,  not  tufted.  Fur  on  the  body  very  soft  and  glossy,  for  the  most  part 
0 ' 3  in  length  ;  the  legs  are  clothed  with  short  adpressed  hair,  a  few  white  hairs  extending  to 
the  tips  of  the  claws.  Upper  incisors  broad,  convex  anteriorly,  with  a  medial  longitudinal 
furrow,  slightly  emarginate  on  their  cutting  edges ;  beneath  they  are  more  cylindrical,  and 
pointed  at  their  tips.  Upper  molars  with  nine  external  angles  ;  beneath,  the  first  is  largest, 
with  a  deep  lateral  sinus. 

Color.  The  fur  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  body  is  plumbeous  at  base,  light  rufous 
at  the  tips,  intermixed  with  scattering  coarse  hairs  tipped  with  black  ;  hence  the  resulting  color 
is  a  bright  reddish  brown.  Beneath,  bluish  white,  somewhat  more  light  on  the  inside  of  the 
thighs.  Muzzle,  and  the  parts  adjacent,  of  a  darkish  brown  hue.  Feet  light  brown.  Tail  of 
a  uniform  dark  brown  above,  cinereous  beneath. 


86  NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


Total  length, .  5'0. 

Length  of  head  and  body, .  3'0. 

Length  of  tail, .  2 ' 0. 


It  is  with  hesitation  that  I  venture  to  consider  this  animal  as  new.  It  will  be  found  to  differ 
from  riparius  by  its  larger  and  more  arched  head,  and  its  dental  structure  ;  from  xanthogna- 
thus,  to  which  it  bears  some  resemblance,  by  its  relative  dimensions  ;  from  noveboracensis  of 
Richardson,  by  the  blunt  nose  and  rudimentary  thumb  ;  and  from  borealis,  by  its  nearly  naked 
tail,  and  comparatively  shorter  fur.  It  only  remains  for  us  to  consider  it  under  a  new  name, 
at  the  hazard  of  swelling  the  already  interminable  list  of  synonimes.  . 

We  have  little  to  add,  except  that  it  was  first  obtained  from  low  grounds  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Oneida  lake.  I  subsequently  found  it  in  great  numbers  in  the  forests  of  Hamilton  and  St. 
Lawrence  counties.  It  was  exceedingly  active  and  lively,  and  frequently  seen  running  along 
on  fallen  timber.  When  disturbed,  it  retreated  to  its  burrow  at  the  roots  of  trees.  It  may  be 
added,  that  variations  in  the  length  of  its  tail  frequently  occur.  In  specimens  of  the  dimen¬ 
sions  given  above,  the  tail  varied  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches. 

THE  BEAVER  FIELD-MOUSE. 

Arvicola  hirsutus. 

PLATE  XXV.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Meadow-mouse.  Pennant,  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  133. 

Arvicola  hirsutus.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  60. 

Characteristics.  Dark  brown  above,  deep  ash  beneath.  Tail  less  than  half  the  length  of  the 
body.  Ears  membranous,  concealed.  Length  five  to  five  and  a  half  inches. 

Description.  Body  robust,  compact,  larges'  across  the  fore  shoulders,  sensibly  less  over  the 
loins.  Head  pyramidal.  Whiskers  numerous,  scattering,  radiated,  black  and  white,  some  of 
them  extending  beyond  the  eyes.  Nose  flesh-colored  cleft,  and  covered  to  its  tip  with  short 
rigid  hairs  ;  nostrils  lateral.  Eyes  small  and  black,  almost  hidden  in  the  fur,  and  about  half  an 
inch  from  the  nose.  Ears  large,  round,  membranous,  concealed  beneath  the  fur,  apparently 
naked  behind,  but  in  fact  sparsely  furnished  with  hairs  which  extend  beyond  the  margins ; 
within  naked,  except  towards  the  edges  ;  auricular  opening  large,  and  presenting  a  tripartite 
cavity.  Anterior  to  the  ears,  the  fur  is  so  long,  and  unites  so  well  with  that  on  the  borders  of 
the  ears,  that  although  they  are  in  fact  quite  large,  they  are  not  obvious  ;  they  are  distant  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  extremity  of  the  nose.  Tongue  smooth  and  fleshy,  with  a  longi¬ 
tudinal  furrow.  There  is  a  reduplication  of  the  skin  posterior  to  the  upper  incisors,  which  is 
furnished  with  hairs.  Three  transverse  furrows  anterior  to  the  molars.  Fore  feet  O'  8  long, 
with  four  toes,  and  a  thumb  furnished  with  a  minute  nail ;  the  remaining  toes  have  white 
compressed,  pointed  claws,  deeply  channelled  beneath  ;  the  external  shortest,  the  two  midc 
ones  subequal,  the  one  nearest  the  thumb  being  somewhat  longest :  all  tire  toes  with  transverse 


FAMILY  MURID-*. 


8? 


scales  beneath.  Soles  with  five  tubercles.  Hind  legs  1  *2  in  length ;  the  internal  toe  shortest, 
and  the  middle  toe  slightly  longer  than  the  adjacent  one  on  each  side  ;  near  their  bases,  the 
nails  are  slightly  tinged  with  brown :  all  the  toes  have  transverse  scales  on  the  under  side. 
Soles  with  five  distinct  tubercles,  and  another  minute  one  opposite  the  internal  toe.  Tail 
moderate,  cylindrical,  enlarged  at  the  root,  scaly,  with  rather  sparse  supine  hairs,  some  of 
which  extend  slightly  beyond  the  vertebrae.  The  whole  body  covered  with  an  exceedingly 
long  and  fine  fur,  standing  half  an  inch  high  along  the  back,  and  slightly  less  on  other  parts 
of  the  body.  On  the  legs  the  hairs  are  short,  adpressed  beneath,  and  extend  beyond  the  nails. 

Teeth.  These  correspond  very  well  with  the  dentition  assigned  by  Fred.  Cuvier  to  the 
Campagnols,  (Dents  des  Mammiferes,  p.  155,)  with  the  following  variations  :  The  second 
molar  of  the  upper  jaw  is  composed  of  five  triangles,  the  posterior  space  being  the  largest, 
elongated  and  sinuous.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  incisors  are  not  as  much  rounded  on  their  ante¬ 
rior  surfaces,  are  more  slender,  and  twice  the  length  of  those  above.  In  the  first  molar  are 
three  internal  triangles,  of  which  the  posterior  is  largest ;  in  the  second  are  an  anterior,  an 
external,  two  internal,  and  a  posterior  transverse  space ;  the  last  molar  has  three  irregular 
spaces,  the  posterior  being  the  largest,  transverse  and  almost  semilunate.  All  are  so  closely 
united,  that  a  casual  observer  would  be  led  to  suppose  that  there  were  many  more  teeth  than 
actually  exist.  In  the  broad  and  dilated  processes  of  the  lower  jaw,  almost  concealing  the 
teeth,  and  in  the  position  and  shape  of  the  triangular  spaces  on  the  crowns  of  the  teeth,  we 
have  a  representation  in  miniature  of  similar  parts  in  the  Fiber  zibethicus  already  described. 

Color.  Above  brownish  grey,  slightly  darker  on  the  back,  approaching  nearly  in  color  to 
the  Brown  Rat.  This  color  passes  into  slaty  grey,  on  the  chin,  cheeks  and  abdomen  ;  the 
base  of  the  fur,  on  every  part  of  the  body,  dark  plumbeous.  Feet  dark  brown  above,  cine¬ 
reous  beneath.  Nose  flesh-colored.  Tail  brownish  above,  lighter  beneath,  with  a  few  hairs 
fulvous  at  their  base. 


Length  of  head  and  body, . 5’0. 

Ditto  of  tail, . . .  1  ‘9. 

In  another  specimen  the  dimensions  were, 

Length  of  head  and  body, . . 3'9. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebra), .  1  •  4. 

Ditto  ditto  (including  fur), _  1  ’6. 


This  species  affords  another  example  of  the  great  difficulty  of  determining  whether  it  has 
been  previously  described.  A  distinguished  American  naturalist  is  disposed  to  refer  it  to  the 
xanthognathus  of  Leach,  (Zool.  Miscell.  Vol.  1.  pi.  26.)  It  wants,  however,  the  fulvous 
cheeks,  and  the  ears  well  covered  with  hair,  attributed  to  that  species  by  Richardson.  Upon 
the  suggestion  that  it  might  possibly  be  the  pensylvanicus  of  Ord  and  Harlan,  it  was  shown 
to  both  those  gentlemen,  who  pronounced  it  to  be  totally  distinct.  We  are  inclined  to  believe 
it  to  be  the  Meadow-mouse  of  Pennant,  as  cited  above.  His  account,  concise  as  it  is,  agrees 


88 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


with  our  species,  except  in  the  very  variable  and  ill-defined  character  of  pencils  of  hairs  on 
the  tail.  Richardson  appears  to  doubt  whether  Pennant  was  not  mistaken  in  the  length  of 
the  tail.  He  quotes  Buffon  with  a  doubt,  but  he  also  refers  to  a  specimen  in  the  Leverian 
Museum*  from  which  he  probably  drew  his  description.  It  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  pen- 
sylvanicus  of  Ord,  as  described  by  Richardson. 

The  popular  name  of  Beaver  Rat  or  Beaver  Mouse,  is  derived  from  the  abundance  and 
fineness  of  its  fur.  I  am  unacquainted  with  its  habits,  except  that  it  appears  to  be  nocturnal, 
and  quite  gentle.  It  feeds  on  various  grains  and  shrubs.  It  is  occasionally  eaten,  and  is  said 
to  be  delicate  food.  It  occurs  in  various  parts  of  the  State,  and  I  have  received  specimens 
also  from  Connecticut. 

THE  ONEIDA  MEADOW-MOUSE. 

ArVICOLA  ONEIDA. 

PLATE  XXV.  FIG.  1.— (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Characteristics.  Amber  brown  above,  dark  cinereous  grey  beneath.  A  triangular  thumb 
claw.  Hind  feet  very  long.  Length  3-4  inches. 

Description.  Body  moderately  robust,  and  covered  with  a  fine  soft  fur  about  0-2  in  length. 
Ears  placed  very  far  back,  membranous,  and  nearly  hidden  in  the  fur.  Eyes  moderate  and 
black.  Muzzle  pointed,  bifid,  truncated,  and  covered  with  short  rigid  hairs.  Nostrils  lateral. 
Whiskers  slender,  black,  not  as  long  as  the  head  ;  numerous  black  setae  over  the  eyes.  Upper 
lip  fringed  with  short,  recurved,  rigid  hairs.  Feet  very  small  and  slender,  not  formed  for 
digging,  covered  witli  short  adpressed  hairs ;  the  nails  covered  with  long  hairs.  Fore  feet 
with  four  slender,  separated  toes,  furnished  with  short  nails,  broad  at  the  base,  very  acute, 
compressed  and  channelled  beneath  ;  thumb  small,  and  furnished  with  a  short  triangular  nail. 
Hind  feet  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  fore  feet,  the  fur  concealing  more  than  two-thirds  of 
the  tibia  ;  five-toed,  the  toes  somewhat  longer,  and  the  nails  slightly  stouter,  but  broadly  chan¬ 
nelled  beneath,  and  not  so  much  incurved  as  those  on  the  fore  feet ;  inner  toe  shortest,  the 
three  next  subequal,  the  outer  longer  than  the  inner  toe.  Tail  slender,  subequal  throughout, 
sparsely  covered  with  rigid  adpressed  hairs  ;  the  articulations  not  concealed,  and  slightly  pen¬ 
cilled  at  the  tip.  Upper  incisors  very  short. 

Color.  Above  brown  or  dark  mouse-color,  with  a  slight  intermixture  of  tawny.  At  the  base 
the  fur  is  dark  slate,  and  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  body,  and  on  the  sides,  with  tawny 
tips  ;  mixed  with  these  are  longer  and  uniformly  black  hairs.  Incisors  yellow.  Muzzle  and 
chin  ashen  gray.  Beneath,  the  fur  is  light  slate  at  the  base,  grey  at  the  tips,  from  whence 
results  a  general  light  blue  grey  beneath.  Feet  with  short,  stiff,  uniform  brownish  black 
hairs.  Nails  light  horn  marked  with  brown. 


Total  length, . 4’5.  Length  of  fore  legs, 

Length  of  tail, .  1  ’  3.  Ditto  of  hind  legs,  . 


Ditto  of  head  and  body,  . .  3  •  2. 


0-4. 

0-7. 


FAMILY  MURIDiE. 


8** 

This  species  is  common  in  the  western  part  of  the  State.  My  specimens  were  obtained 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Oneida  lake.  It  appears  to  prefer  moist  places. 


THE  LIGHT-COLORED  MEADOW-MOUSE. 

Arvicola  albo-rufescens. 

PLATE  XXIV.  FIG.  1. —(COLLECTION  OF  PROF.  EMMONS.) 

Arvicola  albo-rufescens.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  60. 

Characteristics.  Light  yellowish  above,  lighter  beneath.  Length  five  inches. 

Description.  Body  compact.  Head  conical,  moderate,  with  a  slightly  convex  outline. 
Muzzle  prominent,  and  furnished  on  each  side  with  two  series  of  light  brownish  bristles, 
extending  as  far  back  as  the  ears.  Eyes  small  and  black.  Nostrils  lateral,  with  a  dividing 
furrow.  Ears  membranous,  large  and  rounded,  with  hairy-  margins  and  a  broad  auditory 
opening.  Fore  feet  feeble,  and  clothed  with  short  subrigid  hairs  extending  to  the  tips  of  the 
nails,  with  a  thumb  tubercle,  furnished  with  a  rudimentary  nail.  All  the  nails  nearly  straight, 
slightly  incurved.  Hind  feet  longer,  and  clothed  in  the  same  manner  with  short  hairs  ;  fivte- 
clawed,  the  three  medial  subequal.  Tail  slender,  scaly,  sparsely  covered  with  rigid  hairs,  a 
few  of  them  extending  0-15  beyond  the  tips.  In  cabinet  specimens,  the  desiccation  of  the 
tail  gives  it  a  somewhat  nodulous  appearance.  Upper  incisors  short,  yellow,  and  convex  in 
front ;  lower  incisors  long  and  rounded.  Upper  molars  broad  and  angular  in  front,  narrow 
and  more  rounded  behind.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  anterior  molar  is  composed  of  six  plates  of 
enamel ;  the  middle,  of  four ;  and  the  posterior,  which  is  smallest,  of  three  plates. 

Color.  All  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  body,  and  the  sides,  drab,  with  a  tinge  of  reddish  ; 
beneath  greyish,  with  a  tinge  of  sulphur  yellow.  All  the  fur  white  at  base.  Feet  and  tail 
brownish,  the  latter  cinereous  beneath. 

Length  of  head  and  body,  .  3 •80.  Length  of  fore  legs,  .  0-6. 

Ditto  of  tail  (vertebrae), _ 1.30.  Ditto  of  hind  legs, .  l'O. 

Ditto  of  ears, . .  O' 25. 

For  an  opportunity  of  examining  this  animal,  I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  Emmons,  who  obtained 
it  on  its  form  or  nest,  with  another  of  the  same  shape  and  color.  The  color  of  its  eyes  renders 
it  probable  that  it  was  not  an  albino.  It  appears  to  be  very  rare. 


Fauna. 


12 


90 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  YELLOW-CHEEKED  MEADOW-MOUSE 

Arvicola  xanthognathus. 

PLATE  XXIII.  FIG.  2.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Arvicola  xanthognathus.  Leach,  Zool.  Miscell.  Vol.  1,  p.  60,  pi.  26. 

Campagnol  auxjoues  fames.  Desm.  Mammalogie,  p.  282. 

The  Meadow-mouse.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  65. 

Yellow-cheeked  Meadow-mouse.  Rich.  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  122. 

Characteristics.  Reddish  brown  above,  greyish  beneath;  cheeks  fulvous.  Tail  not  as  long 
as  the  head.  Length  8  to  10  inches. 

Description.  Body  robust,  cylindrical.  Ears  half  an  inch  high  in  the  largest  individuals, 
rounded,  sparsely  hairy  within,  well  furred  externally.  Whiskers  numerous,  longer  than  the 
head.  Muzzle  somewhat  blunt.  Fore  legs  covered  with  short  adpressed  hairs,  a  few  extend¬ 
ing  beyond  the  nails ;  four  toes',  and  a  vestige  of  thumb  with  a  nail ;  the  other  nails  are 
slightly  curved  and  feeble.  Hind  feet  five-toed,  the  three  middle  subequal.  Tail  slender, 
slightly  less  at  the  tip,  covered  with  numerous  adpressed  hairs,  concealing  the  scales,  and  forming 
a  point  0-2  beyond  the  tip.  Incisors  above  short,  rounded  in  front.  In  the  upper  jaw  the 
posterior  molar  largest ;  below,  the  largest  is  the  anterior  molar.  Fur  long  and  soft. 

Color.  Above,  reddish  brown,  intermixed  with  uniformly  black  hairs  ;  beneath,  bluish  ash. 
Sides  of  the  cheeks  reddish,  more  or  less  distinct.  Upper  part  of  the  feet  and  tail  dark 
reddish  brown,  ashen  grey  or  whitish  beneath. 


Length  of  head  and  body, .  7'0. 

Ditto  of  tail, . . .  1*3. 


This  Meadow-mouse  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  State.  It  varies  much  in  size ;  and 
Godman,  who  assigns  five  inches  for  its  length,  probably  described  from  a  young  individual. 
It  burrows  in  banks,  and  produces  seven  or  eight  at  a  litter.  Its  geographical  range  is  exten¬ 
sive.  It  occurs  in  the  Western  States,  and  extends  to  the  Arctic  regions. 

(EXTRA  LIMIT AL.) 

A.  pensylvanicus,  Ord.  (Richardson,  p.  124.  Wilson,  Orn.  Vol.  6,  pi.  50.)  Brown  above,  beneath 
nearly  white ;  snout  obtuse.  A  blunt  hairy  tail,  half  the  length  of  the  body.  Length  4-5  inches. 
A.  borealis.  (Richardson,  Zool.  Mag.  1828.)  Above  chesnut  mixed  with  black,  grey  beneath;  a 
strong  thumb  nail ;  ears  concealed  in  the  head.  Tail  as  long  as  the  head.  Length  5 1  inches. 
Arctic  Regions. 

A.  noveboracensis.  (Richardson,  p.  126.)  Above  dark  brown,  beneath  dark  grey ;  nose  acute,  slen¬ 
der  ;  ears  slightly  beyond  the  fur.  Tail  scaly,  sparsely  hairy,  more  than  half  the  length  of  the 
head.  Length  6  inches.  Rocky  Mountains. 


FAMILY  MURIDS. 


91 


A.  imttali.  (Harlan,  Med.  and  Phys.  Res.  p.  55,  plate.)  Fawn  color  above,  white  beneath;  ears 
large  and  hairy.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  Length  5|  inches.  Virginia. 

A.  pinetorum.  (Le  Conte,  Ann.  Lyc.  Vol.  3,  p.  132,  plate.)  Dark  ash,  tipped  with  brown;  ears 
short,  naked,  concealed ;  thumb  with  a  straight  nail.  Tail  round,  0  •  7  long.  Length  3  to  4  inches. 
Georgia. 

A.  gapperi.  (Zool.  Joum.  Vol.  5,  p.  202.)  Tail  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  body;  ears  short, 
rounded,  chesnut  above ;  face  and  sides  yellowish  brown ;  belly  yellowish  white ;  chin  and  throat 
ashen.  Tail  nearly  two  inches.  Length  six.  An  neoboracensis  ? 

A.  ferruginous.  (Harlan,  Med.  and  Phys.  p.  57.)  Rust-colored  above,  white  beneath;  fore  legs 
short.  Tail  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  body.  Length  11  inches.  Mississippi. 

A.  richardsoni,  ( riparius  of  Richardson,  p.  120.)  Dull  brown  mixed  with  black,  bluish  grey  beneath ; 
ears  moderate,  nearly  concealed.  Tail  flat,  as  long  as  the  head ;  feet  white.  Length  9  inches. 
Arctic  Regions. 

A.  rubricatus.  (Beechey’s  Appendix.)  With  a  bright  red  stripe  on  the  flanks.  Behring's  Straits. 

Genus  Neotoma,  Say  and  Ord.  Molars  with  large  roots;  the  folds  of  the  enamel  not  descending  as 
low  as  the  edge  of  the  alveolar  processes.  Its  other  characters  similar  to  the  genus  Arvicola. 

N.  floridanum.  (Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  4,  p.  345,  pi.  21.)  Plumbeous  above,  yellowish  on  the  sides;  eyes  and 
ears  very  large.  Tail  longer  than  the  body.  Length  14  inches.  Florida. 

N.  drummondi.  (Richardson,  pi.  7.)  Yellowish  brown  above,  white  beneath.  Tail  more  bushy 
towards  the  extremity,  longer  than  the  body.  Length  16  inches.  Rocky  Mountains. 

Genus  Sigmodon,  Say.  Molars  subequal,  with  roots;  the  folds  of  the  enamel  representing  the  letter  S. 

S.  hortense.  (Harlan,  Med.  and  Phys.  pi.  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  4,  pi.  22.)  Soiled  yellow  or  blackish  above, 
beneath  cinereous ;  ears  large  and  round.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  Length  10  inches. 
Florida. 

Genus  Georychus,  Illiger.  Eyes  very  small;  ears  rising  slightly  above  the  auditory  hole ;  thumb 
obvious ;  toes  of  the  fore  feet  formed  for  digging.  Tail  very  short. 

G.  helvolus.  (Richardson,  p.  128.)  Head  black  and  tawny;  body  reddish  orange,  paler  beneath. 
Length  5  inches.  Northern  Regions. 

G.  trimucronatus.  (Richardson,  p.  130.)  Chesnut  above ;  thumb  nail  with  three  projecting  points. 
Length  5£  inches.  Arctic  Regions. 

G.  hudsonius.  (Id.  p.  132.)  Dark  brown  above,  bright  rusty  on  the  sides;  the  two  middle  nails  of 
fore  feet  very  large,  with  a  deep  notch  on  the  ends ;  earless.  Length  6  inches.  Labrador  and 
Arctic  Regions. 

G.  grccnlandicus.  (Id.  p.  134.)  Earless;  a  dark  dorsal  stripe;  nails  of  the  forefeet  terminating  in 
sharp  cylindrical  points.  Length  7  inches.  Arctic  Regions. 

Genus  Aplodontia,  Richardson.  Molars  ten  above,  eight  beneath;  ears  short  and  round;  feet  five¬ 
toed  ;  nails  large,  strong  and  compressed.  Tail  minute,  concealed  by  the  fur. 

A.  leporina.  (Richardson,  p.  211,  pi.  18.)  Umber  brown  above,  greyish  beneath ;  legs  short;  throat 
with  a  white  spot.  Tail  i  an  inch.  Length  14  inches.  Northern  Regions,  Missouri. 


92 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


**  WITH  CHEEK  POUCHES. 

Genus  Geomys,  Richardson.  Eyes  small  and  far  apart;  auditory  hole  small,  with  a  slightly  raised 
margin ;  molars  ten  above,  ten  beneath ;  cheek  pouches  large  and  pendulous,  opening  into  the 
mouth  by  the  side  of  the  molar  teeth.  Burrowing. 

G.  douglasi.  (Richardson,  pi.  18.)  Dusky  brown  above,  paler  beneath.  Tail  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  body.  Length  nine  inches.  Columbia  River. 

G.  umbrinus.  (Id.  p.  202.)  Umber  brown  above,  grey  beneath;  throat  and  feet  white.  Tail  grey, 
hairy,  as  long  as  the  head.  Length  9  inches.  Louisiana. 

G.  lalpoides.  (Id.  p.  204.)  Greyish  black;  chin,  throat  and  tail  white;  Hind  feet  with  but  four  com¬ 
plete  toes.  Length  nine  inches.  Hudson's  Bay. 

G.  bulbivorus.  (lD.pl.  18,  n.)  Mouth  vertical ;  a  wide  pouch  on  each  side,  not  communicating  with 
the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  Length  14  inches.  Columbia  River. 

G.  bursarius.  (Say,  Long’s  Exped.  Vol.  1,  p.  406.  Shaw,  pi.  138.)  Reddish  brown  or  greyish ; 
upper  incisors  with  a  deep  groove  hi  the  middle.  Length  9  to  12  inches.  Upper  Lakes,  Missouri, 
Florida. 

G.  borealis.  (Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  8,  p.  103.)  Pale  grey;  beneath  with  feetand  tail,  white ;' upper' 
incisors  scarcely  grooved ;  ears  distinct,  not  concealed.  Length  9i  inches.  Columbia  River. 

G.  toumsendi.  (Id.  ib.  Vol.  8,  p.  105.)  Colored  as  in-the  preceding;  chin  pure  white;  closely  allied 
to  the  preceding.  Length  10  inches.  Columbia  River. 


FAMILY  VII.  LEPORIDAE. 

Body  covered  with  hair  alone.  Clavicles  rudimentary.  Ears  long  and  erect.  Eyes  large 
and  prominent.  Head  long,  narrow  and  cojnpressed.  Four  upper  incisors,  ( in  the  young 
six.)  Anterior  feet  with  five  toes,  posterior  with  four.  Tail  short,  or  none.  Timid, 
saving  itself  by  rapid  flight. 

GENUS  LEPUS.  Linneus. 

Incisors  above,  four ;  the  two  in  front  large,  and  grooved ;  the  two  behind,  small.  Molars 
twelve  above,  ten  beneath,  cylindrical ,  compressed,  and  composed  of  two  vertical  soldered 
folds  of  enamel.  Interior  of  the  mouth,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet,  furnished  with  hair. 
Tail  short  and  upturned.  Hind  legs  very  long.  Mammae  six  to  ten  in  number.  A  fold 
of  skin  in  each  groin,  forming  a  sort  of  pouch. 


FAMILY  LEPORID.A. 


93 


THE  AMERICAN  GREY  RABBIT: 

Lepus  nanus. 

