Ipresentet) to
oftbe

'Untvereit? of Toronto

flpf^n do^i^'^o

BOHN'S CLASSICAL LIBRARY.

PLINY'S
NATURAL HISTORY.

^r

1a

THE

NATURAL HISTORY

OF

PLINT,

TRANSLATED,

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

BY THE LATE

JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S.

AND

H. T. RILEY, Esq, B.A.,

LATE SCUOLAB OF CLAEE HALL, CAMBBIDGS.

VOL. I.

LONDON:

HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

MDCCCLY.

P7114

PEraTED BY TAYLOR AND FEANCI8,
BED LION COTJET, FLEET STEEET.

P E E F A C E.

The only translation of Flint's Natueal Histoet which
has hitherto appeared in the English language is that by
Philemon Holland, published in the latter part of the reign
of Elizabeth. It is no disparagement to Holland's meriis,
as a diligent and generally faithful translator, to say that
his work is unsuited to the requirements of the nineteenth
century.

In the present translation, the principal editions of
Pliny have been carefully consulted, and no pains have
been spared, as a reference to the Notes wiU show, to
present to the reader the labours of recent Commentators,
among wliom stands pre-eminent the celebrated Cuvier. It
has been a primary object to bring to the illustration of the
work whatever was afforded by the progress of knowledge
and modern discoveries in science and art. Without ample
illustration, Pliny's valuable work would want much of the
interest which belongs to it, and present difficulties scarcely
surmountable by any one who has not made the Author his
especial study.

In the first two Books, the text of Hardouin, as given in
Lemaire's edition (Paris, 1827), has been followed ; in the

VI PEEFACE .

remainder that of Sillig (Grotha, 1851-3), excepting in some
few instances, where, for reasons given in the Notes, it
has been deemed advisable to depart from it. The first
two Books, and portions of others, are the performance of
the late Dr. Bostock, who contemplated a translation of
the entire work; but, unfortunately for the interests of
science, he was not permitted to carry his design into
execution.

Upwards of a hundred pages had been printed off before
the present Translator entered on his duties ; and as they
had not the advantage of Dr. Bostock's superintendence
through the press, some trifling oversights have occurred.
These are, for the most part, corrected in a short Appendix.

THE

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINY.

Cattts Plinius Sectjndus was bom either at Verona or
Novum Comum\ now Como, in Cisalpine Gaul, in the year
A.u.c. 776, and a.d. 23. It is supposed that his earlier years
were spent in his native province ; and that he was still a
youth when he removed to Eome, and attended the lectures
of the grammarian Apion. It was in about his sixteenth year
that he there saw Lollia Paulina', as in the foUo^ong she
was divorced by Caligula, and it was probably in his twen-
tieth that he witnessed the capture ot a large fish at Ostia,
by Claudius and his attendants', and in his twenty-second
that he visited Africa'', Egj-pt, and Greece.

In his twenty-third year Pliny served in Germany under
the legatus Pomponius Secundus, whose friendship he soon
acquired, and was in consequence promoted to the command
of an a?«, or troop of cavalry. During his military career
he wrote a treatise (now lost) " On the Use of the Javelin
by Cavalry," and travelled over that country^ as far as
the shores of the German Ocean, besides visiting Belgic
Gaul. In his twenty-ninth year he returned to Kome,
and applied himself for a time to forensic pursuits, which
however he appears soon to have abandoned. About this
time he wrote the life of his friend Pomponius, and an
account of the "Wars in Germany," in twenty books,
neither of which are extant. Though employed in writing a

^ The weight of testimony inclines to the latter. The mere titles of
the works which have been written on the subject would fill a volume.

' At a wedding feast, as mentioned by him in B. ix. c. 58. She was
then the wife of Caligula. ^ Related in B. ix. c. 5.

* Here at Tusdrita, he saw L. Coisicius, who it was said had been
changed from a woman into a man. See B. vii. c. 3. Phlegon TraUianus
and Ausonivis also refer to the story.

* See B. xvi. c. 2, and B. xxxi. c. 19.

VIU LirE AND WETTINGS OF PLINT.

continuation of the "Eoman History "ofAufidiusBassus, from
the time of Tiberius, he judiciously suspended its publication
during the reign of Nero, who appointed him his procurator
in Nearer Spain, and not improbably honoured him with
equestrian rank. It was during his sojourn in Spain that the
death of his brother-in-law, C. Csecilius, left his nephew C.
Plinius Caecilius Secundus (the author of the Letters) an or-
phan; whom immediately upon his return to E-ome, a.d. 70, he
adopted, receiving him and his widowed mother under his roof.

Having been previously known to Vespasian in the
German wars, he was admitted into the number of his
most intimate friends, and obtained an appointment at court,
the nature of which is not known, but Eezzonico conjec-
tures that it was in connexion with the imperial treasury.
Though Pliny was on intimate terms also with Titus, to
whom he dedicated his Natural History, there is little
ground for the assertion, sometimes made, that he served
under him in the Jewish wars. His account of Palestine
clearly shows that he had never visited that country. It
was at this period that he published his Continuation of the
History of Aufidius Bassus.

Prom the titles which he gives to Titus in the dedicatory
preface, it is pretty clear that his Natural History was pub-
lished A.D. 77, two years before his death.

In A.D. 73 or 74, he had been appointed by Vespasian
praefect of the Eoman fleet at Misenum, on the western coast
of Italy. It was to this elevation that he owed his romantic
death, somewhat similar, it has been remarked, to that of
Empedocles, who perished in the crater of Mount ^Etna.
The closing scene of his active life, simultaneously with the
destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, camiot be better
described than in the language employed by his nephew in
an Epistle to his friend Tacitus the historian^ : — " My uncle
was at Misenum, where he was in personal command of the
fleet. On the ninth^ day before the calends of September, at
about the seventh hour, 1 p.m., my mother, observing the ap-
pearance of a cloud of unusual size and shape, mentioned it to
him. After reclining in the sun he had taken his cold
bath ; he had then again lain down and, after a slight repast,
applied himself to his studies. Immediately upon hear-
1 Plinii Ep. B. vi. Ep. 16. " ^ Twenty-fourth August.

LIFE ATh'D writings OF FLINT. IX

ing this, lie called for his shoes, and ascended a spot from
which he could more easily observe this remarkable phae-
nomenon. The cloud was to be seen gradually rising up-
wards ; though, from the great distance, it was uncertain
from which of the mountains it arose ; it was afterwards,
however, ascertained to be Vesuvius. In appearance and
shape it strongly resembled a tree ; perhaps it was more like
a pine than anything else, with a stem of enormous length
reaching upwards to the heavens, and then spreading out in
a number of branches in every direction. I have little doubt
that either it had been carried upwards by a violent gust of
wind, and that the wind dying away, it had lost its com-
pactness, or else, that being overcome by its own weight, it
had decreased in density and become extended over a large
surface : at one moment it was white, at another dingy and
spotted, just as it was more or less charged with earth or
with ashes.

" To a man so eager as he was in the pursuit of knowledge,
this appeared to be a most singular phaenomenon, an'd one that
deserved to be viewed more closely; accordingly he gave
orders for a light Liburnian vessel to be got ready, and left
it at my option to accompany him. To this however I made
answer, that I should prefer continuing my studies ; and as
it so happened, he himself had just given me something to
WTite. Taking his tablets with him, he left the house. The
sailors stationed at Retina, alarmed at the imminence of the
danger — for the village lay at the foot of the mountain,
and the sole escape was by sea — sent to entreat his assist-
ance in rescuing them from this frightful peril. Upon this
he instantly changed his plans, and what he had already
begun from a desire for knowledge, he determined to carry
out as a matter of duty. He had the gallies put to sea at once,
and went on board himself, with the intention of rendering as-
sistance, not only to Retina, but to many other places as well ;
for the whole of this charming coast was thickly populated.
Accordingly he made all possible haste towards the spot,
from which others were flying, and steered straight onwards
into the very midst of the danger: so far indeed was he
from every sensation of fear, tliat he remarked and had
noted down every movement and every change that was to
be observed in the appearance of this ominous eruption.

LIFE AKD WEITIN^GS OF FLINT.

The aslies were now falling fast upon tlie vessels, hotter
and more and more thickly the nearer they approached the
shore ; showers of pumice too, intermingled with black
stones, calcined and broken by the action of the flames :
the sea suddenly retreated from the shore, where the debris
of the mountain rendered landing quite impossible. After
hesitating for a moment whether or not to turn back, upon
the pilot strongly advising him to do so : — " Fortune favours
the boldV' said he, " conduct me to Pomponianus." Pom-
ponianus was then at Stabise, a place that lay on the other
side of the bay, for in those parts the shores are winding,
and as they gradually trend away, the sea forms a number
of little creeks. At this spot the danger at present was not
imminent, but still it could be seen, and as it appeared to be
approaching nearer and nearer, Pomponianus had ordered
his baggage on board the ships, determined to take to
flight, if the wind, which happened to be blowing the other
way, should chance to lull. The wind, being in this quarter,
was extremely favourable to his passage, and my uncle soon
arriving at Stabiae, embraced his anxious friend, and did his
best to restore his courage ; and the better to re-assure him
by evidence of his own sense of their safety, he requested the
servants to conduct him to the bath. After bathing he took
his place at table, and dined, and that too in high spirits, or
at all events, what equally shows his strength of mind, with
every outward appearance of being so. In the mean time
vast sheets of flame and large bodies of fire were to be seen
arising from Mount Vesuvius ; the glare and brilliancy of
which were beheld in bolder relief as the shades of night
came on apace. My uncle however, in order to calm their
fears, persisted in saying that this was only the light given
by some villages which had been 'abandoned by the rustics
in their alarm to the flames : after which he retired to rest,
and soon fell fast asleep : for his respiration, which with him
was heavy and loud, in consequence of his corpulence, was
distinctly heard by the servants who were keeping watch at
the door of the apartment. The courtyard which led to his
apartment had now become filled with cinders and pumice-
stones, to such a degree, that if he had remained any longer
in the room, it would have been quite impossible for him to
1 " Fortes fortuna juvat."

LIFE AND WETTINGS OF PLITTT. XI

leave it. On being awoke he immediately arose, and re-
joined Pomponianus and the others who had in the mean-
while been sitting up. They then consulted together whe-
ther it would be better to remain in the house or take their
chance in the open air ; as the building was now rocking to
and fro from the violent and repeated shocks, while the walls,
as though rooted up from their very foundations, seemed
to be at one moment carried in this direction, at another
in that. Having adopted the latter alternative, they were
now alarmed at the showers of light calcined pumice-stones
that were falling thick about them, a risk however to which
as a choice of evils they had to submit. In taking this step
I must remark that, while with my uncle it was reason tri-
umphing over reason, with the rest it was only one fear
getting the better of the other. Taking the precaution of
placing pillows on their heads, they tied them on with towels,
by way of protection against the falling stones and ashes.
It was now day in other places, though there it was still
night, more dark and more profound than any ordinary night;
torches however and various lights in some measure served
to dispel the gloom. It was then determined to make for
the shore, and to ascertain whether the sea would now admit
of their embarking ; it was found however to be still too
stormy and too boisterous to allow of their making the at-
tempt. Upon this my imcle lay down on a sail which had
been spread for him, and more than once asked for some
cold water, which he drank ; very soon however, they were
alarmed by the flames and the sulphurous smell which an-
nounced their approach, upon which the others at once took to
flight, while my uncle arose leaning upon two of the servants
for support. Upon making this effort, he instantly fell to
the ground ; the dense vapour having, I imagine, stopped the
respiration and suffocated him ; for his chest was naturally
weak and contracted, and often troubled with violent palpi-
tations. When day was at last restored, the third after the
closing one of his existence, his body was found untouched
and without a wound ; there was no change to be perceived
in the clothes, and its appearance was rather that of a per-
son asleep than of a corpse. In the meantime my mother
and myself were at Misenum — that however has nothing
to do with the story, as it was only your wish to know the

Xii LIFE AND .WEITIl^GS OF PLINY.

details connected with his death. I shall therefore draw to
a conclusion. The only thing that I shall add is the assu-
rance that I have truthfully related all these facts, of which
I was either an eye-witness myself, or heard them at the
time of their occurrence, a period when they were most
likely to be correctly related. You of course will select
such points as you may think the most important. For it
is one thing to write a letter, another to write history ; — one
thing to write for a friend, another to write for the public.
Farewell."

Of the mode of life pursued by Pliny, and of the rest of
his works, an equally interesting account has been pre-
served by his nephew, in an Epistle addressed to Macer^
We cannot more appropriately conclude than by present-
ing this Epistle to the reader : — " I am highly gratified to
find that you read the works of my uncle with such a
degree of attention as to feel a desire to possess them
all, and that with this view you inquire. What are their
names ? I will perform the duties of an index then : and
not content with that, will state in what order they were
written : for even that is a kind of information which is by no
means undesirable to those who are devoted to literary pur-
suits. His first composition was a treatise ' on the use of
the Javelin by Cavalry,' in one Book. This he composed,
with equal diligence and ingenuity, while he was in com-
mand of a troop of horse. His second work was the ' Life
of Q. Pomponius Secundus,' in two Books, a person by whom
he had been particularly beloved. — These books he composed
as a tribute which was justly due to the memory of his de-
ceased friend. His next work was twenty Books on ' the
Wars in Grermany,' in which he has compiled an account of
all the wars in which we have been engaged with the people
of that country This he had begun while serving in
Q-ermany, having been recommended to do so in a dream.
For in his sleep he thought that the figure of Drusua
Nero"^ stood by him — the same Drusus, who after the
most extensive conquests in that country, there met his

1 B.iii. Ep. 5.

2 Nero Claudius Drusus, the son of Livia, afterwards the wife of Au-
gustus. H(j was the father of the Emperor Claudius, and died in Ger-
many of the effects of an accident.

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINT. XUl

death. Commending his memory to Pliny's attentive care,
Drusus conjured him to rescue it from the decaying effect
of oblivion. Next to these came his three books entitled ' The
Student'^, divided, on account of their great size, into six
volumes. In these he has given instructions for the training
of the orator, from the cradle to his entrance on public
life. In the latter years of Nero's reign, he wrote ei^ht
books, ' On Difficulties in the Latin Language^ ;' that being
a period at which every kind of study, in any way free-spoken
or even of elevated style, would have been rendered danger-
ous by the tyranny that was exercised. His next work was
his ' Continuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus,' in
thirty-one books ; after which came his ' Natural History,'
in thirty-seven books, a work remarkable for its comprehen-
siveness and erudition, and not less varied than Nature her-
self. You will wonder how a man so occupied with business
could possibly find time to write such a number of volumes,
many of them on subjects of a nature so difficult to be
treated of. You will be even more astonished when you
learn, that for some time he pleaded at the bar as an advo-
cate, that he was only in his fifty-sixth year at the time of
his death, and that the time that intervened was equally
trenched upon and frittered away by the most weighty duties
of business, and the marks of favour shewn him by princes.
His genius, however, was truly quite incredible, his zeal
indefatigable, and his power of application wonderful in the
extreme. At the festival of the Vulcanalia^, he began to
sit up to a late hour by candle-light, not for the purpose of
consulting"* the stars, but with the object of pursuing his
studies ; while, in the winter, he would set to work at the
seventh hour of the night, or the eighth at the very latest,
often indeed at the sixth^. By nature he had the faculty of
being able to fall asleep in a moment ; indeed, slumber would
sometimes overtake him in his studies, and then leave him
just as suddenly. Before daybreak, he was in the habit of
attending the Emperor Vespasian, — for he, too, was one who
made an excellent use of his nights, — and then betook him-

1 " Studiosus." This work has perished.

3 " De Dubia Sermone." A few scattered fragments of it still survive.

* 23rd of August. * For astrological presages.

' At midwinter, this hour would answer at Rome to our midnight.

Xiy LIFE AITD WAITINGS OP PLINY.

self to the duties with which he was charged. On his re-
turn home, he devoted all the time which was still remaining
to study. Taking an early repast, after the old fashion,
light, and easy of digestion, in the summer time, if he had
any leisure to spare, he would lie down in the sun-shine,
while some book was read to him, he himself making notes
and extracts in the meanwhile ; for it was his habit never to
read anjrthing without making extracts, it being a maxim of
his, that there is no book so bad but that some good may be
got out of it. After thus enjoying the sunshine, he gene-
rally took a cold bath ; after which he would sit down to a
slight repast, and then take a short nap. On awaking, as
though another day had now commenced, he would study
till the hour for the evening meal, during which some book
was generally read to him, he making comments on it in a
cursory manner. I remember, on one occasion, a friend of
his interrupting the reader, who had given the wrong pro-
nunciation to some words, and making him go over them
again. " You understood him, didn't you ?" said my uncle.
" Yes," said the other. " Wh^, then, did you make him go
over it again ? Through this mterruption of yours, we have
lost more than ten lines." So thrifty a manager was he of
time ! In summer he rose from the evening meal by day-
light; and, in winter, during the first hour of the nighty
just as though there had been some law which made it com-
pulsory on him to do so. This is how he lived in the midst
of his employments, and the bustle of the city. When in
retirement in the country, the time spent in the bath was
the only portion that was not allotted by Iiim to study.
When I say in the bath, I mean while he was in the water ;
for while his body was being scraped with the strigil and
rubbed, he either had some book read to him, or else would
dictate himself. While upon a journey, as though relieved
from every other care, he devoted himself to study, and no-
thing else. By his side was his secretary, with a book and
tablets ; and, in the winter time, the secretary's hands were
protected by gloves, that the severity of the weather might
not deprive his master for a single moment of his services.
It was for this reason also that, when at Eome, he would
never move about except in a litter. I remember that on
' At midwinter^ this would be between six and seven in the evening.

LIFE AND WEITINGS OF PLINT. XV

one occasion he found fault with me for walking — " You
might have avoided losing all those hours," said he ; for he
looked upon every moment as lost which was not devoted to
study. It was by means of such unremitting industry as
this that he completed so many works, and left me 160
volumes of notes', WTitten extremely small on both sides,
which in fact renders the collection doubly voluminous.
He himself used to relate, that when he was procurator in
Spain, he might have parted with his common-place book to
Largius Licinius for 400,000 sesterces ; and at that time the
collection was not so extensive as afterwards. "When you
come to think of how much he must have read, of how much
he has written, would you not reallv suppose that he had
never been engaged in business, and had never enjoyed the
favour of princes ? And yet, on the other hand, when you
hear what labour he expended upon his studies, does it not
almost seem that he has neither written nor read enough ?
For, in fact, what pursuits are those that would not have
been interrupted by occupations such as his ? Wliile, again,
what is there that such unremitting perseverance as his
could not have effected ? I am in the habit, therefore, of
laughing at it when people call me a studious man, — me
who, in comparison with him, am a downright idler ; and
yet I devote to study as much time as my public engage-
ments on the one hand, and my duties to my friends on the
other, will admit of. Who is there, then, out of all those
who have devoted their whole life to literature, that ought
not, when put in comparison with him, to quite blush at a
life that would almost appear to have been devoted to
slothfulness and inactivity ? But my letter has already
exceeded its proper limits, for I had originally intended to
write only upon the subject as to which you made inquiry,
the books of his composition that he left. I trust, however,
that these particulars viiH prove no less pleasing to you than
the writings themselves ; and that they will not only induce
you to peruse them, but excite you, by a feeling of generous
emulation, to produce some work of a similar nature. —
Farewell."

Of all the works written by Pliny, one only, the ' Historia
Naturalis ' has survived to our times. This work, however,
* " Electorum Commentarii."

XVI LIFE AND WEITIlffGS OF FLINT.

is not a ' Natural History' in the modern acceptation of
the term, but rather a vast EucyclopsBdia of ancient know-
ledge and belief upon almost every known subject — " not
less varied than Nature herself," as his nephew says. It
comprises, within the compass of thirty-seven books, 20,000
matters of importance, collected from about 2000 voKimes
(nearly all of which have now perished), the works, as Pliny
himself states, of 100 T\Titers of authority ; together with
a vast number of additional matters unknown to those au-
thorities, and many of them the results of his own expe-
rience and observation. Hardouin has drawn up a cata^
logue of the authors quoted by Pliny; they amount in
number to between 400 and 500.

The following is a brief sketch of the plan of this wonderful
monument of human industry. After a dedicatory Epistle to
Titus,followedby a table of contents of the otherBooks, which
together form the First Book, the author proceeds to give
an account of the prevailing notions as to the universe, the
earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, and the more remarkable
properties of the elements {partes naturcd) . He then passes
on to a geographical description of the face of the earth as
known to the ancients. After the Geography comes what may
in strict propriety be termed " Natural History," including
a history of man, replete indeed with marvels, but inter-
esting in the highest degree. Having mentioned at consi-
derable length the land, animals, fishes, birds, and insects,
he passes on to Botany, which in its various aspects oc-
cupies the larger portion of the work. At the same time,
in accordance with his comprehensive plan, this part
includes a vast amount of information on numerous subjects,
the culture of the cereals and the manufacture of oil, wine,
paper (papj/rus), and numerous other articles of daily use.
After treating at considerable length of Medical Botany,
he proceeds to speak of medicaments derived from the human
body, from which he branches off into discussions on the
history of medicine, and magic, which last he looks upon as
an oifshoot from the medical art ; and he takes this oppor-
tunity of touching upon many of the then current supersti-
tions and notions on astrology. He concludes this portion
of his work with an account of the medicinal properties of
rarious waters, and of those of fishes and other aquatic animals.

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINY. XVll

He then presents us with a treatise on Mineralogy, in
which he has accumulated every possible kind of iniorin-
ation relative to the use of gold, silver, bronze, and
other metals ; a subject which not unnatiirally leads him
into repeated digressions relative to money, jewels, plate,
statues, and statuaries. Mineral pigments next occupy his
attention, with many interesting notices of the great painters
of Greece ; from which he passes on to the various kinds of
stone and materials employed in building, and the use of
marble for the purposes of sculpture, including a notice of
that art and of the most eminent sculptors. The last Book
is devoted to an account of gems and precious stones, and
concludes with an eulogium on his native country, as alike
distinguished for its fertility, its picturesque beauties, and
the natural endowments and high destinies of its pepole.

From the writings of Pliny we gather of course a large
amount of information as to his opinions and the constitution
of his mind. His credulity, it must be admitted, is great in
the extreme ; though, singularly enough, he severely taxes the
Greeks with the same failing'. Were we not assured from
other sources that he was eminently successful in life, was in
the enjoyment of opulence, and honoured with the favour and
confidence of princes^, the remarks which he frequently
makes on human life, in the Seventh Book more especially,
would have led us to the conclusion that he was a disap-
pointed man, embittered against his fellow-creatures, and
dissatisfied with the terms on which the tenure of life is
granted to us. He opens that Book with a preface replete
with querulous dissatisfaction and repinings at the lot of
man — the only ' tearful ' animal — he says^. He repines at
the helpless and wretched condition of the infant at the
moment it is ushered into life, and the numerous pains and

^ B. viii. c. 34. His acrimony may however, in this instance, have
outstripped his discretion. Though indebted to them for by far the larg-
est amount of his information on almost every subject, he seems to have
had a strong aversion to the Greeks, and repeatedly charges them with
lying, viciousness, boasting, and vanity. See B. ii. c. 112 ; B. iii. c. 6 ;
B. V. c. 1 ; B. XV. c. 5 ; B. xix. c. 26 ; B. xxviii. c. 29 ; B. xxxvii. c. 74.

2 Of Vespasian and Titus for certain ; and probably of Nero, who
appointed liim " procurator Ceesaris" in Spain.

^ Even on that point he contradicts lumself in the next Book. See
B. viii. c. 19, and 64, in reference to the lion and the horse.

h

XVm IIFE AND WETTII^-GS OF PLIjnf.

vices to whicli it is doomed to be subject. — Man's liability
to disease is with him a blemish in the economy of nature:
— " life," he says, "this gift of nature, however long it
may be, is but too uncertain and too frail ; to those
even to whom it is most largely granted, it is dealt out with
a sparing and niggardly hand, if we only think of eternity \"
As we cannot have life on our own terms, he does not think
it worthy of our acceptance, and more than once expresses
his opinion that the sooner we are rid of it the better. Sud-
den death he looks upon as a remarkable phaanomenon, but, at
the same time, as the greatest blessing that can be granted to
us^ : and when he mentions cases of resuscitation, it is only
to indulge in the querulous complaint, that, " exposed as he
is by his birth to the caprices of fortune, man can be certain
of nothing; no, not even his own death^." Though any-
thing but^ an Epicurean, in the modern acceptation of the
word, he seems to liave held some, at least, of the tenets
of Epicurus, in reference to the immortality of the soul.
Whether he supposed that the soul, at the moment of death,
is resolved into its previous atoms or constituent elements,
he does not inform us ; but he states it as his belief, that
after death the soul has no more existence than it had before
birth ; that all notions of immortality are a mere delusion^ ;
and that the very idea of a future existence is ridiculous,
and spoils that greatest^ blessing of nature — death. He
certainly speaks of ghosts or apparitions, seen after death ;
but these he probably looked upon as exceptional cases, if
indeed he believed^ in the stories which he quotes, of which
we have no proofs, or rather, indeed, presumptive proofs to
the contrary ; for some of them he calls " magna^ fabulos€i-
tas," "most fabulous tales."

In relation to human inventions, it is worthy of remark,

» See B. vii. c. 51.

2 " Summa vitse felicitas." B. vii. c. 54. ^ b, yij. c. 53.

■* He loses no opportunity of inveighing against luxury and sensuality.

5 The question as to a future existence he calls " Manium ambages,"
" quiddities about the Manes." B. vii. c. 56. " See B. vii. c. 53.

' We have already seen that in his earher years he was warned in a
vision by Drusus to write the history of the wars in Germany ; but
there is a vast difference between paying attention to the suggestions of
a dream, and beheving in the immortality of the soul, or the existence of
disembodied spirita. ^ B. vii. c. 53.

LIFE AND WEITINGS OF PLINT. XIX

that he states that the first^ thing in which mankind agreed,
was the use of the Ionian alphabet ; the second, the practice
of shaving^ the beard, and the employment of barbers ; and
the third, the division of time into hours.

"We cannot more appropriately conclude this review of
the Life and Works of Pliny, than by quoting the opinions
of two of the most eminent philosophers of modern times,
Buflbn and Cuvier ; though the former, it must be admitted,
has spoken of him in somewhat too high terms of commen-
dation, and in instituting a comparison between Pliny's work
and those of Aristotle, has placed in juxtaposition the names
of two men who, beyond an ardent thirst for knowledge, had
no characteristics in common.

"Pliny," says BufTon', "has worked upon a plan which
is much more extensive than that of Aristotle, and not im-
probably too extensive. He has made it his object to em-
Drace every subject ; indeed he would appear to have taken
the measure of Nature, and to have found lier too contracted
for his expansive genius. His * Natural History,' inde-
pendently of that of animals, plants, and minerals, includes
an account of the heavens and the earth, of medicine, com-
merce, navigation, the liberal and mechanical arts, the
origin of usages and customs, in a word, the history of all the
natural sciences and all the arts of human invention. What,
too, is still more astonishing, in each of these departments
Pliny shows himself equally great. The grandeur of his
ideas and the dignity of his style confer an additional lustre
on the profoundjQess of his erudition ; not only did he know
all that was known in his time, but he was also gifted with
that comprehensiveness of view which in some measure mid-
tiplies knowledge. He had all that delicacy of perception
upon which depend so materially both elegance and taste,
and he communicates to his readers that freedom of thought
and that boldness of sentiment, which constitute the true
germ of philosophy. His work, as varied as Nature herself,
always paints her in her most attractive colours. It is, so to
say, a compilation from all that had been written before his

» B. Tii. c. 58, 59, 60.

' Mankind must surely have agreed before this in making the instru-
ments employed in shaving.

" Discours Premier sur I'Histoire Naturelle."

hi

IT LIFE AND WHITINGS OF PLINY.

time : a record of all that was excellent or useful ; but this
record has in it features so grand, this compilation contains
matter grouped in a manner so novel, that it is preferable to
most of the original works that treat upon similar subjects."
The judgment pronounced by Cuvier on Pliny's work,
though somewhat less highly coloured, awards to it a high
rank among the most valuable productions of antiquity.
" The work of Pliny V' says he, " is one of the most precious
monuments that have come down to us from ancient times,
and aifords proof of an astonishing amount of erudition in
one who was a warrior and a statesman. To appreciate
with justice this vast and celebrated composition, it is
necessary to regard it in several points of view — with re-
ference to the plan proposed, the facts stated, and the
style employed. The plan proposed by the writer is of
immense extent — it is his object to write not merely a
Natural History in our restricted sense of the term, not
an account merely, more or less detailed, of animals, plants,
and minerals, but a work which embraces astronomy, phy-
sics, geography, agriculture, commerce, medicine, and the
fine arts — and all these in addition to natural history pro-
perly so called ; while at the same time he continually
interweaves with his narrative information upon the arts
which bear relation to man considered metaphysically, and
the history of nations, — so much so indeed, that in many
respects this work was the Encyclopaedia of its age. It was
impossible in running over, however cursorily, such a pro-
digious number of subjects, that the writer sliould not have
made us acquainted with a multitude of facts, which, while
remarkable in themselves, are the more precious from the
circumstance that at the present day he is the only author
extant who relates them. It is to be regretted however that
the manner in which he has collected and grouped this
mass of matter, has caused it to lose some portion of its
value, from his mixture of fable with truth, and more espe-
cially from the difficulty, and in some cases, the impossibi-
lity, of discovering exactly of what object^ he is speaking.
But if Pliny possesses little merit as a critic, it is far other-

^ Biographie Universelle. Vol. 35. Art. Pline.

* This, however, is not the fault of Pliny, but the result of imperfect
tradition. To have described every object minutely that he has named,

LIFE AND WEITINGS OP PLINY. XXI

wise with his talent as a writer, and the immense treasury
which he opens to us of Latin terms and forms of expres-
sion : these, from the ver^ abundance of the subjects upon
which he treats, render his work one of the richest reposi-
tories of the Roman language. ' Wherever he finds it possible
to give expression to general ideas or to philosophical views,
his language assumes considerable energy and vivacity, and
his thoughts present to us a certain novelty and boldness
whieh tend in a very great degree to relieve the dryness of
his enumerations, and, with the majority of his readers, ex-
cuse the insufficiency of his scientific indications. He is
always noble and serious, full of the love of justice and
virtue, detestation of cruelty and baseness, oi which he
had such frightful instances before his eyes, and con-
tempt for that unbridled luxury which in his time had
so deeply corrupted the Roman people. For these great
merits Pliny cannot be too highly praised, and despite the
faults which we are obliged to admit in him when viewed as
a naturalist, we are bound to regard him as one of the most
meritorious of the Roman writers, and among those most
worthy to be reckoned in the number of the classics who
wrote after the reign of Augustus,"

and of which he has given the peculiar properties, would have swollea
his book to a most enormous size, almost indeed beyond conception.

CONTENTS.

OP THE FIRST VOLUME.

BOOK I.

DEDICATION. Fig«

C. Plinius Secundus to his friend Titus Vespasian ... 1

BOOK II.

^j^^y AN ACCOTJNT OP THE WOBLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

1. Whether the world be finite, and whether there be more than

one world 13

2. Of the fonn of the world 16

8. Of its nature; whence the name is derived i&.

4. Of the elements and the planets 18

/6. Of God 20

6. Of the nature of tlie stars ; of the motion of the planets ... 25

7. Of the eclipses of the moon and the sun 84

8. Of the magnitude of the stars 86

9. An account of the observations that have been made on the

heavens by different individuals 86

10. On the recurrence of the echpses of the sun and the moon ... 38

11. Of the motion of the moon 40

12. Of the motions of the planets and the general laws of their

aspects «i.

13. Wliy the same stars appear at some times more lofty and at

other times more near 42

14. Why the same stars have different motions 47

15. General laws of the planets 48

16. The reason why the stars are of different colours 49

17. Of the motion of the sun and the cause of the irregularity of

the days 50

18. Why thunder is ascribed to Jupiter 61

19. Of the distances of the stars 62

20. Of the hannony of the stars *^«

21. Of the dimensions of the world 63

22. Of the stars which appear suddenly, or of comets 55-*'

23. Their nature, situation, and species 66~

XXIV CONTENTS.

Chap. Page'

24. Tlie doctrine of Hipparchus about the stars 59

25. Examples from history of celestial prodigies ; Faces^ Lam-

pades, a,nd Bolides ib.

26. Trabes Ccelestes ; Chasma Cceli 60

27. Of the colours of the sky and of celestial flame ib.

28. Of celestial coronsB 61

29. Of sudden circles 62

30. Of unusually long eclipses of the sun ib.

31. Many suns ib.

32. Many moons 63

33. Daylight in the night... ib.

34. Burning shields ib.

35. An ominous appearance in the heavens, that was seen once only ih.

36. Of stars which move about in various directions 64

37. Of the stars which are named Castor and Pollux ib.

38. Of the air, and on the cause of the showers of stones 65

39. Of the stated seasons 66

40. Of the rising of the dog-star 67

41. Of the regular influence of the different seasons ib.

42. Of uncertain states of the weather 69

43. Of thunder and lightning ib.

44. The origin of winds 70

45. Various observations respecting winds 71

46. The different kinds of winds 73

47. The periods of the winds 75

48. Nature of the winds 77

49. Eenephias and Typhon 79

50. Tornadoes ; blasting winds ; whirlwinds, and other wonder-

ful kinds of tempests 80

51. Of thunder ; in what countries it does not fell, and for what

reason ' ib.

52. Of the different kinds of lightning and their wonderful effects 81

53. The Etrurian and the Roman observations on these points ... 82

54. Of conjuring up thunder 83

55. G-encral laws of hghtning 84

56. Objects which are never struck 86

57. Showers of milk, blood, flesh, iron, wool, and baked tiles ... 87

58. Ratthng of arms and the sound of trumpets heard in the sky 88

59. Of stones that have fallen from the clouds. The opinion of

Anaxagoras respecting them ib.

60. The rainbow 89

61. The nature of hail, snow, hoar, mist, dew ; the forms of clouds 90

62. The peculiarities of the weather in different places 91

63. Nature of the earth ib.

64. Of the form of the earth, 94

65. Whether there be antipodes ? ib.

66. How the water is connected with the earth. Of the naviga-

tion of the sea and the rivers 97

67. Whether the ocean surrounds the earth 98

C0NTEKT8. XT9

Chap. Pa««

68. What part of the earth is inhabited 100

69. That the earth is in the middle of the world 102

70. Of the obhquity of the zones ib.

71. Of the inequaUty of chmates ib.

72. In wh»t places ecUpses are invisible, and why this is the caa6 104

73. What regulates the daylight on the earth 106

74. Remarks on dials, as connected with tliis subject 106

75. When and where there are no shadows *107

76. Where this takes place twice in the year and where the sha-

dows fall in opposite directions 108

77. Where the days are the longest and where the shortest ib.

78. Of the first dial 109

79. Of the mode in which the days are computed 110

80. Of the diflerence of nations as depending on the nature of the

world ib.

81. Of earthquakes Ill

82. Of clefts of the earth 112

83. Signs of an approaching earthquake 114

84. Preservatives against future earthquakes ib.

85. Prodigies of the earth which have occurred once only 115

86. Wonderful circumstances attonduig earthquakes 116

87. In what places the sea has receded ib.

88. The mode in which islands rise up 117

89. What islands have been formed, and at what periods ... ... 118

90. Lands which have been separated by the sea 119

91. Islands which have been united to the main land ib.

92. Lands which have been totally changed into seas ib.

93. Lands which have been swallowed up 120

94. Cities which have been absorbed by the sea ib.

95. Of vents in the earth 121

96. Of certain lauds wliich are always shaking, and of floating

islands 122

97. Places in which it never rains 123

98. The wonders of various countries collected together ib.

99. Concerning the cause of the flowing and ebbing of the sea ... 124

100. Where the tides rise and fall in an unusual manner 127

101. Wonders of the sea 128

102. The power of the moon over the land and the sea ib.

103. The power of the sun 129

104. Why the sea is salt ib.

105. Where the sea is the deepest 130

106. The wonders of fountains and rivers 131

107. The wonders of fire and water imited 138

108. OfMaltha 138

109. Of naphtha 139

110. Places which are always burning ib.

111. Wonders of fire alone 141

112. The dimensions of the earth 143

113. The harmpnical proportion of the universe 147

XXVI

CONTENTS.

BOOK III.

AN ACCOITNT OP COFNTEIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOFNTAINS,

EIVEES, DISTANCES,
EXISTED.

AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OE EOEMEELT

Chap. Page

Introduction 151

1. The boundariea and gulfs of Europe first set forth in a geileral

way 153

2. Of Spain generally ib.

3. OfBsetica 154

4. Of Nearer Spain 164

5. Of the province of Gallia Narbonensis 174

6. Ofltaly 180

7. Of the ninth region of Italy 184

8. The seventh region of Italy 186

9. The first region of Italy ; the Tiber j Kome 191

10. The third region of Italy 207

11. Sixty-four islands, among which are the Baleares 210

12. Corsica 213

13. Sardinia 215

14. SicUy 216

15. Magna Grsecia, beginning at Locri 222

16. The second region of Italy 225

17. The fourth region of Italy 231

18. The fifth region of Italy 235

19. The sixth region of Italy 237

20. The eighth region of Italy ; the Padus 241

21. The eleventh region of Italy ; Italia Transpadana 246

22. The tenth region of Italy 248

23. Istria, its people and locality 251

24. The Alps, and the Alpine nations 254

25. Libumia and lUyricum 257

26. Dahnatia 259

27. TheNorici 262

28. Pannonia 263

29. Mcesia 264

30. Islands of the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic 265

BOOK lY.

AN ACCOtTNT OP C0TJNTEIE9, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
EIVEES, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OE POEMEELY
EXISTED.

1. Epirus ...

2. Acamania
S. ^tolia ...

271
273

275

COKTENTS. XXVU

Chap. Page

4. Locris and Phocis 276

6. The Peloponnesus 278

6. Achaia 280

7. Messenia 282

8. Laconia 283

9. ArgoUs 284

10. Arcadia 285

11. Attica 288

12. BcBotia 290

13. Doris 293

14. Phthiotis 293

15. Thessaly Proper 294

16. Magnesia 296

17. Macedonia 297

18. Thrace ; the ^gean Sea 302

19. The islands which lie before the lands already mentioned ... 310

20. Crete , 813

21. Eubcea 316

22. The Cyclades 317

23. The Sporades 320

24. The Hellespont.— The lake Maeotis 326

25. Dacia, Sarmatia 329

26. Scythia 330

27. Tlie islands of the Euxine. The islands of the northern ocean 338

28. Oennany 345

29. Ninety-six islands of the GaUic ocean 349

30. Britannia 360

31. Gallia Belgica 353

32. GaUia Lugdunensis 355

33. Gallia Aquitanica 357

34. Nearer Spain, its coast along the GaUic ocean 360

35. Lusitania 363

36. The islands in t^e Atlantic ocean 367

37. The general measurement of Europe 369

BOOK V.

AN ACCOITNT OP COITNTBTES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HATENS, MOtJNTAINS,
EIVEES, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OE FOEiLEELY
EXISTED.

1. The two Mauritanias 374

2. Numidia ,.! 387

3. Africa 388

4. TheSyrtes 391

5. Cyrenaica 395

6. Libya Mareotis 401

7. The islands in the vicinity of Africa 402

8. Countries on the other side of Africa 403

9. Egypt and Thebais 406

XXVm COKTENTS.

Chap. Pagt

10. The Eiver Nile , 410

11. The cities of Egypt 416

12. The coasts of Arabia, situate on the Egyptian Sea 422

13. Syria 423

14. Idumsea, Palsestina, and Samaria 424

15. Judaea 427

16. DecapoUs 431

17. Phoenice 433

18. Syria Antiochia 436

19. The remaining parts of Syria 438

20. The Euphrates 441

21. Syria upon the Euphrates 443

22. Cihcia and the adjoining nations 446

23. Isauria and the Homonades 450

24. Pisidia 451

25. Lycaonia ib.

26. Pamphylia 452

27. Mount Taimis 453

28. Lyeia 455

29. Caria 458

30. Lydia 4^5

31. Ionia 466

32. uEohs 472

33. Troas and the adjoining nations 476

34. The islands which lie in front of Asia 479

35. Cyprus 480

36. Ehodes 483

37. Samos 485

38. Chios 486

39. Lesbos 487

40. The Hellespont and Mysia 488

41. Phrygia 490

42. Galatia and the adjoining nations 491

43. Bithynia 493

44. The islands of the Propontis 496

NATUrvAL HISTOEY OF PLINY,

BOOK 1}

DEDICATION.

C. PLINIUS SECUNDU8 TO HIS FEIEND TITUS VESPASIAN".

This treatise on Natural History, a novel work in Eoman
literature, which I have just completed, I have taken the
liberty to dedicate to you, most gracious'"^ Emperor, an appel-
lation pecidiarly suitable to you, while, on account of his
age, that oi great is more appropriate to your Father ; —

" For still thou ne'er wouldst quite despise
The trifles that I write » ; "

if I may be allowed to shelter myself imder the example of
Catullus, my fellow-countryman"*, a military term, whicli you
well understand. For he, as you know, when his napkins
Lad been changed^, expressed liimself a little harshly, from

1 Lemaire informs us, in his title-page, that the two first books of the
Natural History are edited by M. Alexandre, in his edition.

2 " Jucundissime ;" it is not easy to find an epithet in oiu* language
which will correctly express the meaning of the original, affectionate and
faaniliar, at the same time that it is sufficiently dignified and respectful.

3 Lamb's trans. ; Carm. i. 4. of the origin^d.

* " Conterraneus ; " we have no word in English which expresses the
idea intended by the original, and which is, at the same time, a military
term. There is indeed some reason to doubt, whether the word now
inserted in the text was the one employed by the author : see the remarks
of M. Alexandre, in Lem. i. 3 ; also an observation in Cigalino's disser-
tation on the native country of Pliny ; Yalpy, 8.

5 " Permutatis prioribus ssetabis;" Carm. xii. 14 j xxv. 7; see the
notes in Lamb's trans, pp.135 & 149.

YOL. I. B

2 plint's NATFEAL HISTOET. [Book I.

his anxiety to show his friendship for his dear little Veranius
and Fahius^. At the same time this my importunity may
effect, what you complained of my not having done in an-
other too forward epistle of mine ; it will put upon record,
and let all the world know, with what kindness you exercise
the imperial dignity. You, who have had the honour of a
triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul,
and have shared in the tribunate ; and, what is still more
honourable, whilst you held them in conjunction with your
Father, you have presided over the Equestrian order, and
been the Prefect of the Praetorians^ : all this you have done
for the service of the Eepublic, and, at the same time, have
regarded me as a fellow-soldier and a messmate. Nor has
the extent of your prosperity produced any change in you,
except that it nas given you the power of doing good to the
utmost of your wishes. And whilst all these circumstances
increase the veneration which other persons feel for you,
with respect to myself, they have made me so bold, as to wish
to become more familiar. You must, therefore, place this
to your own account, and blame yourself for any fault of this
kind that I may commit.

But, although I have laid aside my blushes^, I have not
gained my object ; for you still awe me, and keep me at a
distance, by the majesty of your understanding. In no one
does the force of eloquence and of tribunitian oratory blaze
out more powerfully ! With what glowing language do you
thunder forth the praises of your Pather ! How dearly do
you love your Brother ! How admirable is your talent for
poetry ! What a fertility of genius do you possess, so as to

^ These names in the original are Varaniolus and Fabullus, which are
supposed to have been changed from Veranius and Fabius, as terms of
familiarity and endearment ; see Poinsinet, i. 24, and Lemaire, i. 4.

2 The narrative of Suetonius may serve to illustrate the observation of
Pliny : " Triumphavit (Titus) cum patre, censuramque gessit rma. Ei-
dem collega et in tribimicia potestate, et in septem consulatibus fuit.
Receptaque ad se prope omnium ofiiciorum cura, cum patris nomine et
epistolas ipse dictaret, et edicta conscriberet, orationesque in Senatu reci-
taret etiam qusestoris vice, prsefecturam quoque prsetorii suscepit, nun-
quam ad id tempus, nisi ab Equite Romano, administratum." (viii. 5.)

3 " Perfricui faciem." This appears to have been a proverbial expres-
sion among the Romans ; Cicero, Tusc. Quaes, hi. 41, employs " os per-
fricuisti," and Martial, xi. 27. 7, " perfricuit frontem," iu the same sense.

Book I.] DEDICATION. 3

enable you to imitate your Brother^ ! But who is there that
is bold enough to form an estimate on these points, if he is
to be judged by you, and, more especially, if you are chal-
lenged to do so ? For the case of those who merely publish
their works is very different from that of those who ex-
pressly dedicate them to you. In the former case I might
say. Emperor ! why do you read these things ? They are
written only for the common people, for farmers or mecha-
nics, or for those who have nothing else to do ; why do you
trouble yourself with them ? Indeed, when I undertook
this work, I did not expect that you would sit in judgement
upon me^; I considered your situation much too elevated
for you to descend to such an office. Besides, we possess the
right of openly rejecting the opinion of men of learning.
M. Tullius himself, whose genius is beyond all competition,
uses this privilege ; and, remarkable as it may appear, em-
ploys an advocate in his own defence: — " I do not write for
very learned people ; I do not wish my works to be read by
Manius Persius, but by Junius Congus^." And if Lucilius,
who first introduced the satirical style*, applied such a re-
mark to himself, and if Cicero thought proper to borrow it,
and that more especially in his treatise " De Eepublica,"
how much reason have I to do so, who have such a judge to
defend myself against ! And by this dedication I have de-
prived myself of the benefit of challenge^ ; for it is a very
different thing whether a person has a judge given him by
lot, or whether he voluntarily selects one ; and we always
make more preparation for an invited guest, than for one
that comes in unexpectedly.

* Suetonius speaks of Domitian's taste for poetry, as a part of his ha-
bitual dissimulation, viii. 2 ; see also the notes of Poinsinet, i. 26, and of
Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 351.

2 " Non eras in hoc albo ;" see the note of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 8.
A passage in Quintihan, xii. 4, may serve to illustrate this use of the term
* album' ; "... quonmi alii se ad album ac rubricas transtulerunt "

3 It appears that the passage in which Cicero makes this quotation
from Lucilius, is not in the part of his treatise De Repubhca which was
lately discovered by Angelus Mains ; Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 9. Cicero
refers to this remark of Lucilius in two of his other works, although with
a variation in the expression and in the individuals specified j De Orat.
ii. 6, and De Fin. i. 3.

* " Qui primus condidit styli nasum."

' " Sed haec ego mihi nunc patrocinia ademi nuncupatione."

b2

4 pliny's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book I.

"When the candidates for office, during the heat of the
canvass, deposited the fine^ in the hands of Cato, that de-
termined opposer of bribery, rejoicing as he did in his being
rejected from what he considered to be foolish honours, they
professed to do this out of respect to his integrity; the
greatest glory which a man could attain. It was on this
occasion that Cicero uttered the noble ejaculation, " How
happy are you, Marcus Porcius, of whom no one dares to
ask what is dishonourable^!" When L. Scipio Asiaticus
appealed to the tribunes, among whom was Grracchus, he
expressed full confidence that he should obtain an acquittal,
even from a judge who was his enemy. Hence it follows,
that he who appoints his own judge must absolutely submit
to the decision ; this choice is therefore termed an appeaP.

I am well aware, that, placed as you are in the highest
station, and gifted with the most splendid eloquence and
the most accomplished mind, even those who come to pay
their respects to you, do it with a kind of veneration : on
this account I ought to be careful that what is dedicated to
you should be worthy of you. But the country people, and,
indeed, some whole nations offer milk to the Gods^, and those
who cannot procure frankincense substitute in its place salted
cakes ; for the Gods are not dissatisfied when they are wor-
shiped by every one to the best of his ability. But my
temerity will appear the greater by the consideration, that
these volumes, which I dedicate to you, are of such inferior
importance. For they do not admit of the display of genius,
nor, indeed, is mine one of the highest order ; they admit of
no excursions, nor orations, nor discussions, nor of any won-
derful adventures, nor any variety of transactions, nor, from
the barrenness of the matter^ of anything particularly plea-
sant in the narration, or agreeable to the reader. The na-

1 "Pecunias deponerent." Ajasson, i, 11, remarks on these words,
"Quivideri volebant ambitu alienissimi, pecuniam apud sanctum aliquem
virmn deponebant, qua scilicet multarentur, si unquam hujus criminis
manifest! fierent."

2 This expression is not found in any of the works of Cicero which are
now extant, nor, indeed, is it certain that it was anything more than a
remark made in conversation. ^ « Provocatio," caUing forth.

•» Horace, Epist. ii. 1. 143 ; Ovid, Fast. iv. 746 and v. 121, and Ti-
bullus, i. 1. 26 and ii. 5. 37, refer to the offerings of milk made by the
country people to their rural deities.

Book I.] DEDICATIOH". 5

ture of things, and life as it actually exists, are described in
them ; and often the lowest department of it ; so that, in
very many cases, I am obliged to use rude and foreign, or
even barbarous terms, and these often require to be intro-
duced by a kind of preface. And, besides this, my road is
not a beaten track, nor one which the mind is much disposed
to travel over. There is no one among us who has ever at-
tempted it, nor is there any one individual among the Greeks
who has treated of all the topics. Most of us seek for no-
thing but amusement in our studies, while others are fond
of subjects that are of excessive subtilty, and completely in-
volved in obscurity. My object is to treat of all those things
which the Greeks include in the Encyclopedia \ which, how-
ever, are either not generally known or are rendered dubious
from our ingenious conceits. And there are other matters
which many wTiters have given so much in detail that we
quite loathe them. It is, indeed, no easy task to give novelty
to what is old, and authority to what is new ; brightness to
what is become tarnished, and light to what is obscure ; to
render what is slighted acceptable, and what is doubtful
worthy of our confidence ; to give to all a natural manner,
and to each its peculiar nature. It is sufficiently honour-
able and glorious to have been willing even to make the at-
tempt, although it should prove unsuccessful. And, indeed,
I am of opinion, that the studies of those are more especially
worthy of our regard, who, after having overcome all diffi-
culties, prefer the useful office of assisting others to the
mere gratification of giving pleasure ; and this is what I have
already done in some of my former works. I confess it sur-
prises me, that T. Li\aus, so celebrated an author as he is,
in one of the books of his history of the city from its origin,
should begin wdth this remark, " I have now obtained a suf-
ficient reputation, so that I might put an end to my work,
did not my restless mind require to be supported by employ-
ment^." Certainly he ought to have composed this work,
not for his own glory, but for that of the Roman name, and

1 "... id est, artium et doctrinarum omnium circulus ; " Alexandre
in Lem. i. 14.

2 These words are not found in any of the books of Livy now extant ;
we may conclude that they were introduced into the latter part of his
work.

6 pliny's fattjeal histoet. [Book I.

of tte people wlio were the conquerors of all other nations.
It would have been more meritorious to have persevered in
his labours from his love of the work, than from the gratifi-
cation which it afforded himself, and to have accomplished
it, not for his own sake, but for that of the Roman people.

I have included in thirty-six^ books 20,000 topics, all
worthy of attention, (for, as Domitius Piso^ says, we ought
to make not merely books, but valuable collections,) gained
by the perusal of about 2000 volumes, of which a few only
are in the hands of the studious, on account of the obscurity
of the subjects, procured by the careful perusal of 100 select
authors^; and to these I have made considerable additions
of things, which were either not known to my predecessors,
or which have been lately discovered. Nor can I doubt
but that there still remain many things which I have omitted ;
for I am a mere mortal, and one that has many occupations.
I have, therefore, been obliged to compose this work at in-
terrupted intervals, indeed during the night, so that you will
find that I have not been idle even during this period. The
day I devote to you, exactly portioning out my sleep to the
necessity of my health, and contenting myself with this re-
ward, that while we are musing^ on these subjects (accord-
ing to the remark of Yarro), we are adding to the length of
our lives ; for life properly consists in being awake.

In consideration of these circumstances and these difficul-
ties, I dare promise nothing; but you have done me the
most essential service in permitting me to dedicate my work
to you. Nor does this merely give a sanction to it, but it
determines its value ; for things are often conceived to be of
great value, solely because they are consecrated in temples.

1 have given a full account of all your family — ^your

* " Quern nunc primum historiae Plinianae librum vocamus, hie non
numeratur, quod sit operis index." Hardouin in Lem. i. 16.

2 Nothing is known of Domitius Piso, either as an author or an in-
dividual.

3 The names of these authors will be found, arranged by Hardouin
alphabetically, with a brief account of them and their works, in Lem. i.
157 et seq. ; we have nearly the same hst in Valpy, p. 4903.

* "'Musinamur." We learn from Hardouin, Lem. i, 17, that there is
some doubt as to the word employed by our author, whether it was mu-
sinamur or muginamur ; I should be disposed to adopt the former, as
beingj according to the remark of Tumebus, " verbum a Musis deductum."

Book I.] DEDICATION. 7

Father, yourself, and your Brother, in a history of our own
times, beginning where Aufidius Bassus concludes ^ You
will ask, Where is it ? It has been long completed and its
accuracy confirmed^ ; but I have determined to commit the
charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected,
during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by
ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those
who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on

Sosterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have
one with my predecessors.

You may judge of my taste from my having inserted, in
the beginning of my book, the names of the authors that I
have consulted, l^or I consider it to be courteous and to
indicate an ingenuous modesty, to acknowledge the sources
whence we have derived assistance, and not to act as most
of those have done whom I have examined. !For I must
inform you, that in comparing various authors with each
other, I have discovered, that some of the most grave and of
the latest writers have transcribed, word for word, from
former works, without making any acknowledgement ; not
avowedly rivalling them, in the manner of Virgil, or with
the candour of Cicero, who, in his treatise " De Republica^,"
professes to coincide in opinion with Plato, and in his Essay
on Consolation for his Daughter, says that he follows
Crantor, and, in his Offices'*, Pansecius ; volumes, which, as you
well know, ought not merely to be always in our hands, but
to be learned by heart. For it is indeed the mark of a per-
verted mind and a bad disposition, to prefer being caught in

^ " A fine Aiifidii Bassi ; " as Alexandre remarks, "rinis autem Au-
fidii Bassi intelligendus est non mors ejus, sed tempus ad quod suas ipse
perduxerat historian. Quodnam Ulud ignoramus." Lem. i. 18. For an
accovmt of Aufidius Bassus we are referred to the catalogue of Hardouin,
but his name does not appear there. Q.uintiLian (x. 1) informs us, that
he wrote an account of the Grermanic war.

2 *' Jam pridem peracta sancitur."

3 This sentiment is not found in that portion of the treatise which has
been lately published by Angelus Mains. Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 19.

* The following i^ probably the passage in the Offices to which Pliny
refers : " Pansecius igitur, qui sine controversia de officiis accuratissime
disputavit, quemcjue nos, correctione quadam exhibita, potissimum secuti
Bumus . . . . " (iii. 2.)

S Pliny's is-atueal histoet. [Book I.

a th^ft to returning what we have borrowed, especially
when we have acquired capital, by usurious interest ^

The Grreeks were wonderfully happy in their titles. One
work they called K-qpioy, which means that it was as sweet
as a honeycomb ; another Kepas 'AjuaX9e/as, or Cornu copiae,
so that you might expect to get even a draught of pigeon's
milk from it^. Then they have their Elowers, their Muses,
Magazines, Manuals, Grardens, Pictures, and Sketches^ all
of them titles for which a man might be tempted even to
forfeit his bail. But when you enter upon the works, O
ye Grods and Goddesses ! how full of emptiness ! Our duller
countrymen have merely their Antiquities, or their Examples,
or their Arts. I think one of the most humorous of them has
his Nocturnal Studies '', a term employed by Bibaculus; a name
which he richly deserved^. Varrb, indeed, is not much be-
hind him, when he calls one of his satires A Trick and a Half,
and another Turning the Tables^. Diodorus was the first
among the Greeks who laid aside this trifling manner and
named his history The Library^. Apion, the grammarian,
indeed— he whom Tiberius Caesar called the Trumpeter of
the World, but would rather seem to be the Bell of the
Town-crier^, — supposed that every one to whom he inscribed
any work would thence acquire immortality. I do not regret
not having given my work a more fanciful title.

That I may not, however, appear to inveigh so completely
against the Greeks, I should wish to be considered under
the same point of view with those inventors of the arts of

^ " Cum praesertrm sors fiat ex usura." The commentators and trans-
lators have diifered respecting the interpretation of this passage ; I have
given what appears to me the obvious meaning of the words.

2 " Lac gallinaceiim ; " " Proverbium de re singulari et admodum
rara," according to Hardouin, who quotes a parallel passage from Petro-
nius ; Lemaire, i. 21.

3 The titles in the original are given in Gl-reek ; I have inserted in the
text the words which most nearly resemble them, and which have
been employed by modem authors. ^ " Lucubratio."

^ The pun in the original cannot be preserved in the translation ; the
Enghsh reader may conceive the name Bibaculus to correspond to our
Burname Jolly.

^ *' Sesculysses" and "Elextabula; " literally, Ulysses and a Half, and
Bend-table. ?■ Bif3\to9T]icr].

8 " Cymbalum mundi " and " pubhcse famse tympanum."

JBook I.] DEDICATION. 9

painting and sculpture, of whom you will find an account
in these volumes, whose works, although they are so perfect
that we are never satisfied with, admiring them, are inscribed
with a temporary titled such as " Apelles, or Polycletus, was
doing this ; " implying that the work was only commenced
and still imperfect, and that the artist might benefit by the
criticisms that were made on it and alter any part that
required it, if he had not been prevented by death. It is
also a great mark of their modesty, that they inscribed their
works as if they were the last which they had executed, and
as still in hand at the time of their death. I think there are
but three works of art which are inscribed positively with
the words " such a one executed this ; " of these I shall give
an account in the proper place. In these cases it appears,
that the artist felt the most perfect satisfaction with his work,
and hence these pieces have excited the envy of every one.

I, indeed, freely admit, that much may be added to my
works ; not only to this, but to all which I have published.
By this admission I hope to escape from the carping critics^,
and I have the more reason to say this, because I hear
that there are certain Stoics and Logicians', and also Epi-
cureans (from the Grammarians'* I expected as much), who
are big ^\'ith something against the little work I published
on Grammar^; and that they have been carrying these
abortions for ten years together — a longer pregnancy this
than the elephant's^. But I well know, that even a woman
once -wTote against Theophrastus, a man so eminent for his
eloquence that he obtained his name, which signifies the

* " Pendenti titulo ; " as Hardouin explains it, " qui nondmn absolutum
opus significaret, verum adhuc pendere, velut imperfectum." I^emaire,
i. 20. 2 «c Homeromastigee."

' " Dialectici." By this term our author probably meant to designate
those critics who were disposed to dweU upon minute verbal distinctions ;
" dialecticariun captionum amantes," according to Hardouin ; Lem. i. 28.

* " Quod argutianun amantissimi, et quod semulatio inter illos acer-
bissima." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 28.

5 Pliny the younger, in one of his letters (iii. 5), where he enumerates
all his micle's pubHcations, informs us, that he wrote " a piece of criticism
in eight books, concerning ambiguity of expression." Melmoth's
PUny, i. 136.

^ The ancients had very exaggerated notions respecting the period of
the elephant's pregnancy ; our author, in a subsequent part of his work
(viii. 10), says, "Decern annisgestarevulgusexistimat; Aristoteles biennio."

10 plikt's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book I.

Divine speaker^ and that from this circumstance originated
the proverb of choosing a tree to hang oneself^.

1 cannot refrain from quoting the words of Cato the censor,
which are so pertinent to this point. It appears from them,
that even Cato, who wrote commentaries on military disci-
pline^, and who had learned the military art under Aj&icanus,
or rather under Hannibal (for he could not endure Afri-
canus'', who, when he was his general, had borne away the
triumph from him), that Cato, I say, was open to the attacks
of such as caught at reputation for themselves by detracting
from the merits of others. And what does he say in his
book ? " I know, that when I shall publish what I have writ-
ten, there will be many who will do all they can to depre-
ciate it, and, especially, such as are themselves void of
all merit ; but I let their harangues glide by me." Nor was
the remark of Plancus* a bad one, when Asinius Pollio® was
said to be preparing an oration against him, which was to
be published either by himself or his children, after the
death of Plancus, in order that he might not be able to
answer it: "It is only ghosts that fight with the dead."
This gave such a blow to the oration, that in the opinion of

* His real name was Tyrtamus, but in consequence of the beauty of his
style, he acquired the appellation by which he is generally known from
the words 9e2os ^pacris. Cicero on various occasions refers to him j
Brutus, 121 ; Orator, 17, et alibi.

2 " Suspendio jam quaerere mortem oportere homines vitseque renunciare,
cum tantmn Ucentia), vel feminae, vel imperiti homines sumant, ut in
doctissimos scribant;" Hardouru in Lemaire, i. 29. We learn from Cicero,
De Nat. Deor. i. 33, that the name of this female was Leontium ;"....
sed meretricula etiam Leontium contra Theophrastum scribere ausa
sit. "

3 A. GreUius (vii. 4) refers to this work and gives an extract from it.

^ The hostihty wliich Cato bore to Scipio Africanus is mentioned by
Livy, xxxviii. 54, and by Com. Nepos, Cato, i.

5 Lucius Mvmatius Plancus took a conspicuous part in the poUtical
intrigues of the times and was especially noted for his foUies and extra-
vagance.

^ Asinius Pollio is a name which stands liigh in Roman hterature ;
accorduig to the remark of Alexandre, " Yir magnus fuit, prono tamen
ad obtrectandimi ingenio, quod arguunt ejus cum Cicerone simultates,"
Lemaire, i. 30. This hostile feehng towards Cicero is supposed to have
proceeded from envy and mortification, because he was xinable to attain
the same eminence in the art of oratory with his illustrious rivaL See
Hardouin's Lidex Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 168.

Book I.] DEDICATION. 11

the learned generally, nothing was ever thought more scan-
dalous. Feeling myself, therefore, secure against these vile
slanderers \ a name elegantly composed by Cato, to express
their slanderous and vile disposition (for what other object
have they, but to wrangle and breed quarrels ?), I will pro-
ceed with my projected work.

And because the public good requires that you should be
spared as much as possible from all trouble, I have subjoined
to this epistle the contents of each of the following books',
and have used my best endeavours to prevent your being
obliged to read them all through. And this, which was
done for your benefit, will also serve the same purpose for
others, so that any one may search for what he wishes, and
may know where to find it. This has been already done
among us by Valerius Soranus, in his work which he enti-
tled " On Mysteries'."

The 1st book is the Preface of the Work, dedicated to
Titus Vespasian Ca?sar.

The 2nd is on the World, the Elements, and the Heavenly
Bodies^.

The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th books are on Greography, in
which is contained an account of the situation of the
different countriesj the inhabitants, the seas, towns,
harbours, mountains, rivers, and dimensions, and the
various tribes, some of which still exist and others have
disappeared.

The 7th is on Man, and the Inventions of Man.

The 8th on the various kinds of Land Animals.

The 9th on Aquatic Animals.

The 10th on the various kinds of Birds.

1 " Vitiligatores."

^ The table of contents, which occupies no less than 124 pages in
Lemaire's edition, I have omitted, in consequence of its length ; the ob-
ject which the author proposed to efiect by the table of contents will be
gained more completely by an alphabetical index.

3 " 'ETToirTidojv." For an account of Valerius Soranus see Hardouin's
Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 217.

•* To the end of each book of the Natural History is appended, in the
original, a copious Hst of references to the soiirces from which the author
derived his information. These are very numerous ; in the second book
they amount to 45, in the third to 35, in the 4th to 53, in the fifth to 60,
in the sixth to 54, and they are in the same proportion ia the remaining
books.

12 PLrNT*S NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book L

The llfb on Insects.

The 12th on Odoriferous Plants.

The 13th on Exotic Trees.

The 14th on Vines.

The 15th on Pruit Trees.

The 16th on Forest Trees.

The 17th on Plants raised in nurseries or gardens.

The 18th on the nature of Fruits and the Cerealia, and
the pursuits of the Husbandman.

The 19th on Flax, Broom \ and Grardening.

The 20th on the Cultivated Plants that are proper for
food and for medicine.

The 21st on Flowers and Plants that are used for making
Garlands.

The 22nd on Grarlands, and Medicines made from Plants.

The 23rd on Medicines made from "Wine and from culti-
vated Trees.

The 24th on Medicines made from Forest Trees.

The 25th on Medicines made from Wild Plants.

The 26th on ISTew Diseases, and Medicines made, for cer-
tain Diseases, from Plants.

The 27th on some other Plants and Medicines.

The 28th on Medicines procured from Man and from large
Animals.

The 29th on Medical Authors, and on Medicines from
other Animals.

The 30th on Magic, and Medicines for certain parts of the
Body.

The 31st on Medicines from Aquatic Animals.

The 32nd on the other properties of Aquatic Animals.

The 33rd on Gold and Silver.

The 34th on Copper and Lead, and the workers of Copper.

The 35th on Painting, Colours, and Painters.

The 36th on Marbles and Stones.

The 37th on Gems.

* "Spartum ;" this plant was used to make bands for the vines and
cables for ships.

Book n.] ACCOUNT OP THE WOELD. 13

BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

[I have adopted the division of the chapters firom Hardouin, as given
in the editions of Valpy, Lemaire, Ajasson, and Sillig. ; the Roman figures,
enclosed between brackets, are the numbers of the chapters in Dalechamps,
De Laet, Gronovius, Holland, and Poinsinet. The titles of the chapters
are nearly the same with those in Valpy, Lemaire, and Ajasson.]

CHAP. 1. (1.) — ^WHETHER THE WOELD BE EnTETE, AND
WHETHEE THEEE BE MOEE THAN ONE WOELD.

The world ^, and whatever that be which we otherwise

* " Mundus." La translating from one language into another, it is
proper, as a, general principle, always to render the same word in the
original by the same word in the translation. But to this rule there are
two exceptions ; where the languages do not possess words which pre-
cisely correspond, and where the original author does not always use the
same word in the same sense. Both these circumstances, I apprehend,
apply to the case in question. The term Mundus is used by PUny,
sometimes to mean the earth and its immediate appendages, the visible
solar system ; and at other times the universe ; while I think we may
venture to assert, that in some instances it is used in rather a vague
manner, without any distinct reference to cither one or other of the above
designations. I have, in almost all cases, translated it by the term worldy
as approaching nearest to the sense of the original. The word mundus
is frequently employed by Lucretius, especially* in his fifth book, and
seems to be almost always used in the more extended sense of universe.
There are, indeed, a few passages where either meaning would be equally
appropriate, and in one line it would appear to be equivalent to firma-
ment or heavens ; " et mmidi speciem violare serenam," iv. 138. Cicero,
in his treatise De Natura Deoinim, generally uses the term mundus in the
sense of universe, as in ii. 22, 37, 58 and 154 ; while in one passage, ii.
132, it would appear to be employed in the more limited sense of the
earth. It occasionaUy occurs in the Fasti of Ovid, but it is not easy to
ascertain its precise import ; as in the Hne " Post chaos, ut primum data
sunt tria corpora mundo," v. 41, where from the connexion it may be
taken either m the more confined or in the more general sense. ManOius
employs the word very frequently, and his commentators remark, that he
uses it in two distinct senses, the visible firmament and the universe-, and
I am induced to think that he attaches still more meaning to the term.
It occurs three times in the first eleven lines of his poem. In the third
line, " deducere mundo aggredior," mundus may be considered as equiva-

14 PLINT's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

call tlie heavens \ by the vault of which all things are en-
lent to tlie celestial regions as opposed to the earth. In the ninth line,
*' coneessumque patri mundo," we may consider it as signifying the
celestial regions generally ; and in the eleventh, " Jamque favet mundus,"
the whole of the earth, or rather its inhabitants. We meet with it again
in the sixty-eighth line, " Imnina mvindi," where it seems more properly
to signify the visible firmament ; again in the 139th, " Et mundi struxere
globum," it seems to refer especially to the earth, synonymous with the
general sense of the EngHsh term world ; while in the 153rd line, " per
inania mundi," it must be supposed to mean the universe. Hyginus,
in his Poeticon Astronomicon, Ub. i. p. 55, defines the term as follows :
*' Mimdus appeUatur is qui constat in sole et luna et terra et omnibus
steUis ; " and again, p. 57, "Terra mundi media regione collocata." We may
observe the different designations of the term mundns in Seneca ; among
other passages I may refer to his Nat. Qusest. vii. 27 & iii. 30 ; to his
treatise De Consol, § 18 and De Benef. iv. 23, where I conceive the precise
meanings are, respectively, the universe, the terrestrial globe, the firma-
ment, and the heavenly bodies. The Grreek term Koafios, which corresponds
to the Latin word mundus, was likewise employed to signify, either the
visible firmament or the universe. In illustration of this, it will be suf-
ficient to refer to the treatise of Aristotle Ilepi Koo-juov, cap. 2. p. 601. See
also Stephens's Thesaurus, in loco. In Apuleius's treatise De Mimdo,
which is a free translation of Aristotle's Xlepi Kocrjuou, the term may be
considered as synonymous with universe. It is used in the same sense
in various parts of Apideius's writings : see Metam. ii. 23 ; De Deo
Socratis, 665, 667 ; De Dogmate Platonis, 574, 575, et alibi.

^ Cicero, in his Timseus, uses the same phraseology ; " Omne igitur
eoelum, sive mundus, sive quovis aho vocabulo gaudet, hoc a nobis
nuncupatum est," § 2. Pomponius Mela's work commences with a
similar expression ; " Omne igitur hoc, quidquid est, cui mtmdi cochque
nomen indideris, unum id est." They were probably taken from a
passage in Plato's Timseus, "Universimi igitur hoc. Caelum, sive Mundum,
sive quo aho vocabulo gaudet, cognominemus," according to the trans-
lation of Ficinus ; Platonis Op. ix. p. 302. The word eoelum, wliich is
employed in the original, in its ordinary acceptation, signifies the heavens,
the visible firmament ; as in Ovid, Met. i. 5, " quod tegit omnia, eoelum."
It is, in most cases, employed in this sense by Lucretius and by ManihuS,
as in i. 2. of the former and in i. 14. of the latter. Occasionally, how-
ever, it is employed by both of these writers in the more general sense
of celestial regions, in opposition to the earth, as by Lucretius, i. 65, and
by ManHius, i. 352. In the line quoted by Cicero from Pacuvius, it
would seem to mean the place in which the planets are situated ; De
Nat. Deor. ii. 91. The Greek word ovpavbs may be regarded as exactly
corresponding to the Latin word caelum, and employed with the same
modifications ; see Aristotle, De Mvmdo and De Coelo, and Ptolemy,
Mag. Const, hb. i. passim ; see also Stephens's Thesaurus, in loco. Aratus
generally uses it to designate the visible firmament, as in 1. 10, while in
1. 32 it means the heavenly regions. Gesner defines coehtm^ " Mundua

Chap. 1.] ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD. 15

closed, we must conceive to be a Deity \ to be eternal, with-
out bounds, neither created, nor subject, at any time, to
destruction^. To inquire what is beyond it is no concern of
man, nor can the human mind form any conjecture respecting
it. It is sacred, eternal, and without bounds, all in all ; in-
deed including everything in itself ; finite, yet like what is
infinite ; the most certain of all things, yet like what is un-
certain, externally and internally embracing all things in
itself; it is the work of nature, and itself constitutea
nature^.

It is madness to harass the mind, as some have done, with
attempts to measure the world, and to publish these attempts ;
or, like others, to argue from what they have made out,
that there are innumerable other worlds, and that we must
believe there to be so many other natures, or that, if only
one nature produced the whole, there will be so many suns
and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense
trains of other heavenly bodies. As if the same question
would not recur at every step of our inquiry, anxious as we
must be to arrive at some termination ; or, as if this infinity,
which we ascribe to nature, the former of all things, cannot
be more easily comprehended by one single formation,

eiclusa terra," and munduSy " Coelujn et quidquid coeli ambitu conti-
netur." In the passage from Plato, referred to above, the words which
are translated by Ficinus caelum and mundus^ are in the original ovpavbs
and KO<T/xos ; Ficinus, however, in various parts of the Timseus, translates
ovpavbs by the word mundus : see t. be. p. 306, 311, et alibi.

^ The following passage from Cicero may serve to illustrate the doctrine
of Pliny : " Novem tibi orbibus, vel potius globis, connexa simt omnia :
quorum unus est coelestis, extimus, qui rehquos omnes complectitvir,
summus ipse Deus, arcens et continens coelum ; " Som. Scip. § 4. I may
remark, however, tliat the term here employed by our author is not Deus
but Numen.

2 We have an interesting account of the opinions of Aristotle on this
subject, in a note in M. Ajasson's translation, ii. 234 et seq., which, as
well as the greater part of the notes attached to the second book of the
Natural History, were written by himself in conjunction with M. Marcus.

* The philosophers of antiquity were divided in their opinions respect-
ing the great question, whether the active properties of material bodies,
which produce the phoenomena of nature, are inherent in them, and
necessarily attached to them, or whether they are bestowed upon them
by some superior power or being. The Academics and Peripatetics
generally adopted the latter opinion, the Stoics the former : Pliny adopts
the doctrine of the Stoics ; see Enfield's Hist, of Phil. i. 229, 283, 331.

16 PLi:!fT's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II."

especially wlien that is so extensive. It is madness, perfect
madness, to go out of this world and to search for what is
beyond it, as if one who is ignorant of his own dimensions
could ascertain the measure of any thing else, or as if the
human mind could see what the world itself cannot contain.

CHAP. 2. (2.) — or THE rOEM OF THE WOELD^

That it has the form of a perfect globe we learn from
the name which has been uniformly given to it, as well as
from numerous natural arguments. Por not only does a
figure of this kind return everywhere into itself^ and sustain
itself, also including itself, requiring no adjustments, not
sensible of either end or beginning in any of its parts, and is
best fitted for that motion, with which, as will appear here-
after, it is continually turning round ; but still more, because
we perceive it, by the evidence of the sight, to be, in every
part, convex and central, which could not be the case were
it of any other figure.

CHAP. 3. (3.) — OE ITS NATTJEE; WHENCE THE NAMEISDEEIYED.

The rising and the setting of the sun clearly prove,
that this globe is carried round in the space of twenty -four
hours, in an eternal and never-ceasing circuit, and with in-

^ I may remark, that the astronomy of our author is, for the most
part, derived from Aristotle ; the few points in which they differ vnH be
stated in the appropriate places.

2 This doctrine was maintained by Plato in his Timseus, p. 310, and
adopted by Aristotle, De Coelo, hb. ii. cap. 14, and by Cicero, De Nat.
Deor. ii. 47. The spherical form of the world, ovpavbsy and its circidar
motion are insisted upon by Ptolemy, in the commencement of his astro-
nomical treatise MeydXrj ^vvra^is. Magna Constructio, frequently re-
ferred to by its Arabic title Almagestum, cap. 2. He is supposed to have
made his observations at Alexandria, between the years 125 and 140 a.d.
His great astronomical work was translated into Arabic in the year 827 ;
the original Greek text was first printed in 1538 by Grynseus, with a
commentary by Theon. George of Trebisond pubUshed a Latin version
of it in 1541, and a second was pubhshed by Camerarius in 1551, along
with Ptolemy's other works. John Muller, usually called Regiomontanus,
and Purback pubhshed an abridgement of the Almagest in 1541. For an
account of Ptolemy I may refer to the article in the Biog. Univ. xxxv.
263 et seq., by Delambre, also to Hutton's Math. Diet,, in loco, and to
the liigh character of him by Whewell, Hist, of the Inductive Sciences,
p. 214.

Chap. 3.] ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD. 17

credible swiftness ^ I am not able to say, whether the sound
caused by the whirling about of so great a mass be excessive,
and, therefore, far beyond what our ears can perceive, nor,
indeed, whether the resounding of so many stars, all carried
along at the same time and revolving in their orbits, may
not produce a kind of delightful harmony of incredible sweet-
ness^. To us, who are in the interior, the world appears to
glide silently along, both by day and by night.

Various circumstances in nature prove to us, that there
are impressed on the heavens innumerable figures of animals
and of all kinds of objects, and that its surface is not per-
fectly polished like the eggs of birds, as some celebrated
authors assert^. For we find that the seeds of all bodies fall
down from it, principally into the ocean, and, being mixed
together, that a variety of monstrous forms are in this way
frequently produced. And, indeed, this is evident to the eye ;
for, in one part, we have the figure of a wain, in another of
a bear, of a bull, and of a letter* ; while, in the middle of them,
over our heads, there is a white circle*.

(4.) AVith respect to the name, I am influenced by the
unanimous opinions of all nations. For what the Greeks,
from its being ornamented, have termed Koa^os, we, from its
perfect and complete elegance, have termed mundus. The
name ccelum^ no doubt, refers to its being engraven, as it

* See Ptolemy, uhi supra.

* This opinion, which was maintained by Pythagoras, is noticed and
derided by Aristotle, De Ccelo, Ub. ii. cap. 9. p. 462-3. A brief account
of Pythagoras's doctrine on this subject is contained in Enfield's Philo-
sophy, i. 386.

3 Pliny probably here refers to the opinion which Cicero puts into the
mouth of one of the interiocutors in his treatise De Nat. Deor. ii. 47,
" Quid enim pulclirius ea figura, quse sola omnes alias figuras complexa
continet, qua^que nihil asperitatis habere, nihil offensionis potest, nihil
incisum anguhs, nihil anfiractibus, nihil eminens, nihil lacunosum ? "

* The letter A, in the constellation of the triangle ; it is named AeXrwrov
by Aratus, 1. 235 ; also by Manihus, i. 360. We may remark, that,
except in tliis one case, the constellations have no visible resemblance to
the objects of which they bear the name.

^ "Locmn himc Plimi de Galaxia, sive Lactea via, interpretantur onmes
docti." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 227. It may be remarked, that the
word vertex is here used in the sense of the astronomical term zenith,
not to signify the pole.

VOL. I. 0

18 pliny's nattjeal histoet. [Book II.

were, with the stars, as Yarro suggests ^ In confirmation of
this idea we may adduce the Zodiac^, in which are twelve
figures of animals ; through them it is that the sun has con-
tinued its course for so many ages.

CHAP. 4. (5.) or THE ELEMENTS^ AKD THE PLA]!fETS^

I do not find that any one has douhted that there are
four elements. The highest of these is supposed to be fire,
and hence proceed the eyes of so many glittering stars. The
next is that spirit, which both the Greeks and ourselves call
by the same name, air^. It is by the force of this vital prin-
ciple, pervading all things and mingling with all, that the
earth, together with the fourth element, water, is balanced in

1 De Ling. Lat. lib. iv. p. 7, 8. See also the remarks on the derivation of
the word in Gbsner, Thes., in loco.

2 "Signifer." The English term is taken fi-om the Greek word
ZioSiuKos, derived from Zwov ; see Aristotle, De Mimdo, cap. 2. p. 602.
The word Zodiaeus does not occiir in Pliny, nor is it employed by
Ptolemy ; he names it Xo^os kvkXos, obliquus cireiilus ; Magn. Const, i.
7, 13, et alibi. It is used by Cicero, but professedly as a Greek term ;
Divin. ii. 89, and Arati Pheenom. 1. 317. It occurs in Hyginus, p. 57
et alibi, and in A. Gellius, 13. 9. Neither signifer taken substantively,
nor zodiaeus occur in Lucretius or in Manihus.

3 The account of the elements, of their nature, difference, and, more
especially, the necessity of their being four, are fully discussed by
Aristotle in various parts of his works, more particularly in his treatise
De Coelo, hb. iii. cap. 3, 4 and 5, hb. iv. cap. 5, and De Gener. et Cor.
Hb. ii. cap. 2, 3, 4 and 5. For a judicious summary of the opinions of
Aristotle on this subject, I may refer to Stanley's History of Philosophy j
Aristotle, doctrines of, p. 2. 1. 7, and to Enfield, i. 764 et seq. For
the Epicurean doctrine, see Lucretius, i. 764 et seq.

^ Although the word planeta, as taken from the Greek irXavtjrTjs, is
inserted in the title of this chapter, it does not occur in any part of the
text. It is not found either in Lucretius, Manihus, or Seneca, nor, I
beheve, was it used by any of their contemporaries, except Hyginus, p. 76.
The planets were generally styled stellcB erraticce, errantes, or vagee,
sidera palantia, as in Lucretius, ii. 1030, or simply the Jive stars, as in
Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 51, and in Seneca, Nat. Qusest. vii. 24. Pliny,
by including the sun and moon, makes the number seven. Aratus calls
them irevr' affrepes, 1. 454.

5 " Aer." " Circumfasa undique est (terra) hac animabili spirabihque
natura, cui nomen est aer ; Grsecum iUud quidem, sed perceptum jam
tamen usu a nobis j" Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 91.

Chap. 4.] ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD. 19

the middle of space. These are mutually hound together, the
lighter being restrained by the heavier, so that they cannot
fly off ; while, on the contrary, from the lighter tending up-
wards, the hea^der are so suspended, that they cannot fall
down. Thus, by an equal tendency in an opposite directioi;,
each of them remains in its appropriate place, bound together
by the never-ceasing revolution of the world, which always
turning on itself, the earth falls to the lowest part and is in
the middle of the whole, while it remains suspended in the
centre', and, as it were, balancing this centre, in which it is
suspended. So that it alone remains immoveable, whilst all
things revolve round it, being connected with every other
part, whilst they all rest upon it.

(6.) Between this body and the heavens there are sus-
pended, in this aerial spirit, seven stars^, separated by determi-
nate spaces, which, on account of their motion, we call wander-

* " universi cardine." " Rerolutionis, ut aiunt, centre. Idem Plinius,
hoc ipso libro, cap. 64, terram coeli cardinem esse dicit ; " Alexandre, in
Lem. i. 228. On tliis subject I may refer to Ptolemy, Magn. Const,
lib. i. cap. 3, 4, 6. See also Apuleius, near the commencement of his
treatise De Mundo.

2 " Sidera." The word sidus is used, in most cases, for one of the
heavenly bodies generally, sometimes for what we term a constellation,
a particular assemblage of them, and sometimes specially for an individual
star. ManiUus employs the word in all these senses, as will appear by
the three following passages respectively ; the first taken from the open-
ing of his poem,

" Carmine divinas artes, et conscia fati
Sidera . . . . "

The second, " Hsec igitur texunt sequah sidera tractu

Ignibus in varias ccelum laqueantia formas." i. 275, 276.

The tliird " . . . . pectus, fulgenti sidere clarius ; " L 356.

In the Fasti of Ovid, we have examples of the two latter of these
significations : —

"Ex Ariadnseo sidere nosse potes ;" v. 346.

" Et canis (Icariima dicunt) quo sidere note
Tosta sitit tellus ; " iv. 939, 940.

Lucretius appears always to employ the term in the general sense. J.
Obsequens appHes the word sidus to a meteor ; " sidus ingens coelo
demissum," cap. 16. In a subsequent part of this book, chap. 18 et seq.^
our author more particularly restricts the term sidus to the planets.

c2

20 plint's fatfeal histoet. [Book n.

ing, altliough, in reality, none are less so \ The sun is carried
along in the midst of these, a body of great size and power,
the ruler, not only of the seasons and of the different climates,
but also of the stars themselves and of the heavens^. When
we consider his operations, we must regard him as the life,
or rather the mind of the universe, the chief regulator and
the Grod of nature ; he also lends his light to the other stars ^.
He is most illustrious and excellent, beholding all things
and hearing all things, which, I perceive, is ascribed to him
exclusively by the prince of poets. Homer*.

CHAP. 5. (7.) — OF GOD^.

I consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness
to inquire into the figure and form of Grod. For whatever
Grod be, if there be any other God^ and wherever he ex-
ists, he is all sense, all sight, all hearing, all life, aU mind^,
and all within himself. To believe that there are a number
of Gods, derived from the virtues and vices of man^ as
Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour, Clemency,

1 Cicero remarks concerning them; "quae (stellse) falso vocantur
errantes ; " De Nat. Deor, ii. 51.

2 "... . vices diermn altemat at noctium, qumn sidera prsesens
occultat, niustrat absens ; " Hard, in Lem, i. 230.

3 " ceteris sideribiis." According to Hardouin, ubi siq>ra, " nimium
stellis errantibus." There is, however, nothing in the expression of our
author wliich sanctions tliis limitation.

4 See Iliad, iii. 277, and Od. xii. 323.

fi It is remarked by Enfield, Hist, of Phil. ii. 131, that "with respect
to philosophical opinions, Pliny did not rigidly adhere to any sect. . . .
He reprobates the Epicurean tenet of an infinity of worlds ; favours the
Pythagorean notion of the harmony of the spheres ; speaks of the universe
as God, after the manner of the Stoics, and sometimes seems to pass over
into the field of the Sceptics. For the most part, however, he leans to
the doctrine of Epicurus."

6 " Si alius est Deus quam sol," Alexandre in Lem. i, 230. Or rather,
if there be any God distinct from the world ; for the latter part of the
sentence can scarcely apply to the sun. Poinsinet and Ajasson, however,
adopt the same opinion with M. Alexandre ; they translate the passage,
*' s'il en est autre que le soleil," i. 17 and ii. 11.

7 " totus animse, totus animi ; " " Anima est qua vivimus, animus quo
sapimus." Hard, in Lem. i. 230, 231. The distinction between these two
words is accurately pointed out by Lucretius, iii. 137 et seq.

* " fecerunt (Athenienses) Contumelise fanum et Impudentise." Cicero,
De Leg. ii. 28. S'^ also Bossuet, Discours but I'Histoire univ. i. 250.

Chap. 5.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOELD. 21

and Fidelity ; or, according to the opinion of Democritus,
that there are only two, Punishment and Reward t, indicates
still greater folly. Human nature, weak and frail as it is,
mindl'ul of its own infirmity, has made these divisions, so
that every one might have recourse to that which he supposed
himself to stand more particularly in need ofi*. Hence we
find different names employed by different nations ;^the
inferior deities are arranged in classes, and diseases and
plagues are deified, in consequence of our anxious wish to
propitiate them. It was from this cause that a temple was
dedicated to Fever, at the public expense, on the Palatine
HilP, and to Orbona'', near the Temple of the Lares, and
that an altar was elected to QA^A Fortune on the Esquiline.
Hence we may understand how it comes to pass that there
is a greater population of the Celestials than of human beings,
since each individual makes a separate God for himself,
adopting his own Juno and his own Genius^ And there
are nations who make Gods of certain animals, and even
certain obscene things^ which are not to be spoken of,
swearing by stinking meats and such like. To suppose
that marriages are contracted between the Gods, and that,
during so long a period, there should have been no issue

1 Tlie account which Cicero gives us of the opinions of Democritus
scarcely agrees w-ith the statement in the text ; see De Nat. Deor. i. 120.

* " In varios divisit Decs numen unicum, quod PHnio coehim est aut
mundus ; ejusque singidas partes, aut, ut philosophi aiunt, attributa, sepa-
ratim coluit ; " Alexandre in Lcmaire, i. 231.

8 ." Febrem aut em ad minus nocendum, temphs celebrant, quonmi ad-
huc unmn in Palatio . . . . " Yal. Max. ii. 6 ; see also jEKan, Yar. Hist,
xii. 11. It is not easy to ascertain the precise meaning of the terms
Fanum^ ^des, and Templum, which are employed in tliis place by Pliny
and Val. Maximus. Gesner defines Fanum " area templi et sohum,
templum vero sedificium ; " but tliis distinction, as he informs us, is not
always accurately obserred; there appears to be still less distinction
between ^des and Templum ; see his Thesaurus in loco, also Bailey's
Facciolati in loco.

* " Orbona est Orbitahs dea." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 231.

^ " Appositos sibi statim ab ortu custodes credebant, quos viri Genios,
Junones foeminffi vocabant." Hai-douin in Lemaire, 1. 232. See TibuUus,
4. 6. 1, and Seneca, Epist. 110, s^^h init.

^ We may suppose that our author here refers to the popular mythology
of the Egyptians ; the " foetidi cibi " are mentioned by Juvenal ; "Porrum
et csepe uelas violare et frangere morsu," xv. 9 ; and Phny, in a subsequent
part of his work, xix. 32, remarks, *' Allium csepequ, inter Deos in jure-
jurando habet ^gyptus."

22 PLi:5fT's IfATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

■from them, that some of them should be old and always grey-
headed and others young and like children, some of a dark
complexion, winged, lame, produced from eggs, living and
dying on alternate days, is sufficiently puerile and foolish.
But it is the height of impudence to imagine, that adultery
takes place between them, that they have contests and
quarrels, and that there are Grods of theft and of various
crimes \ To assist man is to be a Grod; ^his is the path to
eternal glory. This is the path which the E-oman nobles
formerly pursued, and this is the path which is now pursue^
by the greatest ruler of our age, Vespasian Augustus, he
who has come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well
as by his sons. This was the ancient mode of remunerating
those who deserved it, to regard them as Gods^. For the
names of all the Gods^ as weU as of the stars that I have
mentioned above^, have been derived from their services to
mankind. And with respect to Jupiter and Mercury, and
the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit
that they have reference to certain natural plisenomena"* ? >
But it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all
things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs^.

* See Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 42 et alibis for an illustration of these
remarks of Pliny.

^ This sentiment is elegantly expressed by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 62,
and by Horace, Od. iii. 3. 9 et seq. It does not appear, however, that
any of the Romans, except Romulus, were deified, previous to the adulatory
period of the Empire.

3 "Planetarumnempe, quiomnesnominamutuanturadiis." Alexandre
in Lemaire, i 234.

* This remark may be illustrated by the following passage from Cicero,
in the first book of liis treatise De Nat. Deor. Speaking of the doctrine
of Zeno, he says, "neque enim Jovem,ineque Junonem, neque Vestam,
neque quemquam, qui ita appehetur, in deorum habet numero : sed rebus
manimis, atque mutis, per quandam significationem, hsec docet tributa
nomiaa." " Idemque (Cluysippus) disputat, sethera esse eum, quern
homines Jovem appellant : quique aer per maria manaret, eum esse Nep-
tunum : terramque cam esse, quae Ceres diceretur : simOique ratione
persequitur vocabula rehquorum deorum."

5 The followmg remarks of Lucretius and of Cicero may serve to illus-
trate the opinion here expressed by our author : —

" Omnis enim per se Divmn natura necesse est
Immortah sevo summa cum pace fruatur,
Somota ab nostris rebus, sejunctaque longe; " Lucretius, i. 57-59,

" Quod aeternum beatumque sit, id nee habere ipsum negotii quid-

Chap. 5.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOELD. 23

Can we believe, or rather can there be any doubt, that it is
not polluted by stieh a disagreeable and complicated office ?
It is not easy to determine which opinion would be most
for the advantage of mankind, since we observe some who
have no respect for the Gods, and others who carry it to a
scandalous excess. They are slaves to foreign ceremonies ;
they carry on their fingers the Gods and the monsters whom
they worship*; they condemn and they lay great stress on
certain kinds of food ; they impose on themselves dreadful
ordinances, not even sleeping quietly They do not marry
or adopt children, or indeed do anything else, without the
sanction of their sacred rites. There are others, on the con-
trary, who will cheat in the very Capitol, and ^^iil forswear
themselves even by Jupiter Tonans^^ and while these thrive
in their crimes, the others torment themselves with their
superstitions to no purpose. ^o^

Among these discordant opinions mankind naKg discovered i
for thfiMiselves a kind of intermediate deity, by which our /
scepticism concerning God is still increased. For all over i
the world, in all places, and at all times. Fortune is the only
god whom every one invokes-, she alone is spoken of, she
alone is accused and is supposed to be guilty ; she alone is
in our thoughts, is praised and blamed^! and is loaded with
reproaches ; wavering as she is, conceived by the generality
of mankind to be blind, wandering, incoijstant, uncertain,
variable, and often favouring the unworthy. ^ To her are re-
ferred all our losses and all our gains, and in casting up the
accounts of mortals she alone balances the two pages of our
sheet^. We are so much in the power of chance, that chaiile ^
itself is considered as a God, and the existence of God be-
comes doubtful.

But there are others who reject this principle and assign
events to the influence of the stars \ and to the laws of our

quam, noc exhibere alteri ; itaque neque ira neque gratia teneri, quod, quae
talia essent, imbecilla essent omnia." Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 45.

* The author here alludes to the figures of the Egyptian deities that
were engraTen on rings.

2 His specific office was to execute vengeance on the impious.

* " sola utramque paginam facit." The words utraque pagina gene-
rally refer to the two sides of the same sheet, but, in this passage, they
probably mean the contiguous portions of the same surface.

* " astroque suo eventu assignat j " the word astrum appears to be

24 plint's NATUEAL HISTOBT. [Book II.

nativity; they suppose that God, once for all, issues his
decrees and never afterwards interferes. This opinion be-
gins to gain ground, and both the learned and the unlearned
vulgar are falling intp it. Hence we have the admonitions
of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the predictions of sooth-
sayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned, as sneezing
and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens ^ The
late Emperor Augustus^ relates, that he put the left shoe on
the wrong foot, the day when he was near being assaulted
by his soldiers'. And such things as these so embarrass
improvident mortals, that among all of them this alone is
certain, that there is nothing certain, and that there is no-
thing more proud or more wretched than man. < For other
animals have no care but to provide for their subsistence,
for which the spontaneous kindness of nature is all-suffi-
cient; and this one circumstance renders their lot more
especially preferable, that they never think about glory, or
money, or ambition, and, above aU, that they never reflect
on death.

The belief, however, that on these points the Gods super-
intend human affairs is useful to us, as well as that the
punishment of crimes, although sometimes tardy, from the
Deity being occupied with such a mass of business, is never
entirely remitted, and that the human race was not made
the next in rank to himself, in order that they might be de-
graded like brutes. And indeed this constitutes the great
comfort in this imperfect state of man, that even the Deity

synonymous "with wtfiw, generally signifying a single star, and, occasion-
ally, a constellation ; as in Manilius, i. 541, 2.

" qnantis bis sena ferantur

Finibus astra "

It is also used by synecdoche for the heavens, as is the case with the
EngHsh word stars. See Q^sner's Thesaurus.

1 " Quae si suscipiamus, pedis offensio nobis . . . et stemutamenta erunt
obserranda." Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 84.

2 " Divus Augustus." The epithet divus may be regarded as merely a
term of court etiquette, because all the Emperors after death were deified
ex officio.

3 We learn the exact nature of this ominous accident from Suetonius ;
". . . . si mane sibi calceus perperam, et sinister pro dextro induceretur ; "
Avigustus, Cap. 92. From this passage it would appear, that the Eoman
sondals were made, as we term it, right and left.

Chap. 6.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOELD. 25

cannot do everything. For he cannot procure death for
himself, even if he wished it, which, so numerous are the
evils of life, has been granted to man as our chief good. Nor
can he make mortals immortal, or recall to life those who
are dead ; nor can he effect, that he who has once lived shall
not have lived, or that he who has enjoyed honours shall not
have enjoyed them ; nor has he any influence over past
events but to cause them to be forgotten. And, if we illus-
trate the nature of our connexion with God by a less serious
argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty, and
many other things of this kind. By these considerations the
power of Nature is clearly proved, and is shown to be what
we call God. It is not foreign to the subject to have di-
^ssed into these matters, familiar as they are to every one,
irom the continual discussions that take place respecting
God'. ^

CHAP. 6. (8.) — OF THE NATURE OF THE STAES ; OF THE
MOTION OF THE PLANETS.

Let US return from this digression to the other p&rts
of nature. The stars which are described as fixed in the
heavens*, are not, as the vulgar suppose, attached each of
them to different individuals', the brighter to the rich, those
tliat are less so to the poor, and the dim to the aged, shining
according to the lot of the individual, and separately assigned
to mortals ; for they have neither come into existence, nor

* It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the opinions here stated re-
specting the Deity are taken partly from the tenets of the Epicureans,
combined with the Stoical doctrine of Fate. The examples which are ad-
duced to prove the power of fate over the Deity are, for the most part,
rather verbal than essential.

2 " afRxa mundo." The peculiar \ise of the word mundus in this pas-
sage is worthy of remark, in connexion with note \ ch. 1. page 13.

* We have many references in Pliny to the influence of the stars upon
the earth and its inhabitants, constituting what was formerly regarded as
BO important a science, judicial astrology. Ptolemy has drawn up a
regular code of it in his "Centmn dicta," or " Ceiatiloquiums." We
have a liiglUy interesting account of the supposed science, its origin, pro-
gress, and general principles, in Whewell's History of the Inductive Sci-
ences, p. 293 et seq. I may also refer to the same work for a sketch of
the history of astronomy among the Greeks and the other nations of
antiquity.

26 plest's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

do they perisli in connexion with particular persons, nor
does a falling star indicate that any one is dead. "We are
not so closely connected with the heavens as that the shining
of the stars is affected by our death \ When they are su;p-
posed to shoot or falP, they throw out, by the force of their
fire, as if from an excess of nutriment, the superabundance
of the humour which they have absorbed, as we observe to
take place from the oil in our lamps, when they are burning'.
The nature of the celestial bodies is eternal, being inter-
woven, as it were, with the world, and, by this union, ren-
dering it solid ; but they exert their most powerful influence
on the earth. This, notwithstanding its subtilty, may be
known by the clearness and the magnitude of the effect, as
we shall point out in the proper place^. The account of the
circles of the heavens will be better understood when we
come to speak of the earth, since thev have all a reference to
it ; except what has been discovered respecting the Zodiac,
which I shall now detail.

Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiad*, is said
to have been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus
opened the road to a correct knowledge of the subject^.

^ There are certain metaphorical expressions, which have originated
from this opinion, adopted by the modems; " his star is set;" " the
star of his fortune," &c.

2 Ovid, when he compares Phaeton to a faUing star, remarks, con-
cerning this meteor, —

" Etsi non cecidit, potuit ceeidisse videri." Metam. ii. 322.

* Manilius supposes that comets are produced and rendered luminous
by an operation very similar to the one described in the text ; i. 815 et seq.
Seneca, in the commencement of his Nat. Qiwest., and in other parts of
the same treatise, refers to tliis subject. His remarks may be worth
perusing by those who are curious to learn the hypotheses of the ancients
on subjects of natural science. We may remark, that Seneca's opinions
are, on many points, more correct than our author's.

* The author probably refers to that part of his work in which he
treats on agriculture, particularly to the 17th and 18th books.

5 The sera of the Olympiads commenced in the year 776 before Christ ;
each olympiad consists of 4 years ; the 58th olympiad will therefore
include the interval 548 to 544 B.C. The 21st vol. of the " Universal
History " consists entirely of a " chronological table," and we have a
usefol table of the same kind in Brewster's EncycL, article "Chronology."

6 " rerum fores aperuisse .... traditur." An account of the astro-
nomy of Anaximander is contained in Brewster's EneycL, article " Astro-
nomy," p. 587, and in the article " Anaximander" in the supplement to

Chap. 6.] ACCOUNT Or THE WOELD. 27

Afterguards Cleostratus made the signs in it, first marking
those of Aries and Sagittarius ; Atlas had formed the sphere
long before this time^ But now, leaving the further con-
sideration of this subject, we must treat of the bodies that
are situated between the earth and the heavens^.

It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and
therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the
largest circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in com-
pleting it^. The course of all the planets, and among others
of the Sun, and the Moon, is in the contrary direction to
that of the heavens^, that is towards the left, while the hea-

tho same work by Scott of Aberdeen. I may remark, tliat these two
accounts do not quite agree in their estimate of his merits ; the latter
author considers his opinions more correct. We have also an account of
Anaximander in Stanley, pt. 2. p. 1 et seq., and in Enfield, i. 154 et seq.

1 In the translation of Ajasson, ii. 261-7, we have some valuable ob-
servations by Marcus, respecting the origin and progress of astronomy
among the Greeks, and the share wliich the individuals mentioned in the
text respectively had in its advanoement ; also some interesting remarks
on the history of Atlas. Diodorus Siculus says, that " he was the first
that discovered the knowledge of the sphere ; whence arose the common
opinion, that he carried the world upon his shoulders." Booth's trans,
p. 115.

2 " nunc relicto mundi ipsius corpore, reliqua inter coelum terrasque
tract«ntur." I have already had occasion to remark upon the various
modes in which the author uses the word mundus ; by ccelum, in this
passage, he means the body or region beyond the planets, which is con-
ceived to contain the fixed stars. Spfuerayin the preceding sentence,
may be supposed to mean the celestial globe.

3 "ac trigesimo aimo ad brevissima sedis suae principia regredi;" I
confess myself imable to offer any Hteral explanation of this passage ; nor
do the remarks of the commentators appear to me satisfactory ; see Har-
douin and Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 241, 2. It is translated by Ajasson
" en trente ans il reviens k I'espace minime d'oii il est parti." The pe-
riod of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, as stated by Mrs. Somer-
ville, in her " Mechanism of the Heavens," and by Sir J. Herschei, in
his " Treatise on Astronomy," are respectively as follows : —

days. days.

Mercury 87-9705 87'9692580

Venus 224-7 224-7007869

Earth 365-2564 3652563612

Mars 686-99 6869796458

Jupiter 4332-65 43325848212

Saturn 10759-4 10759-2198174

Somervllle, p. 358. Herschei, p. 416.
* " * mundo ; ' hoc est, coelo inerrantium stellarum." Hardouiu, in
Lemaire, ii. 242.

28 plutt's fattjeal'histoet. [Book n.

vens are rapidly carried about to tlie rights And althougli,
by the stars constantly revohdng with immense velocity,
they are raised up, and hurried on to the part where they
set, yet they are all forced, by a motion of their own, in an
opposite direction^ ; and this is so ordered, lest the air, being
always moved in the same direction, by the constant whirling
of the heavens, should accumulate into one mass, whereas
now it is divided and separated and beaten into small pieces;
by the opposite motion of the different stars. Saturn is a
star of a cold and rigid nature, while the orbit of Jupiter is
much lower, and is carried round in twelve years'. The next
star. Mars, which some persons call Hercules*, is of a fiery
and burning nature, and from its nearness to the sun is carried
round in little less than two years'*. In consequence of
the excessive heat of this star and the rigidity of Saturn,
Jupiter, which is interposed between the two, is tempered
by both of them, and is thus rendered salutary. The path
of the Sun consists of 360 degrees; but, in order that the
shadow may return to the same point of the dial", we are
obliged to add, in each year, five days and the fourth part of
a day. On this account an intercalary day is given to everv
fifth year^, that the period of the seasons may agree with
that of the Sun.

1 Our author supposes, that the spectator has his face directed towards
the south, as is the case with the modem observers. We are, however, in-
formed by Hardouin, that this was not the uniform practice among the
ancients ; see the remarks of Alexandre ia Lemaire, ii. 242, and of Mar-
cus in Ajasson, ii, 269.

2 The constant revolution refers to the apparent daily motion ; the
opposite direction to their annual course through the zodiac. Ptolemy
gives an accotmt of this double motion in his Magna Constructio, i. 7.