PLATE  XXVII.  FIG.  1.  —  (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Lepus  nanus.  Schreber,  Sauge.  Vol.  2,  p.  881,  pi.  234,  fig.  b. 

Rabbit.  Williams,  Nat.  and  Civil  Hist.  Vermont,  p.  91.  Belknap,  Hist.  N.  Hampshire,  Vol.  3,  p.  113. 

L.  americanus.  Desmarest,  Mam.  p.  351.  Harlan,  Faun.  p.  93.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  157. 

L.  americanus.  Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Phil.  Vol.  7,  p.  326. 

L.  sylvaticus.  Id.  ib.  Vol.  7,  p.  403 ;  and  Vol.  8,  p.  78. 

L.  americanus.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  56. 

Characteristics.  Yellowish  grey,  varied  with  brown  ;  throat  and  abdomen  whitish  ;  in  winter, 
the  grey  color  predominates.  Ears  shorter  than  the  head.  Length  15-18 
inches. 

Description.  Form  typical.  Forehead  convex.  Claws  sharp  pointed,  and  nearly  straight. 
Upper  anterior  incisors  white,  with  a  deep  longitudinal  groove  near  their  inner  margins  ;  the 
small  incisors  behind  short,  appressed  to  the  anterior  incisors,  and  inserted  into  the  upper 
maxillary.  First  molar  above  simple,  recurved  ;  the  four  succeeding  larger,  and  of  nearly  an 
equal  size,  composed  of  double  folds  of  enamel ;  the  last  simple,  cylindrical,  directed  forwards, 
and  scarcely  attaining  the  height  of  its  predecessors.  Beneath,  the  incisors  are  smooth';  in 
front,  long  and  subquadrate.  The  first  molar  inclined  backwards,  grooved  before,  and  with  a 
double  groove  on  the  outer  surface ;  the  succeeding  ones  to  the  last,  upright,  nearly  equal, 
with  a  single  groove  and  two  prominent  ridges  on  their  external  surfaces  ;  the  last  smallest, 
inclined  forwards,  with  a  slight  groove  on  the  external  surface,  and  the  tip  exhibits  a  double 
case  of  enamel. 

Color.  In  summer,  the  general  color  is  yellowish  brown,  which  becomes  more  or  less  rufous 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  extremities,  and  on  the  breast.  Margin  of  the  eyes  blackish 
brown,  and  outside  of  this  a  circle  of  yellowish  white.  Throat,  and  underside  of  the  tail, 
white  ;  abdomen  greyish  white.  Ears  edged  with  white,  and  tipped  with  brown.  Fur  plum¬ 
beous  at  base,  and  for  much  of  its  length.  In  winter  the  fur  becomes  longer,  and  the  upper 
surface  of  the  head  and  body  lighter,  occasionally  iron  grey,  but  I  have  never  seen  it  as  white 
as  is  stated  by  Godman.  There  may,  however,  be  white  varieties,  but  it  cannot  be  said  to 
have  two  distinct  coats  of  fur.. 

Length  of  head  and  body,.  16'0.  Length  of  the  hind  legs,  ..  10.4. 

Ditto  of  the  head,  . .  3 '8.  Ditto  of  the  tail, . .  1  •  5. 

Ditto  of  the  ears, .  3 '2.  Ditto,  including  fur, .  2- 8. 

Weight, .  3  -  4  lbs. 

This  common  and  well  known  species  in  the  United  States,  has  been,  until  very  recently, 
confounded  with  others.  The  following  description  by  Schreber,  which  seems  to  have  been 
overlooked  by  modern  writers,  applies  remarkably  well  to  our  Rabbit ;  although,  misled  by 


94 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


the  accounts  of  previous  naturalists,  he  appears  to  have  confounded  its  history  with  the  fol¬ 
lowing  species  :  Cheeks  full  of  thick  hair.  Ears  thin  externally,  with  few  hairs,  naked  within, 
and  when  bent  forward,  do  not  reach  the  nose  ;  when  bent  backwards,  they  reach  the  shoulder 
blades.  Eyes  large  and  black,  with  4-5  bristles  above  them.  Whiskers  mostly  black ; 
some  are  white ;  the  longest  appears  to  reach  beyond  the  head.  Color  in  summer :  Ears 
brownish,  with  a  very  narrow  black  border  on  the  outer  margin,  of  the  same  breadth  to  the 
tips,  or  becomes  effaced ;  brown  cheeks,  back  and  sides ;  fore  and  hind  legs  light  brown 
externally,  mixed  with  black  ;  all  round  the  breech,  white.  Feet  full  of  short  hair  of  a  light 
brown,  unmixed  with  black,  changing  towards  the  inside  to  a  grey  white.  Upper  part  of  the 
tail  like  that  of  the  back,  (perhaps  mixed  with  black,  as  Pennant  describes  it  black  ;)  beneath 
white.  Throat  white ;  lower  part  of  the  neck  bright  brown,  mixed  with  white ;  chest  and 
belly,  inside  of  fore  and  hind  legs,  white.  Color  in  winter,  when  it  does  change,  white. 

According  to  Foster,  Pennant  and  Schcepff,  the  most  remarkable  distinctions  of  this  species 
are,  1,  his  size  :  It  is  not  by  any  means  as  large  as  the  common  and  changeable  hare,  and 
scarcely  larger  than  a  rabbit ;  hence  he  is  frequently  called  rabbit  in  America.  2,  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  his  legs ;  the  hind  feet  being  longer,  and  the  fore  feet  shorter  than  in  the  others. 
3,  the  color  and  length  of  ears  :  it  has  a  black  margin  outside,  but  no  black  mark  at  the  tip, 
and  the  length  is  less  than  that  of  the  common  hare.  4,  the  upper  side  of  the  tail  is  not  so 
black  as  in  that  species.  5,  the  color  of  its  body.  6,  its  mode  of  living  and  habits :  It  can 
therefore  only  be  a  distinct  species.  Length  18  inches  ;  tail  scarcely  more  than  two.  Found 
from  Hudson’s  Bay  to  Florida.  In  winter,  his  short  hair  changes  into  a  long  silky  fur,  white 
from  the  roots.  The  border  of  the  ear,  and  upper  part  of  the  tail,  unchanging.  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  State  of  New-York,  and  the  Southern  States,  he  does  not  change  his  color,  and 
might  therefore  be  called  the  half-changing  hare. 

The  whole  history  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  and  its  abundance,  sufficiently  confirms  the 
fact  that  Schreber  had  our  Rabbit  in  view,  although  he  was  misled  by  Schoepff  and  Pennant, 
and  confounded  two  species.  We  think  that  in  this  latter  particular,  Erxleben  has  also  been 
in  error. 

The  American  Grey  Rabbit  changes  but  little  with  the  season,  except  that  the  fur  is  longer 
and  finer,  and  exhibits  a  slight  tendency  to  white.  Prof.  Emmons  speaks  of  having  seen  them 
distinctly  grey  in  Massachusetts,  and  Dr.  Bachman  has  seen  them  in  Carolina  of  a  light  iron 
grey.  It  is  a  timid,  inoffensive  creature  ;  and  were  it  not  for  its  excessive  vigilance,  and  its 
astonishing  powers  of  reproduction,  would  soon  be  extirpated.  Indeed  we  have  reason  to 
believe  that  this  actually  does  happen  in  certain  districts  ;  when  their  enemies,  having  nothing 
to  feed  upon,  also  disappear  ;  and  after  a  certain  period,  the  rabbit  again  resorts  to  its  former 
haunts,  and,  undisturbed  for  some  time,  increases  again  in  numbers.  Beside  man,  it  has 
many  other  enemies.  In  the  northern  and  western  part  of  the  State,  it  is  the  favorite  food  of 
the  two  lynxes.  It  is  also  destroyed  by  the  New-York  weasel,  the  skunk,  and  by  hawks, 
owls  and  serpents. 

Its  food  consists  of  bark,  buds,  grass,  wild  berries,  etc.;  and  in  cultivated  districts,  it  is 
said  to  enter  gardens  and  destroy  vegetables.  Unlike  its  congeners,  it  does  not  confine  itself 


FAMILY  LEPORID.'E. 


95 


to  the  woods,  but  is  frequently  found  in  open  fields,  or  where  there  is  a  slight  copse  or 
under-brush.  It  does  not  burrow  like  its  closely  allied  species  the  European  Rabbit,  but 
makes  its  form,  which  is  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground,  sheltered  by  some  low  shrub.  It 
frequently  resorts  to  a  stone  wall,  or  a  heap  of  stones,  or  a  hollow  tree,  and  sometimes  to  the 
burrow  of  some  other  animal.  Its  habits  are  nocturnal ;  and  they  may  often  be  seen  in  the 
morning,  or  early  part  of  the  afternoon,  although  in  retired  situations  they  have  been  seen  at 
all  times  of  the  day.  Its  flesh,  though  black  and  dry,  is  well  flavored,  although  in  this  respect 
it  varies  with  the  quality  of  its  previous  food.  It  breeds  in  this  State,  as  I  have  been  informed, 
three  times  in  the  season,  producing  from  four  to  six  at  a  birth.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the 
species  found  in  this  State,  and  so  much  resembles  in  its  form  the  European  Rabbit,  that  the 
same  popular  name  has  been  applied  to  it,  although  differing  in  color  and  some  of  its  habits. 
This,  however,  is  of  no  consequence,  for  the  name  of  American  or  Grey  Rabbit  is  sufficiently 
distinctive. 

It  has  not  a  wide  geographical  range.  It  is  found  from  New-Hampshire  to  Florida,  but  its 
western  limits  are  not  yet  established. 


THE  NORTHERN  HARE. 

Lepus  americanus. 

PLATE  XXVI.  FIG.  2,  Winter  dress.  — (STATE  COLLECTION.) 

Lepus  americanus.  Erxleben,  Syst.  Reg.  An.  p.  330. 

L.  virginianus.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  196. 

L.  vanabilis,  var.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  164. 

American  Varying  Hare.  Doughty,  Cab.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  1,  p.  217,  pi.  19,  (autumnal  dress.)  Audubon,  Orn.  Biog.  Vol.  2, 
p.  169,  pi.  181,  (winter  dress.) 

L.  americanus.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  217,  (excl.  syn.) 

L.  virginianus.  Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  p.  301. 

L.  americanus.  Id.  ib.  Vol.  8,  p.  76. 

Prairie  Hare.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  58. 

Characteristics.  Winter  dress  white,  or  white  tinged  with  reddish  brown.  Summer,  more 
reddish  brown ;  beneath  white.  Ears  scarcely  shorter  than  the  head. 
Larger  than  the  preceding.  Length  20  -  25  inches. 

Description.  Head  short;  nose  blunt.  Eyes  large  and  prominent.  Ears  broad  and  approxi¬ 
mated,  three  and  a  half  inches  long.  Upper  anterior  incisors  long  and  slender,  moderately 
grooved  ;  the  small  posterior  incisors  not  as  large  as  in  the  preceding  species ;  lower  incisors 
wedge-shaped,  nearly  straight.  Molars  more  compressed  and  broader  than  in  the  preceding. 
Skull  depressed  between  the  orbits.  Body  covered  with  loose,  shaggy  hair.  Hind  legs  nearly 
or  quite  twice  the  length  of  the  fore  legs.  Feet  thickly  covered  with  hair  above  and  beneath, 
concealing  the  long,  thin  and  slightly  curved  claws.  Whiskers  long  and  numerous,  black  or 
black  and  white ;  a  tuft  of  three  or  four  over  the  eyes,  and  some  beneath  the  chin. 

Color.  Independently  of  the  change  by  season,  it  may  be  said  that  at  no  time,  unless  in 


96 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


high  northern  latitudes,  can  two  individuals  be  found  marked  precisely  alike.  At  all  seasons, 
the  base  of  the  fur  is  plumbeous  above  and  white  beneath.  Winter  dress  :  White  or  nearly  so, 
with  irregular  spots  and  dashes  of  a  bright  fawn-color,  which  is  more  apparent  on  the  fore  legs, 
ears  and  buttocks ;  ears  margined  with  blackish  brown  above,  becoming  deeper  towards  the 
tips  ;  tail  and  all  beneath  white.  Summer  dress  :  Above  bright  fawn  or  reddish  brown  ;  fore¬ 
head,  cheeks  and  ears  of  the  same  color  ;  all  beneath  white  ;  edges  of  the  ears  white,  bordered 
with  darker,  particularly  towards  the  tip.  At  all  seasons,  the  hair  on  the  soles  is  soiled  white; 
margin  of  the  eyelids  dark  brown  ;  pupil  dark  brown  ;  iris  yellowish.  ' 

Length  of  the  head  and  body,  20 1 0.  Length  of  the  tail, .  1  •  5. 


Ditto  of  the  head, .  3  6.  Ditto  of  the  fore  legs, -  6  *5. 

Ditto  of  the  ears, . .  3  ‘  4.  Ditto  of  the  hind  legs, _  1 1  •  2. 


Weight, .  65  lbs. 

The  dimensions  of  this  species,  on  the  authority  of  Bachman,  vary  from  seventeen  to  twenty- 
five  inches.  It  is  re  marls  able  how  two  observers  have  so  widely  differed  in  their  account  of 
the  dimensions  of  the  same  specimen.  Bonaparte  gives  the  total  length  as  thirty-one  inches. 
Harlan’s  measurement  of  the  same  specimen  makes  it  but  sixteen  inches.  These  statements 
may  be  reconciled,  when  we  recollect  that  the  latter  measured  from  the  specimen  when  it  was 
set  up,  whilst  Bonaparte’s  dimensions  were  taken  from  the  specimen  when  recent,  and  probably 
represented  the  distance  from  the  nose  to  the  extremity  of  the  hind  legs. 

This  Hare  was  first  vaguely  indicated  by  Erxleben  in  1777,  but  his  name  appears  to  have 
excited  little  attention.  The  work  is  exceedingly  rare  and  difficult  to  procure,  and  the  species 
continued  to  be  confounded  with  the  L.  variabilis  of  Europe  for  nearly  sixty  years.  Dr. 
Harlan  carefully  examined  it,  and  determined  it  to  be  a  distinct  species,  and  not  being  aware 
of  Erxleben’s  name,  (which,  it  may  be  observed  parenthetically,  will  apply  to  half  a  dozen 
northern  hares,)  gave  it  the  name  of  virginianus. 

It  occurs  in  most  parts  of  the  State,  and  is  often  called  the  White  Rabbit.  In  the  winter, 
the  markets  of  New-York  are  abundantly  supplied  with  this  species  from  the  Kaaterskill  and 
Shawangunk  (Shongo.)  mountains.  As  an  article  of  food,  it  is  highly  esteemed  by  many ; 
but,  as  we  suppose,,  rather  from  an  association  of  ideas  connected  with  the  European  hare, 
than  from  any  merit  of  its  own.  It  is  in  itself  insipid  and  tasteless,  and  not.tobe  compared 
with  the  common  rabbit.  Its  food  is  various,  consisting  chiefly  of  grasses,  buds,  bark,  leaves 
and  berries.  According  to  Bachman,  they  are  fond  of  the  young  twigs  of  the  spicewood 
( Laurus  benzoin),  the  black  poplar  (Populus  hudsqmca),  and  the  leaves  and  berries  of  various 
species  of  Pyrola  or  Pipsiseway.  It  lives  exclusively  in  elevated  and  dry  forests  of  pines 
and  firs,  never  venturing  upon  cleared  or  cultivated  lands.  Its  period  of  gestation  is  about 
six  weeks,  producing  from  four  to  six  young  at  a  litter.  It  makes  more  resistance  when 
seized  than  any  other  species,  using  its  teeth  and  nails  with  great  freedom.  Under  certain 
circumstances,  however,  all  hares  will  exhibit  considerable  boldness.  We  have  been  informed 
by  an  eye-witness,  that  he  saw  a  European  buck  rabbit  ( L .  cuniculus)  attack  a  cat,  and  rip 
open  its  bowels  by  a  single  stroke  of  its  hind  claws. 


FAMILY  LEPORIDrE. 


97 


The  geographical  range  of  this  species  is  not  yet  well  determined.  According  to  Richard¬ 
son,  it  is  found  in  Canada  as  far  north  as  Hudson’s  Bay.  It  is  found  throughout  the  Northern 
Slates,  and  as  far  south  as  the  northern  parts  of  Pennsylvania.  Mr.  Doughty,  in  his  Cabinet 
of  Natural  History,  states  that  he  has  seen  it  as  far  south  as  Virginia,  on  one  of  the  highest 
mountains  in  the  northern  part  of  that  State. 

We  subjoin  the  description  of  Erxleben,  cited  above  : 

Lepus  americanus,  L.  Cauda  abbreviata ;  pedibus  posticis  corpore  dimidio  longioribus ; 
auricularum  caudaeque  apicibus  griseis. 

Die  Ilasen.  Kalm,  Hudson’s  Bay  Quadrup.  Barrington,  Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  62,  p.  11. 

American  Hare.  Forster,  Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  62,  p.  376. 

Magnitudine  medius  inter  L.  cuniculum  et  timidum  alpinum  (sc.  L.  timidus,  Forster,  Phil. 
Trans.  Vol.  67,  p.  343,  et  Vol.  62,  p.  375).  Auricularum  et  caudae  apices  perpetuo  grisei. 
Pedes  postici  longiores  quarn  in  L.  timido  et  cuniculo.  Color  griseo-fuscus  ;  hieme  in  frigi- 
dioribus  albus. 

Habitat  in  America  boreali,  ad  fretum  Iludsonis  copiosissimus.  Nocturnus.  Non  fodit. 
Degit  sub  arborum  radicibus  inque  cavis  arboribus.  Parit  bis  vel  semel  in  anno;  pullos 
quinque  ad  septem.  Caro  bona,  colore  L.  timidi. 

( EXTRA-LIMI  TAL ) 

L.  glacialis,  Leach.  (Bachman,  Ac.  Sc.  Vol.  7,  pi.  21.  Summer  dress.)  In  winter  white,  summer 
light  grey ;  ears  black.  Length  27  -  30  inches.  Maine ,  Newfoundland. 

L.  aquaticus.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  7,  pi.  22,  fig.  2.)  Nearly  black  above,  white  beneath;  ears  not 
as  long  as  the  head  ;  feet  long  and  narrow.  Length  25  inches.  Alabama,  Louisiana. 

L.  palustris.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  7,  pi.  15,  16.  Audubon,  Birds,  pi.  366.)  Yellowish  brown 
above,  beneath  grey ;  ears  much  shorter  than  the  head ;  eyes  small.  Tail  very  short,  ashy  beneath. 
Length  14  inches.  South  Carolina  to  Texas. 

L.  campestris.  (Richardson,  p.  224.)  Lead-colored  above,  white  beneath;  in  winter  pure  white, 
except  the  ears,  which  are  broadly  edged  with  reddish  brown.  Length  22  inches.  Northern 
Regions. 

L.  longicaudatus.  (Gray,  Loud.  Mag.  1837.  Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  83.)  Blackish  brown  above, 
white  beneath.  Body  slender.  Tail  4-5  inches.  Length  24  inches.  Texas. 

L.  nigricaudatus,  Bennet.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  84.)  Above  fawn  tipped  with  black,  beneath 
white.  Tail  above  black.  Length  22  inches.  Texas,  Mexico. 

L.  californicus.  (Gray,  Loud.  Mag.  1837.)  Dark  brown  above,  beneath  white  tinged  with  yellow ; 

ears  longer  than  the  head.  Length  25  inches.  California. 

L.  richardsoni.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  88.)  Mottled  grey  above,  beneath  white,  tinged  with  pale 
yellowish  towards  the  sides;  ears  longer  than  head.  Length  19  inches.  California. 

L.  townsendi.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  90,  pi.  2.  L.  nuttali,  young,  ejusd.  auctoris.)  Above  light 
grey,  beneath  white ;  ears  longer  than  the  head,  white  behind,  tipped  with  black ;  legs  and  tarsus 
very  long.  Length  26  inches.  Oregon. 

Fauna.  13 


98  NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 

L.  artemesia.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  94.)  Grey  above,  beneath  white;  back  of  the  neck  and  legs 
pale  rusty;  ears  as  long  as  the  head.  Length  13  inches.  Oregon. 

L.  bachmani.  (Bachman,  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  96.)  Deep  grey  above,  beneath  greyish  white;  ears  longer 
than  head.  Length  1 1  inches. 

Genus  Lagomys,  Geoffroy.  Ears  moderate;  hind  legs  not  much  longer  than  those  before;  clavicles 
more  developed  than  in  Lepus ;  molars  ten  above  and  ten  beneath.  Tail  none. 

L.  princeps.  (Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  pi.  19.)  Blackish  brown  above,  beneath  greyish  fawn ;  head 
short  and  thick  ;  ears  broad  and  rounded ;  legs  short ;  toes  with  naked  tubercles.  Length  6-7 
inches.  Rocky  Mountains. 


ORDER  V.  EDENTATA. 

Without  incisors,  and  in  several  of  the  genera,  with  no  teeth  whatever.  They  have  large 
and  strong  claws,  covering  the  ends  of  the  toes.  Covered  with  long  and  coarse  hairs,  or 
with  scaly  plates.  Occasionally  the  mouth  drawn  out  into  a  flattened  beak,  and  presenting 
great  anomalies  in  their  reproductive  organs.  Not  ruminating.  Feed  chiefly  on  vegeta¬ 
bles,  but  also  on  insects  and  carcases. 

Obs.  About  twenty-four  species,  arranged  in  fourteen  genera,  are  known  at  present,  in  North 
and  South  America,  Africa,  India  and  Australia.  Although  numerous  in  the  hot  and  tempe¬ 
rate  parts  of  South  America,  no  living  representative  of  this  order  has  been  found  within  the 
United  States.  Two  fossil  genera  have  been  described,  but  neither  have  been  discovered  in 
this  State. 


(EXTRA LIMIT AL.) 

Genus  Megatherium,  Cuvier.  Anterior  toes  four,  posterior  three.  Size  gigantic.  Claws  large, 
and  with  a  bony  sheath.  Molars  eight  above  and  eight  beneath;  crowns  of  the  molars  with  two 
transverse  angular  ridges.  Body  covered  with  a  bony  coat  of  armor.  Tail  large  and  very  robust. 
Clavicles  perfect.  Herbivorous. 

M.  cuvicri.  (Mitchill,  Ann.  Lye.  Vol.  1,  p.  58.  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  N.  Y.  Vol.  1,  p.  114,  pi.  7; 
Vol.  2,  p.  267.)  Toes  with  strong  claws,  two  of  which  are  rudimentary.  Height  seven  feet;  bulk 
of  the  rhinoceros.  (Marshes  of  Skidaway  Island,  Georgia ;  and  said  to  exist  also  at  White  Bluff, 
sea  coast  of  Georgia.  Originally  found  near  Buenos  Ayres.  Another  from  the  Rio  del  Sauce, 
near  Montevideo.) 

Genus  Megalonyx.  Claws  large,  nearly  seven  inches  long,  and  furnished  with  a  bony  sheath.  Molars 
eight  beneath,  composed  each  of  a  simple  cylinder  of  enamel ;  crowns  simple  cavities,  surrounded 
by  the  enamel.  Clavicles  perfect. 


FAMILY  ELEPHANTID.E. 


99 


M.  jeffersonii.  (Cuvier,  Oss.  Foss.  Ed.  tertia,  p.  160.  Cooper,  Ann.  Lyc.  Vol.  3,  p.  166;  Am.  Month 
Mag.  Vol.  1,  p.  157.  —  M.  lagueatus.  Harlan,  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  Vol.  6,  p.  269  ;  Med.  and  Phys.  Res 
p.  271,  319  et.  seq.)  About  the  size  of  an  ox.  The  teeth,  as  far  as  they  have  been  examined,  seem 
to  present  some  striking  differences;  and  Dr.  Harlan  seems  disposed  to  consider  some  of  them  as 
indicating  the  type  of  a  new  genus,  which  he  terms  Pleurodon. 

The  remains  of  this  animal  have  been  found  in  Bigbone  Cave,  Tennessee ;  at  Bigbone  Lick,  Boone 
county,  Kentucky ;  in  a  cave  in  Greenbriar  county,  Virginia ;  and  at  White  Cave,  Edmondson 
county,  Kentucky.  They  have  also  been  discovered  in  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Brazos,  a  few  miles 
above  St.  Felipe,  Texas,  associated  with  the  bones  of  the  Mastodon;  and  according  to  Martius  and 
Spix,  in  a  cave  in  Brazil.  The  fullest  and  best  account  of  its  osteology  will  be  found  in  the  work 
of  Harlan,  cited  above. 


ORDER  VI.  UNGULATA. 

Comprises  nwnerous  herbivorous  animals,  exhibiting  great  variety  in  size  and,  structure,  but 
all  united  by  one  common  character,  viz :  The  toes  covered  by  a  horny- case  or  hoof,  which 
either  embraces  the  toes  separately,  or  the  foot  is  enclosed  in  a  single  hoof.  In  some  the 
muzzle  is  elongated  into  a  cylindrical  tube ;  in  others,  the  head  is  furnished  with  simple 
or  branched  horns,  which  are  sometimes  only  sexual  distinctions. 

First  Tribe.  Pachydermata. 

Generally  three  sorts  of  teeth.  Stomach  simple  or  compound,  but  not  adapted  for  rumination. 
No  horns  on  the  head.  Many  of  the  species  extinct. 

FAMILY  I.  ELEPHANTID JE. 

Toes  concealed  under  the  skin,  their  tips  only  distinct.  Snout  elongated  into  a  long  and 
flexible  proboscis.  The  largest  of  terrestrial  animals,  and  in  the  living  state,  found  only 
in  the  Eastern  Continent.  It  comprises  the  Elephant,  Mastodon,  Rhinoceros  and  Hippo¬ 
potamus,  embracing  at  present  eight  living  and  twenty-one  fossil  species. 

GENUS  ELEPHAS.  Linneus. 