3 For the exact period, according to Somerville and Herschel, see
note 3, p. 27.

* Aristotle informs us, that Mars was also called Hercules or Pyrosis ;
De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602. See also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Hy-
ginus is said by Hardouin to give the name of Hercules to the planet
Mars, but this appears to be an inaccuracy ; he describes the planet under
its ordinary appellation ; Hb. ii. p. 62 ; and ii. 78, 9.

5 Cicero, speaking of the period of Mars, says, " Quatuor et viginti
mensibus, sex, ut opinor, diebus minus ;" DeNat. Deor. For the exact
period, see note 3, p. 27.

6 " Sed ut observatio umbrarum ejus redeat ad notas." According to
the interpretation of Hardouin, " Ad easdem Hneas in solari horologio."
Lemaire, ii. 243.

7 This is an example of the mode of computation which we meet with

Chap. 6.] JLOCOTTNT OF THE WORLD. 29

Below the Sun* revolves the great star called Venus, wan-
dering with an alternate motion*, and, even in its surnames,
rivalling the Sun and the Moon. For when it precedes the
day and rises in the morning, it receives the name of Lucifer,
as if it were another sun, hastening on the day. On the
contrary, when it shines in the west, it is named Vesper, as
prolonging the light, and performing the office of the moon.
Pythagoras, the Samian, was the lirst who discovered its
nature^, about the 62nd olympiad, in the 222nd year of the
City*. It excels all the other stars in size, and its brilliancy
is so considerable, that it is the only star which produces a
shadow by its rays. There has, consequently, been great
interest made for its name ; some have called it the star of

among the ancients, where, in speaking of the period of a revolution, both
the time preceding and that following the interval are included.

^ The division of the planets into superior and inferior was not known
to Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. iL p. 602, to Plato, Timseus, p. 318, 319, or
the older Greek astronomers. It was first made by the Egyptians, and
was transferred from them to the Eomans. It is one of the points in
which our author differs from Aristotle. See the remarks of Marcus in
Ajasson, ii. 2^i2 et seq. Marcus notices the various points which prove
the deficiency of Pliny's knowledge of astronomy ; he particularizes the
four following : — his ignorance of the true situation of the constellations ;
his erroneous opinion respecting the cause of the seasons ; his account of
the phases of the moon, and of the position of the cardinal points. He
appears not to have been aware, that certain astronomical pha;nomena
undergo a regular progression, but supposed that they remained, at the
time when he wTotei, in the same state as in the age of Hipparchus or
the original observers. Colimiella, when treating on these subjects, de-
scribes the phsenomena according to the ancient calculation, but he informs
us, that he adopts it, because it was the one in popular use, and better
known by the farmers (De Re Rust. ix. 14), while Pliny appears not to
have been aware of the inaccuracy.

3 " Modo solem antegrediens, modo subsequens." Hardouin in Le-
maire, ii. 243.

3 It was not known to the earUer writers that Lucifer and Vesper were
the same star, differently situated with respect to the Stm. Playfair re-
marks, that Venus is the only planet mentioned in the sacred writings,
and in the most ancient poets, such as Hesiod and Homer j Outlines,
ii. 156.

"* There has been much discussion among the commentators respecting
the correctness of the figixres in the text ; according to the sera of the
olympiads, the date referred to will be between the years 750 and 754 B.C. ;
the foundation of Rome is commonly referred to the year 753 B.C. See
the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 278, 9.

30 plot's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book 11.

Juno\ others of Isis, and others of the Mother of the Gods.
By its influence everything in the earth is generated. For,
as it rises in either direction, it sprinkles everything with
its genial dew, and not only matures the productions of the
earth, hut stimulates all living things^. It completes the
circuit of the zodiac in 348 days, never receding from the
sun more than 46 degrees, according to Timaeus^.

Similarly circumstanced, hut hy no means equal in size
and in power, next to it, is the star Mercury, hy some called
Apollo "* ; it is carried in a lower orhit, and moves in a course
which is quicker by nine days, shining sometimes before the
rising of the sun, and at other times after its setting, but
never going farther from it than 23 degrees®, as we learn
from Timseus and Sosigenes^. The nature of these two stars
is peculiar, and is not the same with those mentioned above,
for those are seen to recede from the sun through one-third
or one-fourth part of the heavens, and are often seen opposite
to it. They have also other larger circuits, in which they

* Aristotle informs us, that it was called either Phosphorus, Juno, or
Venus ; De Mundo, cap. 2. t. i. p. 602. See also Hyginus, Poet. Astr.
lib. iii. p. 76, 7 ; and Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710.

2 It will be scarcely necessary to refer the reader to the weU-known
commencement of Lucretius's poem for the illustration of this passage ;
it is remarkable that Pliny does not refer to this writer.

8 The periodical revolution of Venus is 224*7 days, see note ', p. 27. Its
greatest elongation is 47° 1' ; Somerville, § 641. p. 391.

* According to Aristotle, this planet had the three appellations of
Stnbon, Mercury, and Apollo ; De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602 ; see also Apu-
leius, De Mundo, § 710. Cicero inverts the order of the planets ; he
places Mercury next to Mars, and says of Venus, that it is " infima
quinque errantium, terrseque proxima;" De Nat. Deor. ii, 5.3. Aristotle
places the stars in the same order, ubi supra, and he is followed in this
by Apuleius, ubi supra ; this appears to have been the case with the
Stoics generally ; see Enfield's Phil. i. 339.

5 For the periodical revolution of Mercury see note 3, p. 27. Its greatest
elongation, according to Playfair, p. 160, is 28°. Mrs. Somerville,
p. 386, states it to be 28° 8'. Ptolemy supposed it to be 26*5 degrees ;
Almagest, ix. 7. We learn from Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 246, that there
is considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to the greatest elonga-
tion of Mercury.

^ Sosigenes was an Egyptian mathematician and astronomer, who is
said to have assisted Csesar in the formation of his Kalendar, as our
author raforms us in a subsequent part of his work, xvui. 25 ; see also
Aikin, Gen. Biog., in loco ; Enfield's Phil. ii. 96 ; WheweU, p. 210 ; and
Hardouin's " Index Auctorum," in Lemaire, i. 213.

Cliap. 6.] ACCOTTNT OF THE WOELD. 31

make their complete revolutions, as will be described in tbe
account of the great year^

(9.) But the Moon^, which is the last of the stars, and the
one the most connected with the earth, the remedy provided
by nature for darkness, excels all the others in its admirable
qualities. By the variety of appearances which it assumes, it
puzzles the observers, mortified that they should be the most
Ignorant concerning that star which is the nearest to them.
She is always either waxing or waning ; sometimes her disc
is curved into horns, sometimes it is £vided into two equal
portions, and at other times it is swelled out into a full orb ;
sometimes she appears spotted' and suddenly becomes veiy
bright ; she appears very large with her full orb and sud-
denly becomes invisible ; now continuing during all the night,
now rising late, and now aiding the light of the sim during
a part of the day ; becoming eclipsed and yet being visible
while she is echpsed ; concealing herself at the end of the
month and yet not supposed to be eclipsed''. Sometimes
she is low down, sometimes she is high up, and that not ac-
cording to one uniform course, being at one time raised up

* Concerning the "magnus annus" Cicero remarks, "efficitur cum
solis et lunse et quinque errantium ad eandem inter se comparationem,
confectis omnibus spatiis, est facta conversio." De Nat. Deer. ii. 61.
See the remarks of Marcvis in Ajasson, ii, 281-3.

* For the various appellations which the moon has received in the
ancient and modem languages, and their relation to each other, the reader
is referred to the learned remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 283-5.

' Marcus conceives that the epithet maculosa does not refer to what
are called the spots on the moon, but to the circumstance of the edge of
the disc being not illuminated when it is near the full ; Ajasson, ii. 286.
But, from the way in which the word is employed at the end of the
chapter, and from the explanation which is given of the cause of the
"maculae," I tliink it ought to be referred to the spotted appearance of
the face of the moon.

* " Quiun laborare non creditur." It was a vulgar notion among the
ancients, that when the moon is ecUpsed, she is suffering from the influ-
ence of magicians and enchanters, who are endeavouring to draw her
down to the earth, in order to aid them in their superstitious ceremonies.
It was conceived that she might be reHeved from her sufferings by loud
noises of various kinds which should drown the songs of the magicians.
Allusion is frequently made to this custom by the ancient poets, as Virgil,
Mn. i. 742, Mamlius, i. 227, and Juvenal, vi. 444 ; and the language has
been transferred to the modems, as in Beattie's Minstrel, ii. 47, " To
ease of fancied pangs the laboxiring moon."

32 plint's katueal histoet. [Book II.

to the heavens, at other times almost contiguous to the
mountains ; now elevated in the north, now depressed in the
south ; all which circumstances having been noticed by En-
dymion, a report was spread about, that he was in love with
the moon'. AVe are not indeed sufficiently grateful to those,
who, with so much labour and care, have enlightened us vdth
this light^ ; while, so diseased is the human mind, that we
take pleasure in writing the annals of blood and slaughter,
in order that the crimes of men may be made known to those
who are ignorant of the constitution of the world itself.

Being nearest to the axis^, and therefore having the small-
est orbit, the Moon passes in twenty-seven days and the one-
third part of a day^, through the same space for which Saturn,
the highest of the planets, as was stated above, requires thirty
years. After remaining for two days in conjunction vrith the
sun, on the thirtieth day she again very slowly emerges to pur-
sue her accustomed course*. I know not whether she ought
not to be considered as our instructress in everything that can
be known respecting the heavens ; as that the year is divided
into the twelve divisions of the months, since she follows the
sun for the same number of times, until he returns to the
commencement of his course ; and that her brightness, as
well as that of the other stars, is regulated by that of the
sun, if indeed they all of them shine by light borrowed from
him, such as we see floating about, when it is reflected from
the surface of water. On this account it is that she dissolves
so much moisture, by a gentle and less perfect force, and
adds to the quantity of that which the rays of the sun con-

* We have some interesting remarks by Marcus respecting Endymion,
and also on the share which Solon and Thales had in correcting the lunar
observations ; Ajasson, ii. 288-290.

2 " Lucem nobis aperuere in hac luce." ^ « Cardo."

* Astronomers describe tv^o different revolutions or periods of the
moon ; the synodical and the sidereal. The synodical marks the time
in which the moon passes from one conjunction with the sain to the next
conjvmction, or other similar position with respect to the sim.. The side-
real period is the time in which the moon returns to the same position
with respect to the stars, or in which it makes a complete revolution round
the earth. These numbers are, for the synodical period, 29** 12'' 44" 2-87',
and for the sidereal, 21^ 1^ 43'" ll-5» ; Herschel^ pp. 213, 224.

5 Our author, as Marcus remarks, "a compte par nombres ronds;"
Ajasson, ii. 291 ; the correct number may be found ia the preceding note.

Ohap. 6.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOELD. 33

sume^ On this account she appears with an unequal light,
because being full only when she is in opposition, on all the
remaining days she snows only so much of herself to the
earth as she receives light from the sun^. She is not seen
in conjunction, because, at that time, she sends back the
whole stream of light to the source whence she has derived
it. That the stars generally are nourished by the terrestrial
moisture is evident, because, when the moon is only half vi-
sible she is sometimes seen spotted, her power of absorbing
moisture not having been powerful enough ; for the spots
are nothing else than the dregs of the earth drawn up along
^vith the moisture^. (10.) But her eclipses and those of the
sun, the most wonderM of all the phaenomena of nature, and
which are like prodigies, serve to indicate the magnitude of
these bodies and the shadow^ which they cast.

^ It was a general opinion among the ancients, and one which was en-
tertained until lately by many of the modems, that the moon possessed
the power of evaporating the water of the ocean. This opinion appears
to have been derived, at least in part, from the effect which the moon
produces on the tides.

8 "quantum ex sole ipsaconcipiat ;" from this passage, taken singly,
it might be concluded, that the author supposed the quantity of light
received by the moon to differ at different times ; but the succeeding
sentence seems to prove that this is not the case ; see the remarks of Alex-
andre in Lemaire, ii. 249. Marcus, however, takes a different view of the
subject ; Ajasson, ii. 291, 292. He had previously pointed out Pliny's
opinion respecting the phases of the moon, as one of the circiunstances
which indicate liis ignorance of astronomy, ut supra, ii. 245, 246.

s This doctrine is maintained by Seneca, Qusest. Nat. hb. ii. § 5. p. 701,
702. From the allusion which is made to it by Anacreon, in his 19th
ode, we may presume that it was the current opinion among the ancients.
* I may remark, that Poinsinet, in this passage, substitutes " umbra "
for " tmibrseque," contrary to the autliority of all the MSS., merely be-
cause it accords better with his ideas of correct reasoning. Although it
may be of httle consequence in this particular sentence, yet, as such liber-
ties are not imfrequently taken, I think it necessary to state my opinion,
that this mode of proceeding is never to be admitted, and that it has
proved a source of serious injury to classical Hterature. In this accoimt
of the astronomical phaenomena, as well as in all the other scientific dis-
sertations that occur in our author, my aim has been to transfer into our
language the exact sense of the original, without addition or correction.
Our object in reading Phny is not to acquire a knowledge of natural phi-
losophy, which might be better learned from the commonest elementary
work of the present day, but to ascertain what were the opinions of the
learned on such subjects when Pliny wrotp. I make this remark, becaiiae
YOL. I. J)

34 plint's NATIJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

CHAP. 7. — OF THE ECLIPSES OP THE MOON AND THE SUIT.

For it is evident that the sun is hid by the intervention^
of the moon, and the moon by the opposition^ of the earth,
and that these changes are mutual, the moon, by her inter-
position\ taking the rays of the sun from the earth, and the
earth from the moon. As she advances darkness is suddenly
produced, and again the sun is obscured by her shade ; for
night is nothing more than the shade of the earth. The
figure of this shade is like that of a pyramid or an inverted
top^ ; and the moon enters it only near its point, and it does
not exceed the height of the moon, for there is no other star
which is obscured in the same manner, while a figure of this
kind always terminates in a point. The flight of birds, when
very lofty, shows that shadows do not extend beyond a certain
distance ; their limit appears to be the termination of the
air and the commencement of the aether. Above the moon
everything is pure and full of an eternal light. The stars
are visible to us in the night, in the same way that other
luminous bodies are seen in the dark. It is from these causes
that the moon is eclipsed during the night^. The two kinds
of eclipses are not, however, at the stated monthly periods,
on account of the obliquity of the zodiac, and the irregularly
wandering course of the moon, as stated above ; besides that
the motions of these stars do not always occur exactly at the
same points'*.

I have seldom if ever perused a translation of any classical author, where,
on scientific topics, the translator has not endeavoured, more or less, to
correct the mistakes of the original, and to adapt his translation to the
state of modem science.

^ The terms here employed are respectively interventtis, ohjectiOy and
interpositus ; it may be doubted whether the author intended to employ
them in the precise sense which is indicated by their etymology.

3 " metfiD et tvirbini inverso." The metee were small pyramids placed
at the two extremities of the spina, or central division of the circus : see
Montfaucon, v. iii. p. 176 ; Adam, p. 341.

3 The echpses of the moon are only yisible when the spectator is so
situated as to be able to observe the shadow of the earth, or is on that
side of the earth which is turned from the sun.

4 " non semper in scrupulis partium congruente sidenmi motu." On
the term scrupulus Hardouin remarks, " ScrupuH, nodi sunt, in quibus
circuU, quos in suo cursu Sol et Lima efficiunt, se mutuo secant."
Lemaire, ii. 251. Ptolemy, Magn. Const, vi. 6-11, gives a fidl and ge-
nerally correct accovmt of the principal phenomena of echpses.

Chap. 8.] ACCOTTIfT OP THE WOBLD. 85

CHAP. 8. (11.) — OP THE MAGlHTTrDE OP THE STABS.

This kind of reasoning carries the human mind to the
heavens, and by contemplating the world as it were from
thence, it discloses to us the magnitude of the three greatest
bodies in nature*. Tor the sun could not be entirely con-
cealed from the earth, by the intervention of the moon, if the
earth were greater than the moon'"'. And the vast size of
the third body, the sun, is manifest from that of the other
two, so that it is not necessary to scrutinize its size, by argu-
ing from its visible appearance, or from any conjectures of
the mind ; it must be immense, because the shadows of rows
of trees, extending for any number of miles, are disposed in
right lines^, as if the sun were in the middle of space. Also,
because, at the equinox, he is vertical to all the inhabitants
of the southern districts at the same time^ ; also, because
the shadows of all the people who live on this side of the
tropic fall, at noon, towards the north, and, at sunrise, point
to the west. But this could not be the case unless the sun
were much greater than the earth ; nor, unless it much ex-
ceeded Mount Ida in breadth, could he be seen when he
rises, passing considerably beyond it to the right and to the
left, especially, considering that it is separated by so great
an interval*.

* Marcus conceives that our author nmst here mean, not the actual,
hut the apparent size of these bodies ; Ajasson, iL 295 j but I do not per-
ceive that the text authorizes this interpretation.

' I have given the sunple translation of the original as it now stands
in the MSS. ; whether these may have been corrupted, or the author
reasoned incorrectly, I do not venture to decide. The commentators
have, according to their usual custom, proposed various emendations and
explanations, for which I may refer to the note of Hardouin in Lemaire,
iL 252, with the judicious remarks of Alexandre, and to those of Marcus
in Ajasson, ii. 295-298, who appear to me to take a correct view of the
subject.

^ Alexandre remarks, " Hinc tamen potius distantia quam magnitudo
Solis coUigi potest." Lemaire, ii. 252. And the same remark applies
to the two next positions of our author.

* Alexandre remarks on the argument of our author, perhaps a little
too severely, " Absurde dictum ; nam aliiw oritur, aliis occidit, dum aliia
est a vertice ; quod vel pueri sentiunt." Lemaire, ii. 253. But we may
suppose, that PHny, in this passage, only meant to say, that as the sun
became vertical to each successive part of the equinoctial district, no
shadows were formed in it.

* The commentators have thought it ne<5essary to discuss the question,

d2

36 PLINT's NATT7EAL HISTOET. [Book IT.

The eclipse of the moon affords an undoubted argument
of the sun's magnitude, as it also does of the small size of
the earth \ For there are shadows of three figures, and it is
evident, that if the body which produces the shadow be equal
to the light, then it will be thrown off in the form of a pillar,
and have no termination. If the body be greater than the
light, the shadow will be in the form of an inverted cone^
the bottom being the narrowest part, and being, at the same
time, of an infinite length. If the body be less than the
light, then we shall have the figure of a pyramid^, termina-
ting in a point. Now of this last kind is the shadow which
produces the eclipse of the moon, and this is so manifest that
there can be no doubt remaining, that the earth is exceeded
in magnitude by the sun, a circumstance which is indeed in-
dicated by the silent declaration of nature herself. For why
does he recede from us at the winter half of the year'' ? That
by the darkness of the nights the earth may be refreshed,
which otherwise would be burned up, as indeed it is in cer-
tain parts ; so great is his size.

CHAP. 9. (12.) — AN ACCOUNT OF THE OBSEEYATIONS THAT
HAVE BEEN MADE ON THE HEAVENS BY DIFFEEENT IN-
DIVIDUALS.

The first among the Eomans, who explained to the people
at large the cause of the two kinds of eclipses, was Sul-
picius GaUus, who was consul along vrith Marcellus ; and

whether, m this passage, Phny refers to the Ida of Crete or of Asia Minor.
But the discussion is unnecessary, as the statement of the author is equally
inapphcable to both of them. Mela appears to refer to tliis opinion in
the following passage, where he is describing the Ida of Asia Minor ;

"ipse mens orientem solem aliter quam in aliis terris solet aspici,

ostentat." hb. i. cap. 18.

* " Ut dictiun est superiore capite, quo Plinius falso contendit Terram
esse Luna minorem." Alexandre in Lemaire, ii, 253. The words of the
text, however, apply equally to the comparative size of the earth and the
sun, as of the earth and the moon.

2 "turbo rectus ;" hteraUy an upright top. ^ "meta."

* This has been pointed out as one of our author's erroneous opinions
on astronomy. The earth is reaUy about ^ nearer the sun in om- winters
than in our summers. The greater degree of heat produced by his rays
in the latter case depends upon their falling on the surface of the earth
less obliquely. This is the principal cause of the diferent temperatures
of the equatorial and polar regions.

Chap. 9.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOELD. 87

when he was only a military tribune he relieved the army
from great anxiety the day before king Perseus was con-
quered by Paulus' ; for he was brought by the general into
a public assembly, in order to predict the eclipse, of which
he afterwards gave an account in a separate treatise. Among
the Greeks, Thales the Milesian first investigated the sub-
ject, in the fourth year of the forty-eighth olympiad, pre-
dicting the eclipse of the sun which took place in the reign
of Alyattes, in the 170th year of the City*. After them Hip-
parchus calculated the course of both these stars for the term
of 600 years^, including the months, days, and hours, the
situation of the different places and the aspects adapted to
each of them ; all this has been confirmed by experience,
and could only be acquired by partaking, as it were, in the
councils of nature. These were indeed great men, siiperior
to ordinary mortals, who having discovered the laws of these
divine bodies, relieved the miserable mind of man from the
fear which he had of eclipses, as foretelling some dreadful

* This eclipse is calculated to have occurred on the 28th of June, 168
B.C. ; Brewster's En( yc. *' Chronology," p. 415, 424. We liave an account
of this transaction in Livy, xlir. 37, and in Plutarch, Life of Paulus
jEmilius, Langhomo's trans, ii. 279 ; he however does not mention the
name of Gallus. See also Val. Maximus, viii. 11. 1, and Quintilian, i.
10. Val. MaximuB does not say that Chillus predicted the eclipse, but
explained the cause of it when it had occurred ; and the same statement
is made by Cicero, De Rcpub. i. 15. For an account of Sulpicius, see
Hardouin's Index auctorum, Lemaire, i. 214.

2 An account of tliis event is given by Herodotus, Clio, § 74. There
has been the same kind of discussion among the commentators, respect-
ing the dates in the text, as was noticed above, note \ p. 29 : see the
remarks of Brotier and of Marcus in Lemaire and Ajasson, in loco. As-
tronomers have calculated that the ecUpse took place May 28th, 585 B.C.;
Brewster, ut supra, pp. 414, 419.

^ Hipparchus is generally regarded as the first astronomer who pro-
secuted the science in a regular and systematic manner. See Whewell,
C. 3. p. 169 et seq.y 177-179. He is supposed to have made his observa-
tions between the years 160 and 125 B.C. He made a catalogue of the
fixed stars, which is preserved in Ptolemy's Magn. Const. The only
work of his now extant is his commentary on Aratus ; it is contained in
Petau's L^ranologie. "We find, among the ancients, many traces of their
acquaintance with the period of 600 years, or what is termed the great
year, when the solar and lunar phsenomena rectir precisely at the same
points. Cassini, Mem. Acad., and Bailly, Hist. Anc. Astron., have shown
that there is an actual foundation for this opinion. See the remarks of
Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 302, 303.

38 PLnrr's nattjeal histoet. [Book IL

events or the destruction of tlie stars. This alarm is freely
acknowledged in the sublime strains of Stesichorus and Pin-
dar, as being produced by an eclipse of the sun^ And with
respect to the eclipse of the moon, mortals impute it to
witchcraft, and therefore endeavour to aid her by producing
discordant sounds. In consequence of this kind of terror it
was that Nicias, the general of the Athenians, being ignorant
of the cause, was afraid to lead out the fleet, and brought
great distress on his troops^. Hail to your genius, ye in-
terpreters of heaven! ye who comprehend the nature of
things, and who have discovered a mode of reasoning by
which ye have conquered both gods and men^ ! For who is
there, in observing these things and seeing the labours''
which the stars are compelled to undergo (since we have
chosen to apply this term to them), that would not cheer-
fully submit to his fate, as one bom to die ? I shall now,
in a brief and summary manner, touch on those points in
which we are agreed, giving the reasons where it is necessary
to do so ; for this is not a work of profound argument, nor
is it less wonderful to be able to suggest a probable cause for
everything, than to give a complete account of a few of
them only.

CHAP. 10. (13.) — O-^ THE EECTTRRENCE OF THE ECLIPSES OP
THE SUN AND THE MOON.

It is ascertained that the eclipses complete their whole
revolution in the space of 223 months^ that the eclipse
of the sun takes place only at the conclusion or the com-
mencement of a lunation, which is termed conjunction^,

^ Seneca, the tragedian, refers to this superstitious opinion in some
beautiful verses, which are given to the chorus at the termination of the
fourth act of the Thyestes.

2 We have an accoimt of this event in Thucydides, Smith's trans, ii.
244, and in Plutarch, Langhorne's trans, iii. 406. It is calculated to
have happened Aug. 27th, 413 B.C. ; Brewster, ut supra, p. 415, 421.

3 The elegant lines of Ovid, in his Fasti, i. 297 et seq., express the
same sentiment : " FeUces animos, quibus hoc cognoscere primis," &c.

■* I have aheady remarked upon the use of this term as apphed to the
eclipses of the moon in note ^, p. 31.

* According to the remarks of Marcus, it appears probable that this
Bol-lunar period, as it has been termed, was discovered by the Chaldeans j
Ajaeson, ii. 306, 307. ^ " coitus."

Chap. 10.] ACCOUNT OP THE WOELD. 80

while an eclipse of the moon takes place only when she is
at the full, and is always a little farther advanced than the
preceding eclipse \ ]^«fow there are eclipses of both these
stars in every year, which take place below the earth, at
stated days and hours ; and when they are above it' they ai*e
not always visible, sometimes on account of the clouds, but
more frequently, from the globe of the earth being opposed
to the vault of the heavens'. It was discovered two hundred
years ago, by the sagacity of Hipparchus, that the moon is
sometimes eclipsed ai'ter an interval of five months, and the
sun after an interval of seven* ; also, that he becomes invi-
sible, wliile above the horizon, twice in every thirty days,
but that this is seen in different places at different times.
But the most wonderful circumstance is, that while it is ad-
mitted that the moon is darkened by the shadow of the earth,
this occurs at one time on its western, and at another time
on its eastern side. And farther, that although, after the
rising of the sun, that darkening shadow ought to be below
the earth, yet it has once happened, that the moon has been
eclipsed in the west, while both the luminaries have been above
the horizon^. And as to their both being invisible in the
space of fifteen days, this very thing happened while the
Vespasians were emperors, the father being consul for the
third time, and the son for the second*.

* " Hoc enim periodo (223 mensium) pleruinque redeunt eclipses, non
multum differentes, denis tamen gradibus zodiaci antecedentes j Kepler,
as quoted by Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 238.

2 The terms " sub terra" and " supeme" are interpreted, by most of the
commentators, below and above the horizon respectively ; see Marcus in
Ajasson, ii. 307.

3 •' globo terrse obstante convexitatibus mundi." The term convexus,
as applied to the heavens, or visible firmament, simply signifies arched j
not opposed to concave, like the English word convex.

* This point is discussed by Ptolemy, Magn. C!onst. vi. 6 ; *'De distantia
echpticorum mensium." See also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire,
ii. 260, 261 ; and of Poinsinet, i. 67.

* These are styled horizontal echpses ; they depend on the refractive
power of the atmosphere, causing tlie sun to be visible above the horizon,
although it is actually below it. Brotier states, that echpses of this de-
scription occurred on the 17th July, 1590, on the 30th November, 1648,
and on the 16th January, 1660 ; Lemaire, ii. 260.

^ This is supposed to have been in the year 72 of our aera, when it is
said that the sun was echpsed, in Italy, on the 8th, and the moon on the
22nd of February j see Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 261«

40 pliny's natxjeal histoet. [Book n.

CHAP. 11. (14.) — OF THE MOTION" OF THE MOON.

It is certain that the moon, having her horns always turned
from the sun, when she is waxing, looks towards the east ;
when she is waning, towards the west. Also, that, from the
second day after the change, she adds 47^ minutes^ each day,
until she is full, and again decreases at the same rate, and
that she always becomes invisible when she is within 14 de-
grees of the sun. This is an argument of the greater size of
the planets than of the moon, since these emerge when they
are at the distance of 7 degrees only^. But their altitude
causes them to appear much smaller, as we observe that,
during the day, the brightness of the sun prevents those
bodies from being seen which are fixed in the firmament,
although they shine then as well as in the night : that this
is the case is proved by eclipses, and by descending into very
deep wells.

CHAP. 12. (15.) — OF THE MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND
THE GENEBAL LAWS OP THEIE ASPECTS'.

The three planets, which, as we have said, are situated
above the sun"*, are visible when they come into conjunction
with him. They rise visibly^ in the morning, when they are
not more than 11 degrees from the sun® ; they are afterwards
directed by the contact of his rays'', and when they attain
the trine aspect, at the distance of 120 degrees, they take
their morning stationary positions®, which are termed pri-

1 In a subsequent part of the work, xviii. 75, the author gives a dif-
ferent rate of increase, viz. 51^ minutes ; neither of these numbers is
correct ; the mean rate of increase being, according to Alexandre, about
54' or 55' ; Lemaire, ii. 261, 262. See also Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 311-14.

2 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the effect, as here stated, has
no connexion with the supposed cause.

3 " luminum canonica." * Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

5 They are then said, in astronomical language, to rise hehacaUy.

6 In the last chapter this distance was stated to be 7 degrees ; see the
remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 263,

7 " radiorum ejus contactu reguntur." The doctrine of the ancient
astronomers was, that the motions of the planets are always governed by
the rays of the sun, according to its position, attracting or repelling them.

^ A planet appears to be stationary, i. e. to be referred to the same
point of the zodiac, when it is so situated with respect to the earth, that

Chap. 12.] ACCOFNT OY THE WORLD. 41

maiy ; afterwards, when they are in opposition to the sun, they
rise at the distance of 180 degrees from him. And again ad-
yancing on the other side to the 120th degree, they attain their
evening stations, which are termed secondary, until the sun
having arrived within 12 degrees of them, what is called their
evening setting becomes no longer visible ^ Mars, as being
nearer to the sun, feels the influence of his rays in the quadra-
rurc,at the distance of 90 degrees, whence that motion receives
its name, being termed, from the two risings, respectively the
first and the second nonagenarian'. This planet passes from
one station to another in six months, or is two months in each
sign ; the two other planets do not spend more than four
months in passing from station to station.

The two inferior planets are, in like manner, concealed in
their evening conjunction, and, when they have left the sun,
they rise in the morning the same number of degrees distant
from him. After ha\ing arrived at their point of greatest
elongation', they then follow the sun, and having overtaken

a Btraight lino passing tlirough the two bodies forms a tangent to the
smaller orbit. The apparent motion of the planets, sometimes direct and at
other times retrograde, ^vith their stationary positions, is occasioned by the
earth and the planets moving in concentric orbits, with different velo-
cities. One hundred and twenty degrees is the mean distance at which
the three superior planets become stationary. We have an elaborate
dissertation by Marcus, on the unequal velocities of the planets, and on
their stations and retrogradations, as well according to the system of
Aristotle as to that of Copernicus ; Ajasson, ii. 316 et seq. He remarks,
and, I conceive, with justice, ". . . . ce n'est pas dans les traites d'astronomie
de nos savans que Ton doit puiser les details destines h. ^claircir le texte

des chapitres xii, xiii, xiv et xv du second livre de Pline Je ne dis

rien des commentaires de Poinsinet, d'Hardouin et d'autres savans peu
verses en matiere d'astronomie, qui ont fait dire h, Pline les plus grandes
absurdites."

^ " Occasus planetse vespertinus dicitur, quo die desinit post occasum
soHs supra horizontem ocuhs se prsebere manifest um ;" Alexandre in
Lemaire, ii. 265. It is then said to set Heliacally.

2 The interpretation of this passage has given rise to much discussion
among the commentators and translators ; I may refer the reader to the
remarks of Poinsinet, i. 70, 71 ; of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 266 ; and
of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 328. I conceive the meaning of the author to be,
that while the other planets become stationary, when at 120 degrees from the
sun, Mars becomes so at 90 degrees, being detained by the rays, which act
upon him more powerfully, in consequence of his being nearer to their
source.

* I may refer to the remarks of Marcus on the respective distances

42 PLUTT's NATUEAIi HISTOET. [Book II.

him at their morning setting, they become invisible and pass
beyond him. They then rise in the evening, at the distances
which were mentioned above. After this they return back
to the sim and are concealed in their evening setting. The
star Yenus becomes stationary when at its two points of
greatest elongation, that of the morning and of the evening,
according to their respective risings. The stationary points
of Mercury are so very brief, that they cannot be correctly
observed.

CHAP. 13. — ^WHT THE SAME STABS APPEAB AT SOME TIMES
MOEE LOFTY AND AT OTHEE TIMES MOEE NEAE.

The above is an account of the aspects and the occultations
of the planets, a subject which is rendered very complicated
by their motions, and is involved in much that is wonderful ;
especially, when we observe that they change their size and
colour, and that the same stars at one time approach the
north, and then go to the south, and are now seen near the
earth, and then suddenly approach the heavens. K on this
subject I deliver opinions different from my predecessors, I
acknowledge that I am indebted for them to those indivi-
duals who first pointed out to us the proper mode of inquiry;
let no one then ever despair of benefiting future ages.

But these things depend upon many different causes. The
first cause is the nature of the circles described by the stars,
which the Greeks term apsides^, for we are obliged to use
Greek terms. Now each of the planets has its own circle,
and this a different one from that of the world^ ; because the
earth is placed in the centre of the heavens, with respect to
the two extremities, which are called the poles, and also in

fi-om the sun at which Venus and Mercury become stationary, and when
they attain their greatest elongations ; Ajasson, ii. 328, 329. According
to Ptolemy, Magn. Constr. Hb. viii. cap. 7, the evening setting of Venus
is at 5° 40' fi-om the sun, and that of Mercury at 11° 30'.

^ " 'Aj^ls, hgneus rotse circulus, ab utttu) necto;" TLederic in loco. The
term is employed in a somewhat diiferent sense by the modem astrono-
mers, to signify the point in the orbit of a planet, when it is either at the
greatest or the least distance from the earth, or the body about which it
revolves ; the former being termed the apogee, aphehon, or the higher
apsis ; the latter the perigee, perhehon, or lower apsis ; Jennings on the
Globes, pp. 64, 65.

« "mundo."

Chap. 13.] ACCOITNT OP THE WOELD. 43

that of the zodiac, which is situated obliquely between them.
And all these things are made evident by the infallible results
which we obtain by the use of the compasses ^ Hence the
apsides of the planets have each of them different centres, and
consequently they have different orbits and motions, since it
necessarily loUows, that the interior apsides are the shortest.

(16.) The apsides which are the highest from the centre
of the earth are, for Saturn, when he is in Scorpio, for Jupiter
in Virgo, for Mars in Leo, for the Sun in Gemini, for Venus
in Sagittarius, and for Mercury in Capricorn, each of them
in the middle of these signs ; while in the opposite signs,
they are the lowest and nearest to the centre of the earth'.
Hence it is that they appear to move more slowly when
they are carried along tne highest circuit ; not that their
actual motions are accelerated or retarded, these being fixed
and determinate for each of them ; but because it necessarily
follows, that liues drawn from the highest apsis must approach
nearer to each other at the centre, like the spokes of a wheel ;
and that the same motion seems to be at one time greater,
and at another time less, according to the distance from the
centre.

Another cause of the altitudes of the planets is, that their
highest apsides, with relation to their own centres, are in
ditterent signs from those mentioned above^. Saturn is in
the 20th degree of Libra, Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer,
Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun in the 19th of Aries,
Venus in the 27th of Pisces, Mercury in the 15th of Virgo,
and the Moon in the 3rd of Taurus.

The third cause of the altitude depends on the form of the
heavens, not on that of the orbits ; the stars appearing to
the eye to mount up and to descend through the depth of
the au*^. With this cause is connected that which depends

' "ratione circini semper indubitata."

* In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes these points are
continually advancing from W. to E., and are now about 30 degrees from
the situation they were in when the observations were first made by
the modem astronomers.

* Our author here probably refers to the motions of the planets through
their epicycles or secondary circles, the centres of which were supposed
to be ia the peripheries of the primary circles. See Alexandre in Le-
maire, ii. 270.

* It is to this visible appearance of convexity in the heavens that Ovid

44 PLimr's KATUEAL HISTOET, [Book n.

on the latitude of the planets and the obliquity of the zodiac.
It is through this belt that the stars which I have spoken of
are carried, nor is there any part of the world habitable, ex-
cept what lies under it^ ; the remainder, which is at the poles,
being in a wild desert state. The planet Venus alone exceeds
it by 2 degrees, which we may suppose to be the cause why
some animals are produced even in these desert regions of
the earth. The moon also wanders the whole breadth of the
zodiac, but never exceeds it. Next to these the planet Mer-
cury moves through the greatest space ; yet out of the 12 de-
grees (for there are so many degrees of latitude in the zodiac-),
it does not pass through more than 8, nor does it go equally
through these, 2 of them being in the middle of the zodiac,
4 in the upper part, and 2 in the lower part^. I^Text to these
the Sun is carried through the middle of the zodiac, winding
unequally through the two parts of his tortuous circuit ■*.
The star Mars occupies the four middle degrees ; Jupiter
the middle degree and the two above it ; Saturn, like the

refers in the story of Phaeton, where he is describing the daily path of
the sun ; Metam. ii. 63-67.

1 " quam quod illi subjacet ;" under this designation the author obvi-
ously meant to include the temperate zones, although it technically ap-
phes only to the part between the tropics. It is scarcely necessary to
remark, that modem discoveries have shown that this opinion respecting
the Arctic zone is not strictly correct.

2 The breadth of the zodiac, which was limited by the ancients to 12
degrees, has been extended by the modem astronomers to 18, and would
require to be much farther extended to include the newly discovered
planet. Herschel's Astronomy, § 254.

8 There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the meaning of the
terms employed by our author in describing the course of the planet
Mercury tlu-ough the zodiac ; " medio ejus," " supra," and " infra."
Hardouin's comment is as follows : " Duas zodiaci partes seu gradus
pererrat, quum ipse per medium incedit signiferum : supra, quum deflectit
ad Aquilonem, per quatuor ahas ejusdem partes vagatur : infra, quum
descendit ad Austrum, discedit duabus." Lemaire, ii. 271, 272. But
Marcus has shown that the opinion of Hardotiin is inadmissible and in-
consistent with the facts ; Ajasson, ii. 338-341. He proposes one, which
he conceives to be more connect, but we may probably be led to the con-
clusion, that the imperfect knowledge and incorrect opinions of our au-
thor on these subjects must render it impossible to afford an adequate
explanation.

* " flexuoso draconum meatu ;" Poinsinet remarks, " Les Grrecs

appeEaient dragons les bracelets, les hausse-cols, les chainettes, et gen4-
ralement tout ce qui avait une figm*e armiUaire ;" i. 79, 80.

Chap. 13.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOELD. 45

sun, occupies two^ The above is an account of the lati-
tudes as tney descend to the south or ascend to the north'.
Hence it is plain tliat the generality of persons are mistaken
in supposing the tliird cause of the apparent altitude to
depend on the stars rising from the ew-rth and climbing up
the heavens. But to refute this opinion it is necessary to
consider the subject with very great minuteness, and to
embrace all the causes.

It is generally admitted, that the stars', at the time of
their evening setting, are nearest to the earth, both with
respect to latitude and altitude*, that they are at the com-
mencement of both at their morning risings, and that they
become stationary at the middle points of their latitudes,
what are called the ecliptics". It is, moreover, acknow-
■edged, that their motion is increased when they are in the
vicinity of the earth, and diminished when they are removed
to a greater altitude* ; a point which is most clearly proved
by the different altitudes of the moon. There is no doubt
that it is also increased at the morning risings', and that the
three superior planets are retarded, as they advance from
the first station to the second. And since tins is the case, it

^ As this remark appears to contradict what was said in the last sen-
tence respecting the sun, we may suspect some error in the text j see
Poinsinet, Alexandre, and Marcus, in loco.

* The following comparative statement is given by Alexandre of the
geocentric latitudes of the planets, as assigned by Pliny, and as laid down
by the modems. Lemaire, ii. 273 : —

Venus
Moon
Mercury . . .

* It appears fi^m the remark at the end of this chapter, that this ex-
planation apphes to the superior planets alone.

^ It is not easy, as Marcus observes, Ajasson, ii. 344, 345, to compre-
hend the exact meaning of this passage, or to reconcile it with the other
parts of our author's theory.

5 " EcHptiea," called by the modems the nodes ; i. e. the two points
where the orbits of the planets cut the ecliptic. See the remarks of Mar-
cus on this term ; Ajasson, ii. 345, 346.

^ We may presume that our author here refers to the apparent motion
of the planets, not to their actual acceleration or retardation.

7 The editors have differed in the reading of this passage j I have fol-
lowed that of Lemaire.

JPlini/.

Moderns.

Plini/. Modems.

. 8° .

. . 9° 22'

Mars . .

. 2" 0' . . I"' 51'

. 6 .

..60

Jupiter .

. 1 30 .. 1 30

. 5 .

. . 6 54

Saturn . .

. 1 (or 2°) 2 30

46 plint's natxteal histoet. [Book n.

is evident, tliat the latitudes are iacreased from the time of
their morning risings, since the motions afterwards appear
to receive less addition ; but they gaia their altitude in the
first station, siace the rate of their motion then begins to
diminish \ and the stars to recede.

And the reason of this must be particularly set forth.
"When the planets are struck by the rays of the sun, in the-
situation which I have described, i. e. in their quadrature,
they are prevented from holding on their straight forward
course, and are raised on high by the force of the fire'^. This
cannot be immediately perceived by the eye, and therefore
they seem to be stationary, and hence the term station is
derived. Afterwards the violence of the rays increases, and
the vapour being beaten back forces them to recede.

This exists in a greater degree in their evening risings, the
sun being then turned entirely from them, when they are
drawn into the highest apsides ; and they are then the least
visible, since they are at their greatest altitude and are
carried along with the least motion, as much less indeed as
this takes place in the highest signs of the apsides. At the
time of the evening rising the latitude decreases and becomes
less as the motion is diminished, and it does not increase
again imtil they arrive at the second station, when the alti-
tude is also diminished ; the sun's rays then coming from
the other side, the same force now therefore propels them
towards the earth which before raised them into the heavens,
from their former triangular aspect^. So different is the
effect whether the rays strike the planets from below or
come to them from above. And aU these circumstances
produce much more effect when they occur in the evening
setting. This is the doctrine of the superior planets ; that

1 " incipit detrahi numerus." According to the explanation of Alex-
andre, " numerus nempe partium quas certo temporis intervallo emeti-
untur." Lemaire, ii. 275. Marcus remarks in this place, " Dans tout
ce chapitre et dans le suivant, Pline a place dans une correlation de cau-
site, tout ce qu'U croit arriver en meme temps ; mais il n'a pas prouve
par-Ik que les phenomenes celestes qui sont contemporains sont engendrea
les uns par les autres." Ajasson, ii. 349.

3 The hypothesis of Pliny appears to be, that the planets are affected
by the rays of the sun, and that according to the angle at which they
receive the impulse, they are either accelerated or retarded in their
course. * " ex priore triquetro."

Chap. 14.] ACCOUNT OP THE WOELD. 47

of the others is more difficult, and has never been laid down
by any one before me^

CHAP. 14. (17.) — WHY THE SAME STAE8 HATE DIFFEBEITP
MOTIONS.

I must first state the cause, why the star Yenus never
recedes from the sun more than 46 degrees, nor Mercury more
than 23'', while they frequently return to the sun within this
distance'. As they are situated below the sun, they have
both of them their apsides turned in the contrary direction ;
their orbits are as much below the earth as those of the
stars above mentioned are above it, and therefore they cannot
recede any farther, since the curve of their apsides has no
greater longitude\ The extreme parts of their apsides
therefore assign the limits to each of them in the same
manner, and compensate, as it were, for the small extent of
their longitudes, by the great divergence of their latitudes*.
It may be asked, why do they not always proceed as far as
the 46th and the 23rd de^es respectively ? They in reality
do so, but the theory fails us here. Por it would appear
that the apsides are themselves moved, as they never pass
over the sun''. "When therefore they have arrived at the

^ Alexandre supposes, as I conceive justly, that our author, in this
passage, only refers to the writings of his own countrymen ; Lemaire, iL.
276. •

2 According to Ptolemy, these numbers are respectively 47° 51' and
24° 3' ; the modem astronomers have ascertained them to be 48° and 29**.
The least elongations of the planets are, according to Ptolemy, 44° 7' and
18° 60', and according to the observations of the modems, 45° and 16° j
Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 354.

* I have not translated the clause, " quum sint diversse stella," as,
according to Hardouin, it is not found " in probatissimis codd,," and
appears to have httle connexion with the other parts of the sentence ;
it is omitted by Valpy and Lemaire, but is retained by Poinsinet and
Ajasson.

* When these inferior planets have arrived at a certain apparent
distance from the sun, they are come to the extent of their orbits, as seen
from the earth.

^ " Quum ad illam Solis distantiam pervenerunt, ultra procedere non
possunt, deficiente circuli longitudine, id est, ampUtudine." Alexandre iu
Lemaire, ii. 277.

® The transits of the inferior planets had not been observed by the
■ancients.

48 PLTirr's FATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

extremities of their orbits on either side, the stars are then
supposed to have proceeded to their greatest distance ; when
they ha;ve been a certain number of degrees within their
orbits, they are then supposed to return more rapidly, siQce
the extreme point in each is the same. And on this account
it is that the direction of their motion appears to be changed.
For the superior planets are carried along the most quickly
in their evening setting, while these move the most slowly ;
the former are at their greatest distance from the earth
when they move the most slowly, the latter when they move
the most quickly. The former are accelerated when nearest
to the earth, the latter when at the extremity of the circle ;
in the former the rapidity of the motion begins to
diminish at their morning risings, in the latter it begins to
increase ; the former are retrograde from their morning to
their evening station, while Venus is retrograde from the
evening to the morning station. She begins to increase her
latitude from her morning rising, her altitude follows the
sun from her morning station, her motion being the quickest
and her altitude the greatest in her morning setting. Her
latitude decreases and her altitude diminishes from her
evening rising, she becomes retrograde, and at the same
time decreases in her altitude from her evening station.

Again, the star Mercury, in the same way, mounts up in
both directions^ from his morning rising, and having followed
the sun through a space of 15 degrees, he becomes almost sta-
tionary for four days. Presently he diminishes his altitude,
and recedes from his evening setting to his morning rising.
Mercury and the Moon are the only planets which descend
for the same number of days that they ascend. Venus
ascends for fifteen days and somewhat more ; Saturn and
Jupiter descend in twice that number of days, and Mars in
four times. So great is the variety of nature ! The reason
of it is, however, evident ; for those planets which are forced
up by the vapour of the sun likewise descend with difficulty.

CHAP. 15. — GEICEEAL LAWS^ OF THE PLANETS.

There are many other secrets of nature in these points, as

1 " utroque mode ; " " latitadine et altitudine ; " Hardouin in Le-
maire, ii. 27U. ^ " Catholica."

Chap. 16.] ACCOUNT or THE WOELD. 48

well as the laws to which they are subject, which might be
mentioned. For example, the planet Mars, whose course is
the most difficult to observe*, never becomes stationary when
Jupiter is in the trine aspect, very rarely when he is 60 aegrees
from the sun, which number is one-sixth of the circuit of the
heavens' ; nor does he ever rise in the same sign with Jupiter,
except in Cancer and Leo. The star Mercury seldom has
his evening risings in Pisces, but very frequently in Virgo,
and his morning risings in Libra ; he has also his morning
rising in Aquarius, very rarely in Leo. He never becomes
retrograde either in Taurus or in Gemini, nor until the 25th
degree of Cancer. The Moon makes her double conjunction
with the sun in no other sign except Gemini, while Sagit-
tarius is the only sign in which she has sometimes no con-
junction at all. The old and the new moon are visible on
the same day or night in no other sign except Aries, and
indeed it has happened very seldom to any one to have wit-
nessed it. From this circumstance it was that the tale of
Lynceus's quick-sightedness originated'. Saturn and Mars
are invisible at most for 170 days ; Jupiter for 36, or, at the
least, for 10 days less than this ; Venus for 69, or, at the least,
for 52 ; Mercury for 13, or, at the most, for 18*.

CHAP. 16. (18.) — THE BEABON WHY THE STABS ABE OF DIF-
TEBENT COLOURS.

Tlie difference of their colour depends on the difference in
their altitudes; for they acquire a resemblance to those planets
into the vapour of which they are carried, the orbit of each
tinging those that approach it in each direction. A colder
planet renders one that approaches it paler, one more hot

1 "... . qusB (stella Martis) ut maxime excentrica volvitur, mottis
etiam maxime dissonos habere diu visa est . . . . j " Alexandre in Lemaire,
IL 180.

* " . . . . qui nnmenis sexangulas mnndi efficit formas."

Lynceus was one of the Argonauts and was celebrated for the acute-
ness of his vision ; Yal. Flaccus, L 462 et seq.

* The relative situation of these astronomical phsenomena has changed
since the time of Pliny, in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes.
For an illustration and explanation of the various statements in this
chapter I may refer to the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 368-370.

VOL. I. E

60 plutt's nattieal histoet. [Book IL

renders it redder, a windy planet gives it a lowering aspect,
while the sun, at the union of their apsides, or the extremity
of their orbits, completely obscures them. Each of the
planets has its peculiar colour^; Saturn is white, Jupiter
brilliant. Mars fiery, Lucifer is glowing, Yesper refulgent,
Mercury sparkling, the Moon mild ; the Sun, when he rises,
is blazing, afterwards he becomes radiating. The appearance
of the stars, which are fixed in the firmament, is also afiected
by these causes. At one time we see a dense cluster of stars
around the moon, when she is only half-enlightened, and
when they are viewed*n a serene evening ; while, at another
time, when the moon is full, there are so few to be seen, that
we wonder whither they are fled; and this is also the case when
the rays of the sun, or of any of the above-mentioned bodies^,
have dazzled our sight. And, indeed, the moon herself is,
without doubt, differently affected at different times by the
rays of the sun ; when she is entering them, the convexity
of the heavens^ rendering them more feeble than when they
fall upon her more directly''. Hence, when she is at a ri^ht
angle to the sun, she is half-enlightened ; when in the trme
aspect, she presents an imperfect orb°, while, in opposition,
she is full. Again, when she is waning, she goes through
the same gradations, and in the same order, as the three stars
that are superior to the sun*.

CHAP. 17. (19.) — OF THE MOTION OF THE STTN" AND THE CAUSE
OF THE lEEEGULAEITY OF THE DATS.

The Sun himself is in four different states ; twice the night

^ Ptolemy's account of the colours of the planets is nearly similar to
that of our author ; " Candidus color Jovialis est, rutilus Martius, flavus
Yeneris, varius Mercurii ; " De Jur. Astrol. ii. 9.

2 This effect cannot be produced by any of the planets, except perhaps,
to a certain extent, by Venus. 3 "mundi."

■* It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the method which Pliny
employs to explain the different phases of the moon betrays his ignorance,
not only of the cause of these particular phsenomena, but of the general
principles which affect the appearance of the heavenly bodies.

5 " seminani ambitur orbe." According to the interpretation of Har-
douin, " Orbe non perfecto et absoluto ; " " major dimidia, minor plena j "
Lemaire, ii. 284.

* As Alexandre justly remarks, our author refers here to the aspects
only of the planets, not to their phases j ii. 284.

Chap. 18.] ACCOinrT OP THE WOHLD. 61

is equal to the day, in the Spring and in the Autumn,
when he is opposed to the centre of the earth \ in the 8th
degree of Aries and Libra''. The length of the day and the
night is then twice changed, when the day increases in length,
from the winter solstice in the 8th degree of Capricorn, and
afterwards, when the night increases in length from the
Bummer solstice in the 8th degree of Cancer'. The cause of
this inequality is the obliquity of the zodiac, sinde there is,
at every moment of tim6, an equal portion of the firmament
above and below the horizon. But the signs which mount
directly upwards, when they rise, retain the light for a longer
space, while those that are more oblique pass along more
quickly.

CHAP. 18. (20.) — ^WHT THUITDEE IS ASCEIBED TO JTJPITEE.

It is not generally known, what has been discovered by
men who are the most eminent for their learning, in con-
sequence of their assiduous observations of the heavens, that
the fires which fall upon the earth, and receive the name of
thunder-bolts, proceed from the three superior stars^, but
principally from the one which is situated m the middle. It
may perhaps depend on the superabundance of moisture from
the superior oroit communicating with the heat from the
inferior, which are expelled in this manner^ ; and hence it
is commonly said, the thunder-bolts are darted by Jupiter.
And as, in burning wood, the burnt part is cast off with a
crackling noise, so does the star throw ofi" this celestial fire,
bearing the omens of future events, even the part which is

* " centrum terrsB ; " the equator, the part equally distant fi^m the
two poles or extremities.

* It may be remarked, that the equinoxes did not actually take place
at this period in the points mentioned by Pliny, but in the 28th degrees
of Pisces and Yirgo respectively ; he appears to have conformed to the
popular opinion, as we may learn fix)m Coliimella, hb. ix. cap. 14. The
degrees mentioned abore were those fixed by the Greek astronomers who
formed the celestial sphere, and which was about 138 years before the
Christian sera. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 246 & 373, 374.

3 The same remark appHes to this as to the former observation.

* "siderum."

» The hypothesis of the author is, that the excess of moisture in the
orbit of Saturn, and the excess of heat in that of Mars, unite in the orbit
of Jupiter and are discharged in the form of thunder.

s2

5i plint's itatiteal histoet. [Book n.

thrown off not losing its divine operation. And this takes
place more particularly when the air is in an unsettled state,
either because the moisture which is then collected excites
the greatest quantity of fire, or because the air is disturbed,
as if by the parturition of the pregnant star.

CHAP. 19. (21.) — OF THE DISTANCES OF THE STAES.

Many persons have attempted to discover the distance of
the stars from the earth, and they have published as the
result, that the sun is nineteen times as far from the moon,
as the moon herself is from the earths Pythagoras, who
was a man of a very sagacious mind, computed the distance
from the earth to the moon to be 126,000 furlongs, that
from her to the sun is double this distance, and that it is
three times this distance to the twelve signs- ; and this was
also the opinion of our countryman, GlaUus Sulpicius'.

CHAP. 20. (22.) — OF THE HAEMONT OF THE STAES.

Pythagoras, employing the terms that are used in music,
sometimes names the distance between the Earth and the
Moon a tone ; from her to Mercury he supposes to be half
this space, and about the same from him to Venus. Prom
her to the Sun is a tone and a half; from the Sun to Mars is
a tone, the same as from the Earth to the Moon ; from him
there is half a tone to Jupiter, from Jupiter to Saturn also

1 Alexandre remarks, that Pliny mentions this, not as his own opinion,
but that of mani/ persons ; for, in chap. 21, he attempts to prove mathe-
matically, that the moon is situated at an equal distance between the sun
and the earth ; Lemaire, ii. 286.

2 Marcus remarks upon the inconsistency between the account here
given of Pythagoras' s opinion, and what is generally supposed to have
been his theory of the planetary system, according to which the sun, and
not the earth, is placed in the centre ; Enfield's Philosophy, i. 288, 289.
Yet we find that Plato, and many others among the ancients, give us the
same account of Pythagoras' s doctrine of the respective distances of the
heavenly bodies; Ajasson, ii. 374. Plato in his Timseus, 9. p. 312-315,
details the comphcated arrangement which he supposes to constitute the
proportionate distances of the planetary bodies.

3 Sulpicius has already been mentioned, in the ninth chapter of this
book, as being the first among the Eomans who gave a popxdar explana-
tion of the cause of echpses.

Chap. 21.] ACCOUNT OF THE WOBLD. 63

half a tone, and thence a tone and a half to the zodiac.
Hence there are seven tones, which he terms the diapason
harmony \ meaning the whole compass of the notes. In
this, Saturn is said to move in the Doric time, Jupiter in the
Phrygian'', and so forth of the rest ; but this is a refinement
rather amusing than useful.

CHAP. 21. (23.) — OP THE DIMENSIONS OP THE WOELD.

The stadium is equal to 125 of our Eoman paces, or 625 feet*.
Posidonius^ supposes that there is a space of not less than
40 stadia arouna the earth, whence mists', winds and clouds*
proceed ; beyond this he supposes that the air is pure and
liquid, consisting of uninterrupted light ; from the clouded
region to the moon there ^a a space of 2,000,000 of stadia,

* " Aid naffuivy omnibus tonis conteitam hannoniam." Hardouin in
Lemaire, ii. 287.

* These appellations appear to have originated from different nations
having assumed different notos as the foundation or commencement of
their musical scale. The Abb^ Bartholemi informs us, that " the Dorians
executed the same air a tone lower than the Phrygians, and the latter a
tone still higher than the Lydians ; hence the denomination of the Dorian,
Phrygian, and Lydian modes." It appears to have been a general prac-
tice to employ the lowest modes for the slowest airs ; Anacharsis's Travels,
iii. V3, 74.

' Hence the passus will be equal to 6 Roman feet. H we estimate
the Roman foot at 11-6496 English inches, we shall have the miliare of
8 stadia equal to 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than an English
statute mile. See Adam's Roman Antiquities, p. 503 ; also the articles
Miliare and Pes iu Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities ;
and for the varieties of the stadium, as employed at different periods and
in different co\mtries, see the article Stadium. The stadium which He-
rodotus employed in measurements of Babylon has been supposed to
consist of 490 English feet, while that of Xenophon and Strabo has been
estimated at 505 ; see Ed. Rev. xlviii. 190. The Abbe Barthelemi sup-
poses the stadium to be equal to 604 English feet ; Anach. Travels, vii. 284.

* There appears to have been two individuals of this name, who have
been confounded with each other ; the one referred to by Pliny was an
astronomer of Alexandria, who flourished about 260 years B.C. ; the other
was a native of Apamea, a stoic philosopher, who lived about two cen-
turies later ; see Aikin's Biog. in loco j also Hardouin's Index Auctorum,
Lemaire, i. 209.

* The terms in the original are respectively nuhila and nuhes. The
lexicographers and grammarians do not appear to have accurately dig*
criminated between these two words.

54 PLrSTT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

and tlience to the sun of 500,000^000 ^ It is in consequence
o£ this space that the sun, notwithstanding his immense
magnitude, does not burn the earth. Many persons have
imagined that the clouds rise to the height of 900 stadia.
These points are not completely made out, and are dif&cult
to explain ; but we have given the best account of them that
has been published, and if we may be allowed, in any degree,
to pursue these investigations, there is one infallible geome-
trical principle, which we cannot reject. Not that we can
ascertain the exact dimensions (for to profess to do this
would be almost the act of a madman), but that the mind
may have some estimate to direct its conjectures. Now it is
evident that the orbit through which the sun passes consists
of nearly 366 degrees, and that the diameter is always the third
part and a little less than the seventh of the circumference^.
Then taking the half of this (for the earth is placed in the
centre) it will foUow, that nearly one-sixth part of the im-
mense space, which the mind conceives as constituting the
orbit of the sun round the earth, will compose his altitude.
That of the moon will be one-twelfth part, since her course
is so much shorter than that of the sun ; she is therefore
carried along midway between the sun and the earth ^. It
is astonishing to what an extent the weakness of the mind
will proceed, urged on by a little success, as in the above-
mentioned instance, to give full scope to its impudence !
Thus, having ventured to guess at the space between the sun
and the earth, we do the same with respect to the heavens,
because he is situated midway between them ; so that we may
come to know the measure of the whole world in inches.
Por if the diameter consist of seven parts, there will be
twenty-two of the same parts in the circumference ; as if we
could measure the heavens by a plumb-line !

The Egyptian calculation, which was made out by Petosi-

1 The words in the text are " vicies centum millia " and " qninquies
milUa."

2 Archimedes estimated that the diameter of a circle is to its circum-
ference as 1 to 3-1416 ; Hutton's Diet, in loco. Ptolemy states it to be
precisely as 1 to 3 ; Magn. Const, i. 12.

3 The author's reasoning is foimded upon the supposition of the length
of the Sim's path round the earth being twelve times greater than that
of the moon's ; the orbit therefore would be twelve times greater and the
radius ia the same proportion.

Chap. 22.] ACCOUNT OP THE WOELD. 65

ris and Necepsos, supposes that each degree of the lunar
orbit (which, as I have said, is the least) consists of little
more than 33 stadia ; in the very large orbit of Saturn the
number is double ; in that of the sun, which, as we have
said, is in the middle \ we have the half of the sum of these
numbers. And this is indeed a very modest calculation*,
since if we add to the orbit of Saturn the distance from him
to the zodiac, we shall have an infinite number of degrees*.

CHAP. 22. (24.) — OF THE STABS WHICH APPEAB SUDDENLY,
OE OP COMETS\

A few things still remain to be said concerning the world ;
for stars are suddenly formed in the heavens themselves ; of
these there are various kinds.

(25.) The Greeks name these stars comets^ ; we name them
Crinitae, as if shaggy with bloody locks, and surrounded with
bristles like hair. Those stars, which have a mane hanging
down from their lower part, like a long beard, are named
Pogonia)^. Those that are named Acontiae' vibrate like a dart
with a very quick motion. It was one of this kind which the
Emperor Titus described in his very excellent poem, as
having been seen in his fifth consulship ; and this was the
last of these bodies which has been observed. When they
are short and pointed they are named Xiphiae' ; these are the

* " Non inter Lunam et Satumum, sed inter Lunam at ccelum affixa-
rum stellarum, medium esse Solem modo diierat. Quam parum sui
meminit ! " Alexandre in Lem. i. 291.

2 " Qui computandi modus pluriraum habet verecundiae et modestise,
quimi ibi sistit, nee ulterius progreditur." Hardouin in Lemaire, L 292.

3 " .... ad Satxxmi circulum addito Signiteri ipsius intervallo, . . . . "

* We may remark, that our author, for the most part, adopts the
opinions of Aristotle respecting comets and meteors of all kinds, while he
pays but little attention to those of his contemporary Seneca, which how-
ever, on some points, woidd appear to be more correct. See the remarks
of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 244. Under the title of comets he includes, not
only those bodies which are permanent and move in regular orbits, but
such as are transient, and are produced from various causes, the nature of
which is not well understood. See Aristotle, Meteor, hb. i. cap. 6, 7,
and Seneca, Nat. Qusest. hb. 7, and ManiHus, L 807 et seq.

* a Kont], coma.

^ a TTwywvtos, barbatus. Most of these terms are employed by Ari-
stotle and by Seneca. 7 ab clkovtiov^ jaculum.

* a ^t^os, ensis.

66 PLimr's nattjeal histoet. [Book IL

pale kind ; they shine like a sword and are without any rays ;
while we name those Discei\ which, being of an amber colour,
in conformity with their name, emit a few rays from their
maFgin only. A kind named Pitheus^ exhibits the figure of
a cask, appearing convex and emitting a smoky light. The
kmd named Cerastias^ has the appearance of a horn ; it is
like the one which was visible when the Greeks fought at
Salamis. Lampadias'' is like a burning torch ; Hippias*^ is
like a horse's mane ; it has a very rapid motion, like a circle
revolving on itself. There is also a white comet, with silver
hair, so brilliant that it can scarcely be looked at, exhibiting,
as it were, the aspect of the Deity in a himian form. There
are some also that are shaggy, having the appearance of a
fleece, surrounded by a kind of crowTi. There was one,
where the appearance of a mane was changed into that of a
spear ; it happened in the 109th olympiad, in the 398th year
of the City*. The shortest time during which any one of
them has been obser\'ed to be visible is 7 days, the longest
180 days.

CHAP. 23. — THEIB NATUEE, SITUATION, AND SPECIES.

Some of them move about in the manner of planets^, others
remain stationary. They are almost all of them seen towards
the north", not indeed in any particular portion of it, but

1 a diffKos, orbis.

2 a TTiOos, dolium. Seneca describes this species as " magnitudo vaati
rotundique ignis dolio similis j " Nat. Qusest. lib. i. § 14. p. 964.

' a K6(0as, comu. * a Xa/nrds, fax.

fi ab tTTTros, equus. Seneca mentions the fax, the jaculum, and the
lampas among the prodigies that preceded the civil wars j Phars. i.
528 et seq.

6 Alexandre remarks, that these dates do not correspond, and adds,
"Desperandum est de Pliniana chronologia; nee satis interdum scio,
utrum libraries, an scriptorem ipsum incusem, . . . . " Lemaire, i. 295.
According to the most approved modem chronology, the middle of the
109th olympiad corresponds to the 211th year of the City.

7 " errantium modo ; " this may mean, that they move in orbits like
those of the planets and exhibit the same phsenomena, or simply that
they change their situation with respect to the fixed stars.

* Seneca remarks on this point, " Placet igitxir nostris (Stoicis) cometas
.... deoso aeri creari. Ideo circa Septemtrionem frequentissime
apparent, quia iHic plurimi est aeris frigor." Qusest. Nat. i. 7. Aristotle,

Chap. 23.] ACCOTTNT OF THE WOELD. 57

generally in that white part of it which has obtained the
name of the Milky "Way. Aristotle informs us that several
of them are to be seen at the same time\ but this, as far as
I know, has not been observed by any one else ; also that
they prognosticate high winds and great heat'. They are
also visible in the winter months, and about the south pole,
but thev have no rays proceeding from them. There waa a
dreadful one observed by the Ethiopians and the Egyptians,
to which Typhon, a king of that period, gave his own name ;
it had a fiery appearance, and was twisted like a spiral ; its
aspect was hideous, nor was it like a star, but rather like a
knot of fire*. Sometimes there are hairs attached to the
planets and the other stars. Comets are never seen in the
western part of the heavens. It is generally regarded as a
terrific star, and one not easily expiated ; as was the case with
the civil commotions in the consulship of Octavius, and also
in the war of Pompey and Cajsar*. And in our own age,
about the time when Claudius Caesar was poisoned and
left the Einpire to Domitius Nero, and afterwards, while the
latter was Emperor*, there was one which was almost con-
stantly seen and was very finghtfiil. It is thought important
to notice towards what part it darts its beams, or from what
star it receives its influence, what it resembles, and in what
places it shines. If it resembles a flute, it portends some-

on tho contrary, remarks that comets are less frequently produced in the
northern part of the heavens ; Meteor, hb. i. cap. 6. p. 535.

1 Ubi supra. ^ See Aristotle, ut supra^ p. 537.

' " Videtur is non cometes fuisse, sed meteorus quidam ignis j " Alex-
andre in Lemaire, i. 296.

■* Virgil, Geor. i. 488 ef seq., ManiUus, i. 904 et seq.^ and Lucan, i
526 et seq.j all speak of the comets and meteors that were observed
previous to the civil wars between Pompey and Csesar. In reference to
the existence of a comet about the time of JuHus Csesar, Playfair remarks,
that HaUey supposed the great comet of 1680 to have been the same that
appeared in the year 44 A.c, and again in Justinian's time, 521 P.O., and
also in 1106 ; Elem. Nat. Phil. ii. 197, 198. See Ptolemy's Cent. Diet,
no. 100, for the opinion, that comets presented an omen especially tm-
favourablo to kings. To this opinion the following passage in the
Paradise Lost obviously refers; "And with fear of change perplexes
monarchs."

^ Seneca refers to the four comets that were seen, after the death of
Csesar, in the time of Augustus, of Claudius, and of Nero ; Qmest. Nat. L 7.
Suetonius mentions the comet which appeared previous to the death of
Claudius, cap. 46, and Tacitus that before the death of Nero, Ann. xiv. 22.

68 PLnrr's itattjeal histoet. [Book IL

thing unfavourable respecting music ; if it appears in the
parts of the signs referred to the secret members, something
respecting lewdness of manners ; something respecting wit
and learning, if they form a triangular or quadrangular
figure with the position of some of the fixed stars ; and that
some one will be poisoned, if they appear in the head of either
the northern or the southern serpent.

Eome is the only place in the whole world where there is
a temple dedicated to a comet ; it was thought by the late
Emperor Augustus to be auspicious to him, from its appear-
ing during the games which he was celebrating in honour of
Venus Genetrix, not long after the death of his father Caesar,
in the College which was founded by him\ He expressed
his joy in these terms : " During the very time of these games
of mine, a hairy star was seen during seven days, in the part
of the heavens which is under the Great Bear. It rose about
the eleventh hour of the day^, was very bright, and was con-
spicuous in all parts of the earth. The common people sup-
posed the star to indicate, that the soul of Caesar was admitted
among the immortal Gods ; under which designation it was
that the star was placed on the bust which was lately conse-
crated in the forum^." This is what he proclaimed in public,
but, in secret, he rejoiced at this auspicious omen, interpreting
it as produced for himself; and, to confess the truth, it really
proved a salutary omen for the world at large^.

Some persons suppose that these stars are permanent, and
that they move through their proper orbits, but that they are
only visible when they recede from the sun. Others suppose
that they are produced by an accidental vapour together
with the force of fire, and that, from this circumstance, they
are liable to be dissipated*^.

* " A Julio Csesare. Is enim paulo ante obitum collegium his ludis
faciendis instituerat, confecto Veneris templo ; " Hardouin in Lemaire, i.
299. Jul. Obsequens refers to a " stella crinita," which appeared during
the celebration of these games, cap. 128.

2 " Hoc est, hora fere integra ante solis occasum ; " Hardouin in Le-
maire, i. 299.

3 All these circumstances are detailed by Suetonius, in Julio, § 88. p. 178.

* "terris."

* Seneca remarks, " . . . . quidam nuUos esse cometas existimant, sed
species illorum per repercussionem vicinorum siderum, . . . . Quidam aiimt
esse quidem, sed habere cursus suos et post certa lustra in conspectum

Qiap. 25.] ACCOITNT OF THE WOELD. 69

CHAP. 24. (26.) — THE DOCTEnne or hippabchits^ about

THE STABS.

This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently
commended, as one who more especially proved the relation
of the stars to man, and that our souls are a portion of
heaven, discovered a new star that was produced m his own
age, and, by observing its motions on the day in which it
shone, he was led to doubt whether it does not often happen,
that those stars have motion which we suppose to be fixed.
And the same individual attempted, what might seem pre-
sumptuous even in a deity, viz. to number the stars for
posterity and to express their relations by appropriate names ;
having previously devised instruments^, by which he might
mark the places and the magnitudes of each individual star.
In this way it might be easily discovered, not only whether
they were destroyed or produced, but whether they changed
theu" relative positions, and likewise, whether they were in-
creased or diminished; the heavens being thus left as an
inheritance to any one, who might be found competent to
complete his plan.

CHAP. 25. — EXAMPLES FEOM HISTOET OF CELESTIAL PEO-
DIGLES ; fdCES^ LAMPADES^ AND BOLIDES^.

The faces shine brilliantly, but they are never seen except-
ing when they are falling^ one of these darted across the

mortalium exire." He concludes by observing, "Veniet tern pus, quo ista
quae nunc latent, in lucem dies extrahat, et longioris diei diligentia j "
Nat. Quffist. lib. 7. § 19. p. 807.

* For some accoimt of Hipparchus, see note *, p. 87.

^ Nothing is known respecting the natiire of these instruments, nor
have we any means of forming even a conjecture upon the subject.

3 The terms "faces," "lampades," "boHdes," and "trabes," Hterally
torches, lamps, darts, and beams, which are employed to express different
kinds of meteors, have no corresponding words in English which would
correctly designate them.

■* From this account it would appear, that the " fax " was what we
term a falling star. " Meteora ista, super cervices nostras transeuntia,
diversaque a stellis labentibus, modo aerohthis ascribenda sunt, modo va-
poribus incensis aut electrica vi prognata videntur, et quamvis frequen-
tissime recurrant, expUcatione adhuc incerta indigent." Alexandre in
Lemaire, i. 302.

60 PLINY* S NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

heavens, in the sight of all the people, at noon-day, when
Germanicus Ctesar was exhibiting a show of gladiators*.
There are two kinds of them ; those which are called lampadea
and those which are called bolides, one of which latter was
Been during the troubles at Mutina''. They differ from each
other in this respect, that the faces produce a long train of
light, the fore-part only being on fire ; while the bolides, being
entirely in a state of combustion, leave a still longer track
behind them.

CHAP. 26. — TRABES CELESTES / CHASMA CCELI,

The trabes also, which are named ^oicot', shine in the same
manner ; one of these was seen at the time when the Lace-
dffimonians, by being conquered at sea, lost their influence
in Greece. An opening sometimes takes place in the firma-
ment, which is named chasma*.

CHAP. 27. (27.) — OF THE COLOUES OF THE SKY AND 0!
CELESTIAL FLAME.

There is a flame of a bloody appearance (and nothing is

' Seneca refers to this meteor j " Vidimus non semel flammam ingcnti
pilfie specie, aiUB tamen in ipso cursu suo dissipata est ... . noc Qennanici
mors sine tali demonstratione fuit ; " Nat. Queost. lib. i. cap. 1. p. 683.

* This meteor ia mentioned by Dion CassiuB, lib. xlv. p. 278, but is
described by him as a lampas.

« We may presume that the trabe* are, for the most part, to be referred
to the aurora borealis. The chastna and the appearances described in
the twenty-seventh chapter are probably varieties of tliis meteor. On
these phainomcna we have the following remarks by Seneca : " Lucem in
aijre, seu quaindam albedinem, angustam quideni, scd oblongam, do
noctu quandoque vieam, soreno coelo, si parallelo situ sit, Trabom vocant |
Bi perpendicularijColumnara ; si, cum cuspido Bolida, sive Jaculum." Nat.
Qusest. vii. 4, and again, vii. 5, " Trabes autem non transcumuit neo prro-
tervolant, ut factis, sed coraraorantur, et in eadem parte cooli collucent."

* Seneca describes this meteor, ubi sttpra, i. 14. " Sunt chasinata, cura
aliquando cccli spatiiim disoodit, et flammam dehiscens volut in abdito
ostentat. Colores quoquo horum omnium plurimi sunt. Quidam ruboris
acerrimi, quidam evanidas ct lovis flammte, quidam Candida) lucis, quidam
micantes, quidam sequabiliter et sine eruptionibus aut radiis fulvi." Ari-
stotle's account of ohasmata is contained in his Meteor, lib. i. cap. 6,
p. 634.

Chap. 28.] AOCOimT OF THE WOBLD. 61

more dreaded by mortals) which falls down upon the earthy
such as was seen in the third year of the 103rd olympiad,
when King Philip was disturbing Greece. But mv opinion
is, that these, like everything else, occur at stated, natural
periods, and are not produced, as some persons imagine, from a
variety of causes, such as their fine genius may suggest. They
have indeed been the precursors of great evils, but I conceive
that the evils occurred, not because the prodigies took place,
but that these took place because the evils were appointed
to occur at that period*. Their cause is obscure in con-
sequence of their rarity, and therefore we are not as well
acquainted with them as we are with the rising of the stars,
which I have mentioned, and with eclipses and many other
things.

CHAP. 28. (28.) — or celestial coeonj:.

Stars are occasionally seen along with the sun, for whole
days together, and generally round its orb, like wreaths made
of the ears of com, or circles of various colours' ; such as
occurred when Augustus, while a very young man, was
entering the city, after the death of his father, in order to
take upon himself the great name which he assumed^. (29.)
The same coronas occur about the moon and also about the
principal stars, which are stationary in the heavens.

* The meteor here referred to is probably a peculiar form of the
aurora borealis, which occasionally assumes a rea colour. See the re-
marks of Foucli<^, in Ajasson, i. 382.

3 The doctrine of the author appears to be, that the prodigies are not
the cause, but only the indication of the events which succeed them.
This doctrine is rewrrod to by Seneca ; " Videbimus an certus omnium
rerum ordo ducatur, ot alia aliis ita complexa sint, ut quod anteoedit,
aut causa sit sixjuentium aut signum." Nat. Quspst. i. 1.

' It would apjH^ar tliat, in this passage, two phajnomena are confounded
together ; certain brilliant stars, as, for example, Venus, which have been
occasionally scon in the day-time, and the formation of different kinds of
halos, dependuig on certain 8tat<» of the atmosphere, wliich affect its
tran8]iarcncy.

* This occurrence is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Qusest. i. 2 ; he enters
into a detailed explanation of the cause ; also by V. Patcrculus, ii. 59,
and by Jul. Obsequcns, cap. 128. We can scarcely doubt of the reality
of the occurrence, as these authors would not have ventured to relate
what, if not true, might have been so easily contradicted.

62 plint's natijkal histoet. [Book 11.

CHAP. 29. OF SUDDEN CIECLES.

A bow appeared round the sun in the consulship of L.
Opimius and L. Eabius^ and a circle in that of C. Porcius
and M. Acilius. (30.) There was a little circle of a red
colour in the consulship of L. Julius and P. B/Utnius.

CHAP. 30. — OF TJNUSTJALLT LONG ECXIPSES OF THE STTBT.

Eclipses of the sun also take place which are portentous
and unusually long, such as occurred when Caesar the Dictator
was slain, and in the war against Antony, the sun remained
dim for almost a whole year^.

CHAP. 31. (31.) — MANY SUNS.

And again, many suns have been seen at the same time'; not
above or below the real sun, but in an oblique direction, never
near nor opposite to the earth, nor in the night, but either
in the east or in the west. They are said to have been seen
once at noon in the Bosphorus, and to have continued from
morning until sunset. Our ancestors have frequently seen
three suns at the same time'', as was the case in the consul-
ship of Sp. Postumius and L. Mucins, of L. Marcius and
M. Portius, that of M. Antony and Dolabella, and that of
M. Lepidus and L. Plancus. And we have ourselves seen
one during the reign of the late Emperor Claudius, when he

^ The term here employed is " arcus," which is a portion only of a circle
or "orbis." But if we suppose that the sun was near the horizon, a
portion only of the halo would be visible, or the condition of the atmo-
sphere adapted for forming the halo might exist in one part only, so that
a portion of the halo only would be obscured.

2 The dimness or paleness of the sim, which is stated by various writers
to have occurred at the time of Caesar's death, it is unnecessary to remark,
was a phsenomenon totally different from an echpse, and depending on a
totally different cause.

3 Aristotle, Meteor, lib. iii. cap. 2. p. 575, cap. 6. p. 582, 583, and
Seneca, Qusest. Nat. lib. i. § 11, describe these appearances under the
title which has been retained by the modems of TraprjXia. Aristotle re-
marks on their cause as depending on the refraction (dvoKXao-is) of the
Sim's rays. He extends the remark to the production of halos (aXws)
and the rainbow, ubi supra.

* This occurrence is referred to by livy, xli. 21.

Chap. 35.J ACCOirifT OF THE WOBLD. 63

was consul along with Com. Orfitus. "We have no account
transmitted to us of more than three having been seen at
the same time.

CHAP. 32 (32.) — Murr moons.

Three moons have also been seen, as was the case in the
consulship of Cn. Domitius and C. Pannius ; they have
generally been named nocturnal suns*.

CHAP. 33. (33.) — DAYLIGHT IN THE KIGHT.

A bright light has been seen proceeding from the heavens
in the night time, as was the case in the consulship of C.
Caecilius and Cn. Papirius, and at many other times, so that
there has been a kind of daylight in the night'.

CHAP. 34. (34.) — BUENING SHIELDS*.

A burning shield darted across at sunset, from west to east,
throwing out sparks, in the considship of L. Valerius and
C. Marius"*.

CHAP. 35. (35.) — AN OMINOUS APPEABANCE IN THE HEAVENS,
THAT WAS SEEN ONCE ONLY.

We have an account of a spark falling from a star, and in-
creasing as it approached the earth, until it became of the
size of the moon, shining as through a cloud* ; it afterwards
returned into the heavens and was converted into a lampas ;
this occurred in the consulship of Cn. Octavius and C. Scri-

* This meteor has been named TapaffeXrjvr) ; they are supposed to
depend upon the same cause with the Parhelia. A phsenomenon of tViia
description is mentioned by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 92, and by Plutarch, in
Marcellus, ii. 360. In Shakspeare's King John the death of Prince
Arthur is said to have been followed by the ominous appearance of five
moons.

_^ This phsenomenon must be referred to the aurora borealis. See
livy, xxviii. 11. and xxix. 14. « " clypei."

* Probably an aerolite. Jul. Obsequens describes a meteor as " orbis
clypei similis," which was seen to pass from west to east, cap. 105.

* " ceu nubilo die."

64 PLnrr's KATrEAL histoet. [Book n.

bonius. It was seen by Silanus, the proconsul, and hia
attendants \

CHAP. 36. (36.) — OF STAES WHICH MOVE ABOTTT IN VAEIOUS
DIEECTIONS.

Stars are seen to move about in various directions, but
never without some cause, nor without violent winds pro-
ceeding from the same quarter^.

CHAP. 37. (37.) — OF THE STABS WHICH AEB NAMED CASTOE
ANT) POLLUX^.

These stars occur both at sea and at land. I have seen,
during the night-watches of the soldiers, a luminous appear-
ance, like a star, attached to the javelins on the ramparts.
They also settle on the yard-arms and other parts of ships
while sailing, producing a kind of vocal sound, like that of birds
flitting about. When they occur singly they are mischievous,
so as even to sink the vessels, and if they strike on the lower
part of the keel, setting them on fire"*. When there are two
of them they are considered auspicious, and are thought to
predict a prosperous voyage, as it is said that they drive
away that dreadful and terrific meteor named Helena. On
this account their efficacy is ascribed to Castor and Pollux,
and they are invoked as gods. They also occasionally shine
round the heads of men in the evening^, which is considered

1 It would be difficult to reconcile this phsenomenon with any acknow-
ledged atmosplierical phsenomenon.

2 Perhaps the phsenomena here alluded to ought to be referred to some
electric action ; but they are stated too generally to admit of our forming
more than a conjectiu'e on the subject. Virgil refers to the occurrence of
storms of wind after the appearance of a falling star ; GTeor. i. 265-6.

3 These phsenomena are admitted to be electrical ; they are referred to
by Seneca, Nat. Qusest. i. 1. This appearance is noticed as of frequent
occurrence in the Mediterranean, where it is named the fire of St. Elmo j
see Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 311, and Fouche in Ajasson, ii. 382.

4 Perhaps this opinion may be maintained on the principle, that, when
there is a single luminous appearance only, it depends upon the discharge
of a quantity of electrical fluid in a condensed state ; its effects are, in
this case, those that would follow from a stroke of lightning.

This is said by Livy to have occurred to Servius TuUius while he was
a child ; Hb. i. cap. 39 ; and by Yirgil to Ascanius, .^n. ii. 632-5.

Chap. 38.] CAUSES OP N ATUEAL PHiBNOMENA. 66

as predicting something very important. But there is great
uncertainty respecting the cause of all these things, and they
are concealed in the majesty of nature.

CHAP. 38. (38.) — OP THE AIB AND ON THE CAUSE OP THE
SHOWEES OF STONES.

So far I have spoken of the world itself and of the stars.
I must now give an account of the other remarkable phaeno-
mena of the heavens. For our ancestors have given the
name of heavens, or, sometimes, another name, air, to all the
seemingly void space, which diffuses around us this vital
spirit. It is situated beneath the moon, indeed much lower,
as is admitted by every one who has made observations on
it, and is composed of a great quantity of air from the upper
regions, mixed with a great quantity of terrestrial vapour, the
two forming a compound. Hence proceed clouds, thunder
and lightning of all kinds ; hence also hail, frost, showers,
storms and whirlwinds ; hence proceed many of the evils
incident to mortals, and the mutual contests of the various
parts of nature. The force of the stars keeps down all terres-
trial things which tend towards the heavens, and the same
force attracts to itself those things which do not go there
spontaneously. The showers fall, mists rise up, rivers are
dried up, hail-storms rush down, the rays of the sun parch
the earth, and impel it from all quarters towards the centre.
The same rays, still unbroken, dart back again, and carry
with them whatever they can take up. Vapour falls from
on high and returns again to the same place. Winds arise
which contain nothing, but which return loaded with spoils.
The breathing of so many animals draws down the spirit from
the higher regions ; but this tends to go in a contrary direc-
tion, and the earth pours out its spirit into the void space
of the heavens. Thus nature moving to and fro, as if im-
pelled by some machine \ discord is kindled by the rapid
motion of the world. Nor is the contest allowed to cease,
for she is continually whirled round and lays open the causes
of all things, forming an immense globe about the earth,
while she again, from time to time, covers this other firma-

^ " TJt circumagendo balistae vel fundse impetus augetur." Alexandre
in Lemaire, i. 313.

VOL. I. P

QQ plutt's nattteal histoet. [Book IL

ment with clouds ^ This is the region of the winds. Here
their nature principally originates, as well as the causes of
almost all other things^; siQce most persons ascribe the
dartiug of thunder and lightniug to their violence. And to
the same cause are assigned the showers of stones, these
having been previously taken up by the wind, as well as
many other bodies in the same way. On this account we
must enter more at large on this subject.

CHAP. 39. (39.)— OF THE STATED SEASONS.

It is obvious that there are causes of the seasons and of
other things which have been stated, while there are some
things which are casual, or of which the reason has not yet
been discovered. For who can doubt that summer and
winter, and the annual revolution of the seasons are caused
by the motion of the stars^ ? As therefore the nature of the
sun is understood to influence the temperature of the year,
so each of the other stars has its specific power, which pro-
duces its appropriate effects. Some abound in a fluid re-
taining its liquid state, others, in the same fluid concreted
into hoar frost, compressed into snow, or frozen into hail ;
some are prolific in winds, some in heat, some in vapours,
some in dew, some in cold. But these bodies must not be
supposed to be actually of the size which they appear, since
the consideration of their immense height clearly proves,
that none of them are less than the moon. Each of them
exercises its influence over us by its own motions ; this is
particularly observable with respect to Saturn, which pro-
duces a great quantity of rain in its transits. Nor is this
power confined to the stars which change their situations,
but is found to exist in many of the fixed stars, whenever

1 "sed assidue rapta (natura) convolTitur, et circa terrain inunenso rerum
causas globe ostendit, subinde per nubes coelum aliud obtexens." On the
words " immenso globo," Alexandre has the following comment : " Im-
mensis coeli fomicibus appicta sidera,dumcircumvolvitur, terris ostendit;"
and on the words "coelum aliud," "obductae scilicet nubes falsum quasi
coelum vero prsetexunt." Lemaire, i. 313.

3 The author probably means to speak of all the atmospheric phaeno-
mena that have been mentioned above.

3 Marcus has made some remarks on this subject which may be read
with advantage ; Ajasson, ii. 245-6.

.Chap. 41.] htflttence of the seasoits. 6^

they are impelled by the force of any of the planets, or ex-
cited by the impulse of their rays ; as we find to be the case
with respect to the SucuIsb^ wluch the Greeks, in reference
to their rainy nature, have termed the Hyades'. There are
also certain events which occur spontaneously, and at stated
periods, as the rising of the Kids'. The star Arcturus
scarcely ever rises without storms of hail occurring.

CHAP. 40. (40.) — OF THE RISHTG OF THE DOG-STAB.

Who is there that does not know that the vapour of the
sun is kindled by the rising of the Dog-star ? The most
powerful effects are felt on the earth from this star. When
it rises, the seas are troubled, the wines in our cellars fer-
ment, and stagnant waters are set in motion. There is a
wild beast, named by the Egjrptians Oryx, which, when the
star rises, is said to stand opposite to it, to look steadfastly
at it, and then to sneeze, as it it were worshiping it*. There
is no doubt that dogs, during the whole of this period, ai«
peculiarly disposed to become rabid*.

CHAP. 41. (41.) — OF THE EEQULAE rNFLTTEITCE OF THE DIF-
FEBENT SEASONS.

There is moreover a peculiar influence in the different
degrees of certain signs, as in the autumnal equinox, and
also in the winter solstice, when we find that a particular
star is connected with the state of the weather". It is not
so much the recurrence of showers and storms, as of various
circumstances, which act both upon animals and vegetables.
Some are planet-struck^, and others, at stated times, are af-
fected in the bowels, the sinews, the head, or the intellect.

^ The diminutive of Sus. 2 ^\f Zu)^ pluo.

* The Hsedi were in the constellation Auriga.

* We have the same accoimt of the Oryx in -Lilian, Hb. vii. cap. 8.

* Our author again refers to this opinion, viii. 63, and it was generally
adopted by the ancients ; but it appears to be entirely unfounded.

* " cum tempestatibus confici sidus intelligimus."

'' "afilantur." On this t«rm Hardouin remarks, " Siderantur. Side-
ratio morbi genus est, partem aliquam corporis, ipsumque ssepe totum
corpus percutientis subito : quod qumn repentino eveniat impetu, e coelo
vi quadam sideris evenire putatur." IJemaire, i. 317.

f2

68 Flint's nattieal histobt. [Book IL

The olive, the white poplar, and the willow turn their leaves
round at the summer solstice. The herb pulegium, when
dried and hanging up in a house, blossoms on the very day
of the vtinter solstice, and bladders burst in consequence of
their being distended with air^ One might wonder at this,
did we not observe every day, that the plant named helio-
trope always looks towards the setting sun, and is, at all
hours, turned towards him, even when he is obscured by
clouds^. It is certain that the bodies of oysters and of
whelks^, and of shell-fish generally, are increased in size and
again diminished by the influence of the moon. Certain
accurate observers have found out, that the entrails of the
field-mouse'' correspond in number to the moon's age, and
that the very small animal, the ant, feels the power of this
luminary, always resting from her labours at the change of
the moon. And so much the more disgraceful is our igno-
rance, as every one acknowledges that the diseases in the
eyes of certain beasts of burden increase and diminish ac-
cording to the age of the moon. But the immensity of the
heavens, divided as they are into seventy-two* constellations,
may serve as an excuse. These are the resemblances of cer-
tain things, animate and inanimate, into which the learned
have divided the heavens. In these they have announced
1600 stars, as being remarkable either for their effects or
their appearance ; for example, in the tail of the Bull there
are seven stars, which are named Yergiliae' ; in his forehead

1 Cicero alludes to these opinions in his treatise De Divin. ii. 33 ; see
also Aul. Gellixis, ix. 7.

2 The heliotropium of the moderns has not the property here assigned
to it, and it may be doubted whether it exists in any plant, except in a
very slight and imperfect degree : the subject will be considered more
fully in a subsequent part of the work, xxii. 29, where the author gives a
more particular account of the hehotrope.

' " conchy Horum ; " this term appears to have been specifically applied
to the animal fi-om which the Tyrian dye was procured.

* " soricum fibras;" Alexandre remarks on these words, " fibras je-

coris iateUige, id est, lobos iafimos ;" Lemaire, i. 318 j but I do

not see any ground for this interpretation.

6 It does not appear from what source our author derived this number ;
it is considerably greater than that stated by Ptolemy and the older astro-
nomers. See the remarks of Hardouin and of Brotier ; Lemaire. i. 319.

* The Vergihse or Pleiades are not in the tail of the Bull, according to
the celestial atlas of the modems.

Chap. 43.] or THUNDER AND LIGHTNING. 69

are the Suculae ; there is also Bootes, which follows the seven
northern stars ^

CHAP. 42. (42.) — OP TTNCEETAIN STATES OF THE WEATHEB.

But I would not deny, that there may exist showers and
winds, independent of these causes, since it is certain that
an exhalation proceeds from the earth, which is sometimes
moist, and at other times, in consequence of the vapours,
like dense smoke ; and also, that clouds are formed, either
from the fluid rising up on high, or from the air being com-
pressed into a fluid^. Their density and their substance is
very clearly proved from their intercepting the sun's rays,
which are visible by divers, even in the deepest waters'.

CHAP. 43. (43.) — OP THTJNDBB AND LIGHTNING.

It cannot therefore be denied, that fire proceeding from
the stars which are above the clouds, may fall on them, as
we frequently observe on serene evenings, and that the air is
agitated by the impulse, as darts when they are hurled whiz
through the air. And when it arrives at the cloud, a dis-
cordant kind of vapour is produced, as when hot iron is
plunged into water, and a wreath of smoke is evolved. Hence
arise squalls. And if wind or vapour be struggling in the
cloud, thunder is discharged ; if it bursts out with a flame,
there is a thunderbolt ; if it be long in forcing out its way,
it is simply a flash of lightning ^. By the latter the cloud is
simply rent, by the former it is shattered. Thunder is pro-

* " Septemtriones."

* The doctrine of Aristotle on the nature and formation of mists and
clouds is contained in his treatises De Meteor, hb. i. cap. 9. p. 540, and
De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. He employs the terms dr/iis, re^os, and
veipiXij, which are translated vapor, nubes and nebula, respectively. The
distinction, however, between the two latter does not appear very clearly
marked either in the Greek or the Latin, the two Greek words being in-
discriminately appHed to either of the Latin terms.

' It is doubtM how far this statement is correct ; see the remarks of
Hardouin, Lem. i. 320.

* The words in the original are respectively fuknen and fulgetrv/m ;
Seneca makes a similar distinction between /wZwiew and fulguratio : " Fnl-
guratio est late ignis exphcitus; fulmen est coactns ignis ot impetu
jactus." Nat. QucBst. Hb. ii cap. 16. p. 706.

70 PLimr's jtatueax HistOET. [Book IL

duced by the stroke given to tHe condensed air, and hence
it is that the fire darts from the chinks of the clouds. It is
possible also that the vapour, which has risen from the earth,
being repelled by the stars, may produce thunder, when it ia
pent up in a cloud ; nature restraining the sound whilst the
vapour is struggling to escape, but when it does escape, the
sound bursting forth, as is the case with bladders that are
distended with air. It is possible also that the spirit, what-
ever it be, may be kindled by friction, when it is so violently
projected. It is possible that, by the dashing of the two
clouds, the lightning may flash out, as is the case when two
stones are struck against each other. But all these things
appear to be casual. Hence there are thunderbolts which
produce no effect, and proceed from no immediate actual
cause ; by these mountains and seas are struck, and no in-
jury is done. Those which prognosticate future events pro-
ceed fpom on high and from stated causes, and they come
from their peculiar stars ^

CHAP. 44. — THE OEIGIN OF WINDS.

In like manner I would not deny that winds, or rather
sudden gusts, are produced by the arid and dry vapours of
the earth ; that air may also be exhaled from water, which
can neither be. condensed into a mist, nor compressed into a
cloud ; that it may be also driven forward by the impulse of
the sun, since by the term ' wind' we mean nothing more than
a current of air, by whatever means it may be produced^.
For we observe winds to proceed from rivers and bays, and
from the sea, even when it is tranquil ; while others, which
are named Altani, rise up from the earth ; when they come
back from the sea they are named Tropcei, but if they go
straight on, Apogcei^.

1 " Prsesertim ex tribus superioribus planetis, uti dictum est, cap. 18.'*
Hardoum, in Lemaire, i. 322.

2 Our author's opiaion respecting the origin of winds nearly agrees
with that of Aristotle ; " nihil ut ahud ventus (ave/ios) sit, nisi aer multus
fluctuans et compressus, qui etiam spiritus {Trvevfia) appellatur;" De
Meteor. This treatise contains a full account of the phsenomena of
winds. Seneca also remarks, " Ventus est aer fluens j " Nat. Quaest. lib. 3
,.&5.

• Aristotle ioforms us, that the winds termed apogaei (airoyaioi) pro*

Chap. 46.] WEfTDS. 71

(44.) The windings and the numerous peaks of mountains,
their ridges, bent into angles or broken into defiles, with the
hollow valleys, by their irregular forms, cleaving the air which
rebounds from them (which is also the cause why voices are,
in many cases, repeated several times in succession), give rise
to winds.

(45.) There are certain caves, such as that on the coast of
Dalmatia, mth a vast perpendicular chasm, into which, if a
light weight only be let down, and although the day be calm,
a squall issues from it like a whirlwind. The name of the
place is Senta. And also, in the province of Cyrenaica, there
is a certain rock, said to be sacred to the south wind, which
it is profane for a human hand to touch, as the south wind
immediately rolls forwards clouds of sand^ There are also,
in many houses, artificial cavities, formed in the walls'", which
produce currents of air; none of these are without their
appropriate cause.

CHAP. 45. — ^VABIOUS OBSEBVATIOKS EESPECTING
WINDS.

Eut there is a great difference between a gale and a wind*.
The former are uniform and appear to rush forth* ; they are
felt, not in certain spots only, but over whole countries, not
forming breezes or squalls, but violent storms*. Whether
they be produced by the constant revolution of the world
and the opposite motion of the stars, or whether they both
of them depend on the generative spirit of the nature of

ceed from a marshy and moist soil ; De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. For the
origin and meaning of the terms here applied to the winds, see the re-
marks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, L 323.

* This is mentioned by Pomp. Mela.

* " In domibus etiam multis manu facta inclusa opacitate concepta-

ciJa " Some of the MSS. have madefacta for manu facta, and

this reading has been adopted by Lemaire ; but nearly all the editors, as
Dalechamps, Laet, Grovonius, Poincinet and Ajasson, retain the former
word.

3 The terms in the original are " flatus " and " ventus."

* " illos (flatus) statos atque perspirantes."

" qui non am*a, non procella, sed mares appellatione quoque ipsa venti
sunt." Tliis passage cannot be translated into EngUsh, from our lan-
guage not possessing the technical distinction of genders, aa depending
oa the termination of the substantives.

72 plutt's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book n.

things, wandering, as it were, up and down in her womb, or
whether the air be scourged by the irregular strokes of the
wandering stars \ or the various ]^rojections of their rays, or
whether they, each of them, procoed from their own stars,
among which are those that are nearest to us, or whether
they descend from those that are fixed in the heavens, it is
manifest that they are all governed by a law of natiu'e, which
is not altogether unknown, although it be not completely
ascertained.

(46.) More than twenty old Q-reek writers have published
their observations upon this subject. And this is the more re-
markable, seeing that there is so much discord in the world,
and that it is (Evided into different kingdoms, that is into
separate members, that there should have been so many who
have paid attention to these subjects, which are so difficidt
to investigate. Especially when we consider the wars and
the treachery which everywhere prevail ; while pirates, the
enemies of the human race, have possession of aU the modes
of communication, so that, at this time, a person may acquire
more correct information about a country from the writings
of those who have never been there, than from the inha-
bitants themselves. Whereas, at this day, in the blessed
peace which we enjoy, under a prince who so greatly en-
courages the advancement of the arts, no new inquiries are
set on foot, nor do we even make ourselves thoroughly masters
of the discoveries of the ancients. Not that there were
greater rewards held out, from the advantages being distri-
buted to a greater number of persons, but that there were
more individuals who diligently scrutinized these matters,
with no other prospect but that of benefiting posterity. It
is that the manners of men are degenerated, not that the
advantages are diminished. All the seas, as many as there
are, being laid open, and a hospitable reception being given
us at every shore, an immense number of people undertake
voyages ; but it is for the sake of gain, not of science. Nor
does their understanding, which is blinded and bent only on
avarice, perceive that this very thing might be more safely
done by means of science. Seeing, therefore, that there are
so many thousands of persons on the seas, I will treat of the

' ** Septem xmnirum errantibus." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 306.

Chap. 46.] DITFEBEirr KUTDS OP WINDS. 73

winds with more minuteness than perhaps might otherwise
appear suitable to my undertaking.

CHAP. 46. (47.) — THE DirrEEENT KINDS OF WINDS^

The ancients reckoned only four winds (nor indeed does
Homer mention more^) corresponding to the four parts of
the world ; a very poor reason, as we now consider it. The
next generation added eight others, but this was too refined
and minute a division; the modems have taken a middle
course, and, out of this great number, have added four to the
original set. There are, therefore, two in each of the four
quarters of the heavens. From the equinoctial rising of the
Bun^ proceeds Subsolanus^, and, from nis brumal rising, Vul-
tumus'* ; the former is named by the Greeks Apeliotes*, the
latter Eurus. From the south we have Auster, and from the
brumal setting of the sun, Africus ; these were named Notos

* In his account and nomenclature of the winds, Pliny has, for the
most part, followed Aristotle, Meteor, lib. ii. cap. 4. pp. 558-560, and
cap. 6. pp. 563-565. The description of the different winds by Seneca
is not very different, but where it does not coincide with Aristotle's, our
author has generally preferred the former ; see Nat. Qusest. hb. 5. We
have an account of the different winds, aa prevailing at particular sea-
sons, in Ptolemy, De Judiciis AstroL 1. 9. For the nomenclature and
directions of the winds, we may refer to the remarks of Hardouin, Le-
maire, i. 328 et seq. * Odyss. v. 295, 296.

« In giving names to the different winds, the author designates the
points of the compass whence they proceed, by the place where the sun
rises or sets, at the different periods of the year. The following are the
terms which he employs : — " Oriens sequinoctialis," the place where the
Bim rises at the equinox, i. e. the East. " Oriens brmnalis," where he
rises on the shortest day, the S.E. " Occasus brumalis," where he sets
on the shortest day, the S.W. " Occasus sequinoctialis," where he sets
at the equinox, the "W. *' Occasus solstitialis," where he sets on the
longest day, the N.W. "Exortus solstitialis," where he rises on the
longest day, the N.E. " Inter septemtrionem et occasimi solstitialem,"
between N. and N.W., N.N.W. " Inter aquilonem et exortum sequi-
noctialem," between N. and N.E., N.N.E. " Inter ortum brumalem et
meridiem," between S. and S.E., S.S.E. " Inter meridiem et hybemum
occidentem," between S. and.S.W., S.S.W.

* " Quod sub sole nasci videtur."

5 This name was probably derived from the town Yultumum in Cam-
pania.

^ Seneca informs us, that what the Latins name Subsolanus, is named
by the Greeks *A^)j\»wri?s j Qusest. Nat. lib. 5. § 16. p. 764.

T^i piiny's natitbal histoet. [Book ir.

and Libs. From the equinoctial setting proceeds FavoniusS
and from tlie solstitial setting, Corns ^ ; these were named
Zephyrus and Argestes. From the seven stars comes Sep-
temtrio, between which and the solstitial rising we have
Aquilo,^ named Aparctias and Boreas^. By a more minute
subdivision we interpose four others, Thrascias, between
Septemtrio and the solstitial setting ; Caecias, between Aquilo
and the equinoctial rising ; and Phoenices, between the brumal
rising and the south. And also, at an equal distance from
the south and the winter setting, between Libs and IN'otos,
and compounded of the two, is Libonotos. Nor is this all.
'For some persons have added a wind, which they have named
Meses, between Boreas and Caecias, and one between Eurus
and Notos, named Euronotus^.

There are also certain winds peculiar to certain countries,
which do not extend beyond certain districts, as Sciron in
Attica, deviating a little from Argestes, and not known in
the other parts of Grreece. la other places it is a little
higher on the card and is named Olympias; but all these

* " quia favet rebus nascentibus."

*".... semper spirantes frigora Cauri." Virgil, G^eor. iii. 356.

3 The eight wiads here mentioned will bear the following relation to
our nomenclatiu*e : Septemtrio, N. ; Aqmlo, N.E. ; Subsolanus, E. ; Vul-
tumus, S.E. J Auster, S. ; AMcus, N.W. ; Favonius, W. : and Corns,
N.W.

* The four winds here mentioned, added to eight others, making, in
the whole, twelve, will give us the following card : —

N. Septemtrio. S. Notos or Auster.

N.N.E. Boreas or Aquilo. S.S.W. Libonotos.

E.N.E. Caecias. W.S.W. Libs or Africus.

E. Apehotes or Subsolanus. W. Zephyrus or Favonius.

E.S.E. Eimis or Vultumus. W.N.W. Argestes or Corus.

S.S.E. Euronotus or Phoenices. N.N.W. Thrascias.
We are informed by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 330, that there is an an-
cient dial plate in the Vatican, consisting of twelve sides, in which the
names of the twelve winds are given both in Creek and in Latin. They
differ somewhat from those given above, both absolutely and relatively j
they are as follows : —

'ATrapKTias, Septemtrio. NoVos, Auster.

Bopeas, Aquilo. AtjSoVoros, Austroafricus.

KaiKiasj Vultumus. At;^, Africus.

' A(pT]\iu)TT]s, Solanus. Ze(j)vpos, Zephyrus.

Evpos, Evu*us. 'Idirv^, Corus.

Ewjoovoros, Em-onotus. QpavKiaSf Circius,

Chap. 47.] PEEIODS Or THE WINDS. 75

have gone by the name of Argestes. In sone places Caecias
is named Hellespontia, and the same is done in other cases.
In the province df Narbonne the most noted wind is Circius ;
it is not inferior to any ot the winds in violence, frequently
driving the waves before it, to Ostia\ straight across the Li-
gurian sea. Yet this same wind is unknown in other parts,
not even reaching Vienne, a city in the same province ; for
meeting with a high ridge of hills, just before it arrives at
that district, it is checked, although it be the most violent of
all the winds. Fabius also asserts, that the south winds
never penetrate into Egypt. Hence this law of nature is
obvious, that winds have their stated seasons and limits.

CHAP. 47. — THE PEEIODS OF THE WINDS^

The spring opens the seas for the navigators. In the be-
ginning of this season the west winds soften, as it were, the
winter sky, the sun having now gained the 25th degree of
Aquarius; this is on the sixth day before the Ides of February^.
This agrees, for the most part, with all the remarks that I
shall subsequently make, only anticipating the period by one
day in the intercalary year, and again, preserving the same
order in the succeeding lustrum''. After the eighth day be-
fore the Calends of March*, Favonius is called by some Che-
lidonias^, from the swallows making tlieir appearance. The
wind, which blows for the space of nine days, from the seventy-
first day after the winter solstice^, is sometimes called Omi-
thias, from the arrival of the birds ^. In the contrary direc-
tion to Favonius is the wind which we name Subsolanus, and

1 This wind must have been N.N.W. ; it is mentioned by Strabo, iv.
182 J A. Gkllius, ii. 22 j Seneca, Nat. Qnsest. v. 17 j and again by our au-
thor, xvii. 2.

* We may learn the opinions of the Komans on the subject of this
chapter from Columella, xi. 2.

* corresponding to the 8th day of the month.

4 . . . lustro sequenti . . . j " tribus annis sequentibus." Alexandre, in
Lemaire, i. 334.

5 corresponding to the 22nd of February. ^ a xeXi^wr, hirando.
^ This will be either on March 2nd or on February 26th, according as

we reckon from December the 2l8t, the real solstitial day, or the 17th, when,
accordiag to the Roman calendar, the sun is said to enter Capricorn.
8 " quasi Avicularem dixeris." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 334,

76 PLurr's nattteal histoet. [Book IL

this is connected with the rising of the Vergilise, in the 25th
degree of Taurus, six days before the Ides of May^, which is
the time when south winds prevail: these are opposite to
Septemtrio. The dog-star rises iq the hottest time of the
summer, when the sun is entering the first degree of Leo^ ;
this is fifteen days before the Calends of August. The north
winds, which are called Prodromi^, precede its rising by about
eight days. But in two days after its rising, the same north
winds, which are named Etesiae'*, blow more constantly during
this period ; the vapour from the sun, being increased twofold
by the heat of this star, is supposed to render these winds
more mild ; nor are there any which are more regular. After
these the south winds become more frequent, until the appear-
ance of Arcturus^, which rises eleven days before the autumnal
equinox. At this time Corns sets in ; Corns is an autumnal
wind, and is in the opposite direction to Vultumus. After
this, and generally for forty-four days after the equinox, at
the setting of the Vergilise, the winter commences, which
usually happens on the third of the Ides of November''. This
is the period of the winter north wind, which is very unlike
the summer north wind, and which is in the opposite direc-
tion to Africus. Por seven days before the winter solstice,
and for the same length of time after it, the sea becomes
calm, in order that tjie king-fishers may rear their young ;
from this circumstance they have obtained the name of the
halcyon days^ ; the rest of the season is winterly®. Yet the

1 Corresponding to the 10th of May.

2 According to the Roman calendar, this corresponds to the 20th July,
but, according to the text, to the l7th. Columella says, that the sun en-
ters Leo on the 13th of the Calends of August ; xi. 2.

3 " quasi prsecursores ;" Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 335. Cicero refers
to these winds in one of his letters to Atticus j xiv. 6.

* erriaiatf ab eros, annus.

6 This will be on the 13th of September, as, according to our author,
xviii. 24, the equinox is on the 24th.

6 This corresponds to the 11th of November ; forty-four days before
this will be the 29th of September.

7 Or Halcyonides. This topic is considered more at length in a sub-
sequent part of the work ; x. 47.

» The author, as it appears, portions out the whole of the year into
fourteen periods, during most of which certain winds are said to blow,
or, at least, to be decidedly prevalent. Although the winds of Italy are

Chap. 48.] KATtTBB OP THB WINDS. 77

severity of the storms does not entirely close up the sea.
In former times, pirates were compelled,by the fear of death,
to rush into death, and to brave the winter ocean ; now we
are driven to it by avarice'.

CHAP. 48. — NATUBB OP THE WDfDS'.

Those are the coldest winds which are said to blow from
the seven stars, and Corns, which is contiguous to them;
these also restrain the others and dispel the clouds. The
moist winds are Africus, and, still more, the Auster of Italy.
It is said that, in Pontus, Cseciaa attracts the clouds. The
dry winds are Corns and Vultumus, especiallj^ when they
are about to cease blowing. The winds that bring snow are
Aquilo and Septemtrio ; Septemtrio brings hail, and so does
Corus ; Auster is sultry, Vultumus and Zephyrus are warm.
These winds are more dry than Subsolanus, and generally
those which blow from the north and west are more dry than
those which blow from the south and east. Aquilo is the
most healthy of them all ; Auster is unhealthy, and more so
when dry ; it is colder, perhaps because it is moist. Animals
are supposed to have leas appetite for food when this wind is
blowing. The Etesiffi generally ceaae during the night, and
spring up at the third hour of the da^'. In Spain and in
Asia these winds have an easterly direction, in Pontus a
northerly, and in other places a southerly direction. They
blow also after the winter solstice, when they are called Or-
nithiae*, but they are more gentle and continue only for a
few days. There are two T^inds which change their nature
with their situation; in Africa Auster is attended with a
clear sky, while Aquilo collects the clouds*. Almost all

less irregular than those of England, Pliny has considerably exaggerated
tlie real fact.

^ On this subject the reader may peruse the remarks of Seneca^ Kat.
Qucest. V. 18, written in his style of flowery declamation.

^ The greatest part of the remarks on the nature of the winds, in this
chapter, would appear to be taken from Aristotle's Treatise De Meteor.,
and it may be stated generally, that our author has formed his opinions
more upon those of the Greek writers than upon actual observation.

\ 9 A.M. * In the last chapter Omithias is said to be a west wind.

* This obviously depends upon the geographical situation of the north-
em parts of Africa, to which the observation more particularly applies,
with respect to the central part of the Continent and the Mediterraneaa.
See the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 340.

78 PLTPTT's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

winds blow in tlieir turn, so that wlien one ceases its oppo-
site springs up. When winds which are contiguous succeed
each other, they go from left to right, in the direction of the
sun. The fourth day of the moon generally determines their
direction for the whole of the monthly period ^ "We are able
to sail in opposite directions by means of the same wind, if
we have the sails properly set ; hence it frequently happens
that, in the night, vessels going in different directions run
against each other. Auster produces higher winds than
Aquilo, because the former blows, as it were, from the bot-
tom of the sea, while the latter blows on the surface ; it is
therefore after south winds that the most mischievous earth-
quakes have occurred. Auster is more violent during the
night, Aquilo during the day ; winds from the east continue
longer than from the west. The north winds generally cease
blowing on the odd days, and we observe the prevalence of
the odd numbers in many other parts of nature ; the male
winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers^. The
sun sometimes increases and sometimes restrains winds ;
when rising and setting it increases them ; while, when on
the meridian, it restrains them during the summer. They
are, therefore, generally lulled during the middle of the day
and of the night, because they are abated either by excessive
cold or heat ; winds are also lulled by showers. We gene-
rally expect them to come from that quarter where the clouds
open and allow the clear sky to be seen. Eudoxus^ sup-
poses that the same succession of changes occurs in them
after a period of four years, if we observe their minute re-
volutions ; and this applies not only to winds, but to what-
ever concerns the state of the weather. He begins his lus-
trum at the rising of the dog-star, in the intercalary year.
So fer concerning winds in general.

1 The influence of the fourth day of the moon is referred to by Vii^,
Geor. i. 432 et seq. " Sin ortu quarto," «fec.

2 This refers to the genders of the names of the winds, analogous to
the remark in note *, p. Vl.

' Eudoxus was a native of Cnidus, distinguished for his knowledge in
astrology and science generally ; he was a pupU of Plato, and is referred
to by many of the ancients ; see Hardouin's Index Auctorum, in Lemaire,
i. 187, and Enfield's Hist, of Phil. i. 412, with the very copious list of

Chap. 40.] TTTNDS. ^

CHAP. 49. (48.) — ^BOITEPHIAS AlTD TTPHOIT.

And now respecting the sudden ^sts*, which arising firom
the exhalations of the earth, as has been said above, and
felling down again, being in the mean time covered by a
thin film of clouds, exist in a variety of forms. By their
wandering about, and rushing down like torrents, in the
opinion of some persons, they produce thunder and light-
ning'. But if they be urged on with greater force and
violence, so as to cause the rupture of a dry cloud, they pro-
duce a squall', which is named by the Greeks Ecnephias^.
But, if these are compressed, and rolled up more closely to-
gether, and then break without any discharge of fire, i. e.
without thunder, they produce a squall, which is named Ty-
phon', or an Ecnephias in a state of agitation. It carries
along a portion of the cloud which it has broken ofl*, rolling
it and turning it round, aggravating its own destruction by
the weight of it, and whirling it from place to place. This
is very much dreaded by sailors, as it not only oreaks their
sail-yards, but the vessels themselves, bending them about
in various ways. This may be in a slight degree counter-
acted by sprinkling it with vinegar, when it comes near us,
this substance being of a very cold nature*. This wind,
when it rebounds c^ter the stroke, absorbs and carries up
whatever it may have seized on.

^ " flatus repentini."

* Cicero refers to an opinion very similar to this as maintained by the
Stoics ; De Div. ii. 44. » " procella."

* " 6K v€<povs, ex. nube, erumpente spiritn." Hardouin,in Leniaire,L343.
Perhaps it most nearly corresponds to the term " hurricane."

• a rv^w, incendo, ardeo. We have no distinct term in onr language
which corresponds to the account of the typhon ; it may be considered
as a combination of a whirlwind and a hurricane.

• Plutarch, Sympos. Qusest. iii. 5, refers to the extraordinary power of
vinegar in extinguishing fire, but he ascribes this effect, not to its cold-
ness, but to the extreme tenuity of its parts. On this Alexandre remarks,
" Mehus factum negassent Plinius et Plutarchus, quam causam inaneia
rei absurdissim® excogitarent" Lemaire, L 344.

80 PLINT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book IL

CHAP. 50. TOENADOES ; BLASTING WIKDS ; WHIELWINDS^

AND OTHEE WONDEEFUL KINDS OF TEMPESTS.

But if it burst from the cavity of a cloud which is more
depressed, but less capacious than what produces a squall,
and is accompanied by noise, it is called a whirlwind, and
throws down everything which is near it. The same, when
it is more burning and rages with greater heat, is called a
blasting wind^, scorching and, at the same time, throwing
down everything with which it comes in contact. (49.) Ty-
phon never comes from the north, nor have we Ecnephias
when it snows, or when there is snow on the ground. If it
breaks the clouds, and, at the same time, catches fire or
bums, but not until it has left the cloud, it forms a thunder-
bolt. It differs from Prester as flame does from fire ; the
former is diffused in a gust, the latter is condensed with a
violent impulse^. The whirlwind, when it rebounds, differs
from the tornado in the same manner as a loud noise does
from a dash.

The squall differs from both of them in its extent, the
clouds being more properly rent asunder than broken into
pieces. A black cloud is formed, resembling a great animal,
an appearance much dreaded by sailors. It is also called a
pillar, when the moisture is so condensed and rigid as to be
able to support itself It is a cloud of the same kind, which,
when drawn into a tube, sucks up the water^.

CHAP. 51. (50.) — or THTJNDEE^ ; IN WHAT COTJNTEIES IT
DOES NOT PALL, AND POE WHAT EEASON.

Thunder is rare both in winter and in summer^ but from

1 The terms here employed are respectively " turbines," " presteres,"
and " vortices."

2 TrpTjoT^p, a TrpriOti), incendo. Seneca calls it "igneus turbo ;" Nat.
Qu£est. V. 13. p. 762. See also Lucretius, vi. 423. 3 Plutarch.

"* A water-spout. We have a description of this phsenomenon in Lu-
cretius, vi. 425 et seq. * " fulmen."

6 This has been pointed out by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 346, as one of
the statements made by our author, which, in consequence of his following
the Greek writers, apphes rather to their climate than to that of Italy.
The reader may form a judgement of the correctness of this remark by
comparing the accoimt given by Aristotle and by Seneca ; the former in
Meteor, iii. 1. p. 573, 574, the latter in Nat. Queest. ii. 32 et seq.

Chap. 52.] IIGHTimTG AITD ITS ErFECTS. 8L

diiFerent causes ; the air, which is condensed in the winter,
is made still more dense by a thicker covering of clouds,
while the exhalations from the earth, being all of them rigid
and frozen, extinguish whatever fieiy vapour it may receive.
It is this cause which exempts Scythia and the cold districts
round it from thunder. On the other hand, the excessive
heat exempts Egypt ; the warm and dry vapours of the earth
being very seldom condensed, and that only into light clouds.
But, in the spring and autumn, thunder is more frequent,
the causes which produce summer and winter being, in each
season, less efficient. From this cause thunder is more fre-
quent in Italy, the air being more easily set in motion, in
consequence of a milder winter and a showery summer, so
that it may be said to be always spring or autumn. Also in
those parts of Italy which recede from the north and lie to-
wards the south, as in the district round our city, and in
Campania, it lightens equally both in winter and in summer,
which is not the case in other situations.

CHAP. 52. (51.) — OP THE DITFEHEirT KINDS OF LIGHTNIKO^
AND THEIB WONDERFUL EFFECTS.

"Wehaveaccountsof many different kinds of thunder-storms.
Those which are dry do not bum objects, but dissipate them ;
while those which are moist do not bum, but blacken them.
There is a third kind, which is called bright lightning^, of a
very wonderful nature, by which casks are emptied, without
the vessels themselves being injured, or there being any other
trace left of their operation^. Gold, copper, and silver are
melted, while the bags which contain them are not in the
least burned, nor even the wax seal much defaced. Marcia,
a lady of high rank at Rome, was struck while pregnant ;
the foetus was destroyed, while she herself survived without

^ " fulgiir." The account of the different kinds of thimder seems to
be principally taken from Aristotle ; Meteor, iii. 1. Some of the phfie-
nomena mentioned below, which would naturallv appear to the ancients
the most remarkable, are easily explained by a reference to their electrical
origin. 2 « quod clarum vocant."

3 This accoimt seems to be taken from Aristotle, Meteor, iii. 1. p. 574 ;
see also Seneca, Nat. Qusest. ii. 31. p. 711. We have an account of the
pecuhar effects of thimder in Lucretius, vi. 227 et seq.

VOL. I. 0

82 PLrNT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book IT.

suffering any injury \ Among the prognostics which took
place at the time of Catiline's conspiracy, M. Herennius, a
magistrate of the borough of Pompeii, was struck by light-
ning when tte sky was without clouds^.

CHAP. 53. (52.) — THE eteueian' and the eoman

OBSEEYATIONS OJT THESE POINTS.

The Tuscan books inform us, that there are nine Grodg
who discharge thunder-storms, that there are eleven differ-
ent kinds of them, and that three of them are darted out by
Jupiter. Of these the Eomans retained only two, ascribing
the diurnal kind to Jupiter, and the nocturnal to Summa-
nus^ ; this latter kind being more rare, in consequence of
the heavens being colder, as was mentioned above. The
Etrurians also suppose, that those which are named Infernal
burst out of the ground ; they are produced in the winter
and are particularly fierce and direful, as all things are which
proceed from the earth, and are not generated by or proceed-
ing from the stars, but from a cause which is near at hand,
and of a more disorderly nature. As a proof of this it is
said, that all those which proceed from the higher regions
strike obliquely, while those which are termed terrestrial
strike in a direct line. And because these fall from matter
which is nearer to us, they are supposed to proceed from the
earth, since they leave no traces of a rebound ; this being
the effect of a stroke coming not from below, but from an
opposite quarter. Those who have searched into the subject

* This effect may be easily explained by the agitation into which the
female might have been thro-wn. The title of " princeps Romanarum,"
which is applied to Marcia, has given rise to some discussion among the
commentators, for which see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in
Lemaire, i. 348.

2 Sometimes a partial thunder-cloud is formed, while the atmosphere
generally is perfectly clear, or, as Hardouin suggests, the effect might
have been produced by a volcanic eruption. See Lemaire, i. 348.

3 Seneca gives us an account of the opinions of the Tuscans ; Nat.
Qusest. ii. 32 ; and Cicero refers to the " Hbri fulgurales" of the Etrurians ;
De Divin. i. 72.

^ According to Hardouin, "Summanus est Deus summus Manium,
idem Orcus et Pluto dictus." Lemaire, i. 349 ; he is again referred to
by our author, xxix. 14 ; Ovid also mentions him, Fast. vi. 731, with the
remark, " quisquis is est."

Chap. 54.] INVOCATION OP THUNDEE. 83

more minutely suppose, that these come froja the planet
Saturn, as those that are of a burning nature do from Mars.
In thi^ way it was that Volsinium, the most opulent town of
the Tuscans, was entirely consumed by lightning ^ The
first of these strokes that a man receives, after he has come
into possession of any property, is termed Familiar^ ^ and is
supposed to prognosticate the events of the whole of his life.
But it is not generally supposed that they predict events of
a private nature for a longer space than ten years, unless
they happen at the time ol a first marriage or a birth-day ;
nor that public predictions extend beyond thirty years', un-
less with respect to the founding of colonies^.

CHAP. 54. (53.) — OP CONJUEING UP THUNDEE.

It is related in our Annals, that by certain sacred rites
and imprecations, thunder-storms may be compelled or in-
voked^ There is an old report in Etruria, that thunder was
invoked when the city of Volsinium had its territory laid
waste by a monster named Volta*. Thunder was also in-

* The city of Bolsena is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient
Volsinium. From the nature of the district in which it is situate, it is
perhaps more probable, that the event alluded to in the text was produced
by a volcanic eruption, attended by lightning, than by a simple thunder-
storm.

* " Vocant et familiaria quae prima fiunt familiam suam cuique

indepto." This remark is explained by the following passage from Seneca ;
Nat. Qusest. ii. 47. " Hsec svmt fidmina, qute primo accepto patrimonio,
in novo hominis aut urbis statu fiunt." This opinion, as well as most of
those of our author, respecting the auguries to be formed fivra thimder,
is combated by Seneca ; ubi supra, § 48.

* TMs opinion is also referred to by Seneca in the following passage ;
"privnta autem fulmina negant ultra decimum annum, publica ultra
trigesimum posse deferri ;" ubi supra.

* " in deductione oppidonun ;" according to Hardouin, Lemaire, L 350,
" quunj in oppida coloni» deducimtur."

5 The following conjecture is not without a degree of probability ; " Ex
hoc multisque aliis auctorum locis, plerique conjiciunt Etruscis auguribus
baud ignotam fuisse vim electricam, Hcet eorum arcana nunquam divul-
gata sint." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 350.

^ Alexandre remarks in this place, " An morbus aliquis fuit, qui pri-
mum ui agros debacchatus, jam urbi minabatur, forsitan ab aeris siccitate
natus, quern advenientes cum procella imbres discusserunt ? " Lemaire,
L350.

g2

d4 PLrNT's BTATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book TL

yoked by King Porsenna. And L. Piso\ a very respectable
author, states in the first book of his Annals, that this had
been frequently done before his time by Numa, and that
Tullus Hostilius, imitating him, but not having properly
performed the ceremonies, was struck with the lightning .
We have also groves, and altars, and sacred places, and, among
the titles of Jupiter, as Stator, Tonans, and Feretrius, we
have a Jupiter Elicius^, The opinions entertained on this
point are very various, and depend much on the dispositions
of different individuals. To believe that we can command
nature is the mark of a bold mind, nor is it less the mark of
a feeble one to reject her kindness^. Our knowledge has
been so far useful to us in the interpretation of thunder,
that it enables us to predict what is to happen on a certain
day, and we learn either that our fortune is to be entirely
changed, or it discloses events which are concealed from us ;
as is proved by an infinite number of examples, public and
private. Wherefore let these things remam, according to
the order of nature, to some persons certain, to others doubt-
fril, by some approved, by others condemned. I must not,
however, omit the other circumstances connected with them
which deserve to be related.

CHAP. 55. (54.) — GENEEAL LAWS OF LIGHTNING.

It is certain that the lightning is seen before tb^ thunder
is heard, although they both take place at the s^ime time.
Nor is this wonderful, since light has a greater velocity than
sound. Nature so regulates it, that the stroke and the sound
coincide^ ; the sound is, however, produced by the discharge
of the thunder, not by its stroke. But the air is impelled

1 For a notice of Piso, see Lemaire, i. 208.

5 We have an account of the death of Tullus Hostilius in Livy, i. 31.
■* "ab ehciendo, seu quod precationibus coelo evocaretur, id nomen
traxit." This is confirmed by the following lines from Ovid, Fast. iiL
327, 328 :—

" Ehciunt ccelo te, Jupiter : unde minores

Nunc quoque te celebrant, EHcimnque vocant."

4 " beneficiis abrogare vires."

5 " ictimi autem et sonitvmi congruere, ita modulante natura." This
remark is not only incorrect, but appears to be at variance both with
what precedes and what follows.

Chap. 66.] LAWS or lightniito. 85

quicker than the lightning \ on which account it is that every-
thing is shaken and blown up before it is struck, and that a
Eerson is never injured when he has seen the lightning and
eard the thunder. Thunder on the left hand is supposed
to be lucky, because the east is on the left side of the hea-
vens^. We do not regard so much the mode in which it comes
to us, as that in which it leaves us, whether the fire rebounds
after the stroke, or whether the current of air returns when
the operation is concluded and the fire is consumed. In rela-
tion to this object the Etrurians have divided the heavens into
sixteen parts ^. The first great division is from north to east ;
the second to the south ; the third to the west, and the fourth
occupies what remains from west to north. Each of these has
been subdivided into four parts, of which the eight on the east
have been called the left, and those on the west the right divi-
sions. Those which extend from the west to the north have
been considered the most impropitious. It becomes therefore
very important to ascertain fix)m what quarter the thunder
proceeds, and in what direction it falls. It is considered a
very favourable omen when it returns into the eastern divi-
sions. But it prognosticates the greatest felicity when the
thunder proceeds from the first-mentioned part of the heavens
and falls Dack into it ; it was an omep of this kind which, as we
have heard, was given to Sylla, the Dictator. The remaining
quarters of the heavens are less propitious, and also less to
be dreadf d. There are some kinds of thunder which it is
not thought right to speak of, or even to listen to, unless
when they have been disclosed to the master of a family or
to a parent. But the futility of this observation was de-
tected when the temple of Juno was struck at Eome, during

* The following remark of Seneca va&j be referred to, both as iUnstra*
ting our author and as showing how much more correct the opinions of
Seneca were than his own, on many points of natural philosophy;

" necesse est, ut iaipetus fuhninis et pramittat spiritus, et agat ante

Be, et a tergo trahat ventum ....;" Nat. Qusest. hb. ii. § 20. p. 706.

2 " quoniam heva parte mundi ortus est." On this passage Hardouin
remarks ; " a Deormn sede, quimi in meridiem spectes, ad sinistram sunt
partes mundi exorientes ;" Lemaire, i. 353. Poinsiaet enters into a long
detail respecting opinions of the ancients on this point and the circum-
stances which induced them to form their opinions j i. 34 et seq.

3 See Cicero de Divin. ii 42.

86 flint's NATFEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

the consulsliip of Scaurus, he who was afterwards the Prinoe
of the Senate^.

It lightens without thunder more frequently in the night
than in the day^. Man is the only animal that is not always
killed by it, all other animals being killed instantly, nature
having granted to him this mark of distinction, while so many
other animals excel him in strength. All animals fall down
on the opposite side to that which has been struck ; man,
unless he be thrown down on the parts that are struck, does
not expire. Those who are struck directly from above sink
down immediately. When a man is struck while he is awake,
he is found with his eyes closed ; when asleep, with them
open. It is not considered proper that a man killed in this
way should be burnt on the mneral pile ; our religion enjoins
us to bury the body in the earth ^. No animal is consumed
by lightning unless after having been previously kiUed.
The parts of the animal that have been wounded by light-
ning are colder than the rest of the body.

CHAP. 56. (55.) — OBJECTS. WHICH AEE ITEVEE STEUCK.

Among the productions of the earth, thunder never strikes
the laureP, nor does it descend more than five feet into the
earth. Those, therefore, who are timid consider the deepest
caves as the most safe ; or tents made of the skins of the
animal called the sea-calf, since this is the only marine ani-
mal which is never struck* ; as is the case, among birds, with
the eagle ; on this account it is represented as the bearer of

^ " Junonis quippe templum fulmine violatmn ostendit non a Jove,
non a Deis mitti fulmina." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 354. The consulate
of Scaurus was in the year of Rome 638. Lucan, i. 155, and Horace,
Od. i. 2. refer to the destruction of temples at Rome by lightning.

2 Obviously because faint flashes are more visible in the night.

3 We have an explanation of this pecuUar opinion in TertuUian, as
referred to by Hardouin, Lemaire. i. 355 ; " Qui de ccelo tangitur, salvus
est, ut nuUo igne decinerescat."

^ Although it has been thought necessary by M. I]ee, in the notes to
Ajasson's trans., ii. 384, 385, to enter into a formal examination of this
opinion of the author's, I conceive that few of our readers will agree with
him in this respect.

5 Suetonius informs us, that Augustus always wore a seal's skin £or
this purpose ; Octavius, § 90.

Chap. 67.] SHOWEES OF MILE, ETC. 87

this weapon\ In Italy, between Terracina and the temple
of Ferouia, the people have left oft' building towers in time
of war, every one ot them having been destroyed by thunder-
bolts.

CHAP. 67. (66.) — 8H0WEES OF MILK, BLOOD, FLESH, lEOM",
WOOL, AND BAKED TILES'.

' Besides these, we learn from certain monuments, that from
the lower pai-t of the atmosphere' it rained milk and blood,
in the consulship of M'Acilius and C. Porcius, and frequently
at other times*. This was the ease with respect to nesh, in
the consulship of P. Volumnius and Servius Sulpicius, and it
is said, that what was not devoured by the birds did not be-
come putrid. It also rained iron among the Lucanians, the
year before Crassus was slain by the Parthians, as well as all
the Lucanian soldiers, of whom there was a great nimiber in
this army. The substance which fell had very much the ap-
pearance of sponge* ; the augurs warned the people against

* The eagle was represented by the ancients with a thunderbolt in its
claws.

2 There is strong evidence for the fact, that, at different times, yarions
substances have faUen from the atmosphere, sometimes apparently of mi-
neral, and, at other times, of animal or vegetable origin. Some of these
are now referred to those peculiar bodies termed aerolites, the nature and
source of which are still doubtful, although their existence is no longer
so. These bodies have, in other instances, been evidently discharged from
distant volcanoes, but there are many cases where the substance could not
be supposed to have proceeded from a volcano, and where, in the present
state of our knowledge, it appears impossible to offer an explanation of
their nature, or the source whence they are derived. We may, however,
conclude, that notwithstanding the actual occurrence of a few cases of
this description, a great proportion of those enumerated by the ancients
were either entirely without foundation or much exaggerated. We meet
with several variations of what we may presimie to have been aerolites in
Livy ; for example, xxiv. 10, xxx. 38, xU. 9, xliii. 13, and xhv. 18, among
many others. As natmtdly may be expect^ we have many narratives of
this kind in Jul. Obsequens.

3 Tiie same region from which hghtning was supposed to proceed.

* We have several relations of this kind in Livy, xxiv. 10, xxxix. 46 and
56, xl. 19, and xliii. 13. The red snow which exists in certain alpine re-
gions, and is found to depend upon the presence of the Uredo nivalis, was
formerly attributed to showers of blood.

* This occurrence may probably be referred to an aerolite, while the

88 PLUfT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

woimds that miglit come from above. In the consulship of
L. Paulus and C. Marcellus it rained wool, round the castle
of Carissanum, near which place, a year after, T. Annius Milo
was killed. It is recorded, among the transactions of that
year, that when he was pleading his own cause, there was a
shower of baked tiles.

CHAP. 58. (57.) — Battling or aems and the soxnrD op

TRUMPETS HEAED IN THE SKY.

"We have heard, that during the war with the Cimbri, the
rattling of arms and the sound of trumpets were heard through
the sky, and that the same thing has frequently happened
befbre and since ^ Also, that in the third consulship of
Marius, armies were seen in the heavens by the Amerini and
the Tudertes, encountering each other, as if from the east and
west, and that those from the east were repelled*. It is not
at all wonderful for the heavens themselves to be in flames^,
and it has been more frequently observed when the clouds
have taken up a great deal of fire.

CHAP. 59. (58.) — OF STOITES THAT HAVE FALLEN FSOM THE
CLOUDS^. THE OPINION OF ANAXAGOEAS BESPECTINQ
THEM.

The Greeks boast that Anaxagoras', the Clazomenian, in
the second year of the 78th Ol^-mpiad, from his knowledge
of what relates to the heavens, had predicted, that at a certain

wool mentioned below, i.e. a light flocculent substance, was perhaps
Tolcanic.

1 Armorum sonitum toto Gbrmania coelo ^
Audiit.— Vircil, Geor. i. 474, 475.

« in Jovis Vicilini tempk), quod in Compsano agro est, anna con-

crepuisse." Livy, xxiv. 44.

2 See Plutarch, by Langhome ; Marius, iii. 133.

3 See Livy, iii. 5 & 10, xxxi. 12, xxxii. 9, et alibi.

4 I have already had occasion to remark, concerning this class of pha-
nomena, that there is no doubt of their actual occurrence, although their
origin is still unexplained.

6 The life of Anaxagoras has been vrritten by Diogenes Laertius. We
have an ample accovmt of him by Enfield in the Greneral Biography, in
loco J he was bom B.C. 500 and died B.C. 428.

Chap. 60.] THI BAINBOW. 69

time, a stone would fall from the 8un\ And the thing ac-
cordingly happened, in the daytime, in a part of Thrace, at
the river Mgoa. The stone is now to be seen, a waggon-
load in size and of a burnt appearance ; there was also a
comet shining in the night at that time^. But to believe
that this had been predicted would be to admit that the di-
vining powers of Anaxagoraa were still more wonderful, and
that our knowledge of the nature of things, and indeed every-
thing else, would be thrown into confusion, were we to sup-
pose either that the sun is itself composed of stone, or that
there was even a stone in it ; yet there can be no doubt that
stones have firequently fallen fi^m the atmosphere. There
is a stone, a small one indeed, at this time, in the Gymna-
sium of Abydos, which on this account is held in veneration,
and which the same Anaia^oras predicted would Ml in the
middle of the earth. There is another at Cassandria, formerly
called Potidffia', which from this circumstance was built in
that place. I have myself seen one in the country of the
Vocontii^, which had been brought fit)m the fields only a
short time before.

CHAP. 60. (59.) — THE RAIKBOW.

What we name Eainbows frequently occur, and are not
considered either wonderful or ominous; for they do not
predict, with certainty, either rain or fair weather. It is
obvious, that the rays of the sun, being projected uj)on a
hollow cloud, the light is thrown back to tne sun and is re-

* There is some vanatioa in the exact date assigned by different authors
to this event ; in the Chronological table in Brewster's Encyc. vi 420, it
is said to have occurred 467 B.C.

* Aristotle gives us a similar account of this stone ; that it fell in the
daytime, and that a comet was then visible at night ; Meteor, i. 7. It is
scarcely necessary to remark, that the authority for this fact must be re-
ferred entirely to Aristotle, without receiving any additional weight from
our author. The occurrence of the comet at the same time with the
aeroUte must have been entirely incidental

* "Deductis eo sacri lapidis causa colonis, extructoque oppido, cui
nomen a colore adusto lapidis, est inditum, Potidcea. Est enim ttotI
Dorioe wpos, ad, apud ; Saiofiai, uror," Hardouin, in Lemaire, L 361.
It was situated in the peninsula of Pallene, in Macedonia.

* The Vooontii were a people of Grallia Narbonensis, occupying a por-
tion of the modem Dauphine.

90 pliny's KATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

fracted\ and that the variety of colours is produced by a
mixture of clouds, air, and fire^. The rainbow is certainly
never produced except in the part opposite to the sun, nor even
in any other form except that of a semicircle. Nor are they
ever formed at night, although Aristotle asserts that they are
semetimes seen at that time ; he acknowledges, however, that
it can only be on the 14th day of the moon^. They are seen
in the winter the most frequently, when the days are short-
ening, after the autumnal equinox^. They are not seen when
the days increase again, after the vernal equinox, nor on the
longest days, about the summer solstice, but frequently at
the winter solstice, when the days are the shortest. When
the sun is low they are high, and when the sun is high they
are low ; they are smaller when in the east or west, but are
spread out wider ; in the south they are small, but of a
greater span. In the summer they are not seen at noon,
but after the autumnal equinox at any hour : there are never
more than two seen at once.

CHAP. 61. — THE NATUEE OF HAIL, SNOW, HOAE, MIST,
DEW ; THE TOEMS OE CLOUDS.

I do not find that there is any doubt entertained respect-
ing the following points. (60.) Hail is produced by frozen rain,
and snow by the same fluid less firmly concreted, and hoar

1 " Manifestum est, radium Solis immissum cavse nubi, repulsa acie in
Solem, refringi."

2 Aristotle treats of the Rainbow much, in detail, principally in his
Meteor, iii. 2, 3, 4, and 5, where he gives an account of the phenomena,
which is, for the most part, correct, and attempts to form a theory for
them ; see especially cap. 4. p. 577 et seq. In the treatise De Mundo he
also refers to the same subject, and briefly sums up his doctrine with the
following remark : " arcus est species segmenti Solaris vel lunaris, edita in
nube humida, et cava, et perpetua ; quam velut in specido intuemur, ima-
gine relata in speciem circularis ambitils." cap. 4. p. 607. Seneca also
treats very fully on the phenomena and theory of the Rainbow, in his
Nat. Qusest. i. 3-8.

* Vide supra, also Meteor, iii. 2, and Seneca, Nat. Qusest. i. 3.

^ Aristotle, Meteor, iii. 5. p. 581, observes, that the rainbow is less
frequently seen in the summer, because the sun is more elevated, and that,
consequently, a less portion of the arch is visible. See also Seneca, Nat.
Qusest. i 8. p. 692.

Chap. 63.] NATUEE OF THE EA.ETH. 91

by frozen dew*. During the winter snow falls, but not hail ;
hail itself falls more frequently during the day than the night,
and is more quickly melted than snow. There are no mista
either in the summer or during the greatest cold of winter.
There is neither dew nor hoar formed during great heat or
winds, nor unless the night be serene. Fluids are diminished
in bulk by being frozen, and, when the ice is melted, we do
not obtain the same quantity of fluid as at first'.

(61.) The clouds are varied in their colour and figure accord-
ing as the fire which they contain is in excess or is absorbed
by them.

CHAP. 62. (62.) — THE PEOUI-IAEITIES OP THE WEATHEB IN
DIFFEEENT PLACES.

'^here are, moreover, certain peculiarities in certain places.
In Africa dew falls during the night in summer. In Italy,
at Locri, and at the Lake Velinum, there is never a day
in which a rainbow is not seen'. At Rhodes and at Syracuse
the sky is never so covered with clouds, but that the sun is
visible at one time or another ; these things, however, will
be better detailed in their proper place. So far respecting
the air.

CHAP. 63. (63.) — NATUEE OP THE EAETH.

Next comes the earth, on which alone of all parts of na-
ture we have bestowed the name that implies maternal vene-
ration. It is appropriated to man as the heavens are to God.
She receives us at our birth, nourishes us when bom, and
ever afterwards supports us ; lastly, embracing us in her
bosom when we are rejected by the rest of nature, she then
covers us with especial tenderness ; rendered sacred to us,
inasmuch as she renders us sacred, bearing our monuments

* Aristotle treats at some length of dew, snow, and hail, in his Meteor. L
cap. 10, 11 & 12 respectively.

2 WTien water is frozen, its bulk is increased in consequence of its as-
suming a crystalline structure. Any diminution which may be found to
luive taken place in the bulk of the fluid, when thawed, must be ascribed
to evaporation or to some accidental circumstance.

3 " VeHni lacus praxiipiti ciursu in gurgitem subjectmn defertur,

et illo aquarum lapsu, dispersis in aera guttis humidis, iridis multi-

pUcis phsenomenon efficit " Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 365.

92 pLnrr's 'Satttrajj histoet. [Book II.

and titles, continuing our names, and extending our memory,
in opposition to the shortness of life. In our anger we im-
precate her on those who are now no more\ as if we were
ignorant that she is the only being who can never be angry
with man. The water passes into showers, is concreted into
hail, swells into rivers, is precipitated in torrents ; the air is
condensed into clouds, rages in squalls ; but the earth, kind,
mild, and indulgent as she is, and always ministering to the
wants of mortals, how many things do we compel her to
produce spontaneously ! What odours and flowers, nutritive
juices, forms and colours ! With what good faith does she
render back all that has been entrusted to her ! It is the
vital spirit which must bear the blame of producing noxious
animals ; for the earth is constrained to receive the seeds of
them, and to support them when they are produced. The
feult lies in the evil nature which generates them. The
earth will no longer harbour a serpent after it has attacked
any one^, and thus she even demands punishment in the
name of those who are indifferent about it themselves'. She
pours forth a profusion of medicinal plants, and is always
producing something for the use of man. We may even
suppose, that it is out of compassion to us that she has or-
damed certain substances to be poisonous, in order that when
we are weary of life, hunger, a mode of death the most foreign
td the kind disposition of the earth"*, might not consume us
by a slow decay, that precipices might not lacerate our
mangled bodies, that the unseemly punishment of the halter
may not torture us, by stopping the breath of one who seeks

1 We have an example in Martial, v. 34. 9, of the imprecation which
has been common in all ages :

Mollia nee rigidus cespes tegat ossa, nee illi
Terra gravis fueris ;
and in Seneca's Hippolytus, suhfinem :

istam terra defossam premat,

Gravisque tellus impio capiti incubet.

2 The author refers to this opinion, xxix. 23, when describing the effects
of venomous animals.

3 inertium ; " ultione abstinentium," as explained by Alexandre, in
licmaire, i. 367.

"♦ " Quod mortis genus a terrse meritis et benignitate valde abhorret.'*
Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 367.

Chap. 63.] NATXIEE OF THE EAETH. 93

his own destruction, or that we may not seek our death in
the ocean, and beeome food for our graves, or that our bodies
may not be gashed by steel. On this account it is that na-
ture has produced a substance which is very easily taken, and
by which life is extinguished, the body remaining undefiled
and retaining all its blood, and only causing a degree of
thirst. And when it is destroyed by this means, neither
bird nor beast will touch the body, but he who has perished
by his owTi hands is reserved for the earth.

But it must be acknowledged, that everything which the
earth has produced, as a remedy for our evils, we have con-
verted into the poison of our lives. For do we not use iron,
which we cannot do without, for this purpose ? But although
this cause of mischief has been produced, we ought not to
complain ; we ought not to be ungrateful to this one part of
nature ^ How many luxuries and how many insults does
she not bear for us ! She is cast into the sea, and, in order
that we may introduce seas into her bosom, she is washed
away by the waves. She is continuallytorturedfor her iron,her
timber, stone, fire, com, and is even much more subservient
to our luxuries than to our mere support. What indeed she
endures on her surface might be tolerated, but we penetrate
also into her bowels, digging out the veins of gold and silver,
and the ores of copper and lead ; we also search for gems and
certain small pebbles, driving our trenches to a great depth.
"We tear out her entrails in order to extract the gems -vvith
which we may load our fingers. How many hands are worn
down that one little joint may be ornamented ! If the in-
fernal regions really existed, certainly these burrows of ava-
rice and luxury would have penetrated into them. And truly
we wonder that this same earth should have produced any-
thing noxious! But, I suppose, the savage beasts protect
her and keep olf our sacrilegious hands^. For do we not dig
among serpents and handle poisonous plants along with those
veins of gold ? But the Goddess shows herself more pro-
pitious to us, inasmuch as all this wealth ends in crimes,

^ " Terra, inquit, sola est, e quatuor naturae partibus sive elementis, ad-
versus quam ingrati simus." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 368.

* "Est ironifie formula. Quid, ait, feras et serpentes et venena terrcB
exprobramus, quae ne ad tuendam quidem iUam satis valent ? " Alexandw^
in Lemaire, L 369.

94 PLurr's nattteal histoet. [Book II.

slaughter, and war, and that, while we drench her with our
blood, we cover her with unburied bones ; and being covered
with these and her anger being thus appeased, she conceals
the crimes of mortals ^ I consider the ignorance of her
nature as one of the evil effects of an ungrateful mind.

CHAP. 64. (64.) — or the roEM of the eaeth.

Every one agrees that it has the most perfect figure'.
"We- always speak of the ball of the earth, and we admit it
to be a globe bounded by the poles. It has not indeed the
form of an absolute sphere, from the number of lofty moun-
tains and flat plains ; but if the termination of the lines be
bounded by a curve^, this would compose a perfect sphere.
And this we learn from arguments drawn from the nature of
things, although not from the same considerations which wo
made use of with respect to the heavens. For in these the
hollow convexity everywhere bends on itself, and leans upon
the earth as its centre. Whereas the earth rises up solid
and dense, like something that swells up and is protruded
outwards. The heavens bend towards the centre, while the
earth goes from the centre, the continual rolling of the
heavens about it forcing its immense globe into the form of
a sphere*.

chap. 65. (65.) — whethee theee be ai^tipodes ?
On this point there is a great contest between the learned

* " ossa vel insepulta cum tempore tellus occultat, deprimentia poudere
Buo mollitam pluviis humum." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 370.

2 *' figura prima." I may refer to the second chapter of this book,
"where the author remarked upon the form of the earth as perfect in all
its parts, and especially adapted for its supposed position in the centre of
the universe.

3 •' si capita linearum comprehendantur ambitu ;" the meaning

of this passage would appear to be : if the extremities of the lines drawn
from the centre of the earth to the different parts of the surface were con-
nected together, the result of the whole would be a sphere. I must, how-
ever, remark, that Hardouin interprets it in a somewhat different manner ;
**Si per extremitates linearum ductarum a centro ad summos quosque
yertices montium circulus exigatur." Lemaire, i. 370.

* " immensum ejus globum in formam orbis assidua circa earn

mundi volubiUtate cogente." As Hardouin remarks, the word mundus
is here used in the sense of caelum. Lemaire, i. 371.

Chop. 66.'j ANTIPODES. WJ

and the vulgar. We maintain, that there are men dispersed
over every part of the earth, that they stand with their feet
turned towards each other, that the vault of the heavens ap-
pears alike to all of them, and that they, all of them, appear to
tread equally on the middle of the earth. If anv one should
a«k, why those situated opposite to us do not fall, we directly
ask in return, whether those on the opposite side do not
wonder that we do not fall. But I may make a remark, that
will appear plausible even to the most unlearned, that if the
earth were of the figure of an unequal globe, like the seed of a
pine', still it* may be inhabited in every part.

But of how little moment is this, when we have another
miracle rising up to our notice ! The earth itself is pendent
and does not fall with us ; it is doubtful whether this oe from
the force of the spirit which is contained in the universe', or
whether it would fall,' did not nature resist, by allowing of
no place where it might fall. For as the seat of fire is no-
where but in fire, nor of water except in water, nor of air
except in air, so there is no situation for the earth except in
itseli, everything else repelling it. It is indeed wonderM
that it should form a glohe, wlien there is so much flat siu*-
face of the sea and of the plains. And this was the opinion
of DicsBarchus, a peculiarly learned man, who measured the
heights of mountains, under the direction of the kings, and
estimated Pelion, which was the highest, at 1250 paces per-
pendicular, and considered this as not affecting the round
figure of the globe. But this appears to me to be doubtful,
as I well know that the summits of some of the Alps rise
up by a long space of not less than 50,000 paces*. But what

* As our author admits of the existence of antipodes, and expreasly
states that the earth is a perfect sphere, we may conclude that the re-
semblance to the cone of the pine is to be taken in a very general sense.
How far the ancients entertained correct opinions respecting the globular
figure of the earth, or rather, at what period this opinion became generally
admitted, it is perhaps not easy to hscertain. The lines in the Georgics,
i. 242, 2 13, which may be supposed to express the popular opinion in the
time of Virgil, certainly do not convey the idea of a sphere capable of
being inhabited in all its parts :

Hie vertex nobis semper sublimis ; at ilium
Sub pedibus *^tyx nfra videt, manesque profiindi.

* " spiritus vis mundn nclusi,*'

' "..... Alpium vertices, longo tractu, nee breviore quinqiiag^ta

96 PLurr's NATUBAL HISTOET. [Book n.

the Tulgar most strenuously contend against is, to be com-
pelled to believe that the water is forced into a rounded
figure^ ; yet there is nothing more obvious to the sight among
the phaenomena of nature. For we see everywhere, that
drops, when they hang down, assimie the form of small globes,
and when they are covered with dust, or have +be down of
leaves spread over them, they are observed to be completely
round ; and when a cup is filled, the Kquid swells up iu the
middle. But on account of the subtile nature of the fluid
and its inherent softness, the fact is more easily ascertained
by our reason than by our sight. And it is even more
wonderful, that if a very little fluid only be added to a cup
when it is full, the superfluous quantity nms over, whereas
the contrary happens if we add a solid body, even as much
as would weigh 20 denarii. The reason of this is, that what
is dropt in raises up the fluid at the top, while what is poured
on it slides off" from the projecting surface. It is from
the same cause^ that the land is not visible from the body
of a ship when it may be seen from the mast; and that
when a vessel is receding, if any bright object be fixed to the
mast, it seems gradually to descend and finally to become
inidsible. And the ocean, which we admit to be without
limits, if it had any other figure, could it cohere and exist
without falling, there being no external margin to contain
it ? And the same wonder still recurs, how is it that the
extreme parts of the sea, although it be in the form of a
globe, do not fall down ? In opposition to which doctrine,
the Grreeks, to their great joy and glory, were the first to
teach us, by their subtile geometry, that this could not hap-
pen, even if the seas were flat, and of the figure which they
appear to be. For since water always runs from a higher to

millibus passuiun assvirgere," To avoid the apparent improbability of the
author conceiving of the Alps as 50 miles high, the commentators have,
according to their usual custom, exercised their ingenuity in altering the
text. See Poinsinet, i. 206, 207, and Lemaire, i. 373. But the expres-
sion does not imply that he conceived them as 50 miles in perpendicular
height, but that there is a continuous ascent of 50 miles to get to the
eummit. This explanation of thepassage is adopted by Alexandre; Lemaire,
ut supra. For what is known of Dicsearchus I may refer to Hardouin,
Indet Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 181.

- " ooactam in verticem aquarxmi quoque figuram."

t "aquarum nempe convexitas." Alexandre, in Lemaire, L 374,

Cliap. 66.] WATEB. ;07

a lower level, and this is admitted to be essential to it, no
one ever doubted that the water would accumulate on any
shore, as much as its slope would allow it. It is also certain,
that the lower anything is, so much the nearer is it to the
centre, and that all the lines which are drawn from this point
to the water which is the nearest to it, are shorter than those
which reach from the beginning of the sea to its extreme
parts ^ Hence it follows, that all the water, from every part,
tends towards the centre, and, because it has this tendency,
does not fall.

CHAP. 66. — now THE WATEB IS CONITECTED WITH THE EAETH.
OF THE KAVIOATION OF THE SEA AND THE EIVEES.

We must believe, that the great artist. Nature, has so
arranged it, that as the arid and dry earth cannot subsist by
itself and without moisture, nor, on the other hand, can the
water subsist unless it be supported by the earth, they are
connected by a mutual union. The earth opens her harbours,
while the water pervades the whole earth, within, without,
and above ; its veins running in all directions, like connect-
ing links, and bursting out on even the highest ridges ;
where, forced up by the air, and pressed out by the weight
of the earth, it shoots forth as from a pipe, and is so far from
being in danger of falling, that it bounds up to the highest
and most lotty places. Hence the reason is obvious, why
the seas are not increased by the daily accession of so many
rivers*.

(66.) The earth has, therefore, the whole of its globe girt,
on every side, by the sea flowing round it. And this is not a

* " Quara qu8D ad extremum mare a primis aquis." I profess myself
altogether unable to follow the author's mode of reasoning in this para-
graph, or to throw any light upon it. He would appear to be arguing
in favour of the actual flatness of the sur£aoe of the ocean, whereas his
previous remarks prove its convexity.

* Alexandre remarks on this passage, " Nempe quod remotissimos etiam
fontes alat oceanus. Sed omittit Plinius vaporationis intermedia ope
hoc fieri." Lemaire, i. 376. Aristotle has written at considerable length
on the origin of springs, in his Meteor. L 13. p. 543 et seq. He argues
against the opinion of those who suppose that the water of springs is
entirely derived from evaporation. Seneca's account of the origm of
springs is found in his Nat. Qusest. iii. 1.

VOL. I. H

98 pLurr's KATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

point to be investigated by arguments, but what has been
ascertained by experience.

CHAP. 67. (67.) — ^WHETHEE THE OCEATf SUEEOUNDS THE
EAETH.

The whole of the western ocean is now navigated, from Gadea
and the Pillars of Hercules, round Spain and Gaul. The
greater part of the northern ocean has also been na\T:gated,
under the auspices of the Emperor Augustus, his fleet having
been carried round Germany to the promontory of the Cimbri^ ;
from which spot they descried an immense sea, or became ac-
quainted with it by report, which extends to the country of
the Scythians, and the districts that are chilled by excessive
moisture^. On this account it is not at all probable, that
the ocean should be deficient in a region where moisture so
much abounds. In like manner, towards the east, from the
Indian sea, all that part which lies in the same latitude^, and
which bends round towards the Caspian*, has been explored
by the Macedonian arms, in the reigns of Seleucus and An-
tiochus, who wished it to be named after themselves, the Se-
leucian or Antiochian Sea. About the Caspian, too, many parts
of the shores of the ocean have been explored, so that nearly
the whole of the north has been sailed over in one direction
or another. Nor can our argument be much alFected by the
.point that has been so much discussed, respecting the ralus
Mseotis, whether it be a bay of the same ocean*, as is, I under-
stand, the opinion of some persons, or whether it be the
overflowing of a narrow channel connected with a different
ocean®. On the other side of Gades, proceeding from
the same western point, a great part of the southern ocean,

* TThe voyage whicli is here alluded to was probably that performed
by Drusus ; it is mentioned by Dio, Ub. iv., Suetonius, Claud. § 1, Vel.
Paterculus, ii. 106, and by Tacitus, Germ. § 34.

2 "What is here spoken of we may presimie to have been that part of
the Q-erman Ocean which Ues to the N.W. of Denmark ; the term Scy-
thian was apphed by the ancients in so very general a way, as not to
afford any indication of the exact district so designated.

3 " Sub eodem sidere ;" " which hes under the same star."

* The ancients conceived the Caspian to be a gulf, connected with
the northern ocean. Our author gives an account of it, vi. 15.

5 That is, of the Caspian Sea.

* The remarks which our author makes upon the Palus Mseotis, in the

Chap. 67.] NAVIGATION OF THE OCEAN. 99

along Mauritania, has now been navigated. Indeed the
greater part of this region, as well as of the east, as far as the
Arabian Gulf, was surveyed in consequence of Alexander's
victories. When Caius da^sar, the son of Augustus^, had the
conduct of affairs in that country, it is said that they found the
remains of Spanish vessels which had been WTecked there.
WTiile the power of Carthage was at its height, Hanno pub-
lished an account of a voyage which he made from Gades to
the extremity of Arabia' ; Himilco was also sent, about the
same time, to explore the remote parts of Europe. Besides,
we learn from Com.Nepos, that oneEudoxus, a contemporary
of his', when he was flying from king Lathyrus, set out from
the Arabian Gulf, and wa^ carried as far as Gades ^. And long
before him, Caelius Antipater' informs us, that he had seen
a person who had sailed from Spain to ^Ethiopia for the pur-
poses of trade. The same Cornelius Nenos, when speaking of
the northern circumnavigation, tells us tnat Q.MetellusCeler,
the colleague of L. Afranius in the consulship, but then a
proconsul in Gaul", had a present made to him by the king
of the Suevi, of certain Indians, who sailing from India for
the purpose of commerce, had been driven by tempests into
Germany'. Thus it appears, that the seas which now com-

different parts of his work, ii. 112 and vi 7, appear so inconsistent with
each other, that we must suppose he indiscriminately borrowed them from
various writers, without comparing their accounts, or endeavouring to
i*econcile them to each other. Such inaccuracies may be thought almost
to justify the censure of Alexandre, who styles our author, " indiligens
plane veri et falsi compilator, et ubi di:>sentlunt auctores, nunquam aut
raro sibi constans." Lemaire, i. 378.

' The son of Agrippa, whom Augustus adopted. Hardouin, in Lemaire,
i. 378.

* See Beloe's Herodotus, ii. 393, 394, for an account of the voyage
round Africa that was performed by the Phoenicians, who were sent to
explore those parts by Necho king of Egypt.

3 It is generally supposed that C. Nepos lived in the century previous
to the Christian sera. Ptolemy Lathyrus commenced his reign U.C. 627
or B.C. 117, and reigned for 36 years. The references made to C. Nepos
are not foimd in any of his works now extant.

^ We have previously referred to Eudoxus, note ', p. 78.

^ "We have a brief accoxmt of Antipater in Hardouin's Lidex Auctorumj
Lemaire, i. 162.

^ We are informed by Alexandre that this was in the year of the City 691,
the same year in which Cicero was consul ; see note in Lemaire, i. 379.

7 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the account here given must

h2

100 plint's natueal histoet. [Book IL

pletely round the globe, and divide it, as it were, into two
parts \ exclude ns from one part of it, as there is no way open
to it on either side. And as the contemplation of these
things is adapted to detect the vanity of mortals, it seems
incumbent on me to display, and lay open to our eyes, the
whole of it, whatever it be, in which there is notliing which
can satisfy the desires of certain individuals.

CHAP. 68. (68.) — ^WHAT PAET OF THE EAETH IS nSIHABITED.

In the first place, then, it appears, that this should be esti-
mated at half the globe^ as if no portion of this half was
encroached upon by the ocean. But surrounding as it does
the whole of the land, pouring out and receiving aU the other
waters, furnishing whatever goes to the clouds, and feeding the
stars themselves, so numerous and of such great size as they
are, what a great space must we not suppose it to occupy !
This vast mass must fill up and occupy an infinite extent.
To this we must add that portion of the remainder which the
heavens^ take from us. Por the globe is divided into five
parts^, termed zones, and all that portion is subject to severe
cold and perpetual frost which is under the two extremities,
about each of the poles, the nearer of which is caUed the
north, and the opposite the south, pole. In aU these regions
there is perpetual darkness, and, in consequence of the aspect
of the milder stars being turned from them, the light is ma-
lignant, and only like the whiteness which is produced by
hoar frost. The middle of the earth, over which is the orbit
of the sun, is parched and burned by the flame, and is con-
sumed by being so near the heat. There are only two of the
zones wliich are temperate, those which lie between the torrid
and the frigid zones, and these are separated from each other,
in consequence of the scorching heat of the heavenly bodies.

be incorrect ; the reader who may be disposed to learn the opinions of
the commentators on this point, may consult the notes in Foinsinet and
Lemaire in loco.

1 Dividuo globo ; " Eoas partes a vespertinis dividente oceano." Alex-
andre in Lemaire, i. 380.

2 " Jam primum in dimidio computari videtur."

3 " Coelum ;" the rigour of the climate.

•* The division of the globe into five zones is referred to by Virgil, G^eor.
I 233-239, and by Ovid, Met. i. 45, 46.

Chap. 68.] EXTENT OF THE OOEAK. 101

It appears, therefore, that the heavens take from us three
parts of the earth ; how much the ocean steals is uncertain.
And with respect to the part which is left us, I do not
know whether that is not even in greater danger. This same
ocean, insinuating itself, as I have described it, into a num-
ber of bays, approaches with its roaring* so near to the in-
land seas, that the Arabian Gulf is no more than 115 miles
from the Egyptian Sea', and the Caspian only 375 miles from
the Euxine. It also insinuates itself into the numerous seas
by which it separates Africa, Europe, and Asia ; hence how
much space must it occupy ? "We must also take into ac-
count tne extent of all tne rivers and the marshes, and we
must add the lakes and the pools. There are also the moun-
tains, raised up to the heavens, with their precipitous fronts ;
we must also subtract the forests and the craggy vaUeys, the
wildernesses, and the places, which, from various causes, are
desert. The vast quantity which remains of the earth', or
rather, as many persons have considered it, this speck of a
world^ (for the earth is no more in regard to the universe),
this is the object, the seat of our glory — here we bear our
honours, here we exercise our power, here we covet wealth,
here wo mortals create our disturbances, here we continually
carry on our wars, aye, civil wars, even, and unpeople the
earth by mutual slaughter. And not to dwell on public feuds,
entered into by nations against each other, here it is that we
drive away our neighbours, and enclose the land thus seized
upon within our own fence* ; and yet the man who has most
extended his boundary, and has expelled the inhabitants for
ever so great a distance, after all, what mighty portion of the
earth is he master of? And even when his avarice has been
the most completely satisfied, what part of it can he take
^vith him into the grave ?

^ " interna maria allatrat, . . ."

2 This is considerably more than the distance in the present day.
The Ifetlimiis of Suez appears, according to the statement of the most
accurate geographers, to be about 70 miles in breadth.

3 Hse tot portiones terrse, as Alexandre correctly remarks, " ironice
dictum. Quam paucae enim supersunt !" Lemaire, i. 383.

^ " Mimdi punctus." This expression, we may presume, was taken
from Seneca ; " Hoc est Ulud punctum, quod inter tot gentes ferro et
igni dividitur." Nat. Qtuest. i. pnef. p. 681.

Nostro solo adfodimus ; " addimus, adjungimus, annectinms, ut una
fossione aretur." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 383.

102 plint's natubal histobt. [Book !!♦

CHAP. 69. (69.) THAT THE EABTH IS Ef THE MIDDLE OF

THE WORLD.

It is evident from undoubted arguments, that the earth is
in the middle of the universe*, but it is the most clearlj
proved by the equality of the days and the nights at the equi-
nox^. It is demonstrated by the quadrant^, which affords
the most decisive confirmation of the fact, that unless the
earth was in the middle, the days and nights could not be
equal ; for, at the time of the equinox, the rising and setting
of the sun are seen on the same line, and the rising of the
sun, at the summer solstice, is on the same line with its
setting at the winter solstice ; but this could not happen if
the earth was not situated in the centre

CHAP. 70. (70.) — OF THE OBLIQUITY OP THE ZONES'*.

The three circles^, which are connected with the above-
mentioned zones, distinguish the inequalities of the seasons ;
those are, the solstitial circle, which proceeds from the part
of the Zodiac the highest to us and approaching the nearest
to the district of the north ; on the other side, the brumal,
which is towards the south pole ; and the equinoctial, which
traverses the middle of the Zodiac.

CHAP. 71. — OF THE IITEQUALITT OF CLIMATES.

The cause of the other things which are worthy of our
admiration depends on the figure of the earth itself, which,
together with aU its waters, is proved, by the same argu-
ments, to be a globe. This certainly is the cause why the
stars of the northern portion of the heavens never set to us,
and why, on the other hand, those in the south never rise,
and again, why the latter can never be seen by the former,
the globe of the earth rising up and concealing them. The

* " Mundi totius," * " ^quinoctii paribus horis."

3 Dioptra. " G-rsece ^loTrrpa, instrumentura est geometricum, un
quart de cercle, quo apparentes rerum inter se distantiffi anguli apertura
dijudicantur." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 384.

^ This title does not correspond with the contents of the chapter.

* " Tropici duo, cum aequinoctiali circulo j" Hardouin, in Lemaire, L

Chap. 71.] BISING OP CONSTELLATIONS. 108

Nortliem Wain is never seen in Troglodytice', nor in Egypt,
which borders on it^ ; nor can we, in Italy, see the star (Ja-
nopus', or Berenice's Hair* ; nor what, under the Emperor
Augustus, was named Caesar's Throne, although they are,
there', very brilliant stars. The curved form of the earth is
so obvious, rising up like a ridge, that Canopus appears to a
spectator at Alexandria to rise above the horizon almost the
quarter of a sign ; the same star at Rhodes appears, as it
were, to graze aSoug the earth, while in Pontus it is not seen
at all; where the Northern Wain appears considerably
elevated. This same constellation cannot be seen at Rhodes,
and still less at Alexandria. In Arabia, in the month of
November, it is concealed during the first watch of the
night, but may be seen during the second' ; in Meroe it is
seen, for a short time, in the evening, at the solstice, and it
is visible at day-brealc, for a few days before the rising of
Arcturus'. These facts have been principally ascertained
by the expeditions of navigators ; tne sea appearing more
elevated or depressed in certain parts* ; the stars suddenly
coming into view, and, as it were, emerging from the water,
after having been concealed by the bulging out of the globe*.
But the heavens do not, as some suppose, rise higher at one

* The Troglodytice of the ancients may be oonsidered as nearly corre-
sponding to the modem Abyssinia and Nubia.

^ This remark is incorrect, as far as respects nearly the whole of Egypt ;
see the remarks of Marcus, in Ajttsson, ii. 245.

* This is a star of the first magnitude in the southern constellation of
Argo ; we have a similar statement in Manihus, i. 216, 217.

* The commentators suppose that the star or constellation here referred
to cannot be the same with what bears this name on the modem celestial
atlas ; vide Hardouin in loco, also Marc, in Ajasson, ut supra. The
constellation of Berenice's hair forms the subject of Catullus's 67th poem.

* In Troglodytice and in Egypt.

^ The first watch of the night was from 6 p.m. to 9 ; the second from
9 to midnight.

7 According to Columella, xi. 2. 369, this was 9 Calend. Mart., cor-
responding to the 2l8t of February.

^ " In alia adverso, in alia prono mari." I have adopted the opinion
of Alexandre, who explains the terms " adverso" and " prono," " ascen-
denti ad polum," and " ad austrum deveio ;" a similar sense is given to
the passage by Poinsinet and Ajasson, in their translations.

9 " Anfractu pilae." See Manilius, i. 206 et seq. for a similar mode of
expression.

104 pliny's natueal histoey. [Book II.

pole, otlierwise^ its stars would be seen from all parts of the
world ; they indeed are supposed to be higher by those who
are nearest to them, but the stars are sunk below the horizon
to those who are more remote. As this pole appears to be
elevated to those who are beneath it; so, when we have
passed along the convexity of the earth, those stars rise up,
which appear elevated to the inhabitants of those other <fi-
stricts ; all this, however, could not happen unless the earth
had the shape of a globe.

CHAP. 72. — IN WHAT PLACES ECLIPSES ABE INVISIBLE, AND
WHY THIS IS THE CASE.

Hence it is that the inhabitants of the east do not see
those eclipses of the sun or of the moon which occur in the
evening, nor the inhabitants of the west those in the morn-
ing, while such as take place at noon are more frequently
visible^. We are told, tliat at the time of the famous vic-
tory of Alexander the Great, at Arbela'', the moon was
eclipsed at the second hour of the night, while, in Sicily, the
moon was rising at the same hour. The eclipse of the sun
which occurred the day before the calends of May, in the
consulship of Vipstanus and Ponteius*, not many years ago,
was seen in Campania between the seventh and eighth hour
of the day ; the general Corbulo informs us, that it was seen

* "Aut;" as Poinsinet remarks, ''aut est ici pour alioqui-" and he
quotes another passage from our author, xix. 3, where the word is employed
in a similar manner.

2 We may presume that the author meant to convey the idea, that
the eclipses which are visible in any one country are not so in those
which are situated under a different meridian. The terms "vesperti-
nos," " matutinos," and " meridianos," refer not to the time of the day,
but to the situation of the ecUpse, whether recurring in the western,
eastern, or southern parts of the heavens.

3 Brewster, in the art. " Chronology," p. 415, mentions this eclipse as
having taken place Sept. 21st, U.C. 331, eleven days before the battle of
Arbela ; while, in the same art. p. 423, the battle is said to have taken
place on Oct. 2nd, eleven days after a total ecHpse of the moon.

4 It took place on the 3()th of April, in the year of the City 811,
A.D. 59 ; see Brewster, ubi sv/pra. It is simply mentioned by Tacitus,
Ann. xiv. 12, as having occurred among other prodigies which took place
at this period.

Chap. V3.] DrBATION OF DAT. 105

in Armenia, between the eleventh and twelfth hour* ; thus the
curve of the globe both reveals and conceals different objects
from the inhabitants of its different parts. If the earth had
been flat, everything would have been seen at the same time,
from every part of it, and the nights would not have been
unequal; while the equal intervals of twelve hours, which are
now observed only in the middle of the earth, would in that
case have been the same everywhere.

CHAP. 73. (71.) — WHAT EEGULATE8 THE DAYLIGHT ON THE
EABTH.

Hence it is that there is not any one night and day the same,
in all parts of the earth, at the same time ; the intervention of
the globe producing night, and its turning round producing
day^. This is known by various observations. In Africa and
in Spain it is made evident by the Towers of HannibaP, and in
Asia by the beacons, which, in consequence of their dread of
pirates, the people erected for their protection ; for it has been
Irequently observed, that the signals, which were lighted at
the sixth hour of the day, were seen at the third hour of the
night by those who were the most remote^. Philonides, a

1 We have an account of Corbulo's expedition to Armenia in Dion Cas-
sius, Ix. 19-24, but there is no mention of the eclipse or of any peculiar
celestial phsenomenon.

2 The terms employed in the original are " oppositu" and " ambitu."
Alexandre's explanation of the first is, "quum globi t^rraquei crassitudo
interposita solis arcet radios ;" and of the second, " quum nostra hujus
globi pars a sole ambitvir." Lemaire, i. 389.

3 One of these towers is mentioned by Livy, xxxiii. 48 ; it is said to
have been situated between AchoUa and Thapsus, on the sea-coast.

* Hardouin, according to his usual custom, employs all his learning
and ingenuity to give a plausible explanation of this passage. Alexandre,
as it must be confessed, with but too much reason, remarks, " Frustra
desudavit Harduinus ut sanum ahquem sensum ex illis Plrnii dehra-
mentis excuteret." He correctly refers the interval of time, which was
said to occur between these signals, not to any astronomical cause, but to
the necessary delay which took place in the transmission of them. He
concludes, " Sed ad cursum solis hoc referre, dementise est. Nam ut tanta
horarum differentia intersit, si moram omnem in speculandis ac trans-
mittendis signis sustuleris, necesse erit observatores illos ultimos 135
gradibus, id est, sesquidimidio hemisphserio, a piimis distare turribus.
Recte igitur incredibilem Plinii credulitatem ludibrio vertit !Baylius in
Pictionario suo." Lemaire, i. 389.

106 PLIIfT's KATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

courier of the above-mentioned Alexander, went from Sicyon
to Elis, a distance of 1200 stadia, in nine houi's, while he
seldom returned until the third hour of the night, although
the road was do^n-hilP. The reason is, that, in going, he
followed the course of the sun, while on his return, in the
opposite direction, he met the sun and left it behind him.
For the same reason it is, that those who sail to the west,
even on the shortest day, compensate for the difficulty of
sailing in the night and go farther^, because they sail in the
same direction with the sun.

CHAP. 74. (72.) — EEMAEKS OK DIALS, AS CONNECTED WITH
THIS SUBJECT.

The same dial-plafes' cannot be used in all places, the
shadow of the sun being sensibly different at distances of
300, or at most of 500 stadia^ Hence the shadow of the dial-
pin, which is termed the gnomon, at noon and at the summer
solstice, in Egjrpt, is a little more than half the length of the
gnomon itself. At the city of Rome it is only ^ less than
the gnomon, at Ancona not* more than -^j less, while in
the part of Italy which is called Venetia, at the same hour,
the shadow is equal to the length of the gnomon*.

* The distance, as here stated, is about 150 miles, which he is said to
have performed in nine hours, but that the same distance, in returning,
required fifteen hours. We have here, as on the former occasion, a note
of Hardouin's to elucidate the statement of the author. On this Alex-
andre observes, " Optime ; sed in tam parva locorum distantia, EUdis et
Sicyonis horologia vix quinque unius horse sexagesimis differre poterant ;
quare eunti ac redeimti ne discrimen quidem quadrantis horse intererat.
Ineptos igitur auctores sequitur hoc quoque loco Phnius." Lemaire, i.
390, 391.

2 " Viacunt spatia noctumse navigationis." This expression would ap-
pear to imply, that the author conceived some physical difficulty in sail-
ing during the night, and so it seems to bo understood by Alexandre ;
vide not. in loco.

3 " Vasahoroscopica." " Vasa horoscopica appeUat horologia in piano
descripta, horizonti ad HbeUam respondentia, Vasa dicuntur, quod area
in qua linese ducebantur, labri interdum instar et conchae erat, cujus ia
margiae describebantur horse. Horoscopa, ab lopa et (T/roTrew, hoc est,
ab inspiciendis horis." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 391.

^ These distances are respectively about 38 and 62 miles.
^ We are not to expect any great accuracy in these estimates, and we
accordiagly find, that our author, when referring to the subject ia his

Chap. VS.] SHADOWS. 107

CHAJ. 75. (73.) — WHEN AND WHEEE THEEE AEE NO
SHADOWS.

It is likewise said, that in the town of Syene, which is
6000 stadia south of Alexandria^ there is no shadow at noon,
on the day of the solstice ; and that a well, which was sunk
for the purpose of the experiment, is illuminated by the sun
in every part. Hence it appears that the sun, in this place,
is vertical, and Onesicritus informs us that this is the case,
about the same time, in India, at the river Hypasis*. It is
well known, that at Berenice, a city of the TroglodytsB, and
4820 stadia beyond that city, in the same country, at the
town of Ptolemais, which was built on the lied Sea, when
the elephant was first hunted, this same thing takes place
for forty-five days before the solstice and for an equal length
of time after it, and that during these ninety days the shadows
are turned towards the south ^. Again, at Meroe, an island
in the Nile and the metropolis of the ^Ethiopians, which is
5000 stadia'' from Syene, there are no shadows at two periods
of the year, 'viz. when the sun is in the 18th degree of Taurus
and in the 14th of Leo*. The Oretes, a people of India, have
a mountain named Maleus*, near which the shadows in sum-

6th book, ch. 39, makes the shadow at Ancona ^ greater than the gnomon,
wliile, in Venetia, which is more northerly, he says, as in the present
chapter, that the shadow and the gnomon are equal in length. See the
remarks of M. Alexandre in Lemaire, ut supra.

^ This woxUd be about 625 miles. Strabo, ii. 114, and Luean, ii. 587,
give the same distance, which is probably nearly correct. Syene is,
however, a Httle to the north of the tropic.

2 This remark is not correct, as no part of this river is between the
tropics. For an account of Onesicritus see Lemaire, i. 203, 204.

* " In meridiem umbras jaci." M. Ajasson translates this passage, " les
ombres tombent pendant quatre-vingt-dix jours sur le point central du
meridien." ii. 165. But I conceive that Holland's version is more cor-
rect, " for 90 days' space all the shadows are cast into the south." i. 36.

The remarks of M. Alexandre are to the same eflfect ; " ut bis solem

in zenitho haberet (Ptolemais), Mail mensis et Augusti initio ; interea
vero, solem e septemtrione haberet." Lemaire, i. 393.

* About 625 miles.

* These days correspond to the 8th of May and the 4th of August
respectively.

" There is considerable uncertainty respecting the identity of this moim-
taia J our author refers to it in a subsequent part of his work, where it is

108 tlint's natueal history. [Book II.

mer fall towards the south and in winter towards the north.
The seven stars of the Great Bear are -vnsible there for fifteen
nights only. In India also, in the celebrated sea-port Pa-
tale \ the sun rises to the right hand and the shadows fall
towards the south. While Alexander was staying there it
was observed, that the seven northern stars were seen only
during the early part of the night'. Onesicritus, one of his
generals, informs us in his work, that in those places in India
where there are no shadows, the seven stars are not visible' ;
these places, he says, are called " Ascia''," and the people there
do not reckon the time by hours*.

CHAP. 76. (74.) — WHEEE THIS TAKES PLACE TWICE rPf THE
TEAS AND WHEEE THE SHADOWS FALL IIT OPPOSITE
DIEECTIONS.

Eratosthenes informs us, that in the whole of Troglodytice,
for twice forty-five days in the year, the shadows fall in the
contrary direction''.

CHAP. 77. (75.) — ^WHEEE THE DATS ABE THE LONGEST AND
WHEEE THE SHOETEST.

Hence it follows, that in consequence of the daylight
increasing in various degrees, in Meroe the longest day

said to be in the country of the Monedea and Siiari ; vi. 22. See the note
of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 394.

1 Our author, in a subsequent part of his work, vi. 23, describes the
island of Patale as situated near the mouth of the Indus ; he again refers
to it, xii. 25. His account of the position of the sun does not, however,
apply to this place.

2 If we may suppose this to have been actually the case, we might
calcvilate the time of the year when Alexander visited this place and the
length of his stay.

3 We may presTime, that our author means to say no more than that,
in those places, they are occasionally invisible ; HteraUy the observation
would not apply to any part of India. * doKia, shadowless.

5 If this really were the case, it could have no relation to the astrono-
mical position of the coxmtry.

6 " In contrariimi," contraTy to what takes place at other times, ». e.
towards the south. This observation is not appHcable to the wliole of
this country, as its northern and southern parts differ from each other by
seven or eiglit degrees of latitude. For an accoimt of Eratosthenes see
Lemaire, i. 186.

Chap. 78.] THE FIEST DIAL. 109

consists of twelve wquinoctial hours and eight parts of an
hour', at Alexandria of fourteen hours, in Italy of fifteen, in
Britain of seventeen ; where the degree of light, which exists
in the night, very clearly proves, what the reason of the thing
also obliges us to believe, that, during the solstitial perioct
as the sun approaches to the polo of the world, and his orbit
is contractea, the parts of the earth that lie below him have
a day of six months long, and a night of equal length when
he is removed to the south pole. Pytheas, of Marseilles',
informs us, that this is the case in the island of Thule', which
is six days' sad from the north of Britain. Some persons
also aflRrm that this is the case in Mona, which is about 200
miles from Camelodunum^, a to\vTi of Britain.

CHAP. 78. (76.) — OP THE PIBST DIAL.

Anaximenes the Milesian, the disciple of Anaximander,
of whom I have spoken above', discovered the theory of
shadows and what is called the art of dialling, and he w^
the first who exhibited at Lacedajmon the dial which they
call sciothericon*.

* "Hora duodedm in partee, ut as in totidem undaa dividebotur.
Octonas igitur partes hone antiqiue, sive bessem, ut Martianus vooat,
nobis probe repreesentant hororum nostratium 40 sexagesinue, quas mi-
nutaa vocamus." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 896.

* For a notice of Pj-thoas see Lemaire, i. 210. Ho was a geographer
and historian who hved in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; but his
veracity does not ap^)ear to have been highly estimated by his oontem*
poraries.

' The Thule of Pliny has been generally supposed to be the Shetland
Isles. What is here asserted respecting the length of the day, as well as
its distance from Britain, would inde«i apply much more correctly to
Iceland tiian to Shetland ; but we have no evidence that Iceland was
known to the ancients. Our author refers to the length of the day in
Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 36.

* Supposed to be Colchester in Essex ; while the Mona of Pliny appears
to have been Anglesea. It is not easy to conceive why the author
measured the distance of Mona from Camelodunum.

« Chap. 6 of this book.

* a (TKid, imibra, and Orjpdui, sector. It has been a subject for discussion
by the commentators, how iar this instrument of Anaximenes is entitled
to the appellation of a dial, whether it was intended to mark the hours,
or to serve for some other astronomical purpose. See Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 398, 399. It has been correctly remarked by Brotier, that
we have an account of a much more ancient dial in the 2nd book of Einffs.
XX. 9, 11. ^ •

110 PLIirr's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book IL

CHAP. 79 (77.) — OP THE MODE IN WHICH THE DAYS ARE
COMPUTED.

The days have been computed by different people in dif-
ferent ways. The Babylonians reckoned from one sunrise
to the next ; the Athenians from one sunset to the next ; the
Umbrians from noon to noon ; the multitude, universally,
from light to darkness ; the Eoman priests and those who
presided over the civil day, also the Egyptians and Hippar-
chus, from midnight to midnight ^ It appears that the in-
terval from one sunrise to the next is less near the solstices
than near the equinoxes, because the position of the zodiac
is more oblique about its middle part, and more straight
near the solstice^.

CHAP. 80. (78.) — OF THE DIFPEEENCE OF NATIONS AS DE-
PENDING ON THE NATUEE OF THE WOELD.

To these circumstances we must add those that are con-
nected with certain celestial causes. There can be no doubt,
that the Ethiopians are scorched by their vicinity to the
sun's heat, and they are bom, like persons who have been
bumed, Tvith the beard and hair frizzled^; while, in the
opposite and frozen parts of the earth, there are nations with
white skins and long, light hair. The latter are savage
from the inclemency of the climate, while the former are
dull from its variableness^. We learn, from the form of the

1 A. Gellius, iii. 3, informs us, that the question concerning the com-
mencement of the day was one of the topics discussed by Varro, in his
book " Rerum Humanarum : " this work is lost. We learn from tlie
notes of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 399, that there are certain coimtries in
which all these various modes of computation are stUl practised ; the
last-mentione(i is the one commonly employed in Europe.

2 It has been supposed, that in this passage the author intended to
say no more than that the nights are shorter at the summer solstice than
at the other parts of the year ; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 399, 400.
But to this, I conceive, it may be objected, that the words " inter ortus
solis " can scarcely apply to the period while the sun is below the horizon,
and that the solstices generally would seem to be opposed to the equinoxes
generally. Also the words "obhquior" and " rectior" would appear to
have some farther reference than merely to the length of time during
which the sun is above or below the horizon.

8 " Vibrato ; " the same term is applied by TtuTius to the hair of ^neas ;
^n. xii. 100.

* " Mobilitate hebetes j " it is not easy to see the connexion between
these two circumstances.

Chap. 81.] EAETHQUAKES. Ill

legs, that in the one, the fluids, like vapour, are forced into
the upper parts of the body, while in the other, being a
gross numour, it is drawn downwards into the lower parts \
In the cold regions savage beasts are produced, and in the
others, various forms of animals, and many kinds of birds'.
In both situations the body grows tall, in the one case by
the force of fire, and in the other by the nutritive moisture.

In the middle of the earth there is a salutary mixture of
the two, a tract fruitful in all things, the habits of the body
holding a mean between the two, with a proper tempering
of colours ; the manners of the people are gentle, the intellect
clear', the genius fertile and capable of comprehending every
part of nature. They have formed empires, which has never
been done by the remote nations ; yet tbese latter have never
been subjected by the former, being severed from them and
remaining solitary, from the effect produced on then by
their savage nature.

CHAP. 81. (79.) — or EAETHQUAKES.

According to the doctrine of the Babylonians, earthquakes
and clefts of the earth, and occurrences of this kind, are
supposed to be produced by the influence of the stars,
especially of the three to which they ascribe thunder* ; and
to be caused by the stars moving with the sun, or being in
conjunction with it, and, more particularly, when they are
in the quartile aspect*. If we are to credit the report, a

* There is a passage in Galen, De Temperamentis, iii. 6, which may
appear to sanction the opinion of our author ; " Siccos esse, quibus macra
sunt crura ; humidos, quibus crassa."

* The latter part of the remark is correct, but the number of ferocious
animals is also greater in the warmer regions ; there is, in fact, a greater
variety in all the productions of nature in the warmer districts of the
globe, except in those particuW spots where animal or vegetable life is
counteracted by some local circumstances, as in many parts of Asia and
Africa by the want of water.

3 " Sensus liquidus ; " Alexandre explains this expression, "judicium
sanum, mens intelligendo apta." Lemaire, i. 401.

* Saturn, Jupicer and Mars : see the 8th chapter of this book.

5 " Vel qxiando meant cum Sole in conjunctione civm eo, vel quando
cum eo conveniunt in aspectu, maxime vero in quadrato, qui fit, quum
distant a Sole quarta mundi sive coeh parte." Hardouin in Lemaire, i.
401.

112 PLIIfT's NATUKAL HISTOKT. [Book II.

most admirable and immortal spirit, as it were of a divine
nature, should be ascribed to Anaximander the Milesian,
who, they saj, warned the Lacedaemonians to beware of their
city and their houses \ For he predicted that an earthquake
was at hand, when both the whole of their city was destroyed
and a large portion of Mount Taygetus, which projected in
the form of a ship, was broken off, and added farther ruin to
the previous destruction. Another prediction is ascribed to
Pherecydes, the master of Pythagoras, and this was divine ;
by a draught of water from a well, he foresaw and predicted
that there would be an earthquake in that place^. And if
these things be true, how nearly do these individuals ap-
proach to the Deity, even during their lifetime! But I
leave every one to judge of these matters as he pleases. I
certainly conceive the winds to be the cause of earthquakes ;
for the earth never trembles except when the sea is quite
calm, and when the heavens are so tranquil that the birds
cannot maintaia their flight, all the air which should support
them being withdrawn^ ; nor does it ever happen until after
great winds, the gust being pent up, as it were, in the
fissures and concealed hollows. Por the trembling of the
earth resembles thunder in the clouds ; nor does the yawning
of the earth differ from the bursting of the lightning ; the
enclosed air struggling and striving to escape^.

CHAP. 82. (80.) — or clefts of the eaeth.

The earth is shaken in various ways, and wonderful effects
are produced^ ; in one place the walls of cities being thrown

* " Ut urbem et tecta custodirent." This anecdote is referred to by
Cicero, who employs the words " ut urbem et tecta linquerent." De Divin.
i. 112. 2 This anecdote is also referred to by Cicero, de Div. ii.

* It has been observed that earthquakes, as weE. as other great con-
vulsions of nature, are preceded by calms ; it has also been observed
that birds and animals generally exhibit certain presentiments of the
event, by something peculiar in their motions or proceedings ; this cir-
cumstance is mentioned by Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 8, and by Seneca, Nat.
Qugest. vi. 12.

* It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this supposed resemblance
or analogy is entirely without foundation. The phieenomena of earth-
quakes are described by Ai-istotle, De Mimdo, cap. 4, and Meteor, ii.
7 and 8 ; also by Seneca in various parts of the 6th book of his Qusest. Nat.

* On this subject we shall find much curious matter in Aristotle'e
Treatise de Mundo, cap. 4.

Cliap. 82.] CLEFTS or THE EAETH. 113

down, and in others swallowed up by a deep cleft ^ ; some-
times great masses of earth are heaped up, and rivers forced
out, sometimes even flame and hot springs'^, and at others
the course of rivers is turned. A terrible noise precedes
and accompanies the shock' ; sometimes a murmuring, like
the lowing of cattle, or like human voices, or the clashing of
arms. This depends on the substance which receives the
sound, and the shape of the caverns or crevices through
which it issues ; it being more shrill from a narrow opening,
more hoarse from one that is curved, producing a loud rever-
beration from hard bodies, a sound like a boiling fluid^ from
moist substances, fluctuating in stagnant water, and roaring
when forced against solid bodies. There is, therefore, often
the sound without any motion. Nor is it a simple motion,
but one that is tremulous and vibratory. The cleft some-
times remains, displaying what it has swallowed up ; some-
times concealing it, the mouth being closed and the soil
being brought over it, so that no vestige is left ; the city
being, as it were, devoured, andthetract of country engulfed.
Maritime districts are more especially subject to shocks.
Nor are mountainous tracts exempt from them ; I have found,
by my inquiries, that the Alps and the Apennines are fre-
quently shaken. The shocks happen more frequently in the
autumn and in the spring, as is the case also with thunder.
There are seldom shocks in Gaul and in Egj^t ; in the latter
it depends on the prevalence of summer, in the former, of
winter. They also happen more frequently in the night than
in the day. The greatest shocks are in the morning and the
evening ; but they often take place at day -break, and some-
times at noon. They also take place during eclipses of the
sun and of the moon, because at that time storms are lulled.
They are most frequent when great heat succeeds to showers,
or showers succeed to great heat^.

^ Poinsinet entCTs into a long detail of some of the most remarkable
earthquakes that have occurred, from the age of Pliny to the period when
he wrote, about fifty years ago ; i. 249. 2. 2 gee .^stotle, Meteor, ii. 8.

3 See Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 8, and Seneca, Nat. Qusest. vi. 13.

* " Fervente ; " " Fremitum aquse ferrentis imitante." Alexandre in
Lemaire, i. 404.

^ The reader will scarcely require to be informed, that many of the

remarks in the latter part of this chapter are incorrect. Our author haa

principally followed Aristotle, whose treatise on meteorology, although

aboimding in curious details, is perhaps one of the least correct of his works.

VOL. I. I

114 plint's katueal history. [Book II.

CHAP. 83. (81.) — feiGi^s or ak approaching earthquake.

There is no doubt that earthquakes are felt by persons on
shipboard, as they are struck by a sudden motion of the
waves, without these being raised by any gust of wind.
And things that are in the vessels shake as they do in houses,
and give notice by their creaking ; also the birds, when they
settle upon the vessels, are not without their alarms. There
is also a sign in the heavens ; for, when a shock is near at
hand, either in the daytime or a little after sunset, a cloud
is stretched out in the clear sky, like a long thin line\ The
water in wells is also more turbid than usual, and it emits a
disagreeable odour^.

chap. 84. (82.) — PRESERVATIYES AGAINST FUTURE
EARTHQUAKES.

These same places^, however, afford protection, and tliis is
also the case where there is a number of caverns, for they
give vent to the conhned vapour, a circumstance which has
been remarked in certain towns, which have been less shaken
where they have been excavated by many sewers. And, in
the same town, those parts that are excavated** are safer than
the other parts, as is understood to be the case at Naples in
Italy, the part of it which is solid bemg more liable to injury.
Arched buildings are also the most safe, also the angles of
walls, the shocks counteracting each other ; walls made of
brick also suffer less from the shocks^. There is also a great

1 This observation is taken from Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 8.

2 Phgenomena of tliis kind liave been frequently noticed, and are not
difficult of explanation.

3 " In iisdem ;" " lidem, inquit, putei inclusum terra spiritum libero
meatu emittentes, terree motus avertunt." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 406.

* " Quae pendent." M. Ajasson translates this passage, " qui sont
comme suspendues." Hardouin's explanation is, " Structis fornice ca-
meris imposita sedificia intelligit ; quod genus camerarum spiramenta
plerumque habet non pauca, quibus exeat ad Hbertatem aer." Lemaii*e,
i.407.

^ Many of these circumstances are referred to by Seneca, Nat. Qusest.
vi. 30. On the superior scciu*ity of brick buildings, M. Alexandre
remarks, " Muri e lateribus facti cUfficiHus quara cseteri dehiscunt, unde
fit ut in m-bibus muniendis id construe tionum genus plerumque pnc-
fcratur. Ex antiquse Itahse palatiis templisve nihil fere praeter immensaa
latenun moles hodie superest."

Chap. 85.] PRODIGIES OF THE EARTH. 116

difference in the nature of the motions \ where various mo-
tions are experienced. It is the safest when it vibrates and
causes a creaking in the building, and where it swells and
rises upwards, and settles with an alternate motion. It is
also harmless when the buildings coming together butt
against each other in opposite directions, for the motions
counteract each other. A movement like the rolling of waves
is dangerous, or when the motion is impelled in one direction.
The tremors cease when the vapour bursts out^ ; but if
they do not soon cease, they continue for forty days ; gene-
rally, indeed, for a longer time : some have lasted even for
one or two years.

CHAP. 85. (83.) — PRODIGIES OF THE EARTH WHICH HATE
OCCURRED ONCE ONLY.

A great prodigy of the earth, which never happened more
than once, I have found mentioned in thebooks of the Etruscan
ceremonies, as having taken place in the district of Mutina,
during the consulship of Lucius Martins and Sextus Julius*.
Two mountains rushed together, falling upon each other
with a very loud crash, and then receding ; while in the day-
time flame and smoke issued from them ; a great crowd of
lioman knights, and families of people, and travellers on the
^milian way, being spectators of it. All the farm-houses
were thrown down by the shock, and a great number of
animals that were in them were killed ; it M'as in the year
before the Social war ; and I am in doubt whether this event
or the civil conmiotions were more fatal to the territory of
Italy. The prodigy which happened in our owti age was no
less wonderful ; in the last year of the emperor Nero"*, as I
have related in my history of his times*, when certain fields
and olive grounds in the district of Marrucinum, belonging
to Vectius Marcellus, a Eoman knight, the steward of IS^ero,

1 These remarks upon the different kinds of shocks are probably taken
from Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 8.

" This observation is also in Aristotle, ii. 8.

3 In the year of the city 663 ; A.c. 90.

■* In the year of the city 821 ; a.d. 68.

^ The continuation of Aufidius Bassus' history j our author refers
to it in the first book.

i2

116 PLIIfY'S NATTJEAL HISTOKT. [Book II.

changed places with each other \ although the pubHc high-
way was interposed.

CHAP. 86. (84.) — WOlfDERFUL CIRCTJMSTAIirCES ATTElfDINa
EAETHQTJAKES.

Inundations of the sea take place at the same time with
earthquakes^ ; the water being impregnated wdth the same
spirit^, and received into the bosom of the earth which
subsides. The greatest earthquake which has occurred in
our memory was in the reign of Tiberius^, by which twelve
cities of Asia were laid prostrate in one night. They occurred
the most frequently during the Punic war, when we had
accounts brought to Eome of fifty-seven earthquakes in the
space of a single year. It was during this year^ that the
Carthaginians and the Eomans, who were fighting at the
lake Thrasimenus, were neither of them sensible of a very
great shock during the battled Nor is it an evil merely
consisting in the danger which is produced by the motion ;
it is an equal or a greater evil when it is considered as a
prodigy^. The city of Eome never experienced a shock,
which was not the forerunner of some great calamity.

CHAP. 87. (85.) — IS WHAT PLACES THE SEA HAS EECEDED.

The same cause produces an increase of the land ; the
vapour, when it cannot burst out forcibly lifting up the

J We have no authentic accounts of this mutual change of place be-
tween two portions of land, nor can we conceive of any cause capable of
effecting it. Our author mentions this circumistance again La book xvii.
ch. 38.

2 See Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 8.

3 " Eodem videHcet spiritu infusi (maris) ac terrse residentis sinu
recepti."

^ ir.c. 770 ; A.D, 17. We have an account of this event in Strabo,
xu. 57 ; in Tacitus, Ann. ii, 47 ; and in the Universal History, xiv. 129,
130, We are informed by Hardouin, that coins are still in existence
which were struck to commemorate the hberahty of the emperor on the
occasion, inscribed " civitatibus Asise restitutis." Lemaire, i. 410.

* ir.c. 537 ; A.C. 217.

* This circumstance is mentioned by Livy, xxii. 5, and by Flonis, ii. 6.
7 " Prsesagiis, inquit, quam ipsa clade, sseviores sunt terrse motu?."

Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 410.

Chap. 88.] ELEVATION OF LANDS. 117

surfaced Tor the land is not merely produced "by what is
brought down, the rivers, as the islands called Echinades are
formed by the river Achelous, and the greater part of Egypt
by the Me, where, according to Homer, it was a day and a
night's journey from the main land to the island of Pharos^ ;
but, in some cases, by the receding of the sea, as, according
to the same author, was the case with the Circaean isles^.
The same thing also happened in the harbour of Ambracia,
for a space of 10,000 paces, and was also said to have taken
place lor 6000 at the Piraeus of Athens'*, and likewise at
Ephesus, where formerly the sea washed the walls of the
temple of Diana. Indeed, if we may believe Herodotus", the
sea came beyond Memphis, as far as the mountains of Ethi-
opia, and also from the plains of Arabia. The sea also sur-
rounded Ilium and the whole of Teuthrania, and covered the
plain through which the Maeander flows ''.

CHAP. 88. (86.) — THE MODE IN WHICH ISLANDS BISE UP.

Land is sometimes formed in a different manner, rising
suddenly out of the sea, as if nature was compensating the
earth for its losses', restoring in one place what she had
swallowed up in another.

1 This phsenomenon is distinctly referred to by Seneca, Nat. Qnsest.
vi. 21. It presents us with one of those cases, where the scientific de-
ductions of the modems have been anticipated by the speculations of the
Rncients.

2 Odyss. ir. 354-357 ; see also Arist. Meteor. L 14 ; Lucan, x. 509-511 ;
Seneca, Nat. Qusest. vi. 26 ; Herodotus, ii. 4, 5 ; and Strabo, L 59.

•* These form, at this day, the Monte Circello, which, it is remarked,
rises up hke an island, out of the Pontine marshes. It seems, however,
difficult to conceive how Qny action of the sea could have formed these
marshes.

■• See Strabo, L 58. ^ ii. 5. et alibi.

^ The plain in which this river flows, forming the windings from which
it derives its name, appears to have been originally an inlet of the sea,
which was gradually fUled up with alluvial matter.

7 " Paria secum faciente natura." Tliis appears to have been a collo-
quial or idiomatic expression among the Romans. See Hardouin ia
Lemaire, i. 412.

118 PLINX'S NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book IT.

CHAP. 89. (87.) — WHAT TSLATfDS HAYE BEETf TOEMED, AlfD
AT WHAT PEEIODS.

Delos and Ehodes', islands wliicli have now been long
famous, are recorded to have risen up in this way. More
lately there have been some smaller islands formed ; Anapha,
which is beyond Melos ; jN'ea, between Lemnos and the
Hellespont ; Halone, between Lebedos and Teos ; Thera' and
Therasia, among the Cyclades, in the fourth year of the
135th Olympiad^. And among the same islands, 130 years
afterwards, Hiera, also called Automate^, made its appear-
ance ; also Thia, at the distance of two stadia from the
former, 110 years afterwards, in our own times, when M.
Junius Silanus and L. Balbus were consuls, on the 8th of
the ides of July^.

(88.) Opposite to us, and near to Italy, among the jEolian
isles, an island emerged from the sea ; and likewise one near
Crete, 2500 paces in extent, and with warm springs in it ;
another made its appearance in the third year of the 163rd
Olympiad^, in the Tuscan gulf, burning wdth a violent
explosion. There is a tradition too that a great number of
fishes were floating about the spot, and that those who em-
ployed them for food immediately expired. It is said that
the Pithecusan isles rose up, in the same way, in the bay
of Campania, and that, shortly afterwards, the mountain
Epopos, from which flame had suddenly burst forth, was
reduced to the level of the neighbouring plain. In the same
island, it is said, that a town was sunk in the sea ; that in

^ It may be remarked, that the accounts of modem travellers and
geologists tend to confirm the opinion of the volcanic origin of many of
the islands of the Archipelago.

2 Brotier remarks, that, according to the account of Herodotus, this
island existed previous to the date here assigned to it ; Lemaire, i. 412,
413 : it is probable, however, that the same name was appHed to two
islands, one at least of which was of volcanic origin.

tr.c. 517, A.c. 237 ; and v.c. 647, a.c. 107 ; respectively.

^ Hiera, Automata; ab iepd, sacer, et aoro/jiaTr], sponte nascens.
Respecting the origin of these islands there would appear to be some
confusion in the dates, which it is difficult to reconcile with each other ;
it is, I conceive, impossible to decide whether this depends upon an error
of our author himself, or of his transcribers.

5 July 25th, u.C. 771 ; A.C. 19.

« U.C. 628 ; A.C. 125.

Chap. 92.] CHANGES ON THE EABTH's STJEEACE. 119

consequence of another shock, a lake burst out, and that, by
a third, Prochytas was formed into an island, the neigh-
bouring mountains being rolled away from it.

CHAP 90. — LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SEPARATED BY
THE SEA.

In the ordinary course of things islands are also formed
by this means. The sea has torn Sicily from Italy \ Cyprus
from Syria, Eubcea from Boeotia^, Atalante and Macris^
from Euboea, Besbycus from Bith^Tiia, and Leucosia from
the promontory of the Sirens.

CHAP. 91. (89.) — ISLANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN UNITED TO
THE MAIN LAND.

Again, islands are taken from the sea and added to the
main land ; Antissa^ to Lesbos, Zephyrium to Halicarnassus,
-^thusa to Myndus, Dromiscus and Perne to Miletus, Nar-
thecusa to the promontory of Parthenium. Hybanda,
which was formerly an island of Ionia, is now 200 stadia
distant from the sea. Syries is now become a part of
Ephesus, and, m the same neighbourhood, Derasidas and So-
ph onia form part of Magnesia ; while Epidaurus and Oricxim
are no longer islands^.

CHAP. 92. (90.) — LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN TOTALLY
CHANGED INTO SEAS.

The sea has totally carried off certain lands, and first of

^ See Ovid, Metam. xv. 290, 291 ; also Seneca, Nat. Qusest. vi. 29.

2 Tliis event is mentioned by Thucydides, lib. 3, Smith's Trans, i. 293 ;
and by Diodorus, xii. 7, Booth's Trans, p. 287, as the consequence of an
earthquake ; but the separation was from Locris, not from Eubcea. See
the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 415.

3 It is somewhat uncertain to what island our author apphed this
name ; see the' remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire.

< See Ovid, Metam. xv. 287.

^ It is not improbable, from the situation and geological structure of
the places here enumerated, that many of the changes mentioned above
may have actually occurred* but there are few of them of which we have
any direct evidence.

120 plint's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

all, if we are to believe Plato \ for an immense space where
the Atlantic ocean is now extended. More lately we see
what has been produced by our inland sea ; Acarnania has
been overwhelmed by the Ambracian gulf, Achaia by the
Corinthian, Europe and Asia by the Propontis and Pontus.
And besides these, the sea has rent asunder Leucas, Antir-
rhium, the Hellespont, and the two Bosphori^.

CHAP. 93. (91.) — LANDS WHICH HATE BEEN
SWALLOWED UP.

And not to speak of bays and gulfs, the earth feeds on
itself; it has devoured the very high mountain of Cybotus,
with the town of Curites ; also Sipylus in Magnesia^, and
formerly, in the same place, a very celebrated city, which
was called Tantalis ; also the land belonging to the cities
G-alanis and Gamales in Phoenicia, together with the cities
themselves ; also PEegium, the most lofty ridge in ^Ethiopia*.
Nor are the shores of the sea more to be depended upon.

CHAP. 94. (92.) — CITIES WHICH HAVE BEEN ABSORBED BY
THE SEA.

The sea near the Palus Maeotis has carried away Pyrrha
and Antissa, also Elice and Bura* in the gulf of Corinth,
traces of which places are visible in the ocean. Prom the

^ This celebrated narrative o^Plato is contained in his Timseus, Op. ix.
p. 296, 297 ; it may be presumed that it was not altogether a fiction on
the part of the author, but it is, at this time, impossible to determine
what part of it was derived from ancient traditions and what from the
fertile stores of his own imagination. It is referred to by various ancient
writers, among others by Strabo. See also the remarks of Brotier in
Lemaire, i. 416, 417.

2 Many of these changes on the surface of the globe, and others men-
tioned by our author in this part of his work, are alluded to by Ovid, in
liis beautiful abstract of the Pythagorean doctrine, Metam. xv. passim.

3 See Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 8, and Strabo, i. For some account of the
places mentioned in this chapter the reader may consult the notes of
Hardouin in loco.

■* Poinsinet, as I conceive correctly, makes the following clause the
commencement of the next chapter.

» See Ovid, Metam. xv. 293-295 ; also the remarks of Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 418.

Chap. 95.] VENTS IN THE EAETH. 121

island Cea it has seized on 30,000 paces, which were sud-
denly torn off, with many persons on them. In Sicily also
the half of the city of Tyndaris, and all the part of Italy
which is wanting^ ; in like manner it carried off Eleusina in
Boeotia-.

CHAP. 95. (93.) — or tents' in the eaeth.

But let us say no more of earthquakes and of whatever
•nay be regarded as the sepulchres of cities "*; let us rather
speak of the wonders of the earth than of the crimes of
nature. But, by Hercules ! the history of the heavens them-
selves would not be more difficult to relate : — the abundance
of metals, so various, so rich, so prolific, rising up' during so
many ages ; when, throughout all the world, so much is,
every day, destroyed by tire, by waste, by shipwreck, by
wars, and bv frauds; and while so much is consumed by
luxury and by such a number of people : — the figures on
gems, so multiplied in their forms ; the variously-coloured
spots on certain stones, and the whiteness of others, excluding
everything except light : — the virtues of medicinal springs,
and the perpetual fires bursting out in so many places, for
so many ages : — the exhalation of deadly vapours, either
emitted from caverns^, or from certain unhealthy districts ;
some of them fatal to birds alone, as at Soracte, a district
near the city^ ; others to all animals, except to man*, while

1 " Spatium intelligit, jfretumve, quo Sicilia nunc ab Italia dispescitur."
Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 419.

2 See Strabo, ix.

3 " Spiraciila." ^ " Busta urbium."

5 " Suboriens," as M. Alexandre explains it, "renascens;" Lemaire,
i420.

^ " Scrobibus ;" " aut quum terra fossis excavatur, ut in Pomptina
palude, aut per natxirales hiatus." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 420.

7 This circumstance is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quaest. vi. 28, as oc-
curring " pluribus Italiffi loeis ; " it may be ascribed to the exhalations from
volcanos being raised up into the atmosphere. It does not appear that
there is, at present, any cavern in Mount Soracte which emits mephitic
vapours. But the circumstance of Soracte being regarded sacred to
ApoUo, as yre learn from our author, vii. 2, and from Virgil, ^n. xi. 785,
may lead us to conjecture that something of the kind may formerly have
existed there.