Upper  incisors  in  the  form  of  enormous  tusks,  slightly  arched  towards  the  tips,  a  vertical 
section  presenting  curvilinear  lozenges.  Molars  four  above  and  four  beneath,  composed  of 
vertical  laminae.  With  a  long  flexible  proboscis.  Five  toes  on  all  the  feet.  The  skin  of 
the  living  species  thick,  with  scattering  hairs. 


100 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  FOSSIL  ELEPHANT. 

Elephas  primigenius. 

(CABINET  OF  THE  LYCEUM.) 

Mitchill,  Cuv.  Theory,  N.  Y.  Ed.  figure. 

Harlan,  Ac.  Sc.  Phil.  Vol.  3,  p.  65,  pi.  5. 

Numerous  remains  of  the  Fossil  Elephant,  belonging  apparently  to  the  species  primigenius, 
have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  North  America,  from  the  frozen  mud  near  Behring’s 
Straits,  to  the  marshes  of  Carolina  and  Texas. 

The  multitude  no  less  than  the  magnitude  of  these  bones  in  certain  localities,  is  well  calcu¬ 
lated  to  excite  astonishment.  Hedenstrom,  in  his  survey  of  the  Laechow  islands  on  the  north¬ 
eastern  coast  of  Siberia,  remarks  that  the  first  of  these  islands  is  little  more  than  one  mass  of 
these  bones  ;  and  that  although  the  Siberian  traders  have  been  in  the  habit  of  bringing  over 
large  cargoes  of  them  for  upwards  of  sixty  years,  yet  there  appears  to  be  no  sensible  diminu¬ 
tion.  The  teeth  (tusks  ?)  found  in  these  islands  are  much  whiter  and  more  fresh  than  those  of 
the  continent.  The  most  valuable  were  met  with  on  a  low  sand  bank  on  the  western  coast ; 
and  there,  when,  after  a  long  prevalence  of  easterly  winds,  the  sea  recedes,  a  fresh  supply  is 
always  found.  From  this,  Hedenstrom  infers  that  large  quantities  must  exist  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean. 

One  of  the  most  singular  discoveries  in  modern  times,  was  that  of  an  extinct  elephant 
imbedded  in  a  mass  of  ice  on  the  northern  coast  of  Siberia.  Its  body  was  nearly  entire,  and 
covered  with  thick  fur,  consisting  of  coarse  hair  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  long,  and  beneath 
this  a  slightly  curled  wool.  Specimens  of  this  hair  may  be  seen  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum 
of  Natural  History,  New-York. 

Fischer  has  analysed  and  distinguished  six  fossil  species  of  Elephants ;  and  Dr.  Harlan 
appears  to  think  it  probable  that  two  distinct  species  once  existed  in  the  United  States,  but 
the  peculiar  characteristics  of  each  do  not  seem  to  be  distinctly  defined.  According  to  Cuvier, 
the  fossil  elephants  belonged  to  a  geological  period  more  ancient  than  the  Mastodon,  but  we 
often  find  them  associated  together  in  the  same  formation.  It  is  true  that  little  more  than  the 
molars  only  have  been  discovered,  thereby  seeming  to  indicate  that  all  the  other  bones  had 
perished  at  a  period  long  anterior  to  the  destruction  of  the  Mastodon.  We  should,  however, 
recollect  that  the  osteology  of  the  two  genera  are  very  intimately  allied  ;  and  that  from  the  fact 
that  greater  numbers  of  teeth  of  the  Mastodon  have  been  found,  all  the  large  bones  are, 
without  due  examination,  hastily  referred  to  that  genus.  Besides  the  molars  of  the  Elephant, 
few  of  the  other  portions  of  the  skeleton  have  been  identified.  At  Bigbone  Lick,  where 
their  remains  as  individuals  appear  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  Mastodon  as  one  to  five,  little 
more  than  the  bones  of  the  head,  and  in  one  instance  two  nearly  complete  heads,  -have  been 
identified.  Moreover,  it  does  not  appear  ever  to  have  been  as  numerous  a  species  as  the 
Mastodon. 


FAMILY  ELEPHANTIDiE. 


101 


The  principal  localities  of  the  Fossil  Elephant  in  the  United  States,  are  the  Bigbone  Lick, 
Kentucky ;  Biggin  Swamp  and  Stone,  South  Carolina ;  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  North  Carolina, 
Maryland,  and  Schooley’s  mountain  in  Monmouth  county  in  New-Jersey.  In  this  State  we 
are  acquainted  with  but  one  locality.  There  is,  howmver,  in  the  Museum  of  the  Albany 
Institute,  a  portion  of  the  tooth  of  an  elephant  said  to  have  been  found  on  the  line  of  the  Erie 
canal,  but  the  precise  locality  is  not  known. 


AMERICAN  ELEPHANT. 

Elerhas  americangs. 

PLATE  XXXII.  FIG.  2  — (CABINET  OF  THE  LYCEUM.) 

It  is  with  some  hesitation  that  I  venture  to  designate,  under  a  new  name,  a  species  founded 
on  specimens  of  teeth,  which  appear  to  differ  widely  from  any  hitherto  met  in  this  country. 
The  tooth  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Susquehannah,  near  Tioga,  March,  1786,  and  figured  in 
the  Columbian  Magazine,  approaches  it  somewhat,  but  can  scarcely  be  referred  to  the  same 
species.  The  specimens  above  alluded  to  were  found  in  a  diluvial  formation  near  the  Irondi- 
quoit  river  in  Monroe  county,  ten  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Rochester.  According  to  a  writer 
in  the  American  Journal,  Vol.  32,  p.  377,  these  remains  consisted  of  a  tusk  and  two  molars, 
one  of  which  is  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum,  and  is  that  figured  in  the  plate.  This  is  six 
inches  in  its  greatest  depth  ;  and,  as  nearly  as  can  be  conjectured  from  the  part  which  remains, 
it  must  have  been  about  eight  inches  long,  and  three  in  breadth  on  its  grinding  surface,  which 
is,  however,  too  much  injured  to  exhibit  the  ends  of  the  enamel.  There  are  thirteen  plates 
in  a  space  of  five  inches,  and  they  are  more  compressed  than  in  any  fossil  species  with  which 
I  am  acquainted,  being  almost  in  contact,  witli  very  little  interstitial  substance.  It  is  altogether 
different  from  any  fossil  elephant  hitherto  described,  and  merits  the  distinct  appellation  of  E. 
americanus. 

Note.  Texas  appears  to  be  a  rich  locality  for  elephantine  bones.  From  the  Houston  Tele¬ 
graph,  April,  1840,  we  learn  that  a  large  collection  of  molars,  tusks  and  other  bones  of  the 
Elephant,  were  found  in  the  banks  of  a  ravine  about  two  miles  below  Bastrop,  covered  with  a 
bed  of  loam  ten  or  twelve  feet  thick.  A  similar  collection  was  obtained  from  the  bed  of  the 
Rio  Brazos.  They  were  associated  with  the  teeth  and  tusks  of  the  Mastodon,  described  in 
the  subsequent  article.  Some  of  the  teeth  are  now  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural 
History,  New-York. 


102 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  MASTODON.  Cuvier. 

Many  characters  in  common  with  the  Elephant,  which  it  equalled  or  surpassed  in  size.  Mo¬ 
lars  with  sharp,  elevated,  conical  teeth,  which,  when  partly  worn,  display  lozenges  of 
enamel.  In  the  adult,  four  molars  above  and  four  below.  A  vertical  section  of  the  upper 
incisors  or  tusks  exhibits  concentric  plates  of  enamel.  In  the  young,  there  are  two  incisors 
in  the  lower  jaw,  straight,  short  and  conical.  Tail  moderate,  about  the  length  of  that  of 
the  Elephant. 

Obs.  The  whole  amount  of  teeth  in  the  Mastodon,  from  infancy  to-  old  age,  appears  to  be 
twenty-six.  In  infancy,  sixteen  molars  and  two  lower  incisors  ;  the  hindmost  molars,  as  they 
emerge,  gradually  pushing  the  others  forward  and  out  of  their  places,  until  the  latter  all  drop 
out,  and  a  large  solitary  tooth  is  left  in  each  jaw.  It  is  obviously  inferred  that  they  possessed 
long  flexible  trunks,  •  as  in  the  Elephants  ;  and  its  habits  are  similar,  though  less  exclusively 
herbivorous. 


THE  GREAT  MASTODON. 

Mastodon  maximus. 

(CABINET  OF  THE  LYCEUM.) 

Animal  incognitum.  Rembrant  Peale,  Hist.  Disq.  Loud.  Mag. 

Mastodon  giganteum  et  maximus.  Cuvier,  Oss.  Foss. 

Rhinoceros,  Tetracaulodon  and  Mammoth,  of  various  writers.* 

From  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  this  country  after  its  settlement  by  Europeans,  large 
bones  were  occasionally  found,  which  excited  considerable  speculation.  They  were  considered, 
according  to  the  intelligence  of  their  respective  discoverers  and  commentators,  as  having  be¬ 
longed  to  a  race  of  giants  or  fallen  angels,  or  to  have  belonged  to  Elephants.  It  was  reserved 
for  Cuvier,  in  the  work  cited  above,  to  show  that  they  belonged  to  an  animal  generically 


*  The  American  authorities  are  so  numerous,  that  it  would  require  too  much  space  to  insert  them  all.  For  those  who  are 
disposed  to  investigate  the  American  history  of  the  discovery  of  this  animal,  we  would  make  the  following  references : 


Mather,  Royal  Philos.  Trans.  1712. 

Dudley,  Mass.  Hist.  Coll.  2nd  series,  Vol.  2,  p.  263. 
Turner,  Am.  Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  4,  p.  510. 

Hunter,  Am.  Museum,  Vol.  5,  p.  152. 

Collinson,  lb.  p.  155;  lb.  Vol.  8,  p.  284. 

Madison,  Phil.  Med.  &  Phys.  Vol.  2,  p.  58 ;  lb.  Vol.  1 ,  p.  156. 
Bossu,’  lb.  Vol.  1,  p.  179. 

Jefferson,  lb.  Vol.  1,  p.  64. 

Barton,  Rhinoceros !  Ib.  Vol.  2,  p.  1,  p.  158. 

Drayton,  Hist.  Carolina. 

Graham  &  Miller,  Med.  Rep.  Vol.  4,  p.  21 1  and  308. 
Mitchill,  Med.  Rep.  Vol.  9,  p.  322;  Vol.  11,  p.  318,  319. 


Madison,  Ib.  Vol.  15,  p.  38. 

Cuvier,  Theory  of  the  Earth,  N.  Y.  Ed. 

Peale,  Am.  Phil.  Trans. 

Godman,  Vol.  3,  p.  478  ;  Vol.  4,  p.  317. 

Id.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  Vol.  4,  p.  67. 

Harlan,  Fauna  Americana. 

Id.  Med.  and  Phys.  Researches. 

De  Kay,  &c.  Ann.  Lyc.  Vol.  1,  p.  143. 

Cooper,  Am.  Jour.  Geol.  Vol.  1,  p.  158. 

Id.  Am.  Jour.  Sc.  Vol.  12,  p.  381 ;  Vol.  14,  p.  187  ;  Vol.  27,  p 
166;  Vol.  31,  p.  171. 


FAMILY  ELEPHANTIDvE. 


103 


distinct  from  the  Elephant,  but  allied  to  it  in  bulk,  habits  and  other  particulars.  Since  that 
time,  numerous  species  have  been  described  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

In  this  country,  there  is  scarcely  a  State  east  and  south  of  the  Hudson  river,  which  has  not 
afforded  specimens  of  the  Mastodon.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast,  few  remains  have  been  found 
east  of  that  river.  The  chief  localities  we  have  noted  were  at  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  thirteen 
miles  north  of  New-Haven,  in  diluvial  gravel  (Am.  Jour.  Vol.  14,  p.  187) ;  and  at  Berlin  and 
Sharon  in  the  same  State  (Id.  Vol.  27,  p.  166).  We  are  not  aware  that  any  have  been  found 
in  the  more  northerly  States,  although,  on  the  western  coast  of  America,  they  have  been  found 
in  the  latitude  of  66°  north. 

In  this  State,  the  remains  of  this  animal  were  discovered  near  Claverack,  as  early  as  1705, 
and  formed  the  subject  of  a  note  from  the  celebrated  Dr.  Mather,  which  appeared  in  the 
English  Philosophical  Transactions,  1705,  July  23  :  “  There  is  a  prodigious  tooth  brought 
“  here,  supposed  to  be  the  tooth  of  a  man,  from  the  shape.  It  weighs  4f  lbs.  It  was  dug 
“  up  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  thirty  or  forty  feet  under  ground,  near  a  place  called  Claverack , 
“  about  thirty  miles  this  side  of  Albany.  It  is  looked  upon  here  as  a  mighty  wonder  whether  the 
“  tooth  be  of  man  or  beast.  Other  bones  were  dug  up,  which  crumbled  away  upon  exposure 
“  to  air.  They  say  one  of  them,  which  is  thought  to  be  a  thigh  bone,  was  seventeen  feet  long.” 
(Dunlap,  Hist.  N.  York,  Vol.  2,  appendix,  p.  154.) 

In  1782,  they  were  found  in  a  swamp  near  Montgomery,  Orange  county,  and  in  greater 
numbers  at  Shawangunk,  Ulster  county.  Shortly  after,  portions  of  eight  distinct  individuals 
were  discovered  within  eight  or  ten  miles  of  Montgomery.  In  1801,  Mr.  Peale  succeeded  in 
disinterring,  from  this  region,  an  almost  entire  skeleton. 

Since  that  period,  other  localities  have  been  discovered,  the  most  remarkable  of  these  are, 

1 .  From  Rockland  county,  in  1817  ;  and  from  Chester,  Orange  county,  of  which  numerous 
specimens  are  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum.  A  full  account  of  the  exploration  connected 
with  these  bones  may  be  found  in  the  American  Edition  of  Cuvier’s  Theory  of  the  Earth, 
before  referred  to. 

2.  In  the  same  year,  remains  were  found  in  the  city  of  Rochester,  four  feet  below  the  sur¬ 
face,  in  a  hollow  or  water  course. 

3.  In  1823,  more  than  one-half  of  a  lower  jaw,  with  the  teeth,  on  the  shore  of  Long-Island, 
between  high  and  low  water  mark,  about  four  miles  east  of  the  county  court-house  at  River- 
head,  Suffolk  county.  It  is  now  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New- 
York.  It  may  be  noted  that  a  very  large  molar,  in  Dr.  Morton’s  collection,  was  fished  up 
from  a  similar  locality,  namely,  in  the  ocean  at  Longbranch,  New-Jer.sey.  The  bed  of  the 
German  ocean  appears  to  be  a  rich  locality  for  the  bones  not  only  of  the  mastodon,  but  also 
of  the  elephant.  In  Loudon’s  Magazine  for  1839,  there  is  a  figure  and  description  of  the 
molar  of  a  mastodon  dredged  from  the  Dogger  Bank  ;  and  Woodward,  in  his  Geology  of  Nor¬ 
folk,  states  that  upwards  of  two  thousand  molars  of  the  elephant  (and  probably  of  the  masto¬ 
don),  had  been  dredged  up  by  the  fishermen  of  one  little  village  (Hasbro’),  in  the  space  of 
thirteen  years. 


104 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


4.  At  Geneseo,  Livingston  county,  (see  Am.  Jour.  Vol.  12,  p.  381,)  the  greater  part  of  a 
skeleton  was  found  in  a  marsh  two  feet  and  a  half  below  the  surface,  in  vegetable  mould, 
and  resting  upon  a  bed  of  fine  white  gravel. 

5.  In  1834,  the  molar  tooth  of  this  species  was  found  near  Jamestown,  Chautauque  county. 
This  is  stated  in  the  27th  volume  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  to  have  been  two  and 
a  half  inches  long  and  one  inch  broad,  and  to  have  been  found  ten  feet  below  the  surface. 

6.  A  fine  portion  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  young  mastodon,  from  the  town  of  Montgomery, 
Orange  count}*.  This  specimen  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  dentition  of  the  mastodon, 
exhibiting  two  short  straight  tusks  from  four  to  six  inches  long.  It  would  appear  that  these 
lower  incisors  are  in  some  instances  permanent  for  a  considerable  period ;  but  whether  this  is 
a  sexual  characteristic,  or  an  accidental  case  of  anomaly,  is  not  yet  determined.  Upon  this 
specimen,  however,  the  reader  will  find  an  attempt  made  to  construct  a  new  genus  under  the 
name  of  Tetracaulodon. 

7.  In  the  town  of  Shawangunk,  Ulster  county. 

8.  At  Perrinton,  near  Rochester,  Monroe  county. 

9.  At  Coeymans,  Albany  county. 

10.  At  Hinsdale,  Cattaraugus  county,  a  tusk  was  found  seventeen  feet  beneath  the  surface. 
The  soil  was  composed  of  alternate  strata  of  sand  and  gravel. 

11.  In  1841,  in  a  bed  of  marl  three  miles  south  of  Le  Roy,  weighing  two  pounds. 

12.  A  tooth  was  found  in  digging  a  mill-race  on  Goat  Island,  Niagara  county,  twelve  or 
thirteen  feet  below  the  surface. 

The  Great  Mastodon,  or  Mammoth*  as  it  is  sometimes  improperly  called,  equalled  or 
exceeded  the  Elephant  in  bulk,  and  greatly  resembled  him  in  shape.  The  greatest  difference 
in  this  latter  particular  was  in  the  elevation  of  the  fore  shoulders,  while  in  the  elephant  the 
back  was  regularly  arched.  Cuvier,  from  an  examination  of  the  situation  and  direction  of  the 
pelvis,  inferred  that  the  belly  must  have  been  smaller,  and  consequently  the  intestines  less 
voluminous  than  in  the  elephant ;  and  this,  in  connection  with  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  leads 
us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  mastodon  did  not  exclusively  feed  on  leaves,  limbs  and  tops  of 
young  trees.  The  position  of  the  molars,  which  diverge  in  front  from  each  other,  also  varies  from 
those  of  the  elephant,  and  much  more  nearly  resembles  those  of  the  hog  and  hippopotamus. 
To  these  animals  it  would  seem  that  he  is  still  farther  allied,  in  his  fondness  for  swamps  and 
marshy  places,  where  his  bones  are  for  the  most  part  found  under  circumstances  which  lead 
to  the  irresistible  conclusion  that  he  lived  and  perished  in  those  places.  It  was  at  first 
supposed  that  it  was  exclusively  a  northern  animal,  and  like  the  fossil  elephant  of  Siberia, 


*  The  impropriety  consists  merely  in  using  a  term  which  had  been  specially  applied  by  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia  to  a  fossil 
elephant ;  but  as  the  two  fossil  animals  are  both  gigantic,  and  nearly  allied,  we  saw  no  reason  for  announcing  in  characters  as 
large  as  a  modern  play-bill,  the  following  label  over  the  bones  of  the  Mastodon  in  the  Collection  of  the  Garden  of  Plants  at 
Palis:  “  Le  Grand  Mastodon,  improprement  nomir.d  Mammoulh  par  les  Anglo-Americains  ” !  We  believe  this  offensive  label 
has  been  recently  removed. 


FAMILY  ELEPHANTID.E. 


105 


furnished  with  hair  adapted  for  its  residence  in  a  cold  region.  Other  species,  however, 
were  soon  discovered  in  South  America,  and  subsequently  in  the  Burman  Empire/  The  genus 
Mastodon  then  embraces  species  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world,  and  in  all  latitudes. 
In  the  United  States,  but  a  single  species  has  been  found ;  and  its  remains,  thus  far,  have 
been  found  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  New-York  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  South 
America,  he  appears  to  have  been  replaced  by  another  species  ( angustidens ). 

The  geological  period  at  which  this  huge  animal  existed,  has  occasioned  much  attention. 
It  must  have  been  among  the  most  recently  extinct  of  all  quadrupeds,  unless  we  except  some 
species  whose  generic  types  still  exist  on  this  continent.  Rejecting  as  altogether  fabulous  the 
pretended  discovery  of  the  stomach  of  this  animal,  with  its  contents,  consisting  of  reeds,  twigs 
and  grass,  as  detailed  by  Barton  (Med.  and  Phys.  Jour.  Vol.  3,  p.  23),  it  has  certainly  been 
discovered  in  positions  indicating  that  the  animal  perished  and  left  its  bones  on  or  near  the 
surface  where  they  are  now  found.  Cuvier  states  that  the  mastodons  discovered  near  the 
Great  Osage  river,  were  almost  all  found  in  a  vertical  position,  as  if  the  animals  had  merely 
sunk  in  the  mud  (Oss.  Foss.,  Ed.  alt.  Vol.  1,  p.  217,  222).  Since  that  time,  many  others 
have  been  found  in  swamps,  a  short  distance  beneath  the  surface,  (frequently  some  of  the 
bones  appearing  above  the  soil,)  in  an  erect  position ;  conveying  the  perfect  impression  that 
the  animal  (probably  in  search  of  its  food)  had  wandered  into  a  swamp,  and  unable  to  extricate 
himself,  had  died  on  the  spot.  Such  an  incident  doubtless  occurred  to  the  animal  whose 
bones  we  assisted  to  disinter,  some  years  ago,  at  Longbranch,  New-Jersey.  He  was  in  a 
natural  vertical  position,  his  body  supported  by  the  turf  soil  or  black  earth,  and  his  feet  resting 
upon  a  gravelly  bottom.  The  occurrence  of  the  bones  of  other  animals  not  yet  extinct,  in 
company  with  those  of  the  mastodon,  is  not  a  conclusive  evidence  of  their  cotemporaneous 
existence ;  but  we  cannot  deny  that  it  furnishes  strong  reasons  for  believing  them  to  have 
been  of  a  very  recent  date.  We  think  it  highly  probable  that  the  mastodon  was  alive  in  this 
country  at  a  period  when  its  surface  was  not  materially  different  from  its  actual  state,  and 
that  he  may  have  existed  cotemporaneously  with  man. 

There  is  one  fact  connected  with  the  discovery  of  the  bones  of  the  mastodon  in  this  country, 
which  appears  to  have  been  passed  over  as  doubtful  or  apocryphal.  We  allude  to  the  possi¬ 
bility,  that  upon  a  due  investigation,  some  of  the  softer  parts  may  be  detected.  Mr.  Graham, 
an  intelligent  observer,  when  describing  (Med.  Repos.  Vol.  4,  p.  414)  the  mastodon  bones  in 
Montgomery,  states,  that  “  hair  was  found  three  inches  long,  and  of  a  dun  color.”  Judge 
Miller,  in  describing  the  appearance  of  the  skeleton  at  Shawangunk,  Ulster  county,  says,  that 
“  around  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  were  locks  and  tufts  of  hair  of  a  dun  brown,  an  inch 
“  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  in  some  instances  four  to  seven  inches  in 
“  length.”  This  description  corresponds  with  the  specimen  from  the  fossil  elephant  of  Siberia, 
in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum.  In  the  account  of  another  specimen,  Mitchill  (Appendix  to 
Cuvier’s  Theory)  says,  “  Beneath  the  bones,  and  immediately  around  them,  was  a  stratum  of 
“  coarse  vegetable  stems  and  fibres  resembling  chopped  straw,  or  rather  drift  stuff  of  the  sea; 
“  for  it  seemed  to  be  mixed  with  broken  fibres  of  conferva,  like  those  of  the  Atlantic  shore.” 
Whether  the  original  observers  were  deceived  by  mistaking  this  appearance  for  hair,  or 
Fauna.  14 


106 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


whether  Mitchill  himself  was  misled,  it  is  probable  that  both  alluded  to  the  same  substance. 
It  is  now  impossible  to  determine  this  point,  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  more  critical  exa¬ 
mination  was  not  made  at  the  time,  and  the  substances  themselves  submitted  to  chemical 
analysis. 


FAMILY  II.  SUIDBB. 

With  teeth  of  various  hinds.  '  Toes  more  than  two,  cleft  into  distinct  hoofs.  Muzzle  for 
the  most  part  elongated. 

Obs.  The  animals  of  this  group  are  distributed  over  the  globe,  and  comprise  at  present 
about  twenty  species.  More  than  double  that  number  of  extinct  species  have  been  discovered. 
In  this  State  we  have  but  one  representative  of  this  family,  and  that  one  has  been  introduced 
from  Europe. 

GENUS  SUS.  Linneus. 

Four  toes  on  all  the  feet ;  the  two  posterior  short,  not  touching  the  ground.  Incisors,  f  ; 
canines,  §  ;  cheek  teeth,  }  j  =  44.  Lower  incisors  nearly  horizontal.  Canines  often  very 
large,  triangular,  directed  outwards.  Body  covered  with  strong  bristly  hair. 

THE.  COMMON  HOG. — ( Introduced. ) 

Sds  scrofa,  Yar.  domestica. 

This  well  known  and  useful  animal  is  derived  from  the  Wild  Boar,  still  found  in  the  tem¬ 
perate  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  accompanied  the  first  settlers  in  this  State,  and  soon 
became  numerous.  “Some  of  our  people,”  observes  Vanderdonck,  “prefer  the  English 
“  breed,  as  they  are  more  hardy,  and  subsist  better  in  winter  without  shelter  ;  but  the  Holland 
“  breed  grows  much  larger  and  heavier,  and  have  thicker  pork.”  From  the  same  writer  we 
learn  that  it  was  a  common  practice  at  that  time  in  the  neighborhood  of  New-York,  to  drive 
the  hogs  into  the  woods  in  the  spring,  and  to  recall  them  in  the  autumn ;  a  practice  which  is 
still  kept  up  in  the  thinly  settled  portions  of  the  State  at  the  present  day.  The  sow  goes  with 
young  about  four  months,  and  produces  eight  to  twelve,  and  even  more,  at  a  litter. 

Traces  of  the  large  limbed  Dutch  breed  of  hogs  may  still  be  found  in  some  districts,  which 
have  been  known  to  weigh  more  than  a  thousand  pounds.  Our  common  breed  of  hogs  has 
been  much  improved  of  late  years,  by  crossing  with  the  English,  Berkshire  and  Chinese 
varieties.  The  former  is  more  particularly  in  request,  on  account  of  the  flavor-  of  its  meat, 
and  as  producing  large  litters.  We  think  it  susceptible  of  still  farther  improvement,  by  judi¬ 
cious  crossing  with  the  old  Dutch  breed  alluded  to  above. 


FAMILY  EQUID.E. 


107 


(EXTRA-LIMIT AL ) 

Genus  Dicotyles,  F.  Cuvier.  Posterior  feet  with  three  toes  only,  the  external  wanting.  Incisors,  a  ; 

canines,  § ;  cheek  teeth,  }§  =  38.  A  fetid  gland  on  the  lumbar  region.  Tail  obsolete. 

D.  torquatus.  (Nuttal,  Trav.  in  Ark.  p.  155.  Cuvier,  Mam.  plate.)  A  whitish  band  descending 
obliquely  from  each  shoulder  to  the  sides  of  the  neck.  Red  river,  Arkansas. 

Genus  Tapirus,  Brisson.  The  existence  of  this  genus  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  rests  upon 
a  single  fossil  tooth  from  Bigbone  Lick,  and  described  by  Dr.  Harlan  (Fauna,  p.  224)  under  the 
name  of  Tapirus  mastodontoides.  It  has  been  questioned  whether  this  may  not  have  belonged 
to  a  young  mastodon,  but  the  comparison  instituted  by  Dr.  Harlan  (Med.  and  Phys.  Res.  p.  265) 
at  Paris,  establishes  clearly  its  position  in  this  genus. 

FAMILY  III.  EQUID.E. 

A  single  solid  hoof,  with  but  one  apparent  toe ;  although  they  have,  beneath  the  skin,  two 
protuberances  on  each  side,  representing  lateral  toes.  Although  exclusively  herbivoi'ous, 
they  have  nearly  simple  stomachs,  and  do  not  ruminate. 

Of  this  family  we  have  no  native  species.  Two  have  been  introduced. 

GENUS  EQUUS.  Linneus. 

Cutting  teeth,  f  ;  canines,  §,  seldom  present  in  the  female ;  molars,  if  =  40.  Tail  uni 
formly  covered  with  long  hair.  Ears  moderate. 

THE  HORSE. — (Introduced.) 

Equos  cabalujs. 

This  noble  and  useful  animal  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  Originally  from 
Asia,  where  the  species  still  exists  in  a  wild  state,  it  has  been  domesticated  from  time  imme¬ 
morial,  and  has  been  distributed  by  man  over  the  globe.  On  this  continent,  troops  of  wild 
horses,  from  the  domestic  stock,  are  found  in  immense  numbers.  They  are  not  uncommon 
on  the  extensive  plains  west  of  the  Mississippi.  They  were  once  numerous  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  near  the  northern  sources  of  the  Columbia  river  ;  but  at  present, 
they  are  said  not  to  be  found  wild,  north  of  the  fifty-third  parallel. 

In  this  State,  the  Horse  was  introduced  at  an  early  period.  Vanderdonck,  speaking  of  the 
Horses  of  the  Colony  of  Nieuw- Amsterdam,  says,  “The  horses  are  of  the  proper  breed  for 
“  husbandry,  having  been  brought  from  Utrecht  for  that  purpose,  and  this  stock  has  not  dimi- 
“  nished  in  size  or  quality.  There  are  also  horses  of  the  English  breed,  which  are  lighter, 
“  not  so  fit  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  are  well  adapted  for  the  saddle.  These  are  not  so 


108 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


“  expensive  as  the  Dutch  breed,  and  are  easily  obtained,  (from  New-England  ?)  Curaso  or 
“  Arabian  horses  are  likewise  imported  into  the  country,  but  are  not  very  acceptable,  as  they 
“  can  scarcely  endure  the  climate,  and  often  die  in  winter.  Fine  large  horses  are  bred  in  the 
“  country,  which  live  long,  and  are  seldom  diseased.”  The  Curaso  horses,  mentioned  above, 
according  to  the  Albany  Dutch  Records,  were  imported  from  the  Island  of  Gurapoa,  between 
which  place  and  New- Amsterdam  there  was  a  brisk  traffic  carried  on  as  early  as  1637. 

It  appears  from  the  statement  given  above,  that  the  horses  of  this  State  were  originally  of 
the  Dutch  race,  subsequently  of  the  English  stock,  and  were  at  that  early  period  with  an  admix¬ 
ture  of  Arabian  blood.  Much  attention  has  since  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  breed, 
by  the  importation  of  the  best  Arabian  horses  ;  and  we  believe  it  is  now  generally  conceded, 
that  in  the  combined  qualities  of  speed  and  endurance,  the  horses  of  this  State  are  excelled 
by  none  in  the  world. 


THE  ASS. — ( Introduced .) 

Eqvus  asinus. 

This  useful  animal  is  a  native  of  the  East ;  it  is  considered  to  be  generically  different  from 
the  Horse  by  some  writers,  on  account  of  its  long  ears,  tufted  tail,  and  the  absence  of  callo¬ 
sities  on  its  hind  legs.  It  breeds  occasionally  with  the  horse,  and  the  product  is  called  a  mule 
or  hinny,  according  as  the  ass  is  the  male  or  female  parent.  It  is  a  hardy  animal,  requiring 
little  care,  but  has  not  been  much  attended  to  in  this  State.  In  Kentucky,  and  some  others 
of  the  western  States,  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  ass,  and  its  cross  with  the  horse ; 
and  a  fine  breed  has  been  raised,  which  readily  commands  high  prices. 


( EXTRA-LIMIT AL. ) 

THE  FOSSIL  HORSE. 

Eauus  major. 

Teeth  and  bones  of  the  Horse  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  Union,  but  I  am  unacquainted 
with  any  locality  in  this  State.  The  nearest  approach  to  it  are  the  teeth  and  vertebras  found  near  the 
Navesink  hills  in  New-Jersey,  described  by  Mitchill  in  the  Appendix  to  the  New-York  edition  of 
Cuvier’s  Theory  of  the  Earth,  and  also  noted  at  pages  7  and  8  of  his  Catalogue  of  Organic  Remains. 
They  have  also  been  found  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Susquehannah ;  in  digging  the  Chesapeake  canal, 
near  Georgetown,  D.  C. ;  and  in  North  Carolina,  sixteen  miles  below  Newbern.  They  resemble  those 
of  the  common  domestic  horse ;  but  from  their  size,  apparently  belonged  to  a  larger  animal. 


FAMILY  BOVID.E. 


109 


Second  Tribe.  Pecora. 

No  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw ;  canines  for  the  most  part  wanting ;  molars  of  a  uniform 
character,  usually  twelve  above  and  twelve  beneath.  The  two  middle  toes  separate,  as  if 
cloven.  Frontal  bone,  in  the  greater  number  of  families,  furnished  with  horns,  at  least  in 
the  male  sex.  With  four  stomachs.  Chewing  the  cud,  or  ruminating.  Herbivorous . 
Intestinal  canal  long.  Teats  between  the  thighs.  Useful  to  man  as  beasts  of  burthen,  or 
as  food. 


FAMILY  IV.  BOVID/F. 

Horns  in  both  sexes,  persistent,  usually  round,  smooth,  pointed,  never  straight ;  increasing  by 
ringlets  at  the  base.  The  porous  nucleus  supporting  the  horn,  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
frontal  bone.  No  canine  teeth. 

Obs.  This  family  comprises  animals  hitherto  arranged  under  the  genera  Bos,  Antilope, 
Capra  and  Ovis  ;  and  including,  as  now  restricted,  about  eighteen  species,  included  by  the 
most  recent  writers  under  seven  genera.  But  four  species  of  this  family  are  found  in  North 
America,  and,  with  the  exception  of  one  introduced  species,  none  now  exist  within  the  limits 
of  the  State  of  New-York. 


GENUS  BOS.  Linneus. 

Horns  smooth,  directed  laterally  at  first,  afterwards  recurved,  arising  from  the  crest.  Body 
thick  and  heavy.  Limbs  strong.  Tail  moderately  long,  with  a  terminal  tuft  of  hair. 
Muzzle  broad,  black,  naked.  Hair  smooth,  straight. 


THE  COMMON  OX.  — (Introduced.) 

BOS  TAURUS. 

The  primitive  stock  of  this  animal,  whose  domestication  has  exercised  such  an  extensive 
influence  over  the  condition  of  man,  is  unknown.  It  was  introduced  into  this  State  by  the 
earliest  colonists,  and  was  originally  of  the  large  Holstein  or  Dutch  breed  ;  and  it  is  but  a  few 
years  since,  on  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk,  there  existed  undoubted  remnants  of  stock  imported 
by  the  Dutch  settlers  from  Holland  (Cultivator,  Vol.  2,  p.  28).  We  learn  from  Vander- 
donck,  that  “  the  cattle  in  the  New-Netherlands  are  mostly  of  the  Holland  breed.  Many 
“  were  brought  over  from  Amersfort  in  the  province  of  Utrecht.  They  have  also  English 
“  cattle  in  the  country,  purchased  from  the  English  in  New-England.”  The  principal  and 
best  varieties  at  the  present  day  are  of  English  descent,  and  great  attention  is  paid  to  improve 
their  most  desirable  qualities.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  imported  stock  does  not  always 


110 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


sustain  its  foreign  reputation,  in  consequence  of  a  change  in  its  food,  treatment,  or  perhaps 
from  a  difference  in  climate  ;  but  when  mixed  with  our  native  stock,  the  half-bloods  exhibit  a 
decided  improvement. 


(EXTRA LIMIT AL.) 

B.  moschatus.  (Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  3,  plate.)  Horns  contiguous,  broad  at  the  base,  directed 
laterally  and  downwards  against  the  cheeks,  and  ending  in  round,  points  directed  upwards.  Now 
arranged  under  Ovibos.  Arctic  Regions. 

(fossil.) 

B.  bombifrons.  (Phil.  Soc.  Vol.  1,  p.  379.  Harlan,  p.  271.  Cooper,  Am.  Month.  Vol.  1,  p.  172.) 
Summit  of  the  head  convex,  arched ;  horns  distant,  rather  flattened  at  base,  projecting  laterally  and 
downwards.  Kentucky. 

B.  latifrons.  (Harlan,  p.  273.  Godman,  figure.  Cooper,  Am.  Month,  Vol.  1,  p.  173.)  Summit 
of  the  head  broader  than  high ;  horns  long,  round,  and  directed  laterally  and  upwards.  Kentucky. 
B.  yallasii.  (De  Kay,  Ann.  Lyc.  Vol.  2,  p.  280.)  Summit  of  the  head  depressed;  horns  short,  flat¬ 
tened  and  turned  downwards.  Kentucky ,  Missouri. 

Genus  Bison,  Smith.  (Extirpated.)  Forehead  slightly  arched,  much  broader  than  high;  shoulders 
elevated ;  tail  short ;  legs  slender ;  hair  soft  and  woolly ;  a  beard. 

B  americanus.  (Godman,  Vol.  3,  figure.)  Horns  small,  round,  directed  laterally  and  upwards. 
Chesnut  brown  or  blackish. 

Obs.  The  Bison,  or  American  Buffalo,  has  been  long  since  extirpated  from  this  State ;  and  although 
it  is  not  at  present  found  east  of  the  Mississippi,  yet  there  is  abundant  testimony  from  various  writers  to 
show  that  this  animal  was  formerly  numerous  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New-York  to  Mexico. 
Warden  asserts,  that  at  no  very  distant  period,  it  existed  in  Pennsylvania;*  and  as  late  as  1756,  large 
herds  were  found  in  Kentucky.  They  are  now  only  found  on  the  plains  of  Missouri ;  and  from  the 
murderous  warfare  directed  against  them,  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  whole  race  will  be  extirpated. 

FAMILY  V.  CAPRI  ILF. 

Horns  persistent,  (in  many  genera  exclusively  in  the  males,)  on  a  bony  nucleus  nearly  solid : 

The  horns  for  the  most  part  simple,  often  compressed  more  or  less,  angular,  with  elevated 

knobs  or  rings  at  the  base.  No  canine  teeth. 

Obs.  This  family  contains,  in  the  writings  of  the  most  recent  systematists,  between  seventy 
and  eighty  species,  arranged  among  twenty  genera.  It  is  composed  of  the  old  genera  Ovis, 
Capra  and  Antilope,  but  comprises  many  new  forms.  We  have  but  few  representatives  of 


*  One  of  our  most  learned  and  acute  philologists  states,  that  about  the  years  1785  or  1790,  the  bison  was  not  uncommon  on  the 
Monongahela,  Pennsylvania,  adjoining  Mason- &  Dixon’s  line.  He  has  evidently  been  misinformed,  not  only  in  the  fact  that  the 
bison  is  merely  a  variety  of  the  European  ox,  but  also  in  the  assertion  that  the  product  of  the  bison  and  domestic  cow  will  again 
propagate.  (Archceologia  Americana,  Vol.  2,  p.  139.) 


FAMILY  CAPRIDAE. 


Ill 


this  family  in  the  United  States,  and,  with  the  exception  of  two  introduced  species,  none 
within  the  limits  of  this  State.  The  common  goat  (Capra  hircus)  has  been  introduced,  but 
not  to  any  extent,  and  is  considered  of  little  value. 

GENUS  OVIS.  Linneus. 

Lower  incisors  eight.  No  muzzle.  Horns  ( generally  common  to  both  sexes)  with  a  cellular 
bony  nucleus,  large,  triangular,  directed  backwards,  and'  returning  spirally  more  or  less  in 
front.  No  beard.  Forehead  arched.  Tail  shoi't.  Mammce  two,  inguinal. 

THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

OVIS  ARIES. 

The  primitive  stock  of  this  well  known  and  useful  animal  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
O.  amrtion ;  while  others  consider  it  to  be  a  distinct  species  whose  primitive  type  is  the  O. 
musmon,  still  found  wild  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  eastern  Europe. 

The  original  stock  of  sheep  in  this  State  was  derived  from  Holland,  as  we  leam  from  Van- 
derdonck,  who  wrote  about  the  year  1650.  It.  is  probable  that  they  were  almost  immedi¬ 
ately  crossed  with  the  common  English  breed,  imported  into  the  neighboring  colony  of  New- 
England.  “  Sheep,”  he  says,  “  are  also  kept  in  the  New-Netherlands,  but  not  as  many  as 
“  in  New-England,  where  the  weaving  business  is  carried  on,  and  where  much  more  attention 
“  is  paid  to  them  than  by  the  New-Netherlanders.  The  sheep,  however,  thrive  well,  and 
“  become  fat  enough.  I  have  seen  mutton  there  so  exceeding  fat,  that  it  was  too  luscious 
“  and  offensive.  The  sheep  breed  well,  and  are  healthy  ;  they  find  good  pasture  in  summer 
“  and  good  hay  in  winter  ;  but  the  flocks  require  to  be  guarded  and  tended  on  account  of  the 
“  wolves,  for  which  purpose  men  cannot  be  spared.  There  is  also  a  more  important  hind- 
“  ranee  to  the  keeping  of  sheep,  which  are  chiefly  cultivated  for  their  wool.  New-Netherland 
“  is  a  woody  country  throughout,  being  almost  every  where  beset  with  trees,  stumps  and 
“  brush-wood,  wherein  the  sheep  pasture,  and  by  which  they  lose  most  of  their  wool.  This 
“  is  not  apparent  until  they  are  sheared,  when  the  fleeces  turn  out  very  light.” 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  account  of  the  early  introduction  of  sheep  into  New-York, 
with  the  results  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  two  hundred  years.  By  the  census  of  1840,  there 
were  no  less  than  5,381,225  sheep  in  the  State  of  New-York  alone. 

The  common  sheep  of  this  State  formerly  yielded  a  coarse  wool,  scarcely  averaging  three 
pounds  to  the  fleece  ;  they  were  excellent  breeders,  and  the  young  throve  well  even  when 
entirely  neglected.  Within  the  last  forty  years,  the  introduction-  of  foreign  varieties,  remark¬ 
able  for  the  fineness  of  their  wool  and  the  improved  quality  of  their  flesh,  has  caused  the  old 
common  stock  in  this  State  to  disappear. 

The  first  variety  introduced  into  New-York,  was  the  Spanish  merino  :  this  occurred  in  1801. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  seven  or  eight  years  after,  that  their  importance  began  to  be  appre- 


112 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


ciated.  A  mania  for  sheep  then  commenced,  scarcely  inferior  to  the  tulip  mania  of  Holland, 
or  the  moms  multicaulis  speculations  of  our  own  country  at  a  recent  period.  As  much  as  a 
thousand  dollars,  and  in  some  instances  nearly  twice  that  amount,  was  paid  for  a  single  ram. 
Of  the  Spanish  merino  races,  there  are  three  distinct  varieties,  known  under  the  names  of  the 
Paular,  Negretti  and  Guadaloupe  breeds. 

The  quality  of  the  fleece  was  still  farther  improved  in  1824,  by  the  introduction  of  what  are 
termed  Saxony  sheep.  These  are  originally  of  the  Spanish  merino  race,  introduced  into 
Saxony  about  one  hundred  years  ago,  and  upon  which  great  pains  and  care  had  been  bestowed. 
To  improve  the  quality  of  the  flesh,  our  sheep  have  been  still  farther  crossed  with  the  Bake- 
well  or  New-Leicester  breed,  and  also  with  the  South-downs,  bo.th  from  England.  The 
former  was  first  introduced  into  this  State  in  1815,  by  Mr.  Dunn  of  Albany,  and  the  latter 
only  a  few  years  since. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  the  Sheep  is  about  five  months,  producing  one  or  two  at  a  birth, 
rarely  more.  The  two  middle  incisors  drop  out  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  and  are  replaced 
by  others ;  at  two  years,  the  two  next ;  at  three,  four  are  renewed ;  and  at  the  end  of  the 
third  year,  or  three  and  a  half,  all  have  been  replaced,  and  the  individual  is  then  said  to  be 
full  mouthed. 


(EXTRA-LIMIT AL.) 

O.  montana.  Argali ,  Big-horn,  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep.  (Richardson,  pi.  23.  Godman,  plate.) 
Horns  in  the  male  very  large,  contiguous,  curved  in  a  gentle  spire ;  in  the  female,  smaller,  erect, 
slightly  curved  backwards  and  outwards.  Rocky  Mountains. 

Genus  Capra,  Lmncus.  Teeth  as  in  the  genus  Ovis ;  forehead  concave ;  horns  generally  common  to 
both  sexes,  either  vertical  or  inclined  more  or  less,  angular ;  two  sorts  of  hair ;  chin  bearded. 

C.  hircus.  Common  Goat.  Introduced. 

C.  americana,  Blainville.  (Ord.  Ac.  Sc.  Smith,  Lin.  Trans,  plate.  Godman,  Vol.  2,  plate.)  Rocky 
Mountain  Goat.  Horns  black,  nearly  erect,  conical,  slightly  curved  backwards,  obscurely  ringed 
at  the  base,  smooth  and  polished  at  the  tips ;  muzzle  extremely  small.  Color  white,  with  long 
straight  hair.  Larger  than  the  common  goat.  Ranges  from  forty  to  sixty-five  parallels. 

Genus  Antilope,  Smith.  Horns  compressed,  placed  beneath  the  frontal  crest,  round  or  compressed ; 
chin  beardless.  Body  slender,  standing  high  on  the  legs,  with  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of 
a  deer. 

A.  americana.  Prong-horned  Antilope.  (Godman,  Vol.  2,  plate.  Richardson,  pi.  21.)  Homs 
compressed,  black,  tapering,  curved  inwards  towards  each  other ;  a  small  snag  or  antler  at  about 
one-third  of  its  height,  projecting  forwards.  Plains  of  Missouri. 

(fossil.) 

O.  mammilaris.  (Kirtland,  Am.  Jour.  Vol.  31,  p.  82,  plate.) 


FAMILY  CERVIDAS. 


113 


FAMILY  VI.  CER VIDJE. 

Horns  solid,  deciduous,  (in  most  of  the  genera,  in  the  male  only.)  No  incisors  above,  eight 
beneath.  Occasionally  canines  above.  A  sub-orbital  sinus,  or  glandular  cavity  at  the  inner 
angle  of  the  eye ;  pupils  elongated.  Tail  short.  Legs  slender.  Feet  bisulcated. 

Obs.  This  family,  which  is  founded  on  the  old  linnean  genus  Cervus  or  Deer,  now  comprises 
forty-five  real  or  nominal  species,  distributed,  according  to  the  ideas  of  systematic  writers, 
into  eight  or  ten  genera.  But  six  species  are  found  within  the  United  States,  and  of  these, 
three  only  exist  in  the  State  of  New-York. 

GENUS  CERVUS. 

Horns  always  present  in  the  males,  branched,  sub-palmated,  or  simple ;  the  horn  arising 
rounded  from  a  burr  or  rose-shaped  base.  Ears  large.  Mammce  four,  inguinal.  No  canine 
teeth.  A  muzzle.  Tail  short,  bushy. 

THE  AMERICAN  DEER. 

Cervus  virginianos. 

PLATE  XXVIII.  FIG.  I. 

Dama  virginiana:  Ray,  Syn.  Quad.  p.  86.  F.  Cuvier,  Mamm.  lithog.  plate. 

Cervus  virginianus.  Harlan,  Fauna  Amer.  p.  239.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Yol.  2,  p.  306,  plate. 

Mazama  id.  Hamilton  Smith,  Griffith's  Cuv.  Yol.  4,  p.  127,  and  Vol.  5,  p.  315- 

C.  ( Mazama )  mexicanus  et  clavatus.  Hamilton  Smith,  lb.  p.  315. 

Fallow  Deer.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  81. 

Characteristics.  Reddish  or  bluish  grey,  according  to  the  season.  Young,  spotted  with  white. 

Homs  moderate,  curving  forward,  with  the  concave  part  in  front,  with  from 
one  to  six  points,  occasionally  palmated. 

Description.  Head  long  and  slender.  Muzzle  pointed.  Eyes  large  and  lustrous,  the  lachry¬ 
mal  pits  consisting  of  a  slight  fold  of  the  skin.  Tail  moderate,  depressed.  Legs  slender.  A 
glandular  pouch  concealed  by  a  thick  tuft  of  rigid  hairs  inside  of  the  hind  legs,  odoriferous, 
and  connected  with  the  sexual  appetite.  The  horns  of  the  adult  male  vary  so  much  in  shape, 
that  scarcely  any  two  are  alike  ;  appearing  to  depend  upon  age,  season,  and  abundance  or 
scarcity  of  food.  In  the  first  season  they  are  simple,  cylindrical  and  pointed,  and  in  this  state 
they  are  known  as  spike  bucks ;  in  the  following  season,  they  have  a  short,  straight  antler ; 
and  the  number  increases  until  the  fourth  season,  when  the  following  is  the  most  usual  con¬ 
dition  of  the  horns  :  The  main  stem  rises  upward  and  laterally,  and  then  makes  a  broad  curve 
forward,  with  the  tips  turned  inward  and  downward  ;  on  the  inner  and  slightly  anterior  surface 
of  the  main  stem,  arises  a  short  brow  antler,  directed  forward  and  upward  ;  the  stem,  thus 
Fauna.  15 


114 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


far,  is  roughened  by  nodosities  and  furrows  ;  above  this,  a  branch  is  thrown  off  from  the  inte¬ 
rior  or  anterior,  curving  inwards  and  forwards,  and  occasionally  another  branch  before  reaching 
the  tip.  These  first  and  second  branches  are  occasionally  themselves  bifurcated;  and  in  one 
before  me  now,  the  horns  exhibit  six  tips  on  one  side,  including  those  of  the  brow  antlers,  and 
on  the  other  nine,  the  first  branch  being  bifid,  the  second  trifid,  a  third  simple,  and  the  extreme 
tip  itself  bifid.  When  the  horn  is  palmated,  the  flattening  occurs  at  the  origin  of  the  first 
branch.  In  many  specimens,  there  is  only  the  brow  antler,  and  a  single  branch  above.  Fur 
composed  of  flattened  angular  hairs,  lying  smooth  on  the  body. 

Color.  Bluish  grey  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  dusky  reddish  or  fulvous  in  the  spring,  be¬ 
coming  bluish  in  the  summer.  The  fawns  are  irregularly  spotted  with  white.  The  grey  or 
reddish  color  in  the  adult  extends  over  the  whole  head,  back,  sides,  and  upper  part  of  the  tail ; 
a  few  white  hairs  often  observed  on  the  rump,  at  the  origin  of  the  tail.  Beneath  the  chin, 
throat,  belly,  and  inside  of  legs  and  under  side  of  tail,  always  white.  Ears  margined  with 
dark  brown,  and  often  with  white  hairs  within,  and  a  white  circle  round  the  eyes.  Hoofs  jet 


black. 

Total  length  (average),  . .  68 -0. 

Length  of  tail  (including  hairs), .  6’0. 

Height  of  ear, . • _  4'0. 


This  well  known  animal  is  still  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  State,  where  there  is 
sufficient  forest  to  afford  them  food  and  cover.  From  the  mountainous  regions  of  Orange, 
Rockland  and  Delaware,  the  city  market  is  supplied  in  great  abundance  during  the  winter. 
In  the  most  northerly  counties,  they  are  not  numerous ;  and  in  other  counties,  the  united 
attacks  of  men  and  wolves  are  daily  decreasing  their  number.  Under  the  article  Wolf,  we 
have  shown  how  destructive  the  wolves  are  to  deer.  In  some  insulated  districts,  as  on  Long 
Island,  where  the  wolf  has  been  extirpated,  and  the  deer  are  placed  under  the  protection  of 
the  laws  during  the  breeding  season,  although  mpre  than  a  hundred  are  annually  killed  by 
sportsmen,  yet  it  is  believed  that  their  number  is  actually  on  the  increase.* 

The  Deer  has  one  and  occasionally  two  fawns  at  a  birth,  which -in  the  southern  part  of  the 
State  occurs  in  May  or  June ;  in  the  northern  districts,  somewhat  earlier.  In  the  rutting 
season,  the  males  are’  restless  and  bold,  and  are  observed  to  have  the  neck  considerably 
swelled.  When  alarmed,  they  stamp  quickly  and  often  on  the  ground,  and  emit  a  sound  like 
a  shrffl  whistle,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance.  When  mortally  wounded,  they  often 
give  a  faint  bleat  like  that  of  a  calf.  When  brought  to  bay,  it  throws  off  its  habitual  timidity, 
its  eyes  glare  fiercely  around,  every  hair  on  its  body  bristles  upland  appears  as  if  directed 
forward,  and  it  dashes  boldly  upon  its  foe.  Its  horns  are  cast  usually  in  the  winter,  but  the 


*  By  the  present  law  of  the  State,  deer  are  only  permitted  to  be  killed  between  the  first  of  August  and  the  first  of  January  ensu¬ 
ing.  So  many  does,  however,  have  been  lately  killed,  with  young  in  December,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  State,  that  at  this 
session  (1842)  the  project  of  a  law  has  been  introduced,  to  allow  deer  to  be.killed  in  certain  counties  only  in  the  months  of  Sep¬ 
tember,  October  and  November. 