8 The author may probably refer to the weU-known Grotto del Cane,

122 Flint's natueal histoet. [Book II.

others are so to man also, as in the country of Sinuessa and
Puteoli. They are generally called vents, and, by some
persons, Charon's sewers, from their exhaling a deadly
vapour. Also at Amsanctum, in the country of the Hirpini,
at the temple of Mephitis \ there is a place which kills all
those who enter it. And the same takes place at Hierapolis in
Asia^, where no one can enter with safety, except the priest
of the great Mother of the Gods. In other places there are
prophetic caves, where those who are intoxicated with the
vapour which rises from them predict future events^, as at
the most noble of all oracles, Delphi. In which cases, what
mortal is there who can assign any other cause, than the
divine power of nature, which is everywhere diffused, and
thus bursts forth in various places ?

CHAP. 96. (94.) — OF CEETAIN LAITDS WHICH AEE ALWAYS
SHAKING, AND OF FLOATING ISLANDS.

There are certain lands which shake wlien any one passes
over them^ ; as in the territory of the Gabii, not far from the
city of Kome, there are about 200 acres which shake when
cavalry passes over it : the same thing takes place at Eeate.

(95.) There are certain islands which are always floating ",
as in the territory of the Caecubum®, and of the above-men-
tioned Reate, of Mutina, and of Statonia. In the lake of
Vadimonis and the waters of Cutiliae there is a dark wood,
which is never seen in the same place for a day and a night
together. In Lydia, the islands named Calaminae are not

where, in consequence of a stratum of carbonic acid gas, which occupies
the lower part of the cave onlv, dogs and other animals, whose mouths
are near the ground, are instantly suffocated.

1 Celebrated in the well-known lines of Virgil, JEn. vii. 563 et seq., sub
the " ssevi spiracuia Ditis."

2 Apuleius gives us an account of this place from his own observation ;
Do Mundo, § 729. See also Strabo, xii.

3 See Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. iv.

* " Ad ingressum ambidantium, et equonim cursus, terrse quoque tre-
mere sentiuntur in Brabantino agro, quae Belgii pars, et circa S.
Audoniari fanum." Hardouin in Lemau-e, i. 421, 422.

* See Seneca, Nat. Qiisest. iii. 25.

^ Martial speaks of the marshy nature of the Caecuban district, xiii. 115.
Most of the places mentioned in this chapter are illustrated by tho
remarks of Hardouin j Lemaire, i. 422, 423.

Chap. 98.] BEMABEABLE OBJECTS. 128'

only driven about by the wind, but may be even pushed at
pleasure from place to place, by poles : many citizens saved
themselves by this means in the Mithridatic war. There are
some small islands in the Nymphwus, called the Dancers^,
because, when choruses are sung, they are moved by the
motions of those who beat time. In the great Italian lake of
Tartjuinii, there are two islands with groves on them, which
are driven about by the wind, so as at one time to exhibit
the figure of a triangle and at another of a circle ; but they
never form a square*.

CHAP. 97. (96.) — PLACES rsr which it neteb bains.

There is at Paphos a celebrated temple of Venus, in a
certain court of which it never rains ; also at Nea, a town
of Troas, in the spot which surrounds the statue of Minerva :
in this place also the remains of animals tbat are sacrificed
never putrefy'.

chap. 98. — THE WONDEBS^F VABIOUS COUNTBIES
COLLECTED TOGETUEB.

Near Harpasa, a town of Asia, there stands a terrific rock,
which may be moved by a single finger ; but if it be pushed
by the force of the whole body, it resists*. In the Tauric
peninsula, in the state of the' Parasini, there is a kind of

1 "Saltuares." In some of the MSS. the term here employed is
SaUares, or Saltares ; but in ail the editions which I am in the habit of
consuhing, it is Saltnares.

^ There is, no doubt, some truth in these accoimts of floating iskmds,
although, as we may presume, much exaggerated. There are frequently
small portions of land detached from the edges of lakes, by floods or
rapid currents, held together and rendered buoyant by a mass of roots
and vegetable matter. In the lake of Keswick, in the county of Cum-
berland, there are two small floating islands, of a few yards in circimi-
ferenco, which are moved about by the wind or by currents j they appear
to consist, principally, of a mass of vegetable fibres.

3 It has been observed, that there are certain places where bodies
remain for a long time without undergoing decomposition ; it depends
principally upon a dry and cool con(£tion of the air, such as is occa-
sionally found in vaults and natural caverns. See the remarks of
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 424.

■* We may conceive of a large mass of rock being so balanced upon the
fine point of another rock, as to be moved by the slightest touch ; but,
that if it be pushed with any force, it may be thrown upon a plane sur-
face, and wiU then remain immovable.

124 plint's nattieal histobt. [Book IT.

earth which cures all wounds ^ About Assos, in Troas, a
stone is found, by which all bodies are consumed ; it is called
Sarcophagus^. There are two mountains near the river
Indus ; the nature of one is to attract iron, of the other to
repel it : hence, if there be nails in the shoes, the feet cannot
be drawn off the one, or set down on the other^. It has
been noticed, that at Locris and Crotona, there has never
been a pestilence, nor have they ever suffered from an earth-
quake ; in Lycia there are always forty calm days before an
earthquake. In the territory of Argyripa the com which is
sown never springs up. At the altars of Mucins, in the
country of the Veii, and aboat Tusculum, and in the Cim-
merian Forest, there are places in which things that are
pushed into the ground cannot be pulled out again. The
nay which is grown in Crustuminium is noxious on the spot,
but elsewhere it is wholesome*.

CHAP. 99. (97.) — CONCEBNING THE CAUSE OF THE FLOWTKO
AND EBBIiTg of THE SEA.

Much has been said about the nature of waters ; but the
most wonderful circumstance is the alternate flowing and
ebbing of the tides, which exists, indeed, under various forms,
but is caused by the sun and the moon. The tide flows
twice and ebbs twice between each two risings of the moon,

1 Perhaps the author may refer to some kind of earth, possessed of
absorbent or astringent properties, like the Terra Sigillata or Armenian
Bole of the old Pharmacopoeias.

2 A adpK, caro, and <pdyw, edo. We may conceive this stone to have
contained a portion of an acrid ingredient, perhaps of an alkaline natm«,
which, in some degree, might produce the effect here described. It does
not appear that the material of which the stone coffins are composed, to
which tliis name has been appHed, the workmanship of which is so much
an object of admiration, are any of them possessed of this property.

3 Alexandre remarks on this statement, " Montes istse videntur ori-
ginem dedisse fabulse qusD in Arabicis Noctibus legitvir. ... ;" Lemaire,
i. 425. Fouche, indeed, observes, that there are mountains composed
principally of natural loadstone, which might sensibly attract a shoe
containing iron nails. Ajasson, ii. 386. But I conceive that we have no
evidence of the existence of the magnetic iron pyrites having ever been
found in sufficient quantity to produce any sensible effect of the kind
here described.

'^ We may remark generally, that of the " miraciJa" related in this
chapter, the greates£ part are entirely without foundation, and the re-
mainder much exaggerated.

Chap. 99.] CAUSE OF THE TIDES. 125

always in the space of twenty -four hours. First, the moon
rising with the stars ^ swells out the tide, and after some time,
having gained the summit of the heavens, she declines jfrom
the meridian and sets, and the tide subsides. Again, after she
has set, and moves in the heavens under the earth, as she
approaches the meridian on the opposite side, the tide flows
in ; after which it recedes until she again rises to us. But
the tide of the next day is never at the same time with that of
the preceding ; as if the planet was in attendance^, greedily
drinking up the sea, and continually rising in a different place
from what she did the day before. The intervals are, however,
equal, being always of six hours ; not indeed in respect of any
particular day or night or place^, but equinoctial nours, and
therefore they are unequal as estimated by the length of com-
mon hours, smce a greater number of them^ fall on some cer-
tain days or nights, and they are never equal everywhere
except at the equinox. This is a great, most clear, and even
divine proof of the dullness of those, who deny tliat the stars
go below the earth and rise up again, and that nature pre-
sents the same face in the same states of their rising and
setting* ; for the course of the stars is equally obvious in the
one case as in the other, producing the same effect as when
it is manifest to the sight.

There is a difference in the tides, depending on the moon,
of a complicated nature, and, first, as to the period of seven
days. For the tides are of moderate height from the new
moon to the first quarter ; from this time they increase, and
are the highest at the full: they then decrease. On the
seventh day they are equal to what they were at the first

> " Mundo ;" the heavens or visible firmament, to which the stars and
planets appear to be connected, so as to be moved along with it.

' " Ancillante ; *' " Oedas ancillari sidus, et indulgere mari, ut non ab
eadem parte, qua pridie, paatum ex oceano hauriat." Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 427.

' Not depending on the time of the rising and setting of the sxm or
the latitude of the place, but determinate portions of the diurnal period.

* By a conjectural variation of a letter, viz. by substituting "eos" for
" eas," Dalechamp has, as he conceives, rendered this passage more clear;
the alteration is adopted by Lemaire.

* "In iisdem ortus occasusque operibus ;" "Eodem modo utrinque
oricntibus occidentibusque sideribus," as interpreted by Alexandre iu
Lemaire, i. 428.

126 PLIIs'Y's ITATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

quarter, and they again increase from the time that she is at
first quarter on the other side. At her conjunction with
the sun they are equally high as at the full. When the
moon is in the northern hemisphere, and recedes further
from the earth, the tides are lower than when, going towards
the south, she exercises her influence at a less distance'.
iVfter an interval of eight years, and the hundredth revolu-
tion of the moon, the periods and the heights of the tides
return into the same order as at first, this planet always
acting upon them; and all these effects are likewise in-
creased by the annual changes of the sun^, the tides rising
up higher at the equinoxes, and more so at the autumnal
than at the vernal ; while they are lower^ about the wdnter
solstice, and still more so at the summer solstice ; not •
indeed precisely at the points of time which I have men-
tioned, but a few days after* ; for example, not exactly at
the full nor at the new moon, but after tliem ; and not
immediately when the moon becomes visible or invisible, or
has advanced to the middle of her course, but generally
about two hours later than the equinoctial hours^ ; the efl'ect
of what is going on in the heavens being felt after a short
interval ; as we observe with respect to lightning, thunder,
and thunderbolts.

But the tides of the ocean cover greater spaces and produce
greater inundations than the tides of the other seas ; whether
it be that the whole of the universe taken together is more
full of life than its individual parts, or that the large open
space feels more sensibly the power of the planet, as it moves
freely about, than when restrained within narrow bounds.

1 It 13 scarcely necessary to remark, that both the alleged fact and the
supposed cause are incorrect. And this is the case with what our author
says in the next sentence, respecting the period of eight years, and the
hundred revolutions of the moon.

2 " Solis annuls causis." The circumstances connected with the revo-
lution of the sun, acting as causes of the period and height of the tides,
in addition to the effect of the moon.

3 " Inanes ;" " Depressiores ac minus tumentes." Hardouin in Lc-
maire, i. 429.

■* According to the remark of Alexandre, " Uno die et dimidio altero,
26 circiter horis, in GalUa." Lemaire, i. 429.

5 Alexandre remarks on this passage, " Yariat pro locis hoc intervallum
a nullo fere temporis momento ad undecim horas et amphus j " Lemaire,
i429.

Cliap. 100.] ANOMALOUS TIDES. 127

On which account neither lakes nor rivers are moved in the
same manner. Pytheas^ of Massilia informs us, that in
Britain the tide rises 80 cubits^. Inland seas are enclosed
as in a harbour, but, in some parts of them, there is a more
free spa^e which obeys the influence^. Among many other
examples, the force of the tide will carry us in three days
from Italy to Utica, when the sea is tranquil and there is no
impulse from the sails*. But these motions are more felt
about the shores than in the deep parts of the seas, as in the
body the extremities of the veins feel the pulse, which is the
vital spirit, more than the other parts^. And in most estu-
aries, on account of the unequal rising of the stars in each
tract, the tides differ from each other, but this respects the
period, not the nature of them ; as is the case in the Syrtes.

CHAP, 100. — WHERE THE TIDES RISE AND FALL IN AN
UNUSUAL MANNER.

There are, However, some tides which are of a peculiar
nature, as in the Tauromenian Euripus^, where the ebb and
flow is more frequent than in other places, and in Euboea,
where it takes place seven times during the day and the
night. The tides intermit three times during each month,
being the 7tli, 8th and 9th day of the moon^. At Gades,
which is very near the temple of Hercules, there is a spring

* Our author has already referred to Pytheas, in the 77th chapter of

this book.

2 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the space here mentioned,
wliich is nearly 120 feet, is far great<?r than the actual fact.

3 "Ditioni paret;" "Luna) solisque efficientise, quae ciet sestum."
Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 430.

"• The effect here described could not have depended upon the tides,
bat upon some current, either affecting the whole of the Mediterranean,
or certain parts of it. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire.

* Pliny naturally adopted the erroneous opinions respecting' the state
of the blood-vessels, and the cause of the pulse, which were universally
maintained by the ancients.

^ The name of Euripus is generally applied to the strait between
Boeotia and Euboea, but our author here extends it to that between Italy
and Sicily. A peculiarity in the tide of this strait is referred to by
Cicero, De Nat. Deor. iii. 24.

^ " ^stus idem triduo in mense consistit." " Consistentia, sive medio-
critas aquarum non solum septima die sentitur, sed et octava, ac nona
durat," as Hardomn explains this passage, Lemaire, i. 431.

128 PLimr's ITATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

enclosed like a well, which sometimes rises and falls with the
ocean, and, at other times, in both respects contrary to it.
In the same place there is another well, which always agrees
with the ocean. On the shores of the B£etis\ there is a town
where the wells become lower when the tide rises, and fill
again when it ebbs ; while at other times they remain sta-
tionary. The same thing occurs in one well in the town of
Hispalis^, while there is nothing peculiar in the other weUs.
The Euxine always flows into the Propontis, the water
never flowing back into the Euxine^.

CHAP. 101. (98.) — WOKDEBS OF THE SEA.

All seas are purified at the full moon^ ; some also at stated
periods. At Messina and Mylae a refuse matter, like dung*,
IS cast up on the shore, whence originated tlie story of the
oxen of the Sun having had their stable at that place. To
what has been said above (not to omit anything with which
I am acquainted) Aristotle adds, that no animal dies except
when the tide is ebbing. The observation has been often
made on the ocean of Graul ; but it has only been found true
with respect to man**.

CHAP. 102. (99.) — THE POWEB OP THE MOON OVEB THE
LAND AND THE SEA.

Hence we may certainly conjecture, that the moon is not

1 Now called the Guadalquivir. 2 The modem Seville.

3 This circumstance is noticed by most of the ancients, as by Aristotle,
Meteor, ii. 1 ; by Seneca, Nat. Qusest. iv. 2 ; and by Strabo. It has,
however, no relation to the tide, but depends upon the quantity of water
transmitted into the Euxine by the numerous large rivers that empty
themselves into it.

* It has been suggested, with some plausibility, that the greater height
of the tides at this period will cause a greater quantity of matter to be
cast on shore. This circumstance is referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quaest.
iii. 26 ; and by Strabo.

» Alexandre observes on this supposed fact, " Algarum moUes qusedam
species intelhgendse sunt, quae convolutse et marcidae in httus ejiciuntur."
Lemaire, i. 432.

« It may cause some surprise to find that such an opinion has been
entertained even in modem times ; but more correct observation has
shown it to be without foundation. Lemau«.

Chap. 104..] SALTNESS OF THE SEA. 129

unjustly regarded as the star of our life*. This it is that
replenishes the earth^ ; when she approaches it, she fills all
bodies, while, when she recedes, she empties them. From
this cause it is that shell-fish grow with her increase^, and
that those animals which are without blood more particularly
experience her influence ; also, that the blood of man is
increased or diminished in proportion to the quantity of her
light ; also that the leaves and vegetables generally, as I shall
describe in the proper place ^, feel her influence, her power
penetrating all things.

CHAP. 103. (100.) — THE POWEE OF THE SUN".

Fluids are dried up by the heat of the sun ; we have
therefore regarded it as a masculine star, burning up and
absorbing everything*.

CHAP. 104. — WHY THE SEA IS SALT.

Hence it is that the widely-diff'used sea is impregnated
with the flavour of salt, in consequence of what is sweet and
mild being evaporated from it, which the force of fire easily
accomplishes ; while all the more acrid and thick matter is
left behind ; on which account the water of the sea is less
salt at some depth than at the siu-face. And this is a more
true cause of the acrid flavour, than that the sea is the con-
tinued perspiration of the land®, or that the greater part of
the dry vapour is mixed with it, or that the nature of the
earth is such that it impregnates the waters, and, as it were,

* " Spiritus sidus ;" " Quod vitalem humorem ac spiritus in corpo-
ribus rebusque omnibus varie temperet." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 433.

2 " Terras saturet ; " as Alexandre interprets it, " succo impleat ; "
Lemaire.

3 This circumstance is alluded to by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 33, and by
Horace, Sat. ii. 4, 30. It is difficult to conceive how an opinion so
totally unfounded, and so easy to refute, should have obtained general
credence. ■♦ Lib. xviii. chap. 75.

^ Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 1, remarks, that as the sun is continually eva-
porating the vrater of the sea, it must eventually be entirely dried up.
But we have reason to beheve, that all the water wliich is evaporated by
the solar heat, or any other natural process, is again deposited in the form
of rain or dew.

6 "Terrse sudor;" according to Aristotle, Meteor, ii. 4: this opinion*
was adopted by some of the ancients.

TOL. I. E

130 plint's nattteal histobt. [Book II.

medicates them ^ Among the prodigies which have occurred,
there is one which happened when Dionysius, the tyrant of
Sicily, was expelled from his kingdom ; that, for the space
of one day, the water in the harbour became sweet.

(101.) The moon, on the contrary, is said to be a feminine
and delicate planet, and also nocturnal ; also that it resolves
humours and draws them out, but does not carry them off.
It is manifest that the carcases of wild beasts are rendered
putrid by its beams, that, during sleep, it draws up the
accumulated torpor into the head, that it melts ice, and
relaxes all things by its moistening spirit^. Thus the
changes of nature compensate each other, and are always
adequate to their destined purpose ; some of them congealing
the elements of the stars and others dissolving them. The
moon is said to be fed by fresh, and the sun by salt water.

CHAP. 105. (102.) — ^WHERE THE SEA IS THE DEEPEST.

Pabianus^ informs us that the greatest depth of the sea is
15 stadia"*. We learn from others, that in the Euxine,
opposite to the nation of the Coraxi, at what is called the
Depths of the Euxine*, about 300 stadia^ from the main land,
the sea is immensely deep, no bottom having been found.

* The commentators discuss at considerable length the relative merits
of the three hypotheses here proposed, to account for the saltness of the
ocean ; all of which are equally unfoimded. See Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 434, 435. Aristotle's opinion on this subject is contained in his Meteor.

2 It is not easy to ascertain the origin of the very general opinion re-
spectmg the pecuHar physical action of the moon. The alleged facts are,
for the most part, without foundation, and I am not aware of any cir-
cumstance which could, originally, have made them a part of the popular
creed of so many nations, ancient as well as modern. Perhaps some of
the effects which have been ascribed to the specific action of the moon,

•may be explained by the lower temperature and greater dampness of the
air, during the absence of the sun.

3 There appears to be some doubt respecting the history of the person
here referred to : according to the accoimt of Hardouin, Fabianus was a
naturahst, who enjoyed a high repution ; he hved in the time of Tiberius :
see Lemaire, i. 188.

■* This would be a depth of 3125 yards, not very far short of two
miles ; see Adam's Rom. Antiq. p. 503.

5 " BaOea Ponti ;" Aristotle refers to this as one of those parts where
-the sea is unfathomable ; Meteor, i. 13.

* A distance of nearly nine and a half miles.

Chap. 106.] WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AND EIYEBS. 131

CHAP. 106. (103.) — THE WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AND
RIVERS.

It is very remarkable that fresh water should burst out
close to the sea, as from pipes. But there is no end to the
wonders that are connected with the nature of waters. Fresh
water floats on sea water, no doubt from its being lighter ;
and therefore sea water, which is of a heavier nature*, sup-
ports better what floats upon it. And, in some places,
different kinds of fresh water float upon each other ; as that
of the river which falls into the Fucinus ; that of the Addua
into the Larius ; of the Ticinus into the Verbanus ; of the
Mincius into the Benacus ; of the Ollius into the Sevinus ;
and of the Ehone into the Leman lake^ (this last being
beyond the Alps, the others in Italy) : all which rivers passing
through the lakes for many miles, generally carry off no more
water than they bring with them. The same thing is said to
occur in the Orontes, a river of Syria, and in many others

Some rivers, from a real hatred of the sea, pass under it,
as does Arethusa, a fountain of Syracuse, in which the sub-
stances are found that are thrown into the Alpheus ; which,
after flowing by Olympia, is discharged into the sea, on the
shore of the Peloponnesus^. The Lycus in Asia^, the Era-

* The specific gravity of sea water varies from 1'0269 to 1-0285. The
saline contents of the water of the Enghsh Channel are stated to be 27 grs.
in 1000. Turner's Chem. p. 1289, 1290.

2 The modem names of the rivers and lakes here mentioned are the
Liris, communicating with the Lago di Celano ; the Adda, with the Lago
di Como ; the Ticino, with the Lago Maggiore ; the Mincio, with the
Lago di Guarda ; the OgHo, with the Lago di Sero ; and the Rhone with
the Lake of Geneva. There may be some foundation for the alleged fact,
because the specific gravity and the temperature of the lake may differ a
httle from that of the river which passes through it.

3 According to Brotier, " fons ille olim nobHissimus, nunc ignobile
est lavacrum, cujus aqua marino sapore inficitur." He conceives that
there is no actual foundation for this so frequently repeated story ; and
conjectures that it originated from the simihtude of the names, the
fountain in Sicily and the river in the Peloponnesus being both named
Alpheus. He goes on to mention some examples of springs of fresh
water rising up on the sea-coast ; Lemaire, i. 438. The allusion to the
fountain of Arethusa, by Virgil, in the commencement of the 10th eclogue,
is well known to all classical scholars. The lines of Virgil have been
elegantly imitated by Voltaire, in the Henriade, ix. 269, 270.

* This is mentioned by Ovid, Met. xv. 273, 274.

k2

132 PLINT's IfATtrEA.L HISTOET. [Book IL

sinus in Argolis, and the Tigris^ in Mesopotamia, sink into the
earth and burst out again. Substances which are thrown
into the fountain of -^sculapius at Athens^ are cast up at
the fountain of Phalerum. The river which sinks into the
ground in the plaiu of Atinum^ comes up again at the
distance of twenty miles, and the Timavus does the same
in Aquileia*.

In the lake Asphaltites, in Judaea, which produces bitumen,
no substance will sink, nor in the lake Arethusa^, in the
Greater Armenia : in this lake, although it contains nitre,
fish are found. In the country of the Salentini, near the
town of Manduria, there is a lake^ fuU to the brim, the
waters of which are never diminished by what is taken out
of it, nor increased by what is added. Wood, which ia
thrown into the river of the Cicones^ or into the lake Velinus
in Picenum, becomes coated with a stony crust, while in the
Surius, a river of Colchis, the whole substance becomes as
hard as stone. In the same manner, in the Silarus^, beyond

^ This is again referred to by our author, vi. 31 ; also by Strabo, and
by Seneca, Nat. Qusest. ill. 26.

2 Pausanias.

3 The river here referred to is the Tanager, the modem Rio Negro. See
the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 439.

^ From a note in Pomsinet, i. 302, we learn that there has been some
doubt respecting the locality of this river. It is mentioned by Virgil,
jEn. i. 244, and it forms the subject of Heyne's 7th Excursus, ii. 124 et
seq. Virgil also speaks of the Timavus, Ec. viii. 6 ; and Heyne, in a note,
gives the following description of it : " Timavus in ora Adrise, non longe
nh Aqmleia fluvius ex terra novem fontibus seu capitibus progressus,
brevi cursu, in unum alveum coUectus, lato altoque flumine in mare
exit." i. 127, 128.

5 This remark is not to be taken in its full extent ; the water of these
lakes contains a large quantity of saline and other substances dissolved
in it, and, consequently, has its specific gravity so much increased, that
various substances float on it which sink in pure water.

^ According to Hardouin, tliis is now called the Lake of Andoria, near
the town of Casalnuovo ; Lemaire, i. 439. Poinsinet calls it Anduria,
i. 303.

7 The petrifying quality of this river is referred to by Ovid, Met. xv.
313, 314 ; Seneca quotes these lines when treating on this subject, Nat.
Qusest. iii. 20.

8 Aristotle, Strabo, and Sihus Italicus, viii. 582, 583, refer to this pro-
perty of the Silarus ; but, according to Brotier, it does not appear to be
known to the present inhabitants of the district through which it flows.
Lemaire, i. 440.

Chap. 106.] WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AJfD EITEBS. 133

Surrentum, not only twigs which are immersed in it, but
likewise leaves are petrified; the water at the same time
being proper for drinking. In the stream which runs from
the marsh of Keate* there is a rock, which continues to
increase in size, and in the Red Sea olive-trees and green
shrubs are produced'^.

There are many springs which are remarkable for their
warmth. This is the case even among the ridges of the
Alps^, and in the sea itself, between Italy and ^naria, as in
the bay of Baiae, and in the Liris and many other rivers'*.
There are many places in which fresh water may be procured
from the sea, as at the Chelidonian Isles, and at Arados, and
in the ocean at Gades. Green plants are produced in the
warm springs of Padua, frogs in those of Pisa, and fish in
those of Vetulonia in Etruria, which is not far from the sea.
In Casinas tlH?re is a cold river called Scatebra, which in sum-
mer is more full of water*. In this, as in the river Stymphalis,
in Arcadia, small water-mice are produced. The fountain
of Jupiter in Dodona, although it is as cold as ice, and
extinguishes torches that are plunged into it, yet, if they be
brought near it, it kindles them again*. This spring always
becomes dry at noon, from which circumstance it is called

In a subsequent part of the work, xxxi. 8, our author remarks,
" Reatinis tantum paludibus ungulas jumentorum indurari." We may
])resiune that the water containetl some saUne, earthy or metallic substance,
I'ither in solution, or in a state of minute division, which would produce
these effects. It does not appear that anything of this kind has been
observed by the modems in this water.

2 The coral beds with which the Red Sea abounds may have given
rise to this opinion : see the remarks of Alexandre in loco. Hardouin
informs us, that this clause respecting the Red Sea is not found in any
of the MSS. Lemaire, i. 441. A similar observation occvirs in a subse-
quent part of the work, xiii. 48.

3 There are thermal springs in the Alpine valleys, but not any in the
elevated parts of the Alps themselves.

* The volcanic nature of a large portion of the south of Italy and the
neighbouring islands may be regarded as the cause of the warm springs
wliich are found there.

^ This river may be supposed to have been principally supphed by
melted snow ; it would appear to be colder, because its temperature would
be less elevated than the other streams in the neighbourhood.

6 The statement, if correct, may be referred to the discharge of a quan-
tity of inflammable gas from the surface of the water. The fact is men-
tioned by Lucretius, ^i. 879, 880, and by Mela.

134 PLIIfT'S NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

Ava-^avofievoy^ : it then increases and becomes fall at mid-
night, after which it again visibly decreases. In Illyricum
there is a cold spring, over which if garments are spread
they take fire. The pool of Jupiter Ammon, which is cold
during the day, is warm during the night^. In the country
of the Troglodytae^, what they call the Fountain of the Sun,
about noon is fresh and very cold ; it then gradually grows
warm, and, at midnight, becomes hot and saline''.

In the middle of the day, during summer, the source of
the Po, as if reposing itself, is always dry". In the island
of Tenedos there is a spring, which, after the summer sol-
stice, is full of water, from the third hour of the night to
the sixth®. The fountain Inopus, in the island of Delos,
decreases and increases in the same manner as the Nile,
and also at the same periods^. There is a small island in
the sea, opposite to the river Timavus, containing warm

1 " Quasi altemis requiescens, ac meridians : diem diffindens, ut Varro
loqtiitur, insititia qtiiete." Hardouiii in Lemaire, i. 4i3. He says that
there is a similar kind of fountain in Provence, called CoUis Martiensis.

2 There has been considerable difference of opinion among the com-
mentators, both as to the reading of the text and its interpretation, for
wliich I shall refer to the notes of Poinsinet, i. 307, of Hardouin and
Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 443, and of Richelet, Ajasson, ii. 402.

3 We have an accoimt of the Troglodyta) in a subsequent part of the
work, V. 5. The name is generally apphed by the ancients to a tribe of
people inhabiting a portion of ^Ethiopia, and is derived from the circum-
stance of their dwellings being composed of caverns ; a rpwyXi) and Svvitt.
Alexandre remarks, that the name was occasionally apphed to other tribes,
whose habitations were of the same kind ; Lemaire, i. 443. They are re-
ferred to by Q. Curtius as a tribe of the ^Ethiopians, situated to the south
of Egypt and extending to the Red Sea, iv. 7.

* Q. Curtius gives nearly the same account of this fountain.

5 The Po derives its water from the torrents of the Alps, and is there-
fore much affected by the melting of the snow or the great falls of rain,
which occur at different seasons of the year ; but the daily diminution of
the water, as stated by our author, is without foundation.

6 " Fontem ibi intermittentem frustra qusesivit cl. LeChevaUer, Voyage
de la Troade, t. i. p. 219." Lemaire, i. 444.

7 Strabo, in allusion to this circumstance, remarks, that some persons
make it still more wonderful, by supposing that this spring is connected
with the Nile. We learn from Toumefort, that there is a well of this
name in Delos, which he found to contain considerably more water in
January and February than in October, and which is supposed to be con-
nected with the Nile or the Jordan : this, of course, he regards as an idlo
tale. Lemaire.

Chap. 106.] WONDEEB OF FOTJNTArNS AKD EIYEES. 136

springs, which increase and decrease at the same time with
the tides of the sea'. In the territory of Pitinum, on the
other side of the Apennines, the river Novamis, which
during the solstice is quite a torrent, is dry in the winter'^.

In Ealiscum, all the water which the oxen drink turns
them white; in Boeotia, the river Melas turns the sheep
black ; the Cephissus, which flows out of a lake of the same
name, turns them white^ ; again, the Peneus turns them
black, and the Xanthus, near Ilium, makes them red, whence
the river derives its name*. In Pontus, the river Astaces
waters certain plains, where the mares give black milk, which
the people use in diet. In Eeate there is a spring called
Neminia, which rises up sometimes in one place and sometimes
in another, and in this way indicates a change in the produce
of the earth^. There is a spring in the harbour of Brundisium
that yields water which never becomes putrid at sea. The
water of the Lyncestis, which is said to be acidulous, intoxi-
cates like wine® ; this is the case also in Paphlagonia' and in
the territory of Calenum*. In the island of Andros, at the
temple of Father Bacchus, we are assured by Mucianua,
who was thrice consul, that there is a spring, which, on the
nones of January, always has the flavour of wine ; it is called

' Hardouin informs us, that these warm springs are called " i bagni di
Monte Falcone," or " di S. Antonio." They are situate so very near the
sea, that we may suppose some communication to exist, which may pro-
duce the alleged effect. Lemaire.

3 According to Hardouin this is the modem Torre di Pitino ; he con-
ceives that the river here mentioned must be the Vomanus. The effect
here described is, to a certain extent, always the case with rivers which
proceed from mountains that are covered with snow. Lemaire, i. 445.

3 Seneca, Nat. Qusest. iii. 25, makes the same remark : the fact would
Beem to be, that in certain districts the cattle are found to be for the most
part white, and in other places black ; but we have no reason to suppose
that their colour has any connexion with the water which they employ.

* This is asserted by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. iii. 12. We have a simHar
statement made by jElian respecting the Scamander ; viii. 21.

* " Annonge»mutationem significans."

^ The peculiar nature of the water of the Lyncestis is referred to by
many of the ancients : we may suppose that it was strongly impregnated
with carbonic acid gas. See Ovid, Met. xv. 329-331 ; also Aristotle,
Meteor, ii. 3, and Seneca, Nat. Qusest. iii. 20.

7 Vitruvius and Athenseus.

8 Calenum was a town in Campania ; this peculiar property of its
water is referred to by Yal. Maximus, i. 8, 18.

136 Flint's natural histoet. [Book II.

Aios Qeodoala^. Near Nonacris, in Arcadia, tlie Styx^, which
is not unlike it either in odour or in colour, instantly de-
stroys those who drink it. Also in Librosus, a hill in the
country of the Tauri, there are three springs which inevi-
tably produce death, but without pain. In the territory
of the Carrinenses in Spain^, two springs burst out close
together, the one of which absorbs everything, the other
throws them out. In the same country there is another
spring, which gives to all the fish the appearance of gold,
although, when out of the water, they do not differ in any
respect from other fish. In the territory of Como, near the
Larian lake, there is a copious spring, which always swells
up and subsides again every hour^. In the island of Cydo-
nea*, before Lesbos, there is a warm fountain, which flows
only during the spring season. The lake Sinnaus^, in Asia,
is impregnated with wormwood, which grows about it. At
Colophon, in the cave of the Clarian Apollo, there is a pool,
by the drinking of which a power is acquired of uttering
wonderful oracles ; but the lives of those who drink of it are
shortened''. In our own times, diu-ing the last years of
Nero's life, we have seen rivers flowing backwards, as I have
stated in my history of his times ^.

And indeed who can be mistaken as to the fact, that all
springs are colder in summer than in winter', as well as

1 Literally, Jovis cultus ; as interpreted by Hardouin, " tanquam si
dixeris, divinura Jovis munus hunc fontem esse." Lemaire, i. 447.

2 Seneca affirms its poisonous nature ; Nat. Queest. iii. 25. Q. Curtius
refers to a spring in Macedonia of the same name, " quo pestiferum virus
emanat." x. 10.

3 There appears to be some uncertainty respecting the locality of this
district ; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 447.

^ " Hunc fontem describit eximie Plinius jun. hb. iv. epist. ult. Est
ad orientalem Larii lacus plagam, Lago di Como, x mill. pass, a Como."
Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 448.

5 Our author, in a subsequent passage, v. 39, speaks of Cydonea, " ciirn
fonte cahdo."

^ According to Hardouin, i. 448, there is a considerable variation in
the MSS. with respect to this name : he informs us that " Suvaos urbs
est Magnae Phrygiae Ptolemseo, v. 2."

7 Tacitus gives an account of this oracle as having been visited by
Germanicus ; Ann. ii. 54.

8 Our author refers to this history in the First book of the present work.
* "Comparatos scilicet cum aeris eitemi temperie." Alexandre in

Lemaire^ i. 448.

Chap. 106.] WONDEES OF FOUNTAINS AND EIYEES. 187

these other wonderful operations of nature ; that copper and
lead sink when in a mass, but float when spread out' ; and
of things that are equally heavy, some will sink to the bot-
tom, while others will remain on the surface^ ; that heavy-
bodies are more easily moved in water' ; that a stone from
Scyros, although very large, will float, while the same, when
broken into small pieces, sinks* ; that the body of an animal,
newly deprived of life, sinks, but that, when it is swelled
out, it floats* ; that empty vessels are drawn out of the water
with no more ease than those that are fuU" ; that rain-water
is more useful for salt-pits than other kinds of water';
that salt cannot be made, unless it is mixed with fresh water* ;
that salt water freezes with more difficulty*, and is more readily
heated'" ; that the sea is warmer in winter" and more salt in

* Thin leaves or films of metal have httle affinity for water, and have,
generally, bubbles of air attached to them ; so that, when placed upon
the water, the fluid is prevented from adhering to them, and thus they
remain on the svu^ace.

* Depending not upon their absolute, but their specific gravity.

* Being partly supported by the water.

* The stone may have floated in consequence of its being full of pores :
these are more quickly filled with water when it is broken into small
pieces. It was probably of the nature of pumice or some other volcanic
product.

' This is well known to depend upon the commencement of the de-
composition of some part of the viscera, by which there is an evolution
of gaseous matter.

* This is an erroneous statement ; it is not easy to ascertain what was
the source of the error.

7 Rain, as it falls from the clouds, is nearly pure ; and rivers, or recep-
tacles of any kind, that are supphed by it, are considerably more fi«e frx^m
saline impregnations than the generality of springs.

8 Tliis statement is altogether incorrect.

8 When salt water freezes, it is disengaged from the saline matter which
it previously held in solution ; a greater degree of cold is therefore re-
quired to overcome the attraction of the water for the salt, and to form
the ice, than when pure water is congealed.

^" " Celerius accendi." We can scarcely suppose that by this term our
author intended to express the actual burning or inflaming of the water,
which is its hteral and ordinary meaning. This, however, would appear
to be the opinion of Hardouin and Alexandre ; Lemaire, i. 449. Holland
translates it, " made hot and set a-seething," i. 46 ; Poinsinet, " s'eehauife
le plus vite," i. 313 ; and Ajasson, " plus prompte k s'echauffer," ii. 217.

^1 The temperature of the ocean, in consequence of its great mass and
the easy diffusion and mixture of its various parts, may be conceived to

138 PLnrr's nattieal histobt. [Book II

the autumn*; that everything is soothed by oil, and that
this is the reason why divers send out small quantities of it
from their mouths, because it smoothes any part which is
rough^ and transmits the light to them ; that snow never
falls in the deep part of the sea^ ; that although water gene-
rally has a tendency downwards, fountains rise up^, and that
this is the case even at the foot of JEtna^, burning as it does,
so as to force out the sand like a ball of flame to the distance
of 150 miles ?

CHAP. 107. — THE WONDEES OF FIEE AND WATEE UNITED.

And now I must give an account of some of the wonders
of fire, which is the fourth element of nature ; but first those
produced by means of water.

CHAP. 108. (104.) — OF MALTHA.

In Samosata, a city of Commagene*', there is a pool which
discharges an inflammable mud, called Maltha^. It adheres

be longer in becoming raised or depressed than any particxilar portion
of the land, where contemporary observations may be made.

1 The evaporation that is going on during the heats of summer, and
the heavy rains which in many coiuitries fall during the autumn, may
produce the effects here described, in confined seas or inlets.

2 The statement is true to a certain extent, as is proved by the well-
known experiments of Franklin and others ; but the degree of the effect
is considerably exaggerated. See the observations of Hardouin, Brotier,
and Alexandre ; Lemaire, i. 450, 451.

3 In the Mediterranean the warm vapours rising from the water and
its shores may melt the snow as it descends ; but this is not the case in
the parts of the main ocean which approach either to the Arctic or the
Antarctic regions.

* The theory of springs is well understood, as depending upon the
water tending to rise to its original level, so as to produce an eqmhbrium
of pressure.

5 When we consider the great extent of the base of ^tna, and that
the crater is in the form of an inverted cone, we shall perceive that there
is ample space for the existence of springs in the lower part of the moun-
tain, without their coming in contact with the heated lava.

6 Samosata is situated on the Euphrates, in the north of Syria.

7 The Petroleum or Bitumen of the modem chemists ; it is a tarry
substance, more or less fluid, which has probably been produced by car-
bonaceous matter, as affected by heat or decomposition, below the sur-

Chap, no.] TOLCANOS. 189

to every solid body which it touches, and moreover, when
touched, it follows you, il" you attempt to escape from it.
By means of it the people defended their walls against
Lucullus, and the soldiers were burned in their armour^ It
is even set on fire in water. We learn by experience that
it can be extinguished only by earth.

CHA.P. 109. (105.) — OF NAPHTHl^

Naphtha is a substance of a similar nature' (it is so called
about Babylon, and in the territory of the Astaceni, in
Parthia'), flowing like liquid bitumen. It has a great affi-
nity to fire, which instantly darts on it wherever it is seen"*.
It is s^id, that in this way it was that Medea burned Ja-
son's mistress ; her crown having taken fire, when she ap-
proached the altar for the purpose of sacrificing'.

CHAP. 110. (106.) — PLACES WHICH ABE ALWAYS BUENINO.

Among the wonders of mountains there is ^tna, which
always burns in the night'', and for so long a period has
always had materials for combustion, being in the winter
buried in snow, and having the ashes which it has ejected
covered with frost. Nor is it in this mountain alone that
nature rages, threatening to consume the earth'; in Pha-

face of the earth. Our author has exaggerated its properties and action
upon other bodies.

^ Respecting the transaction here mentioned, I shall refer to the note
of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 452.

3 The substance here mentioned may be considered as not differing
essentially from the Maltha of the last chapter, except in being of a more
fluid consistence.

8 The Astaceni are supposed to have inhabited a district near the
sources of the Indus, probably corresponding to the modem Cabul.

* We may conceive of a quantity of inflammable vapour on the surface
of the naphtha, which might, ia some degree, produce the effect here
described.

^ Horace, in one of his Epodes, where he refers to the magical arts of
Medea, says, that it was a cloak, " palla," which was sent to Creiisa ;
V. 65. So far as there is any foundation for the story, we may suppose
that some part of her dress had been impregnated with an inflammable
substance, which took fire when she approached the blazing altar.

® When the volcanos are less active the flame is visible in the night
only,

7 The observations of modem travellers and geologists have proved,

140 PLnrr's natueal histoet. [Book II.

Belis, the mountain Chimsera bums, and indeed with a con-
tinual flame, day and night^ . Ctesias of Cnidos informs us,
that this lire is kindled by water, while it is extinguished
by earth and by hay^. In the same country of Lycia, the
mountains of Hephsestius, when touched with a flaming
torch ^, burn so violently, that even the stones in the river
and the sand burn, while actually in the water : this fire is
also increased by rain. If a person makes furrows in the
ground with a stick which has been kindled at this fire, it
is said that a stream of flame will follow it. The summit of
Cophantus, in Bactria*, bums during the night ; and this is
the case in Media and at Sittacene", on the borders of Per-
sia ; likewise in Susa, at the White Tower, from fifteen aper-
tures ^ the greatest of which also burns in the daytime.
The plain of Babylon throws up flame from a place like a fish-
pond^ an acre in extent. Near Hesperium, a mountain of
the Ethiopians' the fields shine in the night-time like stars ;
the same thing takes place in the territory of the Megalopo-

that the number of extinct volcanos is considerably greater than those
now in action.

^ Chimsera was a volcano in Lycia, not far from the Xanthus ; the
circumstance of its sunmiit emitting flame, while its sides were the resort
of various savage animals, probably gave rise to the fabulous story of the
Centaur of this name, a ferocious monster who was continually vomiting
forth flame.

^ The word ia the text is " foenum " ; Hardouin suggests that the
meaning of the author may have been litter, or the refuse of stables.
Lemaire, i. 454.

3 The emission of a gas, wliich may be kindled by the apphcation of
flame, is a phsenomenon of no very rare occurrence ; but the effects are,
no doubt, much exaggerated. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire,
i. 454.

4 The country of the Bactrians was a district to the S.E. of the Caspian
Sea, and to the north of the sources of the Indus, nearly corresponding
to the modem Bucharia.

* There would appear to be some uncertainty as to the locaUty of this
place : om- author derived his statement from the writer of the treatise
de Mirab. Auscult.

^ " Caminis."

7 Probably the crater of a former volcano.

8 This moimtain, as weU as the Qeibv oxrjixa, mentioned below, has
been supposed to be situated on the west of Africa, near Sierra Leone, or
Cape Verd ; but, as I conceive, without sufficient authority. See Alex-
audi'e in Lemaire, i. 455.

Chap. 111.] IGNEOUS PHENOMENA. 141

litani. Tliis fire, however, is intemaP, mild, and not burn-
ing the foliage of a dense wood which is over it^. There is
also the crater of Nymphaeum', which is always burning, in
the neighbourhood of a cold fountain, and which, according
to Theopompus, presages direful calamities to the inhabitants
of Apollonia^. It is increased by rain\ and it throws out
bitumen, which, becoming mixed with the fountain, renders
it unfit to be tasted ; it is, at other times, the weakest of all
the bitumens. But what are these compared to other
wonders ? Hiera, one of the -Solian isles, in the middle of
the sea, near Italy, together with the sea itself, during the
Social war, burned for several days', imtil expiation was
made, by a deputation from the senate. There is a hill in
-Ethiopia called 0ew»' oxn^a^ which burns with the greatest
violence, throwing out flame that consumes everything, like
the sun*. In so many places, and with so many fires, does
nature burn the earth !

CHAP. 111. (107.) — WOKDERS OF FIEE ALONE.

But since this one element is of so prolific a nature as to
produce itself, and to increase from the smallest spark, what
must we suppose will be the efiect of all those funeral piles

^ " Internus." " In interiore nemore abditus." Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 455.

' If this account be not altogether fabulous, the appearance here de-
scribed may be, perhaps, referred to the combustion of an inflammable
gas which does not acquire a very high temperature.

* We have an account of tliis place in Strabo, vii. 310. Our author has
already referred to it in the 96th chapter of this book, as a pool or lake,
containing floating islands ; and he again speaks of it in the next chapter.

^ We have an account of this volcano in -/Elian, Var. Hist. xiii. 16.
It wovdd appear, however, that it had ceased to emit flame previous to
the calamitous events of which it was supposed to be the harbinger.

5 Tliis circxunstance is mentioned by Dion Cassius, xU. 174, We may
conceive that a sudden influx of water might force tip an unusually large
quantity of the bitumen.

^ We have a full account of this circumstance in Strabo, vi. 277.

' " Currum deonmi Latine Hcet interpretari." Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 456.

^ " torrentesque soHs ardoribus flammas egerit ;" perhaps the author
may mean, that the fires of the volcano assist those of the sun in parch-
ing the surface of the ground.

142 pliitt's natubal histoet. [Book n.

of the earth^ ? What must be the nature of that thing,
which, in all parts of the world, supplies this most greedy
voracity without destroying itself? To these fires must be
added those innumerable stars and the great sun itself. There
are also the fires made by men^, those which are innate in
certain kinds of stones, those produced by the friction of
wood^, and those in the clouds, which give rise to lightning.
It really exceeds all other wonders, that one single day
should pass in which everything is not consumed, especially
when we reflect, that concave mirrors placed opposite to the
Sim's rays produce flame more readily than any other kind of
fire ; and that numerous small but natural fires abound every-
where. In Nymphaeum there issues from a rock a fire which
is kindled by rain ; it also issues from the waters of the Scan-
tia''. This indeed is a feeble flame, since it passes ofl", re-
maining only a sliort time on any body to which it is applied :
an ash tree, which overshadows this fiery spring, remains
always green^. In the territory of Mutina fire issues from
the ground on the days that are consecrated to Vulcan'.
It is stated by some authors, that if a burning body falls
on the fields below Aricia^, the ground is set on fire ; and
that the stones in the territory of the Sabines and of the
Sidicini*, if they be oiled, bum with flame. In Egnatia^, a

* " Tot rogis terrse ?" in reference to the remark in a former chapter,
**natura terras cremat."

2 " Humani ignes," according to Hardouin, *' Hi nostri ignes, quos vitse
U8U8 requirit, ut Txillius ait de Nat. Deor. ii. 67 ;" Lemaire, L 457.

3 This is the mode which many savage tribes employ for exciting flame.

* It is not known whether the Scantia was a river or a lake, or where
it was situated ; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 457.

* This may have been owing to the emission of an inflammable gas
which biirns at a comparatively low temperature, as was observed on a
former occasion.

6 These are said by Columella, xi. 3, to occur in August ; the state-
ment as to the fire occurring on these particular days we may presume
is erroneous,

7 Aricia was a town in Campania, near the modem Lake of Ncmi :
this place, as well as the other places mentioned by our author, were
probably of volcanic origin,

8 Sidicinum was a town in Campania, also called Teanum ; probably
the modem Teano.

^ Egnatia was a town in Calabria, on the coast of the Adriatic : the
circumstance mentioned by our author is ridiculed by Horace, ia his well-

Chap. 112.] DTMEIISIOirS OF THE EABTH. 143

town of Salentinum, there is a sacred stone, upon which, when
wood is placed, flame immediately bursts forth. In the altar
of Juno Lacinia', which is in the open air, the ashes remain
unmoved, although the winds may be blowing from all
quarters.

It appears also that there are sudden fires both in waters
and even in the human body ; that the whole of Lake Thra-
symenus was on fire^ ; that when ServiusTullius, while a child,
was sleeping, flame darted out from his head' ; and Valerius
Antias informs us, that the same flame appeared about L.
Marcius, when he was pronouncing the funeral oration over
the Scipios, who were killed in Spain ; and exhorting the
soldiers to avenge their death. I shall presently mention
more facts of this nature, and in a more distinct manner ; in
this place these wonders are mixed up with other subjects.
But my mind, having carried me beyond the mere interpre-
tation of nature, is anxious to lead, as it were by the hand,
the thoughts of my readers over the whole globe.

CHAP. 112. (108.)-i-THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EABTH.

Our part of the earth, of which I propose to give an ac-
count, floating as it were in the ocean which surrounds it
(as I have mentioned above*), stretches out to the greatest
extent from east to west, viz. from India to the Pillars con-
secrated to Hercules at Gades, being a distance of 8568
miles^, according to the statement of Artemidorus®, or ac-

known lines, Sat. i. 5, 97 ; but it is not improbable that there may be
some foundation for it.

1 Tliis circumstance is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18. The altar
was probably in the neighbourhood of the Lacinian Promontory, at the
S.W. extremity of the Bay of Tarentum, the modem Capo delle Colonne.

^ This may be referred to the inflanunable vapours mentioned above,
unless we regard the whole narrative as fabulous.

* See Livy, i. 39, and Val. Maximus, i. 6. 2, Although it would be
rash to pronounce this occurrence and the following anecdotes respect-
ing Marcius to be absolutely impossible, we must regard them as highly
improbable, and resting upon very insufficient evidence.

^ In the 66th chapter of this book.

^ In the estimate of distances I have given the numbers as they occur
in the text of Lemaire, although, in many cases, there is considerable
doubt as to their accxu^cy. See the observations of Hardouin and Alex-
andre in Lemaire, i. 460.

* Artemidorus was an Ephesian, who wrote on geography ; see Har-
douin's Index Auct., Lemaire, i. 167.

144 PLi:jfY's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book IT.

cording to that of Isidorus^ 9818 miles. Artemidorus adds
to this 491 miles, from (xades, going round by the Sacred
Promontory, to the promontory of Artabrum^, which is the
most projecting part of Spain.

This measurement may be taken in two directions. From
the Granges, at its mouth, where it discharges itself into the
Eastern ocean, passing through India and Parthyene, to
Myriandrus^, a city of Syria, in the bay of Issus, is a di-
stance of 5215 miles "*. Thence, going directly by sea, by the
island of Cyprus, Patara in Lycia, Ehodes, and Astypala^a,
islands in the Carpathian sea, by Ta?narum in Laconia,
Lilybseum in Sicily and Calaris in Sardinia, is 2103 miles.
Thence to Gades is 1250 miles, making the whole distance
from the Eastern ocean 8568 miles*.

The other way, which is more certain, is chiefly by land.
!Prom the Granges to the Euphrates is 5169 miles ; thence to
Mazaca, a town in Cappadocia, is 319 miles ; thence, through
Phrygia and Caria, to Ephesus is 415 miles ; from Ephesus,
across the ^gean sea to Delos, is 200 miles ; to the Isthmus
is 212y miles ; thence, first by land and afterwards by the
sea of Lechaeum and the gulf of Corinth, to Patrae in Pelopon-
nesus, 90 miles ; to the promontory of Leucate 87^ miles ;
as much more to Corc>Ta ; to the Acroceraunian mountains
132^, to Brundisium 87^, and to Eome 360 miles. To the
Alps, at the village of Scingomagum®, is 519 miles ; through
Gaul to Illiberis at the Pyrenees, 927 ; to the ocean and the

* Isidorus was a native of Niceea ; he appears to have been a vrriter
on various topics in natural history, but not much estimated j see Har-
douin's Index Auct., in Lemaire, i. 194.

2 The modem Cape St. Vincent and Cape Finisterre.

3 This was a city on the Sinus Issicus, the present Grulf of Aiasso,
situated, according to Brotier, between the sites of the modem towns of
Scanderoon and Rosos. See Lemaire, i. 461.

** Respecting this and the other distances mentioned in this chapter, I
may refer the reader to the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 461.

^ It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the calctdations of our author
do not indicate the real distance between the extreme points of the habi-
table parts of the globe, as known to the ancients, but the nvmiber of miles
which must be passed over by a traveller, in going from plaee to place ;
in the first instance, a considerable part of the way by sea, and, in the
second, almost entirely by land.

6 It appears to be difficult to ascertain the identity of the place here
mentioned ; I may refer to the remarks of Hardouin and Brotier in Le-
maire, i. 464.

Chap. 113.] DIMENSIONS OF THE EAETH. 145

coast of Spain, 331 miles; across the passage of Gaaes 7^
miles ; which distances, according to the estimate of Arte-
midonis, make altogether 8945 miles.

The breadth of the earth, from south to north, is commonly
supposed to be about one-half only of its length, Wz. 4490
miles ; hence it is evident how much the heat has stolen from
it on one side and the cold on the other : for I do not sup-
pose that the land is actually wanting, or that the earth has
not the form of a globe ; but that, on each side, the unin-
habitable parts have not been discovered. This measure
then extends from the coast of the Ethiopian ocean, the
most distant part which is habitable, to Meroe, 1000 miles^ ;
thence to Alexandria 1250 ; to Khodes 562 ; to Cnidos 87| ;
to Cos 25 ; to Samos 100 ; to Chios 94 ; to Mitylene 65 ; to
Tenedos 44 ; to the promontory of Sigseum 12^ ; to the en-
trance of the Euxine 312^ ; to the promontory of Carambis
350 ; to the entrance of the Palus Mseotis 312^ ; and to the
mouth of the Tanais 275 miles, which distance, if we went
by sea, might be shortened 89 miles. Beyond the Tanais
the most diligent authors have not been able to obtain any
accurate measurement. Artemidorus supposes that every-
thing beyond is undiscovered, since he coidesses that, about
the Tanais, the tribes of the Sarmatae dwell, who extend
towards the north pole. Isidorus adds 1250 miles, as the
distance to Thule' ; but this is mere conjecture. For my
part, I believe that the boundaries of Sarmatia really extend
to as great a distance as that mentioned above : for if it
were not very extensive, how could it contain the innume-
rable tribes that are always changing their residence ? And
indeed I consider the uninhabitable portion of the world to
be stiU greater ; for it is well known that there are innu-

* The same remarks may be made upon this and the following num-
bers as upon those in the former paragraph ; for further information I
shall refer my readers to the notes of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre,
in Lemaire, i. 465-468.

3 There is great uncertainty respecting the locality of the Thule of
the ancients ; there was, in fact, nothing known respecting the locahty
or identity of any of the places approaching to the Arctic circle ; the
name appears to have been vaguely appUed to some country lying to the
north of the habitable parts of Europe. In note ', p. 109, 1 have already
had occasion to offer some remarks on the locahty of Thule. Our author
speaks of Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi 39.

VOL. L L

146 PLINT's SfATUEAL HISTOEY. [Book II.

merable islands lying off the coast of Germany \ which have
been only lately discovered.

The above is all that I consider worth relating about the
length and the breadth of the earth^. But Eratosthenes^,
a man who was peculiarly well skilled in all the more subtle
parts of learning, and in this above everything else, and a
person whom I perceive to be approved by every one, has
stated the whole of this circuit to be 252,000 stadia, which,
according to the Eoman estimate, makes 31,500 miles. The
attempt is presumptuous, but it is supported by such subtle
arguments that we cannot refuse our assent. Hipparchus*,
whom we must admire, both for the ability with which he
controverts Eratosthenes, as well as for his diligence in every-
thing else, has added to the above number not much less
than 25,000 stadia.

(109.) Dionysodorus is certainly less worthy of confi-
dence* ; but I cannot omit this most remarkable instance of
Grecian vanity. He was a native of Melos, and was cele-
brated for his knowledge of geometry ; he died of old age in
his native country. His female relations, who inherited his
property, attended his funeral, and when they had for several
successive days performed the usual rites, they are said to
have found in his tomb an epistle written in his own name
to those left above ; it stated that he had descended fi»om
his tomb to the lowest part of the earth, and that it was a
distance of 42,000 stadia. There were not wanting certain
geometricians, who interpreted this epistle as if it had been
sent from the middle of the globe, the point which is at the
greatest distance from the surface, and which must necessarily
be the centre of the sphere. Hence the estimate has been
made that it is 252,000 stadia ia circumference.

1 It is probable, that these supposed " immense islands," if they were
not entirely imagLaary, were the countries of Sweden and Norway, the
southern extremities fvlone of which had been yisited by the ancients.

2 Strabo, ii. ; Yitruvius, i. 6 ; Macrobius, in Somn. Scip. ii. 20.

3 Our author has previously referred to Eratosthenes, in the 76th
chapter of this book.

■* Our author has referred to Hipparchus, in the 9th chapter of this
book.

^ "Aliter, inquit, et cautius multo Dionysodorus est audiendus, qui
miraculo solo nititur, quam Hipparchus et Eratosthenes, qui geometricis
nituntur priticipiis." Hardouin ia Lemaire, i. 469. Nothing further is
known of Dionysodorus ; see Hardouin' s Index Auct. ia I,ei»aire, i. 123.

Cliap. 113.] EOMAN AUTHOES QUOTED. 147

CHAP. 113. THE HAEMONICAL PEOPOETIOTT OF THE

TJNIVEESE.

That harmonical proportion, which compels nature to be
always consistent with itself, obliges us to add to the above
measure, 12,000 stadia ; and this makes the earth one
ninety-sixth part of the whole universe.

SuMMAET. — The facts, statements, and observations con-
tained in this Book amount in number to 417.

EoMAN AUTHOES QUOTED. — M. Varro\ Sulpicius Gallus^,
Titus Caesar 3 the Emperor, Q.Tubero^ Tullius Tiro^ L.Piso^
T. Livius^, Cornelius Nepos', Sebosus", Calius Antipater^",

* Marcus Terentius Varro. He was bom B.C. 116, espoused the cause
of Pompey against Csesar, and served as his lieutenant in Spain. He
afterwards became reconciled to Ctesar, and died in the year B.C. 26. He
is said to have written 500 volumes, but nearly all his works are lost
(destroyed, it is said, by order of Pope Gregory VII.). His only re-
mains are a Treatise on Agricvdtvire, a Treatise on the Latin Tongue,
and the fragments of a work called Analogia.

2 C. Sulpicius Gkllus was Consul in the year 166 B.C. He wrote a
Roman History, and a work on the Echpses of the Sun and Moon.

' Titus Vespasianus, the Emperor, to whom Pliny dedicates his work.
His poem is mentioned in c. 22 of this Book. See pages 1, 2, and 55 of
the present volume.

4 It is most probable that Quintus -^lius Peetus Tubero is here meant.
He was son-in-law, and, according to Cicero, nephew of ^mihus Paulus,
and Consul in the year B.C. 167. There are two other persons found
mentioned of the name of Q. -(Elius Tubero.

* The freedman and amanuensis of Cicero. He was a man of great
learning, and was supposed to have invented short-hand. He also wrote
a Life of Cicero.

^ Lucius Calpumius Piso Frugi. He was Consul in the year B.C. 133,
and was a stout opponent of the Gracchi. He wrote Annals of the History
of Rome from the earliest periods.

^ Livy, the well-known Roman historian.

8 He was the intimate friend of Cicero, and wrote Chronicles or Annals, in
three books, a Life of Cicero, and some other historical works. A work still
exists, called " Lives of Eminent Commanders," which is ascribed some-
times to him and sometimes to one ^milius Probus, a writer of the reign
of Theodosius. The latter probably abridged the original work of Nepos.

3 Statins Sebosus. He is mentioned by Cicero as the friend of Catulus.
He wrote a work called the " Periplus," and another on the Wonders of
India.

1" A Roman historian and lawyer, who flourished about B.C. 124. He
wTote a Book of Annals, in which was contained a valuable account of
the Second Punic war. This work was epitomized by Brutus and held
in high estimation by the Emperor Adrian.

L 2

148 pliijt's NATUBAL HISTOET. [Book II.

rabianus\ Antias^, Mucianus', Caecina^, who wrote on the
Etruscan discipline, Tarquitius^, who did the same, Julius
Aquila®, who also did the same, and Sergius^.

FoKEiGN AUTHORS QUOTED. — Plato®, Hipparchus', Ti-
maeus^", Sosigenes'\ Petosiris^^, !Necepsos^^, the Pythago-

1 Fabianns Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and naturalist, whose works
are highly commended by PHny and Seneca. He wrote a History of Ani-
mals, and a book on Natural Causes.

2 Quintus Valerius Antias. He flourished about B.C. 80, and wrote
the Annals of Rome, down to the time of SyUa.

3 Marcus Licinius Crassus Mucianus. He was instrumental in raising
the Emperor Vespasian to the throne, and was Consul in the years
A.D. 52, 70, and 74. He pubhshed three Books of Epistles, and a History
in eleven Books, which appears to have treated chiefly of Eastern afiairs?

^ Aulus Csecina. Ho was sent into exile by Caesar, joined the Pom-
peians in Africa, and was taken prisoner by Csesar, but his hfe was spared.
Cicero wrote several letters to him, and commends his abihties. His
work appears to have been on Divination as practised bv the Etrurians.

5 He appears to have been a diviner or soothsayer of Etruria, and to
have written a work on Etruscan prodigies.

^ He also wrote a work on Etruscan divination, but it does not appear
that anything further is known of him,

7 Sergius Paulus. He is also mentioned in the Index to the 18th Book.
Nothing further seems to be known of him.

8 The greatest, with the exception of Aristotle, of the Greek Philoso-
phers, and the disciple of Socrates.

^ A native of Nicea in Bithynia, who flourished B.C. 160. He is called
the " Father" of Astronomy. He wrote a Commentary on the Phseno-
mena of Aratus and Eudoxus, wliich is still extant. His works, including
those on the Lunar Month and the Fixed Stars, have not come down to
us. His Catalogue of the Stars is preserved in the Almagest of Ptolemy.

10 Timseus of Locri in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, said to have
been the instructor of Plato. He wrote a work on Mathematics. A work
" On the Soul of the World and of Nature," which is still extant, has
been ascribed to liim, but on doubtful grounds.

11 An astronomer and peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria. He was
employed by JuHus Csesar to superintend his revision of the Calendar.
It is supposed that he wrote a work on the Celestial Revolutions, and a
Commentary on the works of Aristotle.

12 A priest, mathematician, and astrologer of Egypt. A Letter on
the Astrological Sciences, written by him to King Necepsos, is said to be
extant in the Royal Library at Vienna, as also a work called the '* Orga-
num Astrologicvmi," dedicated to the same king. Juvenal seems to use
his name as a common term for an astrologer.

13 He is mentioned by JuhusFirmicus as "a most just emperor of Egypt,
and a very good astronomer." A work by him is quoted by Galen in his
tenth Book on Simples, but it was most probably of spurious origin.

Chap. 113.] rOEEIGN AUTHOBS QUOTED. 149

rean* Philosophers, Posidonius^, Anaximander', EpigeneB"*
the philosopher who wTote on Gnomonics, Euclid*, Coera-
ims* the philosopher, Eudoxus*^, Demoeritus*, Critodemus',
Thrasyllus'", !Serapion^\ Dicsearehus", Archimedes '', Onesi-

* " Pythagoricis" here may either mean the works of the followers ol
Pythagoras of Samoa, or the books which were written by that philoso-
pher. PUny, in Books 19, 20, and 24, speaks of several writings of Py-
thagoras, and Diogenes Laertius mentions others ; but it is more gene-
rally supposed that he wrote nothing, and that everything that passed by
his name in ancient times was spurious.

3 A Stoic philosopher of Apamea in Syria. He was the mstructor of
Cicero, and the friend of Pompey. He wrote works on history, divina-
tion, the tides, and the nature of the gods. Some fragments oiily have
survived.

' Of Miletus, was bom B.C. 610, and was the successor of Thales, the
founder of the Ionian school of philosophy. He is said to have first
tauglit the obhquity of the ecUptic and the use of the gnomon.

* A pliilosopher of Rhodes or Byzantium. Seneca says that he boasted
of having studied astronomy among the Chaldeans. He is mentioned by
Yarro and Columella as having written on rural matters, and is praised
by Censorinus.

* Of Alexandria, the great geometrician, and instructor of Ptolemy I.
He was the founder ot the mathematical school of Alexandria.

* He was a Greek by birth, and hved in the time of Nero. He is
extolled by Tacitus, B. 14, for his superlative wisdom, beyond which
notliing is known of hira.

7 Of Cnidus, an astronomer and l^islator who flourished B.C. 366. He
was a friend and chsciple of Plato, and said to have been the first who
taught in Greece the motions of the planets. His works on astronomy
and geometry are lost, but his Phsenomena have been preserved by Aratus,
who turned liis prose into verse.

8 Born at Abdera in Tlirace, about B.C. 460. He was one of the founders
of the atomic theorj-, and looked upon peace of mind as thesummum honum
of mortals. He wrote works on the nature and organization of the world,
on physics, on contagious maladies, on the chameleon, andon other subjects.

^ A Grecian a:?tronomer. A work of his, called " Apotelesmatica," is
said to be preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna.

^" An astrologer of Rhodes, patronized by Augustus and Tiberius. He
wrote a work on Stones, and a History of Egypt. Tacitus, in his Annals,
B. vi., speaks highly of his skill in astrology.

" A geographer of Antioch, and an opponent of the views of Erato-
sthenes. Cicero declares that he himself was unable to understand a
thousandth part of his work.

^ A Peripatetic philosopher and geographer, of Messina in Sicily. He
studied under Aristotle and wrote several works, the principal of which
was an account of the history, geography, and moral and religious con-
dition of Greece. A few fragments only are extant.

^ Of Syracuse, the most famous mathematician of antiquity, bom B.C.

150 pliny's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book II.

critus\ Eratosthenes^, Pytheas"'', Herodotus^, Aristotle'"^,
Ctesias^, Artemidorus' of Epliesus, Isidorus' of Charax, and
Theopompus^.

287. A few only of his works have come down to us, pubhshed at Ox-
ford in 1792, by ToreUi.

1 Bom either at Astypalaea or ^gina. He was chief pilot of the
fleet of Alexander during the descent of the Indus and the voyage to the
Persian Grulf. He wrote a work called the " Alexandropsedia," or Edu-
cation of Alexander. In his description of what he saw in India, many
fables and falsehoods are said to have been interwoven, so much so tliat
the work (which is now lost) is said to have resembled a fiable more than
a history. •

2 Of Gyrene, bom B.C. 276. He was invited from Athens by Ptolemy
Euergetes, to become keeper of the hbrary at Alexandria. He was a man
of most extensive erudition, as an astronomer, geographer, philosopher,
historian and grammarian. .AH of his writings have perished, with the
exception of a few fragments on geographical subjects.

' Of Massiha, now Marseilles, a celebrated navigator who flourished
about the time of Alexander the Great. In his voyages he visited Britain
and Thule, of which he probably gave some account in his work " on the
Ocean." He has been wrongfully accused of falsehood by Strabo. An-
otlier work .written by him was his " Periplus," or ' Circimmavigation'
from Gades to the Tanais, probably, in this mstance, the Elbe.

*• Of Halicamassus, the father of Grecian history ; bom B.C. 484.
Besides his great work which has come down to us, he is supposed to
have written a history of Arabia.

^ Probably the Aiost learned of the Greek philosophers. His works
were exceeduigly numerous, and those which have survived to us treat of
natural history, metaphysics, physical science, ethics, logic, and general
literature.

^ A native of Cnidus in Caria, and private physician to Artaxerxes
Mnemon, having been made prisoner by him at the battle of Cunaxa. He
wrote a History of Persia in 23 books, which, with the exception of a small
abridgement by Photius and a few fragments, is now lost. He also wrote
a book on India. He was much censured, probably without sufficient
reason, for the creduhty displayed in his works.

7 Of Ephesus, a geographer, who Hved about B.C. 100. He wrote a Peri-
plus, and a work on Geography ; a few fragments only of abridgements
of these have survived.

8 Of Charax in Parthia, of which country he wrote an account which
still exists. He flourished in the reign of Augustus.

8 Of Chios, a celebrated historian, and disciple of the orator Isocratee.
His principal works were a History of Greece, and a Life of Philip of
Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.

151

BOOK III.

AN ACCOTTNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIYERS, DISTANCES, AND PEO-
PLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

INTEODUCTION.

Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of
the earth, of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of
the universe and its dimensions. I shall now proceed to
describe its individual parts ; although indeed we may with
reason look upon the task as of an infinite nature, and one
not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring censure.
And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing which ought less
to require an apology, if it is only considered how far from
surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted
with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single
author, but shall employ, in relation to each subject, such
writers as I shall look upon as most worthy of credit. For,
indeed, it is the characteristic of nearly all of them, that
they display the greatest care and accuracy in the descrip-
tion of the countries in which they respectively flourished ;
so that by doing this, I shall neither have to blame nor con-
tradict any one.

The names of the different places will here be simply
given, and as briefly as possible ; the account of their cele-
brity, and the events which have given rise thereto, being
deferred *o a more appropriate occasion; for it must be
remembei-ed that I am here speaking of the earth as a whole,
and I wish to be understood as using the names without any
reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the
places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet
acquired any fame through great events. The name is men-
tioned, it is true, but only as forming a part of the world
and the system of the universe.

The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia,

and Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets

and at the Straits of Grades \ where the Atlantic ocean, bursting

1 Now the Straits of Gibraltao*. ]

152 plint's natueal histoet. [^Book m.

in, is poured forth into the inland seas. As it makes its
entrance from that side, Africa is on the right hand and
Europe on the left ; Asia lies between them^ ; the boundaries
being the rivers Tanais'^ and Nile. The Straits of the ocean,
of which I have just spoken, extend fifteen miles in length and
five^ in breadth, measured from the village of Mellaria^ in
Spain to the Album Promontorium* or White Promontory in
Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis, who was born in
that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos however
have stated the breadth, where it is least, to be seven miles,
and where greatest, ten ; from so small a mouth as this does
so immense an expanse of water open upon us ! Nor is our
astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great
depth ; for, instead of that, there are numerous breakers and
shoals, white with foam, to strike tlie mariner with alarm.
From this circumstance it is, that many have called this spot
the threshold of The Inland Sea.

At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains
placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side,
Abyla^ in Africa, and Calpe^ in Europe, the boundaries
formerly of the labours of Hercules^. Hence it is that the
inhabitants have called them the Columns of that god ; they

^ This is said more especially in reference to the western parts of Asia,
the only portion which was perfectly known to the ancients. His mean-
ing is, that Asia as a portion of the globe does not lie so far north aa
Europe, nor so far south as Africa.

2 Now the Don. It was usually looked upon as the boundary between
Europe and Asia. Phny's meaning seems to be, that the Tanais divides
Asia from Europe, and the Nile, Asia from Africa, the more especially
as the part to the west of the Nile was sometimes considered as belonging
to Asia. It has been however suggested that he intends to assign these
rivers as the extreme eastern boxmdaries of the iatemal or Mediterranean
sea.

3 At no spot are the Straits leas than ten miles in width ; although
D' AnvOle makes the width to be Httle less than five miles. This passage
of our author is probably in a corrupt state.

^ This probably stood near the site of the town of Tarifa of the pre-
sent day.

^ Probably the point called ' Puiita del Sainar ' at the present day.

6 Now caUed Ximiera, Jebel-el-Mina, or Monte del Hacho.

7 The Rock of Gibraltar.

^ The fable was that they originally formed one moimtain, which was
torn asunder by Hercides, or as Pliny says, " dug through."

Chap. 1.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, &C. 153

also believe tliat they were dug through by him ; upon which
the sea, which was before excluded, gained adjmssion, and
so changed the face of nature.

CHAP. 1. (1.) — THE BOUNDARIES AND GULFS OF EUROPE
FIRST SET FORTH IN A GENERAL WAY.

I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that
people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by
far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many
persons have, not without reason \ considered it, not as a
third part oidy of the earth, but as equal to all the rest,
looking upon the whole of our globe as divided into two
parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais to the
Straits of Grades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the
Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and,
in its eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have
had to dread its approach, skirts with its winding course the
shores of those parts which offer a more effectual resistance,
hollowing out the coast of Europe especially into numerous
bays, among which there are four Gulfs that are more parti-
cularly remarkable. The first of these begins at Calpe, which
I have previously mentioned, the most distant mountain of
Spain ; and bends, describing an immense curve, as far as
Locri and the Promontory of Bruttium^.

CHAP. 2. — OF SPAIN GENERALLY.

The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called
the Farther Spain or Baetica^ ; next to which, beginning at
the frontier town of Urgi*, is the Nearer, or Tarraconensian*

^ This was the opinion of Herodotus, but it had been so strenuously
combated by Polybius and other writers before the time of Pliny, that it
is difficult to imagine how he should countenance it.

^ He probably alludes to Leucopetra, now called Capo dell' Armi
Locri Epizephyrii was a town of Bruttium, situate north of the promon-
tory of Zephyrium, now called Capo di Bruzzano.

3 So called from the Baetis, now the Guadalquivir or Great Eiver.

* The situation of this town is not known, but it is supposed to have
been about five leagues from the present city of Mujacar, or Moxacar.
It was situate on the Sinus Urgitanus.

* So called from the city of Tarraco, on the site of the present Tar-
ragona.

154 Flint's itatfeal histoet, [Book III.

Spain, extending as far as the cliain of the Pyrenees. The
Farther Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces,
Lusitania^ and Baetica, the former stretching along the
northern side of the latter, and being divided from it by the
river Ana^.

The source of this river is in the district of Laminium^, in
the Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of
small lakes, and then again contracts itself into a narrow
channel, or entirely disappears under ground^, and after
frequently disappearing and again coming to light, finally dis-
charges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain
lies on one side, contiguous to the Pyrenees, running down-
wards along the sides of that chain, and, stretching across from
the Iberian Sea to the Gallic ocean®, is separated from Baetica
and Lusitania by Mount Solorius^, the chains of the Oretani''
and the Carpetani®, and that of the Astures'.

C5AP. 3. — OF BiETICA.

Baetica, so called from the river which divides it in the
middle, excels all the other provinces in the richness of its
cultivation and the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vege-
tation.

It consists of four jurisdictions, those of Gades*", of Cor-
duba^\ of Astigi^^, and of Hispalis^^. The total number of
lis towns is 175 ; of these nine are colonies", and eight muni-

^ Corresponding nearly in extent with the present kingdom of Portugal.

2 Now G^audiana, a corruption of the Arabic Wadi Ana, " the river Ana."

3 Accordiag to Hardouin this place is the modem town of Montiel,
but Pinet and D'Anville make it the same as Alhambra.

■* According to modem writers it conceals itself in this manner for a
distance of fifteen miles.

^ From the Balearic Channel to the Grulf of Gbscony or Bay of Biscay.

^ Probably the Sierra Nevada is meant by this name ; Hardouin con-
eiders it the same as the Sierra de los Yertientes.

^ Probably the Sierra Morena. ^ r^\^Q Monte de Toledo.

^ The Sierra de las Asturias.

10 The present Cadiz. It was originally a Phoenician colony.

" Now Cordova. ^^ Now Ecija. ^ Now Seville.

1* The Moman colonies or colonies " civium Romanorum" are those
here meant. The colonists in such case enjoyed all the rights of Roman
citizens, the town in which they lived being foimded under the supervi-
sion of the Roman magistracy.

Chap. 3.] ACCOUNT OF COTINTEIES, <fcc. 155

cipal towns ^ ; twenty-nine have been long since presented with
the old Latin rights^ ; six are free towns^, three federate^,
and 120 tributary.

In this district, the things that more especially deserve no-
tice, or are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the
following, beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the sea-
shore ; the town of Onoba, sumamed jEstuaria** ; the rivers
Luxia and Urium', flowing through this territory between
the Ana and the Baetis ; the Marian' Mountains ; the river
BsBtis ; the coast of Corum®, with its winding bay ; opposite

* " Municipia." These were towns in conquered countries which were
not founded by the Eomans, but whose inhabitants retained their original
institutions, at the same time receiving certain of the rights of Roman
citizens ; most frequently, immunity to a greater or less degree from
payment of tribute,

3 " Latimn ; " also called " Jus Latii " and " Latinitas." This was the
name given to those circumscribed or limited rights as Roman citizens
which were at first bestowed upon the conquered states of Italy, before
the time of the Social War. Indeed the Latinus held a kind of inter-
mediate state between the Civis Romanus with all his rights, and the
peregrinus or foreigner with all his disabihties. These Latin rights were
afterwards extended to the people of other countries, but retained their
original name.

3 The free towns were those, the inhabitants of which were at Uberty
to enjoy their ancient institutions and modes of internal government,
though at the same time they enjoyed none of the privileges of Roman
citizens.

^ " Foederati civitates ; " the inhabitants of which were called * foederati'
or ' socii.' They were in alliance with the Romans, but in some cases
paid them tribute in the same manner as the ' stipendiaria ' next men-
tioned. In some instances they also enjoyed the Latin rights.

" From the numerous creeks or sestuaries with which the coast is here
indented. Commentators are at a loss for the site of the town of
Onoba (or Ossonoba according to some readings). D'Anville considers
it to be the same with the present tovm of Moguer ; other commentators
have suggested Gibraleon, and the vicinity of Palos.

« The Odiel and the Tinto ; the Urium being supposed to be the same
with the Tinto of the present day.

7 Some readings have " Hareni montes," and others " Arense montes,"
the " mountains of sand." There is no doubt that the sandy heights or
downs on this coast are here meant, which are called at the present day
" Dimes " by the French, and by the natives " Arenas gordas."

8 Probably the line of sea-shore between Roia and the city of Cadiz,
skirting the Bay of Cadiz. Hardouin however thinks that the coast
between the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete is meant, now occupied in
part by the town of San Lucar de Barameda.

156 plint's natfbal history. [Book HI.

to which is Grades, of which we shall have occasion to speak
among the islands\ Next comes the Promontory of Juno^,
and the port of Bajsippo^ ; the towns of Boelo'' and Mellaria'',
at which latter begin the Straits of the Atlantic ; Carteia^,
called by the Greeks Tartessos' ; and the mountain of Calpe.
Along the coast of the inland sea* is the town of Barbesula^
with its river ; also Salduba^" ; the town of Suel" ; and then
Malaca^^, with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to tliis
comes Maenoba'^, with its river ; then Sexifirmum^^, surnamed

» In the Fourth Book, c. 36. « rj^e present Cape Trafalgar.

* Hardouin says that the present Vejer is the place meant, while otliers
have suggested Puerto de Santa Maria, or Cantillana. Others again
identify it with Bejer de la Frontera, though that place probably Hes too
far inland. The Roman ruins near Porto Barbato were probably its site.

* Hardouin and other commentators suggest that the site of the pre-
sent Tarifa is here meant ; it is more probable however that D'Anville is
right in suggesting the now deserted town of Bolonia.

^ Probably the present Tarifa.

^ The exact site of Carteia is unknown ; but it is generally supposed
to have stood upon the bay which opens out of the straits on the west of
the Rock of Gibraltar, now called the Bay of Algesiras or Gibraltar ; and
upon the hill at the head of the bay of El Rocadillo, about half-way
between Algesiras and Gibraltar.

7 We learn also from Strabo, that Tartessus was the same place as
Carteia ; it is not improbable that the former was pretty nearly the
Phoenician name of the place, and the latter a Roman corruption of it,
and that in it originated the 'Tarshish' of Scripture, an appellation
apparently given to the whole of the southcn part of the Spanish penin-
sula. Probably the Greeks preserved the appellation of the place more
in conformity with the original Phoenician name.

^ By the "inland sea" Pliny means the Mediterranean, in contra-
distinction to the Atlantic Ocean without the Straits of Cadiz.

^ The ruins of this place, probably, are still to be seen on the east bank
of the river Guadiaro, here alluded to.

^^ With its river flowing by it. This place is probably the present
MarbeUa, situate on the Rio Verde,

" Probably the present Castillo de Torremolinos, or else Castillo de
Fuengirola.

^2 The present city of Malaga. Hardouin thinks that the river Gua-
dalquivireio is here meant, but as that is some miles distant from the city,
it is more probable that the Guadalmedina, which is much nearer to it,
is the stream alluded to.

13 Not improbably Velez Malaga, upon a river of the same name.
Hardouin thinks that the place is the modem Torrox on the Fiu Frio,
and D'Anville the present city of Almunecar, on the Rio Verde.

" Most probably the present Almunecar, but it is xmcertain. D'An-

Chap. 3.] ACCOTTNT OF COUNTBIES, &C. 157

Jul.ium ; Selambina^ ; Abdera^ ; and Murci', which is at the
boundary of Baetica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this
coast was peopled by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the
Anas, and facing the Atlantic, is the country of the Bastuli*
and the Turditani. M. Varro informs us, that the Iberians,
the Persians, the Phoenicians, the Celts, and the Carthagi-
nians spread themselves over the whole of Spain ; that the
name " Lusitania" is derived from the games (Itisus) of
Father Bacchus, or the fury {lyssa^) of his frantic attendants,
and that Pan^ was the governor of the whole of it. But the
traditions respecting Hercules' and Pyrene, as well as Saturn,
I conceive to be fabulous in the highest degree.

The Baetis does not rise, as some writers have asserted,
near the town of Mentisa^, in the province of Tarraco, but
in the Tugiensian Forest' ; and near it rises the river Tader",
which waters the territory of Carthage". At Ilorcum^ it

ville says the present Torre de Banas ; others have suggested the town
of Motril.

* Now SaJobrena.

2 Either the present Adra or Abdera : it is uncertain which.
8 Probably the present Mujacar. D'Anville suggests Ahneria.

* Also called Bastitani, a mixed race, partly Iberian and partly Phoe-
nician.

* TheGreek Au(T(ra, "frantic rage" or "madness." The etymologies
here suggested are puerile in the extreme.

* Plutarch, quoting from the Twelfth Book of the Tberiea of Sosthenes,
tells us that, " After Bacchus had conquered Iberia [the present Spain],
he left Pan to act as his deputy, and he changed its name and called the
country Pania^ after himself, which afterwards became corrupted into
Spania"

7 He alludes to the expedition of Hercules into Spain, of which Dio-
dorus Siculus makes mention ; also his courtsliip of the nymph Pyrene,
the daughter of Bebryx, who was buried by him on the Pyrenaean
mountains, which thence derived their name.

8 It is unknown where this town was situate ; Hardouin and D'An*
viUe think it was on the site of the present village of San Thome, once
an episcopal see, now removed to Jaen. The people of Mentisa, men-
tioned in c. 4, were probably inhabitants of a different place. D'Anville
in his map has two Mentisas, one ' Oretana,' the other ' Bastitana.

^ According to D'Anville, the place now called Toia.

w Now the Segura.

^1 'Nova' or 'New' Carthage, so called from having been originally
founded by a colony of Carthaginians B.C. 242. It was situate a httle to
the west of the Satumi Promontorium, or Promontory of Palos. It
was taken by Scipio Africanus the elder B.C. 210.

^ The present Lorca.

158 flint's IfATIJEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

turns away from the Funeral Pile^ of Seipio ; then taking a
sweep to the left, it faUs into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its
name to this province : at its source it is but small, though
during its course it receives many other streams, which it de-
prives as well of their waters as their renown. It first enters
Baetica in Ossigita-nia^, and glides gently, with a smooth
current, past many towns situate on either side of its banks.
Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated
places inland are Segida^, also surnamed Augurina ; Julia^,
called Pidentia; Urgao^ or Alba, Ebora^ or Cerealis, IH-
berri^ or Liberini, Ilipula^ or Laus, Artigi^ or Julienses,
Vesci^^ or Eaventia, Singili", Attegua*^, Arialdunum, Agla
Minor", Bsebro", Castra Yinaria^*, Cisimbrium^®, Hippo

^ This place is even now called by the inliabitants Sepulcro de Scipion.
Cneius Cornelius Seipio Calvus, after the defeat of his brother P. CJor-
nelius Seipio, in the year B.C. 211, by the forces of Asdrubal and Mago,
fled to a tower at this spot, which was set fire to by the troops of Asdrubal,
and he perished in the flames.

2 So caUed jfrom the town of Ossigi afterwards mentioned.

3 It is amknown where this place stood ; Medina Sidonia has been

■* Probably the present Fuentes del Rey, between Andujar and Jaen,
according to Pinet.

5 D'Anville suggests that this is the present Arjona ; but more pro-
bably it was the village of Arjomlla, two leagues south of Andujar.
Gruter has an inscription found here, " munic . albense ueganon."

^ There were five cities of tliis name in Spain. Hardouin thinks that
this is the modem Alcala la Real, between Granada and Cordova.

7 Most probably the modem Sierra de Elvira, though some writers
have suggested the city of Granada.

8 Probably near the modem Montilla. Hardouin takes it to be the
present Granada.

^ Poinsinet tliinks that this is the present Ecija, but other writers take
it to be Alhama, between Granada and Malaga.

10 Perhaps the present Archidona. Some writers have suggested the
modem Faventia and Velez.

" Probably near the present Puente de Don Gonzalo, on the banks of
the Rio Geml.

12 Probably near AguUar on the river Cabra ; or else the present Teba,
between Osuna and Antequera. i3 _A.gla the Less.

1^ Probably the present Cabra. The sites of the two preceding towns
are not known.

15 « The Encampment in the Vineyards." Probably this was the same
as the Castra Postmniana mentioned by Hirtius in his Book on the Spa-
nish War as being four miles from Attegua. It appears to be the pre-
sent Castro, or Castro el Rio, situate on the banks of the river Guadajoz.

1^ In some readings " Episibrium." Probably the present Espeja.

Chap. 3.] ACC0TJ2fT OF COTTNTEIES, &C. 169

Nova or New Hippo\ Ilurco^, Osca^, Escua^, Sucubo^ Nudi-
tanum, Old Tuatr ; all which towns are in that part of Basti-
tania which extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdiction^ of
Corduba. In the neighbourhood of the river itself is Ossigi^
also surnamed Laconicum, Iliturgi" or Forum Julium, Ipas-
turgi^° or Triumphale, Setia, and, fourteen miles inland,
Obulco^\ which is also called Pontificense.

Next to these comes Epora^^, a federate town, Sacili"''
Martialium, and Onoba". On the right bank is Corduba,
a Roman colony, surnamed Patricia^* ; here the Baetia first
becomes na\agable. There are also the towns of Carbula

* Its present site is unknown.

2 According toD'Anville, the present Puente de Pinos, six leagues north
of Granada. Others take it to be Illora, south of Alcala la Real.

* The present Huesca, according to Hardouin ; more probably, how-
ever, Huector, on the banks of the river G^enil.

* Perhaps Escusar, five leagues firom Granada. But according to some
it is the same as Truelo or Eruelo.

^ Called Ucubis by Hirtius. Morales suggests that it is Sierra la
Honda, but Pinet says Stoponda.

" The sites of this and the preceding place are unknown.

? In relation to the ' conventus juridicus,' we may here observe that
under the Roman sway, in order to lacihtate the administration of jus-
tice, a province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of
which was so called, as also ' forum ' or ' jurisdictio.' At certain times of
the year fixed by the proconsvd or chief magistrate, the people assembled
in the chief tovm of the district (whence the name ' conventus '), upon
wliich judges wore selected to try the causes of htigant parties.

8 Probably near the town at the present day called Espelui. Strabo,
in Book iii., tells us that Laconian institutions and customs were prevalent
in some parts of Spain.

' This place was ravaged by fire and levelled with the groimd by the
troops of Scipio, in consequence of the vigorous defence they had made,
and the losses they had caused to the Roman army. It probably stood
about four miles from the present city of Baeza.

^^ The sites of this place and the next are unknown.

^^ Most probably the present town of Porcuna. TJbeda or Ubedos
has also been suggested.

^ The present town of Montoro. ^^ Now Alcoorrucen, near Perabad.

^* Ansart suggests that the reading is not Sacih of the Iilartiales,
but Onoba of the Martiales, to distinguish it from Onoba ^stuaria,
previously mentioned. It is not improbable that the place was so called
from the Martian or Martial legion having originally colonized it. The
site of Onoba is unknown.

^5 Cordova was so called from the great nimiber of patricians, who were
among the original colonists, when it was founded by Mai-cellus. To the

160 plint's natural histoby. • [Book III.

and Detunda\ and the river Singulis^, wldch falls into the
Baetis on the same side.

The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following :
Celti, Arua^, Canama^, Evia, Ilipa^, surnamed Ilia, and Ita-
lica^. On the left of the river is the colony of Hispalis^ named
Eomuliensis, and, on thv^ opposite side^, the town of Osset",
surnamed Julia Constantia, Vergentum, or Juli Grenius^",
Orippo, Caura", Siarum, and the river Menoba^^, which
enters the Bsetis on its right bank. Between the sestuaries
of the Baetis lie the towns of Nebrissa^^, surnamed Veneria,
and of Colobona^"*. The colonies are, Asta^*, which is also
called Begia, and, more inland, that of Asido", surnamed
Cajsariana.

The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Baetis at the
place already mentioned, washes the colony of Astigi^', sur-
present day it is noted for the pride of its nobles. The Great Captain
Qonzalo de Cordova used to say, that " other towns might be better to
live in, but there was none better to be bom in." It was the birth-place
of Lucan and the two Senecas.

^ The site of these two places is unknown at the present day.

2 Now called by the similar name of Gfenil or Xenil.

3 Perhaps the present Alcolea.

* Perhaps the Cantillana of the present day : there is, however, the
greatest uncertainty as to the sites of these places.

^ According to Hardouiil, the modem city of Penaflor : D'Anville
places it about two leagues thence, and near the city of Lora.

6 Now Sevilla la Vieja, or Old Seville ; called by the lower classes
Santi-pone.

7 Now Seville. This colony was founded by JuHus Csesar, and also
bore the name of Julia Romula. * Or north side of the river.

^ Probably on the site of the present Alcala del Rio.

^^ ' The [good] genius of Juhus,' probably meaning Caesar. Nothing
seems to be known of its site.

** Caura may be the present Coria, a town three leagues from Seville,

^2 Probably the Rio Guadalete.

^3 Either the present Sebrija, or in the vicinity of the city of San
Lucar. ^* Probably the present Bonania.

^5 Probably between Trebujena and the city of Xeres. It was the
usual place of meeting for the people of the territory of Gades ; and its
importance may be judged from its appellation ' Regia ' or ' royal,' and its
numerous coins. Its ruins are still to be seen on a hill there.

^^ It is not improbable that this was the present city of Xeres. Some
geographers however take it to be that of Medina Sidonia, and look
upon Xeres as the site of the ancient Asta.

'7 Now Ecija. It stood on the plain of the Baetis, some distance south
of the river, on its tributary the Singulis or Xenil.

Cliap. 3.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 161

named Augusta Firma, at \\ hich place it becomes navigable.
The other colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from
tribute are Tucci, surnained Augusta Gemella^ Itucci called
Virtus Julia-, Attubi or Clai-itas Julia^,Urso"' or GenuaUrba-
norum ; and among them in former times Munda*, which was
taken with the son of Pompey. The free towns are Old As-
tigi^ and Ostippo' ; the tributary towns are Callet, Callecula,
Castra Gemina, the Lesser Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana, Obul-
cula®, and Oningis. As you move away from the sea-coast,
near where the river Menoba is navigable, you find, at no
great distance, the Alontigiceli and the Alostigi".

The country which extends from the Baetis to the river
Anas, beyond the districts already described, is called Bae-
turia, and is divided into two parts and the same number of
nations ; the Celtici^", who border upon Lusitania, in the ju-

^ The site of this place is unknown. It probably obtained its name
from being a colony of one of the legions, the 7th, 10th, 13th or 14th ;
which were called ' geminse ' or * gemell®,' from being composed of the
men of two legions originally.

2 " The Valour of JuUus," Sanson places it not fer from Miragenil.

3 " The Fame of JuUus." Perliaps the present OUvera, or else Teba,
six leagues to the south of Estepa.

* The present city of Ossuna. " Genua IJrbanprjmi" would seem to
mean " the knees of the citizens." Though all the MSS. agree in this read-
ing, it probably is an error for " gemina Urbanonmi," and it may have been
a colony of one of the legions called ' geminse ' or ' gemellfle,' as previously
mentioned. The other part of its appellation may possibly have originated
in the fact of its first inhabitants being all natives of the city of Rome,.

* The use of the word /mj7, ' was,' implies that the place had .been
destroyed. Gneius Pompeius, the eldest son of Pompey the Great, was
defeated at Munda, in the year B.C. 45, and the town destroyed. Pom-
pey escaped from the battle, but was taken a short time after and
put to death. The site of the ancient town is very generally supposed
to be the modem village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga, and about three
leagues from the sea. It is more probable however that it was in the
vicinity of Cordova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and towers be-
tween Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and Baena, which are supposed to denote
its site.

^ Now Alameda ; eight leagues from the other Astiji or Ecija.

7 Now Estepa, six leagues from Ecija,

8 Perhaps Mancloua, between the towns of Ecija and Carmona ; the
sites of all the other places here mentioned appear to be quite unknown.

^ Sanson supposes the Alostigi to have inhabited the territory near
Almagia, between Malaga and Autiqueira.

• ^"^ The Celtici are supposed to have inhabited the country between the
VOL. I. it

162 PLIJfX's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

risdiction of Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell on the
verge ^ of Lusitania and Tarraconensis, and are under the
protection of the laws of Corduba. It is evident that the
Celtici have sprung from the Celtiberi, and have come from
Lusitania, from their religious rites, their language, and the
names of their towns, which in Baetica are distinguished by
the following epithets^, which have been given to them.
Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia^, Ner-
tobriga that of Concordia Julia"*, Segida that of Eestituta
Julia^ and Contributa" that of JuHa. What is now Curiga
was formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia Julia^ was Laconi-
murgis, the present Fortunales were the Tereses^, and the
Emanici were the CaUenses^. Besides these, there are in
Celtica the towns of Acinippo^", Arunda", Aruci^^, Turo-
briga, Lastigi, Salpesa, Saepone, and Serippo.

The other Bseturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited
by the Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some
towns which are by no means inconsiderable; Arsa*-"*,

Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the eastern parts of Alentejo and the west
of Estremadura, as fiar as the city of Badajoz.

^ Probably part of Estremadura, and the vicinity of Badajoz in an
easterly direction.

2 The exact meaning of this passage is somewhat obscure, but he pro-
bably means to say that the Celtici have an identity of sacred rites, lan-
guage, and names of towns with the Celtiberians ; though it had become
the usage in Bsetica more generally to distinguish the towns by their
Boman names.

3 " The Fame of Julius." Its site is not known.

* " The Concord of Julius." Probably the same as the modem Yalera
la Vega, near Frejenal.

5 Probably meaning " Restored by Julius." Nothing is known of its site.

* According to an authority quoted by Hardouin, this may possibly be
Medina de las Torres.

7 Probably Constantina in Andalusia, to the north of Penaflor.

® The tribe or nation of the Tereses are supposed to have dwelt in the
vicinity of the modem San Nicolo del Puerto.

^ Calentum was their town ; probably the present Cazalla near Alania.
This place will be found mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 14.

^° The ruiijs two leagues north of Ronda la Vieja are supposed to bo
those of this place. There are the remains of an aqueduct and theatro,
and numerous coins are found here.

1^ Probably the present Ronda la Vieja.

^2 Identified by inscriptions with the present Aroche. The sites of
several of the following places are unknown.

^ The Azuaga of modern times j but, according to Hardouin, Argallen.

Chap. 3.] ACCOUNT OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 163

Mellaria\ Mirobriga', and Sisapo*, in the district of
Osintias.

To the jurisdiction of Grades belongs Begina, with Koman
citizens ; and Laepia, Ulia'', Carisa' eumamed Aurelia, Urgia"
or Castrum Julium, likewise called Caesaris Salutariensis,
all of which enjoy the Latian rights. The tributary towns
are Besaro, Belippo', Barbesula, Lacippo, Baesippo, Callet,
Cappacum, Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi, Saguntia*, and
AudorissB.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this pro-
vince to be 475 miles^, and its breadth 257 ; but this was at
a time when its boundaries extended to Carthage^", a circum-
stance which has often caused great errors in calculations ;
which are generally the result either of changes effected in the
limits of provinces, or of the fact that in the reckoning of dis-
tances the length of the miles has been arbitrarily increased or
diminished. In some parts too the sea has been long making
encroachments upon the land, and in others again the shores
have advanced ; while the course of rivers in this place has
become more serpentine, in that more direct. And then,
besides, some writers begin their measurements at one place,

* According to Hardouin this wa* on the site of the modem Fuente
de la Ovejuna, fourteen leagues from Cordova.

2 Tills has been identified by inscriptions with the modem ViUa de
Capilla.

3 According to Hardouin, the modem Almaden de la Plata.
■* Probably the same as the modem Monte Major.

5 The ruins of this place are probably those seen at Carixa^ near
Bomos, in the vicinity of Seville.

® According to Hardouin, the same as the modem Las Cabezas, not
far from Lebrija.

7 The sites of these two towns are unknown. Baesippo, Barbesula and
Callet have been already mentioned-

® The ruins of Sagimtia are to be seen between Arcos and Xeres della
Frontera, on the river Guadalete ; they bear their ancient name under
the form of Cigonza. Mela, B. iii. c. 1, says that Oleastro was a grove
near the Bay of Cadiz. Brana was probably the same place that is men-
tioned by Ptolemy under the name of Urbona.

^ "We may here mention for the more correct information of the reader
that the Roman mile consisted of 1000 paces, each pace being five Enghsh
feet. Hence its length was 1618 English yards (taking the Roman
foot at 11-6496 English inches), or 142 yards less than the Enghsh
statute mile.

^•^ Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.

h2

164 pliny's natueal histoey. [Book III.

and some at another, and so proceed in different directions ;
and hence the result is, that no two accounts agree.

(2.) At the present day the length of Baetica, from the
town of Castulo\ on its frontier, to Grades is 250 miles, and
from Murci, which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles
more. The breadth, measured from the coast of Carteia, is
234 miles. Who is there that can entertain the belief that
Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary diligence, and one who
bestowed so much care on his subject, when he proposed to
place before the eyes of the world a survey of that world, could
be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too when seconded
by the late emperor the divine Augustus ? Tor it was that
emperor who completed the Portico^ which had been begun
by his sister, and in which the survey was to be kept, in con-
formity with the plan and descriptions of M. Agrippa.

CHAP. 4, (3.) — or ITEAEEE SPAIN.

The ancient form of the J^Tearer Spain, like that of many
other provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when
Pompey the G-reat, upon the trophies which he erected in
the Pyrenees, testified that 877 towns, from the Alps to the
borders of the Farther Spain, had been reduced to subjection
by him. The whole province is now divided into seven juris-
dictions, those of Carthage^, of Tarraco, of Csesar Augusta^, of

^ Now Cazlona, on the confines of New Castile and the kingdom of
Granada. It was a place of great importance, and the chief town of the
Oretani. Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of this place.

2 Tliis was the ' porticus Octavise,' which, having been commenced by
his sister Octavia, the wife of MarceUus and Antony, was completed by
Augustus. It lay between the Circus Flaminius and the Theatre of Mar-
ceUus, occupying the site of the former portico, which had been built by
Q. Csecihus MeteUus, and enclosing the two temples of Jimo and of Ju-
piter Stator. It contained a public hbrary, in which the Senate often
met, and it was in this probably that the map or plan, mentioned by
Pliny, was deposited. It also contained a great nimiber of statues,
paintings, and other works of art, which, with the Hbrary, were destroyed
by fire in the reign of Titus.

3 Nova Carthago or New Carthage, now Carthagena.

* Now Zaragoza or Saragossa, on the right bank of the river Ebro. Its
original name was Salduba, but it was changed in honour of Augustus,
wlw colonized it after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25.

Chap. 4.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 165

Cluiiia\ of Asturica^, of Lucus', and of the Bracari^. To these
are to be added the islands, which will be described ou
another occasion, as also 293 states which are dependent on
others ; besides which the province contains 179 towns. Of
these, twelve are colonies, thirteen, towns with the rights of
Roman citizens, eighteen with the old Latian rights, one
confederate, and 135 tributary.

The first people that we come to on the coast are the
Bastuli ; after whom, proceeding according to the order which
I shall follow, as we go inland, there are the Mentesani, the
Oretani, and the Carpetani on the Tagus, and next to
them the Vaccaei, the Vectones, and the Celtiberian Arevaci.
The towns nearest to the coast are Urci, and Barea^ included
in Baetica, the district of Mavitania, next to it Deitania, and
then Contestania, and the colony of Carthago Nova ; from
the Promontory of which, known as the Promontorium Sa-
turni^, to the city of Caesarea^ in Mauritania, the passage is
a distance of 187 miles. The remaining objects worthy of
mention on the coast are the river Tader^, and the free colony
of Ilici^, whence the Ilicitanian GiiLP" derives its name ; to
this colony the Icositani are subordinate.

We nexthaveLucentum", holding Latian rights ; Dianium^^,
a tributary town; the river Sucre ^^, and in former times a
town of the same name, forming the frontier of Contestania.

^ This was the most remote place of any consideration in Celtiberia, on
the west. Its ruins are still to be seen on the summit of a hill surrounded
with rocks, forming a natural wall between Corunna del Conde and Pen-
nalda de Castro.

2 This was Asturica Augusta, the chief city of the nation of the Astures,
and situate on one of the tributaries of the Astura, now Esta. On its
site is situate the present Astorga : its ruins are very extensive.

* Now Lugo.

* Or Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient
city there are the remains of an aqueduct and amphitheatre.

* Probably the present toAJsm of Vera near Muxacra.

^ The " Promontory of Saturn," now Cabo de Palos.

7 D' Anville takes this place to be the port of Vacxu* ; if so, the distance
from Cape Palos is exactly 170 miles. * Now Segura.

9 The modem town of Elche was probably built from the ruins of
this place. ^^ Now called the Gulf of Ahcant.

1^ With the Arabian El prefixed, this has formed the name of the
famous port of Ahcant.

^ Now Denia, a thriving town. ^^ Jfow called the Xucar. -

166 Pinnr's nattjeal histoey. [Book III.

Next is the district of Edetania, with the delightful expanse
of a lake^ before it, and extending backward to Celtiberia.
Yalentia^, a colony, is situate three miles from the sea, after
which comes the river Turium^, and Saguntum'* at the same
distance, a town of Eoman citizens famous for its fidelity,
the river Uduba\ and the district of the Ilergaones®. The
Iberus^, a river enriched by its commerce, takes its rise in
the country of the Cantabri, not far from the town of Julio-
briga^, and flows a distance of 450 miles ; 260 of which, from
the town of Yaria^ namely, it is available for the purposes of
navigation. From this river the name of Iberia has been
given by the Greeks to the whole of Spain.