FAMILY  CERVID.F. 


115 


period  appears  to  depend  much  on  the  latitude,  mildness  or  severity  of  the  season.  While 
growing,  the  horns  are  covered  with  a  velvet-like  membrane,  which  peels  off  as  soon  as  they 
have  attained  their  growth.  It  has  often  been  a  matter  of  surprise,,  that  while  so  many  horns 
are  annually  cast,  so  few  are  ever  found.  This  is  to  be  explained  by  the  fact,  that  as  soon  as 
shed,  they  are  eaten  up  by- the  smaller  gnawing  animals.  I  have  repeatedly  found  them  half 
gnawed  up  by  the  various  kinds  of  field  mice  so  numerous  in  our  forests. 

The  Deer  is  an  exceedingly  useful  animal,  not  only  as  furnishing  an  excellent  article  of  food 
to  the  settlers  in  frontier  counties,  where  it  would  be  impracticable  to  obtain  any  other  meat, 
but  also  as  furnishing  the  buckskin  of  commerce.  It  feeds  on  buds  and  twigs  of  trees,  shrubs, 
berries  and  grasses.  It  appears  to  be  particularly  fond  of  the  buds  and  flowers  of  the  pond- 
lily. 

It  ranges  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  probably  still  farther  south.  I  saw  two 
deer  alive  from  Campechy,  which  were  exhibited  as  Mexican  deer,  but  offered  no  distinctive 
characters  from  those  of  our  common  deer.  It  is  found  throughout  the  west  to  the  Rocky 
mountains.  It  does  not  appear  to  extend  into  Canada. 

THE  MOOSE. 

C^RVUS  ALCES. 

(PLATE  XXIX.  FIG.  2  ) 

Cervus  alces.  Lin.  12  Ed.  p.  92. 

Moose  Deer.  Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  p.  17,  pi.  8. 

C.  alces.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.  229.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  2,  p.  274,  figure. 

American  Black  Elk.  Griffith’s  Cuvier,  Vol.  4,  p.  72,  Plate  of  Heads. 

The  Elk.  Hamilton  Smith,  lb.  Vol.  5,  p.  303. 

Moose  Deer.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  232. 

Moose.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1838,  p.  28 ;  for  1840,  p.  74. 

Characteristics.  Blackish  grey.  Adult  male  with  broad  flattened  horns.  Snout  long,  pre¬ 
hensile.  Neck  with  a  mane.  Size  of  a  horse,  and  largest  of  the  genus. 

Description.  Stature  large.  Head  long,  somewhat  nan-owed, before  the  eyes,  then  enlarged 
into  a  thick  curved  nose  ;  the  muzzle  small.  Nostrils  long,  narrow,  enlarged  beneath.  Eyes 
moderately  large,  and  placed  near  the  base  of  the  horns  ;  lachrymal  pit  small.  Ears  long 
and  asinine..  Neck  very  short,  and  furnished  with  a  short  mane.  A  tuft  of  long  coarse  hair 
like  a  beard  beneath  the  throat  in  both  sexes  ;  in  the  young,  this  appears  like  a  pendulous 
gland.  Horns  in'  the  male  only.  -  The  first  year,  it  exists  in  the  shape  of.  a  short  knob,  not 
more  than  an  inch  high  ;  in  the  following  year,  it  is  a  round  spike,  slightly  directed  outwards, 
and  about  a  foot  long ;  in  the  third  year,  they  begin  to  branch  forward,  and  to  become  pal- 
mated  above.  In  full  grown  adult  males,  the  palmated  portion  ends  in  from  five  to  eight  short 
tips ;  and  the  brow  antlers,  if  present,  are  rourtd  and  pointed,  directed  forwards,  and  occasion¬ 
ally  bifid  or  even  trifid.  Hair  coarse  and  angular,  longer  upon  the  neck  and  withers. 


116 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


Color.  Generally  fulvous  brown  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  and  on  the  head  and  sides  ; 
this  color  extends  to  the  upper  part  of  the  thighs  and  fore  legs,  occasionally  extending  further 
down.  Ears  greyish  or  dingy  white  within.  Body  beneath  light  colored,  with  a  slight  tinge 
of  yellow  or  soiled  white ;  under  side  of  tail  white.  In  winter,  the  head,  neck  and  all  the 
upper  parts  of  the  body  quite  dark.  Young,  sandy  brown,  unspotted;  and  this  color  deepens 
with  age,  so  that  in  very  aged  individuals  the  color  is  almost  black. 

Total  length,  6  to  7  feet. 


Length  of  tail, . .  10'0-  16'0. 

Height  at  the  withers, .  48 -0  -  65 -  0. 


The  Moose,  in  its  ungainly  form  and  awkward  movements,  presents  a  singular  contrast  to 
the  elegance  and  graceful  motions  of  the  other  members  of  its  family.  It  is  known  with  us 
under  the  various  names  of  Flat-Horned  Elk,  Black  Elk,  Moose,  and  Black  Moose ;  the  name 
moose  being  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  appellation  musee,  or  wood-eater.  In  the  earliest 
history  of  our  State,  the  following  allusion  is  made  to  this  animal :  “  There  is  also  another 
“  kind,  which  arc  represented  to  be  large,  and  about  which  strange  stories  are  related.  I 
“  heard  from  the  mouth  of  a  jesuit  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Mohawk  Indians,  that 
“  there  were  many  wild  forest  oxen  in  Canada  and  Nova-Francia,  which  in  latin  they  named 
“  Boves  sylvestres ;  as  large  as  horses,  having  long  hair  on  their  neck  like  the  mane  of  a  horse, 
“  but  with  cloven  hoofs,  and  their  habits  were  not  fierce.”  (  Vanderdonck .) 

In  conformity  to  the  doctrine  held  by  many  modern  naturalists,  that  few  if  any  quadrupeds 
are  common  to  the  two  continents,  it  has  been  doubted  whether  this  species  is  identical  with 
the  C.  alces,  or  Elk  of  Europe.  I  have  not  had  the  opportunity,  by  direct  comparison  of 
specimens  from  both  continents,  to  determine  this  question  ;  but  a  careful  examination  of  the 
descriptions  of  European  writers,  with  my  notes  taken  many  years  since  from  specimens  in  the 
collections  of  Paris  and  Berlin,  satisfies  me  of  their  specific  identity.  Hamilton  Smith,  whose 
opportunities  for  examining  our  Moose  were  very  great,  observes,  that  “  the  almost  complete 
“  separation  of  the  lower  part  of  the  horns  into  the  form  of  branches,  in  most  if  not  all  the 
“  American  specimens,  is  a  very  prominent  character,  while  a  similar  conformation  is  rare  in 
“  those  of  Europe.”  In  the  valuable  collection  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New- 
York,  are  several  horns  of  this  species,  all  without  the  lower  antlers.  One  pair,  which  is 
attached  to  the  skull,  and  which  from  its  size  probably  belonged  to  an  aged  moose,  is  equally 
destitute  of  lower  antlers.  This  pair  is  four  feet  across  from  tip  to  tip  ;  the  palmated  part  is 
thirty  inches  wide,  measured  in  an  antero-posterior  direction. 

In  the  summer,  the  Moose  frequents  the  neighborhood  of  lakes  and  streams,  frequently 
swimming  in  the  water,  and  feeding  upon  aquatic  plants,  among  which  the  roots  of  the  pond« 
lily  appear  to  be  most  greedily  devoured.  It  also  feeds  upon  the  high  coarse  grasses,  twigs 
of  trees,  more  especially  of  the  striped  maple  ( Acer  striatum,  Pursh),  which  has  consequently 
received  the  name  of  Moose-wood.  It  likewise  peels  old  trees,  and  feeds  upon  the  bark. 
Period  of  gestation,  nine  months  ;  and  it  produces  one  or  two  at  a  birth,  in  April  or  May. 


FAMILY  CERVID/E. 


117 


In  winter,  the  moose  herd  together  for  mutual  protection,  selecting  hilly  woods,  and  feeding 
exclusively  on  young  twigs  and  the  moss  and  bark  of  trees.  These  herds  consist  of  a  bull,  a 
cow  and  two  calves  ;  sometimes  four  or  five  cows,  but  this  is  more  rare.  Occasionally  several 
of  these  herds  unite,  and  when  the  snow  lies  deep,  they  will  tread  down  a  space  of  several 
acres,  which  are  termed  by  the  hunters  moose-yards.  At  this  season,  and  in  such  situations, 
the  hunter  attacks  them  most  successfully. 

They  are  yet  numerous  in  the  unsettled  portions  of  the  State,  in  the  counties  of  Essex, 
Herkimer,  Hamilton,  Franklin,  Lewis  and  Warren;  and  since  the  gradual  removal  of  the 
Indians,  they  are  now  (1841)  believed  to  be  on  the  increase.  They  have  been  extirpated  from 
Massachusetts,  but  are  still  found  in  Maine,  Vermont  and  New-Hampshire.  Godman  has 
erroneously  stated  that  they  arc  not  known  south  of  Maine  ;  and  this  error  has  been  magnified 
by  subsequent  copyists,  who  assert  that  it  is  not  found  in  the  State  of  Maine.  It  existed  for¬ 
merly  much  nearer  the  Atlantic  coast;  for  wc  learn' from  Dunlap,  that  a  pair  of  moose  were 
once  sent  from  Fisher’s  Island  to  England. 

The  Moose  is  a  timid,  wary  animal ;  and  its  senses  of  hearing  and  smelling  are  so  acute, 
that  it  requires  the  greatest  caution  on  the  part  of  the  hunter  to  approach  it.  During  an  expe¬ 
dition  of  several  weeks  through  the  counties  of  Hamilton,  Franklin  and  Essex,  although  their 
tracks  were  almost  daily  visible,  yet  we  never  had  an  opportunity  of  shooting  a  single  indi¬ 
vidual.  A  specimen  was  sent  to  me  from  Lewis  county,  but  unfortunately  never  reached  its 
destination. 

The  moose  furnishes  an  excellent  material  from  its  hide  for  moccasins  and  snow-shoes. 
The  best  skin  is  obtained  from  the  bull  moose  in  October,  and  usually  sells  for  four  dollars. 
They  were  formerly  so  numerous  about  Raquct  lake,  that  the  Indians  and  French  Canadians 
resorted  thither  to  obtain  their  hides  for  this  purpose ;  and  hence  we  have  the  origin  of  the 
name  of  that  lake,  the  word  raquet  meaning  snow-shoes.  They  still  exist  in  its  neighborhood. 

The  moose,  when  pursued,  trots  off  with  great  rapidity,  but  in  an  awkward  manner,  its 
hoofs  at  the  same  time  making  a  cracking  noise.  At  this  gait  it  soon  leaves  the  hunter  far 
behind,'  stepping  with  great  ease  over  fallen  timber  of  the  largest  size.  When  hard  pressed 
by  the  hunters  on  snow-shoes,  if  it  breaks  up  into  a  gallop,  they  are  sure  of  overtaking  it  soon. 
Its  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and  the  meat  of  the  young  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the 
best  veal.  The  nose  and  tongue  are  particularly  considered  great  dainties.  The  moose, 
when  taken  young,  is  easily  domesticated,  and  has  been  used  in  this  State  for  draught.  I  am 
not  aware,  however,  that  they  possess  any  advantage  for  such  purposes  over  our  common  beasts 
of  burden  ;  and  their  preference  for  twigs  and  bark  of  trees,  instead  of  grasses,  would  render 
them  not  very  desirable  to  the  farmer  who  cared  for  the  growth  of  his  plantation. 

The  Moose  inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  both  continents.  In  America,  they  range  to  the 
Arctic  Sea ;  and  I  am  enabled  to  state,  from  personal  knowledge,  that  their  extreme  southern 
limit  along  the  Atlantic  coast  is  43°  30'  in  the  State  of  New-York. 


118 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


(. EXTRA-LIMITAL ) 

C.  macrotis.  (Richardson,  pi.  20.)  Greyish,  with  a  black  tipped  tail ;  ears  large  ;  horns  with  three 
branches  ;  forehead  dark  brown.  About  the  size  of  the  Common  Deer.  Plains  of  Missouri. 

C.  leucurus.  (Richardson,  p.  258,  not  figured.)  Reddish  brown  in  summer,  light  grey  in  winter 
Tail  long,  white  beneath  and  at  tip.  Size  of  Common  Deer,  to  which  it  is  closely  allied.  Rocky 
Mountains. 

C.  nemoralis.  (Smith,  Griffith’s  Cuv.  Vol.  4,  plate.)  Greyish  brown  tinged  with  yellow  ;  forehead 
and  nose  black.  Horns  branched  at  tip,  the  anterior  branch  curved  forward  like  a  hook.  Loui¬ 
siana. 


GENUS  ELAPHUS. 

Horns' in  the  male  only  ;  round,  very  large,  never  palmaled,  furnished  with  a  distinct  muzzle. 
Canine  teeth  in  the  males  in  the  upper  jaw,  sub-orbital ;  sinus  large. 

THE  AMERICAN  STAG. 

Elaphus  canadensis. 

PLATE  XXV11I.  FIG.  2. 

Cervus  canadensis.  Ray,  Synops.  Quad.  p.  84. 

C.  strongyloceros.  Schreber,  Saugethiere,  Vol.  2,  p.  1074,  pi.  247,  F.  G. 

Alecs  americanus.  Jefferson,  Notes  on  Virginia,  p.  77. 

Elk.  Smith,  Med.  Repos.  Vol.  2,  p.  157,  figure.  (Male,  female,  young.) 

C.  wapiti.  Barton,  Med.  and  Phys.  Jour.  Vol.  3,  p.  36.  Fred.  Cuvier,  Mamm.  Vol.  2.  Male  (winter  dress) 

C.  canadensis.  Harlan,  Fauna,  p.236.  Godman,  Vol.  2,  p.294,  figure.  (Male.) 

Wapiti.  Griffith’s  Cuvier,  Vol.  4,  p.  96,  plate  (male);  and  Vol.  5,  p.  309. 

C.  strongyloceros.  Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Vol.  1,  p.  251. 

Characteristics.  Grey,  with  a  large  pale  yellowish  spot  on  its  rump.  Horns  large,  with  large. 

brow  antlers.  Tail  very  short.  Larger  than  the  common  deer. 

Description.  Body  robust,  symmetrical,  slightly  more  elevatedat  the  withers  than  on  the  hind 
quarters.  Height  at  the  foreshouldcrs  varying  from  four  feet  to  four  feet  eight  inches.  Sub- 
orbital  sinus  with  a  naked  triangular  space  around  it.  Muzzle  broad  and  black.  Ears  large 
and  white  within.  Males  with  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  On  the  foreshoulder,  a  short 
rudimentary  mane.  Under  the  throat,  there  is  a  sort  of  dewlap,  composed  of  black  hair  from 
four  to  six  inches  long.  Horns  large,  with  the  brow  antlers  nearly  or  quite  in  the  direction  of 
the  facial  line.  Females  without  horns  or  dewlaps  ;  the  tail  in  both  sexes  very  short. 

Color.  The  variation  produced  by  age  or  sex  is  but  slight.  In  the  spring,  it  is  of  a  reddish 
hue,  changing  as  the  summer  advances  to  a  yellowish  brown  ;  in  the  autumn,  this  changes  to 
a  buff  color,  which  becomes  grey  in  winter.  The  rump  is  pale  fawn  or  yellowish,  circum- 


FAMILY  CERVIDJS. 


119 


scribed  by  a  dark  circular  marginal  line.  Limbs  on  the  anterior  part  deep  brown.  Chin  light- 
colored.  Tail  yellowish. 

Total  length, _ 84‘0-90’0.  Length  of  tail,..  2'0-  4’0. 

Length  of  head,.  24 ’0.  Height, .  52’0-56'0. 

The  American  Stag  has  long  been  confounded  with  the  Stags  of  Europe.  It  seems  first  to 
have  been  treated  as  a  distinct  species  by  Ray,  in  the  work  cited  above. .  It  was  then  noticed 
by  Jefferson  as  an  elk,  but  was  first  fully  described  and  figured  by  Dr.  Smith  in  the  Medical 
Repository,  from  living  individuals  obtained  from  the  State  of  Maine.  It  has  also,  from  the 
popular  names  applied  to  it,  been  confounded  with  the  American  Moose  just  noticed.  It  is 
called  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  Red  Deer,  Stag,  Grey  Moose,  La  Biche,  Wapiti,  Grey 
Elk,  and  Round-horned  Elk.  , 

It  is  surprising  that  for  so  large,  and  in  some  districts  so  common  an  animal,  so  little  is 
known  of  its  habits.  They  feed  on  grass  and  the  young  shoots  of  trees,  and  are  represented 
as  being  easily  tamed,  and  have  been  trained  to  go  in  harness.  Hearne  observes  that  they  are 
the  most  stupid  of  the  deer  kind,  and  make  a  sin-ill  whistling  noise,  not  very  unlike  the  braying 
of  an  ass.  Other  writers,  however,  represent  them  as  exceedingly  astute  and  wary,  exercising 
great  sagacity  to  avoid  the  snares  of  the  hunter. 

Major  Smith,  in  Griffith’s  Cuvier,  has  given  the  fullest  account  of  the  American  Stag ;  but 
there  are  a  few  inaccuracies  in  that  description,-  which  it  may  not  be  improper  to  notice.  He 
describes  the  horns  of  a  specimen  shot  on  Long  Island,  with  six  antlers  each,  and  measuring 
three  feet  in  length.  My  friend  T.  Floyd  Jones,  Esq.,  living  at  Oysterbay,  Queens  county, 
lias  had  in  his  possession  for  rhany  years  a  very  large  pair,  sent  to  him  from  the  west,  and  it 
is  possibly  to  these  that  Major  Smith  alludes ;  but  there  is  not  even  traditionary  evidence  of 
its  having  existed  on  Long  Island  since  its  first  settlement  by  the  Europeans. 

The  Stag  is  still  found  in  the  State  of  New-York,  but  very  sparingly,  and  will  doubtless  be 
extirpated  before  many  years.  Mr.  Beach,  an  intelligent  hunter  on  the  Raquet,  assured  me  that 
in  1836,  he  shot  at  a  stag,  (or  as  he  called  it,  an  elk,)  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Saranac. 
He  had  seen  many  of  the  horns,  and  describes  this  one  as  much  larger  than  the  biggest  buck 
(C.  virginianus),  with  immense  long  and  rounded  horns,  with  many  short  antlers.  His  ac¬ 
count  was  confirmed  by  another  hunter,  Vaughan,  who  killed  a  stag  at  nearly  the  same  place. 
They  are  found  in  the  northwestern  counties  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  adjoining  counties  of 
New-York.  In  1834,  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Philip  Church,  a  stag  was  killed  at  Bolivar, 
Allegany  county.  My  informant  saw  the  animal,  and  his  description  corresponds  exactly 
with  this  species. 


120 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


FOSSIL  STAG. 

Elaphus  americanus. 

PLATE  XXIX.  FIG.  1.  Tootii,  natural  size;  horns  and  posterior  parts  of  skull  reduced. 

Fossil  Deer.  Wistar,  Am.  Trans.  Vol.  1,  p.  377,  New  Series,  pi.  10,  fig.  4. 

Cervus  americanus.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  245. 

Fossil  Deer.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  92. 

In  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New-York,  is  a  portion  of  a  pair  of 
horns  attached  to  a  fragment  of  skull,  dug  up  near  the  mouth  of  the  Raquet  river  in  this  State, 
near  the  forty-fifth  parallel  of  latitude.  It  bears  a  label  in  the  handwriting  of  Dr.  Mitchill, 
purporting  that  it  belonged  to  the  C.  tarandus,  or  Rein-deer.  Its  size  and  appearance  indi¬ 
cates  a  nearer  affinity  to  the  E.  canadensis,  or  Stag  just  described.  The  following  comparison 
was  made  of  this  fossil  with  a  gigantic  pair  of  horns  of  the  E.  canadensis,  in  the  Cabinet  of 
the  Lyceum.  These  latter  measured  three  feet  five  inches  across  from  tip  to  tip,  and  two  feet 
ten  inches  high  from  burr  to  tip  in  a  straight  line. 

FOSSIL.  RECENT. 


Distance  from  between  the  horns  to  the  occipital  ridge, _  4 '  1  4 ' 8 

Breadth  of  cranium  behind  the  horns, .  4'5  4  •  6 

Ditto  above  the  condyloid  processes, .  6 ' 0  6 ' 0 

Depth  across  the  occipital  foramen, . . .  4 ' 4  4  •  5 

Circumference  of  horn  above  the  burr, .  9' 6  9" 0 

From  tip  to  tip,  compared  with  corresponding  points  on  the 

recent  specimen, . 40 '0  44 ‘0 


In  the  fossil,  the  horns  present  the  same  grooved  and  ridged  appearance  as  in  the  American 
Stag;  they  rise  outward,  upward,  and  slightly  backward,  then  forward  and  upward.  Indica¬ 
tions  of  one  or  two  antlers  are  evident.  The  figure  in  the  plate  will  give  a  better  idea  of  the 
appearance  and  direction  of  the  horns,  than  a  detailed  description.  Through  the  carelessness 
of  the  engraver,  the  posterior  view  of  the  skull  is  represented  as  being  of  the  natural  size. 

I  am  unacquainted  with  the  circumstances  under  which  this  skull  was  found,  but  have  ven¬ 
tured  to  arrange  it  provisionally  with  the  bones  described  by  Wistar  and  Harlan  in  the  work 
cited  above.  Dr.  Emmons  has  described  a  tooth,  taken  from  a  clay  bed  in  Chautauque  county 
in  1839.  It  is  an  old  tooth,  and  is  the  last  on  the  right  side  of  the  upper  jaw.  Through  the 
kindness  of  Dr.  Emmons,  I  have  been  permitted  to  give  a  figure  of  the  tooth.  The  following 


are  its  dimensions  : 

Depth, .  1*3. 

Transverse  diameter  of  the  crown, _  1 '5. 

Shortest  diameter, . .  1 • 2. 


The  surface  of  the  crown  is  too  much  injured,  to  enable  me  to  render  it  with  perfect  accuracy. 
I  learn  that  other  teeth  from  the  same  locality,  but  larger,  are  in  the  Cabinet  of  Yale  College. 


FAMILY  CERYID.E. 


121 


I  regret  that  I  have  had  no  opportunities  of  making  a  direct  comparison  of  this  tooth  with  that 
of  the  American  stag.  A  horn  of  the  second  year’s  growth  was  thrown  out  by  a  plough  on 
Grand  Isle,  which  is  now  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  University  of  Vermont,  which  we  also  refer 
to  the  same  species. 

DIMENSIONS. 


From  tip  to  base  in  a  straight  line, .  28"  50. 

Ditto  ditto,  measured  along  the  curve, _ 33  •  50. 

Circumference  just  above  the  tuberosities, _  7'25. 

Ditto  at  the  highest  part  of  the  curve, . .  4  •  50. 

Ditto  at  five  inches  from  the  tip, .  3-25. 


Dr.  Emmons  appears  disposed  to  consider  the  relics  in  question  as  having  belonged  to  a  • 
larger  animal  than  the  American  Stag,  and  analogous  to  the  Irish  Elk ;  this,  however,  is 
merely  offered  as  a  conjecture.  In  the  present  imperfect  state  of  our  knowledge,  I  view  it  as 
a  distinct  species,  closely  allied  to  the  E.  canadensis. 


GENUS  RANGIFER. 

Horns  in  both  sexes.  Canine  teeth  in  both  sexes.  Muzzle  small.  Horns  slender,  smooth, 
palmated.  Sub-orbital  sinus. 


THE  REIN-DEER.  ( Extirpated  ?) 
Rangifer  tarandus. 

(MEDICAL  COLLEGE,  ALBANY.) 


Cervus  tarandus.  Lin.  Syst.  p.  93, 

Caribou  of  the  old  French  writers. 

C.  tarandus.  Harlan,  Fauna  Americana,  p.  232.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Yol.  2,  p.  283,  plate.  Richardson,  F.  B. 

A.  Vol.  1,  p.  238,  figures.  Emmons,  Mass.  Report,  1840,  p.  78. 

Characteristics.  Varying  in  color  from  deep  brown  to  greyish  white.  About  the  size  of  the 
common  deer. 

Description.  Body  robust,  and  low  on  the  legs.  Snout  thin,  with  oblique  nostrils.  Ears 
large.  Horns  usually  slender,  very  variable  in  form  :  They  generally  consist  of  brow  antlers, 
which  are  palmate  and  digitate  ;  the  main  stem  directed  backward,  then  curving  forward, 
with  simple  or  palmated  antlers,  or  else  terminating  in  a  broad  palmated  expansion,  which  is 
often  furnished  with  points.  Legs  robust.  Hoofs  rounded,  consisting  of  a  single  plate  folded 
on  itself,  very  broad,  with  a  strong  fringe  of  hairs  around  it.  Fur  close  and  compact,  but  com¬ 
posed  of  two  portions,  one  woolly,  the  other  longer,  straight  and  brittle. 


Fauna. 


16 


122 


NEW- YORK  FAUNA. 


Color.  Varying  with  age  and  season.  Young,  brownish  above,  with  a  tinge  of  reddish 
beneath.  Adults,  in  the  summer,  in  a  smooth  coat  of  greyish  brown,  becoming  rougher  and 
whiter  in  winter.  Beneath,  the  throat,  belly  and  insides  white  at  all  seasons. 

It  is  with  much  hesitation  that  I  include  this  animal  in  the  Fauna  of  our  State ;  but  the 
representations  of  hunters  lead  me  to  suspect,  that  when  the  yet  unexplored  parts  of  the 
State  have  been  more  thoroughly  examined,  its  existence  may  be  disclosed.  Pennant,  in  his 
time,  asserted  that  the  Rein-deer  was  not  found  farther  south  than  the  most  northern  part  of 
Canada.  Charlevoix,  however,  saw  one  killed  at  Quebec.  The  specimen  in  the  cabinet  of 
the  Medical  College  at  Albany  came  from  Nova-Scotia  ;  and  Harlan  asserts  that  it  does  not 
pass  the  State  of  Maine  into  the  United  States,  implying  its  existence  there.  Prof.  Emmons 
observes,  “  It  is  only  a  few  years  since  this  animal  appeared  in  the  northern  parts  of  Vermont 
“  and  New-Hampshire  ;  from  which  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  infer,  that  in  earlier  times  it  may 
“  have  passed  still  farther  south.”  Its  gregarious  habits  and  unsuspicious  character  would 
seem  to  ensure  its  speedy  destruction,  when  placed  within  the  reach  of  man. 


ORDER  VII.  CETACEA. 

Body  shaped  like  a  fish.  Fore  feet  two,  in  the  shape  of  fins.  In  place  of  hind  feet,  there 
is  a  broad  horizontal  fin.  Ears  consist  of  a  minute  exterior  opening.  Without  hair,  or  a 
few  scattering  ones  only.  Live  exclusively  in  the  water,  only  coming  out  to  breathe. 
Gregarious . 

This  order  comprises  whales,  porpoises  and  dolphins,  generally  considered  by  uninstructed 
observers  as  fishes.  It  is  divided  by  Cuvier  into  two  great  sections,  the  Herbivorous  and 
Piscivorous.  In  the  first  we  find  the 


FAMILY  I.  MAN  A  TIIL'E. 

With  two  kinds  of  teeth  in  the  young.  Molars  with  flat  crowns.  Nostrils  placed  near  the 
end  of  the  muzzle,  in  the  skin.  Long  whiskers.  Teats  pectoral.  No  spiracle.  Scatter¬ 
ing  short  hairs  over  the  body. 

Obs.  This  family  comprises  about  five  living  species,  one  of  which  is  found  near  our  shores, 
but  none  within  the  limits  of  this  State. 


FAMILY  MANATID.E. 


123 


(EXTRA-LIMIT AL.) 

Genus  Manatus.  Grinders  eighteen  above  and  eighteen  below;  the  upper  square,  the  lower  longer 
than  wide,  all  with  two  transverse  ridges  and  a  heel,  becoming  larger  on  the  lower  posterior  ones. 
Pectoral  fins  with  vestiges  of  nails  at  their  edges.  Body  ending  in  a  rounded  caudal  fin. 

M  americanus.  (PI.  30,  fig.  2,  a,  b;  and  PI.  32,  fig.  4,  Skull.)  Body  elliptical;  snout  truncated; 
skull  elongated  in  proportion  to  its  breadth ;  lower  edge  of  the  lower  jaw  straight.  Tail  rounded. 
Length  10  -  20  feet.  Florida. 

The  Manati  is  still  hunted  for  its  flesh,  among  the  keys  and  lagoons  scattered  along  the  southern 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  Florida.  They  are  struck  with  the  harpoon.  The  largest  of  which  I  have 
heard  any  account,  weighed  more  than  a  ton.  The  flesh  is  highly  prized  as  a  savory  and  nutri¬ 
tive  food.  The  New  World  of  October,  1841,  contains  an  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of  this 
species ;  the  female  is  described  as  having  a  teat  under  each  swimming  paw.  Through  the  polite¬ 
ness  of  Mr.  Bell,  I  have  been  permitted  to  make  the  following  observations  on  the  skull  of  the 
Manati,  which  died  a  few  months  after  I  had  drawn  up  the  description  cited  above.  It  was  a  young 
animal,  as  was  manifest  by  the  existence  of  the  sockets  of  the  incisors  in  the  intermaxillaries  of  the 
upper  jaw.  There  were  five  prominent  molars  on  each  side,  gradually  enlarging  behind,  and  then 
not  yet  extruded.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  teeth  were  similar  in  number  and  position.  The  curve  of 
the  lower  jaw  (see  figure)  is  nearly  as  great  as  in  the  Senegal  species,  and  almost  equals  that  of  the 
latirostris. 

M.  latirostris.  (Harlan,  Med.  and  Phys.  Res.  p.  71,  plate.)  Lower  edge  of  lower  jaw  curved; 
snout  very  wide  before  the  eyes.  Length  8-10  feet.  Florida. 

M.  giganteus.  Fossil.  (Id.  Ib.  Vol.  20,  p.  385.)  Western  shore  of  Maryland. 

Genus  Zeuglodon,  Owen,  (Fossil.)  Twelve  molars  in  the  upper  jaw;  in  the  lower,  - .  Teeth 

with  double  fangs  and  a  horizontal  section  of  the  crowns,  suggesting  the  idea  of  two  teeth  tied  or 
yoked  together ;  hence  the  generic  name. 

Z.  harlani.  (Owen,  Geol.  Soc.  Lond.  1838;  Loud.  Mag.  1839,  p.  209.  Basilosaurus,  Harlan, 
Am.  Phil.  Soc.  1834;  Med.  and  Phys.  Res.  p.  349.)  From  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  long. 
Occurs  in  the  horizontal  limestone  of  Alabama,  the  most  recent  of  the  cretaceous  group ;  also  in 
Arkansas. 


FAMILY  II.  BAL.FNIDM. 

Teeth  none,  or  only  in  the  lower  jaw ;  when  absent,  their  place  supplied  above  by  thin  horny 
plates  termed  baleen,  or  whalebone.  Skin  smooth,  and  almost  entirely  destitute  of  hairs ; 
with  a  thick  mass  of  fat  beneath.  Two  inguinal  teats,  placed  near  the  vent.  Nostrils 
assuming  the  form  of  spiracles.  Gregarious.  Piscivorous;  often  carnivorous. 

Obs.  This  family  comprises  the  most  bulky  of  created  beings.  They  have  a  strong  exter¬ 
nal  resemblance  to  fish ;  and  to  increase  this  resemblance,  many  of  them  have  a  callous 
projection  on  the  back,  like  a  dorsal  fin.  Upwards  of  seventeen  species  have  been  enume¬ 
rated  by  writers,  but  many  of  them  rest  upon  uncertain  authority.  The  history  of  this  family 


124 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


is  still  enveloped  in  great  obscurity  ;  and  their  habits,  from  the  nature  of  the  element  in  which 
they  exist,  are  little  known.  They  are  highly  useful  to  man,  producing  valuable  articles  of 
commerce,  and  creating  an  excellent  nursery  for  seamen. 

GENUS  BALTINA.  Linneus. 

Head  very  large.  No  teeth.  Upper  jaw  furnished  with  numerous  plates  of  whalebone. 
Spiracles  two,  distinct,  on  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  head,  just  before  the  eyes.  No 
dorsal  elevation  or  fin. 


THE  RIGHT  WHALE. 

Baltina  mysticetus. 

PLATE  XXXI.  FIG.  3. 

Balaena  mysticetus.  Linneus,  Syst.  p.  105. 

Common  Whale.  Dudley,  Phil.  Trans.  Abridg.  Vol.  7,  p.  424.  Scoresby,  Arct.  Reg.  Vol.  1,  p.  449,  figure  Godman, 
Vol.  3,  p.  98. 

Characteristics.  Black,  occasionally  varied  with  white  or  yellowish.  Gape  of  the  mouth 
arched  with  about  600  laminae  of  whalebone.  Length  40  -  60  feet. 

Description.  Body  thickest  in  the  middle,  a  little  behind  the  fore  paws;  somewhat  furrowed, 
tapering  towards  the  tail.  Head  large,  somewhat  triangular.  Opening  of  mouth  large,  with 
a  few  scattering  hairs  on  the  end  of  the  jaws.  Eyes  very  small,  and  placed  near  the  corner 
of  the  mouth.  External  ear  exceedingly  minute.  Spiracles  two,  oblong,  adjacent,  slightly 
largish  in  front.  Palate  and  sides  of  upper  jaw  with  two  rows  of  whalebone  from  ten  to  thirteen 
feet  long,  and  generally  curved  longitudinally,  and  giving  an  arched  form  to  the  roof  of  the 
mouth.  Each  series  consists  of  three  hundred  laminae  or  more  of  whalebone,  the  interior  edges 
of  which  are  covered  with  a  hair-like  fringe.  Swimming  paws  rounded,  somewhat  pointed, 
7-9  feet  long,  with  a  width  of  4  or  5  feet,  and  situated  about  two  feet  behind  the  angle  of 
the  mouth.  Tail  very  broad,  notched  in  the  centre,  curved  on  the  edges,  and  pointed  at  the  tips. 

Color.  Blackish  throughout ;  occasionally  with  a  small  space  under  the  body,  and  a  larger 
space  on  the  lower  jaw,  whitish  grey  or  flesh  color.  Very  old  individuals  become  varied  with 
white  and  black,  or  piebald. 

Weight  from  60  to  100  tons. 

This  huge  animal  is  known  along  our  coast  by  the  various  names  of  True,  Right,  Common 
and  Whalebone  Whale.  Of  its  habits  little  can  be  said,  except  that  after  a  presumed  gestation 
of  nine  months,  it  produces  one  at  a  birth,  which  it  suckles  for  about  a  year.  The  milk  is 
said  to  be  rich  and  well  flavored.  It  exhibits  great  maternal  fondness  for  its  offspring,  and 
although  at  other  times  remarkably  timid,  manifests  great  boldness,  and  even  ferocity,  in  de- 


FAMILY  BAL.ENID 


ft 


125 


fending  her  young.  It  was  formerly  found  in  every  part  o^Wnocean  in  large  troops  ;  but  since 
its  capture  has  become  an  object  of  commercial  enterprise,  it  has  been  driven  from  the  shores 
of  Europe  and  North  America,  and  is  now  pursued  on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  in  the  Indian  ocean 
and  the  Arctic  seas.  From  the  structure  of  its  jaws,  and  the  smallness  of  its  throat,  it  can 
only  feed  on  the  smaller  oceanic  animals,  such  as  medusae  or  sea-jellies,  shrimps,  crabs,  and 
some  minute  mollusca.  These  would  at  first  appear  to  be  insufficient  for  such  huge  monsters  ; 
but  when  we  examine  the  waters  to  which  they  resort,  and  which  are  termed  their  feeding 
grounds,  our  wonder  ceases.  Off  the  coast  of  Brazil,  I  have  passed  over  hundreds  of  miles 
where  these  minute  animals  were  so  numerous  as  to  discolor  the  water,  giving  it  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  wheat  scattered  over  a  reddish  sand-bank.  These  are  termed  by  the  whalers  the  Brazil 
banks,  and  thither  they  have  resorted  of  late  years  in  pursuit  of  the  whale.  Scoresby  has 
estimated,  that  in  similar  places  in  the  Arctic  seas,  twenty -three  quadrillions  of  such  animalculje 
are  distributed  over  a  surface  of  two  square  miles. 

The  whale  fishery  in  this  country,  as  in  others,  has  been  pursued  with  various  success,  and 
is  even  now  subject  to  frequent  fluctuations.  The  first  vessel  constructed  expressly  for  this 
fishery,  was  a  small  sloop  built  at  Nantucket  in  1690.  She  was  merely  intended  for  cruising 
along  shore.  In  1715,  the  number  of  similar  sloops  was  but  fifteen;  and  from  this  period  it 
went  on  increasing  up  to  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  when  it  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
English. 

In  1799,  we  employed  26  vessels,  of  5055  tons. 

1800,  “  17  “  2814  “ 

1801,  “  15  “  2349  “ 

1802,  “  20  “  3201  “ 


Of  this  last  number,  only  one  was  fitted  out  from  this  State.  It  appears  also  that  the  business 
fell  off  very  much  from  1790  in  the  succeeding  ten  years,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following 
tables  : 


1791,  we  exported  134,595  galls,  sperm  oil; 

447,323  galls,  whale  oil; 
82,400  lbs.  sperm  candles; 
124,829  lbs.  whalebone. 


1802,  we  exported  28,470  galls,  sperm  oil; 

379,976  galls,  whale  oil; 
135,637  lbs.  sperm  candles; 
80,334  lbs.  whalebone. 


The  Right  Whale  was  formerly  captured  in  great  numbers  from  sloops  and  whale-boats, 
along  our  whole  coast,  chiefly  from  February  to  May,  although  they  appeared  occasionally  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Along  the  southern  coast  of  Long  Island,  whale  boats  are  still  kept 
in  readiness  ;  and  upon  the  appearance  of  a  whale,  the  people  in  the  vicinity  quickly  assemble, 
and  are  soon  in  pursuit  of  the  animal.  The  whale  fishery,  which  includes  not  only  this 
species,  but  also  the  Sperm  Whale,  is  pursued  in  its  various  branches  with  great  success, 
either  by  associations  or  by  individuals.  Every  person  employed  is  a  shareholder,  and  of 
course  this  presents  an  additional  motive  for  exertion.  From  a  record  kept  at  New-Bedford, 
which  we  have  inserted  below,  it  appears  that  the  whole  number  of  vessels  employed  in  the 


126 


H. 


W-YORK  FAUNA. 


whale  fishery,  in  the  year  ending^^fember,  1839,  was  557, 
tons,  which  would  give  employment  to  9,987  men,  and  to 
various  operations  of  coopering,  refining,  etc.  etc. 


making  an  aggregate  of  169,938 
as  many  more  on  shore,  in  the 


PLACES 

WHERE  OWNED. 

Ships  and  barks.  1 

Brigs  and  schooners.  1 

Pacific. 

Indian  ocean.  ^ 

New  Zealand. 

South  Atlantic. 

Atlantic. 

O 

P< 

Whole  number. 

Amount  of  tonnage. 

New-Bedford, . 

G9 

8 

70 

31 

27 

12 

10 

27 

177 

56,118 

Fairhaven, . 

43 

1 

13 

13 

7 

5 

1 

5 

44 

13,274 

3 

3 

3 

874 

W  estport, . 

5 

4 

1 

.... 

7 

1 

9 

1,443 

Warenam, . 

2 

2 

1 

.... 

.... 

1 

1 

1 

4 

904 

Rochester, . 

5 

10 

1 

1 

.... 

11 

2 

15 

2,615 

Nantucket, . 

77 

4 

60 

3 

.... 

3 

9 

81 

27,364 

Edgartown, . 

8 

.... 

4 

.... 

2 

.... 

1 

1 

8 

2,659 

Holmes  Hole,  . . 

3 

1 

.... 

2 

.... 

.... 

1 

1 

4 

1,180 

Fall  River, . 

4 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

7 

1,604 

Lynn, . 

4 

.... 

.... 

3 

.... 

.... 

1 

4 

1,269 

Newburyport, . 

3 

.... 

.... 

2 

1 

.... 

.... 

3 

1,099 

Plymouth, . 

3 

•  .  . 

.... 

1 

.... 

2 

3 

910 

Salem, . 

14 

.... 

2 

11 

1 

.... 

.... 

14 

4,265 

Boston, . 

.... 

1 

.... 

.... 

.... 

1 

.... 

1 

125 

Dorchester, . 

2 

.... 

2 

.... 

.... 

.... 

2 

581 

8 

8 

8 

2,490 

Provincetown, . 

1 

.... 

1 

1 

172 

1 

1 

1 

388 

1 

1 

1 

380 

1 

1 

1 

348 

Newport, . 

9 

2 

5 

.... 

3 

3 

11 

3,152 

Bristol, . 

5 

1 

3 

.... 

.... 

1 

1 

1 

6 

1,782 

Warren,  . 

18 

5 

5 

2 

4 

5 

1 

4 

21 

6,075 

Providence, . 

3 

.... 

1 

.... 

1 

1 

.... 

.... 

3 

1,086 

New-London, . 

30 

9 

1 

13 

6 

15 

.... 

4 

39 

11,447 

Stonington, . 

7 

5 

2 

3 

1 

6 

.... 

.... 

12 

1,912 

Mystic, . 

5 

3 

.... 

1 

.  .  .  . 

7 

.  .  .  . 

.  ...  . 

8 

1,797 

Sag-Harbor, . 

31 

.... 

18 

.... 

3 

14 

.  .  .  . 

2 

31 

10,605 

Greenport, . 

4 

1 

1 

.  .  .  . 

.... 

4 

.... 

.... 

5 

2,014 

New-Suflblk . 

1 

1 

1 

274 

1 

1 

1 

236 

Bridgeport, . 

3 

2 

.  .  .  . 

1 

3 

913 

3 

1 

2 

3 

710 

Hudson, . 

8 

1 

4 

3 

8 

2,902 

Poughkeepsie, . 

6 

.  .  .  . 

4 

.  .  .  . 

1 

.... 

. . . . 

1 

6 

2,043 

2 

2 

2 

629 

5 

2 

3 

5 

1,578 

Newark, . 

i 

.... 

.... 

1 

.... 

.... 

1 

366 

Total, . 

498 

50 

209 

89 

60 

86 

40 

73 

557 

169,983 

[ 

The  amount  of  whale  and  sperm  oil  and  whalebone  introduced  into  the  United  States,  and 
the  total  value  of  the  same  at  estimated  average  prices  from  actual  sales  during  the  four  years 
preceding  1839,  is  as  follows  : 


FAMILY  BAL.ENID.E.’ 


127 


In  1835, .  86,168,997  00 

In  1836, .  5,689,814  00 

In  1837, .  7,357,553  00 

In  1838, .  6,156,038  00 


In  this  State,  the  whale  fishery  has  been  successfully  pursued.  From  returns  obligingly 
communicated  to  me  by  the  Collector  of  the  Port  of  New-York,  it  appears  that  within  the  past 
year  (1838)  sixteen  vessels  of  5538  tons  and  320  men,  were  employed  from  that  port  in  the 
whale  fishery.  The  produce  was, 

Sperm  oil,  ..  177,346  galls.  Value,  8181,421  00 

Whale  oil,  . .  605,497  galls.  “  209,438  00 

Whalebone,.  186,448  lbs.  “  32,124  00 


Total  value,  8422,983  00 


From  the  Collector  at  Sag-Harbor  for.  the  same  period,  I  have  received  the  following  state- 


ment : 

Sperm  oil,  .. 

125,240  galls. 

Value, 

$125,240  00 

Whale  oil,  .. 

959,295  galls. 

<< 

319,760  00 

Whalebone, . 

236,000  lbs. 

6C 

42,480  00 

Total  value,  $487,485  00 


From  another  source,  we  gather  the  following  information  connected  with  the  whale  fishery 
from  one  district  alone  in  this  State.  It  is  the  district  which  comprises  the  three  counties  of 
Kings,  Queens  and  Suffolk,  on  Long  Island. 

During  the  year  ending  December  31,  1840,  there  arrived  within  that  district,  between  the 
second  of  May  and  the  twelfth  of  October,  nineteen  vessels,  with  the  following  gross  amount : 

Sperm  oil, .  109,588  galls. 

Whale  oil, .  937,234  galls. 

Whalebone, .  232,182  lbs., 

valued  at  something  over  half  a  million  of  dollars. 


During  the  year  1 840,  between  June  1 6  and  December  20,  there  sailed  from  the  same  dis¬ 
trict  twenty  vessels.  Their  destinations  were,  fourteen  for  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  two 
for  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  and  for  New-Holland,  New-Zealand,  Crozett  Islands  and  the  North¬ 
west  Coast,  one  each.  On  the  first  of  January,  1841,  there  were  still  absent,  in  addition  to 
the  foregoing,  nineteen  vessels,  all  on  voyages  to  the  Indian  Ocean  and  New-Zealand.  These 
had  departed  between  the  twelfth  of  June,  1838,  and  the  twenty-sixth  of  August,  1839.  Se¬ 
veral  of  them,  however,  arrived  within  the  present  year.  The  average  duration  of  those 
whalers  which  returned  in  1840,  was  short  of  sixteen  months. 

Those  vessels  employed  in  the  right  whale  fishery,  are  absent  on  an  average  twelve  months. 
In  pursuit  of  the  spermaceti  whale,  the  duration  of  the  voyage  often  extends  to  three  years. 


128 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


From  more  recent  information,  we  are  enabled  to  state,  that  at  the  close  of  the  year  1841, 
our  whaling  squadron,  out  of  all  the  States,  amounted  to  650  sail  of  all  classes,  presenting  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  190,374,  and  employing  13,500  men  in  the  actual  prosecution  of  their 
voyages. 


GENUS  PHYSETER.  Gmelin. 

Head  enormously  large,  truncated  in  front.  Twenty  or  more  stout,  conical,  subequal  teeth 
on  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw,  rudimentary  above.  Spiracles  united  into  one,  near  the  end 
of  the  jaw. 

This  genus  is  remarkable,  not  only  for  its  bulk,  but  for  the  valuable  article  of  commerce, 
termed  spermaceti,  which  is  found  chiefly  in  large  cells  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  Seven 
species  have  been  enumerated  by  compilers,  but  we  shall  follow  Cuvier  in  considering  but 
one  species  as  yet  sufficiently  identified.  We  prefer  retaining  the  original  name  of  Physeter, 
to  the  barbarous  provincial  epithet  of  Cachalot. 

THE  SPERM  WHALE. 

Physeter  macrocephalus. 

PLATE  XXXI.  FIG.  2.  — (Jaws  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Lyceum.) 

Cachalot  macrocephale.  Lacepede,  Hist.  Nat.  Cet.  pi.  10,  fig.  1. 

Physeter  macrocephalus.  Shaw,  Gen.  Zool.  Yol.  2,  p.  49. 

The  Spermaceti  Whale,  Naturalist’s  Library,  Vol.  6,  p.  154. 

Characteristics.  Black  or  darkish  above throat  and  beneath,  silvery  grey.  A  verv  small 
dorsal  elevation  towards  the  tail.  Length  60  -  80  feet. 

Description.  Head  forming  one-third  of  its' bulk  ;  its  anterior  part  truncated  or  obtuse,  over¬ 
hanging  the  lower  jaw.  Eyes  small,  and  said  to  be  unequal.  Spiracle  shaped  like  the  letter 
f  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  head,  in  the  centre  of  an  elevated  protuberance.  Swimming  paws 
short,  obtusely  pointed.  Openings  to  the  ear  sufficiently  large  to  admit  a  small  quill.  Teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw  conical,  pointed,  not  acute  ;  in  some  individuals,  amounting  to  twenty-seven. 
In  the  upper  jaw  there  are  also  teeth,  but  very  small  and  rudimentary.  The  lips  overhang 
and  conceal  the  opening  of  the  mouth. 

Color.  Generally  brownish  black  or  jet  black,  somewhat  lighter  on  the  sides,  and  beneath 
a  silvery  grey.  There  is  often  a  considerable  variety  in  their  markings,  but  the  old  males  are 
generally  light  grey  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  head. 

The  Sperm  Whale  is  gregarious,  and  often  found  in  herds  of  from  two  to  five  hundred. 
They  are  said  to  feed  on  fish,  and  a  species  of  sepia  or  cuttle-fish.  Although  they  resort  to 
the  same  feeding  grounds  with  the  Right  Whale,  it  is  not  probable  that,  with  their  large  teeth 
and  powerful  jaws,  they  subsist  on  the  same  minute  food.  The  sperm  oil  is  found  in  great 


FAMILY  BAL/ENFD.-E. 


129 


abundance  in  a  large  cavity  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  above  the  brain.  It  is  also  obtained 
from  the  blubber,  which  varies  in  thickness  from  eight  to  fourteen  inches.  A  moderate  sized 
whale  will  yield  fifty  to  eighty  barrels.  In  a  few  rare  cases,  we  have  known  them  to  furnish 
one  hundred  and  twenty  barrels. 

Although  a  timid  animal,  the  Sperm  Whale  will  sometimes  turn  with  fur)'  upon  its  pur¬ 
suers,  and  destroy  boats  and  men.  Upon  one  occasion,  a  large  whale  attacked  the  whale-ship 
Essex,  stove  in  its  bows,  when  she  filled  and  sunk ;  the  crew  took  to  the  boats,  and  after 
unheard  of  suffering,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Peru ;  three  only  of  the  crew  survived. 

The  Sperm  Whale  was  formerly  numerous  on  our  coast,  where  it  is  still  occasionally  cap¬ 
tured.  Sixty  years  ago,  the  pursuit  of  the  whale  was  considered  so  characteristic  of  American 
hardihood  and  enterprise,  as  to  have  elicited  from  the  English  orator  Burke  the  following  elo¬ 
quent  tribute  :  “  While  we  are  carrying  on  the  whale  fishery  under  the  arctic  circle,  we  hear 
“  that  they  have  pierced  into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold  ;  that  they  are  at  the  antipodes, 
“  and  engaged  under  the  frozen  serpent  of  the  south.  Falkland  Island,  which  seems  too  remote 
“  and  too  romantic  an  object  for  the  grasp  of  national  ambition,  is  but  a  stage  and  resting  place 
“  for  their  victorious  industry.  Nor  is  the  equatorial  heat  more  discouraging  to  them  than  the 
“accumulated  winter  of  both  poles.  We  learn  that  while  some  draw  the  line  or  strike  the 
“  harpoon  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  others  run  the  longitude,  and  pursue  their  gigantic  game 
“along  the  coast  of  Brazil.  No  sea  but  what  is  vexed  with  their  fisheries  ;  no  climate  that 
“  is  not  witness  of  their  toil.  Neither  the  perseverance  of  Holland,  nor  the  dextrous  and  firm 
“  sagacity  of  English  enterprise  ever  carried  this  most  perilous  mode  of  hardy  industry  to  the 
“  extent  to  which  it  has  been  pursued  by  this  recent  people  ;  a  people  who  are  still  in  the 
“  gristle,  and  not  hardened  into  manhood.”  Since  that  period,  how  extended  the  field  of  our 
labors  !  The  broad  Atlantic  has  become  too  limited  an  arena  for  exertion.  A  new  antarctic 
continent  has  been  discovered  and  coasted,  among  the  thick-ribbed  ice.  The  Gallipagos, 
New-Zealand,  the  Coast  of  Japan,  are  but  resting  places,  and  the  farthest  limits  of  ocean  only, 
bound  the  ardor  of  our  daring  navigators. 