Next comes the district of Cossetania, the river Subi^",
and the colony of Tarraco, which was built by the Scipios as
Carthage" was by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the
Ilergetes, the town of Subur^^, and the river Eubricatum",
beyond which begin the Laletani and the Indigetes^^. Be-
hind these, in the order in which they will be mentioned,

* Now called Albufera. ^ The present city of Valencia.
' Or Turia, now the Guadalaviar.

* Or Saguntus, famed for the fidelity of its inhabitants to the Eoman
cause : after a siege of nine months, rather than submit to the Carthaginians
under Hannibal, they set fire to their town and perished in the flames, B.C.
219. It was rebuilt eight years afl;erwards and made a Eoman colony. The
ruins of the ancient town, which was said to have been originally founded
by Greeks from Zacynthus, are still to be seen, and the ancient walls (muri
veteres) give name to the present Murviedro, which is built on its site.

^ Now the Murviedro, which flows past the city of that name and the
town of Segorbe.

^ Dertosa, the present Tortosa, is supposed to have been inhabited by
them. 7 Now the Ebro.

* Hardouin places this on the site of the modern Fuente de Ivero.
The Ebro takes its rise in the Val de Vieso.

9 According to P' AnviQe, the present Logrono. At present the Ebro
only becomes navigable at Tudela, 216 miles from the sea. Other writers,
however, take Varia to be the present Yaltierra, near Tudela.

^^ Or the Subur, now the Francoli. It flows into the sea at the port
of Tarraco, now Tarragona.

" The more ancient commentators think that Carthago Yetus, or the
colony of Old Carthage (now Carta la Yieja), is here alluded to, but more
probably it is Carthago Nova that is meant.

12 On the Subi, previoxisly mentioned ; now called YiUa Nova.

13 Now the Llobregat.

M Their territory was situate around the present Gulf of Ampurias.

Cliap. 4.] •- ACCOUNT OF COTINTEIES, ETC. 167

going back from the foot of the Pyrenees, are the Ausetani^
theLacetani^ and along the Pyrenees, the Cerretani^, next to
whom are the Vascones''. On the coast is the colony of
Barcino^ surnamedFaventia; Baetulo* and Iluro^, towns with
Roman citizens; the river Larnum^, BlandaB^, the river Alba'";
Emporije", a city consisting of two parts, one peopled by the
original inhabitants, the other by the Greek descendants
of the Phocaeans ; and the river Ticher'^. From this to the
Venus Pyrenaea", on the other side of the Promontory, is a
distance of forty miles.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the more re-
markable things in these several jurisdictions, in addition to
those which have been already mentioned. Forty-three
different peoples are subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of
Tarraco : of these the most famous are — holding the rights
of Roman citizens, the Dertusani" and the Bisgargitani ;
enjoying Latian rights, the Ausetani, and the Cerretani, both
Julian and Augustan, the Edetani'", the Gerundenses'^, the

* Their chief cities were Genmda, the present Gbrona, and Ausa or
Yicus Ausse, now Vic d'Osona. ^ In the country beyond Gerona.

3 Living in the upper valley of the river Sicoris or Segre, w^hich still
retains, from them, the name of Cerdague.

* The people of the modem Navarre and Guipuzcoa.

* In the later writers Barcelo, now Barcelona. It was said to have
been originally founded by Hercules, and afterwards rebuilt by Hamilcar
Barcas, who gave it the name of his family. Its name as a Roman colony
was Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino. The modern city
stands somewhat to the east of the ancient one.

* The modem Badalona, two leagues from Barcelona.

^ On the sea-shore, — the present Pineda. 8 jf ow the Tordera.

9 The modem city of Blanos stands on its site.
i» Probably the present Ter or Tet.

II The modem Ampuriaa. We learn from Strabo that a wall divided
the town of the Greeks from that of the old inhabitants. It was the
usual landing-place for travellers from Gaul. It was originally colonized
by the Phocseans from MassiUa or Marseilles.

12 Hardouin says that the Ticher or Tichis is the same with the modem
Ter, but in such case Pliny would have mentioned it before coming to Em-
porise. Its present name however does not appear to be accurately known.

13 A promontory extending from the Pyrensean chain, on which a
temple of Yenus was situate. It is now called Cabo de Cruz. The
distance mentioned by PUny is probably too great.

1^ The people of the present Tortosa.

1* Probably not the same people as the Edetani, in whose district Sa-
guntum and Valencia were situate. i® The people of Gerunda or Gerona.

168 PLIFT's Is'ATUEAL HISTORY. ^ [Book III.

G-essorienses\ and the Teari", also called Julienses. Among
the tributaries are the Aquicaldenses^, the Onenses, and the
Baeculonenses"*.

Caesar Augusta, a free colony, watered by the river Iberus,
on the site of the town formerly called Salduba, is situate in
the district of Edetania, and is the resort of fifty-five nations.
Of these there are, with the rights of Roman citizens, the
Bellitani^, the Celsenses®, a former colony, the Calagurritani',
surnamed the Nassici, the Ilerdenses®, of the nation of the
Surdaones, near whom is the river Sicoris, the Oscenses' in
the district of Vescitania, and the Turiasonenses ^". Of those
enjoying the rights of the ancient Latins, there are the
Cascantenses",theErgavicenses^^, the Grraccuritani^^,theLeo-

* They are nowhere else mentioned. Ukert supposes that their city
stood in the district between the Sicoris and Nucaria.

2 Their city was Tiara Juha.

3 The people of Aquse Cahdse or the * Hot Springs,' called at the pre-
sent day Caldes, four leagues from the city of Barcelona.

"• Ptolemy places Bsecula between Ausa and Gorunda.
. ' The people of the present Bclchite.
^ The people of the present Xelsa, on the Ebro.

7 The inhabitants of Calagurris, now Calahorra, a city of the Yascones,
on the banks of the Ebro. They remained faithful to Sertorius to the last,
and after slaughtering their wives and cliildren and eating their flesh, their
city was taken and destroyed ; which event put an end to the Sertorian
war. It was called " Nassica," in contradistinction to Calagurris Fibularia,
which is afterwards mentioned by Pliny. The latter is mentioned by
Caesar as forming one community with Osca (now Huesca), and was pro-
bably the present Loarre, though some writers take the first -named Cala-
gurris to be that place, and the latter one to be the present Calahorra.

8 The people of Ilerda, the present Lerida, on the Sicoris or Segre. It
is memorable for its siege by Caesar, when the Pompeian forces imder
Ifranius and Petreius had retired thither. It was a most flourishing city,
though in the times of the later Roman emperors it had fallen into decay.

^ The people of the present Huesca.

^° The inhabitants of Turiazo, the present Tarazona, five leagues south
of Tudela.

" The people of Cascantum, the present town of Cascante in Navarre.

^2 The people of Ergavica. Its ruins, at the confluence of the Guadiela
and Tagus, are still to be seen, and are called Santaver. By some writers
this pl^e is considered to be the same as the modern Fraga, on the river
Cinca, five leagues from Lerida.

'^ The people of Graccuris. Its former name of Hurcis was changed
in honour of Sempronius Gracchus, who placed new settlers there after
the conquest of Celtiberia. It is supposed to be the same as the modent
Agreda, four leagues from Tarazona.

Chap. 4.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC, 169

nicenses^ and the Osicerdenses ; of federate states, there
are the Tarragenses^ ; and of tributaries, the Arcobri-
genses*, the Andologenses^, the Aracelitani**, the Bursao-
nenses*', the Calagurritani% who are also surnamed the
Fibularenses, the Complutenses^, tlie Carenses^, the Cin-
censes^", the Cortonenses, the Damanitani", the Lar-
nenses^^, the Lursenses^, the Lumberitani", the Lacetani,
the Lubienses, the Pompelonenses", and the Segienses.

^ The people of Leonica, probably the modem Alcaniz, on the river
Guadalope, in Arragon.

'^ The people of Tarraga, tne present Tarrega, nine leagues east of
Lerida, in Catalonia.

^ The people of Arcobriga, now Loi Arcos, in Navarre, five leagues
south of E Stella.

* Perhaps the same as the Andosini, a people mentioned by Polybius,
B. iii. c. 35, as situate between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. There is a
small town of Navarre called Androilla.

* The people probably of the site now occupied by Huarte Araquil,
SIX leagues to the west of Pampeluna.

^ Probably the same as the Biu^aones of Livy, the Bursavolenses of
Hirtius, and the Bursadenses of Ptolemy. Their exact locaUty is unknown.

7 Mention has been made of Calagurris Fibularensb or Fibuhcensia
under Calagurris Nassica : see p. 168.

* The people of Complutvun, the modem Alcala de Henares, on the
river Henares, six leagues to the east of Madrid. It is not quite certain
whether it stood on the exact site of Alcala, or on the hill of Zulema, on
the other side of the Henares.

^ The towni of Cares, adjoining the more modem one of Puente la
Revna, probably marks their site.

10 Probably so called from the river Cinga, the modem Cinca : or they
may have given their name thereto.

^1 The people probably of the present Mediana on the Ebro, six
leagues below Zaragoza.

^2 Their town was Lamum, situate on a river of the same name. It
was probably the present Torderas, situate on the river of that name.

13 Of this people nothing appears to be known. In the old editions the
next people mentioned are the " Ispalenses," but since the time of Har-
douin, they have been generally omitted, as wrongly introduced, and as ut-
terly unknown. Spanish coins have however been more recently discovered
mth the name ' Sblaie ' or ' Splaie,' inscribed in Celtiberian characters,
and numismatists are of opinion that they indicate the name of the town
of this people, which in Latin would be Ispala. This at all events is the
opinion of M. de Sauley.

^"^ The people of the present town of Lumbier in Navarre, called by its
inhabitants Irimiberri.

15 The people of the present city of Pampeluna.

170 plint's natubal histoet. [Book III.

Sixty-five different nations resort to Carthage \ besides
the inhabitants of the islands. Of the Accitanian^ colony,
there are the Gemellenses, and the town of Libisosona^, sur-
named Foroaugustana, to both of which have been granted
Italian'' rights. Of the colony of Salaria^ there are the people
of the following towns, enjoying the rights of ancient La-
tium: the Castulonenses, also called the Caesari Yenales, the
Saetabitani® or Augustani, and the Valerienses". The best
known among the tributaries are the Alabanenses", the Bas-
titani^, the Consaburrenses^",the Dianenses", theEgelestani^^,

* Carthago Nova, or New Carthage.

2 The colony of Acci was called Colonia Julia Gemella Accitana. The
town of Acci or Accis was on the site of the present Guadix el Viejo,
between Granada and Baza. It was colonized by the third and sixth
l^ons under Juhus or Augustus, from which it obtained the name
of * GemeUa,' the origin of which name is previously mentioned, p. 161.

^ The ruins of this place are supposed to be those seen at Lebazuza or
Lezuza, not far from the city of Cuen^a.

^ The "jus Itahcum" or "Itahse," "Italian rights" or "privileges,"
differed from the "jus Latinum," It was granted to provincial towns
which were especially favoured by the magistracy of Rome, and consisted
of exemption from taxes, a municipal constitution, after the manner of
the ItaHan towns, and many other rights and exemptions.

* According to Hardouin, the people of the town formerly called Sa-
liotis, now Cazorla. They are called " Csesari venales," from the circum-
stance of their territory having been purchased \yy Csesar. — Castulo or
Cazlona has been previously mentioned.

^ The people of Ssetabis, now Xativa in Yalencia. This town was fa-
mous for its manufacture of fine table-napkins, to which reference is made
by Pliny at the beginning of his Introduction addressed to Titus, in his
quotation from the lament of Catullus on the loss of his table-napkins
which his friends had filched from him. See p. 1 of the present volume.

7 According to some writers, the present Cuenga was the ancient Va-
leria ; but perhaps it was situate at the present village of Valera la Vieja,
or Old Valeria, eight leagues south of Cuen^a.

' The people of Alaba, not far from the present town of Ergavica.

^ They were so called from their town of Basti, now Baza, on the river
Guadalentin in Granada.

^^ Their town was probably the present Consuegra, twelve leagues from
the city of Toledo.

" So called from the promontory Dianium or Artemisium, named from
a temple of Diana there situate, and having in its vicinity a town of the
same name. The present town of Denia still retains nearly the original
name. Its lake, now caUecl Albufera de Valencia, has been previously
mentioned, p. 166.

^ The modem Yniesta marks the site of their town.

Chap. 4.] ACCOTTNT OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 171

the Ilorcitam\ the Laminitani, the Mentesani^ both those
called Oritani and those called Bastuli, and the Oretani
who are surnamed Germani^, the people of Segobriga^ the
capital of Celtiberia, those of Toletum^ the capital of Car-
petania, situate on the river Tagus, and after them the Via-
tiensea and the Virgilienses".

To the jurisdiction of Clunia^ the Yarduli contribute four-
teen nations, of whom we need only particularize the Alba-
nenses^, the Turmodigi', consisting of four tribes, among
which are the Segisamonenses^" and the Segisamaiulienses.
To the same jurisdiction belong the Carietes" and the Ven-
nenses with live states, among which are the Velienses.
Thither too resort the Pelendones of the Celtiberians, in
four different nations, among whom the Numantini'^ were
especially famous. Also, among the eighteen states of the
Vaccaei, there are the Intercatienses*^ the Pallantini", the
Lacobrigenses, and the Caucenses^^ But among the seven

* The people probably of Eliocroca, now Lorca, on the high road fi^m
Carthago Nova to Castulo.

2 There were two places of the name of Mentesa, one in the district of
the Oritani, and the other in that of the Bastitani or Bastiili.

3 Ptolemy, B. ii., mentions a city of this nation, called ' Oretum G^r-
manorum.' It has been supposed that it was the present Calatrava, five
leagues from Ciudad Real.

^ Supposed to be in the vicinity of the present Calatajud.
5 The present Toledo.

8 Their town is supposed to have stood on the site of the present Murcia.
7 Now Coruna del Conde.

^ The people of the present Alava on the Ebro. — A small town there
still bears the name of Alvana.

9 This nation is not mentioned elsewhere. Possibly they are the Mur-
bogi, mentioned by Ptolemy.

^^ Their towii Segisamon was either the present Veyzama in Guipuz-
coa, or, more probably, Sasamon, eight leagues north-west of Burgos.

" The people of Carissa, on the site of the present Carixa near SevUle.

^ Strabo assigns the Numantini to the Arevacse, and not the Pelen-
dones. The ruins of the city of Numantia were still to be seen at Puente
Grarray near the city of Soria, in Hardouin's time, the 17th century.

^3 D' Anville places their city, Intercatia, at the place called Villa nueva
de Azuague, forty miles from the present Astorga ; others again make it to
have been sixty miles from that place.

^* Their town was on the site of the modem city of Palencia, on the
river Carion.

1^ The people of Cauca, the present Coca, situate between Segovia and
YaUadolid, on the river Eresma.

172 TLrNT's NATT7EAL HISTOET. [Book III.

peoples belonging to the Cantabri, Juliobriga^ is the only-
place worthy of mention ; and of the ten states of the Au-
trigones, Tritium and Yirovesca^. The river Areva^ gives
its name to the Arevaci ; of whom there are six towns, Se-
gontia^ and Uxama*, names which are frequently given to
other places, as also Segovia® and Nova Augusta, Termes",
and Clunia itself, the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining
portion turns off towards the ocean, being occupied by the
Varduli, already mentioned, and the Cantabri.

Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the
Astures, who are divided into the Augustani^ and the Trans-
montani, with the magnificent city of Asturica. Among
these we have the Cigurri', the PaBsici, the Lancienses^*^, and
the Zoelse " . The total number of the free population amounts
to 240,000 persons.

The jurisdiction of Lucus'^ embraces, besides the Celtici
and the Lebuni, sixteen different nations, but little known

1 This was the chief city of the Cantabri. It has been aheady men-
tioned, but we may add that it stood near the sources of the Ebro, on
the eminence of Retortillo, south of Reynosa. Five stones stiU mark
the boundaries which divided the territory from that of the Foiuih Legio.

^ Supposed to be the present Briviesca ; the site of Tritium does not
appear to be known, but it has been suggested that it was near Najara,
in the vicinity of Logrono.

3 It does not appear to be certain whether the Areva was the present
Ucero, or the Arlanzon, which flows near ValladoHd.

* The modem Siguenza.

5 Now El Burgo d'Osma, in the province of Soria.

^ This must not be mistaken for the modem Segovia, between Madrid
and Valladohd : it was a small town in the vicinity of Numantia.

' Probably the present Lerma, on the river Arlanza.

^ The people of Asturica Augusta, now Astorga, in the province of
Leon. The ruins of this fine city are said still to give a perfect idea of a
fortified Roman tovm.

3 Their chief city stood on the site of the present Cigarrosa, or San
Estevan de Val de Orres. Its ruins are still to be seen, and a Roman
bridge, the people preserving a tradition that an old town once stood
there called Guigurra.

1" The people of Lance or Lancia, probably the present Lollanco or
MansOla; though Oviedo has been suggested. This however may be
the Ovetum mentioned by PHny ia B. xxxiv. c. 17.

^^ Mentioned by Pliny in B. xix. c. 2, as famous for their flax. Their
locality near the coast does not appear to be exactly known. The Psesici
previously mentioned were situate on the peninsula of Cabo de Penas.

^ Now the city of Lugo in GaUicia.

Chap. 4] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 173

and with barbarous names. The number however of the free
population amounts to nearly 166,000.

In a similar manner the twenty -four states of the juris-
diction of the Bracari contain a population of 175,000, among
whom, besides the Bracari' themselves, we may mention,
without wearying the reader, the Bibali, the Coelerni, the
Gallaeci, the llequaesi, the Limici, and the Querquemi.

The length of the Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the
frontier of Castulo, is 607^ miles, and a little more if we fol-
low the line of the coast ; while its breadth, from Tarraco to
the shore of Olarson^ is 307'* miles. From the foot of the
Pyrenees, where it is wedged in by the near approach of the
two seas, it gradually expands until it touches the Farther
Spain, and thereby acquires a width more than double*.

Nearly the whole of Spain abounds in mines'' of lead, iron,

^ The people of Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of
the ancient city are the remains of an aqueduct and an ampliitheatre.
This people probably derived their name fi^m their fashion of wearing
braccae, " breeches" or " trowsers," like their neighbours of Gallia Brac-
cata. The exact localities of the various other tribes here mentioned do
not appear to be exactly known.

2 Our author is mistaken here, even making allowance for the short-
ness of the Koman mile (1618 yards), as the length is only 470 miles.
Coastwise it is 620.

* Now Oyarzun. It is also mentioned in B. iv. c. 34.

^ Ho is also in error here ; for, taken in a straight line, this distance
is but 210 miles. ' The distance is about 560 miles.

^ It may be worth while here to take some notice of the mineral pro-
ductions of Spain in modem times, from which we shall be able to form
a more accurate judgement as to the correctness of the statement here
made by PHny. Grains of gold are stiU to be found in the rivers Tagus
and Douro ; but there is not foimd sufficient of the precious metal to pay
for the search. Silver is found in the mines of the Guadal canal. Copper
and lead are to be found in abundance. There is a mine of plumbago
four leagues from Ronda; and tin is found in GaUicia. In every pro-
vince there are iron mines, those in Biscay being the most remarkable.
Lodestone is found in Seville, cobalt on the Pyrenees, quicksilver and
cimiabarat Almaden, arsenic in Asturias, and coal in Asturias and Arra-
gon. There are salt-mines at Mingrilla and Cardona ; alum is foimd in Ar-
ragon, antimony at Alcaraz. On the Sierra Morena, and in Gallicia, there
is saltpetre in numerous locahties ; amber in Astm*ias and Valencia, and
sulphvu* in Murcia, Arragon, and Seville. Pipe-clay of a peculiar quaUty is
found in the vicinity of Andujar. Gypsum and marble are found in great
abxmdance, and stone for building purposes, of the best quahty. Ame-
thysts, white cornelians, rubies, agates, garnets, and rock crystals, with
other precious stones, are also found in abxindance and of the finest quaUty,

174 PLimr's natueal histoet. [Book III.

copper, silver, and gold ; in the Nearer Spain there is also
found lapis specularis^ ; in BaBtica there is cinnabar. There
are also quarries of marble. The Emperor Vespasianus
Augustus, while still harassed by the storms that agitated
the Boman state, conferred the Latian rights on the whole
of Spain. The Pyrenean mountains divide Spain from Graul,
their extremities projecting into the two seas on either side.

CHAP. 5. (4.) — OF THE PEOVINCE OF GALLIA NAEBOITENSIS.

That part of the G-allias which is washed by the inland sea^
is called the province of [GraUia] Narbonensis^, having
formerly borne the name of Braccata''. It is divided from
Italy by the river Varus^, and by the range of the Alps, the
great safeguards of tlie Roman Empire. From the remainder
of Gaul, on the north, it is separated by the mountains Ge-
henna^ and Jura''. In the cultivation of the soil, the man-
ners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its
wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short,
might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than
as a province. On the coast we have the district of the
Sordones^, and more inland that of the Consuarani^. The

^ Transparent stone. Further mention is made of it by PHny in
B. XXXV, c. 45. 2 Or Mediterranean.

3 From the chief city Narbo Martins, and later Narbona, now Nar-
bonne, situate on the river Atax, now Aude. It was made a Roman
colony by the Consul Q. Martins B.C. 118, and from him received its sur-
name. It was the residence of the Roman governor of the province and
a place of great commercial importance. There are scarcely any remains
of the ancient city, but some vestiges of the canal, by which it was con-
nected with the sea at twelve miles' distance.

* From the linen breeches which the inhabitants wore, a fashion which
was not adopted by the Romans tiU the time of the Emperors. Severus
wore them, but the use of them was restricted by Honorius.

6 Still called the ' Var.' It divides France from Nice, a province of
Sardinia.

^ Now the Cevennes. They lie as much to the west as the north of
GaUia Narbonensis.

7 The range of the Jura, north of the Lake of Geneva.

8 Inhabiting the former Comte de Roussillon, or Departement des Py-
renees Orientales. They were said to have been originally a Bebrycian
or Thracian colony.

* Probably the inhabitants of the present Conserans, on the west of
the Departement de 1' Arriege.

Chap. 5.] ACCOUNT OE COTJITTEIES, ETC. 175

rivers are the Tecum and the Yemodubrum^ The to'WTia
are IHiberis'^ the scanty remains of what was formerly a great
city, and Euscino^, a town with Latian rights. "We then
come to the river Atax*, which flows from the Pyrenees, and
passes through the Rubrensian Lake*, the town of Narbo
Martins, a colony of the tenth legion, twelve miles distant
from the sea, and the rivers Arauris^ and Liria^. The towns
are otherwise but few in number, in consequence of the
niunerous lakes' which skirt the sea-shore. We have Aga-
tha", formerly belonging to the Massilians, and the district of
the Volcae Tectosages*" ; and there is the spot where Ehoda",
a Rhodian colony, formerly stood, from which the river takes
its name of Ehodanus*^ ; a stream by far the most fertilizing
of any in either of the Gallias. Descending from the Alps
and rushing through lake Lemanus", it carries along with it
the sluggish Arar**, as well as the torrents of the Isara and
the Druentia", no less rapid than itself. Its two smaller
mouths are called Libica , one being the Spanish, and the

^ Probably the Tech, and the Verdouble, which falls into the Gly.

^ Probably the present Elne, on the Tech.

^ The present Castel Roussillon. * The Aude of the present day.

* The bodies of water now called Etangs de Bages et de Sigean.

* Now the Herault.

' Now called the Lez, near the city of MontpeUier.

® Now called Etangs de Leucate, de Sigean, de Gruissan, de Vendres,
de Thau, de Maguelonne, de Perols, de Mauguio, du Bepausset ; Marais
d'Escamandre, de Lemiitane et de la Souteyrane, and numerous others.

" Now the town of Agde. Strabo also informs us that this place was
founded by the Massilians.

^* This people seems to have inhabited the eastern parts of the depart-
ments of r Arriege and the Haute Gkronne, that of Aude, the south of
that of Tarn, and of that of Herault, except the arrondissement of Mont-
peUier.

" Dalechamp takes this to be Foz les Martigues ; but the locaHty is
doubtful. Most probably this is the same place that is mentioned by
Strabo as Ehoe, in conjunction with the town of Agathe or Agde, and
the Rodanusia of Stephen of Byzantium, who places it in the district of
Massiha or Marseilles.

12 Now the Rhone. ^ Now the Lake of Gkmeva.

1'* The modem Saone. ^^ j^ow the rivers Is^re and Durance.

1^ Most probably from Libici, a town in the south of Gaul, of which
there are coins in existence, but nothing else seems to be known. At
the present day there are foiir mouths of the Rhone, the most westerly
of which is caJled the " Dead" Rhone ; the next the " Lesser" Rhone ;
the third the " Old " Rhone ; and the fourth simply the Rhone. D'An-

176 pliky's NATUEAL HISTORT. [Book III.

other tlie Metapinian mouth ; the third and largest is called
the Massiliotic\ There are some authors who state that there
was formerly a town called Heraclea^ at the mouth of the
E-hodanus or Rhone.

Beyond this are the Canals' leading out of the Rhone, a
famous work of Caius Marius, and still distinguished by his
name ; the Lake of Mastramela"*, the town of Maritima* of the
Avatici, and, above this, the Stony Plains^, memorable for the

ville considers the " Lesser" Ehone to have been the " Spanish" mouth
of the ancients. In consequence of the overflowings of this river there is
great confusion upon this subject.

^ This mouth of the Khone was much used by the Massilians for the
purposes of commerce with the interior of Gaul, and the carriage of the
suppUes of tin which they obtained thence.

2 The manner in which PUny here expresses himself shows that he
doubts the fact of such a place having even existed ; it is mentioned by
none of the preceding geographers, and of those who followed him Stephen
of Byzantium is the only one who notices it. An inscription was found
however in the reign of Charles V. of France, in which it was stated that
Ataulphus, king of the Visigoths, selected Heraclea as his place of resi-
dence. On the faith of this inscription, Spon and Ducange have placed
Heraclea at the modem Saint-GiUes, and other writers at Saint-Remy,
where the inscription was foimd. Unfortunately, however, Messrs. Devic
and Vaissette, in their "History of Languedoc," have proved that this
inscription is of spurious origin.

^ The " Fossae Marianse" are also mentioned by Ptolemy and Solinus ;
though they differ in the situation which they have respectively assigned
them. They were formed by Marius when advancing to dispute the
passage of the Rhone with the Cimbri, who had quitted Spain for the
purpose of passing the Pyrenees and invading Italy, in the year B.C. 102.
There is considerable difficulty in determining their position, but they
are supposed to have commenced at the place now called the Camp of
Marius, and to have terminated at the eastern mouth of the Rhone near
the present Aries.

* Pliny is the first who mentions the name of this lake, though pre-
vious writers had indicated its existence. Strabo informs us that above
the mouth of the Rhone there is a large lake that communicates with the
sea, and abounds in fish and oysters. Brotier and DAnviUe identify it
with the present lake of Martigues or of Berre.

5 D' AnvLJle takes tliis place to be the present town of Martigues ; Bro-
tier thinks that it was situate on the spot now called Le Cap d'(Eil, near
the town of Saint-Chamas ; and Bouche, the historian of the Province,
places it at Marignane, on the east side of the lake already mentioned.

^ "Campi Lapidei," called by the natives at the present day "LaCrau;"
probably from the same Celtic root as our word "Crags ;" though Bochart
derives it from the Hebrew. JEschylus and Hyginus speak of this com*

Chap. 5.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 177

battles of Hercules ; the district of the Anatilii\ and more
inland, that of the Desuviates^ and the Cavari. Again, close
upon the sea, there is that of the Tricorii^ and inland, there
are the Tricolli^, the Vocontii*, and the Segovellauni, and,
after them, the Allobrogee*.

On the coast is Massilia, a colony of Phocaean' Greeks,
and a federate* city ; we then have the Promontory of Zao',
the port of Citharista'", and the district of the Camatullici" ;
then the Suelteri", and above them the Verrucini^^. Again,

bat of Hercules, and Mela relates that being engaged in a mortal struggle
with Albion and Geryon, the sons of Neptune, he invoked the aid of
Jupiter, on which a shower of stones fell from the heavens and destroyed
his antagonists. Those on tliis plain are said to be the remains of the
stony shower. It is supposed by the scientific that many of these stones
are aeroUtes, and that tradition has ingeniously adapted this story to
their real origin. The vicinity of Tunbridge Wells presents a somewhat
similar appearance.

1 The people probably of the site of the present isle of Camargue.

2 They probably inhabited the district south of the Durance, between
it and the Rhone.

3 They inhabited the coimtry in which the present Avignon, Orange,
Cavaillon, and perhaps Carpentras are situate.

* They are thought by Ilardouin to have dwelt in the vicinity of the
present town of Talard in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

5 They inhabited the eastern part pf the departments of the Drdme and
the Vaucluse.

* Their territory comprehended the southern part of the department
of the Ain, the department of the Is^re, the canton of Gteneva, and part
of Savoy.

7 It was said to have been colonized from Phocsea, a town of Ionia in
Asia Minor. Lucan in his Third Book more than once IkUs into the
error of supposing that it was colonized from Phocis in Greece.

^ We learn from Justin, B. xliii., that this privilege, as well as others,
and a seat at the pubhc shows, were granted to the Massihans by the
Roman Ser ate, in return for their sympathy and assistance after the city
had been tfiken and plundered by the G^uls.

9 According to D' Anville the present Cap de I'Aigre, though Mannert
takes it to be the Cap de la Croisette.

^^ D'Anville takes this to be the same as the present Port de la Ciotat.

^^ Probably occupying the south-east of the department of the Var.
It is supposed by Hardouin tliat the village of Ramatuelle, near the coast,
Bouth of the Gulf of Grimaud, represents the ancient name ; and D'An-
ville and other writers are of the same opinion.

^2 Probably the country aro\md the modem Brignole and Draguignan
was inhabited by them.

^ They inhabited Verignon and Barjols in the southern part of the
department of the Var.

YOL. I. If

178 PLiirr's nattjeal histoet. [Book III.

on tlie coast, we find Athenopolis\ belonging to the Massi-
lians. Forum Jnlii^ Octavanorum, a colony, which is also
called Pacensis and Classica, the river Argentens^, which
flows through it, the district of the Oxubii'' and that of the Li-
gauni^ ; above whom are the Suetri^, the Quariates^ and the
Adunicates^. On the coast we have Antipolis^, a town with
Latian rights, the district of the Deciates, and the river Varus,
which proceeds from Mount Cema, one of the Alps.

The colonies in the mterior are Arelate Sextanorum^",
Beterrse Septimanorum^\ and Arausio'^ Secundanorum ; Va-
lentia^^ in the territory of the Cavari, and Vienna^'' in that of
the Allobroges. The towns that enjoy Latian rights are Aquae
Sextiae^^ in the territory of the Saluvii, Avenio^® in that of the

^ D'Anville takes this to be the place called Agaa, between Frejus and
La Napoule : but in so doing he disregards the order in which they are
given by Phny.

2 " The Forum of Julius." Now Frejus. As its name imphcs, it was a ,
colony of the Eighth Legion. It was probably called ' Pacensis,' on some
occasion when peace had happUy been made with the original inhabitants,
and ' Classica' from the fleet being stationed there by Augustus.

3 Still known as the Argens, from the silvery appearance of the water.
It has choked up the harbour with sand, in which probably the ships
of Augustus rode at anchor.

^ They inhabited the coast, in the vicinity of the modem Cannes.
* They are supposed to have inhabited the country of Grasse, in the
south-east of the department of the Var.

6 According to Ptolemy they had for their capital the town of Salinse ;
which some take to be the modem Saluces, others CasteUane, and others
again Seillans, according to Holstein and D'Anville.

7 D'Anville tliinks that they hved in the valley of Queyras, in the de-
partment of the Hautes Alpes, having a town of the same name.

^ The Adunicates are supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the
department of the Basses Alpes, between the towns of Senez and Digne.

» The modem Antibes. Mount Cema is the present Monte- Cemehone.

^^ "Arelate of the Sixth Legion," a miUtary colony ; now the city of
Aries. It is first mentioned by Csesar, who had some ships built there
for the siege of MassiUa or Marseilles. It was made a military colony in
the time of Augustus.

" " Beterrse of the Seventh Legion." The modem town of Beziers.

^2 "Arausio of the Second Legion," now Orange, a town in the depart-
ment of Vaucluse.

^3 Now Valence, in the department of the Dr6me.

^* Now Yienne, m the department of the Isere.

** Aix, in the department of the B ouches du Eh6ne.

*^ Avignon, in the Yaucluse.

Chap. 5.] ACCOUNT OF COIJNTEIES, ETC. 179

Cavari, Apta Julia^ in that of the Volgientes, Alebece' in that
of the Reii Apollinares, Alba' in that of the Helvi, and Au-
gusta* in that of the Tricastini, Anatilia, Aeria^, the Bor-
manni^ the Comaci, Cabellio^, Carcasum* in the territory of
the Volca^ Tectosages, Cessero", Carpentoracte*" in the terri-
tory of the Memini, the Cenicenses", the Cambolectri^^, sur-
named the Atlantiei, Forum'' Voconi, Glanum Livi'*, the
Lutevani**, also called the Foroneronienses^*, Neinausum^' in

* Apt, in the department of Vaucluse.

5 Riez, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

^ The modem Alps, near Viviers, is probably built on the site of this
town. The text shows that it was different from Augusta, probably the
Alba Augusta mentioned by Ptolemy, though D'AnviIle supposes them
to have been the same place.

* Some writers take tliis place to be the present Saint-Paul-Trois-CIia-
teaux, in tlie department of the Dr6me.

* Probably so called from its lofty position, and supposed by D' AnviUe
to have been situate on the modem Mont Ventoux, or " Windy Moun-
tain." Other writers place it at La Croix Haute, near the city of Avignon.

* There is a village in the department of the Var, six leagues from
Toulon, called Bormes, not improbably from these people.

' The modem CavaiUon, in the department of the Vaucluse.

* Now Carcassone, in the depairtment of the Aude.
' Probably Saint Tibery, on the river Herault.

^° Now Carpentras. Ptolemy also makes mention of the Memini.
*^ Probably situate on the river Coenus of Ptolemy, between the eastern
mouth of the Rhone and Massilia. Probably the name in Pliny should
be " Coenienses."

^2 Walckenaer places this people in the vicinity of Cambo, in the arron-
dissement of Bayonne, in the department of the Basses Pyrenees.

'3 In names similar to tliis, as Festus remarks, " Fonun" has the mean-
ing of " Market ;" much as that word is used as a compound in our
names, sucli as Market Drayton, &c. Bouche thinks that by this place
is meant the modem Le Canet : but D' AnviUe takes it to be Gonfaron,
a corruption, he tliinks, of Voconfaron from the Latin name.

^* The site of Glanum was about a mile to the south of the village
of Saint Remi, between CavaiUon and Aries. On the spot there are the
remains of a Roman mausoleum and a triumphal arch,

^•^ The people of Luteva, now Lodeve, in the department of the Herault.
^® " The people of Forum Neronis," which place has been supposed by
some to have been the same witli Carpentoracte : D' AnviUe supposes For-
calquier to have been Forum Neronis, while Walckenaer takes Momas to
have been that place. From the text it would appear to have been
identical with Luteva.

17 The modern Nismes, which in its ruins contains abundant marks of
its ancient splendour. The liinuly of the Antonines came from this place.

If 2

180 plint's FATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

the territory of the Arecomici, Piscenae^ the Euteni"^, the
Sanagenses^, the Tolosani"* in the territory of the Tectosages
on the confines of Aquitania, the Tasconi^, the Tarusconi-
enses®, the TJmbranici', Vasio^ and Lucus Augusti^, the two
capitals of the federate state of the Vocontii. There are also
nineteen towns of less note, as well as twenty-four belonging
to the people of Nemausum. To this list^** the Emperor Galba
added two tribes dwelling among the Alps, the Avantici'^
and the Bodiontici, to whom belongs the town of Dinia'^.
According to Agrippa the length of the province of Grallia
Narbonensis is 370 miles, and its breadth 248^^.

CHAP. 6. (5.) — or ITALY.

Next comes Italy, and we begin with the Ligures^^, after

The remains of its aqueduct stL" survive, containing three rows of arches,
one above the other, and 180 feet in height.

1 The people of the present PezMias, in the department of the H^rault.

2 Their chief town is supposed to have been Albiga, now Albi, in the
department of Tarn.

3 The inhabitants of the present Senez in the Basses Alpes. De la
Saussaye says tliat their coins read ' Samnagenses,' and not ' Sanagenses,'
and that they inhabited Senas, a town in the vicinity of Alx.

4 Their chief town was Tolosa, now Toulouse, in the department of the
Haute- Garonne.

* They probably lived in the vicinity of the present Montauban, in the
department of the Tarn et Garonne.

* Probably the inhabitants of the site of the modem town of Tarascon.
There is, however, considerable doubt as to these two names,

7 Poinsinet thinks that they occupied Yabres, a place situate in the
south of the department of Aveyron.

8 Now Yaison, in the department of Vaucluse.

9 " The Grove of Augustus." This town appears to have been over-
flowed by the river Druma, which formed a lake on its site. Its remains
were stiU. to be seen in the lake in modem times, and from it the toAi n
on the margin of the lake takes its name of Le Luc.

10 Under the name " formula" Pliny perhaps alludes to the official Hst
of the Eoman government, which he had consulted for the purposes of
accuracy.

11 Bouche places the site of this people at the village of Avan^on, be-
tween Chorges and Gap, in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

12 The present town of Digne, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

13 It is not known from what points these measurements of om* author
are taken.

1* The modem names of these localities will form the subject of con-

Chap. 6.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 181

whom we have Etniria, Umbria, Latium, where the mouths of
the Tiber are situate, and Rome, the Capital of the world,
sixteen miles distant from the sea. We then come to the
coasts of the Volsci and of Campania, and the districts of
Picenum, of Lucania, and of Bruttium, where Italy extends
the farthest in a southerly direction, and projects into the
[two] seas with the chain of the Alps', which there forms
pretty nearly the shape of a crescent. licaving Bruttium
we come to the coast of [Magna] Grajcia, then the Salentini,
the Pediculi, the Apuli, the Peligni, the Frentani, the Mar-
rucini, the Vestini, the Sabini, the Picentes, the Galli, the
Umbri, the Tusci, the Veneti, the Cami, the lapydes, the
Histri, and the Liburni.

1 am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused
of ingratitude and indolence, were I to describe thus briefly
and in so cursory a manner the land which is at once the
foster-child'^ and the parent of all lands ; chosen by the pro-
vidence of tliC Gods to render even heaven itself more glori-
ous^, to unite the scattered empires of the earth, to bestow a'
polish upon men's manners, to unite the discordant and un-
couth dialects of so many different nations by the powerful
ties of one common language, to confer the enjoyments of
discourse and of civilization upon mankind, to become, in
short, the mother-country of all nations of the Earth.

But how shall I commence this undertaking ? So vast is
the number of celebrated places (what man living could
enumerate them all?), and so great the renown attached
to each individual nation and subject, that 1 feel myself quite

Bideration when we proceed, in c. 7, to a more minute description of
Italy.

^ This passage is somewhat confused, and may possibly be in a corrupt
state. He here speaks of the Apennine Alps. By the " lunata juga"
he means the two promontories or capes, which extend east and west
respectively.

2 Tliis seems to be the meaning of "alumna," and not "nm-se" or
"foster-mother," as Ajasson's translation has it. Phny probably im-
phes by this antithesis that Rome has been " twice blessed," in receiving
the bounties of all nations of the world, and in being able to bestow a
commensurate retm-n. Compared with this idea, " at once the nurse and
mother of the world" woidd be tame indeed !

3 By adding its deified emperors to the number of its divinities. After
what Phny has said in his Second Book, this looks very much hke pure
adulation.

182 PLINT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

at a loss. The city of Eome alone, which forms a portion
of it, a face well worthy of shoulders so beauteous, how
large a work would it require for an appropriate description !
And then too the coast of Campania, taken singly by itself!
so blest with natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident
that when nature formed it she took a delight in accumulating
aU her blessings in a single spot — how am I to do justice to
it ? And then the climate, with its eternal freshness and so
replete with health and vitality, the sereneness of the weather
so enchanting, the fields so fertile, the hill sides so sunny,
the thickets so free from every danger, the groves so cool and
shady, the forests with a vegetation so varying and so luxu-
riant, the breezes descending from so many a mountain, the
fruitfuLiess of its grain, its vines, and its ohves so transcend-
ent ; its flocks with fleeces so noble, its bulls with necks so
sinewy, its lakes recurring in never-ending succession, its
numerous rivers and springs which refresh it with their waters
on every side, its seas so many in number, its havens and the
bosom of its lands opening everywhere to the commerce of
all the world, and as it were eagerly stretching forth into
the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of aiding as it
were the endeavours of mortals !

For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its man-
ners, its men, and the nations whom it has conquered by
eloquence and force of arms. The very Greeks themselves,
a race fond in the extreme of expatiating on their own praises,
have amply given judgment in its favour, when they named
but a small part of it ' Magna Grajcia*.' But we must be
content to do on this occasion as we have done in our de-
scription of the heavens ; we must only touch upon some of
these points, and take notice of but a few of its stars. I
only beg my readers to bear in mind that I am thus hasten-

1 Or "Great Greece." This is a poor and frivolous argument used by
Pliny in support of his laudations of Italy, seeing that in all probabi-
lity it was not the people of Greece who gave this name to certain cities
founded by Greek colonists on the Tarentine Gulf, in the south of Italy ;
but either the Itahan tribes, who in their simplicity admired their splen-
dour and magnificence, or else the colonists themselves, who, in using
the name, showed that they clung with fondness to the remembrance of
their mother-country ; wliile at the same time the epithet betrayed some
vanity and ostentation in wishing thus to show their superiority to the
people of their mother-country.

Chap. 6.] ACCOUNT OF COXJXTEIES, ETC. 183

ing on for the purpose of giving a general description of
everything that is known to exist throughout the whole earth.
I may premise by observing that this land very much re-
sembles in shape an oak leaf, being much longer than it is
broad ; towards the top it inclines to the left\ while it termi-
nates in the form of an Amazonian buckler^, in which the spot
at the central projection is the place called Cocinthos, while it
sends forth two horns at the end of its crescent-shaped bays,
Leucopetra on the right and Lacinium on the left. It ex-
tends in length 1020 miles, if we measure from the foot of
the Alps at Prsetoria Augusta, through the city of Eome and
Capua to the town of Khegium, which is situate on the
shoulder of the Peninsula, just at the bend of the neck as it
were. The distance would be much greater if measured to
Lacinium, but in that case the line, being drawn obliquely,
would incline too much to one side. Its breadth is variable ;
being 410 miles between the two seas, the Lower and the
Tipper^, and the rivers Varus and Arsia^ : at about the middle,
and in the vicinity of the city of Rome, from the spot where
the river Aternus^ flows into the Adriatic sea, ti the mouth
of the Tiber, the distance is 136 miles, and a little less from
Castrum-novum on. the Adriatic sea to Alsium^ on the Tus-
can ; but in no place does it exceed 200 miles in breadth.

* The comparison of its shape to an oak leaf seems rather fanciful ;
more common-place observers have compared it to a boot : by the top
(cacumen) he seems to mean the southern part of Calabria about Bnm-
disium and Tarentum ; which, to a person facing the south, wovdd in-
cHne to the coast of Epirus on the left hand.

2 The ' Parma ' or shield here alluded to, would be one shaped like a
crescent, with the exception that the inner or concave side woiild be
formed of two crescents, the extremities of which join at the central pro-
jection. He says that Cocinthos (now Capo dx Stilo) would in such
case form the central projection, while Lacinium (now Capo delle Colonne)
would form the horn at the extreme right, and Leucopetra (now Capo
dell' Armi) the horn on the extreme left.

3 The Tuscan or Etrurian sea, and the Adriatic.

* The Varus, as already mentioned, was in GraUia Narbonensis, while the
Arsia, now the Arsa, is a small river of Istria, which became the boundary
between Italy and lUyricum, when Istria was annexed by order of Au-
gustus to the former country. It flows into the Elanaticus Sinus, now
Golfo di Quamero, on the eastern coast t)f Istria, beyond the town of
Castel Nuovo, formerly Nesactium. ^ Now the Pescara.

^ Now Palo, a city on the coast of Etniria, eighteen miles from Portus
Augusti, at the mouth of the Tiber.

184 plint's ITATTJEAL HISTOEY. [Book III.

The circuit of tlie whole, from the Yarus to the Arsia, is 3059
miles \

As to its distance from the countries that surround it —
Istria and Liburnia are, in some places^, 100 miles from it,
and Epirus and lUyricum 50 ; Africa is less than 200, as we
are informed by M. Varro ; Sardinia^ is 120, Sicily 1^, Corsica
less than 80, and Issa'' 50. It extends into the two seas
towards the southern parts of the heavens, or, to speak with
more minute exactness, between the sixth^ hour and the first
hour of the winter solstice.

"We will now describe its extent and its different cities ;
in doing which, it is necessary to premise, that we shall fol-
low the arrangement of the late Emperor Augustus, and
adopt the division which he made of the whole of Italy into
eleven districts ; taking them, however, according to their
order on the sea-line, as in so hurried a detail it would not be
possible otherwise to describe each city in juxtaposition with
the others in its vicinity. And for the same reason, in de-
scribing the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical order
which has been adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the
colonies of which he has made mention in his enumeration.
Nor is it a very easy task to trace their situation and origin ;
for, not to speak of others, the Ingaunian Ligurians have had
lands granted to them as many as thirty different times.

CHAP. 7. — or THE NINTH^ EEGIOIS- OF ITALY.

To begin then with the river Varus ; we have the town of
Nicsea^, founded by the Massilians, the river Paulo ^, the Alps

1 This distance is overstated : the circuit is in reality about 2500 miles.

2 For instance, from Pola to Ravenna, and from ladera to Ancona.

5 Sardinia is in no part nearer to Italy than 140 miles.

4 Issa, now Lissa, is an island of the Adriatic, off the coast of Libur-
nia ; it is not less than eighty miles distant from the nearest part of the
coast of Italy.

^ That is to say, the south, which was so called by the Eomans : the
meaning being that Italy extends ia a south-easterly direction.

6 Italy was divided by Augustus iato eleven districts ; the ninth of
which nearly corresponded to the former republic of Genoa,

7 The modern Nizza of the Italians, or Nice of the French.

8 Now the Paglione.

Chap. 7.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 185

and the Alpine tribes, distinguished by various names', but
more especially the Capillati^, Cemenelio', a town of the state
of the Vediantii, the port of Hercules Monaecus'', and the
Ligurian coast. The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes
beyond the Alps are the Salluvii, the Deciates, and the
Oxubii'^ ; on this side of the Alps, the Veneni^, and the Ya-
gienni, who are derived from the Caturiges'', the Statielli*,
the Bimbelli^ the Magelli, the Euburiates, the Casmonates'",
the Veleiates'^ and the peoples whose towns we shall describe
as lying near the adjoining coast. The river Eutuba^^, the
town of Albium Intemelium^^, the river Merula^'*, the town
of Albium Ingaunum^^, the port of Yadum Sabatiorum^^, the
river Porcifera^^, the town of Genua, the river Feritor'^, the
Portus Delphini^^ Tigullia^", Tegesta^^ of the Tigullu, and
the river Macra'^, which is the boundary of Liguria.

* Livy mentions four of these tribes, the Celelates, the Cerdiciates,
the Apuani, and the Friniates.

2 Or " Long-haired." Lucan, B. L 1. 442, 3, refers to this characteristic
of the Alpine Ligurians :

Et nunc tonse Ligur, quondam per colla decora
Crinibus elfusis toti prselate Comatse.

3 It is probably the ruins of this place that are to be seen at the pre-
sent day at Cimiez in the vicinity of Nice. •* The modem Monaco.

^ These tribes have been already mentioned in c. 5, as belonging to the
province of Gallia Narbonensis.

^ It is supposed that they dwelt near the present Vinadio in Piedmont.

7 It is supposed that they inhabited the vicinity of the present town of
Chorges, between Embruu and Gap.

s They probably dwelt near the modem town of Montserrat.

9 They probably dwelt near the modem Biela, eight leagues from Yer-
ceil in Piedmont.

1" Some writers place them near the modem city of Casale.

1^ Their locahty is supposed by some writers to be near the present
CortemigHa, five leagues from the town of Alba.

^2 Now tlie Roya, flowing between very high banks. — Lucan, B. ii.
1. 422, speaks of the Rutuba as " Cavus," " flowing in deep cavities."

13 Probably the present Vintimigha. i"* The modern Arozia.

1^ The present town of Albenga. — Livy, B. xxix. c. 5, calls the inha-
bitants Albingauni. ^^ Now called Vai or Ve, and Savona.

17 The modem Bisagna, which waters Genua, the modem Genoa.

18 Now the Lavagna, which also washes Genoa.

19 " The Port of the Dolphin ;" now Porto Fino.

20 Probably the ruins called those of Tregesa or Trigoso are those of
TiguUia. ^i j^qw Sestri di Levante. ^2 xhe modem Magra.

186 plikt's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

Extending behind all the before-mentioned places are the
Apennines, the most considerable of all the mountains of
Italy, the chain of which extends unbroken from the
Alps^ to the Sicilian sea. On the other side of the Apen-
nines, towards the Padus^, the richest river of Italy, the
whole country is adorned with noble towns ; Libarna^, the
colony of Dertona'*, Iria*, Barderate®, Industria', PoUentia^,
Carrea sumamed Potential, Poro Fulvi or Yalentinum^'^,
Augusts," of the Yagienni, Alba Pompeia'^, Asta^^, and
Aquse Statiellorum". This is the ninth region, according to
the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of Liguria extends
211 miles'*, between the rivers Yarus and Macra.

CHAP. 8. — THE BETENTH EEGION OF ITALY.

Next to this comes the seventh region, in which is Etruria,

^ Of which they were considered as a chain, and called the Apennine
Alps. , * Now the Po.

3 According to D'Anville, now Castel Arqua.

* Now Tortona. It was a city of importance, and there are con-
siderable ruins still in existence.

5 The modem Voghera, upon the river Staffora.

^ Probably the present Verrua.

7 Called by the Ligurians Bodincomagus, by the Romans Industrla.
Its remains are to be found at Monteti di Po, a few miles below Cherasso,
on the right bank of the river.

8 The modem Pollenza, a small town on the river Tenaro near Alba.

9 Its site has been placed at Chieri near Turin, and at Carrii on the
Tanaro, a few miles south of Bene, which is perhaps the most probable.

10 The modem Valenza.

" Placed by D'AnviUe at Yico near Mondovi, and by other writers at
Carmagnole and Saluzzo : but Durandi has shown that the ruins still to
be seen near Bene in Piedmont are those of Augusta Vagiennonmi. Bene
is supposed to be a corruption of Bagienna, the name of the town in the
middle ages. The name of the Vagienni also probably siu^ives ia that
of Viozenna, an obscure place in that vicinity.

12 StiU called Alba ; a town near the northern foot of the Apennines.
It probably had its appellation from Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of
Pompey the Great, who conferred many privileges on the Cisalpiae Gauls.
It was the birth-place of the Emperor Helvius Pertinax.

13 The modem Aste.

** The modem Acqui, so called from its mineral springs. It is again
mentioned by Phny in B. XXXI. Numerous remains of the ancient
town have been discovered.

*5 Ansart observes that this measurement is nearly correct.

Chap. 8.] ACCOUNT OF COFNTEIES, ETC. 187

a district which begins at the river Macra, and has often
changed its name. At an early period the Umbri were ex-
pelled from it by the Pelasgi ; and these again by the Lydians,
who from a king of theirs^ were named Tyrrheni, but after-
wards, from the rites observed in their sacrifices, were called,
in the Greek language^, Tusci. The first town in Etruria is
Luna^, with a noble harbour, then the colony of Luca'*,
at some distance from the sea, and nearer to it again the
colony of PissB*^, between the rivers Auser*' and Arnus', which
owes its origin to Pelops and the Pisans', or else to the Teu-
tani, a people of Greece. Next is Vada^ Volaterrana, then
the river Cecinna^", and Populonium" formerly belonging
to the Etrurians, the only town they had on this coast.
Next to these is the river Prile'-^, then the Umbro^', which is
navigable, and where the district of Umbria begins, the port
of Telamon", Cosa" of the Volcientes, founded by the Eoman

^ For an account of this see Herodotus, B. i. c. 94, Tacitus, Ann. B. iv.
c. 55, and Volleius Paterculus, B. i. c. 1. These writers all agree as to the
fact of the migration of a colony of Lydians under the conduct of Tyr-
rhenus to the part of Italy afterwards called Etruria. This subject how-
ever, as well as the migrations of the Pelasgi, is involved in the greatest
obscurity.

2 From the Greek verb Oveiv " to sacrifice," he impUes : — from their
custom of frequently sacrificing, says Servius, on the Xth Book of
the ^neid. Dionysius of Hahcamaasus says that they were from their
frequent sacrifices called Ovoctkooi. These are probably fanciful deriva-
tions ; but there is no doubt that the people of Etruria were for several
centuries the instructors of the Romans in the arts of sacrifice, augury,
and divination.

3 The ruins of Luna, which was destroyed by the Normans in the
middle ages, are still visible on the banks of the Magra. The modem
name of the port is Golfo della Spezzia.

* The modem city of Lucca has its site and name. — Livy, B. xli. c. 13,
informs us that this colony was founded in the year of the city 576, during
the Consulship of Claudius Pulcher and Sempronius Gracchus.

5 The modem city of Pisa. See Virgil, B. x. 1. 179, as to the origin
of this place. * The modem Serchio. 7 Now the Amo.

® The people of Pisa or Pisae, a city of Ehs in the Peloponnesus.

* Now Vadi, a small village on the sea-shore.

10 Still called the Cecina. It entered the Tyrrhenian sea, near the
port of Vada Volaterrana just mentioned.

11 The present Piombino is supposed to have arisen from the ruins of
this place. ^ Now the Bruno. i^ The modem Ombrone.

1^ Now known as Telamone Vecchio.

15 There are ruins near lake Orbitello, which bear the name of Cosa ;

188 Flint's natueal histoey. [Book m.

people, G-raviscse^ Castnun novum^, Pyrgi', the river Caere-
tanus"*, and Csere^ itself, four miles inland, called Agylla by
the Pelasgi who founded it, Alsium®, Fregenae^, and the river
Tiber, 284^ miles from the Macra.

In the interior we have the colonies of Falisci', founded by
the Argives, according to the account of Cato^°, and sur-
named Falisci Etruscorum, Lucus Feroniae", Eusellana, the
Senienses^^, and Sutrina^^. The remaining peoples are the

Ansedonia was said to have risen from its ruins, and in its turn fallen to

^ Two localities have been mentioned as the site of Graviscse, at both
of which there are ancient remains : one on the right bank of the Marta,
about a mile from its mouth, and the other on the sea-coast at a spot
called Santo Clementino or Le Saline, a mile south of the mouth of the
Marta. Probably the latter are the remains of Graviscse, although Den-
nis (Etruria, i. pp. 387-395) incUnes to be in favour of the former.

2 The modem Torre Chiaruccia, five miles south of Civita Vecchia.

3 The modem Torre di Santa Severa. "• Now the Vaccina.

' The remains of this once powerful city are marked by the village of
Cervetri or Old Caere. According to Strabo it received its name from
the Greek word x«'Pf "hail!" with which the inhabitants saluted the
Tyrrhenian or Lydian invaders. It was to this place that the Komans
sent their most precious sacred reUcs when their city was taken by the
dauls. Its most interesting remains are the sepulchres, of which an ac-
count is given in Dennis's Etruria.

6 Its remains are to be seen in the vicinity of the inodem village of Palo.

7 Its site is supposed to have been at the spot now called the Torre di
Maccarese, midway between Palo and Porto, and at the mouth of the
river Arone. Its situation was marshy and unhealthy.

8 This exceeds the real distance, which is about 230 miles.

^ The site of the Etruscan Falerii or Fahsci is probably occupied by the
present Civita CasteUana ; while that of the Roman city of the same
name, at a distance of fom* miles, is marked by a single house and the ruins
of a church, called Santa Maria di FaUeri. The ancient city was cap-
tured by the Romans under CamiUus.

I'* In his book of " Origines," which is now lost.

1^ " The Grove of Feronia." The town was so called from the grove
of that Sabine goddess there situate. In the early times of Rome there
was a great resort to this spot not only for religious purposes, but for
those of trade as weU. Its traces are stUl to be seen at the vUlage of Saint
Orestes, near the south-east extremity of the hiU there, which is still called
Felonica. This is in southern Etruria, but Ptolemy mentions another
place of the same name in the north-west extremity of Etruria, between
the Amus and the Macra.

12 The people of the spot now called Siena, in Tuscany.

*3 Now Sutri, on the river PozoUo.

Chap. 8.] ACCOUNT OP COTTNTBIES, ETC. 189

Arretini^ Yeteres, the Arretini Fidentes, the Airetini
Julienses, the Amitinenses, the Aquenses, sumamed Tau-
rini^ the Blerani^ the Cortonenses"*, the Capenates^, the
Clusini Novi, the Clusini Veteres*', the Florentini^, situate on
the stream of the Amus, FaesulaB*, Ferentinum", Fescennia*",

* The people of Arretium, one of the most powerful cities of Etruria.
The three tribes or peoples here mentioned probably did not occupy di-
stinct towns, but constituted separate commimities or municipal bodies,
being distinct colonies or bodies of settlers. The Julienses were the
colonists settled there by Augustus. The Fidentes had probably settled
at an earlier period. The modem Arezzo has risen on the remains of the
Roman city, while the remains of the Etruscan city are pointed out on
an elevated spot called Poggio di San ComeUio, two or three miles south-
east of Arezzo. Many valuable rehcs of antiquity have been discovered
here. The family of Maecenas sprang from this place.

2 The people of Aquse Tauri, a watering-place of Etruria, situate about
three miles north of the present Civita Vecchia, and now called Bagni di
Ferrata. The baths are described by Rutihus in his Itinerary, who calls
them Tauri Thermce (the Bull's Baths), and ascribes their name to the
fact of their having been accidentally discovered by a bull.

3 The people of Blera, on the site of the modem village of Bieda, about
twelve miles south of Vit^rbo. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity
have been found here. — See Dennis's Etruria, vol. i. pp. 260-272.

* The people of Cortona, a powerful city of Etruria, which is still
known by the same name. It was probably in the number of the cities
of Etruria that were ravaged by Sylla, and then recolonized by him.
Nmnerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been discovered there.

^ The people of Capena, an ancient and important city of Etruria,
wliich, after long opposing the inroads of the Romans, was reduced to
submission shortly after the fall of Veii, B.C. 393. It existed and held
municipal rank tUl the time of the Emperor Aurehan, after which all
traces of its name or existence were lost, till 1750, when Galetti fixed its
site with great accuracy at Civitucola or San Martino, about 24 miles
from Rome. It was situato on the banks of a small river now called the
Grammiccia, and in its territory was the celebrated ' Lucus Feroniae' pre-
viously mentioned.

^ The new and old colonists of the city of Clusium, who probably en-
joyed distinct municipal rights. The modem Chiusi stands on its site.

^ The modem Fiorenze or Florence occupies the site of their city.

8 The village of Fiesole stands on its site. Extensive remains of the
ancient city are still to be found.

' The site of Ferentinum is now uninhabited, but is still known by the
name of Ferento. The rivers of the ancient city are very considerable ;
it was finally destroyed by the people of Viterbo in the 12th century.

^^ An ancient town of Etruria near FaHsci. Cluver thinks that it was
situate at GaUese, a village nine miles north of Civita Castellana ; but
Dennis considers its site to have been between Borghetto on the Tiber

190 pliis^t's natueal histoet. [Book in.

Hortanum^ Herbanum^, Nepeta', ISTovem Pagi*, the Clau-
dian prasfecture of Foroclodium^, Pistoriuin^, Perusia'', the
Suanenses, the Saturnini, formerly called the Aurinini, the
Subertani^, the Statones^, the Tarquinienses^", the Tuscani-
enses", the Vetulonienses^^, the Yeientani^^, the Vesentini^*,
the Volaterrani^^, the Volcentini^®, surnamed Etrusci, and
the yolsimenses^^ In the same district the territories of

and Corchiano, wherf there are considerable remains of an Etruscan city.
The spot is named San Silvestro, from a ruined church there.

^ Or Horta ; the spot now called Orte, where numerous Etruscan re-
mains are found ; it probably derived its name from the Etruscan god-
dess Horta. Hortanum, the name given to it by Pliny, is perhaps an
adjective form of the name, " oppidum" being understood.

2 Possibly the same as ' Urbs Vetus,' on the side of which the present
Orvieto stands. ^ Now Nepi, near the river Pozzolo.

* According to Hardouin the site of the Novem Pagi, or nine Boroughs,
is occupied by the modem II Mignone, near Civita Vecchia.

s Its site is generally supposed to have been at Oriuolo, about five miles
north of Bracciano ; but Dennis informs us tliat there are no ancient
remains at that place. Being a prsefecture it may have consisted of only
a number of httle villages, united in one jurisdiction.

^ The modem Pistoia stands on its site. 7 Now Perugia.

* Supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the site of the modem
Sovretto.

9 Probably situate in the modem duchy of Castro.

^^ The people of Tarquinii near Kome. the head of the Etruscan con-
federation. It was here that Demaratus the Corinthian, the father of
Tarquinius Priscus, settled. It was deserted by its inhabitants in the
eighth or ninth century, who founded the town of Corneto on a liill
opposite to it. The ruins are known as Turchina, a corruption of the
ancient name.

" The site of their town is probably marked by the modem Toscanella.

^ The ruins of their town still retain somewhat of their ancient name
in that of " VetuHa."

13 The people of the powerful city of Veil, subdued by Camillus, Its
ruins have been discovered in the vicinity of the viUage of Isola Earnese.

14 Their town stood on the site of the present Bisontia.

15 The people of Volaterrse, the present Volterra, one of the twelve cities
of the Etruscan Confederation. It was for a time the residence of the
kings of Lombardy. The modem town covers only a small portion of
the area of the ancient city, of which there are some interesting remains.

1^ The people of Yolci or Vulci, of which the ruins bear the same name.
Its sepulchres have produced vast treasures of ancient art.

17 The people of Volsinii or Vulsinii, now called Bolsena. This wafl
one of the most ancient and powerful of the twelve cities of the Etmscan
confederation. On their subjugation by the Komans the Etruscan city
was destroyed, and its inhabitants were compelled to settle on a less de-

Giap. 9.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 191

Crustumerium^ and Caletra^ retain the names of the ancient
towns.

CHAP. 9. — THE riEST REGION OF ITALT^ ; THE TIBEE ; EOME.

The Tiber or Tiberis, formerly called Thybris, and pre-
viously Albula^, flows down from nearly the central part of
the chain of the Apennines, in the territory of the Arretini.
It is at first small, and only navigable by means of sluices,
in which the water is dammed up and then discharged, in the
same manner as the Timia^ and the Glanis, which flow into
it ; for which purpose it is found necessary to collect the water
for nine days, unless there should happen to be a fall of rain.
And even then, the Tiber, by reason of its rugged and uneven
channel, is really more suitable for navigation by rafts than
by vessels, for any great distance. It winds along for a
course of 150 miles, passing not far from Tifernum^, Perusia,
and Ocriculum^, and dividing Etruria from the Umbri^ and
the Sabini^, and then, at a distance of less than sixteen

fensible site. The new city was the birth-place of Sejanus, the worthless
favoxvrite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there are scarcely any remains.

^ Called also Crustumeria, Crustumium, and Crustuminium. It was
a city of Latiuin on the borders of the Sabine country, and was subdued
by Romulus, though it afterwards appears as independent in the time of
Tarquinius Priscus. The territory was noted for its fertility. The exaet
site of the city is unknown ; a place called Marcighana Vecchia, about
nine miles from Rome, seems the most probable.

*^ The site of Caletra is quite unknown. It was situate at some point
in the present valley of the Albegna.

•^ The First Region extended irora the Tiber to the Gulf of Salemum,
being bounded in the interior by the Apennines. It consisted of ancient
Latium and Campania, comprising the modem Campagna di Roma, and
the provinces of the kingdom of Kaples.

■* Livy, B. i. c. 3, and Ovid, Fasti, B. iii. 1. 389, inform us that the
name of Albula was changed into Tiberis in consequence of king Tiberinus^
being accidentally drovraed in it.

^ Still known by that name. The Grlanis is called la Chiana.

^ According to D'Anville, now known as Citta di Castello.

7 A mimicipal town of TJmbria, situate near the confluence of the
rivers Nar and Tiber, and on the Flaminian Way. There are the ruins
of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and some temples, now the modem
OtricoH.

8 The territory of Umbria extended from the left bank of the Tiber,
near its rise, to the Adriatic.

9 The Sabines occupied the left bank of the Tiber from the TJmbri

192 plutt's nattjeal histoet. [Book in.

miles from tlie city, separating the territory of Yeii from
that of Crustuminum, and afterwards that of the Fidenates
and of Latium from Vaticanum.

Below its union with the Glanis from Arretinum the Tiber
is swollen by two and forty streams, particularly the Nar^
and the Anio, which last is also navigable and shuts in
Latium at the back ; it is also increased by the numerous
aqueducts and springs which are conveyed to the City. Here
it becomes navigable by vessels of any burden w^hich may come
up from the Italian sea ; a most tranquil dispenser of the
produce of all parts of the earth, and peopled and embellished
along its banks with more villas than nearly all the other
rivers of the world taken together. And yet there is no
river more circumscribed than it, so close are its banks shut
in on either side ; but still, no resistance does it offer, although
its waters frequently rise with great suddenness, and no part
is more liable to be swollen than that which runs through
the City itself. In such case, however, the Tiber is rather
to be looked upon^ as pregnant with prophetic warnings to
us, and in its increase to be considered more as a promoter
of religion than a source of devastation.

Latium^ has preserved its original limits, from tlie Tiber
to Circeii"*, a distance of fifty miles : so slender at the be-
ginning were the roots from which this our Empire sprang.
Its inhabitants have been often changed, and different
nations have peopled it at different times, the Aborigines,

to the Anio. The Crustumini and the Fidenates probably occupied the
Bouthem part of the district about the river Alba.

^ The Nera and the Tevcrone. The exact situation of the district of
Vaticanum has not been ascertained with exactness.

2 As not so much causing mischief by its inundations, as giving
warning thereby of the wrath of the gods and of impending dangers ;
which might be arrested by sacrifices and expiatory rites. — See Horace,
Odes, B.i. 2. 29.

3 The frontier of ancient Latium was at Circeii, but that of modem
Latium extended to Sinuessa.

"* A town of Latium, situate at the foot of the Mons Circeius, now
Monte Circello. It was used as a place of retirement, and Tiberius and
Domitian had villas there. The Triumvir Lepidus was banished thither
by Octavius after his deposition. It was also famous for its oysters,
which were of the finest quahty. Considerable reraams of it are still
to be seen on the hill called Monte di Citadella, about two miles from
the sea.

Chap. 9.] ACCOUNT Or COUNTttlES, ETC. 193

the Pelasgi, the Arcades, the Seculi, the Aurunci, the Riituli.,
and, beyond Circeii, the Volsci, the Osci, and the Ausones
whence the name of Latium came to be extended as far as
the river LirisV

We will begin with Ostia^, a colony founded by a king of
E/ome, the town of Laurentum^, the grove of Jupiter Indi-
ges'', the river Numicius^and Ardea", founded by Danae, the
mother of Perseus. Next come the former site of Aphro-
disium', the colony of Antium*, the river and island called
Astura*, the river Nymphaeus^", the Clostra Eomana", and
Circeii ^^, formerly an island, and, if we are to believe Homer,
surrounded by the open sea, though now by an extensive plain.
The circumstances which Vire are enabled to publish on this
subject for the information of the world are very remarkable.
Theophrastus, the first foreigner who treated of the affairs of
Eome with any degree of accuracy (for Theopompus, before
whose time no Greek writer had made mention of us, only

^ Now the GarigUano, the same river which he previously callB the
Glanis. It was the boundary between Latium and Campania.

2 Founded by Ancus Martius, as we learn from Livy. It was aban-
doned under the Emperor Claudius, who built the Portus Romanus or
Portus Augusti in its vicinity ; and it only continued famous for its salt-
works, which had been estabhshed there by Ancus Martius. Its nxins,
BtiU called Ostia, are nearly three miles from the coast, in consequence of
the receding of the sea.

3 Now San Lorenzo. It was between Ostia and Antium.

* By some, ^neas was supposed to have been worshiped by that
name. * Now tne river Numico.

^ The ruins of this once great city may still be seen near the present
village of the same name. Its situation was pecuUarly imhealthy. An-
other tradition, besides the one mentioned by Phny, was, that it was
founded by a son of Ulysses and Cii-ce. It was twenty-four miles distant
from Rome.

7 A temple of Venus, of which the ruins are stiU to be seen.

*• Its few ruins are still known as Anzio Rovinato. It was famous for
its temple of Fortune, addressed by Horace, Odes, i. 35. Near the site is
the modem village of Porto d'Anzo.

^ This island was occupied by villas of the Roman nobility, and was
the resort of Cicero, Augustus and Tiberius. There is still a fortified
town called the Torre di Astura. " The modem Ninfa.

" "The Roman Bulwarks." They were thrown up to protect the
frontier of the ancient kingdom of Rome from the inroads of the Volscians'

^' To our previous note we may add that this spot was supposed to
have been once inhabited by the enchantress Circe, the daughter of the
Sun, and from her to have token its name.

YOI-. I. O

194 plint's NATUEAL HISTOEX. [Book III.

stated the fact that the city had been taken by the Grauls,
and Clitarchus, the next after him, only spoke of the embassy
that was sent by the Romans to Alexander) — Theophrastus,
I say, following something more than mere rumour, has
given the circuit of the island of Circeii as being eighty stadia,
in the volume which he wrote during the archonship of Ni-
codorus at Athens \ being the 440th year of our city. What-
ever land therefore has been annexed to that island beyond the
circumference of about ten miles, has been added to Italy
since the year previously mentioned.

Another wonderful circumstance too. — Near Circeii are
the Pomptine Marshes^, formerly the site, according to
Mucianus, who was thrice consul, of four-and-twenty cities.
Next to this comes the river TJfens^, upon which is the
town of Terracina^, called, in the language of the Volsci,
Anxur; the spot too where Amyclae* stood, a town de-
stroyed by serpents. Next is the site of the Grrotto^ Lake
Pundanus', the port of Caieta®, and then the town of For-
mise', formerly called Hormiae, the ancient seat of the Lae-
strygones^", it is supposed. Beyond this, formerly stood the

1 This has been also translated " dedicated to Nicodorus, the Archon
of Athens," but nothing appears to be known of such a fact as the
dedication to Nicodorus of any of his works.

2 Now called the " Palude Pontine." They are again mentioned in
B. xxvi. c. 9. ^ Now called II Portatore,

■* It was situate fifty-eight miles from Eome ; the modem town of
Terracina stands on its site. The remains of the ancient citadel are
visible on the slope of Montecchio.

s The exact site of this place is unknown. Servius, in liis Commen-
tary on B. X. of the ^Eneid, 1. 564, tells the same story of the serpents.

6 This was near Amyclee. A villa was situate there called " Speluncse,"
froiQ the cavities in the rock, in one of which the Emperor Tiberius nearly
lost his life by the falling in of the roof. The modem village of Sperlonga,
eight miles west of G-aeta, marks its site. 7 Now Lago di Fondi.

8 Now Gaeta, said to have received its name from being the burial-
place of Caieta, tlie nurse of ^neas. The shore was studded with nume-
rous villas of the Roman nobihty. It is now a city of great opulence ; in
its vicinity extensive ruins are to be seen.

^ On the spot now called Moladi Gaeta. Many of the wealthy Eomans,
and among them Cicero, had villas here : and at this place he was put to
death. It was destroyed by the Saracens in the year 856. The remains
of antiquity to be seen on this spot are very extensive.

^^ Homer places these Cannibals on the coast of Sicily, but the Romans
in general transplanted them to the vicinity of Circeii, and suppose For-

Chap. 9.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 195

town of Pyr» ; and we then come to the colony of Min-
tumae*, which still exists, and is divided^ by the river Liris,
also called the Glanis. The town of Sinuessa^ is the last in
the portion which has been added to Latium ; it is said by
some that it used to be called Sinope.

At this spot begins that blessed country Campania^, and
in this vale first take their nse those hills clad with vines, the
juice of whose grape is extolled by Fame all over the world ;
the happy spot where, as the ancients used to say, father
Liber and Ceres are ever striving for the mastery. Hence
the fields of Setia* and of Csecubum^ extend afar, and, next
to them those of Falemum^ and of Calinum*. As soon as we
have passed these, the hills of Massica^, of Gaurus'", and of
Surrentum rise to our view. Next, the level plains of Labo-
rium" are spread out far and wide, where every care is be-
stowed on cultivating crops of spelt, from which the most de-
licate fermenty is made. These shores are watered by warm
springs ^^, while the seas are distinguished beyond all others
for the superlative excellence of their shell and other fish.

misB to have been built by Lamus, one of their kings. It is more pro-
bable however that it was founded by the Laconians, fi^jm whom it may
have received its name of Hormise (from the Greek opfios), as being a good
roadstead for shipping.

^ Its site is occupied by the present Trajetta. In its marshes, formed
by the overflow of the Liris, Caius Marius was taken prisoner, concealed
in the sedge.

2 The town of Mintumse stood on both banks of the river.

3 Its ruins are probably those to be seen in the vicinity of Kocca di
Mondragone. It was a place of considerable commercial importance.
On its site Livy says there formerly stood the Greek city of Sinope.

* " Felix ilia Campania." ^ Now Sezza.

^ A marshy district of Latiimi, extending about eight miles along the
coast from Terracma to Speluncae, famous in the time of Horace for the
first-rate quahties of its veines.

7 A district famous for its wines, extending from the Massican Hills
to the north bank of the Voltumus.

8 According to Hardouin, the town of Calenum was on the site of the
present Calvi near Capua.

^ Now called Monte Marsico, and as famous for its wine (called Mus-
catella) as it was in the Roman times.

^^ Now Monte Barbaro. The wines of most of these places will be
found fully described by Pliny in B. xiv.

" More fully mentioned, B. xviii. c. 29, where the 'aUcffi' or fermenty
made from the spelt grown here is again referred to.

^ Of Baiie, Puteoh, and Stabise, for instance.

o2

196 PLINT's KATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

In no country too has the oil of the olive a more exquisite
flavour. This territory, a battle-ground as it were for the
gratification of every luxurious pleasure of man, has been
held successively by the Osci, the Greeks, the Umbri, the
Tusci, and the Campani.

On the coast we first meet with the river Savo\ the town
of Volturnum with a river^ of the same name, the town of
Liternum^, Cuma)", a Chalcidian colony, Misenum*, the port
of Baiae®, Bauli^, the Lucrine Lake^, and Lake Avernus, near
which there stood formerly a town^ of the Cimmerians. We
then come to Puteoli^", formerly called the colony of Dicae-

1 The modem Saove.

2 Now called the Voltvimo, with a small place on its banks called
Castel Voltumo.

' The present village of Torre di Patria is supposed to occupy its site.

* Strabo describes Cumce as a joint colony of the Chalcidians of Euboea
and the Cymseans of jEolis. Its sea-shore was covered with villas of the
Koman aristocracy, and here Sylla spent the last years of liis hfe. Its
site is now utterly desolate and its existing remains inconsiderable.

^ Now Capo or Punta di Miseno ; a town buUt on a promontory of
Campania, by ^neas, it was said, in honour of his trumpeter, Misenus,
who was drowned there. It was ma^e by Augustus the principal station
of the Roman fleet. Here was the villa of Marius, which afterwards be-
longed to Lucullus and the Emperor Tiberius, who died here.

* Famous for its warm springs, and the luxurious resort of the Roman
patricians. Marius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Csesar had villas here. In
later times it became the seat of every kind of pleasure and dissipation.
It is now rendered unwholesome by the Malaria, and the modem CasteUo
di Baja, with nxmierous ruins, alone marks its site.

7 The modem village of Baolo stands near its site. It was here that
Hortensius had his fish-ponds, mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c. 55. It
rivalled its neighbour Baise in ministering to the luxury of the wealthy
Romans, and was occupied by numerous villas so late as the reign of
Theodosius.

^ Probably the inner part of the Gulf of Cumse or Puteoh, but sepa-
rated from the remainder by an embankment eight stadia in length. It
was famous for its oyster-beds. Behind it was the Lake Avernus, occu-
pying the crater of an extinct volcano, and supposed by the Greeks to be
the entrance to the Infernal Regions. Agrippa opened a communication
with the Lucrine Lake to render Lake Avernus accessible to ships. The
Lucrine Lake was filled up by a volcanic eruption in 1538, and a moun-
tain rose in its place. The Lake Avernus is still called the Lago di
Avemo.

* Or " the town Cimmerium." Nothing is known of it.

^° Now Pozzuolo. The Romans called it PuteoU, from the strong
Bmell of its mineral springs. There are still many ruins of the ancient

Cliap. 9.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTBIES, ETC.

197

archia, then the Phlegraean^ Plains, and the Marsh of
Acherusia^ in the vicinity of Cumae.

Again, on the coast we have Neapolis', also a colony of
the Chalcidians, and called Parthenope from the tomb there
of one of the Sirens, Herculaneum'', Pompeii^ from which
Mount Vesuvius may be seen at no great distance, and
which is watered by the river Sarnus^- the territory of
Nuceria, and, at the distance of nine miles from the sea, the
town of that name'', and then Surrentum^, with the Promon-
tory of Miherva^ formerly the abode of the Sirens. The
distance thence by sea to Circeii is seventy-eight miles. This

town, which was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila, and as many
times rebuilt.

1 Now called Salpatara. This was the name given to the volcanic
plain extending from Cmnas to Capua, and supposed to have been once
covered with fire ; whence the name, from ^Xeyw, " to bum."

' Now the Lago di Fusaro. It seems to have had its name from its
vicinity to Avemus, tho supposed entrance to the infernal regions. Its
banks were, in the later times of the Roman republic, adorned with the
villas of the wealthy.

3 Neapolis, or the " New City," was founded by the Chalcidians of
Cumo! on the site of Parthenope, the supposed burial-place of the Siren
of that name. It was so called as being only a ' new quarter' of the
neighbouring city of Cumse. The modem city of Naples stands nearly
on its site.

* Said to have been founded by Hercules. It was on the occasion of
its destruction by an emption of Vesuvius, a.d. 79, that our author un-
fortimately met his death, a martyr to his thirst for knowledge. Its
closer proximity to Vesuvius caused it to be buried under a more sohd
body of materials ejected from the mountain tlian was the case with
Pompeii ; which seems to have been suffocated with ashes, while Hercu-
laneum was covered with volcanic tufa most probably hardened by the
agency of water. A few scattered inhabitants are supposed to have after-
wards settled upon the site where it was buried, which for many centu-
ries was utterly forgotten, till brought to hght in 1738. Part of the site
over the buried town is occupied by the villages of Resina and Portici.
The works of art fovmd here far exceed in value and interest those dis-
covered at Pompeii.

5 This seems to have been a town of Oscan origin. The first traces of
it were found in 1689, but excavations were not commenced till 1721.
It perished in the same eruption of Vesuvius as Herculaneum.

^ Now the Samo. Its course was changed by the great eruption of
Vesuvius previously mentioned.

' The modem Nocera stands on its site. Pompeii was used as its
harbour.

" Now Sorrento. • Now also called Capo della Minerva.

198 pliny's katueal history. [Book ni.

region, begiTmmg at the Tiber, is looked upon as the first of
Italy according to the division of Augustus.

Inland there are the following colonies: — Capua\ so
called from its champaign country, Aquinum^, Suessa^, Ve-
nafrum^, Sora"\ Teanum surnamed Sidicinum®, Nola^;
and the towns of AbelLa^, Aricia^, Alba Longa^", the Acer-

^ It probably had its name from Campania, of which it was the ca-
pital, and which was so called from its extensive campi or plains. The
site of tliis luxurious and magnificent city is now occupied by the village
of Santa Maria di Capoua, the modem city of Capua being on the site
of ancient Casilinvma. Of ancient Capua there are but few remains. It
was made a Roman colony by Julius Csesar.

2 Originally a city of the Volscians : Cicero had a villa there, and
Juvenal and the emperor Pescennius Niger were natives of it. The pre-
sent Aquino stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of it
to be seen.

3 Or Suessa Aurunca, to distinguish it fi^m the Volscian city of
Suessa Pometia. The poet Lucihus was a native of it. The modem
Sessa stands in its vicinity.

* The modem VenaM stands near its site. It was famous for the
excellence of its oUves.

* On the banks of the Suris, and the most northerly town of the
Yolsci. The modem Sora is in its vicinity, and the remains of its walls
are stUl to be seen.

^ The modem Teano occupies its site. It was famous for the medicinal
springs in its vicinity. There was another Teanum, in Apuha.

7 The town on its site still preserves the name. Bells were made
here, whence in the later writers they are called " Nolee." There is also
an ecclesiastical tradition that church bells were first used by Saint Pau-
linus, bishop of this place, whence they were called ' Campanse.' The
emperor Augustus died here.

8 The remains of the ancient town, of which the ruins are very exten-
sive, are called Avella Vecchia. It was famous for its fruit, especially
its filberts, to which it gives name in the French " Avelines." It was
first a Greek colony, and then a town of the Oscans.

9 A city of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, and said to have been of
Sicihan origin. The modem town of La Riccia occupies the site of its
citadel. It was celebrated for the temple and grove of Diana, whose
high priest was always a fugitive slave who had killed his predecessor,
and was called " Rex nemorensis," or " king of the grove." See Ovid,
Fasti, B. vi. 1. 59 ; Art of Love, B. i. 1. 260 ; and Lucan, B. vi. 1. 74.

10 The ancient city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome.
The Roman colony here was probably but smaU. The Roman patrician
fanuhes, the Julii, Servilii, Tullii, and Qiiintii, are said to have migrated
from Alba Longa, which, according to tradition, had given to Rome her
first king.

Chap. 9.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTBIES, ETC. 199

raiii\ the Allifani', the Atinates', the Aletrinates*, the
Anagnini*, the Atellani", the Affilani'', the Arpinates**,
the Auximates', the Abellani*", the Alfaterni (both those
who take their names from the Latin, the Hernican
and the Labicanian territory), Bovillffi", Calatia^^, Casi-

^ The people of Acerra, still called by the same name ; it was plun-
dered and burnt by Hannibal, B.C. 216, but was rebuilt by order of the
Boman senate.

^ The people of Allifae, a former city of Samnium, on the borders of
Campania. The modem city of Alife, a decayed place, stands on its sit€.
There are considerable remains.

» The people of Atina, an ancient city of the Yolscians. The modem
city of Atina, noted for the bleakness of its situation, stands on its site.
There are extensive ruins of the ancient city.

■* The people of Aletrium or Alatrium, an ancient city of the Hemici.
The modern Alatri stands on its site ; there are but few ancient remains.

* The people of Anagnia in Latium, still called Anagni. There are
scarcely any remains of the ancient place, which was of considerable
importance.

^ The people of Atella, an ancient city of Campania. Some remamfl
of its ruins are to be seen two miles east of the town of Aversa, near the
villages of San Arpino and San Elpidio.

7 The people of Affil®, an ancient Hernican town. It is still called
Aflaie, and has many ancient remains.

•* The people of Arpinum, once a famous city of the Volscians. The
present Arpino occupies its site ; there are few Roman remains, but its
ancient walls, of Cyclopean construction, still exist. It was the birth-
place of Marius and Cicero. The villa of the latter was on the banks of
the adjoining river Fibrenus. It waa, and is still, famous for its woollen
manufactures.

^ The people of Auximum, a city of Picenum. Its site is occupied by
the modem Osimo ; there are numerous remains of antiquity to be seen.

^" Or perhaps *' Abellini," people of Abelliacum ; which, if meant,
ought not to be included in this division, being a city of the Hirpini.
This city was finally destroyed in the wars of the Greeks and Lombards,
and themodem Avellino rose on its site. There are considerable ruins in
the vicinity. According to Hardouin, this place also claimed the honour
of giving name to filberts, which grew abundantly in its vicinity. If such
is the case, it seems probable that both it and Abella took their names
from that fruit as called by the early inhabitants. See Note in p. 198.

" An ancient city of Latium. Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity
of the Via Appia. See a curious story connected with it in Ovid's Fasti,
B. iii. 1. 667 et seq.

^" There were two cities of this name on the confines of Samnium and
Campania, one in the valley of the Volturnum, the modern Caiazzo, the
other in Campania, between Capua and Beneventimi, whose ruins are
probably those to be seen at Le Gblazzi, between Caserta and Maddaloni.

200 pllnt's natueal histobt. [Book III.

num\ Calenum^, Capitulum' of the Hemici, the Cerea-
tini'*, sumamed Mariani, the Corani**, descended from tho
Trojan Dardanus, the Cubulterini, the Castrimoenienses*,
the Cingnlani^, the Fabienses* on the Alban Mount,
the Foropopulienses' of the Falemian district, the Fru-
sinates^", the Ferentinates", the Freginates*', the old
Frabatemi^^, the new Frabatemi, the Ficolenses*^, the Fre-

* Once a considerable city of Latium. The modern city of San Oter-
mano has risen on its ruins, while the name of Monte Casino has been
retained by the monastery foxmded near it by St. Bernard A.D. 529.

^ The present Calvi probably occupies its site.

' It is not named in history. Its site was probably between Palestrina
and II Pigho.

* The people of CereatsD, a town of Latium. It is supposed that the
ancient monastery of Casamari occupied its site.

* Tho people of Cora, an ancient city of Latium. The present Cori
stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of the ancient walls
and other buildings.

* The people of Castrimoonium, a colony of Sy 11a. It has been suggested
that these were the same people whom Pliny speaks of at a subsequent
place in this chapter as the Munienses, an extinct people of Latium. If
so, the name was perhaps changed on the establishment here by Sylla
of his colony. It probably stood near the modem city of Marino.

7 The people of Cingulum, a city of Picenum, the site of wliich is
occupied by the modem CingoU.

* It is conjectured that i abia was on the same site as the present
village of Rocca di Papa.

' The inhabitants of Forum Popilii in Campania; its site is unknown.

^^ The people of Frusino, originally a Volscian city. The modem
Frosinone occupies its site.

^1 The people of Ferentinum, a city of the Hemici : the present city
of Ferentino stands on its site. The ruins are yery extensiye.

^2 Probably the people of Fregella?, an ancient city of the Volscians.
Its site is now unknown, but it was probably on the banks of the Liris,
opposite to the modem Ceprano.

'3 The people of Fabrateria or Frabateria, a Volscian city. A Roman
colony was placed there B.C. 124, by C. Gracchus, and probably the old
inhabitants for that reason styled themselves " Veteres." The ruins at
San Giovanni in Cerico, about three miles from Falvaterra, are supposed
to be those of this place, or at least of the new town or colony. In such
case Falvaterra may occupy the site of the original city.

*^ The people of Ficulnea or Ficulia, a city of ancient Latium, on the
Via Nomentana. It is supposed to have decayed soon after the reign of
M. Aurehus. Its site was probably on the modem domain of Cesarini,
though some separate the ancient Latin city from the Roman town, and
fix the locality of the former on the lull called Monte Gentile, or that
of the Torre Lupara.

Chapi 9.J ACCOUKT OF COUMTEIES, ETC. 201

gellani*, Forum Appi', the Foreutani*, the Gubini*, the
luteramnates Succaami', also surnamed Lirinates, the
llionenses Lavinii", the Norbani', the Nomeiitani^ the Pne-
nestini* (whose city was formerly called Stephaiie), the Pri-
veruates'*, the Setini", the Siguini", the Suessulaui", the

* These are omitted in moet editions, but if a correct reading, the
word must signify the " people of TVegi'llff," and the Freginates must be
the people of Frcgon* in Etruria ; although they do not appear properly
to belong to this locality.

* "The Market of Appius." It was distant forty-three miles from
Borne, and we learn from Hqraoe, that it was the usual resting-plaoe
for travellers at the end of one day's journey from Bome. It is also
mentioned in the account of the journey of St. Paul (Acts xxriii. 15) as
one of the usual resting-places on the Appian way. There are now no
inhabitants on the spot, but considerable ruins still exist, as well as the
forty-third milestone, which is still to be seen.

' Probably the inhabitants of Ferentiura or Fcrentinum, now Foronto,
five miles frxjm Viterbo, a city of Etruria, of which very considerable
remains exist.

* The people of Gbbii, formerly one of the most fiiunouB cities of
Latium. On its site the ruins of a mediaeval fortress now stand, known
as Castiglione. Some remains of the walls still exist.

, * The people of Interamna Linnas, a Roman colony on the banks
of the Liris ; and as there wero several cities of the same name, it was
generally distinguished by the epithet " Lirinos." Pliny no doubt calls it
" Succasina," from its vicinity to Casinum. Its site, though uninhabited,
is still called Terame, and there are numerous remains of antiquity.

* Probably the people of Laviniiun were thus called from their sup-
posed Trojan descent. The town wos said to have been founded by ^neas
m honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. In the times of
the Antonines it was united with Laurent ura; their ruins are to be
seen at Cosole di Copocotta.

7 Tlie people of Norba, a town of Latium. It is now called Norma,
and there are still some remains of the ancient walls.

* Nomentum, now called La Mentano, *was a Latin town, fourteen
miles from Rome.

' The people of Prseneste, one of the most ancient towns of Latium.
It was originally a Pelasgic city, but claimed a Greek origin, and was said
to have bwn built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. During stunmer it
was much fi^uented by the Romans for its dehghtful coolness. The
remains of its ancient walls are still to be seen at Polestrina.

^® The people of Privemum, now Pipemo, an ancient city of Latium.

" The people of Setia, now Sesse or Sezza, an ancient town of Latium,
to the east of the Pomptine marshes. It was famous for its wine.

^2 The people of Signia, now Segni, a town of Latimn founded by Tar-
quinius Priscus. There are still some remains of its walls.

^' The people of Suessula, now Castel di Sessola.

202 pliijy's NATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

Telesini^ the Trebulani, sumamed Balinienses^, the Tre-
bani^, the Tusculani'*, the Verulani*, the Yeliterni^, the
TJlubrenses', the TJrbinates^, and, last and greater than
all, Kome herself, whose other name^ the hallowed mysteries
of the saered rites forbid us to mention without being guilty
of the greatest impiety. After it had been long kept buried
in seeresy with the strictest fidelity and in respectful and
salutary silence, Valerius Soranus dared to divulge it, but
soon did he pay the penalty^" of his rashness.

It will not perhaps be altogether foreign to the purpose,
if I here make mention of one peculiar institution ol our
forefathers which bears especial reference to the inculcation
of silence on religious matters. The goddess Angerona",
to whom sacrifice is offered on the twelfth day before the
calends of January [21st December], is represented in her
statue as having her mouth bound with a sealed fillet.

Eomulus left the city of Eome, if we are to believe those

1 The people of Telesia, a town of Samnium seyen leagues fix)m Capua,
now called Telese.

2 Trebula was distinguished probably by this surname from a town
of that name in Samnium. Theitj seem to hare been two places of the
name in the Sabine territory, but it is not known which is here meant. The
ruins of one of them are supposed to be those not far from Maddaloni.

3 The people of Treba, now Trevi, a town of Latium,

< The people of Tusculmn, an ancient town of Latium, the ruins of
which are to be seen on a hiU about two miles distant from the modern
Frascati. Cicero's favourite residence was his Tuscidan villa, and Cato
the censor was a native of this place.

^ The people of Verulae, a town of the Hemici, in Latium, now Veroli.

^ The people of VeUtrse, an ancient town of the Volsci, now Vellctri.
It was the birth-place of the emperor Augustus.

' The people of Ulubrse, a small town of Latium, near the Pomptine
Marshes ; its site is imknown.

3 The people of Urbinum ; there were two places of that name in
Umbria, now called Urbeno and Urbania.

^ The name probably by which the city was called in the mystical
language of the priesthood. It has been said that this mysterious name
of Rome was Yjdentia ; if so, it appears to be only a translation of her
name Grsecized — "Pwjui;, " strength." This subject wiU be found again
mentioned in B. xxvui. c. 4.

^^ Solinus says that he was put to death as a pimishment for his rash-
ness. M. Sichel has suggested that this mysterious name was no other
than Angerona.

1^ It is not known whether this mystical divinity was the goddess of
anguish and fear, or of silence, or whether she was the guardian deity of

Chap. 9.3 ACCOUNT OP COUNTEIES, ETC. 203

who state the very greatest number, having three ^ gates and
no more. When the Vespasians were emperors" and censors,
in the year from its building 826, the circumference of the
walls which surrounded it was thirteen miles and two-fifths.
Surrounding as it does the Seven Hills, the city is divided
into fourteen districts, with 265 cross-roads' under the
guardianship of the Lares. If a straight line is drawn
from the mile-column'' placed at the entrance of the
Forum, to each of the gates, which are at present thirty-
seven in number (taking care to count only once the
twelve double gates, and to omit the seven old ones, which
no longer exist), the result will be [taking them altogether],
a straight line of twenty miles and 765 paces*. But if we
draw a straight line from the same mile-column to the very
last of the houses, including therein the Praetorian encamp-
ment, and follow throughout the line of all the streets, the
result will then be something more than seventy miles. Add
to these calculations the height of the houses, and then a
person may form a fair idea of this city, and will certainly
be obliged to admit that there is not a place throughout the
whole world that for size can be compared to it. On the

Home. Julius Modestos says that she reUeved men and cattle when
visited by the disease called " angina," or " quinsy," whence her name.

^ The Cormental, the Roman, and the Pandanian or Satumian gates,
according to Varro.

2 Titus was saluted Imperator after the siege of Jerusalem, and was
associated with his father Vespasian in the government. They also acted
together as Censors.

' The Lares Compitales presided over the divisions of the city, which
were marked by the compita or points where two or more streets crossed
each other, and where ' sedicuUe * or small chapels were erected in their
honour. Statues of these Uttle divinities were erected at the comer of
every street. It was probably this custom which first suggested the idea
of setting up images of the Virgin and Saints at the comers of the streets,
wliich are still to be seen in many Roman Catholic countries at the pre-
sent day.

^ Tbis was a gilded colmnn erected by Augustus in the Forum, and
called " milliarium aureura ; " on it were inscribed the distances of the
principal points to wliich the " viae " or high-roads conducted.

^ Supposing the circuit of the city to have been as he.says, 13f miles, he
must either make a great miscalculation here, or the text must be very cor-
rupt. The average diameter of the city would be in such case about 4^ miles,
the average length of each radius drawn from the mile-column 2^ miles,
and the total amount 83^ miles, whereas he makes it but 20f miles,

204 pliny's natueal histoet. [Book III.

eastern side it is bounded by the agger of Tarquinius Su-
perbus, a work of surpassing grandeur ; for he raised it
so high as to be on a level with the walls on the side
on which the city lay most exposed to attack from the neigh-
bouring plains. On all the other sides it has been fortified
either w4th lofty walls or steep and precipitous hills \ but so
it is, that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all
bounds, have now united many other cities to it^.

Besides those previously mentioned, there were formerly
in the first region the following famous towns of Latium :
Satricum^, Pometia\ Scaptia, Politorium*, Tellene, Tifata,
CsBnina^ Ticana^, Crust umerium, Ameriola^, Medullum^,
Corniculum^", Saturnia^\ on the site of the present city of

or little better than an average of half-a-mile for each radius. We may also
remark that the camp of the Prsetorian cohorts hero mentioned was
estabhshed by the emperor Tiberius, by the advice of Sejanus. Ajasson's
translation makes the measurement to be made to twelve gates only, but
the text as it stands will not admit of such a construction.

J The Aventine, Csehan, and Quirinal hills.

2 Such as Ocriculum, Tibur, Aricia, &c.

' Near Antium. Casale di Conca stands on its site.

* Suffissa Pometia. It was destroyed by the consul Servilius, and its
site was said, with that of twenty-two other towns, to have been covered
by the Pomptine Marsh, to which it gave its name.

* A town of Latium destroyed by Ancus Martins.

^ An ancient city of Latium, conquered by Romulus ; on which occa-
sion he slew its king Acron and gained the spolia opima. Nibby sug-
gests that it stood on the Magugliano, two miles south-east of Monte
G-entile. Holstein says that it stood where the present Sant' Angelo or
MonticeUi stands.

7 Also destroyed by Ancus Martius. A farm called Dragonello,
eleven miles from Rome, is supposed to have stood upon its site. Tel-
lene was also destroyed by the same king. Tifata was a town of Cam-
pania.

^ A city of Latium, which was conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. It
has been suggested that its ruins are visible about a mile to the north of
Monte Sant' Angelo.

^ A Sabine town, the people of which were incorporated by Tarquinius
Priscus with the Roman citizens. It is supposed to have stood on the
present Monte Sant' Angelo.

^^ An ancient city of Latium, subdued by Tarquinius Priscus, on which
occasion Ocrisia, the mother of Servius Tullius, fell into the hands of the
Romans as a captive. It was probably situate on one of the isolated
hills that rise from the plain of the Campagna.

" Both Virgil and Ovid allude to this tradition.

Cliap. 9.] ACCOITNT OF C0UKTE1E8, ETC. 205

Rome, Antipolis^ now Janiculum, forming part of Eome,
Antemnse^, Camerium', Collatia*, Amitinum', Norbe,
Sulmo', and, with these, those Alban nations' who used to
take part in the sacrifices* upon the Alban Mount, the Al-
bani, the ^sulani^, the Accienses, the Abolani, the Bube-

' Said to have been so called from being " opposite " to the ancient
city of Satumia. The Janiculus or Janiculiun was a fortress on the
opposite bank of the Tiber, and a suburb of Rome, connected with it by
the Sublician bridge.

2 A very ancient city situate triree miles from Rome, and said to have
been so called from its position on the Tiber, ante amnem. In the
time of Strabo it had become a mere village. It stood at the confluence
of the Anio and the Tiber.

' An ancient city of Latium reduced by Tarquinius Priscus. It has
been suggested that the town of Palombara, near the foot of Monte
Gennaro, stands on its site.

^ An ancient city of Latiiun. It probably gradually fell into decay.
Lucius Tarquinius, the husband of Lucretia, is represented as dweUing here
during the siege of Ardea. Its site is thought by some to have been at
Castellaccio or Castel dell' Osa, and by others at Lunghezza, which is
perhaps the most probable conjecture.

* An ancient city of the Sabines. Its ruins are visible at San Vittorino,
a village near Aqulla.

^ An ancient town of the Vokci, five leagues fi^m Velletri. Sermo-
nata now stands on its site. It must not be confovmded with the town
of the Pcligni, the birth-place of Ovid.

? *' Populi Albenses." It does not appear to be exactly known what
is the force of tliis expression, but he probably means either colonies from
Alba, or else nations who joined in the confederacy of which Alba was the
principal. Niebuhr looks upon them as mere demi or borouglis of the
territory of Alba.

^ " Accipere camem." Literally, " to take the flesh." It appears that
certain nations, of which Alba was the chief, were in early tunes accus-
tomed to meet on the Alban Moimt for the purposes of sacrifice. The
subject is full of obscurity, but it has been suggested that this minor con-
federacy co-existed with a larger one including aU the Latin cities, and
there can be Httle doubt that the common sacnfice was typical of a bond
of vmion among the states that partook therein. It does not necessarily
appear from the context that more than the thirty -one states after men-
tioned took part therein, though the text may be so construed as to imply
that the Latin nations previously mentioned also shared in the sacrifice ;
if so, it would seem to imply that Alba was the chief city of the whole
Latin confederacy. See this subject ably discussed in Dr. Smith's Dic-
tionary of Ancient Geography, \mder the article Latini.

9 The people of jEsulse. Of this Latin city notlung is known. The
ten'itory is mentioned by Horace, and Gell places its site on the Monte
Affiliano.

206 plint's natueal histokt. [Book III.

tani*, the Bolani^, the Cusuetani, the Coriolani^, the Fide-
nates^, the Foretii, the Hortenses*, the Latinienses, the
Longulani^, the Manates, the Macrales, the Mutucu-
menses, the Munienses, the JSTuminienses, the Olliculani, the
Octulani, the Pedani^, the Polluscini, the Querquetulani, the
Sicani, the Sisolenses, the Tolerienses, the Tutienses, the Vi-
mitellarii, the Velienses, the Yenetulani, and the Yitellenses.
Thus we see, fifty-three peoples of ancient Latium have
passed away without leaving any traces of their existence.

In the Campanian territory there was also the town of
Stahiae^, until the consulship of Cneius Pompeius and L.
Cato, when, on the day before the calends of May [30th of
April], it was destroyed in the Social War by L. Sulla the
legatus, and all that now stands on its site is a single farm-
house. Here also Taurania has ceased to exist, and the
remains of Casilinum^ are fast going to ruin. Besides these,

^ The people of Bubentum. Nothing is known of this Latin city or
of the preceding ones.

' Bola was an ancient city of Latium, taken successively by Coriolanus
and M. Postumius. Its site is supposed to have been five miles from
the modem Palestrina, at the modem village of Lugnano.

3 The people of Corioli. It was probably a Latian town, but fell
into the possession of the Volsci, from whom it was taken by Cn, Marcius,
who thence obtained the name of " Coriolanus." Monte Giove, nineteen
nules from Rome, has been suggested as its site.

* Plijiy is supposed to be in error in representing Fidense, the early
antagonist of Rome, as being extinct in his time, and he will be foxmd in
the sequel reckoning it in the Fourth Region. This ancient Latian town
never lost its municipal rank, though it had no doubt in his time become a
mere country town. The present Castel Giubileo is supposed to be
situate on its site.

5 The people of Horta, a town of Etruria, now Horte. Many Etruscan
remains have been discovered there.

6 The people of Longula, a Volscian town. Buon Eiposo now occu-
pies its site.

7 The people of Pedum ; nothing is known of it. The rest of these
nations are either almost or entirely unknown.

8 This was an ancient town between Pompeii and Surrentum. After
its overthrow, as mentioned by Pliny, it was in some measure rebuilt,
possibly after this passage was penned. It was finally destroyed by the
great eruption of Vesuvius in the year a.d. 79, and it was here that
our author breathed his last.

' A town three nules west of Capua. It was of much importance as a
military position, and played a considerable part in the second Pvmic war.
The period of its final destruction is unknown j but modem Capua is
bxiili on its sita

Cliap. 10.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTBIES, ETC. 207

tve learn from Antias that king L. Tarquinius took Apiolffi\
a town of the Latins, and with its spoils laid the first foun-
dations of the Capitol. Prom Siiirentum^ to the river
Silarus^, the former territory of Picentia^ extends for a
distance of thirty miles. This belonged to the Etruscans,
and was remarkable for the temple of the Argive Juno,
founded by Jason*. In it was Picentia, a town** of the ter-
ritory of ISalemum'.

CHAP. 10. — THE THIED EEOION OF ITALY.