GENUS  RORQUALUS.  Knox. 

Head  not  disproportionately  large.  Jaws  somewhat  pointed,  and  rostrated.  An  acute  pro¬ 
tuberance  on  the  back,  resembling  a  dorsal  fin.  No  teeth.  Short  baleen  in  the  upper  jaw. 
Deep  folds  on  the  throat  and  abdomen. 


Fauna. 


17 


130 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


THE  BEAKED  RORQUAL. 

Rorqualus  rostratus. 

PLATE  XXX.  FIG.  1. 

Balama  rostrata.  Fabricius,  Faun.  Greenland,  p.  40. 

Baltenoptera  acuto-rostrata.  Lacepede,  Cet.  p.  134,  pi.  4. 

B.  rostrata.  Scoresby,  Arct.  Regions. 

Rorqualus  minor.  Knox,  Nat.  Lib.  Vol.  G,  p.  142,  pi.  7. 

Characteristics.  Bluish  black ;  greyish  white  beneath,  with  numerous  flesh-colored  folds  on 
the  throat  and  belly.  Baleen  white,  divided  into  320  plates  on  each  side. 
Vertebrae  48.  Length  16-  25  feet. 

Description.  Body  cylindrical,  and  gently  tapering  from  the  swimming  paws  to  the  head 
and  tail ;  towards  the  tail  the  body  becomes  much  compressed,  and  forms  a  ridge  which  runs 
a  few  inches  on  the  tail.  Head  smaller  than  the  body,  long,  narrow  and  pointed  ;  the  outline 
of  the  head  separated  from  the  dorsal  outline  by  a  slight  depression.  The  upper  mandible, 
from  the  commencement  of  the  baleen,  is  42 • 0  long,  and  4  ‘  0  shorter  than  the  lower,  into 
which  it  is  received ;  furnished  with  baleen  of  a  whitish  color,  which  has  a  hoary  appearance 
on  its  fringed  edges.  The  laminae,  as  nearly  as  could  be  ascertained  by  repeated  countings, 
amount  to  three  hundred  and  twenty  on  each  side ;  they  were  of  various  lengths,  from  two 
to  eleven  inches,  gradually  increasing  from  the  snout  posteriorly.  The  spiracles  two,  placed 
at  the  extremity  of  the  ridge  on  the  upper  jaw,  a  little  forward  of  a  line  drawn  upwards  from 
the  eyes  :  They  are  7‘  0  long,  and  gradually  approach  each  other  to  within  O’  75  in  front ;  pos¬ 
teriorly  they  are  3 • 0  apart,  and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  deep  furrow  9  ■  0  long. 
Lower  jaw  acute,  rather  stouter,  and  4  •  0  longer  than  the  upper.  Eyes  large,  but  appear 
small,  as  they  are  much  covered  by' the  eyelids  ;  a  deep  furrow  above  and  beneath,  placed 
above  and  near  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  ears  not  visible,  but  their  situation  is  determined 
by  a  very  slight  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  skin,  which  yields  rather  more  than  the  sur¬ 
rounding  parts  to  pressure  ;  they  are  about  5’0  behind  and  a  little  below  the  eyes.  Tongue 
large,  free  and  very  fat ;  beneath  it  the  skin  of  the  throat  is  very  dilatable.  Roof  of  the  mouth 
smooth.  No  vestige  of  a  tooth  c  ould  be  seen  or  felt  in  the  lower  jaw.  Swimming  paws  25  •  0 
long,  oblong,  tapering,  and  attached  vertically  to  the  body  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance 
from  the  dorsal  protuberance  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  (In  the  figure  this  is  incorrectly  given.) 
Dorsal  eminence  leathery,  elastic,  triangular,  a  foot  high,  broad  at  the  base,  and  placed  above 
the  vent.  Tail  horizontal,  bilobate,  its  tips  pointed.  Chin  and  throat  with  numerous  furrows 
0-5  to  l'O  deep,  extending  some  distance  over  the  abdomen,  and  presenting  a  waved  appear¬ 
ance  on  the  chin  and  throat. 

Color.  Bluish  black  above,  pearly  white  beneath,  but  this  has  changed  to  a  faint  pink, 
especially  in  the  furrows,  owing,  I  imagine,  to  the  settling  of  the  blood  in  those  parts.  Lips 
white.  Swimming  paws  white  in  the  middle,  black  at  the  base  and  extremities.  Under  side 
of  the  tail  whitish. 


FAMILY  BALjENID.E. 


131 


Dimensions.  Total  length  eighteen  feet.  From  the  posterior  fold  of  the  swimming  paw  to 
the  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  tail,  eleven  feet  six  inches.  Girth  at  the  swimming  paws  thir¬ 
teen  feet.  Tail  seventeen  inches  deep,  and  four  feet  nine  inches  across  from  tip  to  tip. 

I  had  no  opportunity  of  determining  its  sex,  but  was  informed  that  it  was  a  female. 

The  above  description  was  taken  from  a  whale  captured  in  the  lower  bay  of  New- York 
in  1822. 


THE  NORTHERN  RORQUAL. 


RorUUALUS  BOREALIS. 

Balcena  tripinnis  maxilla  inferiore  rotunda.  Sibbald,  Phalainologia,  Tab.  3. 

Balasna  boops ,  Lac6pede.  Mitchill,  Med.  Repos.  Vol.  7,  p.  41G. 

Broad-nosed  Whale.  Scoresby. 

Rorqualus  borealis.  Knox,  Nat.  Libr.  Vol.  6,  p.  125,  pi.  5. 

Characteristics.  Baleen  divided  into  four  or  five  thousand  plates.  Larger  than  the  preceding. 
Vertebral  65.  Length  50  -  105  feet. 

Description.  Body  not  cylindrical,  but  compressed  on  the  sides,  and  angular  on  the  back. 
Head  smaller  than  in  Balcena.  Dorsal  elevation  very  small,  triangular,  opposite  to  the  vent. 
Swimming  paws  placed  far  back,  long,  slender,  and  pointed  at  the  tips.  Baleen  314  plates 
on  each  side,  extending  about  fifteen  inches,  and  succeeded  by  a  great  number  of  smaller  plates, 
gradually  changing  to  bristles.  Vertebrae  65.  The  largest  vertebrae  are  14  inches  in  the 
diameter  of  their  bodies,  and  from  6-7  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  their  transverse  processes. 
Color.  Uniform  black  above,  light  beneath.  Folds  pale  white,  occasionally  reddish. 

These  two  species  resemble  each  other  so  much  as  to  have  been  confounded  together,  until 
the  careful  examination  and  comparison  of  twTo  recent  specimens  enabled  Dr.  Knox  to  establish 
their  specific  differences.  The  species  is  introduced  here  upon  the  authority  of  Dr.  Mitchill, 
who  has  furnished  a  very  brief  notice  of  a  large  whale  exhibited  in  New-York  in  1804.  It 
grounded,  and  was  captured  near  Reedy  Island  in  the  Delaware.  The  following  is  all  the 
information  furnished  :  “  Length  38  feet ;  circumference  18  feet ;  expanse  of  the  jaws  at  the 
“  extremity,  8  feet.  No  teeth  in  either  jaw.  Whalebone  one  to  two  feet  long  in  the  upper 
“  jaw,  of  a  grey  hairy  appearance.”  This  is  very  meagre,  but  is  enough  to  indicate  that  it 
should  probably  be  referred  to  the  above  species.  That  it  was  clearly  not  the  young  of  the 
Right  Whale,  R.  mysticetus,  is  manifest  from  the  absence  of  a  dorsal  elevation,  which  led 
Mitchill  to  refer  it  to  the  B.  boops ;  while  its  size  and  the  peculiar  appearance  of  the  baleen, 
would  lead  us  to  arrange  it  under  the  present  species.  It  was  a  young  individual. 

( EXTRA-LIMI  TA  L. ) 

Rorqualis  australis.  In  1837,  the  skull  of  a  large  whale  was  exhibited  in  New-York,  under  the  im¬ 
posing  name  of  “Fossil  Head  of  the  Sea  Serpent.”  It  was  reported  to  have  been  dug  up  near  the 
Balize,  Louisiana,  and  was  in  the  condition  of  a  graveyard  bone.  It  had  been  probably  stranded, 


132 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


and.  subsequently  covered  by  the  rapidly  forming-  sediment  of  the  Mississippi.  The  lower  jaw  was 
wanting.  The  skull,  with  the  upper  jaw,  was  perfect,  and  measured  fifteen  feet.  After  a  careful 
examination  and  comparison,  it  was  identified  with  the  Rorqualis  australis,  or  Bala?ioptera  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  described  and  figured  by  Cuvier  (Oss.  Foss.  Vol.  5,  part  1,  p.  370,  pi.  26, 
figs.  1,  2,  3,  4).  A  reduced  figure,  from  a  larger  one  taken  on  the  spot,  will  be  found  on  Plate  33, 
fig.  4. 


FAMILY  III.  DELPHINIDjE. 

Teeth  in  both  jaws,  often  numerous.  No  baleen.  Other  characters  in  common  with  the 
preceding  family.  Gregarious. 

Obs.  Sixteen  species,  included  under  seven  genera,  belong  to  this  family.  They  are  generally 
small,  but  some  of  them  equal  in  bulk  the  largest  of  the  preceding  family. 

GENUS  GLOBICEPHALUS.  Lesson. 

Head  globular  ;  the  rostrum  not  produced.  Mouth  subterminal,  beneath.  A  dorsal  eminence 
resembling  a  fin.  Spiracle  single. 

Obs.  This  small  group  contains  at  present  two  living  and  one  fossil  species.  On  our  coast, 
we  have  frequently 

THE  SOCIAL  WHALE. 

GI.OBICEPHALUS  melas. 

PLATE  XXX.  FIG.  3. 

Delphinus  melas.  Trail,  Nicholson’s  Journal,  Vol.  22,  p.  81,  1809,  figure. 

D.  globiceps.  Cuvier,  Mem.  Mus.  Vol.  19,  p.  1,  1812,  figure. 

D.  deductor.  Scokesby,  Arct.  Regions,  Vol.  1,  p.  496,  figure. 

D.  intermedins.  Harlan,  Ac.  Sciences,  Vol.  6,  p.  51,  pi.  1. 

Phocena  globiceps.  Sampson,  Am.  Journal,  Vol.  23,  p.  301,  figure. 

Characteristics.  Uniform  black  above  ;  lighter  beneath.  Teeth  varying  from  18-28  in  each 
jaw.  Swimming  paws  long  and  pointed.  Length  15  to  20  feet. 

Description.  Body  cylindrical,  tapering  to  the  tail,  and  ending  in  front  in  an  obtuse  globular 
head.  Upper  jaw  somewhat  advanced  before  the  lower.  Teeth  equidistant,  sharp,  conical, 
incurved  at  the  point,  the  largest  eight  inches  in  length ;  they  are  not  apparent  in  the  young, 
and  appear  to  vary  in  number  with  age.  In  an  adult  specimen,  they  were  28  in  each  jaw. 
Spiracle  single,  and  placed  on  the  back  of  the  head.  Sides  of  the  tail  carinated  ;  the  tail  itself 
strangulated  at  the  base.  The  dorsal  eminence  triangular,  broad  at  base,  sixteen  inches  high, 
immovable,  and  placed  six  feet  from  the  mouth.  Swimming  paws  long,  narrow  and  tapering, 
sixteen  inches  in  length. 


FAMILY  DELPHINID^E. 


133 


Color.  Shining,  bluish  black  above.  A  narrow  space  extending  from  the  throat  to  the 
vent,  of  a  light  grey  color. 

Length  twenty  feet. 

The  dimensions  here  given,  were  from  an  adult  of  the  largest  size.  This  cetaceous  animal, 
so  remarkable  for  its  loud  cries  when  excited,  has  received  in  our  country  various  popular 
names.  It  is  called  Black  Whale-fish,  Hoiuling  Whale,  Social  Whale,  and  Bottle-head.  It 
resembles  the  Grampus  in  size,  and  is  probably  often  confounded  with  it.  It  appears  to  have 
been  first  noticed  by  Egede  in  his  History  of  Greenland,  and  subsequently  figured  by  Duha- 
mel  (Hist.  Poiss.  pi.  ix.  fig.  5).  They  are  often  seen  in  large  herds,  which,  from  some  cause 
as  yet  unexplained,  are  frequently  stranded,  and  perish  on  the  coast.  The  books  are  full  of 
instances  of  such  occurrences  on  the  shores  of  Europe,  more  particularly  in  the  high  northern 
latitudes.  At  Wellfleet,  near  Cape  Cod,  in  1822,  a  herd  of  one  hundred  of  these  social 
whales,  varying  in  length  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  were  stranded  and  captured.  In  the  cotem¬ 
porary  newspaper  notices,  it  was  stated  that  they  had  been  formerly  numerous  on  that  coast, 
but  had  not  appeared  there  for  many  years.  In  September,  1823,  a  single  one  was  taken  in 
Salem  harbor,  and  described  by  Dr.  Harlan  as  Delphinus  intermedins.  In  October,  1832, 
another  individual  came  ashore  at  Fairfield  beach,  Connecticut,  and  was  described  by  Mr. 
Sampson.  In  1834,  I  received  an  account  of  the  capture  of  two  others  on  the  east  end  of 
Long  Island.  The  details  furnished  on  that  occasion  enabled  me  to  refer  them  with  exactness 
to  this  species. 


GENUS  PHOCJENA.  Cuvier. 

Head  rounded,  not  much  elevated.  Mouth  terminal.  Snout  short  and  rounded.  Teeth 
varying  in  number.  Dorsal  eminence  as  in  the  preceding.  Usually  of  a  small  size.  Gre¬ 
garious.  Piscivorous. 


THE  COMMON  PORPOISE. 

Phocsna  communis. 


Delphinus  phocama.  Linneus.  Gmelin. 

Porpesse.  Pennant,  Brit.  Zool.  Vol.  3,  p.  93. 

D.  phoc<ena.  Desmarest,  Mammalogie,  p.  516. 

Sea  Swine.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  3,  p.  69. 

Characteristics.  Under  jaw  slightly  longest.  Twenty  to  twenty-five  teeth  on  each  side  in 
both  jaws,  straight,  compressed,  and  rounded  at  the  tips.  Length  4  to  5 
feet. 

Description.  Body  elongated,  tapering  towards  the  tail.  Skin  smooth.  Snout  short  and 
obtuse.  Eyes  small,  and  placed  behind  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Auditory  hole  very  small. 
Spiracle  single,  on  the  top  of  the  head  over  the  eyes,  crescent-shaped,  with  its  concavity 


134 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


directed  forward.  Dorsal  eminence  broad,  triangular,  and  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  body. 
Swimming  paws  placed  very  low  down,  moderate,  oval  and  obtusely  pointed.  Tail  lunated. 

Color.  Dusky  bluish  black  above  ;  whitish  beneath,  the  two  colors  meeting  on  the  sides. 
Swimming  paws  of  the  color  above. 

Length  four  to  five  feet. 

The  Porpoise,  or  Porpess,  is  common  in  our  rivers  and  bays,  chiefly  in  the  spring  and  sum¬ 
mer  months,  when  they  appear  in  the  train  of  the  migratory  Clupidce,  among  which  they 
make  great  havoc.  This  species  has  been  confounded  with  another  cetaceous  animal  of  the 
same  name,  which  is  very  rarely  seen  unless  in  the  ocean  off  soundings.  We  allude  to  the 
Delphinus  delphis,  or  Sea  porpess,  the  Dolphin  of  the  ancients.  The  common  porpoises 
were  formerly  so  abundant  on  the  shores  of  Long  Island,  as  to  have  induced  the  inhabitants 
to  form  establishments  for  their  capture.  In  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  in  the  State  of 
New-York  for  the  promotion  of  Agriculture,  Arts  and  Manufactures,  4to.  N.  Y.  1792,  will  be 
found  a  paper  by  E.  L’Hommedieu,  on  the  manner  of  taking  porpoises  at  the  east  end  of 
Long  Island.  A  seine  is  prepared  about  five  hundred  feet  long,  with  cords  about  the  size  of 
ratlin  stuff;  the  meshes  are  about  nine  inches  square,  and  the  seine  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
deep.  Tight  casks  of  the  size  of  ten  gallon  kegs,  are  used  as  buoys.  The  seine  is  then  set 
parallel  with  the  shore,  at  the  distance  of  eighty  rods,  and  secured  by  anchors  at  each  end. 
Two  other  seines  are  made  of  large  codline,  with  the  meshes  six  inches  square.  These  are 
put  in  separate  boats  on  the  shore,  opposite  each  end  of  the  larger  seine.  Porpoises  go  in 
scholes,  and  in  following  the  small  fish,  come  between  the  shore  and  the  great  seine.  As  soon 
as  they  reach  the  middle  of  the  seine,  the  boat  at  the  far  end  heads  them  off,  throwing  out 
the  light  seine  from  the  shore  to  the  end  of  the  great  seine,  to  which  it  is  fastened ;  when 
both  are  thus  fastened,  and  the  anchors  raised,  the  porpoises  are  imprisoned.  Opposite  the 
great  seine,  and  parallel  with  it,  on  the  shore,  stout  stakes  are  driven  in  about  three  rods  apart, 
and  a  capstan  placed  at  each.  The  small  seines  are  drawn  in,  and  the  boats  are  sent  outside. 
As  soon  as  the  porpoises  find  themselves  confined,  and  the  water  becomes  shoal,  they  throw 
themselves  against  the  bag  of  the  seine  with  so  much  force,  that  it  is  necessary  to  ease  the 
capstan  to  prevent  the  ropes  parting.  As  soon  as  this  is  over,  they  do  not  make  a  second 
attempt,  but  become  so  gentle  that  the  men  wade  in  among  them,  and  put  a  slip-noose  over 
their  tails,  or  secure  them  with  harpoons,  and  drag  them  ashore  :  there  they  are  all  speedily 
despatched.  The  blubber,  for  which  they  are  principally  sought,  varies  from  one  to  two 
indies  in  thickness,  and  yields  upon  an  average  six  gallons  of  oil  per  porpoise.  The  blubber 
is  cut  through  on  the  back  and  belly,  and  is  peeled  off  in  halves ;  it  is  then  scraped  off  with 
an  instrument  resembling  a  currier’s  knife,  and  the  skin  sent  to  the  tanner.  The  leather 
made  from  this  skin  is  said  to  be  the  strongest  known,  and  is  used  more  particularly  for  the 
upper  leather  of  boots  and  shoes. 

The  word  porpoise,  or  porpesse,  comes  to  us  from  the  Latin  through  the  French,  Porc- 
poisson.  Grampus  has  a  similar  origin. 


FAMILY  DELPHINIDiE. 


135 


THE  GRAMPUS, 

Phocjena  orca. 

PLATE  XXXII.  FIG.  1.  Lower  Jaw  and  Tooth. 

Delphinus  orca.  Fab.  Faun.  Grcenl. 

Killers.  Dudley,  Phil.  Trans.  1719,  p.  256;  Abridg.  Vol.  7,  p.  424. 

D.  gladiator  et  orca.  Lacep.  Yol.  15,  p.  1.  Bloch,  Poiss.  Vol.  10,  p.  93  and  96. 

Grampus.  Hunter,  Phil.  Trans.  1787,  pi.  16. 

Grand-poisson,  Grapois  and  Grampus ,  of  the  Normans  and  English. 

Killer  and  Thrasher,  of  the  American  sailors. 

Characteristics.  Upper  jaw  longest.  Teeth  conical,  bent  at  their  tips  ;  eleven  on  each  side, 
above  and  below.  Length  20  -  25  feet. 

Description.  Body  thick  in  proportion  to  its  length,  oval.  Snout  short  and  obtuse.  Lower 
jaw  broader  than  the  upper.  Teeth  unequal,  varying  in  number  with  age,  but  usually  twenty- 
two  in  each  jaw,  and  larger  than  in  any  other  species  of  this  genus.  In  the  right  side  of  a 
lower  jaw  which  I  had  an  opportunity  of  examining,  the  teeth  were  four  inches  long,  and  pro¬ 
jected  two  inches  beyond  the  sockets  ;  the  upper  portion  conical,  with  blunt  points  directed 
inward  and  backward  ;  the  lower  portion  just  above  and  within  the  sockets,  compressed  trans¬ 
versely,  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  in  the  other  direction  not  exceeding  one  inch  :  all 
the  teeth  contracted  at  their  bases.  The  dorsal  elevation,  miscalled  a  fin,  is  placed  nearly  on 
the  middle  of  the  body,  pointed  at  the  tip,  and  nearly  four  feet  high.  Swimming  paws  broad 
and  oval.  Tail  lunate. 

Color.  Glossy  black  above ;  white  beneath,  the  two  colors  separated  by  a  well  defined  but 
irregular  line.  Occasionally  a  round  or  oblong  patch  of  white  above  or  behind  the  eye. 

Length,  20  -  25  feet. 

The  Grampus,  Finner  or  Black-fish  Whale,  under  which  different  names  it  is  known  to  our 
fishermen,  was  formerly  numerous  on  our  coast,  when  the  Right  Whale  was  also  abundant. 
I  have  seen  them  off  the  coast  of  Long  Island,  on  several  occasions.  Paul  Dudley,  in  an 
essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  Whales,  in  the  English  Philosophical  Transactions,  notices 
this  species  as  the  natural  enemy  of  the  whale :  “  Our  whalemen  have  given  this  fish  the 
“  name  of  Killer.  These  killers  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  long,  and  have  teeth  in  both 
“  jaws,  that  lock  one  within  the  other.  They  have  a  fin  near  the  middle  of  the  back,  four  or 
“  five  feet  long.  They  go  in  company  by  dozens,  and  will  set  upon  a  young  whale,  and  will 
“  bait  him  like  so  many  bulldogs.”  The  grampus  is  doubtless  a  voracious  animal,  living 
upon  various  large  fish,  and  even  seals  and  porpoises  have  been  found  in  their  stomachs  ;  but 
the  stories  of  their  attacking  whales  in  packs,  will  perhaps  require  confirmation  by  competent 
authority.  They  are  very  sportive  in  their  habits  ;  and  perhaps  a  large  herd  of  them  together, 
engaged  in  chasing  and  tumbling  over  each  other,  may  have  suggested  to  the  lovers  of  the 
marvellous  the  idea  of  being  occupied  in  attacking  a  whale.  The  grampus  furnishes  an 
excellent  oil. 


136 


NEW-YORK  FAUNA. 


GENUS  DELPHINUS.  Linneus. 

Head  more  or  less  rounded,  and  separated  from  the  elongated  beak  by  a  distinct  furrow. 
Teeth  numerous.  Dorsal  eminence  as  in  the  preceding. 

THE  SEA  PORPOISE. 

Delphinus  delphis. 

PLATE  XXXI.  FIG.  1. 

Delphinus  delphis.  Linneus,  12  Ed.  p.  108. 

D.  delphis.  Desmarest,  Mammalogie,  p.  514. 

The  True  Dolphin.  Godman,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  3,  p.  58. 

Characteristics.  Teeth  forty  to  forty-eight  on  each  side,  above  and  below,  slender,  subequal, 
slightly  bent,  pointed.  Length  6-8  feet. 

Description.  Body  cylindrical,  tapering,  with  a  smooth,  hard  coriaceous  skin.  Eyes  small, 
low  down,  and  near  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Spiracle  single,  on  the  summit  of  the  head,  above 
the  eyes.  Beak  the  length  of  the  head.  Teeth  subequal,  equidistant,  interlocking  with  each 
other,  somewhat  larger  towards  the  posterior  part  of  the  jaw.  Swimming  paws  placed  low, 
longer  than  broad,  half  way  between  the  end  of  the  beak  and  the  dorsal  eminence,  subfalcate. 
Dorsal  eminence  triangular,  curved  backward,  ten  inches  high,  and  nearly  the  same  at  base. 
Tail  lunate,  with  two  long  pointed  lobes. 

Color.  Dark  greenish  black  above ;  white  beneath,  and  greyish  on  the  sides. 

Length  6-8  feet. 

The  name  of  Dolphin,  which  is  applied  to  this  animal,  is  also  given  by  sailors  to  a  species 
of  fish.  This  is  the  true  Dolphin  of  the  ancients,  concerning  whose  docility  and  fondness  for 
music  such  marvellous  stories  have  reached  us.  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Audubon  for  an  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  presenting  the  accompanying  figure,  reduced  from  a  sketch  made  by  him  of  an 
individual  six  feet  long. 

The  Sea  Porpoise  is  generally  seen  in  large  herds.  Upon  one  occasion,  I  saw  during  a 
storm  a  troop  of  these  animals.  They  swam  abreast  of  each  other,  and  the  line  extended 
nearly  a  mile.  Their  movements,  as  they  sprang  over  a  wave,  were  very  beautiful.  They  are 
exceedingly  ravenous,  living  upon  all  the  gregarious  tribes  of  fishes.  They  rarely  approach 
soundings,  unless  in  pursuit  of  their  prey. 

{EXTRA LIMIT AL) 

D.  calvertensis,  Harlan.  (Fossil.)  From  the  Maryland  tertiary.  (See  Bulletin  Nat.  Instit.  Washington. 
No.  2.) 