At the Silanis begins the third region of Italy, consisting
of the territory of Lucania and Bruttium ; here too there
have been no few changes of the population. These districts

* This city took the lead in the war of the Latin cities against Tar-
quinius Priscus. Gell and Nibby think that it was situate about eleven
miles from Rome, a mile to the .south of the Appian way, where there
are some remains that indicate the site of an ancient city, near the stream
called the Fosso delle Fratocche. Livy tells us that with the spoils
thence derived, Tarquinius celebrated the Lttdi Magni for the first time.

'^ Opposite Caprece, and situate on the Promontory of Minerva. Sor-
rento now stands on its site.

3 The modem Silaro; it was the boundary between Lucania and
Campania, and rises in the Apennines.

* A town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Gulf of
Poestum. In consequence of the aid wliich they gave to Hannibal, the
inhabitants were forced to abandon their town and Uve in the adjoining
villages. The name of Picentini was given, as here stated, to the inha-
bitants of all the territory between the Promontory of Minerva and the
river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were
transplanted thither after the conquest of Picenimi, B.C. 268. The mo-
dem Yicenza stands on its site.

^ The Argonaut. Probably this was only a vague tradition.

^ By using the genitive ' Salemi,' he would seem to imply that the
Roman colony of Salemimi then gave name to the district of which Pi-
centia was the chief town. Ajasson however has translated it merely
" Salemum and Picentia." ' Intus ' can hardly mean " inland," as
Picentia was near the coast, and so was Salemum.

7 This was an ancient town of Cainpania, at the innermost comer of
the Gi Jf of Pffistum, situate near the coast, on a height at the foot of
which lay its harbour. It attained great prosperity, as Salemo, in the
middle ages, and was noted for its School of Health established there ;
which issued periodically rules for the preservation of health in Latin
Leonine verse.

20R PLINY'S NATUEAL HISTOEY. [Book III.

have been possessed by the Pelasgi, the (Enotrii, the Itali,
the Morgetes, the Siculi, and more especially by people who
emigrated from Greece \ and, last of all, by the Lencani, a
people sprung from the Samnites, who took possession under
the command of Lucius. We find here the town of Paestum",
which received from the Greeks the name of Posidonia, the
Gulf of Psestum^, the town of Elea, now known as Velia ^,
and the Promontory of Palinurum*, a point at which the land
falls inwards and forms a bay®, the distance across which to
the pillar' of Rhegium is 100 miles. Next after Palinurum
comes the river Melpes*, then the town of Buxentum',
called in [Magna] Graecia Pyxus, and the river Laus ; there
was formerly a town*" also of the same name.

At this spot begins the coast of Bruttium, and we come
to the town of Blanda", the river Batum*^, Parthenius, a
port of the Phocians, the bay of Vibo", the place *^ where

* " OrcBcisB maxime populi." This may also be rendered " a people
who mostly emigrated from Greece," in reference to the Sicxili or Sici-
lians, but the other is probably the correct translation.

^ A town of Lucania, colonized by the Sybarites about B.C. 524. In
the time of Augustus it seems to have been principally famous for the
exquisite beauty of its roses. Its ruins are extremely magnificent.

3 Now the Golfo di Salerno.

* A Greek town foundcjd by the Phocajans. It was the birth-place of
tha philosophers Parmenides andZeno, who founded a school of philosophy
known as the Eleatic. Castell' a Mare della Brucca stands on its site.

^ Now Capo di Palinuro ; said to have received its name from Pah-
nurus, the pilot of jEneas, who fell into the sea there and was murdered
by the natives. See Virgil, ^neid, B. vi. 1. 381 ei seq.

^ Now the Golfo di PoUcastro.

7 This tower or column was erected in the vicinity of Rhegium on the
Straits of Sicily. It was 100 stadia, or about eight miles, from the town,
and at it passengers usually embarked for Sicily. The spot is now called
Torre di Carallo. ^ Now the Faraone.

9 A Greek colony. The present PoUcastro occupies very nearly its
site. It seems to have received its name from the cultivation of box
tre3s in its vicinity.

10 Or more properly Laos, originally a Greek colony. In the vicinity
is the modern town of Laino, and the river is called the Lao.

1' Ptolemy mentions it as an inland town, and Livy speaks of it as a
Lucanian city. It probably stood near the modem Maratea, twelve miles
south-east of PoUcastro. ^^ xhe modem Bato.

13 The bay of Bivona, formerly Vibo, the Italian name for the Greek
oity of Hippo or Hippona. On its site stands the modem Bivona.

" '* Locus Clampetiffi." Clampetia or Lampetia stood in the vicinity

Chap. 10.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 209

Clampetia formerly stood, the town of Temsa*, called Teraese
by the Greeks, and Terina founded by the people of Crotona^
with the extensive Gulf of Terina ; more inland, the town of
Consentia^. Situate upon a peninsula* is the river Ache-
ron*, from which the people of Acherontia derive the name
of their town; then Hippo, now called Vibo Valentia,
the Port of Hercules', the river Metaurus', the town of
Tauroentum^, the Port of Orestes, and Medma'. Next, the
town of SeyllaDum**', the river Crataeis", the mother of Scylla
it is said ; then the Pillar of Rhe^um, the Straits of Sicily,
and the two promontories wliich face each other, CsBnys'* on
the Italian, and Pelorus" on the Sicilian side, the distance be-
tween them being twelve stadia. At a distance thence of
twelve miles and a half, we come to Rhegium'*, after which
begins Sila**, a forest of the Apennines, and then the pro-
of the modern Amantia. From other authors we find that it was still
existing at this time. If such is the fact, the meaning will be " the place
where tlie former municipal town of Clampetia stood," it being supposed
to have lost in its latter years its munieipal privileges.

* One of the ancient Ausouiau towns, and afterwards colonized by the
./Etolians. Like its namesake in Cyprus it was fiunous for its copper.
Its site is now occupied by Torre di Lupi.

' A Greek city, almost totally destroyed by Hannibal j Santa Eufemia
occupies its ^ite.
' One of the cities of the Bruttii ; now Cosenza.

* The part which now oonstitutes the Farther Calabria.

* Supposed to be the same as the Arconte, which falls into the
Crathis near Consentia. Nothing is known of the town here alluded to,
but it must not be confounded with Acherontia, the modem Acerenza, in
Apulia, which was a dilTerent place.

^ Supposed to have been the same as the modem port of Tropca.

7 The modem Marro.

® Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near FalmL

* Probably the modem Melia stands on its site.

^^ A town on the promontory of the same name, now called Scilla or
Sciglio, where the monster Scylla was fabled to have dwelt.

" Homer says (Odyssey, lii. 124), that it had its name fix)m the nymph
Cratfieis, the mother of Scylla. It is probably the small stream now called
Fiume di Solano or dei Pesci.

^2 The modem Capo di Cavallo, according to the older commentators ;
but more recent geographers think that the Punta del Pezzo was the point
so called. ^3 Now called Capo di Faro, from the hghthouse there erected.

1^ Originally a Greek colony ; a Roman colony was settled there by
Augustus. The modem city of Reggio occupies its site,

^^ It extended south of Consentia to the Sicilian Straits, a distance of
VOL. I. P

210 plint's katueal history. [Book m.

montory of Leucopetra\ at a distance of fifteen miles ; after
which come the Locri^, who take their surname from the
promontory of Zephyrium^, being distant from the river
Silarus 303 miles.

At this spot ends the first* great Gulf of Europe ; the
seas in which bear the following names: — That from
which it takes its rise is called the Atlantic, by some the
Great Atlantic, the entrance of which is, by the Greeks,
called Porthmos, by us the Straits of Gades. After its
entrance, as far as it washes the coasts of Spain, it is called
the Hispanian Sea, though some give it the name of the
Iberian or Balearic' Sea. Where it faces the province of
Gallia Narbonensis it has the name of the Gallic, and after
that, of the Ligurian, Sea. From Liguria to the island of
Sicily, it is called the Tuscan Sea, the same which is called
by some of the Greeks the Notian', by others the Tyrrhe-
nian, while many of our people call it the Lower Sea.
Beyond Sicily, as far as the country of the Salentini, it is
styled by Polybius the Ausonian Sea. Eratosthenes how-
ever gives to the whole expanse that lies between the inlet
of the ocean and the island of Sardinia, the name of the
Sardoan Sea ; thence to Sicily, the Tyrrhenian ; thence to
Crete, the Sicilian ; and beyond that island, the Cretan Sea.

CHAP. 11. — SIXTT-FOUB ISLANDS, AMONG WHICH ABE THE
BALEAEES.

The first islands that we meet with in all these seas are

700 stadia- It produced the pitch for which Bruttium was so celebrated.
Its site still has the name of SUa.

1 Or White Rock, now Capo dell' Armi. It forms the extremity of
the Apenniae Chain.

2 The site of the city of Locri is supposed to have been that of the
present Motta di Burzano.

3 He says that they were called Epizephyrii, from the promontory of
Zephyrium, now the Capo di Burzano ; but according to others, they
had this name only because their colony lay to the west of their native
Greece. Strabo says that it was founded by the Locri Ozolse, and not
the Opuntii, as most authors have stated.

•* This expression is explained by a reference to the end of the First
Chapter of the present Book.

* Called by some the Canal de Baleares.

• Or Southern Sea.

Chap. 11.] ACCOrNT OF COUHTEIES, ETC. 211

the two to which the Greeks have given the name of PitynsssB^
from the pine-tree^ which they produce. These islands now
bear the name of Ebusus, and form a federate state. They
are separated by a narrow strait' of the sea, and are forty-six*
miles in extent. They are distant from Dianium' 700 stadia,
Dianium being by laud the same distance* from New Car-
thage. At the same distance' from the Pityussae, lie, in the
open sea, the two Baleares, and, over against the river Sucro*,
Colubraria". The Baleares'", so formidable in war with
their sliugers", have received from the Greeks the name of
Gymnaaiae.

The larger island is 100'^ miles in length, and 475 in cir-
cumference. It has the following towns ; Palma" and Pol-
lentia", enjoying the rights of Boman citizens, Cinium" and
l\icis, with Latin rights: Bocchorum, a federate town, is
no longer in existence. At thirty miles* distance is the

' The modern Iviza and Formentera-
^ The Greek for which is Tr^rvs.

* Less than two leagues in width.

* The real distance is 34 miles from the northern point of Iviza, called
Punta de Serra, to the southern point of Formentera, namely — across Iviza
22 miles, across the sea 5, and across Formentera 7.

* Now Denia. • This is not correct : the distance is but 45 miles.
' This is incorrect : taken at the very greatest, the distance is only

522 stadia, eight to the mile.

* The Xucar in Spain.

' We more generally find it stated that the isle of Formentera, one of
the Pityussse, was called Colubraria. He probably refers to the islands
of the group about twenty leagues from the coast of Spain, now known
by the name of Columbrete ; but they are not near the Xucar, fi^m
which, as well as from the Pityussse, they are distant about seventy miles.
Tlie latter islands are now generally considered as part of the group of
the Baleares.

^° Now Majorca and Minorca, with the ancient Pityussse.

" They served as mercenaries, first under the Carthaginians and after-
wards imder the Romans. The ancient writers generally derive the name
of the people from their skill as archers — (iaXeapels, from (3aX\<n, " to
throw " ; but Strabo assigns to the name a Phoenician origin, as being
equivalent to the Greek yv/iv^rat, " light-armed soldiers." It is probably
from their light equipment that the Greeks gave to the islands the name
of Fvfivriaiai. Livy says that they used to go naked during the summer.

^2 Seventy miles is the real length of Majorca, and the circimiferenoe
is barely 250 miles.

^3 Still called Palma. This and Pollentia were Roman colonies settled
by Metellus. " Now Pollenza. i° Now Sineu on the Borga.

p2

212 PLINY's NATITEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

smaller island, 40 miles in length, and 150^ in circumference;
it contains the states of Jamnon^, Sanisera, and Magon'.

In the open sea, at twelve miles' distance from the iai^er
island, is Capraria'* with its treacherous coast, so notorious for
its numerous shipwrecks ; and, opposite to the city of Palma,
are the islands known as the Msenariae*, Tiquadra'', and Little
Hannibalis^.

The earth of Ebusus has the effect of driving away serpents,
while that of Colubraria produces them ; hence the latter spot
is dangerous to all persons who have not brought ^ath them
some of the earth of Ebusus. The Greeks have given it
the name of Ophiusa^. Ebusus too produces no^ rabbits to
destroy the harvests of the Baleares. There are also about
twenty other small islands in this sea, which is fuU of shoals.
Off the coast of Gaul, at the mouth of the Ehodanus, there
is Metina'", and near it the island which is known as Blascon",
with the three Stoechades, so caUed by their neighbours the
Massilians^^, on account of the regular order in which they
are placed; their respective names are Prote^^, Mese", also

^ The circximference is about 110 miles, the length 32.

2 Now audadela.

^ Now Port Mahon. The site of Sanisera, which was probably mote
inland, is \mknown.

4 Now Cabrera. The distance is not twelve, but nine miles.

5 Now called the Malgrates. • Now Dragonera.

7 Now El Torre.

8 As already mentioned he seems to confound Formentera, which was
called Ophiusa, with the present group of Columbrete, which islands were
probably called Colubraria.

3 The former editions mostly omit " nee " ; and so make it that Ebusus
does produce the rabbits. Certainly, it does seem more Ukely that he would
mention that fact than the absence of it, which even to Pliny could not
appear very remarkable.

^" D'Anville thinks that this is Metapina, but D'Astruc thinks tliat
the flat islands, called Les Tignes, are meant.

" Now called Brescon, ne&r Agde, according to D'Anville.

12 Who were of Greek origin, and so called them, because they stood
in a row, (ttoIxos-

13 Now called Porqueroles. Prote signifies the first, Mese the middle
one, and Hypsea the one below the others.

" Now Port Croz. D'AnviUe considers that Pliny is mistaken in
identifying this island with Pomponiana or Pompeiana, which he con-
siders to be the same with the peninsula now called Calle de Giens, which
lies opposite to Porqueroles.

Chfcp. 12.] ACCOUNT OF C0CNTBIE8, ETC. 213

called Pomponiana, and Hyp»a*. After these come Stu-
rium*, Phoenice, Phila, Lero, and, opposite to Antipolis*,
Lerina*, where there is a remembrance of a town called
Vergoanum liaving once existed.

CHAP. 12. (6.) — 0OE8ICA.

In the Ligurian Sea, but close to the Tuscan, is Corsica,
by the Greeks called Cymos, extending, from north to
south 150 miles, and for the most part 50 miles in breadth,
its circumference being 325. It is 62 miles distant from
the Vada Volaterrana*. It contains thirty-two states, and
two colonies, that of Mariana*, founded by C. Marius, and
that of Aleria, founded by the Dictator Sylla. On this
side of it is Oglasa', and, at a distance of less than sixty
miles from Corsica, Planaria', so called from its appear-
ance, being nearly level with the sea, and consequently
treacherous to mariners.

We next have Urgo', a larger island, and Capraria, which
the Greeks have called ^^gilion*"; then Igilium" and Dia-
nium", which they have also called Artemisia, both of them
opposite the coast of Cosa; also Barpana", Maenaria, Co^

* Now called the Ho du Levant or du Titan. The group is called the
Islands of Hieres or Calypso.

* These are probably tlie httle islands now known as Eatoneau, Po-
m&gue, and If. It has however been suggested that these names belong to
the islands of Hieres already mentioned in the text, and that Sturium is
the present Porquerolles, Phcenice Port-Croz, and Phila, Levant or Titan.

3 Now Antibes, or Antiboul in the Provencal idiom.

'' Now Saint Honorat de Lerins. The island of Lero is the present
Sainte Marguerite de Lerins, and is nearer to Antibes than Lerina. The
Lerinian monastery was much resorted to in the early ages of Christianity.

* In ancient Etruria, now Torre di Vada. The distance is, in reality,
about ninety miles.

* Mariana was situate in the northern part of the island, and the ruins
of Aleria are still to be seen on the banks of the river Tavignano, near
the coast. ' Probably near the present Monte (Msto.

® He probably means the group of islands called Formicole, which are
situate only tliirty-three miles from Corsica, and not near sixty.

* Now La Gorgona.

•^ Both of these names meaning " Goat island." It is now called
Capraia. " The modem Giglio.

*2 Now Gianuto, opposite Monte Argentaro on the main-land.

13 These are probably the small islands now called Formiete or For-
jnicole di Grossetto, Troja, Palmajola, and Cervoli.

214 pliny's nattteal histobt. [Book III.

lumbaria, and Yenaria. "We then come to Ilva^ with its iron
mines, an island 100 miles in circumference, 10 miles distant
from Populonium, and called ^thalia by the Grreeks : from
it the island of Planasia^ is distant 28 miles. After these,
beyond the mouths of the Tiber, and off the coast of Antium,
we come to Astura^, then Palmaria and Sinonia, and, oppo-
site to PormiaB, Pontise. In the Gulf of Puteoli are Panda-
teria"*, and Prochyta, so called, not from the nurse of
^neas, but because it has been poured forth^ or detached
from ^naria^, an island which received its name from hav-
ing been the anchorage of the fleet of ^Eneas, though called
by Homer Inarime^; it is also called Pithecusa, not, as
many have fancied, on account of the multitudes of apes
found there, but from its extensive manufactories of pottery.
Between Pausilipum^ and Neapolis lies the island of Me-
garis®, and then, at a distance of eight miles from Surrentum,
CapresB*", famous for the castle of the emperor Tiberiua : it
is eleven miles in circumference.

* The modem Elba. 2 jj^ow Pianosa.

' Astiira still retains its ancient name, Palmaria is the present Pal-
marola, Sinonia is now Senone, and Pontise is the modem Isola di Ponza.
■* Now Ventotiene.

* Deriving its name from the Greek word Trpoxvros, meaning " poured
forth."

^ The present island of Ischia, off the coasts of Campania. The name
of Pithecusee appears to have been given by the Greeks to the two islands
of ^naria and Prochyta collectively.

7 Ovid, like many other wTiters, mentions Inarime as though a different
island from Pithecusse. See Met. B. xiv. 1. 89. As is here mentioned by
Pliny, many persons derived the name " Pithecusae " from iriOijKos " an
ape," and, according to Strabo, " Aremus " was the Etrurian name for an
ape. Ovid, in the Metamorphoses, loc. cif., confirms this tradition by
relating the change of the natives into apes. The solution of its name
given by Pliny appears however extremely probable, that it gained its
name from its manufacture of 7n9r}Kd, or earthen vessels. Yirgil is sup-
posed to have corned the name of " Inarime."

^ Now Posilippo. It is said to have derived its name from the Greek
•jravffiXvjrov, as tending to drive away care by the beauty of its situation.
Virgil was buried in its vicinity.

^ The modem Castel del' Ovo.

*° Now Capri. Here Tiberius established his den of lustfulness and
iniquity. He erected twelve villas in the island, the remains of several .
of which are still to be seen.

Chap. 13.] ACCOUNT or COrNTBIES, ETC. 215

CHAP. 13. — SAEDINIA.

Leucothea comes next, and after it, but out of sight, as it
lies upon the verge of the African Sea, Sardinia. It is situate
somewhat less^ than eight miles from the nearest point of
Corsica, and the Straits between them are even still more
reduced by the small islands there situate, called the Cuni-
culariae^, as also those of Phintonis' and Fossjb, from
which last the Straits themselves have obtained the name of
Taphros*.

(7.) Sardinia extends, upon the east side, a distance of
188 miles, on the west 175, on the south 77, and on the
north 125, being 565 miles in circumference. Its pro-
montory of Cardis' is distant from Africa 200, and from
Gades 1400 miles. Oft" the promontory of Gordis^ it has
two islands called the Isles of Hercules', off" that of Sulcis,
the island of Enosis*, and off" that of Caralis, Ficaria*. Some
writers place Beleris not far from it, as also Callodis, and the
island known as Heras Lutra^".

The most celebrated peoples of this island are the Ilienses",
the Balari, and the Corsi ; and among its eighteen towns,
there are those of the Sulcitani^, the Valentini^^, the NeapoU-

* The distance between is hardly five miles.

* These rocks appear at the present day to be nameless. The old name
seems to mean, the " Rabbit Warrens."

3 Phintonis, according to Hardouin, is the modem Isola di Figo, ac-
cording to Mannert, Caprera. Cluver makes Fossae to be the present Isola
Rossa, while Mannert considers it to be the same with Santa Maddalena.

* Ta<pp6s being the Greek for the Latin word "fossa," the ordinary
meaning of which is an " excavation."

* Probably the Cape of Carbonara, from which however Africa is distant
only 121 miles, and the gulf of Gades or Cadiz 980.

* Now Capo Falcone.

7 Now Asinara or Zavara, and Isola Piana.

8 Now called Santo Antiocho, ofi" La Punta dell' Ulga.
' According to Cluver, the modem Coltelalzo.

^® The "Baths of Jimo." The identity of these islands does not
appear to have been ascertained.

1^ Said by Pausanias to have been descended from persons who escaped
on the fall of Troy under the command of lolaiis.

12 Of the town of Sulcis. Its ruins are probably those seen at the
village of Sulci, near the port Palma di Solo.

13 Their town waa probably on the site of the present Iglesias.

216 PLIIfY's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book Til.

tani^ the Bosenses^, the Caralitani^, who enjoy the rights of
Eoman citizens, and the Norenses^. There is also one colony
which is called Ad Turrim Libysonis*. Timseus has called
this island Sandaliotis, on account of the similarity of its shape
to the sole of a shoe, while Myrtilus has given it the name of
Ichnusa^, from its resemblance to the print of a footstep.
Opposite to the Grulf of Paestum is Leucasia^, so called from
a Siren wl o is buried there ; opposite to Velia are Pontia
and Isacia. both known by one name, that of (Enotrides, a
proof that Italy was formerly possessed by the (Enotrians.
Opposite to Vibo are the little islands called Ithacesiae®,
from the watch-tower of Ulysses situate there.

CHAP. 14. (8.) — SICILY.

Eut more celebrated than all is Sicily, called Sicania by
Thucydides, and by many writers Trinacria or Trinacia, from
its triangular appearance. According to Agrippa it is 618'
miles in circumference. In former times it was a conti-
nuation of the territory of Bruttium, but, in consequence of
the overflovnng of the sea, became severed from it ; thus form-
ing a strait of 15 miles in length, and a mile and a half in
width in the vicinity of the Pillar of E-hegium. It was from
this circumstance of the land being severed asunder that
the Greeks gave the name of Rhegium^" to the town situate
on the Italian shore.

In these Straits is the rock of Scylla, as also Charybdis", a
whirlpool of the sea, both of them noted for their perils. Of
this triangle, the promontory, which, as we have already^*

1 Their town was probably either the present Napoli or Acqua di Corsari.

2 Their town is probably indicated by the ruins on the river Gavino.

3 Their town was CaraUs, the present CagHari.

* Their town was probably Nora, the present Torre Forcadizo.

^ " At Libyso's Tower." ^ From the Greek txvos, " a footstep.*'

^ Now La Licosa, a small rocky island.

^ Now TorriceUa, Praca, and Brace, with other rocks.

^ Posidonius, quoted by Strabo, says 550.

^0 Meaning that it conies from the Greek verb prjyvvfii, " to break."
Thia is probably only a fanciful origin of the name.

" The present Garofalo. At the present day small boats approach it
without danger.

12 In Chap. X. Pelorus is the modem Capo di Faro.

Chap. 14.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, BTO. 217

mentioned, is called Pelonis, faces Scylla and juts out towards
Italy, while Pachynum^ extends in the direction of Greece,
Peloponnesus being at a distance from it of 440 miles, and
Lilybseum'^, towards Africa, being distant 180 miles from the
promontory of Mercury^, and from that of Caralis in Sar-
dinia 190. These promontories and sides are situate at the
following distances from each other : by hind it is 186 miles
from Pelorus to Paehynum, from Pachynum to Lilybffium
200, and from Lilyb»um to Pelorus 170\

In this island there are five colonies and sixty-three cities
or states. Leaving Pelorus and facing the Ionian Sea, we
have the town of Messana', whose inhabitants are also called
Mamertini and enjoy the rights of Eoman citizens; the
promontory of Drepanum', the colony of Tauromenium',
formerly called Naxos, the river Asines^, and Mount ^tna,
wondrous for the flames which it emits by night. Its crater
is twenty stadia in circumference, and from it red-hot
cinders are thrown as far as Tauromenium and Catina, the
noise being heard even at Maroneum^ and the Gemellian
HUls. We then come to the three rocks of the Cyclopes^",
the Port of Ulysses", the colony of Catina^, and the rivers
Symaethus^^ and Terias; while more inland lie the LaBstry-
gonian Plains.

To these rivers succeed the towns of Leontiniun" and
Megari
the fountain

the river Pantagies'*, the colony of Syracuse^", with
;aui of Arethusa^', (the people in the Syracusan ter-

1 Now Capo di Passaro. ' The presaat Capo di Boco Marsala.

3 Now Cape Bon. The real distance is but seventy-eight miles.

* The following are more probably the correct distances : 150, 210,
and 230 miles. » Now Messina.

^ The modem Capo di Santo Alessio.

7 Now called Taormini ; the remains of the ancient town are very
considerable. * Probably the present Alcantara.

9 The present Madonia and Monte di Mele.

1" Now called I Fariglioni.

" In modem times called " Lognina Statione," according to Hardotun.

^' The modem city of Catania stands on its site.

^3 The Fiume di Santo Leonardo, according to Hardouin, but Mannert
Bays the river Lentini. Ansart suggests the Guama Lunga.

^* Now Lentini. The ruins of Megaris are still to be seen, according
to Mannert. i* Now the Porcaro.

^^ The modem city of Siracosa.

^7 See B. xxxi. c. 30, for particulars of this fountaia.

218 PLIlfT's NATUBiLL HISTOBT. [Book IIL

ritory drink too of the fountains of Temenitis^ Archidemia,
Magasa, Cyane, and Milichie,) the port of Naustathmus ^, the
river Elorus, and the promontory of Pachynum. Thia
side^ of Sicily begins with the river Hirminius*, then fol-
low the town of Camarina*, the river Gelas^, and the town
of Agragas^, which our people have named Agrigentum. We
next come to the colony of Thermae*, the rivers Achates ^
Mazara, and Hypsa ; the town of Selinus^", and then the
Promontory of Lilybaeum, which is succeeded by Drepana",
Mount Eryx^^, the towns of Panhormus^^, Solus" andHimera",
with a river of the same name, Cephaloedis^^, Aluntium'',

^ According to Mirabella, these springs are in modem times called
Fonte di Canali, Cefialino, Fontana della Maddalena, Fonte Ciane, and
Lampismotta.

2 The modem Fonte Bianche. The Eloms, according to Hardouin,
is the modem Acellaro, according to Mannert, the Abisso.

3 The southern side. * Now the Maulo, or Fiume di Bagusa.

' Still called Camarina. Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient city now
remain.

^ According to Hardouin the Fiume Salso ; but according to D'An-
ville and Mannert, the Fiume Ghiozzo,

7 Now Girgenti. Gigantic remains of the ancient city are still to be
seen. 8 g^e note ** in this page.

' The Achates is the modem Belice, the Mazara retains its name, and
the Hypsa is now the Marsala.

^° So called by the Greeks from its abundant growth of parsley, called by
them aiXivov. Its remains are still to be seen at the spot called Selenti.

" Now Trapani. Some vestiges of its ancient mole are to be seen.

^2 The present Monte San Juliano.

^3 The great city of Palermo stands on its site. It was founded by
the Phoenicians. i* The modem Solunto.

15 Himera was destroyed by the Carthaginians, B.C. 408, upon which
its inliabitants founded Thermse, so called from its hot springs. This
was probably the colony of Thermae mentioned above by Pliny, though
wrongly placed by him on the southern coast between Selinus and Agri-
gentum. The modem town of Termini stands on the site of Thermse ; re-
mains of its baths and aqueduct are still to be seen. Himera stood on a river
of the same name, most probably the present Fiume Grande, and Fazello
is of opinion that the town was situate on the site now occupied by the
Torre di Bonfornello. Himera was the birthplace of the poet Stesichorus.

16 Or Cfiephaloediiun. Some remains of it are to be seen at the spot
called Cefalu.

17 Probably on the site now occupied by the town of San Marco.
Fazello and Cluver however place Aluntium near San liLidelfo, where
some ruins were formerly visible, and regard San Marco as the site of
Agathyma or Agathyraum.

Chap. 14.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 219

Agathymum, the colony of Tyndaris*, the town of Mylae',
and then Pelorus, the spot at which we began.

In the interior there are the following towns enjoying
Latin privileges, those of the Centuripini^ the Netini^, and
the Segestani" ; tributary towns are tnose of the Assorini",
the jEtnenses', the Agyrini®, the Acestaei, the Acrenses^ the
Bidini'", the Cetarini", the Cacyrini", the Drepanitani,
the Ergetini", the Echetlienses'^ the Erycini", the En-
tellini'S the Enini'', the Enguini'*, the Gelani", the Gala-

* Probably situate near the church of Santa Maria at Tindari, now the
Capo di Mongioio. ^ Now called Melazzo.

' Their city was Centuripa, on a hill S.W. of -^tna. The modem
Centorbi occupies its site, and some of its ruins may still be seen.

* Netum probably stood on the spot now known as Noto Anticho.

* The ruins of Segesta are supposed to be those near the river San
Bartolomeo, twelve miles south of Alcamo. * Asaro occupies its site.

7 A people dwelling at the foot of Mount JEtna, according to D'An-
ville, at a place now called NicolosL

^ Tlie people of Agyrium ; the site of which is now called San Filippo
d' Argiro. Diodorus Siculus was a native of this place.

* Acrse occupied a bleak hill in the vicinity of the modem Pallazolo,
where its ruins are still to be seen.

^" Their town was Bidis near Syracuse. The modem Bibino or San
Giovanni di Bidini is supposed to stand on its site.

" The people of Cetaria, between Fanormus and Drepanum. Its site
is unknown.

*2 The people of Cacyrum, supposed to have stood on the site of the
modem Cassaro. The Drepanitani were so called from living on the
promontory of Drepanum.

'3 The ruins near La Cittadella are probably those of Ergetimn.

^* The people of Echetla. According to Faziello and Cluver its ruins
were those to be seen at the place called Occhiala or Occhula, two miles
fi^m the town of Gran Michele.

^5 The inhabitants of the city of Eryr, on the mountain of that name,
now San Giuliano. The ancient city stood probably half-way down the
moimtain.

^^ The town of Entella survived till the thirteenth centiiry, when it
was destroyed by the Emperor Frederic II. The ruins were formerly to
be seen near Poggio la Reale.

^7 Perhaps the people of Enna, once a famous city. According to the
story as related by Ovid and Claudian, it was from this spot that Pro-
serpine was carried off by Pluto. It stood on the same site as the town of
Castro Giovanni. This note may however be more appHcable to the
Hennenses, mentioned below.

18 The ruins of Enguinum are probably those in the vicinity of the
modem town of Gangi.

1^ The people of Gkla, one of the most important cities of Sicily. Its

220 plikt's NATTJEAL HISTOBY. [Book IIL

tini*, tlic Halesini', the Hennenses, the Hyblenses', the
Herbitenses*, tbe Herbessenses'*, the Herbulenses, the Hali-
cyenses*', the Hadranitani', the Imacarenses, the Ipanenses,
the letenses*, the Mytistratini^, the Magellini, the Mur-
gentini^", the Muty censes", the Menanini^^, the Naxii'^, the
No8ei^^ the Petrini'*, the Paropini^', the Phthinthieuses'^ the
Semellitani, the Scherini, the Selinuntii^*, the Symaethii, the

site was probably the modem Terranova, near the river Fiume di
Terranova.

1 The people probably of Qtdata or Gtdaria ; on the site of which the
modem village of Galata is supposed to stand.

2 The people probably of Halesa ; its ruins are supposed to be those
uear the village of Tysa, near the river Pettineo.

' The people of Hybla. There were three cities of this name in Sicily,
the Greater, the L^s, and Hybla Megara. The name was probably
derived from the local divinity mentioned by Pausanias as being so
called.

■* The people of Herbita ; the site of which was probably at Nicosia,
or else at Sperlinga, two miles south of it.

* There were two places in Sicily known as Herbessus or Erbessus —
one near Agrigentum, the other about sixteen nules from Syracuse, on
the site, it is supposed, of the pfesent Pantahca.

* The people of Halicyse, in the west of Sicily. The modem town of
Salemi is supposed to occupy its site.

^ The people of Adranum or Hadranum, a town famous for its temple
of the Sicilian deity Adranus. Its site is occupied by the modem toAvn
of Ademo. The ruins are very considerable.

8 The people of letse ; the site of which town is said by Fazello to be
the modem lato. The sites of the places previously mentioned cannot
be identified.

" The site of their town is situate at the modem Miatretta, where some
ruins are still to be seen.

1" The site of their town was probably the present village of Mandri
Bianchi on the river Dittaino.

" Probably the people of Motuca, mentioned by Ptolemy, now Modica.

1=^ Their town probably stood on the site of the present Mineo.

1' It has been suggested that these are the same as the people of Tau-
romenium, said to have been a Naxian colony.

'^* They are supposed to have dwelt on the site of the present Noara.

15 The ruins of the town of Petra are supposed to have been those to
be seen near Castro Novo, according to Mannert.

1' FazeUo is of opinion that the present Colisano occupies the site of
the ancient Paropus.

17 The city of Phthinthias was peopled by the inhabitants of Gela, by
command of Phthinthias the despot of Agrigentum. Its ruins are pro-
bably those seen in the vicinity of the modern Alicata.

^ The people of SeUnus previously mentioned in p. 218.

Cliap. 14] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 221

Talarienses, the Tissinenses^ the Triocalini', the Tyraci-
neuses, and the Zauclaei', a Messenian colony on the Straits
of Sicily. Towards Africa, its islands are Gaulos*, Melita,
87 miles from Camerina, and 113 from Lilybaeum, Cosyra',
Hieronnesos^, Cseue^, Galata*, Lopadusa, JEthusa, written
by some ^gu8a,Bucinna', Osteodes , distant from Soluntum
75 miles, and, opposite to Paropus, Ustiea.

On this side ol Sicily, facing the river Metaums, at a di-
stance of nearly 25" miles from Italy, are the seven ^* islands
caUed the JEolian, as alsq the Liparsean islands ; by the
Greeks they are called the Hephiestiades, and by our writers
the Vuleanian" Isles ; they are called " ^olian " because in
the Trojan times -^olus was king there.

(9.) Lipara", with a town whose inhabitants enjoy the
rights of Iloman citizens, is so called from Liparus, a former
king who succeeded'* -Solus, it having been previously called
Melogonis or Meligunis. It is 25 miles" distant from Italy,
and in circumference a little less. Between this island and
Sicily we find another, the name of which was formerly
Therasia, but now called Hiera, because it is sacred to
Vulcan*': it contains a hill which at night vomits forth

* Eandazzo, at the foot of ^tna, is supposed to occupy the site of the
ancient Tissa. ^ The people of Triocala, now TroccoU, near Calata Bellota.

3 Zanclo was the ancient Gh-eek name of Messina, which was so called
from its similarity in shape to a sickle. The Messenian ookmy of the
Zanclffii probably dwelt in its vicinity.

* Graulos is the present Gozo, and Mehta the important island of
Malta. The distance here mentioned is in reahty only sixty-one miles
from Camerina. * Now Pantcllaria. • The modem island of Maretimo.

7 Probably the present island of Limosa.

' G^alata still has the name of Calata, Lopadusa is the present Lam-
pedosa, and jEthusa, according to Mannert, is called Favignana.

* Now Levanzo.

^^ According to Mannert, this is the island AHcur, to the west of the
^olian or Liparian islands. Ustiea still retains its ancient name.

*' The least distance between these localities is forty-five miles.

^2 There are now eleven, some of which are supposed to have risen
from the sea since the time of Pliny.

^3 From Vulcan the god of fire, the Greek Hephsestus.

^* Now called the Great Lipara.

^^ According to Solinus, c. vi., jEoIus succeeded him. ^ Its name Me-
logonis was by some ascribed to its great produce of honey.

^^ The shoi-test distance between tliese localities is forty-six miles.

*7. Now called Volcano.

222 plint's natural HISTOET. [Book III.

flames. The third island is Strongyle\ lying one mile^ to
the east of Lipara, over which --lEolus reigned as well ; it
differs only from Lipara in the superior brilliancy of its
flames. From the smoke of this volcano it is said that some
of the inhabitants are able to predict three days beforehand
what winds are about to blow ; hence arose the notion that
the winds are governed by JEoIus. The fourth of these
islands is Didyme^, smaller than Lipara, the fifth Ericusa,
the sixth Phoenicusa, left to be a pasture-ground for the
cattle of the neighbouring islands, and the last and smallest
Euonymos. Thus much as to the first great Gulf of
Europe.

CHAP. 15. (10.) — MAGNA GB^CIA, BEGIITNllfG AT LOCEI.

At Locri begins the fore-part of Italy, called Magna
Graecia, whose coast falls back in three bays^ formed by the
Ausonian sea, so called from the Ausones, who were the
first inhabitants of the country. According to Varro it is
86 miles in extent ; but most writers have made it only 75.
Along this coast there are rivers innumerable, but we shall
mention those only that are worthy of remark. After
leaving Locri we come to the Sagra^, and the ruins of the
town of Caulon, Mystiae^ Consilinum Castrum^, Cocin-
thum®, in the opinion of some, the longest headland of Italy,
and then the Grulf of Scylacium^, and Scylacium^" itself,

^ Now Strongoli and StrombolL It is the only one of these mountaina
that is continually burning. Notwithstanding the dangers of their loca-
lity, this island is inhabited by about fifty famihes.

2 Strabo makes the same mistake ; the distance is twenty nules.

3 According to Hardouin and D'Anville this is the modem Saline, but
Mannert says Panaria. The geographers differ in assigning their ancient
names to the other three, except that Euonymos, from its name, the " left-
hand " island, is clearly the modem Lisca Bianca.

4 These are the Gulf of Locri, the Grulf of ScyUacium, and the Q-ulf of
Tarentum.

5 Now called the Sagriano, though some make it to be the modem
Alaro. The site of the town of Caulon does not appear to be known :
it is by some placed at Castel Yetere on the Alaro.

^ Said by Hardouin to be the modern Monasteraci or Monte Araci.

7 Supposed to have been sit\iate on a hill near the modem Padula.

8 The modern Punta di StUo, or " Point of the Column."

8 The modem Gulf of SquiHace. lo Now SquHlace.

Chap. 15.] ACCOUNT OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 223

which was called by the Athenians, when they founded it,
Scylletium. This part of Italy is nearly a peninsula, in con-
sequence of the Gulf of Terineeum* running up into it on the
other side ; in it there is a harbour called Castra Hannibalis* :
in no part is Italy narrower than here, it being but twenty
miles across. For this reason the Elder Dionysius enter-
tained the idea of severing' this portion from the main-land
of Italy at this spot, and adding it to Sicily. The navi-
gable rivers in this district are the Carcines*, the Crotalus,
the Semirus, the Arocas, and the Targines. In the interior
is the town of Petilia*, and there are besides, Mount Cli-
banus", the promontory of Lacinium, in front of which lies
the island of Dioscoron'', ten miles from the main-land, and
another called the Isle of Calypso, which Homer is supposed
to refer to under the name of Ogvgia ; as also the islands of
Tiris, Eranusa, and Meloessa. According to Agrippa, the
promontory of Lacinium^ is seventy miles from Caulon.

(11.) At the promontory of Lacinium begins the second
Gulf of Europe, the bend of which forms an arc of great
depth, and terminates at Acroceraunium, a promontory of
Epirus, from which it is distant' seventy-five miles. We
first come to the town of Croton^**, and then the river

» Now the Gulf of Saint Eufemia.

2 " Hannibal'8 Camp." This was the seaport of Scyllacivim, and its
site was probably near the mouth of the river Corace.

3 According to Strabo, B. vi., he intended to erect a high waU across,
and so divide it from the rest of Italy ; but if we may judge, from the
use by Phny of the word " intercisam," it would seem that it was his
design to cut a canal across this neck of land.

■* According to Hardouin, the Carcines is the present river Corace, the
Crotalus the AUi, the Semirus the Simari, the Arocas the Crocchio, and
the Targines the Tacina.

» The present Strongolo, according to D'AnviUe and Mannert.

^ The present Monte Monacello and Monte Euscaldo are supposed
to form part of the range called Chbanus.

7 Meaning that it was sacred to Castor and Pollux. Such are the
changes effected by lapse of time that these two islands are now only
bleak rocks. The present locaHty of the other islands does not appear
to be known. ^ Now Capo di Colonne.

^ The real distance from Acrocerauniiun, now Capo Linguetta, is 153
miles, according to Ansart.

^^ Or Crotona, one of the most famous Greek cities in the south of
Italy. No niins of the ancient city, said by Livy to have been twelve
miles in circumference, are now remaining. The modem Cotrone occu-
pies a part of its site. Pythagoras taught at this place.

224 plint's natueal histoet. [Book III.

Nesethus^ and the town of Thurii^, situate between the two
rivers Crathis and Sybaris, upon the latter of which there was
once a city^ of the same name. In a similar manner Hera-
clia**, sometimes called Siris, lies between the river of that
name and the Aciris. "We next come to the rivers Aca-
landrus and Casuentum*, and the town of Metapontum^,
with which the third region of Italy terminates. In the
interior of Bruttium, the Aprustani^ are the only people ;
but in Lucania we find the Atinates, the Bantini, the Ebu-
rini^, the Grrumentini, the Potentini, the Sontini®, the Sirini,
the Tergilani, the Ursentini, and the Volcentani/", whom
the Numestrani join. Besides these, we learn from Cato"
that Thebes in Lucania has disappeared, and Theopompus
informs us that there was formerly a city of the Lucani called
Pandosia'^, at which Alexander, the king of Epirus, died.

^ The modem Neto.

2 Now called Turi, between the rivers Crati and Sibari or Roscile.

3 A Gh-eek town, famous for the inordinate love of luxury displayed by
its inhabitants, whence a voluptuary obtained the name of a " Sybarite."
It was destroyed by the people of Crotona, who turned the waters of the
Crathis upon the town. Its site is no w occupied by a pestilential swamp.

"^ A famous Greek city founded on the territory of the former Ionian
colony of Siris. The foundations of it mav still be seen, it is supposed,
near a spot called Policoro, three miles from the sea. The rivers are
now called the Sinno and the Agri.

* The modem Salandra or SalandreUa, and the Basiento.

^ So called from its Ijing between the two seas. It was once a cele-
brated Greek city, but was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The
place called Torre di Mare now occupies its site.

7 The site of Aprustum is supposed to be marked by the village of
Argus to, near Chiaravalle, about five miles from the Gulf of SquiSace.
Atina was situate in the valley of the Tanager, now the VaUe di Diano. The
ruins of Atina, which are very extensive, are to be seen near the village
of Atena. Livy and Acron speak of Bantia as in Apulia, and not in Lu-
cania. An ancient abbey, Santa Maria (ii Vanze, still marks its site.

® The ruins of Eburi are supposed to be those between the modem
EboU and the right bank of tlie Silarus. The remains of Grximentum,
a place of some importance, are still to be seen on the river Agri, half a
mile from the modern Saponara. Potenza occupies the site of ancient
Potentia.

^ The Sontini were probably situate on the river Sontia, now the Sanza,
near PoHcastro. The Sirini probably had their name from the river Siris.

^" Voleentum was situate near the Silarus, probably on the spot now
called Bulcino or Bucino. The site of Numistro appears to be unknown.

^* In his work " De Originibus."

Livy, B. viii.^ and Justin mention how that Alexander I. (in the

Chap. 16.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 225

CHJlP. 16. — THE SECOND EEGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this district is the second region of Italy, which
embraces the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the Salentini, ex-
tending a distance of 250 miles along the Gulf of Tarentum,
which receives its name from a town of the Laconians so
called, situate at the bottom of the Gulf; to which was annexed
the maritime colony which had previously settled there.
Tarentum ' is distant from the promontory of Lacinium 136
miles, and throws out the territory of Calabria opposite to it
in the form of a penmaula. The Greeks called this territory
Messapia, from their leader^ ; before which it was called Peu-
cetia, from Peucetius', the brother of (Enotrius, and was
comprised in the territory of Salentinum. Between the
two promontories^ there is a distance of 100 miles. The
breadth across the peninsula from Tarentum' to Brundusium
by land is 35 miles, considerably less if measured from the
port of Sasina'. The towns inland from Tarentum are Vana'
sumamed Apulia, Messapia, and Aletium*; on the coast,
Senum, and Callipolis', now known as Anxa, 75 miles from

year B.C. 326) was obliged to engage under unfavourable circumstanoes
near Pandosia, on the Acheron, and fell as he was crossing the river;
thus accomplisliing a prophecy of Dodona which had warned him to
beware of Pandosia and the Acheron. He was \uicle to Alexander the
Great, being the brother of Olympias. The site of Pandosia is supposed
to have been the modem Castro Franco.

* This word is understood in the text, and Ansart would have it to
mean that the " Gulf of Tarentum is distant," &c., but, as he says, such
an assertion would be very indefinite, it not being stated what part of
the Gulf is meant. He therefore suggests that the most distant point
from Laeinium is meant ; which however, according to him, would make
but 117 miles straight across, and 160 by land. The city of Tarentum
would be the most distant point.

' Messapus, a Bceotian, mentioned by Strabo, B. ix.
3 A son of Lycaon.

* Of Laciniiun and Acra lapygia. About seventy miles seems to be
the real distance ; certainly not, as Pliny aays, 100.

' The modem Taranto to Brindisi.

^ Probably situate at the further extremity of the bay on which Ta-
rentum stood.

7 According to D'Anville and Mannert, the modem Oria. Messapia
is the modem Mesagna.

8 The modem Santa Maria deU' Alizza, according to D'Anville.

5 The modem GtiUipoli, in the Terra di Otranto. The real distance
from Tarentum is between fifty and sixty miles.

VOL. I. Q

226 plint's natural histoet. [Book III.

Tarentum. Thence, at a distance of 32 miles, is the Pro-
montory of Acra Iapygia\ at which point Italy projects
the greatest distance into the sea. At a distance of 19 miles
jfrom this point is the town of Basta^, and then Hydruntum*,
the spot at which the Ionian is separated from the Adriatic
sea, and from which the distance across to Greece is the
shortest. The town of the Apolloniates'* lies opposite to it,
and the breadth of the arm of the sea which runs between is
not more than fifty miles. Pyrrhus, king of Epinis, was the
first who entertained the notion of uniting these two points
and making a passage on foot, by throwing a bridge across,
and after him M. Varro*, when commanding the fleet of
Pompey in the war against the Pirates. Other cares however
prevented either of them from accomplishing this design.
Passing Hydruntum, we come to the deserted site of
Soletum^, then Fratuertium, the Portus Tarentinus, the
haven of Miltopa, Lupia'^, Balesium*, Caelia', and then Brun-
dusium*", fifty miles from Hydruntum. This last place is

J Tlie " lapygian Point," the present Capo di Santa Maria di Leuca.

2 Its site is occupied by the httle village of Vaste near Poggiordo, ten
miles S.W. of Otranto. In the sixteenth century considerable remains
of Basta were still to be seen.

3 The modem Otranto stands on its site. In the fourth century it
became the usual place of passage from Italy to Greece, Apollonia, and
Dyrrhachium. Few vestiges of the ancient city are now to be seen.

■* Anciently ApoUonia, in Illyria, now called PaUina or Pollona.

* This was M. Terentius Varro, called " the most learned of the Ro-
mans." His design, here mentioned, seems however to have evinced
neither learning nor discretion.

6 Now called Soleto. The ruins of the ancient city, described by
Galateo as existing at Muro, are not improbably those of Fratuertiima,
or, perhaps more rightly, Fratuentum.

7 The modem Lecce is supposed to occupy its site.

' Called Valetium by Mela. Its ruins are still to be seen near San
Pietro Yemotico, on the road fix>m Brindisi to Lecce. The site is still
called Baleso or Yalesio.

5 Ansart takes this to be the modem village of Cavallo, on the pro-
montory of that name ; but it is more probably the modem CegUe, situate
on a hill about twelve miles from the Adriatic, and twenty-seven miles west
of Brindisi. Extensive ruins still exist there. There was another town
of the same name in the south of Apulia.

^" Now Brindisi. Virgil died here. The modem city, which is an
impoverished place, presents but few vestiges of antiquity. The distance
to Dyrrhachium is in reality only about 100 miles.

Chap. 16.] ACCOrNT OP COUKTBIES, ETC. 227

one of the most famous ports of Italy, and, although more
distant, affords by far the safest passage across to Greece,
the place of disembarkation being Dyrrachium, a city of
Illyna ; the distance across is 225 miles.

Adjoining Brundusium is the territory of the Pediculi* ;
nine youths and as many maidens, natives of Illyria, became
the parents of sixteeii nations. The towns of the Pediculi
are Kudia)^, Egnatia', and Barium^ ; their rivers are the lapyx
(so called from the son of Da?dalus, who was king there, and
who gave it the name of lapygia), the Pactius*, and the
Aufidus, which rises in the Hirpinian mountains and flows
past Canusium".

At this point begins Apulia, sumamed the Daunian, from the
Daunii, who take their name from a former chief, the father-in-
law of Diomedes. In this territory are the towns of Salapia'^,
lamous for Hannibal's amour with a courtezan, Sipontum®,

* They occupied probably a portion of the modem Terra di BarL

2 Said by Hardouin to be the modem Carouigna or Carovigni ; but
Mannert asserts it to be the same as the modem Euro.

' Or Gnatia, called by Strabo and Ptolemy a city of Apulia. It was
probably the last town of the Peucetians towards the fi^ntiers of Calabria.
Horace, in the account of his journey to Brundusium (I. Sat. i. 97-100),
makes it his last halting-place, and ridicules a pretended miracle shown
by the inhabitants, who asserted that incense placed on a certain altar
was consumed without fire being applied. The same story is referred to
by Pliny, B. ii. c. Ill, where he incorrectly makes Egnatia a town of the
Salentini. Its ruins are visible on the sea-coast, about six miles S.E. of
Monopali, and an old town still bears the name of Torre d' Agnazzo.

* Now Bari, a considerable city. In the time of Horace it was only a
fishing town. It probably liad a considerable intercourse with Greece,
if we may judge from the remains of art found here.

5 It is difficult to identify these rivers, from the number of small tor-
rents between Brindisi . and the Ofanto or Aufidus. According to
Mannert, the Pactius is the present Canale di Terzo.

^ An important city of Apulia, said to have been foimded by Diomedes.
Horace alludes to its deficiency of water. The modem Canosa is built
on probably the sit« of the citadel of the ancient city, the niins of which
are very extensive.

^ The ruins of this place are still to be seen at some Httle distance
from the coast, near the village of Salpi. The story about Hannibal was
very probably of Roman invention, for Justin .and Frontinus speak in
praise of his continence and temperance. Appian however gives some
further particulars of this alleged amour.

^ The present Manfredonia has arisen from the decay of this town, in
consequence of the unhealtliiness of the locality. Ancient Uria is sup-

<l2

228 PLIlfT's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

TJria, the river Cerbalus\ forming the boundary of the Daunii,
the port of Agasus^, and the Promontory of Mount Gar-
ganus^, distant from the Promontory of Salentinum or lapygia
234 miles. Making the circuit of Grarganus, we come to the
port of Garna"*, the Lake Pantanus*, the river Prento, the
mouth of which forms a harbour, Teanum of the Apuli^, and
Larinum, Cliternia'^, and the river Tifernus, at which the
district of the Frentani® begins. Thus there were three
different nations of the Apuliaus, [the Daunii,] the Teani, so
called from their leader, and who sprang from the Greeks, and
the Lucani, who were subdued by Calchas ', and whose country
is now possessed by the Atinates. Besides those already men-
tioned, there are, of the Daunii, the colonies of Luceria^" and
Yenusia", the towns of Canusium^^ and Arpi, formerly called
Argos Hippium^^ and founded by Diomedes, afterwards called
Argyrippa. Here too Diomedes destroyed the nations of the
Monadi and the Dardi, and the two cities of Apina and

posed to have occupied the site of Manfredonia, and the village of Santa
Maria di Siponto stands where Siponti stood.

^ Probably the Cervaro. Hardouin says the Candelaro.

^ l^e present Porto Greco occupies its site.

3 Still known as Ghirgano.

* Probably the present Varano.

* Now Lago di Lesina. The Frento is now called the Fortore.

8 To distinguish it from Teanum of the Sidicini, previously mentioned.

7 Between the Tifernus and the Frento. Its remains are said to be
still visible at Licchiano, five miles from San Martino. The Tifemiis is
now called the Biferno.

8 A people of Central Italy, occupying the tract on the east coast of
the peninsula, from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and from the fron-
tiers of Apulia to those of the Marrucini.

^ Strabo (B, vi.) refers to this tradition, where he mentions the oracle
of Calchas, the soothsayer, in Daunia in Southern Italy. Here answers
were given in dreams, for those who consulted the oracle had to sacrifice
a black ram, and slept a night in the temple, lying on the skin of the
victim.

10 The modem Lucera in the Capitanata.

11 The birth-place of Horace ; now Venosa in the Basilicata.

12 The modem Canosa stands on the site of the citadel of ancient Ca-
nusium, an Apulian city of great importance. • The remains of the ancient
city are very considerable.

i' So called, it was said, in remembrance of Argos, the native city of
Diomedes. It was an Apulian city of considerable importance. Some
shght traces of it are still to be seen at a spot which retains the name of
Arp&i five miles from the city of Foggia.

Cliap. 16.] ACCOUNT Or COUNTEIES, ETC. 229

Trica^, whose names have passed into a by-word and a
proverb.

Besides the above, there is in the interior of the second
region one colony of the Hirpini, Beneventum', so called by
an exchange of a more auspicious- name for its old one of
Maleventum ; also the ^culani', the Aquilonii^, the Abelli-
nates surnamed Protropi, the Compsani, the Caudini, the
Ligures, both those called the Corneliani and Bebiani, the
Yescellani, the -Sclani, the Aletrini, the Abellinates* sur-
named Marsi, the Atrani, the .^cani'', the Alfellani', the

* The names of these two defunct cities were used by the Romans to
signify anytiiing frivolous and unsubstantial ; just as we speak of " cas-
tles in the air," wliich the French call " chateaux en Espagne."

2 Livy and Ptolemy assign this place to Samniiun Proper, as distin-
gubhed from the Hirpini. It was a very ancient city of the Samnites,
but in the year B.C. 268, a Roman colony was settled there, on which
occasion, prompted by superstitfous feelings, the Komans changed its
name Maleventimi, which in their language would mean " badly come,"
to Beneventum or " well come." The modem city of Benevento still
retains nmnerous Iraces of its ancient grandeur, among others a tri-
umphal arch, erected a.d. 114 in honour of the emperor Trajan.

3 The remains of JKculanum are to be seen at Le Qrotte, one mile
from Mirabella. The ruins are very extensive.

■* There were probably two places called Aquilonia in Italy ; the remainB
of tlie present one are those probably to be seen at La Cedogna. That
mentioned by Livy, B. i. c. 38-43, was probably a different place.

' These are supposed by some to be the people of AbeUinum mentioned
in the first region of Italy. Notliing however is known of these or of
the Abellinates Marsi, mentioned below.

6 ^C8B is supposed to have been situate about nineteen miles fix)m
Herdonia, and to have been on the site of the modem city of Troja, an
episcopal see. The Compsani were the people of Compsa, the modem
Conza ; and the Caudini were the inhabitants of Caudixun, near which
were the Fauces Caudinae or "Caudine Forks," where the Roman army was
captured by the Samnites. The site of this city was probably between
the modem Arpaja and Monte Sarchio ; and the defeat is tliought to
have taken place in the narrow valley between Santa Agata and Moirano,
on the road from the former place to Benevento, and traversed by the
little river Iselero. The enumeration here beginning with the ^clani is
thought by Hardouin to be of nations belonging to Apulia, and not to
the Hirpini. The ^clani, here mentioned, were probably tlie people
of the place now called AscoH di Satriano, not far from the river Cara-
pella. Of the Aletrini and Atrani nothing appears to be known,

" Probably the people of Affilse, still called Affile, and seven miles
from Subiaco. Inscriptions and fragments of columns are still foimd
there.

230 PLUrr's lfATTJEA.L HISTOET. [Book III.

Atinates*, the Arpani, the Borcani, the Collatini, the Cori-
nenses, the Cannenses^, rendered famous by the defeat of the
liomans, theDirini, theForentani^, the Genusini^, the Herdo-
nienses, the Hyrini*, the Larinates surnamed Frentani^, the
Merinates'' of Gargaims, the Mateolani, the Netini*, the Eu-
bustini^, the Silviui^**, the Strapelliiii", the Turmentini, the
Vibinates^^, the Yenusini, and the Ulurtini. In the interior
of Calabria there are the ^getiiii, the Apamestini^^, the
Argentini, the Butuntinenses^^, theDeciani, the Grumbestini,

1 The people of Atinum, a town of Lucania, situate in the upper valley
of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. Its site is ascertamed by the
ruins near the village of Atena, five miles north of La Sala. Collatia
was situate on the Anio, now called the Teverone.

=* The ruins of the town of Canuffi an; stiU visible at a place called
Canne, about eight miles from Canosa. The Romans were defeated by
Hannibal, on the banks of the Aufidus in its vicinity, but there is con-
siderable question as to the exact locahty. The ruins of the town are
BtiU considerable.

3 Forentvun was the site of the present Forenza in the Basilicate. It
is called by Horace and Diodorus Siculus, Ferentum. The ancient town
probably stood on a plain below the modem one. Some remains of it
are still to be seen.

* On the site of GTenusimn stands the modem Ginosa. The ruins of
the ancient city of Herdonea are still to be seen in the vicinity of the
modem Ordona, on the high road from Is a pies to Otranto. Tliis place
witnessed the defeat by Hannibal of the Konians twice in two years.

5 The mention of the Hyrini, or peopLj of Hyrium or Hyria, is pro-
bably an error, as he has already mentioned Uria, the same place, among
the Daunian Apulians, and as on the sea-shore. See p. 228. It is not
improbably a corrupted form of some other name.

^ From the Frento, on the banks of which they dwelt.

7 Viesta, on the promontory of Ghirgano, is said to occupy the site of
the ancient Merinum.

8 According to Mannert, the modem town of Noja stands on the site
of ancient Netium.

9 They inhabited Ruvo, in the territory oi" Bari, according to Hardouin.
^° Their town was Silvium ; probably on the site of the modem

Savigliano.

^1 According to D'Anville their town was StrabeUum, now called
RapoUa.

12 Their town is supposed to have been on the site of the modem
Bovino, in the Capitanata.

12 The people of Apamestse ; probably on the site of the modem San
Yito, two miles west of Polignano.

!•• The people of Butuntum, now Bitouto, an inland city of Apulia,
twelve miles from Barium, and five from tin. ^ea. No particulars of it are
known. All particulars too of most of the following tribes have perished.

Chap. 17.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 231

the Norbanenses, the Palionenses, the Sturniiii\ and the
Tutini : there are also the following Salentine nations ; the
Aletini^, the Basterbini', the Neretini, the Uxentini, and
the Veretini^.

CHAP. 17. (12.) — THE FOUETH EEQION OF ITALY.

We now come to the fourth region, which includes the
most valiant probably of all the nations of Italy. Upon the
coast, in the territoirof the Frentani', after the river Tifemus,
we find the river Trmium", with a good harbour at its mouth,
the towns of Histonium', Buca*, and Ortona, and the river
Aternus'. In the interior are the Anxani sumamed Frentani,
the Higher and Lower Carentini'", and the Lanuenses ; in the
territory of the Marrucini, the Teatini" ; in that of thePeligni,
the Corfinienses^^, the Superaequani", and the Sulmonenses" ;

* D'Anville places their city, Stumi, at the present Ostnni, not far
fifom the Adriatic, and fourteen leagues from Otranto.

* The people of Aletium already mentioned.

* Their town possibly stood on the site of the present village of Veste,
to the west of Castro. The Neretini were probably the people of the
present Nardo.

* Probably the people of the town which stood on the site of the pre-
sent San Verato.

6 They occupied what is now called the Abruzzo Inferiore.

* Now the Trigno.

"^ On the site of the present Vast© d'Ammone, five miles south of the
Pimta della Penna. There are numerous remains of the ancient city.

' According to Strabo Buca bordered on the territory of Teanum,
which would place its site at TermoU, a seaport three miles from the
mouth of the Bifemo or Tifemus. Other writers, however, following
Pliny, have placed it on the Pimta della Penna, where considerable re-
mains were visible in the 17th centiuy. Ortona still retains its ancient
name. • Now the Pescara.

^0 The sites of their towns are unknown ; but D'AnvUle supposes the
Higher or Upper Carentvmi to have occupied the site of the modem Civita
Burella, and the Lower one the Civita del Conte.

^^ Teate is supposed to be the present Chieti.

^2 The people of Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni. It is sup-
posed to have remained in existence up to the tenth centiiry. Its ruins
are seen near Pentima, about the church of San Pelino.

^3 The site of Supersequmn is occupied by the present Castel Yecchio
Subequo.

1^ The people of Sulmo, a town ninety miles from Rome. It was the
birth-place of Ovid, and was famous for the coldness of its waters, a

232 pllnt's natural HISTOET, [Book III.

in tliat of the Marsi, the Anxantini^ the Atinates^, the
Eucentes^, the Lucenses'', and the Marmvini* ; in that of
the Aibenses, the town of Alba on Lake Eucinus ; in that
of the ^quiculani, the Cliternini^, and the Carseolani^ ; in
that of the Vestini, the Angulani^, the Pinnenses, and the
Peltuinates, adjoining to whom are the Aufinates^ Cismon-
tani; in that of the Samnites, who have been called
Sabelli^", and whom the Greeks have called Saunitae, the
colony of old Bovianum", and that of the Undecumani,

circumstance mentioned by Ovid in his Tristia, B. iv. ch. 1. 1. 4/ It ia
now called Sulmona.

* The people of Anxanum or Ania, on the Sangro, now known as the
city of Lanciano ; in the part of which, known as Lanciano Vecchio,
remains of the ancient town are to be seen.

^ The people probably of Atina in Samnium, which still retains the
same name.

3 They probably took their name from the Lake Fucinus, the modem
Lago Fucino, or Lago di Celano.

* They dwelt in a town on the verge of Lake Fucinus, known as Lucus.
5 The ruins of Marruvium may stiU be seen at Muria, on the eastern

side of Lake Fucinus.

^ It has been suggested, from the discovery of a sepulchral inscription
there, that Capradosso, about nine miles from Rieti in the upper valley of
the Salto, is the site of ancient Chtemia. The small village of Alba retains
the name and site of the former city of Alba Fucensis, of which there
are considerable remains.

7 The modem town of Carsoli is situate three miles from the site of
ancient CarseoU, the remains of which are still visible at Civita near the
Ostoria del CavaUere. Ovid tells us that its climate was cold and bleak,
and that it would not grow oHves, though fruitful in com. He also gives
some other curious particulars of the place. — Fasti, B. iv. 1. 683 et seq.

^ The modem Civita Sant Angelo retains nearly its ancient name as
that of its patron saint. It is situate on a hill, four miles from the
Adriatic, and south of the river Matrinus, wliich separated the Vestini
from the territories of Adria and Picenum.

3 The village of Ofena, twelve miles north of Popoli, is supposed to
retain the site of ancient Aufina. Numerous antiquities have been foimd
here.

^^ Cato in his ' Origines ' stated that they were so called from the fact
of their being descended from the Sabines.

^^ The site of the town of Bovianum is occupied by the modem city of
Bojano ; the remains of the walls are visible. Mommsen however con-
siders Bojano to be the site of only Bovianum Undecumanorum, or " of
the Eleventh Legion," and considers that the site of the ancient Sam-
nite city of Bovianum Vetus is the place called Piettrabondante, near
Agnone, twenty miles to the north, where there appear to be the remains
of an ancient city.

Chap. 17.] ACCOUlfT OF COXTNTEIES, ETC. 238

the Aufidenates\ the Esemini^, the Fagifulani, the Fico-
lenses^, the Saepinates^, and the Tereventinates ; in that of
the Sabini, the Amiternini^, the Curenses®, Forum Deci',
Forum Novum, the Fidenates, the Interamnates*, the Nur-
sini', the Nomentani*", the Eeatini", the Trebulani, both
those called Mutusci'^ and those called Suffenates", the Ti-
burtes, and the Tarinates.

In these districts, the Comini", the Tadiates, the Caedici,

^ The people of Aufidena, a citj of northern Samnium, in the upper
valley of the Sagrus or Sagro, Its remains, which show it to have been
a place of very great strength, are to be seen near the modem village of
Alfidena, on a hill on the left bank of the modem Sangro.

2 The people of Esemia, now Isemia,

* The people of Ficulia or Fioolea, a city of ancient Latiimi on the
Via Nomentana. It is supposed that it was situate within the confines
of the domain of Cesarini, and upon either the hill now called Monte
Gbntile, or that marked by the Torre Lupara.

* 88Bpin^ml is supposed to be the same with the modem Supino or
Sipicciano.

* The ruins of the ancient Sabine city of Amitemum are still visible
at San Vittorino, a village about five miles north of Aquila. Considerable
remains of antiquity are still to be seen there.

" The people of Cures, an ancient city of the Sabines, to the left of the
Via Salaria, about three miles from the left bank of the Tiber, and twenty-
four fi*om Eome. It was the birth-place of Numa Pompihus. Its site
is occupied by the present villages of Correse and Arci, and considerable
remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

7 Nothing is known of this place ; but it has been suggested that it
stood in the neighbourhood of Fonmi Novxma (or *!New Market'), next
mentioned, the present Vescovio.

* This Interamna must not be confoimded with Interamna Lirinas,
mentioned in C. 9, nor Interamna Nartis, mentioned in C. 19. It was a
city of Picenum in the territory of the Prsetutii. The city of Teramo
stands on its site ; and extensive remains of the ancient city are still in
existence.

' From their town, Norsia in the duchy of Spoleto is said to derive its
name. -•' The people of Nomentiun, now La Mentana.

*^ The people of Reate, now Rieti, below Mursia.

^ The people of Trebulse Mutuscae, said to have stood on the site of
the present Monte Leone deUa Sabina, below Rieti. This place is men-
tioned in the seventh ^neid of Virgil, as the " Ohve-bearing Mutusca?."

^ Their town was Trebula Sufiena, on the site of the present Montorio
di Romagna. The Tiburtes were the people of Tibur, the modem TivoH ;
and the Tarinates were the inhabitants of Tarinum, now Tarano.

1'* The people of Cominium, the site of which is vmcertain. It is sup-
posed that there were tliree places of this name. One Cominium is men-
tioned in the Samnite wars as being about twenty miles from Aquiloniflj^

234 Flint's natubal histoet. [Book III.

and the Alfatemi, tribes of tlie iEquiculi, have disappeared.
Prom Gellianus we learu that Archippe^ a town of the
Marsi, built by Marsyas, a chieftain of the Lydians, has
been swallowed up by Lake Fucinus. and Valerianus informs
us that the town of the Viticini in Picenum was destroyed
by the Bomans. The Sabini (called, according to some
writers, from their attention to religious^ observances and
the worship of the gods, Sevini) dwell on the dew-clad hills
in the vicinity of the Lakes of the Velinus^. The Nar, with
its sulphureous waters, exhausts these lakes, and, descending
from Mount Fiscellus'*, imites with them near the groves of
Vacuna* and E^ate, and then directs its course towards the
Tiber, into which it discharges itself. Again, in another
direction, the Anio^, taking its rise in the mountain of the
Trebani, carries into the Tiber the waters of three lakes re-
markable for their picturesque beauty, and to which Subla-

while Cominium Ceritum, probably another place, is spoken of by Livy
in his account of the second Punic War. The latter, it is suggested, was
about sixteen miles north-west of Beneventura, and on the site of the
modem Cerreto. The Comini here mentioned by Pliny, it is thought,
dwelt in neither of the above places. The sites of the towns of many of
the peoples here mentioned are also equally unknown.

^ Solinus, B. ii., also states, that this place was founded by Marsyas,
king of the Lydians. Hardouin mentions that in his time the remains of
this town were said to be seen on the verge of the lake near Transaco.

2 From the Greek ve(3e<T9ai "to worship."

3 The river VeHnus, now Velino, rising in the Apennines, in the vici-
nity of Reate, overflowed its banks and formed several small lakes, the
largest of wliich was called Lake Velinus, now Pie di Lugo or Lago, while
a smaller one was caHed Lacus Reatinus, now Lago di Santa Susanna.
In order to carry off these waters, a channel was cut through the rocks
by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of which
the waters of the Velinus were carried tlxrough a narrow gorge to a spot
where they fall from a height of several hundred feet into the river
Nar. This fall is now known as the Fall of Temi or the Cascade Delle
Marmore.

■* StiU called Monte Fiscello, near the town of Civita Reale. Virgil
calls the Nar (now the Nera), " Sulphured Nar albus aqua," " The
white Nar with its sulphureous waters." — J^neid, vii. 517.

* A Sabine divinity said to have been identical with Victory, The
Romans however made her the goddess of leisure and repose, and repre-
sented her as being worsiiiped by the husbandmen at harvest home,
when they were " vacui," or at leisure. She is mentioned by Ovid in the
Fasti, B. vi. 1. 307. The grove here alluded to was one of her sanctuaries.

fi The modern Teverone, which rises near Tervi or Trevi.

Chap. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 285

queum' is indebted for its name. In the territorj' of Eeate
is the Lake of Cutilite*, in which there is a floating island,
and which, according to M. Varro, is the navel or central
point of Italy. Below the Sabine territory lies that of La-
tium, on one side Picenum, and behind it Umbria, while
the range of the Apennines flanks it on either side.

CHAP. 18. (13.) — THE FIFTH BEGION OF ITALY.

The fifth region is that of Picenum, once remarkable for
the denseness of its population ; 360,000 Picentines took the
oaths of fidelity to the Eoman people. They are descended
from the Sabines, who had made a vow to celebrate a holy
spring'. Their territory commenced at the river Atemus*,
where the present district and colony of Adria^ is, at a distance
of six miles from the sea. Here we find the river Vomanus,
the territories of Prjetutia and Palma'', Castrum Novum",

^ A town of the ^qui, now known as Subiaco. In its vicinity was
the celebrated rilla of Claudius and Nero, called the Villa Sublacencis.

2 This was a town of the Sabines between Reate and Interocrea, in the
vicinity of a smaU lake of the same name. It was a mere pool, accord-
ing to Dionysius, being but 400 feet in diameter. It is supposed that the
floating i:$land was formed from the incrustations of carbonate of lime on
the banks, which, becoming detached, probably collected in the middle.
The lake still exists, but the floating Lsland has disappeared. There are
some fine rviins of Roman baths in the vicinity of the lake.

3 It was a custom with the early Itahan nations, especially the Sabines,
m times of danger and distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of all the
produce of the ensuing spring, that is, of the period from the first day of
March tQl the last day of April. It is probable that in early times hu-
man sacrifices were the consequence ; but at a later period the following
custom was adopted instead. The children were allowed to grow up, and
in the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year were with covered
faces driven across the frontier of their native country, to go whitherso-
ever chance or the guidance of the deity might lead them. The Mamer-
tini in Sicily were said to have had this origin.

* Now the Atemo, which falls into the sea at Atri or Ortona.

* A fSamous city of Etruscan origin, which stUl retains its name of
Adria or Atri. It had very considerable intercourse with Greece, and
there are extensive remains of antiquity in its vicinity, towards Kavegnano.
The river is still called the Vomano.

* These places are again mentioned in B. xiv. c. 8.

7 Or " New Castle." It probably occupied the site of the now de-
serted town of Santo Flaviano, near the banks of the river Tordino, the
Batinus of Pliny, and below the modem towTi of Giulia Nova.

236 plutt's ifATrEAL histoet. [Book rrr.

the river Batinus ; Tnientum\ with its river of the same name,
which place is the only remnant of the Libumi^ in Italy ; the
river Albnla^ ; Tervium, at which the Prsetutian district ends,
and that of Picenum begins ; the town of Cupra^, Castellum
Pirmanorum®, and above it the colony of Asculum®, the most
illustrious in Picenum; in the interior there is the town
of Novana'. Upon the coast we have Cluana*, Potentia,
Numana, founded by the Siculi, and Ancona', a colony
founded by the same people on the Promontory of Cumerus,
forming an elbow of the coast, where it begins to bend in-
wards, and distant from Garganus 183 miles. In the interior

* The river still has the nnme of Tronto; Porto di Martin Scuro
occupies the site of the town.

2 Who had crossed over as colonists firom the opposite coast of Dly-
ricum.

' According to Mannert the river Tesino is the same as the Albula,
and Tervium is the modem town of Orotte a Mare ; but D' Anville makes
the latter to be the town of Cupra next mentioned,

* This was called Cupra Maritima, to distinguish it from the town of
the Cuprenses Montani, afterwards mentioned. It is said by Strabo to
have had its name fi^m the Tyrrhenian name of Jxmo. From the dis-
covery of an inscription belonging to her temple here, there is httle doubt
that D'Anville is right in his suggestion that the site of Cupra is at
Grotte a Mare, eight miles from the mouth of the Truentus or
Tronto.

5 "The Fortress of the Firmani," five miles fi^m Firmum, an important
city of Picemun. The Fortress was situate at the mouth of the Leta, and
was the port of the city. It is stiU called Porto di Fermo.

* Often called "Asculum Picenum" to distinguish it from Asculum in
Apulia. It was a place of considerable strength, and played a great part
in the Social War. It is unknown at what period it became a Boman
colony. The modem city of AscoU stands on its site.

7 Now called Monte Novano, according to D'Anville and Brotier.

8 Its site is supposed to have been that of the small town called
Santo Elpidio a Mare, four miles from the sea, and the same distance
north of Fermo. The remains of Potentia are supposed to be those in
the vicinity of the modern Porto di RecanatL Niunana is supposed to
be the modem Umana, near the Cuscione, where, in the seventeenth
century, extensive ruins were to be seen.

9 It stiU retains its ancient name, which was derived from the Greek
iyKwv " the elbow," it being situate on a promontory which forms a
curve, and almost encloses the port. The promontory is still called Monte
Comero. A triumphal arch, erected in honour of Trajan, who con-
structed a new mole for the port, is still in fine preservation, and there
»re remains of an amphitheatre.

Chap. 19.] ACCOITNT OF COITNTEIES, ETC. 237

are the Auximate8\ the Beregrani', the Cingulani, the Cu-
prenses sumamed Montani*, the Falarienses*, the PausuLmi,
the Planinenses, the Kicinenses, the Septempedani*, the
Tollentinates, the Treienses, and the Pollentini of Urbs
Salvia'.

CHAP. 19. (14.) — THE SIXTH EEOION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this is the sixth region, which includes TJm-
bria and the Gallic territory in the vicinity of Ariminum.
At Ancona begins the coast of that part of Gaul known as
Gallia Togata\ The Siculi and the Liburni possessed the
greater part of this district, and more particularly the terri-
tories of Palma, of Praetutia, and of Adria. These were
expelled by the Umbri, these again by the Etrurians, and
these in their turn by the Gauls. The Umbri are thought
to have been the most ancient race in Italy, it being sup-
posed that they were called " Ombrii" by the Greeks, from the
fact of their having survived the rains* which had inundated

* The modem city of Osimo stands on the site of Auximum, about
twelve miles south-west of Ancona. Numerous inscriptions, statues, and
other remains have been found there.

2 Cluver conjectures that Beregra stood at CSvitella di Tronto, ten
miles north of Teramo ; but nothing further relative to it is known. Cin-
gulum was situate on a lofty mountain j the modem town of Cingoli
occupies its site.

3 " The mountaineers." They inhabited Cupra Montana, which is sup-
posed to have stood on the same site as the modem Ripa Transone.

< The people of Falaria or Faleria. There are considerable remains of
this town about a mile fit)m the village of Falerona, among which a
theatre and amphitheatre are most conspicuous. The remains of Pausula
are supposed to be those seen on the Monte dell' Olmo. The town of
the Rieinenses is supposed to have been on the banks of the Potenza,
two miles fi^m Macerata, where some remains were to be seen in the
seventeenth centiiry.

* Septempeda is supposed to have occupied the site of the modem San
Severino, on the river Potenza. Tollentinvma or Tollentura was probably
on the site of the modem Tolentino. The town of the Treienses is sup-
posed to have occupied a site near the modem San Severino, in the vici-
nity of Montecchio.

^ A colony of the people of Pollentia was estabhshed at Urbs Salvia,
occupying the site of the modem Urbisagha on the bank of the Chiento.

7 Cisalpine Gaul was so called because the inhabitants adopted the use
of the Roman toga.

8 This fanciful derivation would make their name to come from the
Greek o/i/3pos " a shower."

238 Pliny's irATiTEA.L histoet. [Boot in.

the earth. "We read that 300 of their towns were conquered
by the Tusci ; at the present day we find on their coast the
river ^sis\ Senogallia^, the river Metaurus, the colonies of
Tanum Fortunse^ and Pisaurum^, with a river of the same
name ; and, in the interior, those of Hispellum^ and Tuder.
Besides the above, there are the Amerini", the Attidiatcs',
the Asisinates^, the Amates^, the ^Esinates'", the Camertes",
the Casuentillani, the Carsulani^^, the Delates sumamed

^ Now the Esino.

2 So called from the GTaUi Senones. The modem city of Sinigaglia
occupies its site. The river Metaurus is still called the Metauro.

3 " The Temple of Fortune," At this spot the Flaminian Way joined
the road from Ancona and Picenum to Ariminum. The modem city of
Fano occupies the site, but there are few remains of antiquity.

* The modem Pesaro occupies the site of the town ; the river is called
the Foglia.

* This was a flourishing town of Umbria, Augustus showed it espe-
cial favour and bestowed on it the Grove and Temple of Clitumnus,
though at twelve miles' distance from the town. The modem town of
Spello occupies its site, and very extensive remains of antiquity are still
to be seen. It probably received two Roman colonies, as inscriptions
mention the "Colonia Julia HispeUi" and the "Colonia Urbana Flavia."
It is considered probable that Hispellum, rather than Mevania, was the
birth-place of the poet Propertius. Tuder is supposed to have occupied
the site of the modem Todi, on the Tiber.

^ The people of Ameria, an important and flourishing city of Umbria.
There are still remains of the ancient waUs ; the modem town of Amelia
occupies its site.

7 The site of Attidium is marked by the modem village of Attigio,
two miles south of the city of Fabriano, to which the inhabitants of Atti-
dium are supposed to have migrated in the middle ages.

* The people of Asisium. The modem city of Assisi (the birth-place
of St. Francis) occupies its site. There are considerable remains of the
ancient town.

8 The people of Ama, the site of which is now occupied by the town
of Civitella d'Arno, five miles east of Perugia. Some inscriptions and
other objects of antiquity have been -found here.

1" The people of ^sis, situate on the river of the same name. It is
still called lesi. Phny, in B. xi. c. 97, mentions it as famous for the
excellence of its cheeses.

" The people of Camerinum, a city of Umbria. The present Camerino
occupies its site. Its people were among the most considerable of Um-
bria. The site of the Casuentillani does not appear to be known,

^2 The people of Carsulse, an Umbrian town of some importance. Its
ruins are stiU visible about half way between San Q-ermino and Acqua
Sparta, ten miles north of Nami. Holsten states that the site was
BtiU called CarsoH in his time, and there existed remains of an amphi-

Chap. 19.] ACCOUNT OF OOXTNTBIES, ETC. 239

Salentini, the Fiilginiates^ the Foroflaminienses*'', the Foroju-
lienses sumamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, the Foro-
semproniensea^, the Iguvini*, the Interamnates surnamed
Nartes, the Mevanates', the Mevanionenses, the Matilicates",
the Namienses', whose towii used formerly to be called
Nequinum ; the Nucerini', both those surnamed Favonienses
and those called Camellani ; the Oericidani", the Ostrani'",
the Pitulani, both those surnamed Pisuertes and the others
called Mergentini ; the Plestini", the Sentinates^^, the Sarsi-

theatro and a triumphal arch in honour of Trajan. Nothing seems to
be known of the Uolates.

* The people of Fulginium. From Cicero we learn that it was a mu-
nicipal town. The modem city of Foligno has risen on its site. An
inscription discovered here has preserved the name of Fulginia, probably
a local divinity.

3 The people of Forum Flaminii, situated on the Flaminian Way, where
it first entered the Apennines, three miles from Fulginium. It was here
that the Emperors Gallus and Volusianus were defeated and slain by
^milianus, a.d. 256. The ruins at the spot called Giovanni pro
Fiamma mark its site. The site of Forum Julii appears to be unknown,
as also that of Forum Brentani.

* The people of Fonun Sempronii, the only town in the valley of the
Metaurus. The modem city of Fossombrone, two miles distant, has
thence taken its name. Considerable vestiges of the ancient town are
still to be seen. The battle in which Hasdrubal was defeated by the Roman
consuls Livius and Nero, B.C. 207, was probably fought in its vicinity.

* The people of Iguvimn, an ancient and important town of Umbria.
Its site is occupied by the modem city of Gubbio. Interamna on the
Nar has been previously mentioned.

* The people of the town of Mevania, now called Bevagna, in the duchy
of Spoleto. The Mevanionenses were the people of Mevanio, or Meva-
niolae, in the vicinity of Mevania, and thought by Cluver to be the modem
Gfaleata.

* Their town was Matilica, which still retains that name. It is situate
in the Marches of Ancona.

7 Their town stiU retains the name of Nami.

s Then" town was sumamed Favonia and Camcllaria, to distinguish
it from several others of the same name. The present Nocera stands on
its site.

' The people of Ocrictdum, now Otricoli, previously mentioned.

^^ According to Hardouin, the ruins of Ostra are those near Monte
Nuovo, now Sinigaglia, but D'Anville thinks that the modem Corinaldo
marks its site.

" Nothing is known of the Plestini, nor yet of the Pitulani, who seem
to have been a different people to those mentioned in the First Region.

^2 The town of Sentis, according to D'Anville and Mannert, was in the
vicinity of the modem town of Sasso Ferrato.

240 PLINT's FATrEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

nates \ the Spoletini^, the Suasini', the Sestinates'*, the
Suillates^ the Tadinates^, the Trebiates'', the Tuficani^, the
Tifernates® surnamed Tiberini, and the others called Metau-
renses, the Vesinicates, the TJrbinates, both those surnamed
Metaurenses^" and the others called Hortenses, the Yetto-
nenses", the Yindinates, and the Yiventani. In this district
there exist no longer the Teliginates who possessed Clu-
eiolum above Interamna, and the Sarranates, with their
towns of Acerrae^^, surnamed Yafriae, and Turocelum, also
called Yettiolum ; as also the Solinates, the Curiates, the
Pallienates, and the Apiennates. The Arienates also have
disappeared with the town of Crinovolum, as well as the
TJsidicani, the Plangenses, the Paesinates, and the Caelestini.

* The people of Sarsina, an important town of Umbria, fomotis as
being the birth-place of the comic poet Plautus. It is now called Sas-
sina, on the Sayio.

2 The people of Spoletiun, now Spoleto. It was a city of Umbria on
the Yia Flaminia, colonized by the Romans B.C. 242. In the later days
of the Empire it was taken by Totilas, and its walls destroyed. They
were however restored by Narses.

* The people of Suasa ; the remains of which, according to D'Anville
and Mannert, are those seen to the east of the town of San Lorenzo, at a
place called Castel Leone.

* The monastery of Sestino is supposed to stand on the site of Sesti-
num, their town, at the source of the river Pesaro.

5 The site of their town is denoted by the modem Sigello in the
Marches of Ancona.

^ Their town is supposed to have been also situate within the present
Marches of Ancona, where they join the Duchy of Spoleto.

' Their town was Trebia. The modem Trevi stands on its site.

8 The people of Tuficum, which Holsten thinks was situate between
MateHca and Fabrianimi, on the river called the Cesena.

^ The site of Tifemum Tiberiniun is occupied by the present Citta di
Castello, and that of Tifemimi Metam-ense, or "on the Metaurus," by Sant
Angelo in Yado in the Duchy of Urbino. The first-named place was in
the vicinity of the estates of the Younger Phny.

^^ D'Anville and Mannert are of opinion that TJrbania on the Metau-
rus, two leagues south-east of Urbino, marks the site of their town. The
Hortenses probably dwelt on the site of the present Urbino.

^^ The site of their town was probably the present Bettona. The site
of the towns of the peoples next mentioned is unknown.

^2 Nothing is known of its position. There were cities in Campania
and Cisalpine Graul also caUed Acerrse. The first has been mentioned
under the First Eegion. Of the other places and peoples mentioned in
this Chapter no particulars seem to have come down to us.

Chap. 20.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 241

Cato writes that Ameria above-mentioned was founded 964
years before the war with Perseus.

CHAP. 20. (15.) — THE EIGHTH EEGION OF ITALY ; THE PADUS.

The eighth region is bounded by Ariminum, the Padus,
and the Apennines. Upon the coast we have the river
Crustumium^ and the colony of Ariminum^, with the rivers
Ariminus and Aprusa. Next comes the river Eubico', once
the boundary of Italy, and after it the Sapis*, the Vitis, and
the Anemo, and then, Eavenna, a town of the Sabines*, with
the river Bedesis, 105 miles from Ancona ; and, not far from
the sea, Butrium*, a town of the Umbri. In the interior there
are the colonies of Bononia*^, formerly called Felsina, when

* Now the Conca. It is called " rapoi Crustumiiun" by Lucan, B. iL
1.406.

' One of the most important cities of TJmbria. It played a conspi-
cuous part in most of the internal wars of the Romans. The modem
city of Rimini which stands on its site, still retains two striking monu-
ments of its grandeur ; the Roman bridge of marble, which crosses the
river Ariminus, erected by Augustus and Tiberius, and a triumphal arch
of marble, erected in honour of Augustus. The river Ariminus is now
called the Marocchia, and the Aprusa is the Ausa.

8 A papal decree, issued in 1756, declared the river Lusa to have been
the ancient Rubicon, but the more general opinion is that the PisateUo,
a little to the north of it, has better claims to that honour. On the north
bank of the Rubicon a pillar was placed by a decree of the Senate, with
an inscription giving notice that whoever should pass in arms into the
Roman territory would be deemed an enemy to the state. It is espe-
cially celebrated in history by Caesar's passage across it at the head of his
army, by which act he declared war against the repubhc. See Lucan,
B. i. 1. 200-230.

* The Sapis is the modem Savio, or Rio di Cesena ; the Vitis is the
Bevano, and the Anemo is the Roncone.

s Strabo and Zosimus however state that it was first founded by the
Thessalians. Ravenna first came into notice on being made one of the
two chief stations of the Roman fleet. The harboiu* which was made for
it was called "Classes," and between it and Ravenna sprang up the town
of CcBsarea. Though not deemed unhealthy, it lay in a swampy district.
Tlieodoric made it the capital of the kingdom of the Gk>th8. The modern
city stand? on the site of the ancient town. The river Bedesis is now
called the Montone.

^ No remains of it are extant ; but it is supposed that it stood near
the entrance of the Lagunes of Comaccliio.

7 The modem Bologna stands on its site, and there are but few remains
of antiquity to be seen.

YOL. I. B

242 PLIIJ^T'S NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

it was the chief place of Etruria\Brixilluni^,Mutina^, Parma*,
and Placeiitia'\ There are also the towns of CpDsena®, Cla-
tema, Forum Clodi', Forum Livi, Forum PopiLi, Forum
Truentinorum^, Forum Cornell, Forum Licini, the Faven-
tini^, the Fidentioi^", the Otesini, the Padinates", the Eegi-

^ He probably means only the Etruscan cities north of the Apennines.

2 The modem town of BresceUo occupies its site. Here the Emperor
Otho put an end to his life on learning the defeat of his troops by Vitel-
lius. It appears to have been a strong fortress in the time of the Lom-
bard kings.

3 The modem Modena stands on its site. It was famous in the history
of the civil wars after Caesar's death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here
by M. Antonius, in the years B.C. 44 and 43, and under its walls the
consuls Hirtius and Pansa were slain. Its vicinity, like that of Parma,
was famous for the excellence of its wool.

* This was a Roman colony, which was enlai^ed by Augustus, and
from liim received the name of Colonia Julia Augusta. It was called,
after the fall of the Western Empire, Chrysopolis or the " Gblden City."
The modem city of Parma occupies its site.

5 A Roman colony. The present city of Piacenza stands on its site.

^ It stUl retains the name of Cesena, and is a considerable plaee. After
the fall of the Western Empire it was used as a fortress of great strength.
We shall find Pliny again mentioning it in B. xiv. c. 6, as femous for the
goodness of its wines, a reputation which it still maintains. The name
of Clatema, once a municipal town of importance, is still retained in part
by a small stream which prosses the road nine miles from Bologna, and
is called the Quadema. An old church and a few houses, called Santa
Maria di Quadema, probably mark the site of the vicinity of the town,
which was situate on the high road. ,

'^ This Fonmi Clodii is said by D' Anville to be the modem Fomocchia.
, Eorum Livii is supposed to have occupied the site of the present city of
Eorh. Forum Popili or ForU Piccolo occupies the site of Forum or
Foro Popili.

^ This place is supposed to have stood on the spot where the episcopal
town of Bertinoro now stands. In inscriptions it is called Forodruenti-
norum. Forum Comelii, said to have been so called from the Dictator
Sylla, occupied the site of the modem town of Imola.* The poet Martial
is said to have resided for some time in this town.

* The people of Faventia, now Faenza. Pliny, B. xix. c. i., speaks of
the whiteness of its linen, for the manufacture of which it was cele-
brated. At this place Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss
by MeteUus, the partisan of SyUa, in B.C. 82.

10' The people of Fidentia. The present Borga di San Donnino stands
on its site, which is between Parma and Placentia, fifteen miles from the
former city.

1' Cluver thinks that their town was on the site of the modem Castel
Boudino.

Chap. 20.] ACCOTTNT OP COITNTErES, ETC. 243

enses\ who take their name from Lepidus, the Solonates'^,
the Saltus Galliani^, surnamed Aquinates, the Tannetani'',
the Veliates^, who were anciently surnamed Kegiates, and
the Urbanates''. In this district the Boii^ have disappeared,
of whom there were 112 tribes according to Cato ; as also
the Senones, who captured Ilome.

(16.) Tiie Padus** descends from the bosom of Mount
Vesiilus, one of the most elevated points of the chain of the
Alps, in the territories of the Ligurian Vagienni^, and rises
at its source in a manner that well merits an inspection by
the curious ; after which it hides itself in a subterranean
channel until it rises again in the country of the Forov-ibi-
enses. It is inferior in fame to none whatever among the
rivers, being known to the Greeks as the Eridanus and famous
as the scene of the punishment of Phaeton^". At tlie rising of
the Dog-star it is swollen by the melted snows ; but, though
it proves more furious in its course to the adjoining fields

^ So named after ^miliiis Lepidus. The people of Regimn Lepidum,
the site of whose town is occupied by the modem Rt^gio.

2 Solonatium is supposed to have had the site of the modem Citta di
Sole or Torre di Sole.

* Nothing certain is known of this people or their town, but it is
thought by R<^zzonico that by this name were meant those who occu-
pied the wood-clad heights of the Apennines, above Modena and Parma.
Cicero mentions a Saltus GkJhcanus as being a mountain of Campania,
but that is clearly not the spot meant here.

* Their town is thought to have stood on the same site as the modam
Tenedo.

* Their town waa perhaps on the same site as the modem Yillac, on
the river Nura.

^ The modem city of Ombria probably stands on the site of Urbana,
their to'mi, of which considerable remains are still to be seen.

' These and the Senones were nations of Cisalpine Gb,ul. The Boii
emigrated originally from Transalpine Gaul, by the Penine Alps, or the
Pass of Great St. Bemard. They were completely subdued by Scipio
Nasica in B.C. 191, when he destroyed half of their population, and
deprived them of nearly half of their lands. They were idtimately driven
from their settlements, and estabhshed themselves in the modem Bohe-
mia, which from them takes its name. The Senones, who had taken the
city of Rome in B.C. 390, were conquered and the greater part of them
destroyed by the Consul Dolabella in B.C. 283.

^ The Po, which rises in Monte Yiso in Savoy.

* Aheady mentioned in C. 7 of the present Book.

1° Ovid in his accoimt of the adventure of Phaeton (Met. B. ii.) states
that he fell into the river Padus.

e2

244 Flint's NATURAL HisTOET. [Bookm.

than to the vessels that are upon it, still it takes care to carry
away no portion of its banks, and when it recedes, renders
them additionally fertile. Its length from its source is 300
miles, to which we must add eighty-eight for its sinuosities ;
and it receives from the Apennines and Alps not only several
navigable rivers, but immense lakes as well, which discharge
themselves into its waters, thus conveying altogether as many
as thirty streams into the Adriatic Sea.

Of these the best known are the following — flowing from
the range of the Apennines, the Jactus, the Tanarus^ the
Trebia which passes Placentia, the Tarus, the Incia, the
Gabellus, the Scultenna, and the Ehenus : from the chain of
the Alps, the Stura"^, the Orgus, the two Duriae, the Sessites,
the Ticinus, the Lambrus, the Addua, the OUius, and the
Mincius. There is no river known to receive a larger increase
than this in so short a space ; so much so indeed that it is
impelled onwards by this vast body of water, and, invading
the land^, forms deep channels in its course : hence it is
that, although a portion of its stream is drawn ofi" by rivers
and canals between E/avenna and Altinum, for a space of
120 miles, still, at the spot where it discharges the vast body
of its waters, it is said to form seven seas.

By the Augustan Canal the Padus is carried to Ravenna,
at which place it is called the Padusa"*, having formerly borne
the name of Messanicus. The nearest mouth to this spot

* The Tananis is still called the Tanaro. The Trebia, now the Trebbia,
is memorable for the defeat on its banks of the Eomans by Hannibal,
B.C. 218. The Incia is the modem Enza or Lenza, the Tarus the Tare,
the G-abellus the Secchia, the Scultenna the Panaro, and the Ehenus the
B-euo.

2 The Stura still has the same name ; the Orgus is the modem Oreo.
The streams called Durise are known as the Dora Baltea and the Dora
Kiparia ; the Sessites is the Sesia, the Ticinus the Tessino, the Lambrus
the Lambro, the Addua the Adda, the OUius the OgUo, and the Mincius
the Menzo.

3 This seems to be the meaning of " gravis terrse," unless it signifies
*' pressing heavUy upon the land," and so cutting out channels for its
course. He has previously stated that, though rapid, it is not in the
habit of carrying away its banks. See a very able article on the question
whether the name Eridanus belonged originally to this river or to some
other in the north of Europe, in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Ancient Q-eo-
graphy tmder the word " Eridanus."

* That is to say, the canal made by Augustus was so called.

Chap. 20.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 245

forms the extensive port known aa that of Vatrenus, whei'e
Claudius Caesar*, on his triumph over the Britons, entered
the Adriatic in a vessel that deserved rather the name of a
vast palace than a ship. This mouth, which was formerly
called by some the Eridanian, has been by others styled the
Spinetic mouth, from the city of Spina, a very powerful place
which formerly stood in the vicinity, if we may form a con-
clusion from the amount of its treasure deposited at Delphi ;
it was founded by Diomedes. At this spot the river Vatre-
nus^, which flows from the territory of Forum Cornell, swells
the waters of the Padus.

The next mouth to this is that of Caprasia^ then that
of Sagis, and tlieu Volane, formerly called Olane; all of
"which are situate upon the Flavian Canal^, which the Tus-
cans formerly made from Sagis, thus drawing the impe-
tuous stream of the river across into the marshes of the
Atriani, which they call the Seven Seas ; and upon which is
the noble port of Atria'*, a city of the Tuscans, from which
place the sea was formerly called the Atriatic, thougli now
the Adriatic.

We next come to the overflowing mouths of Carbo-
naria, and the Fosses of Philistina*, by some called Tarta-

* It was on this occasion that, after a stay of only a few days in Britain,
he quitted the island, returned to Eome, and celebrated a splendid tri-
umph. Tliis outlet of the Po has now the name of Po di Primero.

2 Now the Santemo, noted for the sluggishness of its waters.

3 The Ostium Caprasiae is now called the Porto Interito di Bell' Ochio,
the Ostium Sagis the Porto di Magnavacca ; Volane, or Yolana, is the
south mam branch of the river. The Ostia Carbonaria, mentioned below,
was the north main branch, subdivided into several small branches ; and
the Fossa) or Fossiones Pliilistinae connected the river, by means of tho
Tartarus, with the Athe?is.

* The reading is doubtful here, and even this, which is perhaps the best,
appears to be corrupt ; for it is difficult to conceive how aU the mouths
previously mentioned could have been upon one canal, and besides it
would seem that Olane was one of the natural mouths of the river.

* More generally Adria, from which, as Pliny says, the Adriatic takes
its name. Either a Greek, or, what is more probable, as Phny states, an
Etruscan colony, it became the principal emporium of trade with the
Adriatic, in consequence of wliich it was surroimded with canals and
other works to facilitate its communications with other rivers. It is
stiU called Adria, and in its vicinity to the south, considerable remains
of the ancient city are stiU. to be seen.

* So called from the Philistsei, said to have been the ancient inhabit-

246 plint's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

rus\ all of wMcli originate in the overflow of the waters in
the Philistinian Canal, swollen by the streams of the Atesis,
descending from the Tridentine Alps, and of the Togisonus*,
flowing from the territory of the Patavini. A portion of them
also forms the adjoining port of Brnndulum^, in the same
manner as Edron'' is formed by the two rivers Meduacus and
the Clodian Canal. With the waters of these streams the
Padus unites, and with them discharges itself into the sea,
forming, according to most writers, between the Alps and
the sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circum-
ference, not unlike the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt.
I feel somewhat ashamed to have to borrow from the Greeks
any statement in reference to Italy ; Metrodorus of Scepsos,
however, informs us that this river has obtained its name of
Padus from the fact, that about its source there are great
numbers of pine-trees, which in the Gallic language are
called " padi." In the tongue of the Ligurians this river is
called " Bodincus," which signifies " the bottomless." This
derivation is in some measure supported by the fact that
near this river there is the town of Industrial, of which the
ancient name was Bodincomagum, and where the river be-
gins to be of greater depth than in other parts.

CHAP. 21. (17.) — THE ELEVENTH EEGION OF ITALY ; ITALLA.
TEANSPADANA.

Erom the river Padus the eleventh region receives its
name of Transpadana ; to which, situate as it is wholly in
the interior, the river, by its bounteous channel, conveys
the gifts of all the seas. The towns are Vibi Forum* and

ants of the spot. They are now called the Bocca deUa Gnoca, the
Bocca della Scovetta, the Busa deUe Tola, the Sbocco deU'Asinino, &c.
The Ostia Carbonaria and the Fossse Philistinse were to the north of the
ones previously mentioned.

^ He seems to confoimd the Fosses of Philistina with the Tartarus
(now Tartaro). That river however connected the Fosses of Philistina
with the Atliesis, now the Adige.

2 Now the BacchigHone. 3 T^g modem Brondolo.

* Now Chioggia, formed by the rivers Brenta and Brentella. Hardouia
thinks the Clodian Canal to be the same as the modem Fossa Paltana.

^ Now Moiiteu di Po, below Chevasso, mentioned in the 7th Chapter.

* This place is supposed to have been situate in the vicinity of the

Chap. 21.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 247

Segusio ; and, at the foot of the Alps, the colony of Augusta
Taurinorum\ at which place the Padus becomes navigable,
and which was founded by the ancient race of the Ligurians,
and of Augusta Praetoria'-' of the Salassi, near the two passes
of the Alps, the Grecian^ and the Penine (by the latter it is
said that the Carthaginians passed into Italy, by the Grecian,
Percules) — the town of Eporedia^, the foundation of which
by the Roman people was enjoined by the Sibylline books ;
the Gauls call tamers of horses by the name of "Epore-
diae" — Vercellaa^, the town of the Libici, derived its origin
from the Salluvii, and Novaria*, founded by the Vertacoma-
cori, is at the present day a district of the V ocontii, and not,
as Cato supposes, of the Ligurians ; of whom two nations,
called the Laevi and the Marici, founded Ticinum', not far
from the Padus, as the Boii, descended from the Transalpine
nations, have founded Laus Pompeia* and the Insubres Me-
diolanum^.

modem Saluzzo, on the north bonk of the Po. Segusio occupied the
Bite of the modern Susa.

* Augusta of the Taurini. The present city of Turin stands on its
site. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. With the exception
of some inscriptions, Turin retains no restiges of antiquity.

' The present city of Aosta occupies its site. This was also a Roman
colony fovmded by Augustus, after he had subdued the Salassi. It was,
as Pliny says in C. 5, the extreme point of Italy to the north. The remains
of the ancient city are of extreme magnificence.

" The Grecian pass of the Alps was that now known as the Little St.
Bernard ; while the Penine pass was the present Great St. Bernard.
Livy in his History, B. xxi. c. 38, points out the error of taking these
mountains to have derived their name from the Pceni or Carthaginians.
There is no doubt that they took their name horn, the Celtic word signi-
fying a moimtain, which now forms the "Pen" of the Welsh and the
"Ben" of the Scotch.

* Now called Ivrea or Lamporeggio, at the entrance of the valley of
the Salassi, the present Val d' Aosta. There are some remains of the
ancient town to be seen.

* The present town of YerceUi stands on its site.

* Now called Novara, in the Duchy of Milan.

7 It became a Roman mimicipal town, but owes its greatness to the
Lombard kings who made it their capital, and altered the name to Papia,
now Pavia.

^ " Pompey's Praises." The present Lodi Yecchio marks its site.

^ It was the capital of the Insubres, a Gallic nation, and was taken by
the Romans in B.C. 222, on which it became a municipium and Roman
colony. On the division of the empire by Diocletian, it became the

248 PLINX'S KATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

From Cato we also learn that Comum, Bergoinuin\ and
Liciniforum^, and some other peoples in the vicinity, origin-
ated with the Orobii, but he admits that he is ignorant as
to the origin of that nation. Cornelius Alexander however
informs us that they came from Grreece, interpreting their
name as meaning " those who live upon the mountains^."
In this district, Parra has disappeared, a town of the Orobii,
from whom, according to Cato, the people of Bergomum are
descended ; its site even yet shows that it was situate in a
position more elevated than fruitful^. The Caturiges have
also perished, an exded race of the Insubres, as also Spina
previously mentioned; Melpum too, a place distinguished
for its opulence, which, as we are informed by Cornelius
Nepos, was destroyed by the Insubres, the Boii, and the
Senones, on the very day on which Camillua took Veil.

CHAP. 22. (18.) — THE TENTH EEGIOK OF ITALY.