LIST 


OF 

WORKS  REFERRED  TO  IN  THE  PRECEDING  PAGES. 


Ac.  Sc.  Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia.  8  vols.  8vo.  Philad.  1817  et  seq. 

Am.  Jmr.  The  American  Journal  of  Sciences  and  the  Arts,  conducted  by  B.  Silliman. 

Am.  Phil.  Soc.  Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  C  vols.  4to.  Phila.  1771-1809.  New  Series, 
1818  et  seq. 

Am.  Jour.  Geol.  Monthly  American  Journal  of  Geology  and  Natural  Science.  8vo.  Philad.  1831  and  32. 

Am.  Month.  Mag.  The  American  Monthly  Magazine  and  Critical  Review.  4  vols.  8vo.  New-York,  1817-19, 

Ann.  Lajc.  Annals  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New-York.  4  vols,  8vo.  New-York,  1824  et  seq. 

Ann.  Mus.  Annales  du  Museum  d’Histoire  Naturelle.  20  vols.  4to.  Paris,  1802-13. 

Ashe,  T.  Memoirs  of  Mammoth,  and  various  other  extraordinary  and  stupendous  bones  of  Incognita  or  Nondescript 
Animals  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ohio,  Wabash,  Illinois,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Osage  and  Red  Rivers,  &c. 
By  Th.  Ashe,  Esq.  pp.  60.  8vo.  Liverpool,  1806. 

Belknap.  History  of  New-Hampshire.  3  vols.  8vo.  Boston,  1792. 

Bon.  Sag.  Saggio  di  una  distribuzione  metodiea  degli  animali  vertebrati,  di  C.  L.  Bonaparte.  Roma,  1831. 

Bon.  Oss.  Sulla  seconda  edizione  del  Regno  animale  del  Barone  G.  Cuvier,  Osservazioni.  pp.  175,  8vo.  Bolotina  1830. 
Brisson.  Regnum  Animale,  sive  Synopsis  Methodica,  &c.  8vo.  Lug.  Bat.  1762. 

Cab.  Nat.  Hist.  Cabinet  of  Natural  History  and  American  Rural  Sports,  by  J.  Doughty.  4to.  Philad. 

Catesby.  Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida  and  New-Bahama  Islands.  2  vols.  fol.  Lond.  1731. 

Clinton.  Letters  on  the  Natural  History,  &c.  of  the  State  of  New-York.  8vo.  New-York,  1822. 

Cuv.  It.  A.  Le  Regne  Animal  distribue  d’apres  son  organization,  &c.  4  vols.  8vo.  Paris,  1817. 

Cuv.  Oss.  Foss.  Recherches  sur  les  ossemens  fossiles  de  Guadrupedes.  5  vols.  4to.  Paris,  1821  -  24. 

C iv.  F.  Des  dents  de  Mammiferes  considerees  comme  caracteres  zoologiques,  par  F.  Cuvier.  8vo.  Paris,  1825. 
Desmarest.  Mammalogie;  ou  Description  des  Especes  de  Mammiferes,  par  A.  G.  Desmarest.  4to.  Paris,  1820. 
Eights.  Papers  on  Natural  History,  published  in  the  Zodiac.  Albany,  1835  -  6. 

Emmons.  Report  on  the  Guadrupeds  of  Massachusetts,  by  E.  Emmons,  pp.  36.  Boston,  1838. 

“  Second  Report,  pp.  83.  Boston,  1840. 

Erxleben.  Systema  Regni  Animalis,  Classis  1,  Mammalia.  8vo.  Lipsiie,  1777. 

Godman.  American  Natural  History :  Mastology.  3  vols.  8vo.  Philad.  1826. 

“  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,  by  the  same.  Philad.  1823. 

Griffith.  The  Animal  Kingdom  arranged  in  conformity  with  its  organization,  by  E.  Griffith  and  others.  16  vols.  8vo. 
Lond.  1827  -  35. 

Guerin.  Magazin  de  Zoologie,  publie  par  F.  Guerin.  8  vols.  8vo.  Paris,  1831  et  seq. 

Harlan.  Fauna  Americana ;  being  a  description  of  the  Mammiferous  Animals  inhabiting  North  America,  pp.  318. 
8vo.  Philad.  1835. 

Harl.  Med.  and  Phys.  Medical  and  Physical  Researches,  by  R.  Harlan,  M.  D.  pp.  653.  8vo.  Philad.  1835. 

Fauna.  18 


138 


LIST  OF  BOOKS. 


Hitchcock.  Catalogue  of  the  Animals  and  Plants  in  Massachusetts.  8vo.  Amherst,  1835 
III  .Prod.  Prodromus  Systematis  Maminalium  et  Avium,  Caroli  Illigeri.  Berolini,  1811. 

Leach.  Zoological  Miscellany,  by  W.  E.  Leach.  3  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  1814  -  17. 

Lewis  and  Clarke.  Travels  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  1804,  5  and  6. 

Lin.  or  L.  Systema  Naturae.  This  work  passed  through  many  editions,  but  the  12th  is  the  one  referred  to. 

Lit.  and  Phil.  Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  New-York.  4to.  New-York,  1815. 

Long.  Exp.  Expedition,  &c.  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  under  the  command  of  Major  Long. 

Laud.  Mag.  Magazine  of  Natural  History,  and  Journal  of  Zoology,  Botany,  &c.  conducted  by  J.  C.  Loudon.  8vo. 
Mem.  Mus.  Memoires  du  Museum  d’Histoire  Naturelle.  20  vols.  4to.  Paris,  1815  et  seq. 

Lond.  1829  et  seq. 

Pallas.  Spicilegia  Zoologica.  4to.  Berlin,  1767  -  80. 

Peale,  Rem.  An  Historical  Disquisition  on  the  Mammoth,  or  great  American  Incognitum.  8vo.  pp.  91,  Lond.  1803. 
Penn.  Arct.  Zool.  Arctic  Zoology,  by  Thos.  Pennant.  3  vols.  4to.  London,  1784  -  7. 

Penn.  Hist.  Quad.  History  of  Quadrupeds.  Third  edition.  2  vols.  4to.  Lond.  1793. 

Richardson,  F.  B.  A.  Fauna  Boreali  Americana,  or  the  Zoology  of  the  Northern  Parts  of  America,  Part  1.  4to. 
Lond.  1829. 

Sabine.  Appendix  to  Franklin's  First  Journey.  4to.  Lond.  1822. 

Schoolcraft.  Travels  to  the  Sources  of  the  Mississippi  River,  by  H.  R.  Schoolcraft.  Albany,  1821. 

Schreber.  Die  Saugethiere,  &c. ;  or  History  of  Mammalia.  5  vols.  4to.  Erlangen,  1775  et  seq. 

Siebald.  Phalainologia  Nova ;  sive  observationes  de  rarioribus  quibusdam  batenis,  &c.  8vo.  Edinburgi,  1692. 
Temminck.  Monographies  de  Mammiferes,  &c.,  par  C.  J.  Temminck.  4to.  Paris,  1825. 

Williams.  Natural  and  Civil  History  of  Vermont. 

Wilson.  American  Ornithology,  by  Alexander  Wilson.  9  vols.  4to.  Philad. 

Zool.  Jmr.  Zoological  Journal.  5  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  1825  et  seq. 

Zool.  Syl.  A  Zoological  Syllabus  and  Note  Book.  12mo.  Troy,  1822. 


INDEX 


TO  THE 

POPULAR  NAMES  MENTIONED  IN  THIS  REPORT, 


Page. 


Bat,  genus, _  5 

—  New-York, _  6 

—  Hoary,  _  7 

—  Little  Brown, _  8 

—  Silver-haired, _  9 

—  Carolina, _  10 

Bear,  genus, _  24 

—  Black, _  24 

Beaver, _  72 

Beaver  Field-mouse, _  86 

Bison, _  110 

Button-nose  Mole, _  14 

Cat,  Wild, _  51 

—  Domestic, _  47 

Canada  Porcupine, _  77 

Cougar, _  48 

Chipmuck, _  63 

Deer,  Common, _ 113 

• —  Moose, _ 115 

De  Kay’s  Shrew, _  17 

Deer-mouse, _  70 

Dog, -  41 

Dolphin, _  136 

Elephant,  (fossil,) _ 100 

Elk,  Flat-homed, _ 116 

—  Black, _  116 

—  Round-homed, _ 119 

Ermine, _  36 


Page. 


Fisher, _  31 

F orster’s  Shrew, _  20 

Fox,  Grey, _  45 

—  Red, _  44 

Goat,  Common, _ 112 

—  Rocky  Mountain,  .  112 

Ground-hog, _  69 

Ground  Squirrel, _  63 

Grampus, _  134 

Hare,  Northern, _  95 

Horse, _  107 

—  (fossil,) _  108 

Hog,  Common, _  106 

Jumping  Mouse, _  82 

Lynx,  Northern. _  50 

—  Bay, -  51 

Manatee, _  123 

Mink, _  37 

—  Mountain, _  38 

—  Water, _  38 

Mouse  Common, _  82 

— •  Jumping, _  82 

—  Marsh  Meadow,. .  84 

—  Tawny, _  85 

—  Beaver  Field,  ...  86 

— •  Oneida  Meadow, .  88 

—  Light-colored  do. .  89 

—  Yellow-cheeked  do.  90 


Moose, _  _ 

Page. 

115 

Mastodon,  (fossil,) ... 

102 

Musquash, ._  _  _  . 

75 

Muskrat,  _ _ _ 

75 

Musk  Beaver,  ..  _ 

75 

Opossum,  _  _  . 

3 

Oneida  Meadow-mouse,.  . 

88 

Otter, _  _  _ 

39 

Ox, - 

109 

Panther,  Northern, ..  .. 

47 

Pine  Marten, _  . 

32 

Pond  Dog,.  _  _. 

72 

Porcupine, _ _ _ 

77 

Porpoise, _  ..  _ 

133 

Puma, _  _ 

47 

Rabbit,  Grey, _ 

93 

Raccoon, _ 

26 

Rat,  Brown, _  . 

79 

—  Black, _ 

80 

—  American, _ 

81 

Rorqual,  .. 

131 

Rein-deer,  ._  _ 

121 

Sable,  _  . 

32 

Sea-dog, _  _ 

54 

Shrew,  genus,  _ _ 

17 

—  De  Kay’s, _ 

17 

—  Short-tailed, _ 

18 

—  Small, _ 

19 

140 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


Page. 


Shrew,  Forster’s, _  20 

—  Carolina, _  21 

—  Broad-nosed, _  22 

Shrew-mole, -  15 

Skunk, _  29 

Seal,  Common, _  53 

—  Hooded, _  55 

Star-nose, _  12 

Squirrel,  genus, _  57 

— •  Little  Grey, _  57 

—  Fox, _  59 

—  Red, _  61 


Page. 


Squirrel,  Black, _  60 

—  Striped, _  62 

—  Flying, . .  65 

Sheep,  Common, _ 111 

—  Rocky  Mountain,.  112 

Stag,  American, _ 118 

—  (fossil,) _  120 

Walrus, _  56 

Weasel,  genus, _  31 

—  New- York, _  36 

—  Small, _  34 

—  Brown, _  35 


Page. 

Weasel,  White, _  37 

Whale,  genus, _  124 

—  Right, -  124 

—  Sperm, _  128 

—  Social, _  132 

—  Beaked, _  130 

—  Northern, _ 131 

Wolverehe, _  27 

Wolf, _  42 

—  Black, _  43 

—  Grey, _  43 

Woodchuck, _  68 


INDEX 


TO  THE 

LATIN  NAMES. 


[The  species  in  italics  have  not  been  observed  in  this  State.] 


Page. 


Arctomidje, _  66 

Aretomys  monax, _  68 

—  empetra, _  70 

—  pruinosus, _  70 

—  brachyurus, _  70 

Antilope  americana, _ 112 

Arvicola  albo-rufescens,.  _  89 

—  borealis , _  90 

—  ferrugineus, ...  91 

—  gapperi, _  91 

—  hirsutus, _  86 

—  noveboracensis,.  90 

—  nuttali, _  91 

—  oneida, _  88 

—  pensylvanicus,  .  90 

—  pinetornm, _  91 

—  rufescens, _  85 

—  richardsoni, _  91 

—  rubricaius, _  91 

—  xanthognathus, .  90 

—  riparius, _  84 

Aplodontia  leporina, _  91 

Baeaenid.®, _ 123 

Balcena  mysticetus, _ 124 

Bison  americanus, _ 110 

Bovid®, _  109 

Bos  taurus, _  109 

—  moschatus , _ 110 


Page. 


Bos  bombifrons,  (fossil,) _ 110 

—  latifrons,  (  id.  )..  110 

—  pallasi,  (  id.  )..  110 

Canid®, _  41 

Cards  familiaris, _  41 

CARNIVORA, _  5 

Castor  fiber, _  72 

Castorid®, _  72 

Castor  ohioensis, _  75 

Caprid®, _  110 

Capra  hircus,  _  112 

—  americana , _ 112 

Cervid.e, _  113 

Cervus  virginianus, _ 113 

—  alces, _ 115 

—  macrotis, _ 118 

—  leucurus, _  118 

—  nemoralis, _ 118 

CETACEA, . .  122 

Condylura  cristata, _  12 

Delphinid®, _ 132 

Delphinus  delphis, _ 136 

—  calvertensis, . .  136 

Dicotyles  torquatus, _ 107 

Dideephid*, _  2 

Didelphis  virgirdana, _  3 

EDENTATA, _  98 

Enhydra  lutris , _  41 


Page. 


Elephantid*, _  99 

Elephas  primigenius, _ 100 

—  americanus, _ 101 

Elaphus  canadensis, _ 118 

—  americanus  (fossil),  120 

EciuidjE, _  107 

Equus  caballus, _ 107 

—  asinus, _  108 

—  major  (fossil), _ 108 

Felidj®, _  46 

Felis  maniculata, _  47 

—  concolor, _  47 

Fiber  zibethicus, _  75 

Gerbillidj®, _  70 

Geomys  douglasi, _ j...  92 

—  nmbrinus, _  92 

—  talpoides, _  92 

—  bulbivorus, _  92 

—  bursarius, _  92 

—  borealis, _  92 

—  townsendi, _  92 

Georychus  helvolus, _  91 

—  trimucronatus,  9 1 

—  hudsonius,  ...  91 

—  groenlandicus,  91 

Globicephalus  melas, _ 132 

Gulo  luscus, _  27 

Hystricid.e, _  77 


LATIN  INDEX. 


142 


PAGE. 


Hystrix  hudsonius, -  77 

Lagomys  princeps. -  98 

Leporid®, _  92 

Ijepus  americanus, _  95 

—  glacialis, _  97 

—  aquaticus , _  97 

—  palustris, _  97 

—  campestris, _  97 

—  longicaudatus, _  97 

—  nanus, _  93 

—  nigricaudatus, ...  97 

—  californicus, _  97 

—  richardsoni, _  97 

—  townsendi, _  97 

—  artimesia, _  98 

—  bachmani, _  98 

Lupus  occidentals, .  42 

Lutrid®,  _  39 

Lutra  canadensis, _  39 

—  lataxina, . .  41 

Lyncus  borealis, _  50 

—  rufus, . .  51 

MARSUPIATA, _  2 

Mastodon  maximus, . 102 

Manatid®, . . 122 

Manatus  americanus. _ 123 

—  lalirostris, _ 123 

—  giganteus, _ 123 

Megalonyx  jeffersoni , _  99 

Megatherium  cuvieri, _  98 

Meles  labradoria, . .  27 

Mephitis  americana, _  29 

Meriones  americanus, _  70 

Molossus  cynocephalus, . .  11 

—  fuliginosus, _  11 

Mcstelid®,. .  29 

Mustek  canadensis, _  31 

—  martes, _  32 

—  pusilla, _  34 

—  fusca, _  35 

—  frenata, .  35 

Murid®, .  79 

Mus  decumanus, .  79 

—  rattus, . .  80 

—  americanus, .  81 

—  musculus, .  82 


Page. 


Mus  leucopus, _  82 

Neotoma  floridanum, _  91 

—  drummondi, _  91 

Otisorex  platyrhincus, _  22 

—  longirostris,  ...  23 

Ovis  aries, . Ill 

—  montana, _  112 

—  mammilaris  (fossil),  _  112 

Plecotus  lecontii, _  11 

—  townsendi , _  11 

Phocid®, .  53 

Phoca  concolor, _  53 

Phocsena  communis, _ 133 

—  orca, .  134 

Physeter  macrocephalus,  _  128 

Procyon  lotor, _  26 

Pteromys  volucella, _  65 

—  sabrinus , _  66 

—  oregonensis ,  _ .  66 

Putorius  vison, _  37 

—  noveboracensis, .  36 

QUADRUMANA, _  2 

RODENTIA, _  57 

Rangifer  tarandus, _ 121 

Rorqualus  rostratus, _ 130 

—  borealis, _ 131 

—  australis, _ 131 

Scalops  aquaticus, _  15 

Sciurid®, _  57 

Sciurus  leucotis, _  57 

—  vulpinus, _  59 

—  hudsonius, _  61 

—  niger, _  60 

—  striatus, _  62 

—  auduboni, _  64 

—  carolinensis, _  64 

—  capistratus, _  65 

—  collei, _  65 

—  douglasi, _  64 

—  fuliginosus , _  64 

—  lanuginosus, _  65 

—  macrourus, _  64 

—  nigrescens, _  65 

—  quadrivittatus, . .  64 

—  richardsoni , _  64 

Sigmodon  hortense, _  91 


Page. 


SORECID®, _  12 

Sorex  dekayi, _  17 

—  brevicaudus, _  18 

—  cinereus, _  21 

—  cooperi, _  22 

—  fimbripes, _  22 

—  parvus, _  19 

—  palustris, _  22 

—  forsteri, _  20 

—  carolinensis, _  21 

—  richardsoni, _  21 

Spermophilus  lateralis, ..  67 

—  tredecem- 

lineatus,  67 

—  douglasi,..  67 

—  parryi, _  67 

—  beechyi, _  67 

—  franklinii,  67 

—  richardsoni,  67 


grammurus,  67 


—  guttatus, .  .  67 

—  ludovicianus,  67 

Stemmatopus  cristatus, _  55 

Suid®, _  106 

Susscrofa, _  106 

Trichecus  rosmarus, _  56 

—  virginianus  (fossil),  56 

Tapirus, _  107 

Trogontherium  ohioense,.  75 

UNGULATA, _  99 

Up.sid®, _  23 

Ursus  americanus, _  24 

—  ferox, _ _  25 

—  maritimus, _  25 

Vespertilionid®, _  5 

V espertilio  noveboracensis,  6 

—  monticola , _  11 

—  pruinosus,  ...  7 

—  virginianus,  .  11 

—  subulatus,  ...  8 

—  noctivagans,  .  9 

—  carolinensis,  .  10 

Vulpes  fulvus, _  44 

—  virginianus, _  45 

—  velox, _  46 

Zeuglodon  harlani , _ 123 


LIST 


OF 


PLATES  OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 


Plate  I. 

Fig.  1.  The  Silver-Haired  Bat  (Vespertilio  noctivagans). 

2.  The  New-York  Bat  (V.  noveboracensis). 

Plate  II. 

Fig.  1.  The  Carolina  Bat  (V.  carolinensis). 

2.  The  Hoary  Bat  (V.  pruinosus). 

Plate  III. 

Fig.  1.  The  North  American  Otter  (Lutra  canadensis). 

2.  The  Little  Brown  Bat  (V.  subulatus). 

Plate  IV. 

Fig.  1.  The  Common  Star-nose  (Condylura  cristata). 

2.  The  Common  Shrew-mole  (Scalops  aquaticus). 

Plate  V. 

Fig.  1 .  The  Broad-nosed  Shrew  (Otisorex  platyrhincus). 

a,  under  side  of  the  head;  b,  lateral  view  of  the  skull. 
2.  De  Kay’s  Shrew  (Sorex  dekayi). 

Plate  VI. 

Fig.  1.  The  American  Black  Bear  (Ursus  americanus). 

2.  The  Raccoon  (Procyon  lotor). 


144 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Plate  VII. 

Fig.  1 .  The  Red  Fox  (Vulpes  fulvus). 

2.  The  Grey  Fox  (V.  virginianus). 


Fig.  1,  a. 

B. 

2,  A. 

B. 

C. 

3,  A. 

B. 


Plate  VIII. 

Skull  of  the  Beaver  (Castor  fiber). 

Vertical  view  of  the  teeth. 

Skull  of  American  Porcupine  (Hystrix  hudsonius). 
Upper  jaw  teeth  of  the  same. 

Lower  jaw  of  the  same. 

Skull  of  the  Mink  (Putorius  vison). 

Teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  of  the  same. 


Plate  IX. 

Fig.  1.  Whelp  of  the  Northern  Panther  (Felis  concolor). 

2.  Adult  of  the  same. 

Plate  X. 

Fig.  1.  The  Bay  Lynx  or  Wild  Cat  (Lyncus  rufus). 

2.  The  Northern  Lynx  (Lyncus  borealis). 

Plate  XI. 

Fig.  1.  The  Mink  (Putorius  vison). 

2.  The  American  Sable  or  Marten  (Mustek  martes). 

Plate  XII. 

Fig.  1.  The  Skunk  (Mephitis  americana). 

2.  The  Wolverene  (Gulo  luscus). 

Plate  XIII. 

Fig.  1.  Skull  of  the  Fisher  (Mustek  canadensis). 

2.  The  New-York  Ermine,  winter  dress,  (Putorius  noveboracensis). 

Plate  XIV. 

Fig.  1.  The  Small  Weasel  (Mustek  pusilla). 

2.  The  New-York  Ermine,  summer  dress,  (P.  noveboracensis). 

Plate  XV. 

Fig.  1.  The  Hooded  Seal  (Stemmatopus  cristatus). 

2.  The  Opossum  (Didelphis  virginiana). 

Plate  XVI. 

Fig.  1.  The  Striped  Squirrel  (Sciurus  striatus). 

2.  The  Flying  Squirrel  (Pteromys  volucella). 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


14 


Plate  XVII. 

Fig.  1.  The  Black  Squirrel  (Sciurus  niger). 

2.  The  Red  Squirrel  (Sc.  hudsonius). 

Plate  XVIII. 

Fig.  1 .  The  Little  Grey  Squirrel  (Sciurus  leucotis). 

2.  The  American  Seal  (Phoca  concolor). 

Plate  XIX. 

Fig.  1,  a.  Skull  of  the  Morse  (fossil),  seen  nearly  in  front,  (Trichecus  virginianus). 
b.  View  of  the  upper  jaw  teeth  of  the  same. 

2.  Skull  of  the  Sable  (Mustek  martes). 

3,  a.  Jaw  teeth  of  the  Trogontherium?  fossil. 

Lower  jaw  of  the  same. 

Plate  XX. 

Fig.  1.  The  Beaver  (Castor  fiber). 

2.  The  Musquash  (Fiber  zibethicus). 

Plate  XXL 

Fig.  1.  The  American  Black  Rat  (Mus  americanus). 

2.  The  Carolina  Shrew  (Sorex  carolinensis). 

3.  Forster’s  Shrew  (Sorex  forsteri). 

4.  The  Woodchuck  (Arctomys  monax). 

Plate  XXII. 

Fig.  1.  The  Tawny  Meadow-mouse  (Arvicola  rufescens). 

2.  The  Marsh  Meadow-mouse  (Arvicola  riparius). 

Plate  XXIII. 

Fig.  1.  The  Jumping  Mouse  (Mus  leucopus). 

2.  The  Yellow-cheeked  Meadow-mouse  (Ar.  xanthognathus) 

Plate  XXIV. 

Fig.  I.  The  Light-colored  Meadow-mouse  (Ar.  albo-rufescens). 

Dentition  of  the  same. 

2.  The  Deer  Mouse  (Meriones  americanus). 

Plate  XXV. 

Fig.  1.  The  Oneida  Meadow-mouse  (Arvicola  oneida). 

2.  The  Beaver  Field-mouse. 

Dentition  of  the  same. 


Fauna. 


19 


146 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Plate  XXVI. 

Fig.  1.  The  North  American  Porcupine  (Hystrix  hudsomus). 

2.  The  Northern  Hare  (Lepus  americanus). 

Plate  XXVII. 

Fig.  1.  The  American  Grey  Rabbit  (Lepus  nanus). 

2.  The  Common  American  Wolf  (Lupus  occidentalis). 

Plate  XXVIII. 

Fig.  1.  The  American  Deer  (Cervus  virginianus). 

2.  The  American  Stag  (Elaphus  canadensis). 

Plate  XXIX. 

Fig.  1.  The  Fossil  Stag,  skull,  horns  and  teeth,  (Elaphus  americanus). 
2.  The  Moose  (Cervus  alces). 

Horns  of  the  second  and  third  year. 

Plate  XXX. 

Fig.  1.  The  Beaked  Whale  (Rorqualus  rostratus). 

2.  The  Manatee  (Manatus  americanus). 

Upper  and  front  views  of  the  snout. 

3.  The  Social  Whale  (Globicephalus  melas). 

Plate  XXXI. 

Fig.  1.  The  Sea  Porpoise  (Delphinus  delphis). 

2.  The  Sperm  Whale  (Physeter  macrocephalus). 

3.  The  Right  Whale  (Balsena  mysticetus). 

Plate  XXXII. 

Fig.  1.  The  Grampus,  a  single  tooth,  lower  jaw,  (Phocama  orca). 

2.  The  American  Elephant,  fossil  tooth,  (Elephas  americanus). 

3.  The  Musquash,  skull,  (Fiber  zibethicus). 

4.  The  Manatee,  skull,  (Manatus  americanus). 

Plate  XXXIII. 

Fig.  1.  North  American  Otter,  skull,  (Lutra  canadensis). 

2.  Teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  right  side  of  the  same. 

3.  Vertical  view  of  the  same  skull. 

4.  The  Southern  Beaked  Whale,  skull,  (Rorqualus  australis). 


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