We now come to the tenth region of Italy, situate on the
Adriatic Sea. In this district are Venetia^ the river Silis',
rising in the Tarvisanian^ mountains, the town of Alti-

residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued to be the abode of
the Emperors of the West till it was plundered by Attila, who transferred
the seat of government to Ravenna. It afterwards became the capital of
'the kingdom of the Ostro-Goths, and was again sacked by the Goths in
A.D. 539, and its inhabitants put to the sword. The present city, known
to us as Milan, contains no remains of antiquity.

1 The modern Como and Bergamo stand on their sites.

2 From its name, signifying the " market of Licinius," it would appear
to be of Roman origin. Its site is supposed to have been at a place
called Tncino, near the town of Erba, between Como and Lecco, where
inscriptions and other antiquities have been found.

^ Deriving it from the Greek opos, "a mountain," and (3ios, "Ufe."

■* "Etiamnum prodente sealtius quam fortunatius situm." Hardouin
seems to think that " se" refers to Cato, and that he informs us to that
effect ; but to aU appearance, it relates rather to the town, which even
yet, by its ruins, showed that it was perched too high among the moun-
tains to be a fertile spot.

s The district of the Yeneti. These people, taking refuge in the ad-
joining islands in the fifth century to escape the Huns under Attila,
founded the modem city of Venice.

^ Now called the Sile, which flows past Trevigio or Treviso.

' The mountainous district in the vicinity of Tarvisivun, the modem
Treviso.

Chap. 22.] ACCOXTNT OP COTTNTEIES, ETC. 249

num\ the river Liquentia rising in the mountains of Opiter-
gium^, and a port with the same name, the colony of Con-
cordia^; the rivers and harbours of Eomatinum"*, the greater
and less Tiliaventum*, the Anaxum*, into which the Varamus
flows, the Alsa', and the Natiso with the Turrus, which flow
past the colony of Aquileia^ at a distance of fifteen miles
from the sea. This is the country of the Carni^, and ad-
joining to it is that of the lapydes, the river Timav us ^", the

* Situate in a marsh or lagiine on the river SUe. It became a Roman
colony after Pliny's time, under the Emperor Trajan. Its villas are de-
Bcribed by Martial as rivaUing those of Baise. The Emperor Verus died
here a.d, 169. The modem village of Altino is a very impoverished
place. The Liquentia is now called the Livenza.

' Now called Oderzo, on the river Montegano, which flows into the
Liquenza. The conduct of the people of this place, in the wars between
Pompey and Csesar, is mentioned by Lucan, in his Pharsalia, B. iv. 1. 462.

3 From inscriptions we find that this place was called Colonia Julia
Concordia, from which it seems probable that it was one of the colonies
founded by Augustus to celebrate the restoration of peace. It rapidly
rose into importance, and is often mentioned during the later ages of the
Boman Empire, as one of the most important cities in this part of Italy.
It is now a poor village, with the same name, and no remains of antiquity
beyond a few inscriptions.

* The Romatinum is the modem Lemene. Pliny seems to imply,
(though from the micertainty of the punctuation it is not clear,) that on
the R^omatinum there was a port of that name. If so, it would probably
occupy the site of the present Santa Margherita, at the mouth of the
Lemene.

* The greater Tihaventum is the modem Tagliamento; andHardouin
suggests that the smaller river of that name is the Lugugnana.

^ This river is supposed to be the same with the modem Stella^ and
the Varamus the Revonchi, which joins the Stella.

7 Now called the Ansa. The Natiso is the modem Natisone, and
the Turrus the Torre ; the former flowed past Aquileia on the west, the
latter on the east, in former times, but their course is probably now
changed, and they fall into the Isonzo, four miles from the city.

8 The capital of Venetia, and one of the most important cities of
Northern Italy. In the year A.D. 452 it was besieged by AttHa, king
of the Huns, taken by storm, and plundered and burnt to the. ground.
On its site, wliich is very unhealthy, is the modem village of Aquileia,
with about 1400 inhabitants. No ytiins of any buildings are visible, but
the site abounds with coins, shafts of columns, inscriptions, and other
remains of antiquity.

3 Ptolemy states that Concordia and Aquileia were situate in the di-
strict of the Cami.

10 Still called the Timavo.

250 pltxt's itattjeal histoet. p3ook III.

fortress of Pacinum\ famous for its wines, the Gulf of Ter-
geste^, and the colony of that name, thirty-three miles from
Aquileia. Six miles beyond this place lies the river Pormio^,
189 miles distant from Eavenna, the ancient boundary^ of
enlarged Italy, and now the frontier of Istria. That this
region takes its name from the river Ister which flows from
the Danube, also called the Ister, into the Adriatic opposite
the mouth of the Padus, and that the sea which lies between
them is rendered fresh by their waters running from opposite
directions, has been erroneously asserted by many, and among
them by Nepos even, who dwelt upon the banks of the Padus.
For it is the fact that no river which runs from the Danube
discharges itself into the Adriatic. They have been misled,
I think, by the circumstance that the ship Argo came down
some river hito the Adriatic sea, not far from Tergeste;
but what river that was is now unknown. The most careful
writers say that the ship was carried across the Alps on
men's shoulders, having passed along the Ister, then along
the Savus, and so from Kauportus*, which place, lying be-
tween ^mona^ and the Alps, from that circumstance derives
its name.

1 Castel Duino stands on its site. It wiU be found again mentioned
in B. xiv. C. 8, for the excellence of its wines.

2 Now the Gulf of Trieste. Tergeste was previously an insignificant
place, but made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The modem city of
Trieste occupies its site.

3 Most probably the modem Risano. Cluver and D'Anville are of
that opinion, but Walckenaer thinks that it was a small stream near
Muja Vecchia ; which seems however to be too near Trieste.

* In the time of Augustus, and before Istria was added as a province
to Italy.

5 He alludes to an old tradition that the Angonauts sailed into the
Ister or Danube, and then into the Save, till they came to the spot where
the modem town of Upper Laybach stands, and that here they built
Nauportus, after which they carried their ship across the mountains on
men's shovilders into the Adriatic. He intends to suggest therefore that
the place had its name from the Greek vavs "a ship" and iropOfids "a

6 The modem town of Laybach stands on its site. It is situate on
the Save, and on the road from Aquileia to Celeia. The Roman remains
prove that the ancient city exceeded the modern one in magnitude. Ac-
cording to tradition it was founded by the Argonauts. It subsequently
became a Roman colony, with the title of Julia Augusta. It is again
mentioned in C. 28.

Chap. 23.] ACCOUNT OP COTTNTEIES, ETC. 251

CHAP. 23. (19.)— ISTBIA, ITS PEOPLE AlfD LOCALITY.

Istria projects in the form of a peninsula. Some writers
have stated its length to be forty miles, and its circumference
125 ; and the same as to Libumia which adjoins it, and the
rianatic Gulf*, while others. make it 225"^; others again
make the circumference of Libumia 180 miles. Some per-
sons too extend lapydia, at the back of Istria, as far as the
Flanatic Gulf, a distance of 130 miles, thus making Libumia
but 150 miles. Tuditanus', who subdued the Istri, had this
inscription on his statue which was erected there : " From
Aquileia to the river Titus is a distance of 1000 stadia."

The towns of Istria with the rights of Eoman citizens are
JEgida"*, Parentium, and the colony of Pola^ now Pietas Julia,
formerly founded by the Colchians, and distant from Ter-
geste 100 miles : after which we come to the town of Nesac-
tium^ and the river Arsia, now'^ the boundary of Italy.
The distance across from Ancona to Pola is 120 miles. In

1 Now the Otolio di Quamaro. Libumia was separated from Istria
on the north-west by the river Arsia, and from Dabnatia on the south
by the river Titus or Kerka, corresponding to the western part of mo-
dem Croatia, and the northern part of modem Dalmatia. lapydia was
situate to the north of Dahnatia and east of Libumia, or tlie present
mihtary frontier of Croatia, between the rivers Kidpa and Korana to the
north and east, and the Velebich mountains to the south. Istria con-
sisted of the peninsula which still bears the same appellation.

^ This passage, " while others make it 225," is omitted in many of
the MSS. and most of the editions. If it is retained, it is not impro-
bable that his meaning is, " and the circimiference of Libumia which joins
it, with the Flanatic Gulf, some make 225, while others make the com-
pass of Libumia to be 180 miles." It depends on- the pimctuation and
the force of " item," and the question whether the passage is not in a
corrupt state ; and it is not at all clear what his meaning really ia.

3 He alludes to C. Scmpronius Tuditanus, Consul B.C. 129. He gained
his victory over the lapydes chiefly through the skill of his legatus, D.
Junius Brutus. He was a distinguished orator and historian. He was
the maternal grandfather of the orator Hortensius.

* Tliis place is only mentioned by Pliny, but from an inscription found,
it appears that the emperor Justin II. conferred on it the title of Justi-
nopolis. It is thought that it occupied the site of the present town of
Capo d'Istria. — Parentium stood on the site of the present Parenzo.

* It still retains its name.

^ Supposed to have occupied the site of the modem Castel Nuovo, past
which the Arsia, now the Arsa, flows.

7 Since Istria had been added to it by Augustus.

252 PLrtfT's TfATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

the interior of the tenth region are the colonies of Cremona,
Brixia in the territory of the Cenomanni^ Ateste^ belonging
to the Yeneti, and the towns of Aeelum', Patavium'', Opi-
tergium, Belunum", and Yicetia; with Mantua®, the only-
city of the Tuscans now left beyond the Padus. Cato in-
forms us that the Veneti are descendants of the Trojans'
and that the Cenomanni^ dwelt among the Volcse in the vici
nity of Massilia. There are also the towns of the Fertini''
the Tridentini'", and the Beruenses, belonging to the Ehaeti
Yerona", belonging to the Ehaeti and the Euganei, and Ju

* Livy seems to imply that Cremona was originally included in the
territory of the Insubres. A Roman colony being established there it
became a powerful city. It was destroyed by Antonius the general of
Vespasian, and again by the Lombard king Agilulfus in a.d. 605. No
remains of antiquity, except a few inscriptions, are to be seen in the
modem city.

2 The modem city of Este stands on the site of Atest«. Beyond in-
scriptions there are no remains of this Boman colony.

3 Asolo stands on its site.

* It was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. Under the
Bomans it was the most important city in the north of Italy, and by its
commerce and manufactures attained great opulence. It was plvmdered
by Attila, and, by Agilulfus, king of the Lombards, was razed to the
ground. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of Livy. Modem
Padua stands on its site, but has no remains of antiquity.

* Now called Belluno. Yicetia has been succeeded by the modem
Vicenza.

6 Mantua was not a place of importance, but was famous as being the
birth-place of Virgil ; at least, the poet, who was bom at the village of
Andes, in its vicinity, regarded it as such. It was said to have had its
name from Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. Virgil, in the JEneid, B. x.,
alludes to its supposed Tuscan origin.

7 Led by Antenor, as Livy says, B. i.

8 The Cenomanni, a tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, seem to have occu-
pied the country north of the Padus, between the Insubres on the west
and the Veneti on the east. From Polybius and Livy we learn that they
had crossed the Alps within historical memory, and had expelled the
Etruscans and occupied their territory. They were signalized for their
amicable feelings towards the Roman state.

9 Their town was Fertria or Felti'ia, the modem Feltre.

^^ The modern city of Trento or Trent occupies the site of Tridentmn,
their tovm. It is situate on the Athesis or Adige. It became famous iu
the middle ages, and the great ecclesiastical council met here in 1545.

^* It was a Roman colony under the name of Colonia Augusta,
having originally been the capital of the Euganei, and then of the Ceno-

Chap. 23.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC, 253

lienses* to the Cami. We then have the following peoples,
whom there is no necessity to particularize with any degree
of exactness, the Alutrenses, the Asseriates, the Flamoni-
enses' with those surnamed Vanienses, and the others
called Culici, the Forojuliensea' surnamed Transpadani, the
Foretani, the Nedinates*, the Quarqueni', the Taurisani*,
the Togienses, and the Varvari. In this district there have
disappeared — upon the coast — Iramene, Pellaon, and Palsa-
tium, Atina and Caelina belonging to the Veneti, Segeste
and Ocra to the Carni, and Noreia to the Taurisci. L. Piso
also informs us that although the senate disapproved of his
80 doing, M. Claudius Marcellus' razed to tne ground a
tower situate at the twelfth mile-stone from Aquileia.

In this region also and the eleventh there are some cele-
brated lakes*, and several rivers that either take their rise in
them or else are fed by their waters, in those cases in which
they again emerge from them. These are the Addua', fed by
the Lake Larius, the Ticinus by Lake Yerbannus, j;he Mincius
by Lake Benacus, the Ollius by Lake Sebinnus, and the Lam-
brus by Lake Eupilis — aU of them flowing into the Padus.

manni. It was the birth-plaoe of CatuUus, and according to some accounts,
of our author, PHny. Modem Verona exhibits many remains of antiquity.
1 D'Anyille says that the ruins of this town are to be seen at the
modem Zugho.

* Hardouin thinks that their town, Flamonia, stood on the site of the
modem Flagogna.

3 Their town, Forum Julii, a Boman colony, stood on the site of the
modem FriuH. Paulus Diaconus ascribes its foundation to JuUus Csesar.

* Supposed by Miller to have inhabited the town now called Nadin
or Susied.

* Their town was probably on the site of the modem Quero, on the
river Piave, below Feltre.

* Probably the same as the Tarvisani, whose town was Tarvisiimi,
now Treviso.

7 The conqueror of Syracuse. The &ct here related probably took
place in the Gallic war.

* Tliis must be the meaning ; and we must not, as HoUand does, em-
ploy the niunber as signifying that of the lakes and rivers ; for the Ticinus
is in the eleventh region,

' Now the Adda, running through Lago di Como, the Tesino through
Lago Maggiore, the Mincio through Lago di Crarda, the Seo through
Lago di Seo, and the Lambro now communicating with the two small
lakes called Lago di Pusiano and Lago d'Alserio, which in Pliny's time
probably formed one large lake.

254 PLrNT*S KATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

Cselius states that the length of the Alps from the Upper
Sea to the Lower is 1000 miles, a distance which Tima-
genes shortens by twenty-two. Cornelius Nepos assigns to
them a breadth of 100 miles, and T. Livius of 3000 stadia;
but then in different places. For in some locahties they
exceed 100 miles ; where they divide Germany, for instance,
from Italy ; w^hile in other parts they do not reach seventy,
being thus narrowed by the providential dispensation of
nature as it were. The breadth of Italy, taken from the
river Var at the foot of these mountains, and passing along
by the Vada^ Sabatia, the Taurini,' Comum, Brixia, Verona,
Vicetia, Opitergium, Aqmleia, Tergeste, Pola, and Arsia, is
745 miles.

CHAP. 24. (20.) — THE ALPS, AND THE ALPUTE NATIONS.

Many nations dwell among the Alps; but the more
remarkable, between Pola and the district of Tergeste, are
the Secusse«, the Subocrini, the Catali, the Menocaleni, and
near the Carni the people formerly called the Taurisci, but
now the Norici. Adjoining to these are the Ehaeti and the
Vindelici, who are all divided into a multitude of states. It
is supposed that the Ehaeti are the descendants of the Tus-
cans, who were expelled by the Gauls and migrated hither
under the command of their chief, whose name was Ehaetus.
Turning then to the side of the Alps which fronts Italy, we
have the Euganean^ nations enjoying Latin rights, and of
whom Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are
the Triumpilini, a people who were sold^ with tlieir terri-
tory ; and then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each
of them in the jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal
town. The same author also considers the Lepontii"* and

1 Now Yado in Liguria, the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. Using the
modem names, the line thus drawn runs past Yado, Turin, Como, Bres-
cia, Verona, Vicenza, Oderzo, Aquileia, Trieste, Pola, and the Arsa.

2 It is from this people that the group of volcanic hills between Padua
and Verona derive their present name of CoUi Euganei or the " Euganean
Hills." From the Triumpilini and the Camuni, the present Val Camo-
nica and Val Trompia derive their names.

3 Probably meaning, that for a sum of money they originally acknow-
ledged their subjection to the Eoman power.

4 The Lepontii probably dwelt in the modem Val Ijeventina and the
Val d'Osula, near Lago Maggiore ; the Salassi in the Val d'Aosta.

Chap. 24.] ACCOUNT OP COITNTEIES, ETC. 255

the Salassi to be of Tauriscan origin, but most other
writers, giving a Greek* interpretation to their name, con-
sider the Lepontii to have been those of the followers of
Hercules who were left behind in consequence of their limbs
being frozen by the snow of the Alps. They are also of
opinion that the inhabitants of the Grecian Alps are de-
scended from a portion of the Greeks of his army, and that
the Euganeans, being sprung from an origin so illustrious,
thence took their name-. The head of these are the Stoeni*.
The Yennonenses* and the Sarunetes^, peoples of the
Eheeti, dwell about the sources of the river Enenus, while
the tribe of the Lepontii, known as the Uberi, dwell in the
vicinity of the sources of the Ehodanus, in the same district
of the Alps. There are also other native tribes here,
who have received Latin rights, such as the Octodurenses*,
and their neighbours the Centrones^, the Cottian* states,
the Ligurian V agienni, descended from the Caturiges', as
also those called Montani''' ; besides numerous nations of the
Capillati", on the confines of the Ligurian Sea.

^ Making it to come from the Greek verb XetTrw, " to leave behind."

* As though being evyeveioi or eyyfvels, " of honourable descent," or
" parentage."

3 Strabo mentions the Stoni or Stceni among the minor Alpine tribes.
Mannert thinks that they dwelt near the sources of the river Chiese,
about the site of the modem village of Storo.

"• It has been suggested that fi^m them the modem Valtelline takes
its name.

^ Hardonin suggests that the Suanetes, who are again mentioned,
are the people here meant.

^ They are supposed to have dwelt in the present canton of Martignac
in the Valais, and the Vaudois.

7 They dwelt in the Tarantaise, in the duchy of Savoy. The village
called Centron still retains their name.

^ The states subject to Cottius, an Alpine chief, who having gained the
favour of Augustus, was left by him in possession of this portion of the
Alps, viith. the title of Praefect. These states, in the vicinity of the mo-
dem Mount Cenis, seem to have extended from Ebrodunimi or Embnm
in Gnul, to Segusio, the modem Susa, in Italy, including the Pass of
Mont Genevre. The territory of Cottius was united by Nero to the
Koman empire, as a separate province called the " Alpes Cottise."

^ They dwelt in thevicinity of EbrodunumorEmbrimalready mentioned.

10 Ti^p « moimtaineers." Some editions read here " Appuani," so called
from the town of Appua, now Pontremoh.

" The Vagienni, and the Capillati Ligures, or " Long-haired Ligu-
rians," have been previously mentioned in Chap. 7.

25G plikt's KATUEAL HISTOBT. [Book III.

It may not be inappropriate in this place to subjoin the
inscription now to be seen upon the trophy^ erected on the
Alps, which is to the following effect : — " To the Empeeob
C^sAR — The son^ of Cjesar now deified, Augustus,

PONTIFEX MaXIMUS, AND EMPEBOB FOUBTEEN TEABS, IN
THE SEYENTEENTH^ TEAB OF HIS HOLDING THE TRIBUNI-
TIAL AUTHOBITY, THE SeNATE AND THE EOMAN PEOPLE, IN
BEMEMBEANCE THAT UNDEB HIS COMMAND AND AUSPICES

ALL THE Alpine nations which extended feom the
UPPEE sea to the loweb webe beduced to subjection

BY THE EoMAN PEOPLE — ThE AlPINE NATIONS SO SUB-
DUED WEBE : THE TeIUMPILINI, THE CaMUNI, THE Ve-
NOSTES"*, THE VeNNONENSES, THE ISAECI, THE BbEUNI,
THE GrENAUNES^ THE FOCUNATES, FOUB NATIONS OP THE
ViNDELICI, THE CONSUANETEg, THE HUCINATES, THE
LlCATES^ THE CATENATES, THE AmBISONTES, THE Ru-
GUSCI, THE SUANETES^ THE CaLUCONES, THE BeIX-
ENTES, THE LePONTII, THE UbEEI, THE NaNTUATES, THE
SeDUNI, the VaBAGBI, THE SaLASSI, THE AciTAVONES,

^ The trophy or triumphal arch which bore this inscription is that
which was still to be seen at Torbia near Nicsea in Illyria, in the time of
Gruter, who has given that portion of the inscription which remained
unobhterated, down to " gentes Alpinse," " the Alpine nations." Har-
douin speaks of another triumphal arch in honour of Augustus at Segusio
or Susa in Piedmont, which appears to have commenced in a somewhat
similar manner, but only the first twelve words were remaining in 1671.

2 Adopted son of his great uncle Juhus Caesar.

3 Most of the MSS. omit the figures XVII here, but it is evidently
an accident ; if indeed they were omitted in the original.

^ They are supposed to have occupied the Yal Venosco, at the sources
of the Adige. The Isarci dwelt in the Val de Sarra or Sarcha, near Val
Camonica ; and the Breuni ia the Val Brounia or Bregna, at the source
Df theTessino,

^ D'Anville thinks that they inhabited the Val d'Agno, near Trento,
between Lake Como and the Adige. He also detects the name of the
Focimates in the village of Vogogna.

^ They inhabited the banks of the river Lech, their town being, ac-
cording to Strabo, Damasia, afterwards Augusta Vindehcorum, now
Augsburg.

7 Probably the Sarunetes, already mentioned. The Brixentes inha-
bited the modem Brixen in the Tyrol. The Lepontii have been pre-
Tiously mentioned. The Seduni occupied the present Sion, the capital
of the Valais. The Salassi have been already mentioned. According to
Bouche, the MeduUi occupied the modem Maurienne ia Savoy. The
Varagri dwelt ia Le Chabkis.

Chap. 25.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 267

THE MeDULLI, the TJcENi\ THE CaTUKIQES, THE BkI-
GTANI, THE SOQIONTII, THE BeODIONTII, THE NeMALONI,
THE EdENATES^ THE EsUBIANI, THE VeaMINI, THE GaL-
LIT^, THE TrIULATTI, THE EcDINI, THE VeROUNNI, THE
EgUITURI^ the NeMENTURI, THE OrATELLI, THE NeRUSI,
THE VeLAUNI, and THE SUETRI."

The twelve states of the Cottiani'' were not included in
the list, as they had shown no hostility, nor yet those which
had been placed by the Pompeian law under the jurisdiction
of the municipal towns.

Such then is Italy, sacred to the gods, such are the na^
tions, such the cities of her peoples ; to which we may add,
that this is that same Italy, which, when L. -Smilius Paulus"
and C. Attilius Eegulus were Consuls, on hearing of the rising
in Gaul, unaided, and without any foreign assistance whatever,
without the help even of that portion which lies beyond the
Padus, armed 80,000 horse and 700,000 foot. In abun-
dance of metals of every kind, Italy yields to no land whatever;
but all search for them has been prohibited by an ancient
decree of the Senate, who gave orders thereby that Italy
shall be exempted' from such treatment.

CHAP. 25. (21.) — LIBURNIA AND ILLTRICUM.

The nation of the Libumi adjoins the river Arsia^, and

* The Uceni, according to Hardouin, occupied Le Bourg d'Oysans in
the modem Graisivaudan ; the Caturiges, the modem Chorges according
to Ansart ; the Brigiani, probably Brian9on, and the Nemaloni, as Har-
douin thinks, the place ctJled Miolans.

^ They probably dwelt in the Ville de Seyne, in Embrun ; the Esubiani
near the river Hubaye, in the Yallee de Barcelone in Savoy ; the Veamini
in Senez, the Triulatti at the village of Alloz, the Ecdini near the river
Tinea, and the Vergunni in the vicinity of the district of Vergons.

3 TheEguitiui probably dwelt near the modem town of Guillaiunes, the
Oratelli at the pkce now called Le Puget de Theniers, and the Velauni
near the modem Bueil. ■* Or subjects of Cottius, previously mentioned.

^ A mistake for L. jEmihus Papus. He and C. Eegulus were Consuls
in B.C. 225. They successfully opposed the Cisalpine Gavds, who invaded
Italy ; but Regulus was slain in the engagement.

^ It is difficult to say what is the exact force of " parci " here ; whether
in fact it means that Italy shaU be wholly exempted from such treatment,
as an indignity offered to her soil, or whether her minerals were to be
strictly kept in reserve as a last resource. Ajasson, in his Translation,
seems to take the former view, Littre the latter.

' From the river now called the Arsa to that called the Kerka.
YOL. I. S

258 plint's natueal history. [Book III.

extends as far as the river Titus. TheMentores, tlie Hymani^
the Encheleae, the Buni, and the people whom Callimachus
calls the Peucetise, formerly formed part of it ; but now the
whole in general are comprised under the one name of
lUyricum. But few of the names of these nations are worthy
of mention, or indeed very easy of pronunciation. To the
jurisdiction of Scardona^ resort the lapydes and fourteen
cities of the Liburni, of which it may not prove tedious if I
mention the Lacinienses, the Stlupini, the Bumistae, and
the Olbonenses. Belonging to the same jurisdiction there
are, in the enjoyment of Italian rights, the Aluta?^, the
rianates^, from whom the Gulf takes its name, the Lopsi,
and the Varvarini; the Assesiates, who are exempt from
tribute ; and upon the islands, the Fertinates and the Cu-
rictse^.

Besides these, there are on the coast, after leaving Nesac-
tium, Alvona®, Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula,
Vegium, Argyruntum, Corinium'', ^nona, the city of
Pasinum, and the river Tedanius, at which lapydia ter-
minates. The islands of this Gulf, with their towns, besides
those above mentioned, are Absyrtium^, Arba**, Crexa, Gissa,

^ Hnrdouin thinks that " Ismeni " is the proper reading here j but all
the MSS. seem to be against him.

2 Mentioned in the next Chapter. ' Their town was Aluus or Aloiia.

* Their town was Flanona, which gave name to the Sinus Flanaticus
or Golfo di Quamero. The chief town of the Lopsi was Lopsica, and
of the Varvarini, Varvaria.

s The island of Fertina is supposed to have been the modem Berwitch
or Parvich. Curicta is now called Karek or Veglia. The Illyrian snails
mentioned by our author, B. ix. c. 56, are very numerous here. Caius
Antonius, the brother of Marcus, actmg under Julius Caesar, was be-
sieged here by Libo. See the interesting account in Lucan's Pharsalia,
B. iv. 1. 402-464.

^ The places on their sites are now called Albona, Fianona, Tersact or
Tersat near Fiume, Segna, Lopsico, Ortopia, and Veza.

7 Now Carin. JEnona is now called Nona, and the Tedanius is the
modem Zermagna.

8 The whole of this group of islands were sometimes called the Absyr-
tides, from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, who according to tradition
was slain there. See the last Chapter, p. 266.. Ovid, however, in his
" Tristia," states that this took place at Tomi, on the Pontus Euxinus or
Black Sea, the place of his banishment.

^ Said by D'AnviUe to be now called Arbe, and Crexa to be the mo-
dem Cherso. Grissa is thought to liave been the modem Pago.

Chap. 26.] ACCOUNT OF COVNTEIES, ETC. 259

and Portunata. Again, on the mainland there is the colony
of Iadera\ distant from Pola 160 miles; then, at a
distance of thirty miles, the island of Colentum*, and of
eighteen, the mouth of the river Titus.

CHA.P. 26. (22.) — DALMATIA.

Scardona, situate upon the river', at a distance of twelve
miles from the sea, forms the boundary of Libumia and the
oeginning of Dalmatia. Next to this place comes the ancient
<;ountry of the Autariatares and the fortress of Tariona, the
Promontory of Diomedes*, or, as others call it, the peninsula
of Hyllis, 100 miles' in circuit. Then comes Tragurium, a
place with the rights of Roman citizens, and celebrated for
its marble, Sicum, a place to which Claudius, the emperor
lately deified, sent a colony of his veterans, and Salona", a
colouy, situate 112 miles from ladera.- To this place resort
for legal purposes, having the laws dispensed according to
their divisions into decuries or tithings, the Dalmatfe, form-
ing 342 decuries, the Deurici 22, the Ditiones 239, the
Mazaei 269, and the Sardiates 52. In this region are Bur-
num', Andetrium^, and Tribulium, fortresses ennobled by
the battles of the Roman people. To the same jurisdiction
also belong the Issaei^, the Colentini, the Separi, and the

* It was the capital of Liburnia. The city of Zara or Zara Vecchia
stands on its site. There are but little remains of the ancient city.

'^ Supposed to be the present Mortero.

3 The Titus or Kerka. Scardona still retains its name.

* Now caUed the Cabo di San Nicolo.

° This measurement would make it appear that the present Sabioncello
is meant, but that it ought to come below, after Narona. He probably
means the quasi peninsula upon which the town of Tragiuium, now Trau
Yecchio, was situate ; but its circumference is hardly fifty miles. So, if
Sicum is the same as the modem Sebenico, it ought to have been men-
tioned previously to Tragurium.

* Spalatro, the retreat of Diocletian, was in the vicinity of Salona. Its
ancient name was Spolatxmi, and at the village of Dioclea near it, that
emperor was bom. On the ruins of the once important city of Salona,
rose the modem Spalato or Spalatro.

7 Its site is unknown, though D'AnviUe thinks that it was probably
that of the modem Tain.

8 Clissa is supposed to occupy its site. Tribulium is probably the
modem UgUane.

' The people of the island of Issa^ now Lissa, oflf the coast of Li-

s2

260 PLDfT's NATTJEA.L HISTOET. [Book W.'

Epetini, nations inhabiting tlie islands. After these come
the fortresses of Peguntium^ and of Rataneum, witli the
colony of Narona^, the seat of the third jurisdiction, distjiEC
from Salona eighty-two miles, and situate upon a river of tlie
same name, at a distance of twenty miles from the sea. M.
Varro states that eighty-nine states used to resort thither, but
now nearly the only ones that are known are the Cerauni*
with 24 decuries, the Daorizi with 17, the Daesitiates with 103,
the Docleatae with 33, the Deretini with 14, the Deremistaa
with 30, the Dindari with 33, the Glinditiones with 44, the
Melcomani with 24, the Naresii with 102, the Scirtarii with
72, the Siculotae with 24, and the Vardaei, once the scourges
of Italy, with no more than 20 decuries. In addition to
these, this district was possessed by the Ozu£ei, the Partheni,
the Hemasini, the Arthitae, and the Armistae. The colony
of Epidaurum'' is distant from the river Naron 100 miles.
After Epidaurum come the following towns, with the rights
of Eoman citizens: — Ehizinium*, Acruvium", Butua, 01-
cinium, formerly called Colchinium, having been founded by
the Colchians; the river Drilo^, and, upon it, Scodra^ a
town with the rights of Roman citizens, situate at a distance
of eighteen miles from the sea ; besides in former times many
Grreek towns and once powerful states, of which all remem-

bumia. It was originally peopled by a Parian or a Syracusan colony. It
was famous for its wine, and the beaked ships " Lembi Issaici," rendered
the Romans good service in the war with Philip of Macedon.

^ The modem Almissa stands on its site ; and on that of EAtaneum,
Mucarisca. ^ j^qw called Narenta ; the river having the same nama,

3 The locaHties of all these peoples are unknown.

■* Or Epidaurus. It is not noticed in history tiU the civil war between
Pompey and Caesar, when, having declared in favour of the latter, it was
besieged by M. Octavius. The site of it is known as Ragusa Yecchia, oi»
Old Ragusa, but in the Illyric language it is called Zaptal. Upon its
destruction, its inhabitants moved to Rausium, the present Ragusa.
There are no remains extant of the old town.

* It stiU retains the name of Risine, upon the Gk)lfo di Cattaro, the
ancient Sinus Rhizonicus.

* In the former editions called " Ascrivium." The modem Cattaro is
supposed to occupy its site. Butua is the modem Budua, and Olcinium,
Dulcigno. It is probable that the derivation of the name of this last
place, as suggested by Pliny, is only fanciful.

7 Now caUed Drin and Drino.

8 Now called Scutari or Scodar, the capital of the province called by
the Tarka Sangiac de Scodar.

Chap. 26.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 261

brance is fast fading away. For in this region there were
formerly the Labeatse, the Enderini\ the Sasaei, the Grabaei*,
properly called Illyrii, the Taulantii'', and the Pyraei. The
rromontory of Nymphaeum on the sea-coast still retains its
name* ; and there is Lissum, a town enjoying the rights of
Boman citizens, at a distance from Epidaurum of 100 miles.
(23.) At Lissum begins the province of Macedonia', the
nations of the Parthiiii", and behind them the Dassaretae'.
The mountains of Candavia* are seventy-eight miles from
Dyrrhachium. On the coast lies Den da, a town i?vith the
rights of Eoman citizens, the colony of Epidamnum", which,
on accoimt of its inauspicious name, was by the Romans
called Dyrrhachium, the river A6us'°, by some called JEas,
and Apollonia", formerly a colony of the Corinthians, at a
distance of four miles from the sea, in the vicinity of which

* According to Hardouin, the modem Endero stands on the site of
their capital.

* Grabia, mentioned by Pouqueville, in his " Voyage de la Gr^ce," seems
to retain the name of tliis tribe.

* Pouqueville is of opinion that they occupied the district now known
as Musache.

* Dalechamp thinks that the two words " Retinet nomen" do not belong
to the text, but have crept in from being the gloss of some more recent
commentator. They certainly appear to be out of place. This promontory
is now called Cabo Rodoni. ' The modem Albania.

' Pouqueville is of opinion that they inhabited the district about the
present village of Presa, seven leagues N.E. of Durazzo.

7 From Ptolemy we learn that Lychnidus was their town ; the site of
wliich, according to Pouqueville, is still pointed out at a spot about four
leagues south of Ochrida, on the eastern bank of the Lake of Ochrida.

8 Now called El Bassan ; though Pouqueville says Tomoros or De
Caulonias. Commencing in Epirus, they separated Ulyricum from Mace-
donia. See Lucan's Pharsalia, B. vi. 1. 331.

' The Romans are said to have changed its Greek name Epidamnum,
from an idea that it was inauspicious, as implying " damnum" or " ruin."
It has been asserted that they gave it the name of Durrhaohium orDyrrha-
chiiun, from "durum," rugged, on account of the ruggedness of its
locahty. This however cannot be the case, as the word, like its pre-
decessor, is of Greek origin. Its xmfortunate name, " Epidamnus," is the
subject of several puns and witticisms in that most amusing perhaps of all
the plays of Plautus, the Mensechnii. It was of Corcyrsean origin, and
after playing a distinguished part in the civil wars between. Pompey and
Caesar, was granted by Augustus to his veteran troops. The modem
Piu^zzo stands on its site. ^^ Now called the Yoioussa.

" The monastery of PoUina stands on its site. It was founded by

^62 !PLrNT*S NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book III.

the celebrated Nympliseum^ is inhabited by the barbarous
Amantes^ and Euliones. Upon the coast too is the town cf
Oricum^, founded by the Colchians. At this spot begins
Epirus, with the Acroceraunian'' mountains, by which we have
previously mentioned^ this Gulf of Europe as bounded.
Oricum is dis.tant from the Promontory of Salentinum in
Italy eighty® miles.

CHAP. 27. (24.) — THE NOEICI.

In the rear of the Cami and the lapydes, along the course
of the great river Ister^, the Ehaeti touch upon the No-
rici®: their towns are Virunum*, Celeia, Teurnia, Agun-
tum^", Vianiomina^\ Claudia^^, and Flavium Solvense*^. Ad-
joining to the Norici is Lake Peiso^"*, and the deserts of

the Corinthians and Corcyrseans. There are scarcely any vestiges of it
remaining. * See further mention of this spot in B. ii. c. 110.

2 Pouqueville states that the ruins of Amantia are to be seen near the
village of Nivitza, on the right bank of the river Suchista. The remains
of BuUis, the chief town of the Buhones, according to the same traveller,
are to be seen at a place called Gradista, four miles from the sea.

3 The same writer states that Oricum was situate on the present Gulf
De lii Vallona or d' Avlona, and that its port was the place now called by
the Greeks Porto Raguseo, and by the Turks Liman Padisha.

^ The " Heights of Thimder." They were so called from the frequent
thunderstorms with which they were visited. The range however
was more properly called the " Ceraunii Montes," and the promontory
terminating it " Acroceraunii " or " Acroceraunia," meaning "the end of
the Ceraunii." The range is now called the Mountains of Khimara, and
the promontory, Glossa, or in ItaUan, Linguetta, meaning " the Tongue."

* In C. 15 of the present Book.

* About 70 Enghsh mUes is the distance. ^ The Donau or Danube.
^ Noricum corresponded to the greater part of tlie present Styria and

Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg.

5 According to D'Anville the modem Wolk-Markt, on the river
Drau or Drave. Celeia is the modern Cilley in Camiola. Teurnia,
accortling to Mannert, is the Lumfelde, near the small town of Spital.

10 According to Mannert it was situate near the modem town of
Innichen, near the sources of the Drave.

11 Supposed to be the same as the Vindobona or Yindomona of
other authors, standing on the site of the modem city of Vienna.

12 According to Cluver, it stood on the site of the modem Clausen in
Bavaria.

13 Mannert says that this place was the same with the modem Solfeld,
near Klagenfurt.

i< D'Anville and other writers think that this is the Neiisiedler See, not

Chap. 28.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 263

the Boii^ ; they are however now inhabited by the people
of Sabaria^, a colony of the now deified emperor Claudius,
and the to\NTi of Scarabantia Julia'.

CHAP. 28. (25.) — PANNONIA.

Next to them comes acorn-bearing Pannonia^, along
which the chain of the Alps, gradually lessening as it runs
through the middle of Illyricum from north to south, forms
a gentle slope on the right hand and the left. The portion
which looks towards the Adriatic Sea is called Dalmatia
and Illyricum, above mentioned, while Pannonia stretches
away towards the north, and has the Danube for its extreme
boundary. In it are the colonies of -^mona' and Siscia.
The following rivers, both known to fame and adapted for
commerce, flow into the Danube ; the Draus®, which rushes
from Noricum with great impetuosity, and the Sa\Tis^, which
flows with a more gentle current from the Carnic Alps, there
being a space between them of 120 miles. The Draus runs
through the Serretes, the Serrapilli^, the lasi, and the An-
dizetes ; the Savus through the Colapiani^ and the Breuci ;
these are the principal peoples. Besides them there are
the Arivates, the Azali, the Amantini, the Belgites, the
Catari, the Cornacates, the Eravisci, the Hercuniates*", the

far from Vienna. Mannert, however, is of opinion that the name ought
to be written Pelso, and that the modern Balaton or Flatten See is meant.
^ The mountainous and woody tract in the vicinity of the Lake
Balaton, on the confines of ancient Noricimi and Pannonia.

2 Now Sarvar on the river Baab, on the confines of Austria and
Hungary.

3 According to Hardouin, the modem Sopron or CEdenburg.

* This province corresponded to the eastern part of Austria, Styria,
Carinthia, Camiola, the whole of Hungary between the Danube and
Saave, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Bosnia. It was reduced by
Tiberius, acting imder the orders of Augustus.

^ Now Laybach, previously mentioned in c. 22. Sissia has been suc-
ceeded by the modem Sissek on the Saave.

6 The modem Draave or Drau. ^ Now the Sau or Saave.

8 According to Hardouin the Serretes and the SerrapUli inhabited
the modem Carinthia on both sides of the Draave. The sites of the other
nations here mentioned are unknown.

* So called from the river Colapis. The other tribes are imknown.

^0 Probably the same as the moimtain range near Warasdin on the

264 PLI:ST's NATFEAL HISTOET, [Book III.

Latovici, the Oseriates, the Varciam, and, in front of Mount
Claudius, the Scordisci, behind it the Taurisci. In the Savus
there is the island of Metubarris^ the greatest of aU the
islands formed by rivers. Besides the above, there are
these other rivers worthy of mention : — the Colapis^, which
flows into the Savus near Siscia, where, dividing its channel,
it forms the island which is called Segestica^ ; and the river
Bacuntius'', which flows into the Savus at the to\\Ti of Sir-
mium, where we find the state of the Sirmienses and the
Amantini. Forty-five miles thence is Taurunum^, where
the Savus flows into the Danube; above which spot the
Valdanus® and the Urpanus, themselves far from ignoble
rivers, join that stream.

CHAP. 29. (26.) — MffiSIA.

Joining up to Pannonia is the province called Moesia^, which
runs, with the course of the Danube, as far as the Euxine.
It commences at the confluence^ previously mentioned. In it
are the Dardani, the Celegeri, the Triballi, the Timachi, the
Moesi,theThracians,and theScythians who border on theEui-
ine. The more famous among its rivers are the Margis', which
rises in the territory of the Dardani, the Pingus, the Tima-
chus, the (Escus which rises in Mount Ehodope, and, rising
in Mount Hsemus, the Utus^", the Asamus, and the Icterus.

Draave. The nations mentioned here dwelt on the western and eastern
slopes of this range.

1 Now known as Zagrabia. 2 j^ow the Culpa.

3 Dion Cassius, B. xix., says that the river Colapis or Colops flowed
past the walls of the town of Siscia, but that Tiberius Csesar caused a
trench to be dvig round the town, and so drew the river round it, leading
it back on the other side into its channel. He calls the island Segetica.

^ Now the Bossut. Sirmium occupied the site of the present Sirmich.

5 The modem Tzeruinka, according to D'Anville and Brotier.

^ Now the Walpo and the Sarroiez, according to Hardouin ; or the
Bosna and the Verbas, according to Brotier and Mannert.

7 Corresponding to the present Servia and Bulgaria.

^ Of the Danube with the Saave or Savus just mentioned.

^ Now the Morava, which runs through Servia. into the Danube.
The Pingus is probably the Bek, which joins the Danube near Gradistic.
The Timachus is the modem Timoch, and the (Escus is the Iscar in
Bulgaria.

^^ Now called the Yid, the Osma, and the Jantra, rising in the
Balkan chain.

Ohap. 30.] ACCOITNT OF COUNTEIES. ETC. 266

The breadth of Illyricum^ at its widest part is 325 miles,
and its length from the river Arsia to the river Driuius
530 ; from the Drinius to the Promontory of Acroceraunia
Agrippa states to be 175 miles, and he sa^s that the entire
circuit of the Italian and lUyrian Gulf is 1700 miles. In
this Gulf, according to the limits which we have drawn,
are two seas, the Ionian^ in the first part, and the Adiiatic,
which runs more inland and is called the Upper Sea.

CHAP. 30. — ISLANDS OP THE IONIAN SEA AND THE ADEIATIC.

In the Ausonian Sea there are no islands worthy of
notice beyond those which we have already mentioned, and
only a few in the Ionian ; those, for instance, upon the Cala-
brian coast, opposite Brundusium, by the projection of which
fi harbour is formed ; and, over against the Apulian coast,
Diomedia^, remarkable for the monument of Diomedes, and
another island called by the same name, but by some Teutria.

* Ajasson remarks here that the name of Ulyricum was very vaguely
used by the ancients, and that at different periods, different countries
were so designated. In Pliny's time that region comprised the country
between the Arsia and the mouth of the Dnlo, boimding it on the side
ot Macedonia. It would thus comprehend a part of modem Camiola,
with part of Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and Upper Albania. In later
times this name was extended to Noricimi, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia.,
Macedonia, Thessalia, Achaia, Epirus, and even the Isle of Crete.

* Here meaning that part of the Mediterranean wliich Hes between
Italy and Greece south of the Adriatic. In more ancient times the
Adriatic was included in the Ionian Sea, which was probably so called
from the Ionian colonies which settled in Cephallenia and the other
islands on the western coast of G-reece.

3 More properly " Diomedese," being a group of small islands off the
coast of Apulia now called I sole di Tremiti, about eighteen miles from
the mouth of the Fortore. They were so called from the fable that here
the companions of Diomedes were changed into birds. A species of sea-
fowl (which PUny mentions in B. x. c. 44)) were said to be the descend-
ants of these Greek sailors, and to show a great partiality for such
persons as were of kindred extraction. See Ovid's Metamorphoses,
B. xiv. 1. 500. The real nvunber of these islands was a matter of dispute
with the ancients, but it seems that there are but three, and some mere
rocks. The largest of the group is the island of San Domenico, and the
others are San Nicola and Caprara. The small island of Pianosa, eleven
miles N.E., is not considered one of the group, but is not improbably
the Teutria of PMny . San Domenico was the place of banishment of Julia,
the Hcentious daughter of Augustus.

HG6 PLI2? r S NATURAL HISTOEY. [Book III.

The coast of lUyricum is clustered with more than 1000
islands, the sea being of a shoaly nature, and numerous
creeks and sestuaries running with their narrow channels
between portions of the land. The more famous are those
before the mouths of the Timavus, with warm springs^ that
rise with the tides of the sea, the island of Cissa near the
territory of the Istri, and the Pullaria" and Absyrtides^, so
called by the Greeks from the circumstance of Absyrtus,
the brother of Medea, having been slain there. Some islands
near them have been called the Electrides^, upon which
amber, which they call "electrum," was said to be found;
a most assured instance however of that untruthful-
ness'* which is generally ascribed to the Greeks, seeing
that it has never yet been ascertained which of the islands
were meant by them under that name. Opposite to the lader
is Lissa, and other islands whose names have been already
mentioned^. Opposite to the Liburni are some islands
called the Crateae, and no smaller number styled Liburnicae
and Celadussae'. Opposite to Surium is Bavo, and Brattia*,

^ Now called the Bagni di Monte Falcone. See B. ii. c. 106.

2 Now called Cherso and Osero, off the IlljTian coast. Ptolemy
mentions only one, Apsorrus, on wliich he places a town of that name
and another called Crepsa. The Pullaria are now called Li Brioni, in
the Sinus Flanaticus, opposite the city of Pola. ^ ggg p 258.

■* In B. xxxvii. c. 11, he again mentions this circumstance, and states
tliat some writers have placed them in the Adriatic opposite the mouths
of the Padus. Scymnus of Chios makes mention of them in conjunction
with the Absyrtides. This confusion probably arose from the fact pre-
viously noted that the more ancient writers had a confused idea that the
Ister communicated Yiith. the Adriatic, at the same time mistaking it pro-
bably for the Vistula, which flows into the Baltic. At the mouth of this
last-mentioned river, there were Electrides or " amber-bearing " islands.

^ " Vanitatis." ^ Crexa, G-issa, and Colentum, in c. 25.

'^ According to Brotier, these are situate between the islands of Zuri
and Sebenico, and are now called Kasvan, Capri, Smolan, Tihat, Sestre,
Parvich, Zlarin, &c. Some writers however suggest that there were
no islands called Celadussge, and that the name in Phny is a corruption of
Dyscelados inPomponiusMela; which in its turn is supposed to have been
invented from what was really an epithet of Issa, in a line of ApoUonius
Khodius, B. iv. 1. 565. 'lo-ffd re dvaKeXados, "and inauspicious Issa."
See Brunck's remarks on the passage.

8 Now Brazza. . According to Brotier the island is still celebrated
for the delicate flavour of the flesh of its goats and lambs. Issa is now
called Lissa, and Pharia is the modern Lesina. Baro, now Bua, hes off

Chap. 30.] ACCOUNT Ot COUNTRIES, ETC. !267

famous for its goats, Issa with the rights of Eoman citizens,
and Pharia witn a town. At a distance of twenty-five miles
from Issa is Corcyra*, surnamed Melaena, with a town founded
by the Cnidians ; between which and Illyricum is Melite^
from which, as we learn from Callimachus, a certain kind
of little dogs were called Melitaei ; fifteen miles from it we
find the seven Elaphites'. In the Ionian Sea, at a distance
of twelve miles from Oricum, is Sasonis*, notorious from
having been a harbour of pirates.

Summary. — Tlie towns and nations mentioned are in
number ****«. The rivers of note are in number * * * *.
The mountains of note are in number * * * *. The islands
are in number * * * *. The towns or nations which have
disappeared are in number * * * *. The facts, statements,
and observations are in number 326.

Eoman Authors quoted. — Turannius Gracilis'', Cor-
nelius Nepos^, T. Livius*, Cato the Censor', M. Agrip-

the coast of Dahnatia, and was used as a place of banishment imder the
emperors.

* Now Curzola, or, in the Sclavonic, Karkar. It obtained its name of
Nigra or Mekena, "black," from the dark colour of its pine woods.
Sir Gr. Wilkinson describes it in his *' Dalmatia and Montenegro," vol. i.

2 Now called Meleda or Zapimtello It is more generally to the
other island of Mehta or Malta that the origin of the "Melitsei" or Maltese
dogs is ascribed. Some writers are of opinion that it was upon this
island that St. Paul was sliipwrecked, and not the larger Mehta.

3 So called from their resemblance to a stag, eXa^os, of which the
modem Giupan formed the head, Ruda the neck. Mezzo the body, Cala-
motta the haimches, and the rock of Grebini or Pettini the tail. They
produce excellent wine and oil, and are looked upon as the most valuable
part of the Ragusan territory.

* StUl known as Sasino. It is ten miles from Ragusa, the port of
Oricum, according to Pouqueville. ^ The original numbers are lost.

* He was a Spaniard by birth, a native of Mellaria in Hispania Bretica.
He is mentioned by Cicero as a man of great learning, and is probably
the same person that is mentioned by Ovid in his Pontic Epistles, B. iv.
ep. xvi. 1. 29, as a distinguished tragic writer.

7 See end of B. ii. ® See end of B. ii.

* M. Porcius Cato, or Cato the Elder ; famous as a statesman, a
patriot, and a philosopher. He wrote " De Re Rustica," a work which
still survives, and " Letters of Instruction to his Son," of which only some
fragments remain. He also wrote a historical work cahed " Origines,"

268 pldtt's natueai histoet. [Book IIL

pa\ M. Varro^, the Emperor Augustus' now deified, Yarro
Atacinus'*, Antias^, Hyginus^, L. Vetus', Pomponius Mela*,

of which Pliny makes considerable use. Of this also only a few fitigments
are left. His life has been written by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch, and
Aurehus Victor.

* M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished partisan of Augustus, to
whose niece Marcella he was married, but he afterwards divorced her
for Julia, the daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and the widow of
Marcellus. He distinguished himself in Gaul, at Actium, and in Illyria.
He constructed many pubUc works at Rome, and among them the Pan-
theon ; he also built the splendid aqueduct at Nismes. He died suddenly
in his 51 st year.. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus,
who pronoimced his funeral oration. He wrote memoirs of his own life.
Pliny often refers to the " Commentarii " of Agrippa, by which are meant,
it is supposed, certain official lists drawn up by huu in the measurement
of the Roman world vmder Augustus. His map of the world is also
mentioned by Pliny in c. 3 of the present Book. ^ See end of B. ii

' From Servius, Suetonius and Plutarch we learn that Augustus wrote
Memoirs of his Life, in thirteen books ; from Suetonius, that he com-
posed a Summary of the Empire (which was probably that referred to in
the above note on Agrippa) ; and from Quintilian, Aulus QuUius, and Pliny,
B. iviii. c. 38, that he published Letters written to his grandson Caius.

* P. Terentius Varro, sumamed Atacinus, from the Atax, a river of
Gallia Narbonensis, in which province he was bom, B.C. 82. Of his
"Argonautica," his " Cosmographia" (probably the same with his "Iter"),
his " Navales Libri," and his Heroic and Amatory Poems, only a few
fragments now exist. Of his life nothing whateyer is known.

* Valerias Antias. See end of B. ii.

* C. Juhus Hyginus, a native of Spain, and freedman of Augustus, by
whom he was placed at the Palatine Library. He lived upon terms of
intimacy with Ovid. He wrote works on the sites of the cities of Italy,
the Nature of the Gods, an account of the Penates, an account of Virgil
(probably the same as the work called " Commentaries on Virgil"), on the
Famihes of Trojan descent, on Agricultiu-e, the " Propempticon Cinnffi,"
the Lives of Illustrious Men (quoted by John of SaUsbury in his " Poly-
craticon "), a book of Examples, and a work on the Art of War, also men-
tioned by John of SaUsbiuy. A book of Fables, and an Astronomical
Poem, in four books, are ascribed to him, but they are probably pro-
ductions of a later age.

7 L. Antistius Vetvis, Consxil with Nero, A.D. 55. While command-
ing in Germany he formed the project of connecting the Moselle and the
Saone by a canal, thus estabHshing a communication between the Medi-
terranean and the Northern Ocean. Nero having resolved on his death,
he anticipated his sentence by opening his veins in a warm bath. His
mother-in-law Sextia, and his daughter Pollentia, in a similar manner
perished with him.

* He was bom, it is supposed, at Tingentera, or Cingentera, on the bay
of Algesiras, and probably flourished in the reign of Claudius. He was

Chap. 30.] BOMAN ATJTHOHS QUOTED. 269

Curio' the Elder, Caelius', Arruntius', SebosuB^, Licinius
Mucianus*, Fabricius Tuscus", L. Ateius', Capito*, Ver-
mis Flaccus', L. Piso*", Gellianus", and Valerianus".
FoEEiGN Authors quoted. — Artemidorus'^, Alexander

the first Roman author who wrote a treatise on Geography. It is still
extant, and bears marks of great care, while it is written in pure and un-
atiected language.

* C, Scribonius Curio, the third known of that name. He was the
first Roman general who advanced as far as the Danube. Like his son
of the same name, he was a violent opponent of Julius Csesar. He was
eloquent as an orator, but ignorant and uncultivated. His orations were
published, as also an invective against Csesar, in form of a dialogue, in
wliich his son was introduced as one of the interlocutors. He died B.C. 53.

' L. Csehus Antipater. See end of B. ii,

• L. Arruntius, Consul, a.d. 6. Augustus declared in his last iUnesa
that he was worthy of the empire. This, with his riches and talents,
rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. Being charged as an
accompHce in the crimes of Albucilla, he put himself to death by opening
his veins. It appears not to be certain whether it was this person or hia
father who wrote a history of the first Punic war, in which he imitated
the style of Sallust.

* Statins Sebosus. See end of B. ii.

• Licinius Crassus Mucianus. See end of B. ii.

• Of this writer no particulars whatever are known.

7 In most editions this name appears as L. Ateius Capito, but Sillig
separates them, and with propriety it would appear, as the name of
Capito the great legist was not Lucius. Ateius here mentioned waa
probably the person sumamed Prsetextatus, and Philologxis, a fi-eedman
of the jurist Ateius Capito. For Sallust the historian he composed an
Abstract of Roman History, and for Asinius Pollio he compiled precepts
on the Art of Writing. His Commentaries were numerous, but a few
only were smrtdving in the time of Suetonius.

* C. Ateius Capito, one of the most famous of the Roman legists, and
a zealous partisan of Augustus, who had him elevated to the Consulship
A.D. 5. He was the rival of Labeo, the repubhcan jurist. His legal
works were very volimiinous, and extracts from them are to be found in
the Digest. He also wrote a work on the Pontifical Rights and the Law
ol Sacrifices.

^ A distinguished grammarian of the latter part of the first century
B.C. He was entrusted by Augustus with the education of his grandsons
Cains and Lucius Csesar. He died at an advanced age in the reign of
Tiberius. He wrote upon antiquities, history, and philosophy : among
his numerous works a History of the Etruscans is mentioned, also a
treatise on Orthography. Pliny quotes him very frequently.

i» SeeendofB. ii.

*^ He is mentioned in c. 17, but nothing more is known of him

^2 Nothing is known of him. The yoimger Pliny addressed thi-ee
Epistles to a person of this name, B. il Ep. 15, B. v. Ep. 4» 14,

^ See end of B. ii.

270 PLnnr's natueal histoet. [Book III.

Polyhistor\ Tliucydides^, Theophrastus^ Isidorus'', Theo-
pompus^, Metrodorus of Scepsis®, Callicrates^, Xenophon
of Lampsacus^, Diodorus of Syracuse ', Nymphodorus^",
Calliphanes", and Timagenes^^.

1 Also called by Pliny Cornelius Alexander. Suidas states that he
was a native of Ephesus and a disciple of Crates, and during the war of
SyUa in Greece was made prisoner and sold as a slave to C. Lentulus, who
made him the tutor of his children, and afterwards restored him to free-
dom. Servius however says that he received the franchise from L. Cor-
neUus Sylla. He was burnt with his house at Laurentiun. Other writers
say that he was a native of Catiseum in Lesser Phrygia. The surname of
" Polyhistor" was given to him for his prodigious learning. His greatest
work seems to have been a liistorical and geographical account of the
world, in forty-two books. Other works of his are frequently mentioned
by Plutarch, Photius, and other writers.

2 The historian of the Peloponnesian war, and the most famous, per-
haps, of all the ancient writers in prose.

3 Of Eresus in Lesbos ; the favourite disciple of Aristotle, and desig-
nated by him as his successor in the presidency of the Lyceum. He
composed more than 200 works on various subjects, of which only a very
few survive. * See end of B. ii. * See end of B. ii.

8 He is frequently mentioned by Cicero, and was famous for his elo-
quence. Pliny informs us in his 31th book, that from his hatred of the
Romans he was called the " Roman-liater." It is probable that he was
the writer of a Periegesis, or geographical work, from which Pliny seems
to quote.

7 No particulars of this author are known. He probably wrote on
geography.

^ He is again mentioned by Pliny in B. iv. c. 13, and B. vi, c. 31, and
by Solinus, c. xxii. 60. It is supposed that he was the author of a Pe-
riplus or Circumnavigation of the Earth, mentioned by Pliny B. vii. c. 48 j
but nothing further is known of him.

^ Diodorus Siculus was a native of Agyra or Agyrium, and not of
Syracuse, though he may possibly have resided or studied there. It can-
not be doubted that he is the person here meant, and Pliny refers in his
preface by name to his Bi(3\io9rjKT], " Library," or Universal History.
A great portion of this miscellaneous but valuable work has perished.
We have but few particulars of his life ; but he is supposed to have
written his work after B.C. 8.

^" Of Syracuse ; an liistorian probably of the time of Philip and Alex-
ander. He was the author of a Periplus of Asia, and an account of Sicily
and Sardinia. From liis stories in the last he obtained the name of
" Thaimiatographus " or " writer of wonders."

^^ Of Calliphanes the Greographer nothing is known.

^'^ Probably Timagenes, the rhetorician of Alexandria. He was taken
prisoner and brought to Rome, but redeemed from captivity by Faustus,
the son of SyUa. He wrote many works, but it is somewhat doubtful
whether the " Periplus," in five Books, was written by this Timagenes. He
is also supposed to have written a work on the Antiquities of dauL

271

BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEO-
PLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1. (1.)— EPIRU8.

The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains
of Acrocerauma\ and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an
extent of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen
smaller gulfs. Upon it are Epirus, Acamania, JEtolia, Phocis,
Locris, Achaia, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica,
BoBotia ; and again, upon the other sea^, the same Phocis
and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia
and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as well as the
eli'ulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the banks
of this Gulf. We shtiU therefore dwell a little the longer
upon it.

Epirus^, generally so called, begins at the mountains of
Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones,
from whom Chaonia"* receives its name, then the Thesproti*,
and then the Antigonenses*'. We then come to the place
where Aornos'' stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the
feathered race, the Cestrini', the Perrha;bi', in whose coun-

^ Now called Monti della Chimera, or Mountains of Khimara. See
?• 262. * The ^gean Sea, the present Archipelago.

3 This country contained, according to Pouqueville, the present San-
giacs of Janina, Delvino, and Chamouri, -with the VavodUika or Princi-
pality of Arta. This name was origmally given to the whole of the west of
Greece, from the Promontory of Acroceraunia to the entrance of the Corin-
thian Gulf, in contradistinction to Corcyra and the island of Cephallenia.

* This district, according to Pouqueville, occupied the present Cantons
of Chimera, lapouria, Arboria, Paracaloma, and Philates.

* They occupied the site of the present Paramythia, according to Pour
queville.

^ Antigonia was about a mile distant, PouqueviUe says, fi^m the
modem town of Tebelen.

' From 'A "not," and opvis "a bird." Its site is now unknown.
There were many places of this name. Aremus or Aomos in Campania
has been previously mentioned.

^ The remains of Cestria are still to be seen at Palea Venetia, near
the town of FiHatcs. Pouqueville calls the place Chamouri.

3 According to Pouqueville, the modem Zagori stands on the sit<; of
Perrhaebia. Pindus is sometimes called Grammos, but is still known by
it£ ancient name.

272 PLIKT's ITATUEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

try Mount Pindus is situate, the Cassiopaei\ the Dry opes',
the Sellse^, the Hellopes'*, the Molossi, in whose territory is
the temple of the Dodonsean Jupiter, so famous for its oracle ;
and Mount Tomarus', so highly praised by Theopompus,
with its hundred springs gushing from its foot.

(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Mag-
nesia and Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretae,
previously® mentioned, a free nation, and after them the
Dardani, a savage race. On the left hand, before the Dardani
are extended the Triballi and the nations of Moesia, while in
front of them the Medi and the Denselatae join, and next to
them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the Euxine :
in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights
of Rhodope, and then of Haemus.

On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimaera^,
situate upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the
spring known as the Eoyal "Waters* ; then the towns of

1 Casaiope or CasBope stood near the sea, and near the present village
of Kamarina. Its extensive ruins are still to be seen.

2 Their district, according to Pouqueville, waa in the present Canton
ofDn^nopoIis.

* The Selli or Sellse lived in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter at
Dodona, in the modem canton of Souh, according to Pouqueville.

* The country about Dodona is called Hellopia by Hesiod. By some
the Helli or Hellopes are considered the same as the SelU. Pouqueville
thinks that the Hellopes dwelt in the modem cantons of Janina, Pogo-
niani, Sarachovitzas, and Courendaa, and that the temple of Jupiter stood
Et the spot now called Proskynisis, near Ghwdiki, tlie town of Dodona
being near Castritza. Leake is of the same opinion as to the site of the
town ; but, as has been a subject of remark, it is the only place of celebrity
in Greece of wliich the situation is not exactly known. Leake however
thinks that the temple stood on the peninsula now occupied by the
citadel of Joanina.

^ Pouqueville thinks that this is the hill to be seen at the modem vil-
lage of Gardiki. He is also of opinion that the springs here mentioned
are those at the modem village of Besdounopoulo. His opinions however
on these points have not been imphcitly received.

6 B. iii. c. 26. The Dardani, Triballi, and Moesi are mentioned in
c. 29. The locahties of the other tribes here mentioned are not known
with any exactness.

7 It retains the same name or that of Khimara, and gives its name to
the Acroceraimian range. It was situate at the foot of the chain, which
begins at this spot.

^ " Aquae regise." Pouqueville suggests, without good reason, as An-
sart thinks, that this spring was situate near the modem Drimodez or
Dermadez.

Chap. 2.] ACCOTJITT OP COUNTEIES, ETC. 273

Mseandria, and Cestria\ the Thyamis', a river of Thesprotia,
the colony of Buthrotum*, and the Ambracian Gulf*, so
famed in history ; which, with an inlet only half a mile in
width, receives a vast body of water from the sea, being
thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river
Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thespro-
tia, flows into if after a course of thirty-six miles ; it is con-
sidered wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a
people who look upon everything as wonderful that belongs
to tnemselves. Upon this Gulf is also situate the town of
Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the Arachthus",
rivers of the Molossi ; the city of Anactoria', and the place
where Pandosia' stood.

CHAP. 2. — ACAENANIA.

The towns of Acarnania', the ancient name of which was
Curetis, are Heraclia'", Echinus", and, on the coast, Actium,

* The place called Palseo-Kistes now stands on its site, and some
remains of antiquity are to be seen. * Now the Calama.

* Its ruins are to be seen near the modem Butrinto. It was said to
have been founded by Helenus, the son of PriauQ. Pwnponius Atticus
had an estate here.

^ This corresponds to the present Gulf of Arta, and was especially famous
for being the scene of the battle of Actium. The city of Ambracia lay to
the north of it. The present Arta is generally beUeved to occupy its site.

^ Pouqueville has shown tliat Pliny is in error here, and he says that
the Acheron is the modem Mavro Potamos ; but according to Leake,
the name of it is Gurla, or the river of SuU. It flows into the Port Fa-
nari, formerly called Glykys Limen, or Sweet Harbour, from the fresh-
ness of the water there. The Acherusian Lake is probably the great
marsh that Hes below Kastri.

* It is now called the Arta, and gives name to the Gulf.

7 The site of Anactoria or Anactoriiim, like that of its neighbour Ac-
tium, has been a subject of much dispute ; but it is now pretty generally
agreed that the former stood on the modem Cape Madonna, and Actium
on the headland of La Punta.

* Pouqueville takes the ruins in the vicinity of Turco Palaka, eight
miles from Margariti, to be those of Pandosia.

^ This district probably occupied the present cantons of Yonitza and
Xeromeros. It was called Curetis from the Curetes, who are said to have
come from JEtolia and settled in Acamania after their expulsion by jEtolus
and his followers.

10 The modem Vonitza is supposed to stand on its site.

1* Leake places its site at Ai VasiU, where some ruins are to be seezu
TOL. I. T

274 PLiyy's ITATITEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

a colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of
Apollo and the free city of Nicopolis^ Passing out of the
Ambracian Grulf into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast
of Leucadia, with the Promontory of Leucate^, and then the
Gulf and the peninsula of Leucaala^, which last was formerly
called Neritis*. By the exertions of the inhabitants it was
once cut off from the mainland, but was again joined to it
by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action
of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos*, and is three
stadia in length : on the peninsula is the town of Leucas,
formerly called Neritus^. We next come to Alyzia'^, Stra-
tos**, and Argos', surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the
Acamanians : the river Acheloiis*" flows from the heights-
of Pindus, and, after separating Acarnania from uEtolia, is
fast adding the island of Artemita" to the mainland by the
continual deposits of earth which it brings down its stream.

^ " The city of "Victory ." Founded by Augustus on the spot where he
had pitched his camp before the battle of Actium.

' Now called Capo Ducato or Capo tis Kiras. It is situate at the ex-
tremity of tlie island of Leucas, and opposite to CephaUenia. Sappho is
said to have leapt from this rock on finding her love for Fhaon imre-
quited : the story however is devoid of all historical truth.

' Now the island of Santa Maura. It was originally a peninsula, and
Homer speaks of it aa such ; but the Corinthians cut a canal through the
isthmus and converted it into an island. After the canal had been choked
up for some time with sand, the Komans reopened it. It is at present
dry in some parts.

^ Probably from its town Nericus, mentioned by Homer.

5 From the Greek word ^iopu»cr6s, a "foss" or "trench."

fi It probably had this name from the circumstance of the inhabitants
of Nerictis being removed thither by the Corinthians vmder Cypselus.
The remains of Leucae, which was ravaged by the Eomans B.C. 197, are
still to be seen.

7 Its remains are still to be seen in the valley of Kandili, south of
Yonitza.

8 PouqueviUe says that very extensive and perfect ruins of this place
are to be seen near the village of Lepenou.

9 This famous city was deserted on the foundation of NicopoHs by
Augustus. The place of its site has been a subject of much dispute, but
it is considered most probable that Leake has rightly suggested that the
ruins in the plain of Vlikha, at the village of Neokhori, are those of this
city. ^" Now the Aspropotamo.

" One of the group of the Echinades j small islands off the coast of
Acarnania, which are mentioned by Phny, in C, 19 of the present Book.
It is now quite united to the mainland.

Chap. 3.] ACCOUNT Or COUNTEIES, ETC 275

CHAP. 3. (2.) — iETOLIA.

The peoples of -^tolia are the Athamanes\ the Tymphsei',
the Epnyri^, the ^nienses, the Perrhaebi^ the Dolopes'*, the
Maraces, and the Atraees^, in whose territory rises the river
Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon' is a city
of -Stolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea,
and near the banks of the river Evenus*. We then come to
Macynia", and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis***
and TaphiasBus. On the coast again, there is the promontory
of Antirrhium", off which is the mouth of the Corinthian
Gulf, which flows in and separates ^tolia from the Pelopon-
nesus, being less^"^ than one mile in width. The promontory
which faces it on the opposite side is called Ehion'^. The
towns of ^tolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf are Nau-
pactus" and Pylene'* ; and, more inland, Pleuron and Hali-

* Pouqueville says that Athamania occupied the locahties now known
as Djoumerca and Radovitch. It properly belonged to Epiriis, and Phny
makes a mistake in considering it as a part of -^tolia.

* According to Pouqueville the ruins of Tymphaea are to be seen near
the village of Paliouri, four miles from Janina.

* Ephyre, a town of the Agreei, is also mentioned by Strabo, but no-
thing whatever is known of it.

* The main body of the Perrhaebi were a people of Thessaly.

* Dolopia, now called Anovlachia, waa properly reckoned part of Epirus.

* They are probably not the same people as the inhabitants of Atrax in
Thessaly, which will be found mentioned in the 15th Chapter of tliis Book.

7 The most famous city of Mto]i& in its day, and the residence of
(Eneus, father of Meleager and Tydeus, and grandfather of Diomedes.
The greater part of its uihabitants were removed by Augustus to his new
city of NicopoUs. Leake supposes its ruins to be those seen by bim at
Kurt- A-ga, to the east of the river Evenus.

* Now called the Fidaris.

* Pouqueville supposes the site of Macynia to have been that of the
modem Koukio-Castron, and that of Molycria the present Manaloudi.

10 Probably the present Varassova ; there was a town called Chalcis,
or Hypochalcis, at its foot. The present Kaki-Skala was probably the
mountain of Taphiassus.

11 Opposite the Promontory of Eliium, at the entrance of the Corin-
thian Gulf. It is now called the Castle of Roimielia, or the Punta of tb?
Dardanelles of Roum Ili.

12 Leake and Dodwell make it a mile and a half.

" Or Rhium. It is now called the Castle of the Morea.
1* The modem Enebatche or Lepanto j whence the Corinthian Gull
takes its modern name.

i» Proschium was built at a later perio<J^)n the site of Pylene. Its site

t2

276 PLINT's NATIIEAL HISTOBT. [Book TV.

cyma^ The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the
district of Dodona, Crania^ in Ambracia, Aracynthus^ in
Acarnania, and Acanthon'*, Panaetolium'^, and Macynium*', in
-^tolia.

CHAP. 4. (3.) — LOCBIS AlTD PHOCIS.

Next to JEtolia are the Locri'', sumamed OzolaB ; a peo-
ple exempt from tribute. Here is the town of (Eanthe*,
the port® of Apollo Phaestius, and the Gulf of Crissa'". In
the interior are the towns of Argyna, Eupalia", Phaestum,
and Calamisus. Beyond are the Cfirrhaean plains of Phocis,
the town of Cirrha'^, and the port of Chalseon*^, seven miles

appears to be unknown. The modem Kyra-tis-Irinis is thought to oc-
cupy the site of Pleuron.

* Leake supposes some ruins between Kurt-aga, the site of Chalcedon,
and the east end of the Lagoon of Missolonghi, to be the remains of
HaHcyma.

2 Leake supposes it to be identical with the high moimtain now called
Kelberini. Others again identify it with Gribovo.

^ Phny erroneously places this mountain in Acarnania. It was a range
of JEtoUa, now called Zygos.

* Perhaps the modem Djourmerca.

* Either the present Plocopari, or perhaps, more probably, Yiena.
^ A part of Mount Taphiassus. It is mentioned only by Pliny.

' They are supposed to have inhabited the modem districts of Ma-
landrino and Salone. They were called "Ozolse" or ' strong-smelling,'
either from the imdressed skins worn by them, or from the quantities of
asphodel that grew in their country ; or else from the vapours thrown
off by the mineral springs in those parts.

8 PouqueviUe imagines its ruins to be those seen about two leagues
from the modern Galaxidi,

^ Lapie marks this in his map as the modem port of lanakhi.

^^ So called from the ancient town of Crissa, which stood on it. It is
the same as the modem Gulf of Salona.

iJ Or Eupaliura. Leake supposes it to have stood in the plain of Ma-
rathia, opposite the islands of Trazonia, where some ruins still exist.

^2 Pausanias makes this town to be the same with the Homeric Crissa,
but Strabo distinguishes the two places, and liis opinion is now generally
followed ; Cirrha being thouglit to have been built at the head of the
Crisssean gulf, as the port of Crissa. Its ruins are thought to be those
which bear the modem name of Magula.

'3 Or Chalseum. Phny erroneously calls it a town of Phocis, it being
on the coast of the Locri Ozolse. He is wrong also in placing it seven
miles from Delphi, and not improbably confoimded it with Cirrha. Leake
suggests that its site was the present Lamaki.

Chap. 4] ACCOUNT OP COTJITTEIES, ETC. 277

from which, in the interior, is situate the free town of Delphi \
at the foot of Mount Parnassus^, and having the most cele-
brated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole world. There is
the Fountain too of Castalia^, and the river Cephisus'' which
flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of Lilaea*. Besides
these, there is the town of Crissa* and that of Anticyra', with
the Bulenses^; as also Naulochum", Pyrrha, Amphissa*",
exempt from all tribute, Tithrone, Tritea", Ambry sua *^, and
DrymsBa*', which district has also the name of Daidis. The
extremity of the gulf washes one comer of Boeotia, with its
towns of Siphae" and Thebes", sumamed the Corsian, in the

* The modem village of Kastri stands on part of the site of ancient
Delphi. Its ruins have been explored by Chandler, Leake, and Ulrichs.

2 The two highest summits of the range of Parnassus in the vicinity
of Delphi were Tithorea, now Vehtza, to the N.W., and Lycorea, now
Liakura, to the N.E. Its rocks above Delphi were called the Pheedriades
or " Resplendent."

3 The famed Castalinn spring is now called the Fountain of St. John,
from the chapel of that saint which stands close to its source.

* Now the Mavro-Potamo.

* Its ruins are still to be seen about three leagues from Kastri.

* Or Crisso. It was situate inland to the S.W. of Delphi. Its ruins
are to be seen at a short distance from the modem village of Chrj'so.

7 It is supposed that the few ruins seen near the modem Aspra Spitia
are those of this place. It was famous for its hellebore, which was ex-
tensively used for the cure of madness. There were two other places oi
the same name.

® The people of Buhs, near the Crisssean Gulf. Its ruins are situate
at a short distance from the monastery of Dobe.

5 Ansart suggests that this was the present port of Agio-Sideri or
Djesphina.

'° It occupied the site of the modem Salona ; the walls of its ancient
Acropolis are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the Locri
OzolsB.

^^ PouqueviUe thinks that the ruins seen near Moulki are those of Ti-
throne, and that Tritea stood on the site of the present Turcochorion.

^ Or Amphrysus, famous for the strength of its fortifications and its
scarlet berries for dyeing. Some remains of it are to be seen at the
modem village of Dhistomo.

^' On the frontiers of Doris and Phocis. Leake thinks that its ruins
are those seen midway between Kamares and Glamista. DauHs was also
the name of an ancient town of Phocis, the ruins of which are to be seen
at the modem viUage of Dhavha.

14 Probably the present Palseo Kastro, at the Port de Dobrena or Polaca.

15 Leake thinks that the Corsian Thebes, a port of Boeotia, is repre-
sented by the modem Khosia.

278 .flint's irATTTRAL HISTOET. [Book TV,

vicinity of Helicon^ The third town of Boeotia on this
sea is that of Pagae^, from which point the Isthmus of the
Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.

CHAP. 5. (4.) — THE PELOPONNESUS.

The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia* and
Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the
face of the earth. Situate between the two seas, the -^gaean
and the Ionian, it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in
consequence of the angular indentations made in its shores.
According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles in circumference ; and
nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line on the
margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences
is know by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two
seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the
north and the east, invade the land from opposite sides ^
and swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that
through these inroads in opposite directions of such vast
bodies of water, the sides of the land are eaten away to such
an extent, that Hellas^ only holds on to the Peloponnesus
by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes.
The Grulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on
that, are known as the Corinthian*' and the Saronic Gulfs.
The ports of Lecheae^, on the one side, and of Cenchreae on
the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage, which
thus compels to a tedious and periloas circumnavigation
such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across
by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King

^ Helicon is a range of mountains vdth several summits, the loftiest of
which is now called Paleovuni. Helicon was a grove of the Muses, and
the fountain of Aganippe was supposed to impart poetic inspiration to
those who drank of it. 2 See p. 288.

3 From Apis, the son of Phoroneus, or Telchines, according to Pau*
sanias. After the arrival of Pelops, it took from him its name of Pelo-
ponnesus, or the " Island of Pelops."

* The Ionian from the north, and the ^gean, or rather, Myrtoan, Sea
from the east.

* That part of Greece proper which Hes to the north of the Isthmus,
^ Now the Gulfs of Lepanto and Egina.

7 Lechese was the harbour of Corinth on the Corinthian, and Cenchrese
on the Saronic Gulf. The name of the latter is still preserved in the
modem appellation Kechries, which is given to its ruins.

Chap. 5.] ACCOUNT OP COUNTEIES, ETC. 279

Demetrius', Caesar the Dictator, the prince Caius', and Do-
mitius Nero', have at different times made the attempt to
cut through this neck by forming a navigable canal ; a pro-
fane design, as may be clearly seen by the result^ in every
one of these instances.

Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have
called the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly
known by the name of Ephyre', situate upon the brow of a
hill, at a dista,nce of sixty stadia from the shore of either
sea. From the heights of its citadel, which is called Acro-
corinthos, or the " Heights of Corinth," and in which is the
Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two seas which
lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patrae upon
the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The
colony of Patrae" is founded upon the most extensive pro-
montory of the Peloponnesus, facing .^tolia and the river
Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previously^
stated, less than a mile in width at the entrance there,
though extending in length as far aa the isthmus, a distance
of eighty-five miles.

^ Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, son of Antigonus, king of
Asia.

' Caius Caligula, the Emperor.

■ The Emperor Nero actually commenced the work, having opened
the xmdertaking with great pomp, and cut away a portion of the earth
with his own hands. He had advanced four stadia, when the work was
interrupted by the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul.

* We cannot agree with Hardouin that " exitus" here means " death,"
in allusion to the imfortunate end of all those who had made the attempt.
The opinion of Spanheim seems rather deserving of support (though
censured by Hardouin), that it merely means " the residt" in each case ;
it being the fact, that in all the instances the contemplated undertaking
was interrupted by some unforeseen event. Periander and Herodes Atti-
cus also contemplated the formation of this channel.

* It is not known when it exchanged this name for that of Corinth; being
called by both names in Homer. Scarcely any remains of it are now
to be seen. The small town on its site is called Gortho, a corruption of
its ancient name. The water of the famed spring of Pirene is now only
used for washing clothes.

' Now Patras. There are few remains of the ancient city, which was
one of the twelve cities of Achaia. It was made a Roman colony by
Augustas.

y See C. 3 of the present Book, p. 275.

280 PLiirr's KATUBAL HTSTOBT. [Book IT.

CHAP. 6. (5.) — ACHAIA.

The province called Achaia^ begins at the Isthmus ; from
the circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular suc-
cession on its coast, it formerly had the name of jEgialos^.
The first place there is Lechese, already mentioned, a port of
the Corinthians ; n«xt to which is Olyros', a fortress of the
people of Pellene^ ; then the former towns of Helice and
Bura^, and the places in which their inhabitants took refuge
after their towns had been swallowed up by the sea, Sicyon^
namely, ^gira', ^gium, and Erineos*. In the interior are
Cleonse and HysisB^ ; then come the port of Panormus '", and
Bhium already mentioned ; from which promontory, Patrae,
of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles ; and
then the place where Pherse" stood. Of the nine mountains
of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous ; there is also the
Fountain of Cymothoe. Beyond Patrae we find the town of
Olenum^^, the colony of Dyme^*, the places where Bupra-

1 Originally a district in the south of Thessaly had this name ; but to
distinguish it from that in the Peloponnesus, its people were called the
Phthiotian Achsei.

2 From the Greek word atytaX6«, " the sea-shore."

* Situate on the coast, about five miles from the present Yostitza.

* In the interior. The modem Trikala stands on its site,

* Hehce was the place of meeting of the Achsean league j when, in
B.C. 373, together with Bura, it was swallowed up by an earthquake, and
their sites were covered by the sea. Such of the people as escaped fled to
the places mentioned above by Pliny. Pouqueville says that some remains
of these places may still be seen emerging from the sea.

6 The modem Basihco or Vasilika stands on its site.

? The places called Palteo-Kastro and Vostitza are supposed to
occupy the sites of ^gira and iEgium. To the east of Vostitza con-
siderable ruins are still to be seen.

8 Supposed to be the present Artotina.

9 Towns of Roman Argohs. The ruins of the former are supposed to
be those at a spot still called Klenes, near the village of Curtesi. The
remains of Hysise, on the road from Argos to Tegea, stand on a hill
above the plain of Achladokampos.

10 Now called Tekieh ; fifteen stadia from Ehium.
" OrPharsB; 150 stadia from Patrse.

12 The modem Kato- Achaia.

13 Its remains are to be seen near the modem village of Karavostasi.
Phny is mistaken probably in calling it a colony, as we know that it was
placed under the authority of the colony of Patrse, which alone was
allowed to enjoy the privilege of self-government.

Cliap. 6.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTETES, ETC. 281

sium^ and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of Araxus^,
the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates, at five
miles' distance from Cyllene'. There is also the fortress of
Phlius^ ; the district around which was called by Homer
ArsBthyrea^, and, after his time, Asopis.

The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly
called Epei, with the city of Elis* in the interior, and, at a
distance of twelve miles ifrom Phlius, being also in the in-
terior, the temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the uni-
versal celebrity of its games, gives to Greece its mode of
reckoning^. Here too once stood the town of Pisa®, the river
Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is the Promon-
tory of Ichthys". The river Alpheus is navigable six miles,
nearly as far as the towns of Aulon'" and Leprion. We next
come to the Promontory of Platanodes". All these localities
lie to the west.

^ Pouqueville thinks that it was situate on the river now called the
Yerga. Leake supposes that the town of Hyrmine stood on the site of
the present Kastro Tomese on the peninsula of Khlemutzi ; but Boblaye
and Curtius place it further north, at the modem harbour of Kunupeli,
where there are some ancient ruins.

2 Now Capo Papa.

^ The locality of Cyllene is doubtful. Most writers place it at Gla-
rentza, but Pouqueville suggests Andravida or Andravilla, and Mannert
places it near Clarenza. Chelinates or Chelonatas was probably the
nanie originally of the whole peninsula of Khlemutzi, but the point here
mentioned was most probably the modem Cape Tomese.

* It lav in the interior, south of Sicyonia, and north of Argos. Pou-
queville found its ruins on the banks of the Asopus.

" Strabo says that this was the name of the most ancient town of
PhUasia, and that the inhabitants afterwards deserted it for PhUus.

^ Some small ruins of it are to be seen at the foot of the hill of
Kaloskopi, its ancient Acropolis.

7 By Olympiads, which were reckoned according to the order of celebra-
tion of the Olympic games : they were estabhshed in the year B.C. 776,
and were celebrated every fourth year.

8 It was destroyed in the year B.C. 572 by the Eleans, not a vestige
of it being left. The Alpheus retains the name of Alfio.

" Or "the Fish," from its pecidiar shape. It is now called Katakolo.

^^ Probably situate in the valley between Ehs and Messenia, which was
so called. It is not elsewhere mentioned ; and its ruins are thought to
be those near tlie sea, on the right bank of the river Cyparissus. Leprion
is again mentioned in c. x.

" Or Platumodes. Supposed to be the present Aja Kyriaki.

282 PLIKT's NATTJEAL HTSTOET. [Book IV.

CHAP. 7. — MESSENIA.

Furtlier south is the Grulf of Cyparissus, with the city of
Cyparissa^ on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two
miles in length. Then, the towns of Pylos^ and Methone^,
the place where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas*,
the Asinaean Gulf, which takes its name from the town of
Asine*, and the Coronean, so called from Corone ; which gulfs
terminate at the Promontory of Taenarum^. These are all in
the country of Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and
the river Pamisus^ also. In the interior are Messene^, Ithome,
(Echalia, Arene^ Pteleon, Thryon, Dorion^", and Zancle",
all of them known to fame at different periods. The margin
of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance across being
thirty.

^ This city survived through the middle ages, when it was called
Arkadia. In 1525 it was destroyed by the Turks, and whe» rebuilt
resumed nearly its ancient name as Cyparissia, by which it is now called.
The bay or gulf is called the Gulf of Arkadia.

2 Messenian Pylos probably stood on the site of the modem Erana ;
Pouqueville says however that it is still called Pilo, and other writers
place it at Zonchio. It stood on the modem Bay of Navarino.

3 Its site was at the spot called Palseo Kaatro, near the modem town of
Modon. The site of Messenian Helos, so called from its position in the
marshes, rb eXos, is now imknown.

^ Now Capo Gallo.

* It stood on the western side of the Messenian Gulf, which from
it was called the Asinsean Gulf. Grisso, or, according to some, laratcha,
occupies its site. Koroni however is most probably the spot where it
stood, the inhabitants of ancient Corone having removed to it. Petahdhi
stands on the site of Corone. A small portion of the Messenian Gulf
was probably called the Coronean.

^ Now Cape Matapan. " Now the Pymatza.

* Its ruins, which are extensive, are to be seen in the vicinity of the
modem village of Mavromati. Ithome was the citadel of Messene, on
a mountain of the same name, now called Yom-cano.

8 It is supposed that in ancient times it occupied the site of the
more modem Samos or Samia in Triphylia. The modem Sareni is
thought to occupy its site.

^° Dorion or Dorium, the spot where, according to Homer, the Muses
punished Thamyris with blindness, is supposed to have been situate on
the modem plain of Sulima.

" Nothing seems to be known of this place ; but it is not improbable
that it gave its name to the place so called in Sicily, originally a Mes-
Benian colony.

Chap. 8.] ACCOUNT OF COlTIfTBIES, ETC. 283

CHAP. 8. — LACONIA.

At TsBnanim begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by
a free nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and
38 across. The towns are, TaBnarum\ Amyclae^ Pherae',
and Leuctra* ; and, in the interior, Sparta*, Theramne^ and
the spots where Cardamyle', Pitane', and Anthea formerly
stood ; the former site of Thyrea", and Gerania'". Here is
also Mount Taygetus", the river Eurotas, the Gulf of ^gi-
lodes", the town of Psamathus, the Gulf of Gytheum*^ so
called from the town of that name, from which place the
passage is the safest across to the island of Crete. All these
places are bounded by the Promontory of Malea".

* Or Teenarus, afterwards called Ceenopolis. The present town of
Kisternes, or Kiinaros, occupies its site.

* Its site is generally placed at Sklavokhori, six nailes from Sparta ;
but Leake supposes it to have been situate on the hill called Aghia
Kyriaki, between that place and Sparta.

* Or Pharis. The present Cliitries occupies its site.

* Or Leuctrum, on the river Pamisus, now called Levtros. It must
not be confounded with the town in Boeotia where the Thebans defeated
the Spartans, B.C. 371.

' Or Lacedsemon. Its site is occupied by the modem villages of
Magula and Psykhiko. The principal modem town in the vicinity
is Mistra.

s Or Therapnse, on the left bank of the Eurotas. Some ruins of it
are stiU to be seen.

7 Considerable ruins of it are still to be seen to the N.E. of the modem
town of Skarhamula.

^ Authors are not agreed as to the site of this town and that of
Anthea or Anthene.

^ Memorable for the pitched battle between 300 Argives and 300
Spartans, — Othryades being the sole svurivor of the Spartans, and
Aicenor and Chromius of the Argives. **• By Homer called Enope.

" Pente Dactylon, or Pente Dactyh, the " Five Fingers," is the pre-
sent name of the range of Taygetus. Its principal smnmits are now St.
Elias and Paixamadhi. The river Eurotas is now called Iris and Niris in
its upper and middle course, and Basih-potamo from the Spartan plain
to the sea.

^' ^gila, according to Leake, occupied thesiteof the present Scutari;
if so, tHs gulf was probably the Gulf of Scutari. Psamathus was near
the point of Tsenarum.

^3 Or Gythium, near the mouth of the Evu-otas. It was famous for its
cheeses. The nuns are called PaleopoU, a httle to the north of Mara-
thonisi. ^* Now Capo Santo Angelo.

284 rLnry's natueal histoet. [Book IV.

CHAP. 9. — AEGOLIS.

The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllaeum^ is called
the Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit.
The towns upon it are, Bcea^, Epidaurus^, surnamed Limera,
Zarax'*, and the port of Cyphanta". The rivers are the
Inachus^ and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, sur-
named Hippium^, situate beyond the place called Lema', and
at a distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is
Mycenae^, and the place where, it is said, Tiryns^" stood ; the
site, too, of Mantinea". The mountains are, Artemius, Ape-
santus'^, Asterion^^, Parparus, and some others, eleven in
number. The fountains are those of Niobe", Amymone, and
Psamathe.

Erom Scyllaeum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance
of 177 miles. We find here the to-^jvus of Hermione^",
Troezen^®, Coryphasium^'^, and Argos, sometimes called " Ina-

1 Now Capo Skillo.

2 Or Ba?fie. Its ruins are to be seen at the head of the Gulf of Yatika.

3 It stood on the site of the place called Pake-Emvasia, above
Monenibasia.

4 Its site is the modem Porto Kari, according to Ansart.

5 Leake places Cyphanta either at Cyparissi, or farther north, at
Lenidhi. Ansart makes it the modem Porto Botte, or Stilo.

6 Now the Banitza. The Erasinus is the modem Kephalari.

" So called from its breed of horses. It is now also called Argos ;
three leagues fi-om Napoli di Romania.

^ Its site is now called Milos. In the marshes in its vicinity Hercules
was said to have killed the Lemsean Hydra.

9 Karvata is the name of the place on its site. Its ruins are numerous,
and of great magnificence.

10 Its ruins are of the most interesting nature, presenting enormous
masses of stone, of Cyclopian architecture. The spot is at the present day
called Palse-NaupHa.

" It must not be confounded vdth the place in Arcadia, where Epami-
nondas fell. Its site appears to be unknown.

12 Or Apesas, in the territory of Cleonse, now called Fuka, Artemius
is probably the present Malvouni, or Malcyo.

13 A river of the same name rose in this mountain j its identity is
unknown.

14 So called from Niobe, the sister of Pelops and wife of Amphion,
king of Thebes. The spring of Amymone ran into the lake of Lema.

1^ Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Castri :
they are very extensive.

18 The modem Dhamala occupies the site of Troezen.

17 The identity of this Coryphasium seems to be xmascertained. There

Chap. 10.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTBIES, ETC. 285

chian," sometimes " Dipsian"^ Argos. Then comes the port
of Schoenites^, and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly
encircled with a grove of oaks', from which it derives its
present name, oaks in ancient Greece having been so called.
Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for its
temple of -3^-sculapius^ the Promontory of Spiraeum*, the port
of Anthedus^, Bucephalus'', and then Cenchreae, previously
mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of
Neptune®, famous for the games celebrated there every five
years. So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of
the Peloponnesus, so many the seas which howl around it.
Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is beaten by the
Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the south,
by the jEgean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E. ;
which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all
the coast of Attica.

CHAP. 10. (6.) — ARCADIA.

Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia,
which, remote from the sea on eveiy side, was ori-

•was a promontory of that name in Messenia ; but it cannot be the place
here spoken of.

^ It is supposed that Pliny here alludes to Argos Hippium, which he
has previously mentioned ; but only in connection with the rivers Inachus
and Erasinus, and not as included in the list of the towns of Argolis.
The origin of the term " Dipsian" is probably unknown. It could hardly
allude to drought, as Argos was abundantly supplied with water. But
see B. vii. c. 57.

2 Ancart says that this is the modem Porto Estremo, at the mouth of
the Saronic Gulf.

3 Hesycliius says that oaks were called aapojviSes in the language of
ancient Greece. This gulf is now called the Gulf of Egina, or of
Athens.

^ He was worshipped here under the form of a serpent j and his
temple, five miles from Epidaurus, was resorted to by patients from all
pai'ts of Greece for the cure of their diseases. The ruins of this temple
are still to be seen, and those of the theatre at Epidaurus are very ex-
tensive. The village of Pidharvo stands in the midst of the ruins.

^ The modem Capo Franco.

^ Lapie takes Anthedus, or Anthedon, to be the place now called
Porto d' Athene.

^ This appears to have been a port of Corinth, on a promontory of the
same name, meaning, probably from its shape, the " Bull's Head Point."

** Called the ' Posideiima' ; in its vicinity the games were celebrated.
The Isthmian Sanctuary was Specially fiimous as a place of refuge.

286 pliist's natxjeal histobt. [Book IV.

ginally called Drymodes^ and at a later period Pelasgis.
The cities of Arcadia are, Psophis^, Mantinea^, Stympha-
lus*, Tegea^, Antigonea®, Orchomenus', Pheneum', Palan-
tium'* (from which the Palatium'" at Eome derives its
name), Megalopolis", Gortjna^^, Bucolium, Camion, Par-
rhasia^^ Thelpusa^^ MelaenaB^^ Heraea'^ Pylie'^ Pallene,
Agrae, Epium, Cynsethae", Lepreon of Arcadia^', Parthe-

^ From SpvfKoSrjs, "woody," it being filled with grores and forests.

2 Now called the Khan of Tripotamo.

3 Now called PaleopoU. Here Epaminondas fell, fighting against
the Spartans, B.C. 362.

* In the N.E. of Arcadia. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen
near the modem Chionia. It was in the vicinity of the lake of the same
name, the scene of one of the labours of Hercules.

' An important city : the modem Piali marks its site,

* Built upon the ruins of the ancient Mantinea.

7 An ancient town mentioned by Homer, N.W. of Mantinea. The
modem Kalpaki stands on its site.

* Or Pheneus, on the N.W. of Arcadia. Phonia stands on its site.

9 Near Tegea ; said to have been the birth-place of Evander. On the
foundation of MegalopoUs, it was nearly deserted, but was restored by
Antoninus Pius. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the
modern village of Thana, according to Ansart.

'" It being said to have been so called in compliment to Evander, a
native, as above stated, of Palantium.

" Founded by the advice of Epaminondas, af^er the battle of Leuctra,
B.C. 371, near the frontiers of Messenia. The ruins of its theatre, once
the largest in Greece, are the only remains of it now to be seen, near the
modem village of Sinano.

^2 It contained a famous temple of iEsculapius. Its ruins are to be
seen near the village of Atzikolo. The exact site of Bucolion, which was
near Megalopolis, is probably unknown, though Ansart says that the
spot is called Troupiais. Of Camion nothing is known.

1' The town of Parrhasia, which is mentioned by Homer, seems to
have given name to the Parrhasian district. Leake thinks it to be the
same as Lycosura.

i-* On the river Ladon : its ruins are seen near the modem Vanena.

'5 In the west of Arcadia, on the river Alpheus.

^6 Or " Juno's Town." It was a place of great importance, situate
on the lower Alpheus. Its remains are to be seen on a hill west of the
village of Aianni, or St. John. They are very inconsiderable. Its wine
was highly esteemed, and still maintains its ancient celebrity.

*7 Of Pylae, Pallene, Agrse, and Epium, nothing appears to be known.

^ Or Cynsetha, in the north of Arcadia, upon the Aroanian mountains,
beyond the natural boundaries of Arcadia. The modem village of Kala-
Tryta occupies its site ; but there are scarcely any traces of its remains.

i» Or Lepreum, so called to distinguish it from Lepreum in Elis,

Chap. 10.] ACCOTTEfT OF COTnfTBIES, ETC. 287

nium*, Alea, Methydrium', Enispe, Macistum, Lampia,
Clitorium^, and Cleonae* ; between which two last towns is
the district of Nemea, commonly known as Bembinadia*.

The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoe', with a town of the
same name, Cyllene', Lycseus', upon which is the temple of
Lycsean Jupiter; Maenalus', Artemisius'", Parthenius", Lam-

?eu8'', and Nonacris^', besides eight others of no note,
'he rivers are the Ladon", which rises in the marshes of
Pheneus", and the Erymanthus*', which springs from a
mountain of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus.

The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those
of the Aliphiraei'^ the Abeatae'*, the Pyrgenses^'*, the Paro-

* Nothing seems to be known of this Parthenium. Alea lay between
Orchomenus and Stymphalus. Its ruins have been discovered in the
dark valley of Skotini, a mile to the N.E. of the village of Buyati.

* Its site has the modem name of Palfieopyrgos. The sites of Enispe,
mentioned by Homer, and Macistum, are unknown.

' Or Cleitor, a famous town of Arcadia. Its ruins are to be seen on
the plain of Kalzana, or Katzanes. One of the rivulets that ran past it
still retains the name of Clitora.

* Its ruins, few in nximber, but testifying its importance, are found
near the modem village of Kleves, not far from Kurtesi. The Nemean
games were celebrated in honour of Hercules in the grove of Nemea,
between CieonsB and Phlius.

• From the village of Bembina. there, mentioned by Strabo, and on
vhich Koutzomati probably now stands.

• Now called Olono. It received its name from the Centaur Pholus,
accidentally slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules.

7 The modem Zyria.

■ Nomiai and Hellenitza are modem names given to this mountain.

• In the south of Arcadia. It is now called Roinon.

^® Or Artemisium, forming the boundary between Argolis and Arcadia.
It is now called Tumiki.

" The pass by this mountain from Argolis to Tegea is stiU called
Partheni.

12 Now called Zembi, according to Ansart.

w The town of Nonacris stood at its foot. The river Styx took its rise
in these mountains. ** Now called the Landona.

** The town now called Fonia, already mentioned by Pliny. The
waters of its marshes were discharged by a subterranean pMsage, said to
have been made by Hercules.

" Now called the Dogana, The two principal heights of Moimt Ery*
manthus are Olonos and Kalefoni.

17 The people of AHphira, a town of Arcadia, in the district of Cynura.
Considerable remains of it are stUl to be seen on the hiU of Nerovitza.

^ The people of Abea, in Messenia. ^^ 'jhe people of Pyrgos, in Arcadia.

288 PLurr's natueal histoet. [Book IT.

reatse^, tlie Paragenitse, the Tortuni, the Typanei^, the
Thriasii', and the Tritienses*. Domitius Nero [the emperor]
granted liberty to the whole of Achaia*. The Peloponnesus,
from the Promontory of Malea to the town of ^gium" on
the Corinthian Grulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles
across from Elis to Epidaurus ; the distance being, from
Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-eight miles. The
distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already men-
tioned^. Throughout the whole of this region, as though
nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of
the sea, seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads.

CHAP. 11. (7.) — ATTICA.

At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our
people known as Graecia. The first state that presents
itself is Attica, anciently called Acte^. It touches the
Isthmus in that part of it which is called Megaris, from the
colony of Megara^, lying on the opposite side to Pagae^".

These two towns are situate at the spot where the Pelo-
ponnesus projects to the greatest distance ; being placed, one
on each side, upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were.
The Pagaeans, as weU as the people of ^gosthena", belong
to the jurisdiction of Megara. On the coast there is the
port of Schoenos^"^, the towns of Sidus" and Cremmyon^*, the

* The people of Parorsea, in Arcadia. Of the two next, nothing appears
to be known. 2 xhe inhabitants of Typanese, in Elis.

3 The people of Thrius, in Elis, near Patrse.

* The people of Tritia, in Achaia, now Chalanthistra.

6 Nero abolished the institutions of the Roman province of Achaia,
which had been assigned to the Roman senate, and governed by a pro-
consul, granting it its hberty. "Vespasian, however, again established
the provincial government, and compelled the Greeks to pay a yearly
tribute. ^ Now Vostitza.

7 See p. 281. ^ From the Greek aicr^, " the sea-shore."
' It still retains its ancient name.

^® Or Pegse. It lay on the borders of the Corinthian Gulf, being, as
Pliny says, the utmost point of the Peloponnesus on that side, as Megara
was on the Saronic Gulf. According to Kruse, Psato occupies its site, but
according to Lapie, Alepochori. The former is most probably correct.

^^ On the Corinthian Gulf. Porto Ghermano occupies its site.

^2 On the Saronic Gulf, to the north of Cenchrese. The present
Porto Cocosi occupies its site. ^ Now Leandra, according to Ansart.

^* Or Crommyon. It was the chief place on the Saronic Gulf, between

Chap. 11.] ACCOUNT OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 289

Scironian Rocks \ six miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and
Eleusis''. Giioe^ and Probalinthos also formerly existed
here ; the ports of Piraeus and Phalerum'' are distant from the
Isthmus fifty-five miles, being united to Athens, which lies
in the interior, by a walP five miles in length. Athens is a free
city, and needs^ not a word more from us in its commen-
dation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough. In
Attica there are the Poimtains of Cephisia', Larine,
Callirrhoe Enneacrunos^, and the mountains of Bri-
lessus^, ^Egialeus, Icarius, Hymettus^", Lycabettus", and
the place where Ilissus^^ stoo^. At the distance of forty-
five miles from the Piraeus is the Promontory of Sunium'^.
There is also the Promontory of Thoricos"; Potamos^^

the Istlimus, properly so called, and Megara. Its rains are thought to
be those seen near the chapel of Saint Theodonis. It was said to have
been the haunt of the wild boar killed by The«eus.

^ So called from being the scene of the ravages of the robber Sciron.
They are now called Kaki Scala.

2 Famous as the principal seat of the worship of the goddesses Demeter
and Persephone. Its remains are to be seen at the modem Lefsina.

3 Pera Chora marks its site. It was a member of the Tetrapolis of
Attica, and Probalinthos another.

* Ulriclis, the best authority, places the port of Phalerum at the east
comer of the great Plialeric Bay, in the vicinity of Tripirghi, or the
Three Towers. The three harbours of the Piraeus are the present Pha-
nari, Stratiotiki or Paschalimani, and Drako or Porto Leone.

* The Pirseus was united to the city by two walls, called the " Long
Walls," forty stadia in length. The length cf the Phaleric wall waa
thirty-five stadia.

^ It is to be regretted that such was his opinion. He could have well
spared space for a description of it.

7 The city of Cepliisia, still called Kivisia, was one of the twelve cities
of Cecrops. The fountain of transparent water is still to be seen here.

^ Or the " Nine Springs." It was the only source of good water for
drinking purposes in Athens. Tliis spring is still called by its ancient
name. Of Larine notliing seems to be known.

' Tliis is thought to have been the ancient name of the moimtain
afterwards known as Pentelicus, so famous for its marble, now called
MendeU or PenteU.

^^ The northern or Greater Hymettus is now called Telo-Yuni, the
soutliem or Lesser Mavro-Vuni.

" On the N.E. of Athens, now called the Hill of Saint George.

*2 Probably on the river of the same name. '^ Now Capo Colonna.

1* North of Sunium and the modern bay of Panorimo. Thoricus was
one of the Demi of Attica.

^* This was the name of two Demi, though probably one place. It lay
TOL. I. V

290 plint's KATTJBAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

Steria\ and Brauron', once towns, the borougli of Rliam-
nus^, the place where Marathon'* stood, the Thriasian^ plain,
the town of Melite^, and Oropus' upon 'the confines of
Boeotia.

CHAP. 12. B(EOTIA.

In this country are Anthedon^, Onchestus', the free town
of Thespiae^", Lebadea", and then Thebes ^^, surnamed
Boeotian ^^, which does not yield the palm to Athens even in
celebrity ; the native land, according to the common notion,
of the two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place
of the Muses too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon.
To this same Thebes also belong the forest of Cithaeron",

on the east coast to the north of Thoricus. Its harbour was probably
the modem Dhaskalio ; and the town is placed by Leake at the niins called
Paleokastro, to the south of the village of Dardhcza.

* On the east coast, between Prasiffi and Brauron.

2 One of the twelve ancient cities of Cecrops, on the eastern coast.
Its name is supposed to be preserved in those of the villages Vraona and
Paleo Vraona.

3 A Demus belonging to the tribe -Mantis. It was famous for its temple
of Nemesis, the goddess of retribution. The present Obrio Castro
occupies its site.

* Memorable for the defeat of the Persians by the Athenians, B.C. 490.
The site of the ancient town of Marathon is thought not to have been at
the modem village of Marathon, but a place called Vrana, to the south
of it.

^ The eastern part of the Eleusinian plain was thus called, firom the
Demus of Thria. Its exact site is uncertain.

^ Mehte was a Demus of the tribe Cecropis, of Athens, west of the
Inner Ceramicus.

7 Now Oropo, on the eastern frontiers of BcBotia and Attica, near the
Euripus. It originally belonged to the Boeotians.

s Its ruins are supposed to be those seen eight miles from Egripo.
Lukisi has also been suggested,

^ Its ruins are still to be seen on the S.W. slope of Mount Faga.

I'* On the S.E. slope of Mount HeHcon. Its ruins are to be seen at
the modern Eremo or Rimokastro.

" Now Livadhia. Tne celebrated cave of Trophonius stood in its
vicinity.

^2 Extensive remains of it are still to be seen ; but the modem town
of Theba or Stiva stands only on the site of its ancient Cadmea or citadel.

^3 To distinguish it from places of the same name in Egypt, Phthiotis,
and Lucania.

^* On the range of mountains of that name separating Boeotia from

Chap. 12.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 291

and the river Ismenus. Besides these, there are in Boeotia
the Fountains of (Edipodia, Psamathe, Dirce, Epicrane,
Arethusa, Hippocrene\ Aganippe, and Gargaphie ; and, be-
sides the moimiains already mentioned, My calesos,Hadylius,
and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and
Thebes are EleuthersB^, Haliartus', Plata;8e^ PheraB, Asple-
don^ Hyle*, Thisbe^ Erythrae^ Glissas', and Copae^" ; near
the river Cephisus, Larj'mna and Anchoa" ; as also Medeon,
Phlygone, Acra?phia^-, Coronea'^, and ChaDronea". Again,

Megaris and Attica. The forest abounded in game, and the vicinity was
a favourite scene of the poetic legends. Paleovuni is the highest summit
of the IleUconian range. Leake fixes the Grove of the Muses at the
present church of Saint Nicholas, at the foot of Moimt Marandali, one
of the siunmits of Helicon.

* These fountains or springs are very difficult to identify, but Hippo-
creno, or the " Horse-Spring " (said to have been produced by Pegasus
striking the ground with his feet), was probably at the present Maka-
riotissa; wliile Aganippe is the fountain that flows midway between
Paleo-panagliia and Pyrgaki.

2 This place was originally a member of the Boeotian confederacy, but
joined the Athenians, though it did not become an Attic Demus. Leake
thinks that its ruins are those seen at MyupoU. Boss thinks that it
stood to tlie east of Ghyfto-kastro, while other writers are of opinion that
it stood more to the west, near the modem village of Kundara.

* Eajsed to the ground by the Roman prsetor Lucretius, for having
espoused the cause of king Perseus. Its remains are seen about a mile
from the village of Mazi, on the road from Thebes to Lebadsea.

* Memorable for the defeat of the Persians under Mardonius, B.C. 479.
^ Distant twenty stadia from Orchomenus. Leake places it at the

modem Izamah, Forclihammer at Avro-Kastro.

* Its site is uncertain. Leake supposes it to be at Paleokastro, between
the north end of Lake HyHca and the foot of Moimt Palea. Ulrichs places
it at the south end of the lake. ' The modem Kakosia occupies its site.

* At the foot of Mount Cithceron. Leake places it eastward of Kat-
Bula, at the foot of the rocks there.

^ Leake identifies it with the ruins on the torrent of Plataniki, below
the movmtain of Siamata. Pausanias says it was situate seven stadia
beyond Temnessus, and at the foot of Hypatus, now Siamata.

^^ On Lake Copais. The modem village of Topolia occupies its site.

*^ The waters of the Cephisus here burst forth from their subterra-
neous channel.

^2 On Lake Copais. Its ruins are at a short distance to the south o,
Ihe modem Kardhitza.

13 South of Moimt HeHcon. Its principal remains are those of ita
Iheatre, a temple of Hera, and the agora or market-place.

1* On the borders of Phocis j famous for the battles fought in itg

u2

292 plint's natural histoet. [Book IV.

on the coast and below Thebes, are Ocalea^ Heleon, Scolos,
Schoenos^, Peteon^, Hyriae'', Mycalesos*, Iresion, Pteleon,
Olyros, and Tanagra^, the people of which are free ; and,
situate upon the very mouth of the Euripus^, a strait formed
by the opposite island of Euboea, Aulis^, so famous for its
capacious harbour. The Boeotians formerly had the name
of Hyantes.

After them come the Locrians, sumamed Epicnemidii',
formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river
Cephisus passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are
Opus^° ; from which the Opuntian Grulf " takes its name, and
Cynos. Daphnus^^ is the only town of Phocis situate on the
coast. In the interior of Locris is Elatea^^, and on the
banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously stated**, Lilsea,
and, facing Delphi, Cnemis** and Hyampolis*^ Again, upon

vicinity between the Athenians and Boeotians, B.C. 447, and between
Philip of Macedon and the Athenians and Boeotians, B.C. 338, and that
in which Sylla defeated the generals of Mithridates B.C. 86. It stood on
the site of the modem village of Kapuma.

I On the river Copais, at the foot of Mount Tilphusion.

3 On the river of that name, and on the road from Thebes to Anthedon.

* Its site appears to be unknown.

* Eniunerated by Homer with Aulis. Ancient critics have, without
sufficient reason, identified it with Hysise.

6 It was sacked by the Athenians, B.C. 413, and in ruins ia the time
of Pausanias.

6 The modem Grimadha or Ghimala occupies its site.

7 The modem channel of Egripo.

8 The place where the Grecian fleet assembled when about to sail for
Troy. Leake says that its harbour is now called Vathy, evidently from
the Greek (ia9vs, "wide."

9 So called from dwelling near Mount Cnemis.

10 Its ruins are to be seen three miles horn, the modem Talanti.

II Now the Golfo di Talanti.

12 On the Euboean Sea, which here extended to the Corinthian Gulf.
It was in ruins in the time of Strabo. Cynus was the chief sea-port
of the Locri Opuntii. Its site is marked by a tower called Palseopyrgo/
and some ruins to the south of the village of Livanates.

13 The modem village of Lefti stands on its site, and there are some
ruins to be seen.

14 In C. iv. of this Book.

15 Or Cnemides, a fortress built on the range of Moimt Cnemis, neai*
the modem Nikoraki.

16 Eavaged by PhHip of Macedon. Its ruins are near the modem vil-
lage of Yogdhani.

Chap. 14] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 293

the coast of the Locrians, are Laiymna\ and Thronium^,
near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the
towns of Narycion, Alope^ and Scarphia'' ; and then the
gulf which receives the name of the Maliac'* from the people
who dwell there, and upon which are the towns of Halcyone,
Econia, and Phalara^.

CHAP. 13. — DOETS.

Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios?', Erineon^,
Boion^, Pindus, and Cytinum^*'. Behind Doris lies Mount
<Eta.

CHAP. 14. — PHTHIOTIS.

Haemonia follows, a country which has often changed its
name, having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hel-
las, Thessaly, and Dryopis, always taking its surname from
its kings, in this country was bom the king whose name
was Graecus ; and from whom Graecia was so called ; and here
too was born Hellen", from whom the Hellenes derive their
name. The same people Homer has called by three different
names, Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achaei.

That portion of these people which inhabit the country
adjacent to Doris are called PhthiotaB. Their towns are
Echinus ^^, at the mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four

1 The Lower Larymna. Its ruins are seen between the modem Mat-
zumadi and Martini.

* Its ruins are to be seen near the modem Andera.

3 Between Daphnus and Cynus. Gell found its ruins on a hill near
the sea-shore.

* Its ruins are to be seen three miles from those of Thronium.

5 Now called the Gulf of Zeitoun. The people from whom it received
its name were the Malienses.

6 Its ruins are two leagues from the modem town of Zeitoun.

7 Or Sperchia.

s Strabo says that it lay below the town of Pindus. It is perhaps the
present Palseo Choria.

3 Its rviins are placed by Leake near the modem Mariolates.

^'^ Like Pindus, one of the four towns or Tetrapolis of Doris. Its site
corresponds to the modem Gravia.

^^ He seems to think that the name Grsecus is older than that of
Hellen, in which he is supported by Apollodorus.

^2 So called from Echion, fabled to have spnmg from the dragon's

294 PLrsr's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book ly.

miles from the narrow pass of Thermopylae \ Heraclea, which
from it takes its surname of Trachin^. Here too is Mount
Callidromus^, and the celebrated towns of Hellas'*, Halos*,
Lamia^, Phthia^, and Ame^.

CHAP. 15. (8.) — THESSALY PEOPEE.

In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan^,
and the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax^**,
and Pelinna ; the Fountain of Hyperia ; the towns also of
Pherse", at the back of which is Pieria^^, extending to Ma-
cedonia, Larisa^^, Gomphi^*, Thebes^* of Thessaly, the grove
of Pteleon, the Gulf of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa^^, which
was afterwards called Demetrias^^, the Plains of Pharsalia,

teeth. Its site is marked by the modem village called Akhino. The
Sperchius is now called the EUada.

1 This famous spot stiU retains its name. It is also called Boc<» di Lupo.

2 From Tpaxvs, " narrow," in allusion to the narrowness of the moun-
tain passes. Brotier places it on the site of the modem Zeitoun, but he
is probably in error. ^ ^ peak of the range of CEta.

* The name of a to-rni and small district of Phthiotis : it eventually
gave its name to the whole of Greece, which by its inhabitants was called
Hellas.

*• Near the river Amphrysus. Leake places it at Kefalosi, at the ex-
tremity of Mount Othrys. ^ The modem Zeitoun.

7 Said to have been the city of Achilles.

8 According to Stephanus of Byzantium, Cierium was identical with
Arne. Leake places it at the modem Mataranga.

3 So called from the people called Minyse, who derived their name
from Minyas, the father of Orchomenus. In the time of Strabo, this
city, the capital of the Minyan empire, was in ruins. Its site is now
called Seripu.

10 Leake places its site on the left bank of the Peneius, opposite the
village of Grunitza.

11 The residence of Admetus, and in later times of the tyrants of
Thessaly. The modem Valestina occupies its site.

12 Spoken of in C. 17 of the present book.

13 The ancient capital of the Pelasgi. It is now called Larissa, Larza,
or lenitchen.

1* Leake places Gomphi on the heights now called Episkopi, on the
left bank of the Bhuri.

15 Its ruins are said to be seen about eight miles from the modem
city of Yolo.

IS The city ofVolo stands on its site. The Q-ulfis called the Bay of Yolo.

17 This is not strictly correct. Demetrias was founded by Demetrius
Pohorcetes, about two or three miles to the west of Pagasa, the inhabit-

Chap. 15.] ACCOUNT OP COriTTEIES, ETC. 295

with a free citj of similar name\ Crannon"^, and Iletia.
The mountains of Phthiotis are Nymphaeus, once so beau-
tiful for its garden scenery, the work of nature ; Busygaeus,
Donacesa, Bermius^, Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas, and
Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the
most famous are Cercetii, Olympus^, Pierus, and Ossa, oppo-
site to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the
LapithaB. These mountains look towards the west, Pelion*
towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphi-
theatre, in the interior of which, lying before them, are no
less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the
Apidanus®, the Phoenix'^, the Enipeus®, the Onochonus^, and
the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and
the lake Boebeis'". The river Peneus" too, superior to all
others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and flows
dovni a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a

ants of which were removed to that place. Its remains are to be seen,
according to Leake, on the face of a maritime height called Groritza.

^ Pharsalus, now Farsa or Fersala, in ThessaJiotis. On its plain
Pompey was defeated by Ceesar, B.C. 48.

2 Or Cranon ; said to have been anciently called Ephyre. Leake
places its site at some ruins called Palea Larissa, distant two hours and
twenty-seven minutes' journey from Larissa. It was the residence of the
powerful family of the Scopadro.

' Tliis range in Macedonia is now called Verria. Herodotus states
that it was impassable for cold, and that beyond were the gardens of
Midas, where roses grew spontaneously.

* The name of the eastern part of the great mountain chain extending
west and east from the Promontory of Acroceraunia on the Adriatic to
the Thermaic G-ulf. It is now called by the Greeks Elymbo, and by the
Tm-ks Semavat-Evi, the " Abode of the Celestials." A portion of this range
was called Pierus ; and Ossa, now Kissavo, the "ivy-clad," was divided
from Olympus on the N.W. by the Vale of Tempe. Othrys extended
from the south of Moimt Pindus, to the eastern coast and the Promon-
tory between the Gulf of Pagasa and the northern point of Euboea.

^ Now called Plessedhi or Zagora ; situate in the district of Magnesia
in Thessaly, between lake Boebeis and the Pagasaean Gulf.

8 Now the Gk)uropotamo.

7 Flowing into the Asopus near Thermopylae.

^ In Pieria. Supposed to be the modem Litokhoro.

9 The modem Kajani.

^^ Tliis lake received the rivers Onchestus, Amyrus, and others. It is
now called Karla, from an adjoining village which has ceased to exist.
The town of Boebe was in its vicinity.

" Now the Salambria or Salamria.

296 PLINT's NAXrEAL HISTORY, [Book IT.

distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that
distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through which
this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe ; being a
jugerum^ and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right
and left, the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle
elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage
imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale
glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along
its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of verdant
herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the
birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I
should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its waters,
which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer says^ ; and then,
after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters
of a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for
the Furies to mingle with his silvery streams.

CHAP. 16. (9.) — MAGNESIA.

To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of
Libethra'. Its towns are lolcos"*, Hormenium, Pyrrha*,
Methone", and Olizon^. The Promontory of Sepias* is here
situate. We then come to the towns of Casthanea^ and Spa-

1 Tlie jugerum was properly 240 feet long and 120 broad, but PUny
uses it here solely as a measure of length ; corresponding probably to the
Greek 7rXe0pov, 100 Grecian or 104 Roman feet long. Tempe is tho
only chamiei through which the waters of the Thessalian plain flow into
the sea.

2 II. B. ii. c. 262. He alludes to the poetical legend that the Orcus or
Titaresius was a river of the infernal regions. Its waters were impreg-
nated with an oily substance, whence probably originated the story of
the unwillingness of the Peneus to mingle with it. It is now called the
Elasonitiko or Xeraghi.

3 Near Libethrum ; said to be a favourite haimt of the Muses, whence
their name " Libethrides." It is near the modem Goritza.

^ Leake places its site on the height between the southernmost houses
of Yolo and Vlakho-Makhala. No remains of it are to be seen.

5 Ansart says that on its site stands the modem Korakai Pyrgos.

^ Near Neokliori, and called Eleutherokhori.

7 Now Kortos, near ArgaUsti, according to Ansart.

** Now Haghios Georgios, or the Promontory of St. George.

^ At the foot of Mount Pelion. Leake places it at some ruins near a
small port called Tamukhari. The chestnut tree derived its Greek and
modern name from this place, in the vicinity of which it stUl abounds.

Chap. 17.] ACCOimT OF COTTKTEIES, ETC. 297

lathra\ the Promontory of ^antium^, the towns of Meliboea',
Ehizus, and ErymnaB'' ; the mouth of the Peneiis, the towns
of Homolium*, Orthe, ThespiaD, Phalanna®, Thaumacie^,
Gyrton^ Crannon^, Acharne*", Dotion", Melitsea, Phylace^^,
and Potnise". The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and
Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the
breadth to 287.

CHAP. 17. (10.) — MACEDONIA.

Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and re-
nowned for its two kings ^^ and its former empire over the
world ; it was formerly known by the name of Emathia".
Stretching away towards the nations of Epirus on the west
it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself
exposed to the attacks of the Dardani^*. Pseouia and Pela-
gonia protect its northern parts from the Triballi^^ Its

* Probably near the village of Hagia Eutimia, according to Ansart.
2 Now Trikeri.

5 Meliboea was near the modem Mintzeles, and Rhizus near Pesi
Dendra, according to Ansart.

* Ansart says, in the vicinity of the modem Conomio.

' Situate at the foot of Mount Homole, between Tenipe and the village
of Karitza. Leake thinks that the Convent of St. Demetrius, on the
lower part of Mount Kissavo, stands on its site.

* Now Toumovo, according to Ansart.

7 Now called Democo, according to Ansart.

8 Between the Titaresius and the Peneus. The modem village of
Tatari stands on its site.

8 Probably the place of the same name mentioned in the last Chapter.
*" Probably the same as Acliarra) on the river Pamisus, mentioned
by Livy, B. xxxii. c. 13.

11 On the Dotian Plain, mentioned by Hesiod, and probably the same
place that Pindar calls Lacereia.

12 The birth-place of Protesilaiis, the first victim of the Trojan war.

" Nothing is known of this place. The word " porro" appears instead
of it in some editions.

" PhiUp, the Conqueror of Greece, and Alexander, the Conqueror of
Asia.

15 The original Emathia, as mentioned by Homer, is coupled with
Pieria as lying between the HeEenic cities of Thessaly and Paeonia, and
Thrace.

1^ A tribe of the south-west of Moesia, and extending over a part of
lUyricum. According to Strabo, they were a wild race, of filthy habits,
Hving in caves under dunghills, but fond of music .

17 A people of Moesia, mentioned in C. 29 of the last Book.

298 plint's natuhal histobt. [Book rv.

towns are ^gise\ at which place its kings were usually
buried, Bersea^, and, in the country called Pieria from the
grove of that name, -^ginium^. TJpon the coast are Hera-
clea'*, the river Apilas*, the towns of Pydna^ and Aloros',
and the river Haliacmon^. In the interior are the Aloritae^,
the Yallaei^", the Phylacsei, the Cyrrhestae", the TyrissaBi,
the colony of Pella^^, and Stobi^^, a town with the rights of
Eoman citizens. Next comes Antigonea''', Eur opus ^* upon
the river Axius, and another place of the same name by
which the Ehcedias flows, Scydra, Eord^a, Mieza, and Gor-
dynisD. Then, upon the coast, IchnaB^', and the river Axius :
along this frontier the Dardani, the Treres^^, and the Pieres,
border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the

^ Supposed by some writers to be the same place as Edessa. Ansart
says it is the spot now known as Moglena.

2 Now Verria in Eoumeha. St. Paid and Silas withdrew to this place
from Thessalonica. The remains are very considerable.

3 Described by Livy as of great strength. It occupied the site of the
modem Stagus.

4 Sumamed Lyncestis ; the chief town of Upper Macedonia. It must
have stood not far from the modem town of Felurina.

^ Now the Platamona.

^ Now Kitron. The Romans usually called it Citron or Citrus.

7 In the inmost recess of the Therraaic Gulf. Leake supposes it to
have occupied the site of the present Palea Khora, near Kapsokhori.

* Now the Vistritza, by the Turks called Inje-Karra. Csesar calls it
the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly.

^ The people apparently of Aloros just mentioned.

^^ Yallse and Phylacse appear to have been two towns of Pieria.

^^ The people of Cyrrhus ; probably on the site of the present
Yistritza. Leake however makes a place called Paleokastro to occupy its
site. Tyrissse was probably in its vicinity.

12 Now Alaklisi, upon a lake formed by the Lydias. Philip made it
the capital of Macedonia, and it was the birth-place of Alexander the
G-reat. It was made a Roman colony under the name of Julia Augusta
PeUa. 13 Its ruins are stiU called Stoh.

1* There were two places of this name in Macedonia ; one called Anti-
gonia Psaphara in Chalcidice, and the other in Pseonia.

1^ Between Idomene and the plains of PeUa. As Pliny here says, it
was a different place from Europus of Almopia, by which the Rhoedias
flows. Of the following places nothing seems to be known.

IS Coupled by Herodotus with Pella. Eordsea seems to have been the
name of the district on the river Eordaicus, identified with the modem
Devol.

17 They dwelt m the vicinity of Mount Scomium. The river Axius is
the modem Yardhari.

Chap. 17.] ACCOrNT OF COUNTETES, ETC. 299

nations of P£eonia\ the Paroraei', the Eordenses', the Al-
mopii^ the Pelagones, and the Mygdones".

Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbe-
lus ; and, lying along the extent of country in front of these
mountains, the Arethusii®, the Antiochienses^, the Idome-
nenses^, the Doberi', the JEstrseenses, the Allantenses, the
Audaristenses, the Morylli, the Garesci'", the Lyncestae", the
Othryonei'^, and the Amantini^' and OrestsD^*, both of them
free peoples ; the colonies of Bullis^^ and Dium^^, the Xylo-
politae, the Scotussaei, a free people, Heraclea Sintica^', the
Tymphaei'^, and the Toronaei.

Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the
town of Chalastra^^, and, more inland, Piloros ; also Lete,

1 Or Thrace. ' People of Parorflea in Thrace.

3 The people probably of Eordsea, already mentioned.

* Leake thinks that Almopia was the name of the district now called
Moglena^

5 The Mygdones were a Thracian people in the east of Macedonia, on
the Thermaic Gulf.

' The people of Arethusa, a town of Bisaltia in Macedonia, in the pass
of Anion. Euripides, the tragic poet, was buried here.

7 A town of Mygdonia.

8 The people of Idomene, a town about twelve miles from the pass of
Stena, now Demirkapi, or the ' Iron Grate,' on the river Vardhari.

^ Their district of Doberus is supposed to have been near the modem
Doghiran.

^0 It has been suggested that Garescus stood on the same site as the
modern Nurocopo. Many of these peoples are now entirely imknown.

" The people of Lyncestis, in Macedonia, of Illyrian origin and on the
frontiers of lUyria. Lyncus was the ancient capital, Heracbea the more
modem one.

12 Probably the inhabitants of the slopes of Mount Othrys.

" Amantia was properly in Illyria, to the south of the river Aoiis.
Leake places it at Nivitza.

'•* A people of the north of Epirus, on the borders of Macedonia. They
were said to have derived their name from Orestes, who, after the murder
of his mother, founded in their territory the town of Argos Oresticimi.

^5 A Greek city of Illyria. Dr. Holland discovered its remains at Gra-
ditza on the Aoiis or Viosa.

1^ The bulwark of the Macedonian maritime frontier to the south.
Leake discovered its site near the modem Malathria.

17 On the right bank of the river Strymon in Thracian Macedonia. It
stood on the site of the modem Zervokhori.

18 A people of Epirus on the borders of Thessaly.

13 In Mygdonia, at the mouth of the Axius — Bang Perseus put aU its
male inhabitants to death. Its site was at or near the modem Kidakia.

300 pliny's natiteal histoet. [Book IV.

and at tlie extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica^ a free
city; (from this place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles-,)
and then Thermae^. Upon the Gulf"* of Thermae are the
towns of Dicsea, Pydna% Derra, Scione^, the Promontory of
Canastraeum', and the towns of Pallene'' and Phlegra. In this
region also are the mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone,
and Leoomne ; the towns of Nyssos', Phryxelon, Mendae, and
what was formerly Potidaea^" on the isthmus of Pallene, but
now the Colony of Cassandria; Anthemus",01ophyxus^^,and
the Gulf of Mecyberna^^ ; theto^Tis ofMiscella, Ampelos*^,
Torone^% Singos*^, and the canal, a mile and a half in length,
by means of which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount
Athos^^ from the main land. This mountain projects from

* Now Saloniki. Its original name was Thermae, but it was first made
an important city by Cassander, B.C. 315, who gave it its new name in
honour of his wife, the sister of Alexander tlie Great : St. Paul visited it
about A.D. 53, and two years after addressed from Corinth two Epistles
to liis converts in the city.

2 Poly bins says, in Strabo, B. vii., 267 miles.

3 As already mentioned, Thermae became merged in Thessalonica, when
refounded by Cassander under that name. * Now the Gulf of Saloniki.

^ This is probably an error. Pydna, already mentioned, lay far inland
in the district of Pieria.

On the peninsula of Pallene. Its male inliabitants were put to death
by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war.

7 Now Capo Paliuri, the extreme point of the Isthmus of Pallene.

^ The most westerly of the three peninsulas of Chalcidice. Phlegra is
generally understood to have been its former name.

^ Perhaps the same as Nyssa, between the rivers Nestus or Mestus, and
Strymon.

1" Its ruins are now called Pinaka. It was a colony of the Corinthians,
but refounded by Cassander, King Pliilip having previously destroyed the
city.

^* South-east of Thessalonica, and north of Chalcidice. It was given
by King PhOip to the Olynthians. ^^ Near Mount Athos.

^ Now MoHvo, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, part of wliich thence
took its name.

^■* The name of a promontory at the extremity of the peninsula of Si-
thonia, in Chalcidice. It seems to correspond with the modem Cape
Kartali.

'» In the district of Chalcidice, on the S.W. of the peninsula of
Sithonia.

^6 On the east of the peninsula of Sithonia. It gave its name to the
Sinus Singiticus or Singitic Gulf.

^7 Now Monte Santo, at the end of. the long peninsula running out
from Chalcidice.

Chap. 17.] ACCOUNT OF COTH^TEIES, ETC. 301

the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea, a distance
of seventy-five^ miles ; its circumference at its base being 150
miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit the
town of Acroathon^ : the present towns are Uranopolis',
Palaeorium, Thyssus, CleonsB'', and ApoUonia, the inhabitants
of which have the surname of Macrobii*. The town also of
Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after wliich
come Acanthus^, Stagira', Sithone*, Heraclea^, and the coun-
try of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some
distance from the sea, ApoUonia*" and Arethusa. Again, upon
the coast we have Posidium", and the bay with the town of
Cermorus, Amphipolis*^, a free town, and the nation of tlie

* This is a mistake. It is only forty miles in length. From Lieut.
Smith {Journal of Royal Geogr. Soc. vol. vii. p. 65) we leam that its
average breadth is about four miles ; consequently PUny's statement as to
its circumference must be greatly exaggerated. Juvenal, Sat. x. 1. 174,
mentions the story of the canal as a specimen of Greek falsehood ; but
distinct traces have survived, to be seen by modem travellers, all the way
from the Gulf of Monte Santo to the Bay of Erso in the Gulf of Con-
tessa, except about 200 yards in the middle, which has been probably
filled up.

2 Or Acrothbum. Pliny, with Strabo and Mela, errs in thinking that
it stood on the mountain. It stood on the peninsula only, probably on
the site of the modem Lavra.

3 Or the ' Heaven City,' from its elevated position. It was founded
by Alexarchus, brother of Cassander, king of Macedon.

^ Probably on the west side of the peninsula, south of Thyssus.

6 Or " long-lived."

* Now Erisso ; on the east side of the Isthmus, about a mile and a half
from the canal of Xerxes. There are ruins here of a large mole.

7 A Uttle to the north of the Isthmus now called Stavro. It was the
birth-place of Aristotle the philosopher, commonly called the Stagi-
rite, and was, in consequence, restored by PhUip, by whom it had been
destroyed ; or, as Pliny says in B. vii. c. 30, by Alexander the Great.

8 The name of the central one of the three peninsulas projecting from
Clialcidice. The poets use the word Sithonius frequently as signifying
* Thracian.*

^ Possibly not the same as the Heraclea Sintica previously mentioned.

^0 Now called Pollina, south of Lake Bolbe, on the road from Thes-
salonica to Amphipolis.

" Sacred to Poseidon or Neptune. Now Capo Stavros in Thessaly,
the west front of the GuK of Pagasa, if indeed this is the place here
meant.

^2 On the left or eastern bank of the river Strymon, which flowed round
it, whence its name Amphi-pohs, " round the city." Its site is now oc-
cupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni or " New-

302 plint's h-atueal HISTOET. [Book IV.

Bisaltae. "We tlien come to the river Stiymon^ which takes
its rise in Mount Haemus^ and forms the boundary of Ma-
cedonia : it is worthy of remark that it first discharges itself
into seven lakes before it proceeds onward in its course.

Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the
world, which once extended^ her career over Asia, Armenia,
Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Cau-
casus, which reduced the whole of the East under her power,
and triumphed over the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians.
She too it was who proved the conqueror of India, thus
treading in the footsteps of Father Liber"* and of Hercules ;
and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general
Paulus JEmilius sold to pillage seventy-two* cities in one day.
So great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions
of two^ individuals !

CHAP. 18. (ll.)^TnEACE ; THE -EQEAN SEA.

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies^, and to
be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe.
Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are
the Denseletae and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank
of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltae above ^ men-
tioned ; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of
tribes of the Bessi^, with various names, as far as the river
Mestus^", which winds around the foot of Mount Pan-
town." A few remains are still to be seen. The bay at the mouth of
the Strymon, now Struma or Kara-Sou, is called the G-ulf of Orphano.

^ A Thracian people, extending fiom the river Strymon on the east
to Crestonica on the west.

2 In Mount Scomius namely, one of the Hsemus or Balkan range.

3 Under Alexander the Great. On his death liis empire was torn in
pieces by the contentions of his generals.

■* In allusion to the legendary accounts of the Indian expeditions of
Bacchus and Hercules.

* On the conquest of Perseus. Plutarch says that these seventy cities
were pillaged in one and the same hour. They were thus punished for
their support of Perseus.

fi Alexander the Great and Paulus jEmihus.

7 Or preefectures, as the Eomans called them. » jn ^j^g i^st Chapter.

^ An extensive tribe occupying the country about the rivers Axius,
Strymon, and Nestus or Mestus.

^^ This river is now called the Mesto or Zara-Sou.

Chap. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTELES, ETC. 303

g8Bum\ passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi^, the Carbi-
lesi; and then the Brysae, the Sapaei, and the Odomanti.
The territory of the Odrysae^ gives birth to the Hebrus'*, its
banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogen, the
Drugeri, the Ca?nici, the Hv-psalti, the Beni, the Corpili,
the Bottiaei, and the Edoni*. In the same district are also the
Selletffi, the Priantae, the Doloneae, the Thyni, and the
Greater Cceletae, below Mount Haemus, the Lesser at the
foot of Ehodope. Between these tribes runs the river He-
brus. "We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope,
first called Poneropolis'', afterwards Philippopolis'' from the
name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its
situation, Trimontium*. To reach the summit of Haemus
you have to travel six* miles. The sides of it that look in
the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are in-
habited by the MoBsi^°, the Getae, the Aorsi, the Gaudae, and
the Clariae ; below them, are the Arraei Sarmatae", also called
Arreatae, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine,
the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet
Orpheus^^, dwell.

^ A range between the Strymon and the Nestus, now the Pangea or
Despoto-Dagh. ' Probably a canton or division of the Bessi.

^ The most powerful people of Thrace ; dwelling on both sides of the
Artiscus, and on the plmn of the Hebrus.

'^ Now tlie Maritza. It rises near the point where Mount Scomins
joins Mount Ehodope. The localities of most of the tribes here named
are unknoAv-n.

^ The name of this people is often used by the poets to express the
whole of Thrace. The district of Edonis, on the left bank of the Strymon,
properly extended from Lake Cercinitis as far east as the river Nestus.

6 Or " Trouble City," also called Eumolpias.

7 Or "PhiUp's City J " founded by Philip of Macedon; still caUed
PhilippopoU.

8 Because it stood on a hill with three summits. Under the Koman
empire it was the capital of the province of Thracia.

^ On account probably of the winding nature of the roads ; as the
.height of the Balkan range in no part exceeds 3000 feet. With Theo-
pompus probably originated the erroneous notion among the ancients as
to its exceeding height.

^° The people of Moesia. The Aorsi and Gfetae are again mentioned in
C. 25 of this Book.

The inliabitants of the present Bulgaria, it is supposed.
Following the account which represent him as a king of the Cicones,
and dwelling in the vicinity of Mount Ehodope. The Sithonii here men-

304 PLINT's NATTJEi-L HISTOET. [Book IV.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the
Euxine, and the Propontis^ on the east, and by the -^gean
Sea on the south ; on the coast of which, after lea\-ing the
Strymon, we come in turn to Apollonia^, (Esyma^, Neapolis"*
and Dates. In the interior is the colony of Philippi*,
distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also* Scotussa^ the
city of Topiris, the mouth of the river Meatus^, Mount
Pangseus, Heraclea^, Olynthos^ Abdera^", a free city, the
people of the Bistones" and their Lake. Here was formerly
the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables
of the horses'^ of Diomedes. At the present day we find
here Dicaea^^, Ismaron", the place where Parthenion stood,
Phalesina, and Maronea^", formerly called Orthagorea. We

tioned dwelt about the mouth of the Ister, or Danube, and were a
different people from those of Sithonia, in Clialcidice, referred to in a
previous note. * The Sea of Marmora.

2 It is difficidt to conceive which place of this name is here alluded to,
as there seem to have been four places on this coast so called, and all
mentioned by PUny in the present Book.

3 Called -^syma by Homer ; between the rivers Strymon and Nestus,
* Now called Kavallo, on the Strymonic Gulf. The site of Datos

appears to be unknown.

5 Now called FiHba, or Felibejik, on a height of Mount Pangseus, on
the river Gangites, between the Nestus and the Strymon, It was founded
by Pliihp, on the site of the ancient town of Crenides, in the vicinity of
the gold mines. Here Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius,
B.C. 42 ; and here the Apostle Paul first preached the Gospel in Europe,
A.D. 53, See Acts xvi, 12,

^ Its site seems unknown, but it is evidently a different place from
that mentioned in the last Chapter.

7 Also called Mestus. ® Sintica, previously mentioned.

^ Now Aco Mamas, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, It was the
most important Greek city on the coast of Macedon, It was taken and
destroyed by Philip, b.c, 347, and its inhabitants sold as slaves. Mecy-
bema, already mentioned, was used as its sea-port.

^^ On the coast, and east of the river Nestus. Its people were pro-
verbial for their stupidity, though it produced the philosophers Demo-
critus, Protagoras, and Anaxarchus. No traces of its site are to be
found.

" Now called the Lagos Burn. The name of the Bistones is some-
times used by the poets for that of the Tliracians in general,

^' Or mares rather. Diomedes was the son of Ares, or Mars, and king
of the Bistones. He was slain by Hercules.

13 By some identified with the modem Cumu, by others with Bauron.

1^ Or Ismarus, at the foot of Mount Ismarus. ^^ Now Marogna.

Chap. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 805

then come to Mount Serriuni^ and Zone^, and then the
place called Doriscus^, capable of containing ten thousand
men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here
numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the
Hebrus*, the Port of Stentor, and the free towTi of jEnos*,
with the tomb there of Poljdorus^, the region formerly of
the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as TVIacron
Tichos^ or the " Long Wall," a distance of 122 miles ;
round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf
of Melas^ receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela*,
Bisanthe^", and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called
because a wall extends from that spot between the two
seas, — that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of
Melas, thus excluding the Chersonesus", which projects
beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast ^"
of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and
it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest
cities, Histropolis^^, namely, founded by the Milesians,

1 A promontory opposite the island of Samothrace.

^ A town on a promontory of the same name, said to have been fre-
quented by Orpheus.

' The Plain of Doriscus is now called the Plain of Romigik. Parisot
suggests the true reading here to be 100,000, or, as some MSS. have
it, 120,000, there being nothing remarkable in a plain containing 10,000
men. Pliny however does not mention it as being remarkable, but
merely suggests that the method used by Xerxes here for nimibering
his host is worthy of attention.

^ Now the Maritza. At its mouth it divides into two branches, th^
eastern forming the port of Stentor. ^ g^iu called Enos.

^ A son of Priam and Hecuba, murdered by Polymnestor, king of the
Thracian Chersonesus, to obtain his treasures. See the -^neid, B. iii,

7 From the Greek, fiaKpov relxos. 8 ^q^^ th© Gulf of Enos.

^ Now Ipsala, or Chapsylar, near Keshan.

10 Now Rodosto, or Eodostshig, on the coast of the Propontis, or Sea
of Marmora.

" Now called the Peninsiila of the Dardanelles, or of GallipoH. The
wall was bmlt to protect it from incursions from the mainland.

12 He here skips nearly five degrees of latitude, and at once proceeds to
the northern parts of Thrace, at the mouth of the Danube, and moves to
the south.

13 Or, the "city of the Ister," at the south of Lake Halmyris, on the
Euxine. Its site is not exactly known ; but by some it is supposed to

, have been the same with that of the modem Kostendsje.

YOL. I. X

306 plijtt's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

Tomi\ and Callatis', formerly called Acervetis. It also
had tlie cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was
swallowed up by an earthquake ; it now has Dionysopolis',
formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras.
All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians,
surnamed Aroteres ; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos,
Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Grerania'',
where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt ; the bar-
barians used to caU them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief
that ihey were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast,
proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus", a city of the
Milesians, the river Panysus^, and the town of Tetranaulo-
chus. Mount Haemus, which, with its vast chain, over-
hangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit
the town of Aristaeum^. At the present day there are upon
the coast Mesembria^ and Anchialum', where Messa for-
merly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town
called Anthium; at the present day ApoUonia*" occupies
its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the
Teams, and the Orosines ; there are also the towns of Thy-
mas'\ Halmydessos'^, Develton^^, with its lake, now known
as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near
which last is the Bosporus'^. Prom the mouth of the Ister
to the entrance of the Euxine, some WTiters have made to be

* Now Temesvar, or Jegni Pangola, the capital of Scythia Minor. It
waa said to have been so called from the Greek re/ivw, " to cut," because
Medea here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyrtus. It is famous
8/8 the place of Ovid's banishment ; and here he wrote his * Tristia' and his
* Pontic Epistles.' 2 Usually identified with the modem Collat, or Collati.

3 Its site does not appear to be known, nor yet those of many of the
towns here mentioned.

■* This story no doubt arose from the similarity of its name to yepavos,
" a crane ;" the cranes and the Pigmies, according to the poets, being in
a state of continual warfare. ^ Supposed to be the present Varna.

6 Now called Daphne-Soui, according to D'AnvUle.

7 Said to hare been built by Aristseus, son of Apollo.

* Now Missivri. ^ Or Anchiale, now Akiali.

^^ Now Sizeboh, famous for its temple of Apollo, with liis statue, thirty
cubits in height, wliich LucxiUus caiTied to Rome. In later times it
was called SozopoUs. ^^ Now Tiniada.

12 The present Midjeh, according to D'Anville.

1* Afterwards called Zagora, which name it still bears.

M Or Straits of Constantinople.

Chap. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 307

a distance of 555 miles ; Agi-ippa, however, increases the
length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos,
or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles ; and,
from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Grulf of Cas-
thenes\ and two harbours, the one called the Old Men's
Haven, and the other the Women's Haven. Next comes
the promontory of Chrysoceras*, upon which is the town of
Byzantium^, a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from
Dyrrhachium 711 miles, — so great being the space of land
that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propoutis.
We next come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras"*, or
AthjTas, and the towiis of SeljTnbria* and Perinthus®, which
join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the
interior are Bizya^, a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated
by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime
of Tereus*^ ; the district called Caenica'', and the colony of
riaviopclis, where formerly stood a town called C»la. Then,
at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony
of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast
is the river Erginus^"; here formerly stood the town of
Q-anos" ; and Lysimachia^^ in the Cher&onesus is being now
gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmus", similar in name
to the other", and of about equal width ; and, in a manner

* Between Galata and Fanar, according to Brotier.
2 Or Golden Horn ; still known by that name.

8 The site of the presept Constantinople.

■* These rivers do not appear to have been identified.

* The present Sihvri occupies its site.

8 An important town of Thrace. Eski Erekli stands on its site.

7 Now Vizia, or Viza.

^ He aUudes to the poetical story of Tereus, king of Thrace, Progne,
and Pliilomela. Aldrovandus suggests that the real cause of the absence
of the swallow is the great prevalence here of northern winds, to which
they have an aversion.

* So called probably from the Thracian tribe of the Csenici, or Cseni.
^^ Now called Erkene, a tributary of the Hebrus.

^^ All that is knowTi of it is, that it is mentioned as a fortress on the
Propontis. 12 Hexamila now occupies its site.

^3 The isthmus or neck of the Pemnsula of GallipoH, or the Dardanelles.

^* That of Corinth. They are both about five nailes wide at the nar-
rowest part.

x2

808 plint's natueal histoet. [Book IT.

by no meaus dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore,
one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and
Cardia^ on that of the 6ulf of Melas, the latter deriving its
name from the shape^ which the land assumes. These, how-
ever, were afterwards united with Lysimachia', which stands
at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Cherso-
nesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns
of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa**, on the banks of the river
^gos^ ; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two^ miles from
the colony of Apros, Eesistos, which stands opposite to the
colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates,
as we have already'^ stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel
seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other,
Callipolis^ and Sestos' in Europe, and Lampsacus*" and
Abydos" in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the pro-
montory of Mastusia^^, lying opposite to Sigeum^^; upon
one side of it stands the Cynossema^^ (for so the tomb of
Hecuba is called), the naval station" of the Achaeans, and a
tower ; and near it the shrine*^ of Protesilaiis. On the ex-

1 Now Cardia, or Caridia. It was the birth-place of king Eumenes.

2 From Kapdia, in consequence of its supposed resemblance to a heart,

* Lysimachus destroyed Cardia, and, building Lysimaohia, peopled it
with the inhabitants.

* Mannert identifies it with the ancient -rEgos and the modem Ghlata.

5 More generally caUed -^Egospotamos, the " Goat River," upon which
the town of ^Egos stood. It was here that Lysander defeated the Athe-
nian fleet, B.C. 405, wliich put an end to the Pelopqnnesian war.

6 Antoninus, in his Itinerary, makes this distance twenty-six miles.

7 B. ii. c. 92. The present Straits of GallipoU.

8 Now GallipoU, a place of considerable commercial importance.

9 Now lalova ; famous in Grecian poetry, with Abydos, for the lores
of Hero and Leander. i" Now Lamsaki.

" The village of Aidos, or Avido, probably marks its site. To the
north, Xerxes passed over to Sestos on his bridge of boats, B.C. 480.

J^ Now Capo Helles.

^3 Now Jeni-Hisari, the N.W. promontory of Troas, Here Homer
places the Grecian camp during the Trojau war.

^■* Meaning the " Bitch's tomb," the fable being that Hecuba, in her
old age, was changed into that animal. It was near the town of Madytus.

1* Meaning that their fleet was anchored off" here during the Trojan war.

^^ A magnificent temple was erected near his tomb at Eleus, where he
also had a sacred grove. It was greatly enriched by the votive ofierings
of Greek travellers. According to D'Anville, its site lay to the south of
Mastusia.

Chap. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COTJNTBIES, ETC. '309

treme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Solium, there
is the city of Elajus. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of
Melas, we have the port of Coelos', Panormus, and then
Cardia, pre^^ouslJ mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded.
The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned,
are Edonus, Gigenwros, Meritus, and Melamj)hyllos ; the
rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the
Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hel-
lespont has been already^ mentioned; some writers, how-
ever, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying
between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the ^gean
Sea ; it has the name of Mx^ from its strong resemblance
to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately
from out of the middle of the sea. Those 'W'ho are sail-
ing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on
the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers.
Part of the JEgaan Sea bears the name of Myrtoan*, being
so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen
as you sail towards Macedonia from Gersestus , not far from
Carystus* in Euboea. The Romans include all these seas
under two names, — the Macedonian, in those parts where it
touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian
where it washes the shores of Greece The Greeks, how-
ever, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan
Seas, after the name of those islands ; and they give the
name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and
Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned,
have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such,

^ Now called Kilidbahr. Near this place the Spartans were de-
feated by the Athenians, who erected a trophy near the tomb of
Hecuba.

2 In the present Chapter ; where he says that the distance from Byzan-
tium to Dyrrhacliium is 711 miles. See p. 305.

3 Al?, "a goat." Other authors give other derivations for the name of
^gean, — from the town of ^gae in Euboea, or from ^geus, the father
of Theseus, who threw himself into it ; or fi'om jfEgsea, a queen of the
Amazons, who perished there ; or from iEgseon, a god of the sea ; or
from the Greek aiyls, " a squall," on account of its storms.

* See c. 5 of this Book.
.' Both places m Euboea, mentioned in c. 21 of this Book.

310 plint's natueal histoet. [Book ly.

then, are the seas and the various nations which are com-
prehended in the third great Griilf of Europe.

CHAP. 19. (12.) — THE ISLATiTDS WHICH LIE BEEOEE THE
LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve
miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the
island of Corcyra\ with a city of the same name, the citi-
zens of which are free ; also a town called Cassiope^, and a
temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-
seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of
Scheria and Phaeacia ; while Callimachus calls it Drepane.
There are some other islands around it, such as Thoronos^
lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of Paxes'*
in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from
Corcyra. Not far'' from these, and in front of Corcyra, are
Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia,
Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum^, a promontory of
Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which
arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship
of Ulysses was changed.

Before Leucimna^ we find the islands of Sybota, and be-
tween Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among
which are those called Teleboides^, as also TaphiaB ; by the
natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the
names of Taphias, Oxiae, and Prinoessa^ ; while those that
are in front of JEtolia are the Echinades'", consisting of
jEgialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cymus,
Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

1 Now Corfu. Of its city of Corcyra only a few ruins now exist.

2 There are still some remains of it near the village called Cassopo.

3 Now Fano, or Merlere. •* Now Paxo and Antipaxo.

5 On the contrary, they b*e at the other end of the isle of Corcyra.
Some of them are mere rocks, and cannot be distinguished by their ancient
■names. The present names of four are Sametraki, Diaplo, Boaia, and
the Isle of Ulysses. 6 j^q^ Qapo Drasti.

7 Now Capo Levkimo. The islands are those of Santo Niccolo.

8 Or Islands of the Teleboans.

9 These three seem to be those now called Magnisi, Kalamota, and
Kastus. These lie facing the promontoiy of Leucadia, the others opposite
^'oha.

*<* Opposite Acamania : by the Venetians they were called the Islands of
Kiurtzolari. Some of them are cultivated, others again are mere rocks*

Cliap. 19.] ACCOUNT OT C0U2ITEIES, ETC. 311

Tn front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia* and
Zacynthus'-, both of them free, Ithaca^, Dulichium'', Same*,
and Crocyle®. Cephallenia, formerly known as Melaena^,
lies at a mstance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-
three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been
levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still pos-
sesses three others^. Between this island and Achaia lies
the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the
same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had
the name of Hyrio, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at
a distance of twenty-five miles ; in it there is the famous
mountain of Elatus'. This island is thirty-six miles in cir-
cumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus
is Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus^"; its circumference
in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from
this island is Araxus", a promontory of the Peloponnesus.
Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are Asteris^^ and
Prote ; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-
five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the
two Strophades^^ by some knowTi as the Plotae. Before
Cephallenia lies Letoia", before Pylos the three SphagiaB^',
and before Messene the (Enussae'", as many in number.

1 Now called Cephallenia. ' ' Now Zante.

« Now Thiaki, or Cefalogna Piccola — Little Cephallenia.

•* The general opinion is, that Strabo is right in identifying this island
with one of the Echinades ; but it seems impossible now to say which
of them was so called.

* Sometimes confounded with Cephallenia ; but, according to Virgil
and Mela, as well as Pliny, they were different islands.

^ Crocylsea was a town of Acamania, referred to by Homer ; and there
was a district of Ithaea called Crocyleium. PUny is probably in error in
mentioning Crocyle as an island. " Or the " Black Island ;"

probably from its thick fohage. " Pale, Cranii, and Proni.

9 So called from its fir-trees. It now has the name of Scopo.

1" Now Monte Stefano. " See c. 6 of this Book.

^2 Supposed by some writers to be the same with the rocky isle now
called DyscaUio. Though mentioned by Homer, its existence was dis-
puted by many of the ancient commentators.

13 The modem Strivali and Stamphane.

1^ The present Guardiania, according to Lapie.

1* According to Ansart, these were Prote, now Prodano, and Sphagia,
formerly Sphacteria, before Pylos, now called Zonchio, or Old Nayarino j
the third being perhaps the isle of BechH, in the Bay of Nayarino,

IS Now called Sapienza, Santa Maria, and Cabrera,

312 PLIIfY's NATOEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

In the Asinaean Gulf there are the three Thyrides^ and in
that of Laconia Theganusa^, Cothon, and Cythera^, with the
town of that name, the former name of which island was
Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of
Malea'',thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In
the Gulf of Argolis are Pitynsa*, Irine, and Ephyre ; opposite
the territory of Hermione®, Tiparenus, Aperopia'^, Colonis^,
and Aristera ; and, opposite that of Troezen, Calauria', at a
distance of half a mile, Plateis^", Belbina, Lasia, and Bau-
cidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos", and Pity-
onesos^^, six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a
distance of fifteen miles from this last, ^gina^^, a free island,
the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles.
This island is twenty miles distant from Piraeus, the port of
Athens: it used formerly to be called (Enone. Opposite
the promontory of SpiraDum^"*, lie Eleusa^^, Adendros", the
two islands called Craugiae, the tvvo Caeciae, Selachusa,
Cenchreis, and Aspis ; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the
four Methurides. .^gila^' lies at a distance of fifteen miles

^ Venetico and Formignes are the names of two of them.

2 Now Servi.

3 The modern Cerigo.

^ It is much further fi-om the Cape of Malea or Santo Angelo than
the distance here mentioned. It derived its name of Porphyria fix)m the
purple fishery estabhshed here by the Phoenicians.

5 The modem Isle of Port Tolon. Irine is the present Hipsyli ac-
cording to Leake, who also identifies Ephyre with Spetzia.

6 At the south of Argohs.

7 The modern Dhoko, according to Leake. Some authorities think
that Tiparenus, and not Ephyre, is the modem Spetzia.

^ Leake thinks that Colonis and Hydreia, now called Hydra, were the
same island ; but Kiepert thinks it the same as the smaU island to the
Bouth of Spetzia. ^ Now Poros.

10 These are the islands now called Moni Jorench, Kophinidia, and
San Giorgio d'Arbora. It is perhaps impossible to identify them, except
that Belbina is generally supposed to be the island of San Giorgio.

1^ Now Kyra.

12 The modern Angistri.

13 Wliich name, or Eghina, it still retains.

14 See c. 9 of tliis Book.

1' Probably the modem Laoussa, one of this group.
1^ By Brotier said to be the modem Pentenesia. The other islands
here mentioned seem not to have been identified.
17 Now Cerigotto.

Chap. 20.] ACCOTJNT OF OOTTIfTEIES, ETC. 813

from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasama, a city
of Crete.

CHAP. 20. — CEETE.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the
South, the other the north, and is known to fame by the
renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took
its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of Hesperides^ ;
Anaximander,from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus
*####. -vvhile Crates says that it was at first called Aeria,
and after that Curetis ; and some have been of opinion
that it had the name of Macaron'^ from the serenity of its
climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being
widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270
miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards
the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its
eastern extremity is the Promontory of Sammonium^, facing
Ehodes, while towards the west it throws out that of Criu-
metopon'', in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasama, Etaa*,
Cisamon^, Pergamum, Cydonia^, Minoium^, Apteron^, Panto-
matrium, Amphimalla''', Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytaeum, A-
poUonia, Matium",Heraclea,!^liletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna^",

* Dalechamps 8ugge8t3 Hesperus.

8 The island " of the Blessed." 3 Now Capo Salomon.
' * From the Greek Kpiov /ierwTrov, " the ram's forehead" ; now called
Capo Crio.

^ Also called Elsea. Pococke speaks of it as a promontory called
Chaule-bumau. ^ Hardomn calls it Chisamo.

' The modem Khania. The quince derived its Latin name, " Malum
Cydonium," from this district, to which it was indigenous. From its
Latin name it was called melicotone by the writers of the Elizabethan
period. * Jfow Minolo, according to Hardouin.

' The port of Apteron, or Aptera, which Mr. Pashley supposes to be
denoted by the ruins of Palseokastro ; he also thinks tliat its port was
at or near the modern Kalyres.

^° Now La Suda, according to Hardouin, who says that Ehithymna is
called Retimo ; Panormus, Panormo ; and Cytseum, Setia.

" Supposed by Ansart to have stood in the vicinity of the modem city
of Candia.

^" Strabo says that it stood on the narrowest part of the island, opposite
Minoa. Vestiges of it have been foiind at the Kastele of Hierapetra.
Its foundation was ascribed to the Corybantes.

J514 Flint's NATUEAL HISTORY. [Book IV.

Lebena^andHierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna^, Phae-
stnin, Cnossus^, Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Ehamnns,
Lyctus, Dium'^, Asus, Pyloros, Ehytion, Elatos, Pharse,
Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthemae*, TherapnsB, Marathusa, and
Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the me-
mory only exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus^,
Ida, Dictynnaeus, and Corycus^. This island is distant, at
its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agi'ippa, from
Phycus^, the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles ; and at Ca-
distus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the
island of Carpathos^, at its promontory of Sammonium it
lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles ; this
last-named island is situate between it and Ehodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the

1 Now Lionda.

2 Next to Cnossus in splendour and importance. Mr. Pashley places
its site near the modem Haghius Dheka, the place of the martyrdom of
the ten Saints, according to tradition, in the Decian persecution.

3 It has been remarked, that Pliny is mistaken here if he intends to
enumerate Cnossus among the towns of the interior of Crete. The only
remains of this capital of Crete, situate on the north of tlie island, are
those seen at Makro-Teikho, or the " Long Walls," so called from the
masses of Koman brick- work there seen.

* Though an inland town, it probably stood in the vicinity of the
headland or promontory of the same name, which is now called Kavo
Stavro. Many of these names are utterly unknown.

* One of the most important towns of Creto, on the N.W. slope of
Mount Ida, about fifty stadia from the port of Astale. Mr. Pashley
says that some remains probably of this place are still to be seen on a
hill near a place called Elethema, five miles south of the great convent
of Arkadhi.

6 The loftiest point of the mountain-range that traverses the island of
Crete from west to east. Its head is covered with snow. The modem
name is Psiloriti, looking down on the plain of Mesara. The word Ida
is supposed to mean a mountain in which mines are worked, and the
Idsei Dactyli of Crete were probably among the first workers in iron and
bronze. The position of Mount Cadistus, belonging to the range of
White Mountains, has been fixed by Hoeck at Cape Spadha, the most
northerly point of the island. It is thought that Pliny and Solinus are
in error in speaking of Cadistus and Dictynnaeus as separate peaks,
these being, both of them, names of the mountain of which the cape was
fomied; the latter name having been given in later times, from the
worship and temple there of Dictynna.

7 Now Grrabusa, the N.W. promontory of Crete.

8 Now Eas-al-Sem, or Cape Rasat, in Africa. The distance, according
to Brotier, is in reality about 225 nules, » Now Skarpanto,

Chap. 20.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 815

Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycse, and the
two called Myla)\ On the north side, having Crete on the
right, and opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce^, and the two islands
known as Budroae^. Opposite to Matium lies Dia* ; opposite
to the promontory of Itanum*, Onisia and Leuce ; and over
against Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos". In the same
neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus ; and,
after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands
known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sam-
monium lie the islands of Phocoe, the Platise, the Sirnides,
Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Mgean Sea, we have
the Lichades', consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria,
and many others which face Attica, but have no towns
upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite
.Eleusis, however, is the far-famed Salamis^ ; before it, Psytta-
lia^ ; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the
island of Helene^". At the same distance from this last is
Ceos'\ which some of our coimtrymen have called Cea, and
the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away
from Euboea. It was formerly 500 stadia in length ; but
more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Boeotia, have
been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has

* According to Hardouin, all of these are mere rocks rather thaa
islands. ^ The modem Haghios Theodhoros.

3 According to IToeck, they are now called Tiu*lure.

* Now called Standiu.

5 Now Capo Xacro, on the east, though Cape Salomon, fiirther north,
has been suggested. In the latter case, the Grandes islands would cor-
respond with Onisia and Leuce, mentioned by Pliny.

^ Now Gaidurognissa. None of the other islands here mentioned seem
to have been identified.

7 Between Euboea and Locris. They are now called Ponticonesi.

8 Now Koluri. It is memorable for the naval battle fought off its
coast, when Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, B.C. 480.

3 Now called LypsokutaH.

^^ Now Makronisi, or " the Long Island." Its ancient name was also
Maoris. Strabo identifies it with the Homeric Cranae, to which Paris
fled with Helen.

^1 Usually called Cea, one of the Cyclades, about thirteen mUes S.E. of
Sunium. Its modem name is Zea. lulis was the most important town,
and the birth-place of the poets Sunonides and Bacchyhdes, of the
sophist Prodicus, the physician Erasistratus, and the Peripatetic philo-
sopher Ariston. Extensive remains of it still exist.

816 PLII^TY'S NATURAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

left are lulls and CartliaBa^ ; Coresus^ and Poeeessa^ have
perished. Yarro informs us, that from this place there used to
come a cloth of verj fine texture, used for women's dresses.

CHAP. 21. — ETJBCEA.

Euboea^ itself has also been rent away from Boeotia ; the
channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so
narroAv as to admit of the opposite shores being united by
a bridge^. At the south, this island is remarkable for its
two promontories, that of Greraestus^, which looks towards
Attica, and that of Caphareus^, which faces the Hellespont ;
on the north it has that of Cenaeum^. In no part does
this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles,
while it never contracts to less than two. In length it
runs along the whole coast of Boeotia, extending from
Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150 miles ». In
mcumference it measures 365, and is distant from the
Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities
for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos,
Nesos, Cerinthos^", Oreum, Dium, ^depsos", Oeha, and
(Echalia; at present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis^^

^ There are considerable remains of this town, called by the inhabit-
ants Stais Palais.

2 Or Coresia. It was the harboiu* of lulis, to wliich place we learn
from Strabo that its inhabitants were transferred.

3 On the S.W. side of the island. Its ruins are inconsiderable, but
retain their ancient name.

* Now called Euboea, as also Egripo, or Negropont, — a corruption of
the former word and " pont," " a bridge,"

5 Hardouin speaks of this as existing in his time, 1670, and being 250
feet in length. It is supposed to have been first constructed about B.C.
411, for the purpose of iminterrupted communication witli Boeotia.

6 Now Capo Mandih. ^ Now Kavo Doro, or Xylofago.

8 Now Lithadha, with a mountain 2837 feet above tlie sea.

9 These measurements are not exactly con*ect. The length from north
to south is about ninety miles ; the extreme breadth across, tliirty, and
in one part, not more than four miles.

10 StiU extant in the time of Strabo, who speaks of it as an incon-
siderable place.

" Its site is now called Lipso. It contained warm baths sacred to
Hercules, and used by the Dictator Sylla. They are stiU to be seen.

12 Now Egripo, or Negropont, having given name to the rest of the
island. The Euripus is here only forty yards across, being crossed by a

Chap. 22.] ACCOUNT OF OOUNTEIES, ETC. 317

(opposite which, on the mainland, is Aulis), Gersestus*,
Eretria*, Carystus', Oritanum, and Artemisium''. Here are
also the Fountain of Arethusa'^ the river Lelantus, and the
warm springs known as EUopiae ; it is still better known,
however, for the marble of Carystus. This island used
formerly to be called Chalcodontis and Macris^, as we learn
from Dionysius and Ephorus ; according to Aristides, Macra ;
also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first
discovered here. MensBchmus says that it was called
Abantias^, and the poets generally give it the name of
Asopis.

CHAP. 22. — THE CTCLADES.

Beyond Euboea, and out in the Myrtoan^ Sea, are numerous
other islands ; but those more especially famous are, Glau-

bridge, partly of stone, partly of wood. The poet Lycophron and the
orator Isajus were natives of this place, and Aristotle died here.

1 Near the promontory of that name, now Capo Mandili. In the
town there was a 'famous temple of Poseidon, or Neptune. According
to Hardouin, the modem name is lastura.

*-* One of the most powerful cities of Euboea. It was destroyed by the
Persians under Darius, and a new tovm was built to the south of the old
one. New Eretria -stood, according to Leake, at the modem Kastri, and
old Eretria in the neighbourhood of Vathy. The tragic poet Aeha;u3, a
contemporary of jEschylus, was bom here ; and a school of philosophy
was founded at this place by Menedemus, a disciple of Plato.

3 Now Karysto, on the south of the island, at the foot of Mount
Ocha, upon wliich are supposed to have been its quarries of marble.
There are but few remains of the ancient city. The historian Antigonvis,
the comic poet Apollodorus, and the physician Diodes, were natives of
this place.

^ Probably on the promontory of the same name. It was off this
coast that the Greek fleet engaged that of Xerxes, B.C. 480.

5 There were tame fish kept in this foimtain ; and its waters were
sometimes disturbed by volcanic agency. Leake says that it has now
totally disappeared.

^ From the fact of its producing copper, and of its being in shape long
and narrow.

7 Strabo remarks, that Homer calls its inhabitants Abantes, while he
gives to the island the name of Euboea. The poets say that it took its
name from the cow (Bovs) lo, who gave birth to Epaphus on this
island.

8 Hardouin remarks here, that Pliny, Strabo, Mela, and Pausanias use
the term " Myrtoan Sea," as meaning that portion of it which Hes
between Crete and Attica, while Ptolemy so calls the sea which hes off
the coast of Caria.

318 plint's k"atubal history. [Book IV.

connesos and tlie iEgila\ Off the promontory, too, of
Geraestus are the Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos,
from which circumstance^ they derive their name. The
first of them is the one called Andros^ with a city of the
same name, distant from Greraestus ten miles, and from Ceos
thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first
called Cauros, and after that Antandros ; Callimachus calls
it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris.
It is ninety- three miles in circumference. At a distance ot
one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is Tenos^,
with a city of the same name ; this island is fifteen miles
in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hy-
drussa, from the abundance of water foimd here, while some
writers call it Ophiussa". The other islands are, Myconos**,
with the mountain of Dimastus', distant from Delos fifteen^
miles ; Siphnus', formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-
eight miles in circumference ; Seriphus*", twelve miles in
circuit ; Prepesinthus" ; Cythnos'^ ; and then, by far the most
famous among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle
of them, Delos '^ itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo,
and its extensive commerce. This island long floated on the
waves, and, as tradition says, was the only one that had never

^ Now called Spitilus, and the group of Micronisia, or " Little Islands,"
according to Hardouin. 2 From kvkXos, *' a circle."

3 Now Andro. It gives name to one of the comedies of Terence. The
ruins of the ancient city were found by the Q^nnan traveller Eoss, who
has published a hymn to Isis, in hexameter verse, which he discovered
here. It was famous for its wines.

■* Now Tino. ^ From its abovmding in snakes (o^eis) and scorpions.

8 Now Mycono, south-east of Tenos and east of Delos. It was famous
in ancient mythology as one of the places where Hercules was said to
have defeated the Giants. It was also remarkable for the great proportion
of bald persons among its inhabitants.

7 So called from its resemblance to two breasts, iiaX,oi.

8 Wheeler says that the distance is but tlu-ee miles ; Totimefort, six.

5 Once famous for its gold and silver mines, but equally notorious for
the bad character of its people. It is now called Siplmo.

10 Now Serpho, lying between Cythnos and Siplmus.

^^ Now Fermina, according to Hardouin.

13 Between Ceos and Seriphus. It is now called Thermia. Cydias the
painter was born here, and it was famous for its cheeses. Its modem
name is derived from its hot springs, which are much frequented.

13 Still called Delos ; and, though so celebrated, nothing more than a
mere rock, five miles in circimiference.

Chap. 22.] ACCOXnSTT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 319

experienced an earthquake, down to the time of M. Yarro* ;
Mucianus however has informed us, that it has been twice
so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its
name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its
appearance^ on emerging from the sea ; Aglaosthenes, how-
ever, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of Ortygia'^
Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the circum-
stance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its
circumference is five miles only ; Mount Cynthus'' here
raises his head.

Next to this island is Ehene*, which Anticlides calls by
the name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite ; Scyros ,
which the old wTiters have stated to be twenty miles in cir-
cumference, but Mucianus 160 ; Oliaros' ; and Pares*, with
a city of the same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight
miles, and famous for its marble^ ; it was first called Platea,

^ That is, according to Varro, whose statement is ridiculed by Seneca.
Some of the editors, however, punctuate this passage differently, making
it to mean, " the only island that has never experienced an earthquake.
Mucianus however has informed us, that down to the time of M. Varro,
it has been twice so visited."

2 From its then becoming SfjXos, "plain," or "manifest." It was
after tlie fall of Corinth that Delos became so famous for its commerce.
Its bronze was in great request.

3 From opTv^, " a quail" ; the legend being, that Latona was changed
into that bird by Jupiter, in order to eirect her escape tliither from the anger
of Juno. Its name of Asteria was derived from tJorpov, " a star," either
in consequence of its being devoted to the worship of the great luminary
Apollo, or of its being considered by the gods the star of the earth. It was
also called Lagia, from Xaytos, " a hare," that animal abounding there ;
and Cyna3thus, from KvtoVy " a dog," it being famous for its hounds.

^ A bare granite rock, not more tlian 500 feet in height. The island
is now a mass of ruins ; a great part of its remains having been carried
away in the middle ages to Venice and Constantinople.

5 Divided by a strait of four stadia in width from Delos. Nicias con-
nected the two islands by a bridge. Its name of Celadussa was said to
be derived from the noise of the waves, /ceXa^os, and of Artemite, from
Artemis, or Diana. ^ Now Syra ; famous for its wine and com.

7 Now Antiparos ; famous for its stalactite grotto, which is not men-
tioned by the ancient writers.

8 Now Pare ; south of Delos and west of Naxos. The ruins of its
town are still to be seen at the modem Paroikia. The Parian Chronicle,
inscribed on marble, and containing a chronicle of Grecian histon^ from
Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to B.C. 264, was fotmd here. It is preserved at Oxford.

9 Chiefly obtained from a mountain caUed Marpessa.

320 PLI:N't's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book lY.

and after that, Minois. At a distance of seven miles from
this last island is Naxos\ with a town of the same name ;
it is eighteen miles distant from Delos. This island was
formerly called Strongyle^, then Dia, and then Dionysias',
in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards ; others
again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis^ It is
seventy-five^ miles ia circumference — half as large again as
Paros.

CHAP. 23. — THE SPOEABES.

The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the
Cyclades; the rest that follow are the Sporades^ These
are, Helene', Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros,
and, at a distance of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros®,
which has given its name to the surrounding sea, and is the
same number of miles in length^, with two cities, and a
third now no longer in existence : this island used formerly
to be called Doliche, Macris, and Ichthyoessa'". It is situate
fifty miles to the north-east of Delos, and thirty-five from the
island of Samos. Between Euboea and Andros, there is an
arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros to
Geraestus is a distance of 112^^ miles.

^ ?7ow Naxia, famous both in ancient and modem times for its re-
markable fertility.

2 From arpoyyvXoSy "roimd," its shape being somewhat inclined to
circular, though by Eustathius it is compared to the shape of a vine-leaf.
It is commonly called Dia by the poets. Toumefort says that it is distant
forty miles from Delos. ^ From Aiovvffos, or Bacchus, the god of wine.

*« Or " Fine City." It took its other name from the fact of its rivalling
the fertihty of Sicily.

5 According to Brotier, the Jesuit Babin, on visiting it, found its cir-
cumference estimated at thu'ty-sis miles only.

^ So called from lying scattered at random as it were, (nropds "scattered."

7 Helene is supposed to be the modern Pira ; Phacussa, Fccussa ;
Kicasia, Racliia ; Schinussa, Schinusa ; and Pholegandros, PoUcandro. •

8 Now Nikaria, to the west of Samos. According to tradition, it
derived its name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus, who was beUeved to
have fallen into the sea in its vicinity.

^ Its length is not so great as is here mentioned by Pliny. Its towns
were Drepanum, or Dracanum, CEnoe, and Isti,

^0 The first two names are from the Greek, in allusion to its long,
narrow shape, and the last bears reference to the fact of its shores
abounding in fish.

Chap. 23.] ACCOFirr OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 321

Aft^r we pass these, no regular order can be well observed ;
'fhe rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminatelj.
There is the island of Scyros^ and that of los^, eighteen miles
distant from Naxos, ana deserving of all veneration for the
tomb there of Homer ; it is twenty-five miles in length, and
was formerly known hj the name of Phoenice ; also Odia,
Oletandros, and Gyara**, with a city of the same name, the
island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant from
Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from
Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynajthus, Telos"*, noted for its un-
guents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa**,
Patmos**, thirty miles in circumference, the Corassiae^, Le-

* Now Scyro, east of Euboaa, and one of the Sporades. Here Achilles
was said to have been concealed by his mother Thetis, in woman's
attire. •

2 Now Nio, one of the Sporades, inaccurately called by Stephanus one
of the Cyclades. The modem town is built on the site of the ancient
one, of which there are some remains. It was said that Homer died
here, on his voyage from Smyrna to Athens, and that his mother,
Clymene, waa a native of this island. In 1773, Van Krienen, a Dutch
nobleman, asserted that he had discovered the tomb of Homer here, with
certain inscriptions relative to him ; but they have been generally re-
garded by the learned as forgeries. Odia and Oletandros seem not to
have been identified.

* Now called Gioura, or Jura. It was httle better than a barren rock,
though inhabited; but so notorious for its poverty, that its mice
were said to be able to gnaw through iron. It was used as a place
of banishment under the Roman emperors, whaiee the line of Ju-
venal, i. 73 —

" Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris et carcere dignum."

" Dare some deed deserving of the httle Gyara and the gaol." It is now
iminhabited, except by a few shepherds in the summer.

* Now Telos, or Piskopi, a small island in the Carpathian Sea, and one
of the Sporades. It hes off the coast of Caria. Syrnos appears not to
have been identified.

* Near Naxos. Virgil calls it *viridis,' or * green,' which Servius ex-
plains by the colour of its marble. Like Gyara, it waa used as a place
of banishment xmder the Roman Empire. In C. '22, Pliny has mentioned
Cynsethus as one of the names of Delos.

6 Now Patmo, one of the Sporades, and west of the Promontory of
Posidiiim, in Caria. To this place St. John was banished, and here he
wrote the Apocalypse.

' A group between Icaria and Samos. They are now called Phumi
and Kinisi.

VOL. I. T

822 PLTinr's itatueal histoet. [Book rv.

bintliua\ Leros^, Cinara^ ; Sicinus*, formerly called CEnoe* ;
Hieracia, also called Onus ; Casos^ likewise called Astrabe ;
Cimolus^, or Echinussa ; and Melos^, with a city of that name,
which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria,Cal-
limachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last
is the most circular'* in form of all these islands. After this
comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others
haA'e it, Platage, but now called Amorgos^", Polyaegos",
Phyle, and Thera*", known as Calliste when it first sprang
from the waves. Prom this, at a later period, the island of

^ One of the Sporades, now Lebitha.

2 Now Lero. Its inhabitants were of Milesian origin, and of indif-
ferent character. In its temple of Artemis, the sisters of Meleager were
said to have been changed into guinea-fowls. It was opposite the coast
of Caria.

3 Now Zinari, N.E. of Amorgos. The artichoke (called xivapa in
Greek) is said to have given name to it.

^ Now Sikino ; between Pholegandros and los.

* So called, according to Stephanus, fi*om its cultivation of the vine
and produce of wine, olvos. It was situate between Pholegandros and los.
It was said to have had the name of Sicinus from a son of Thoas and
CEnoe. Hieracia seems to be unknown.

s Still known by that name, and lying between Carpathus and Crete.
The ruins of the ancient town of Casos are still to be seen at the village
of Polin. It is mentioned by Homer.

7 Now Kimoli, one of the Cyclades, between Siphnos and Melos. It
took its name of Echinussa from the * Ecliinus,' or Sea-urcliin, of which
various fossil specimens are still found on the coast ; but nowhere else in
these islands, except the opposite coast of Melos. There are considerable
ruins of its ancient town.

8 Now Milo, the most westerly of the Cyclades. It is remarkable for
its extreme fertility. Its town, wliich, according to most authorities,
was called BybUs, was situate on the north of the island.

^ Ansart remarks, that our author is miotaken in this assertion, for
not only are many others of these islands more circular in form, but
even that of Kimolo, which stands next to it.

1" Now Amorgo, S.E. of Naxos. It was the birth-place of the Iambic
poet Sinionides. It is noted for its fertility. Under the Roman em-
perors, it was used as a place of banishment.

^^ Now Polybos, or Antimelos-, an xminhabited island near Melos.
Phyle seems not to have been identified.

^2 Now Santorin, south of the island of los. The tradition was, that
it was formed from a clod of earth, tlirown from the ship Argo. It is
evidently of volcanic origin, and is covered with pumice-stone. It was
colonized by Lacedaemonians and Minyans of Lemnos, under the Spartan
Theras, who gave his name to the island.

Chap. 23.] ACCOUNT OP COUNTRIES, ETC. 323

Theraaia* was torn away, and between the two afterwards
arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in our
own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands,
los is distant from Thera twenty -five miles.

Next to these follow Lea, Ascania', Anaphe*, Hippuris,
and Astypalaea^, a free state. This island is eighty-eight
miles in circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus,
in Crete. From Astypalaea, Platea is distant sixty miles,
and Caminia thirty-eight from this last. We then come to
the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragaea, Pharmacussa,
Techedia, Chalcia*, Calymna'', in which is the town of Coos,
Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which
is Carpathum', which has given its name to the Carpathian
Sea. The distance thence to Ehodes^, in the direction of the
south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus
is seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the pro-
montory of Crete, thirty^. In the Euripus of Euboea, almost
at the very mouth of it, are the four islands called Petaliae'" ;

* A small island to the west of Thera, still known by the same name.

* In Lapie's map, Ascania is set down as the present Christiana.

' Now Anaphe, Namfi, or Namphio, one of the Sporades. It was
celebrated for the temple of Apollo ^^gletes, the foundation of which
was ascribed to the Argonauts, and of which considerable remains still
exist. It aboimds in partridges, as it did also in ancient times.

* Now Astropalsca, or Stamphalia. By Strabo it is called one of the
Sporades, by Stephanas one of the Cyclades. It probably was favoured
by the Romans for the excellence and importance of its harbours. From
Hegesander we learn that it was famous for its hares, and Pliny tells us,
in B. viii. c. 59, that its mussels were (as they still are) very celebrated.

5 None of these islands can be now identified, except perhaps Chalcia,
also mentioned by Strabo, and now known as Karki.

^ Now Kalymno, the principal island of the group, by Homer called
Calydne. According to most of the editions, Phny mentions here
Calydna and Calymna, making this island, which had tliose two names, into
two islands. Although Pliny here mentions only the town of Coos, still,
in B. V. c. 36, he speaks of three others, Notium, Nisyrus, and Mende-
terus. There are still some remains of antiquity to be seen here.

7 Or Carpathus, now Skarpanto. It gave name to the sea between
Crete and Rhodes.

® It still preserves its ancient name, and presents some interesting
remains of antiquity.

^ Brotier says that the distance is really fifty-two mUes.

^'^ So called from the town of Petalia, on the mainland. Ansart sayft
kliat their present name is Spili.

t2

324 PLIIS't's NATUEAL HISTOBT. [Book IV.

and, at its outlet, Atalante^ The Cyclades and the Sporades
are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian
Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea,
on the north by the -^gean, and on the south by the Cretan
and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles in length, and 200
in breadth.

The Gulf of Pagasa' has in front of it Euthia', Cicynethus^
Scyros, previously mentioned*, and the very fiu'thermost
of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and bcandila"; the
Gulf of Therm*^, Iraeaia, SoHmnia, Eudemia, and JS^ea, which
last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands ;
Peparethus*, formerly called Evoenus,with a city of that name,
at a distance from Athos of nine miles ; Sciathus', at a
distance of fifteen, and Imbros*", with a city of the same
name, at a distance of eighty-eight, miles. This last island
is distant from Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five
miles ; it is sixty-two" miles in circumference, and is washed
by the river Ilisus. At a distance of twenty-two miles from
it is Lemnos^^, being distant from Mount Athos eighty-
seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and has the cities
of Hephsestia and Myrina" ; into the market-place of which
last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice.
The island of Thasos'^, constituting a free state, is six miles

1 Now Talanti, giving name to the Channel of Talanti.

2 The present Gulf of Volo, mentioned in C. 15 of the present Book.

3 Ansart suggests that this may possibly be the small island now
called Agios Nicolaos.

* Now Trikeri.

5 In the present Chapter.

6 Now Scangero, or Skantzoura, according to Ansart.

7 Now the Gulf of Saloniki, mentioned in C. 17. The islands here
mentioned have apparently not been identified.

8 Off the coast of Thessaly, now Piperi.

3 Now Skiathos. It was famous for its wine.

^^ Now called Embro, or Imru. Both the island and city of Imbros
are mentioned by Homer.

" This is double the actual circimiference of the island.

12 Now called Stalimene.

1' Its site is now called Palseo Kastro. Heplisestia, or Yulcan's Town,
stood near the modem Eapanidi. That god was said to have fallen into
this island when thrown from heaven by Jupiter.

" Now Thaso, or Tasso. Its gold mines were in early periods very
valuable.

Chap. 23.] ACCOUNT OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 826

distant from Lemnos ; it formerly had the name of Aeria,
or -Sthria. Abdera\ on the mainland, is distant from
Thasos twenty-two miles, Athos sixty-tv^'o*. The island of
Samothraee', a free state, facing the river Hebnis, is the
same distance from Thasos, being also thirty-two^ miles
from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and thirty-eight*
from the coast of Thrace ; it is thirty-two miles in circum-
ference, and in it rises Mount Saoce'', ten miles in height.
This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus
mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania.

Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance
of about fifteen miles from them both, is the island of
Halonnesos'^, and beyond it G^ethone, Lamponia, and Alo-
peconnesus^, not far from Coelos, a port** of the Chersonesus,
besides some others of no importance. The following names
may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited islands in
this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the
names: — Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa,
Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris,
Mesate, -Caution, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus,
and Polendos^".

^ Mentioned in C. 17 of this Book.

• Ansart says that " forty-two" would be the correct reading here, that
being also the distance between Samothrace and Thasos.

3 Its modem name is Samothraki. It was the chief seat of the mys-
terious worship of the Cabiri.

* Only twelve, according to Ansart.

^ Barely eighteen, according to Brotier.

^ Now Monte Nettuno. Of course the height here mentioned by
Pliny is erroneous; but Homer says that horn, this mountain Troy
could be seen.

' Now called Skopelo, if it is the same island which is mentioned
by Ptolemy imder the name of Scopelus. It exports wine in large
quantities.

** Or the Fox Island, so called fi^m its first settlers having been
directed by an oracle to establish a colony where they should first meet a
fox with its cub. Like many others of the islands here mentioned, it
appears not to have been identified.

9 See C. 18 of this Book.

^^ None of these islands appear to have been identified by modem
geographers.

326 PLINY' S KATUEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

CHAP. 24. THE HELLESPONT. — THE LAKE UJEOTIS.

The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespoi*fc
and ends at the entrance of the Maeotis'. But in order
that the several portions of the Euxine and its coasts may
be the better known, we must briefly embrace the form
of it in one general view. This vast sea, lying in front of
Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of the shores
of the Chersonesus, and ejffects an entrance into those coun-
tries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already
mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from
Asia. The entrance of these Straits is called the Hel-
lespont ; over it Xerxes, the king of the Persians, con-
structed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army.
A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six
miles, as far as Priapus', a city of Asia, at which Alexander
the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes
wider, and after some distance again ^akes the form of a
narrow strait. The wider part is known as the Propontis',
the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus*, being only half-a-
mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of
Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of
this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles.

We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which
invades the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which
was formerly Axenus®. As the shores bend inwards, this
sea with a vast sweep stretches far away, curving on both
sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so much so that in'
shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian bow^.

1 Now generally known as the Palus Meeotis or Sea of Azof.

2 The modem Caraboa, according to Brotier, stands on its site. Pri-
apus was the tutelary divinity of Lampsacus in tliis vicinity.

3 Or " entrance of Pontus " ; now the Sea of Marmora.

* " Ox Ford," or " passage of the cow," lo being said to have crossed
it in that form : now called the " Straits of Constantinople."

5 Said to have been called a^evos or " inhospitable," from its frequent
storms and the savage state of the people Uving on its shores. In later
times, on the principle of Euphemism, or abstaining from words of ill
omen, its name was changed to evKeivos, " hospitable."

6 This was a favourite comparison of the ancients ; the north coast,
between the Thracian Bosporus and the Phasis, formed the bow, and the
southern shores the string. The Scythian bow somewhat resembled in
form the figure 2, the capital Sigma of the Greeks.

Chap. 24.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTBIES, ETC. 327

In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of
Lake Mreotis, which is called the Cimmerian^ Bosporus,
and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two
Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance
in a straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We
learn from Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the
circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles ; but
to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while
Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mu-
cianus 2425. In a similar manner some writers have fixed
the length of the European shores of this sea at 1478 miles,
others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement as
follows: — from the mouth of the Euxine to ApoUonia 187
miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the
mouth of the Ister 125 miles ; to the Borysthenes 250 ; to
Chersonesus^, a town of the Heracleotae, 325 ; to Pantica-
paeum^, by some called Bosporus, at the very extremity of
the shores of Europe, 212 miles : the whole of which added
together, makes 1337^ miles. Agrippa makes the distance
from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from
thence to Panticapseum, 635.

Lake Mseotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows
from the Biphaean Mountains*, and forms the extreme boun-
dary between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in
circumference; which however some writers state at only
1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the
Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance
of 375 miles.

The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great G-ulf of

* Now the Straits of Kaffa or Enikale.

* This town lay about the middle of the Tauric Chersonesus or Crimea,
and was situate on a small peninsula, called the Smaller Chersonesus, to
distinguish it from the larger one, of which it formed a part. It was
founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Heraclea, or Heracleium, the
site of which is unknown. See note ^ to p. 333.

* Now Kertsch, in the Crimea. It derived its name from the river
Panticapes ; and was fotmded by the Milesians about B.C. 541. It was
the residence of the Greek kings of Bosporus, and hence it was some-
times so called. •* " Thirty-six" properly.

5 The Tanais or Don does not rise in the Riphsean Mountains, or
western branch of the Uralian chain, but on slightly elevated ground in
the centre of European Kussia.

328 PLIIfT's NATITBAX HISTOET. [Book IV.

Europe, as Ikr as Istropolis, have been already^ mentioned in
our account of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come
to the mouths of the Ister. This river rises in Grermany in
the heights of Mount Abnoba^, opposite to Eauricum^, a
town of Graul, and flows for a course of many miles beyond
the Alps and through nations innumerable, under the name
of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its
waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes
the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly
one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by
six^ vast channels. The first of these is the mouth of.
Peuce^, close to which is the island of Pence itself, jfrom
which the neighbouring channel takes its name ; this mouth
is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length.
From the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lake^ takes
its rise, sixty -three miles in circuit ; its name is Halmyris.
The second mouth is called Naracu-Stoma' ; the third, which
is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-Stoma* ; the
fourth is known as Pseudo-Stomon^, with its island
called Conopon-Diabasis*" ; after which come the Boreon-

* Chap. 18 of the present Book. Istropolis is supposed to be the
present tstere, though some would make it to have stood on tlie site of
the present Kostendfje, and Brotier identifies it with Kara-Kerman.

2 Now called the Schwarzwald or Black Forest. The Danube or Ister
rises on the eastern side at the spot called Donaueschingen.

3 So called from the Baurici, a powerful people of GtdUa Belgica, who
possessed several towns, of which the most important were Augusta, now
Augst, and Basilia, now BMe.

■* Only three of these are now considered of importance, as being the
main branches of the river. It is looked upon as impossible by modem
geographers to identify the accounts given by the ancients with the
present channels, by name, as the Danube has undergone in lapse of time,
very considerable changes at its mouth. Strabo mentions seven mouths,
three being lesser ones.

* So called, as stated by PHny, from the island of Pence, now Piczina,
Peuce appears to have been the most southerly of the mouths.

^ Now called Kara-Sou, according to Brotier. 'Also called Eaasefu
in the maps.

7 Now called Hazrali Bogasi, according to Brotier. It is called by
Ptolemy the Narakian Mouth.

* Or the " Beautiful Mouth." Now Susie Bogasi, according to Brotier.
^ Or the "False Mouth" : now the Sulina Bogasi, the principal mouth

of the Danube, so maltreated by its Eussian guardians.
*® Or the " Passage of the Gnats," so called from being the resort of

Chap. 25.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 329

Stoma* and the Psilon-Stoma*. These mouths are each of
them so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is
said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the
water found to be fresh.

CHAP. 25. — DACIA, BAEMATIA.

On setting out from this spot, all the nations met
with are Scythian in general, though various races have
occupied the adjacent shores ; at one spot the Getee^, by the
Romans called l)aci ; at anotlier the Sarmatae, by the Greeks
called SauromatsB, and the Hamaxobii* or Aorsi, a branch
of them ; then again the base-born Scythians and descend-
ants of slaves, or else the Troglodytae* ; and then, after
them, the Alani^ and the Ehoxalani. The higher' parts
again, between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest^, as
far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum^, and
the borders of the Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian
iazyges^", who inhabit the level country and the plains,

Bwarm8 of mosquitoes, which were said at a certain tiaae of the year to
migrate to the Palus Mseotis. According to Brotier the present name
of tliis island is Ilan Adasi, or Serpent Island.

1 The " Northern Mouth " : near the town of Kiha.

« Or the " Narrow Mouth."

3 Though Strabo distinguishes the Get«B from the Daci, most of the
ancient writers, with Pliny, speak of them as identical. It is not known,
however, why the Getce in later times assumed the name of Daci.

* " Dwellers in waggons." These were a Sarmatian tribe who wan-
dered with their waggons along the banks of the Volga. The chief seats
of the Aorsi, who seem in reaUty to have been a distinct people from the
Hamaxobii, was in the country between the Tanais, the Euxine, the
Caspian, and the Caucasus.

» " Dwellers in Caves." This name appears to have been given to
various savage races in different parts of the world.

^ There were races of the Alani in Asia on the Caucasus, and in Eu-
rope on the Maeotis and the Euxine ; but their precise geographical
position is not clearly ascertained.

7 The present Transylvania and Himgary.

* The name given in the age of Pliny to the range of moimtains ex-
tending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary.

' Its ruins are still to be seen on the south bank of the Danube near
Haimburg, between Deutsch-Altenbxirg and PetroneU. The Eoman fleet
of the Danube, with the 14th legion, was originally estabUshed there.

^ In Pliny's time this migratory tribe seems to have removed to the

330 Flint's natueal histobt. [Book IV.

while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river
Pathissus\ inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On
leaving the river Marus^, whether it is that or the Duria',
that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of
Vannius'*, the Bastemse, and, after them, other tribes of
the Germans occupy the opposite sides*. Agrippa considers
the whole of thi§ region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be
2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth to the river
Vistula in the deserts® of Sannatia. The name " Scythian"
has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatae and the
Germans ; but this ancient appellation is now only given to
those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to
nearly all the rest of the world.

CHAP. 26. — SCTTHIA.

Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos^,
^polium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous
river Tyra^, which gives name to a town on the spot where
Ophiusa is said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetae
inhabit a large island* situate in this river, which is distant

plains between the Lower Theiss and the mountains of Transylvania,
from which places they had expelled the Dacians.

1 The Lower Theiss. ^ Now the river Mark, Maros, or Morava.

* The name of the two streams now known as the Dora Baltea and
Dora Riparia, both of which faU into the Po. This passage appears to
be in a mutilated state.

* A chief of the Quadi ; who,'as we learn from Tacitus, was made king
of the Suevi by G-ermanicus, a.d. 19. Being afterwards expelled by his
nephews Vangio and Sido, he received from the emperor Claudius a
settlement in Pannonia. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole
of the east of Germany from the Danube to the Baltic.

* According to Hardouin, PUny here speaks of the other side of the
mountainous district called Higher Hungary, facing the Danube and
extending from the river Theiss to the Morava.

6 This, according to Sillig, is the real meaning of a desertis here, the
distance being meqsured from the Danube, and not between the Vistula
and the wilds of Sarmatia. The reading "four thousand" is probably
corrupt, but it seems more hkely than that of 404 miles, adopted by
Littre, in his French translation.

7 Placed by Forbiger near Lake Burmasaka, or near Islama.

8 The Dniester. The mountains of Macrocremnus, or the "Great
Heights," seem not to have been identified.

9 According to Hardouin, the modem name of this island is Tandra.

Chap. 26.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 331

from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister, so called, 130
miles. We then come to the Axiac», who take their name
from the river Axiaces\ and beyond them, the Crobyzi, the
river Rhodes^, the Sagarian Gulf ^, and the port of Ordesos*.
At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river Bory-
sthenes*, with a lake and a people of similar name, as also
a town^ in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the
sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Mile-
topolis. Again, on the shore is the port of the Achaei, and
the island of Achilles^, famous for the tomb there of that
hero, and, at a distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula
which stretches forth in the shape of a sword, in an oblique
direction, and is called, from having been his place of exercise,
Dromos Achilleos^ : the length of this, according to Agrippa,
is eighty miles.' The Taurian Scythians and the Siraci*
occupy all this tract of country.
At this spot begins a well- wooded district^®, which has

^ Now called the Tchgul, east of the Tyra or Dniester.

* Now called Sasik Beregen, according to Brotier.

s The modem Gulf of Berezen, accorchng to Brotier.

* Probably the modem Okzakow.

* The modem Dnieper. It also retains its ancient name of Borysthenes.

* We leam from Strabo that the name of this town was Olbia, and
that from being founded by the Milesians, it received the name of Mile-
topolis. According to Brotier, the modem Zapurouski occupies its site,
between the mouths of the river Buzulvik.

7 This was adjacent to the strip of land called " Dromos AchiUeos," or
the * race-course of Achilles.' It is identified by geographers with the
little island of Zmievoi or Oulan Adassi, the ' Serpents Island.' It was
said that it was to this spot that Thetis transported the body of Achilles.
By some it was made the abode of the shades of the blest, where Achilles
and other heroes of fable were the judges of the dead.

* A narrow strip of land N.W. of the Crimea and south of the mouth
of the Dnieper, running nearly due west and east. It is now divided
into two parts called Kosa Tendra and £osa Djarilgatch. Achilles was
said to have instituted games here.

^ According to Hardouin, the Siraci occupied a portion of the present
PodoHa and Ukraine, and the Tauri the modem Bessarabia.

^^ According to Herodotus, this region, called Hylsea, lay to the east of
the Borysthenes. It seems uncertain whether there are now any traces
of tliis ancient woodland ; some of the old maps however give the name
of the " Black Forest " to tliis district. From the statements of modem
travellers, the woody country does not commence till the river Don has
been reached. The district of Hylaea has been identified by geographers
with the great plain of Janboylouk in the steppe of the Nogai.

882 PLEN^t's NATTTBATi HISTOET. [Book IV.

giren to-tlie sea that washes its banks the name of the
Hylaean Sea; its inhabitants are called Enoechadlje'. Be-
yond them is the river Pantieapes^, which separates the
Nomades^ and the Georgi, and after it the Acesinus^. Some
authors say that the Panticapes flows into the Borysthenes
below Olbia*. Others, who are more correct, say that it is
the Hypanis^ : so great is the mistake made by those who
have placed it'' in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf ^, until there
is only an intervening space* of five miles between it and the
Lake Maeotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive
tracts of land, and numerous nations ; it is known as the Gulf
of Carcinites. Here we find the river Pacyris'", the towns of
Navanim and CarciQe", and behind it Lake Buges*^, which

* For Enoechadlse, Hardouin suggests that we should read Inde Hyltti^
"hence the inhabitants are called by the name of Hylsei."

* The Panticapes is usually identified with the modem Somara, but
perhaps without suflScient grounds. It is more probably the Kouskawoda.

3 The Nomades or wandering^ from the Gleorgi or agricultural Scy-
thians*

■* The Acesinus does not appear to have been identified by modem
geographers. * Above called Olbiopolis or MiletopoUs.

^ The Bog or Boug. Flowing parallel with the Borysthenes or
Dnieper, it disl^arged itself into the Euxine at the town of Olbia, at no
great distance from the mouth of the Borysthenes.

7 Probably meaning the mouth or point at which the river discharges
itself into the sea.

8 The modem Gulf of Negropoli or Perekop, on the west side of tho
Chersonesus Taiirica or Crimea.

3 Forming the present isthmus of Perekop, which divides the Sea of
Perekop from the Sea of Azof.

^^^ Called by Herodotus Hypacyris, and by later writers Carcinites. It
is generally supposed to be the same as the small stream now known as
the Kalantchak.

" Hardouin says that the city of Carcine has still retained its name,
but changed its site. More modem geographers however are of opinion
that nothing can be determined with certainty as to its site. Of the site
also of Navarum nothing seems to be known.

^ Or Buces or Byce. This is really a gulf, almost enclosed, at the end
of the Sea of Azof. Strabo gives a more full description of it imder the
name of the Sapra Limnh, " the Putrid Lake," by which name it is still
caUed, in Eussian, Sibache or Sivache More. It is a vast lagoon, covered
with water when an east wind blows the water of the Sea of Azof into it,
but at other times a tract of slime and mud, sending forth pestilential
vapours.

Chap. 26.] ACCOUNT OP COITNTEIES, ETC. 333

discharges itself by a channel into the sea. This-Buges is
separated by a ridge of rocks ^ from Coretus, a gulf in the
Lake Majotis ; it receives the rivers Buges-, Germs', and
Hypacaris'', which approach it from regions that lie in
various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidae
from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the No-
mades and the Hylaei, by an artificial channel into Lake
Buges, and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus :
this region bears the name of Scythia Siudice.

At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica* begins, which
was once covered by the sea, where we now see level
plains extended on every side : beyond this the land rises into
mountains of great elevation. The peoples here are thirty
in number, of which tAventy-three dwell in the interior, six
of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the Chara-
ceni'', the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitse, and the
Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains :
on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on
the east by the Scythian Satarchae'. On the shore, after
we leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; Ta-
phraB^, situate on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and
then Heraclea Chersonesus', to which its freedom has been
granted'" by the Eomans. This place was formerly called

* It is rather a ridge of sand, that almost separates it from the waters
of the gulf.

2 This river has not been identified by modem geographers.

3 According to Herodotus the Grerrhus or Gerrus fell into the Hypa-
caris ; which must be understood to be, not the Kalantchak, but the
Outlouk. It is probably now represented by the Moloschnijawoda,
which forms a shallow lake or marsh at its mouth.

* It is most probable that the Pacyris, mentioned above, the Hypa-
caris, and the Carcinites, were various names for the same river, gene-
rally supposed, as stated above, to be the small stream of Kalantchak.

* Now the Crimea.

^ It does not appear that the site of any of these cities has been iden-
tified. Charax was a general name for a fortified town.

' Mentioned again by Pliny in B. vi. c. 7. Solinus says that in order
to repel avarice, the Satarchae prohibited the use of gold and silver.

* On the site of the modem Perekop, more commonly called Orkapi.
^ Or Chersonesus of the Heraeleans. The town of Kosleve or Eupa-

toria is siipposed to stand on its site.

^" After the conquest of Mithridates, when the whole of these regions
fell into the hands of the Eomans.

834 JMlfT'S ITATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book lY.

Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these
regions, in consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian
manners and customs. A wall, five miles in length, sur-
rounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of Par-
thenium*, the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the Sym-
bolic, and the Promontory of Criumetopon^, opposite to
Carambis*, a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the
middle of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between
them of 170 miles, which circumstance it is in especial that
gives to this sea the form of a Scythian bow. After leaving
this headland we come to a great number of harbours and
lakes of the Tauri'. The town of Theodosia'' is distant
from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165.
Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytse,
Zephyrium, Acrae, Nymphseum, and Dia. Panticapteum', a
city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of them all, is
still in existence ; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus,
and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half,
and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other
side of the Strait, as we have previously" stated, two miles
and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which
separates Asia from Europe, and which too, from being
generally quite frozen over, allows of a passage on foot.

^ The modem Felenk-burun. So called from the Parthenos or Virgin
Diana or Artemis, whose temple stood on its heights, in which human
saorifices were offered to the goddess.

' Supposed to be the same as the now-famed port of Balaklava.

' The modem Aia-bunm, the great southern headland of the Crimea.
According to Plutarch, it was called by the natives Briiaba, which,
like the name Crivunetopon, meant the " Ram's Head."

* Now Kerempi, a promontoiy of Paphlagonia in Asia Minor. Strabo
considers this promontory and that of (>iumetopon as dividing the
Euxine into two seas.

5 According to Strabo, the sea-line of the Tauric Chersonesus, after
leaving the port of the Symboh, extended 125 miles, as far as Theodosia.
Pliny would here seem to make it rather greater.

6 The modem Kaffa occupies its site. The sites of many of the places
here mentioned appear not to be known at the present day.

7 The modem Kertsch, situate on a hill at the very mouth of the
Cimmerian Bosporus, or Straits of Enikale or Kaffa, opposite the town
of Phanagoria in Asia.

8 In C. 24 of the present Book. Clark identifies the town of Cim-
merium with the modem Temmk, Forbiger with Eskikrimm. It is
again mentioned in B. vi. c. 2.

Chap. 26.] ACCOtmT OP COrXTBrES, ETC. 335

The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus^ is twelve miles and
a hall": it contains the towns of Hermisium', Myrmecium,
and, in the interior' of it, the island of Alopece. From the
spot called TaphrsB^ at the extremity of the isthmus, to the
mouth of the Bosporus, along the Ime of the Lake Mseotis,
is a distance of 260 miles.

Leaving Taphrae, and going along the mainland, we find
in the interior the AuchetsB*, in whose country the Hypania
has its rise, as also the Neurce, in whose district the Bory-
Bthenes has its source, theGeloni',theThyssageta?,theBudini,
the Basilid», and the Agathyrsi' with their azure-coloured
hair. Above them are the Nomades, and then a nation of
Anthropophagi or cannibals. On leaving Lake Buges, above
the Lake Maeotis we come to the ISauromats& and the Esse-
dones*. Along the coast, as far as the river Tanais^, are

* He alludes here, not to the Strait bo called, but to the Peninsula
bordering upon it, upon which the modem town of Kertsch is situate,
and which projects from the larger Peninsula of the Crimea, as a sort of
excrescence on its eastern side.

2 Probably Hermes or Mercury was ita tutelar diyinity : ita site
appears to be unknown.

' Probably meaning the Straits or passage connecting the Lake MseotiB
with the Euxine. The fertile district of the Cimmerian Bosporus was
at one time the granary of Greece, especially Athens, which imported
thence annually 400,000 medimni of com.

* A town so called on the Isthmus of Perekop, from a Td<ppos or
trench, which was cut across the isthmus at this point.

5 Loraonossov, in his History of Kussia, says that these people were
the same as the Sclavoni : but that one meaning of tlie name ' Slavane *
being " a boaster," the Greeks gave them the corresponding appellation
of Auchetse, from the word aux^> which signifies "boasting."

6 Of the Gfeloni, called by Virgil " picti," or " painted," nothing cer-
tain seems to be kno^Ti : they are associated by Herodotus with the
Budini, supposed to belong to the Slavic family by Schafarik. In B. iv.
c. 108, 109, of his History, Herodotus gives a very particular accoimt of
the Budini, who had a city built entirely of wood, the name of wliieh was
Gelonus. The same author also assigns to the Geloni a Greek origin.

7 The Agathyrsi are placed by Herodotus near the upper course of the
river Maris, in the S.E. of Dacia or the modem Transylvania. Pliny
however seems here to assign them a different locaHty.

8 Also called "Assedones" and "Issedones." It has been suggested by
modem geographers that their locality must be assigned to the east of
Icliim, on the steppe of the central horde of the Kirghiz, and that of the
Arimaspi on the northern dechvity of the chain of the Altai.

^ Now the Don.

836 PLrNX's NATUHAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

the MaeotaB, from whom the lake derives its name, and the
last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then
come to the Riphaean* mountains, and the region known by
the name of Pterophoros^, because of the perpetual fall of
snow there, the flakes of which resemble feathers ; a part of
the world which has been condemned by the decree of
nature to lie immersed in thick darkness ; suited for nothing
but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of the
chilling blasts of the northern winds.

Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the
northern winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a
happy race, known as the Hyperborei', a race that lives to an
extreme old age, and which has been the subject of many mar-
vellous stories^. At this spot are supposed to be the hinges
upon which the world revolves, and the extreme limits of the
revolutions of the stars. Here we find light for six months
together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who does
not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal
himself from the vernal equinox^ to autumn. On the contrary,
to these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year,
and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the
winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the
sun, is of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from

* Most probably these mountains were a western branch of the TJra-
lian cliain.

3 From the Greek irTepotpopoi, "wing-bearing" or "feather-bearing."
3 This legendary race was said to dwell in tlie regions beyond Boreas,
or the northern wind, which issued fix)m the Riphsean mountains, the
name ofwliichwas derived from pnrai or "hurricunea" issuing from
a carem, and which these heights warded off from the Hyperboreans and
sent to more southern nations. Hence they never felt the northern
blasts, and enjoyed a life of supreme happiness and vuidisturbed repose.
" Here," says Humboldt, " are the first views of a natural science which
explains the distribution of heat and the difference of climates by local
causes — by the direction of the winds — the proximity of the sun, and the
action of a moist or saline principle." — A^ Centtale, vol. i.

< Pindar says, in the " Pytliia," x. 56, " The Muse is no stranger to
their manners. The dances of girls and the sweet melody of the lyre
and pipe resoimd on every side, and vrreathing their locks vnth the
glistening bay, they feast joyously. For this sacred race there is no doom
of sickness or of disease ; but they live apart from toil and battles, undis-
turbed by the exacting Nemesis."

* Hardouin remarks that Pomponius Mela, who asserts that the
sun rises here at the vernal and sets at the autumnal equinox, is right in

Chap. 26.] ACOOimT OP COUNTEIES, ETC. 837

every noxious blast. The abodes of the natives are the
woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly
and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sick-
ness are things utterly unknown. Death comes upon them
only when satiated with life ; after a career of feasting,
in an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a
certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the
most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have
placed these people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of
the shores of Asia, because we find there a people called the
Attacori\ who greatly resemble them and occupy a very-
similar locality. Other writers again have placed them mid-
way between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the
Antipodes and rises to us ; a thing however that cannot
possibly be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which
there intervenes. Those writers who place them nowhere*
but under a day which lasts for six months, state that in the
morning they sow, at mid-day they reap, at sunset they
gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the night conceal
themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain any
doubts as to the existence of this race ; so many authors^
are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending
their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom
in especial they worship. Vu-gins used to carry them, who
for many years were held in high veneration, and received
the rites of hospitality from the nations that lay on the
route ; until at last, in consequence of repeated violations
of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination
to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people
who adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey

his position, and that Pliny is incorrect in his assertion. The same
commentator thinks that Plmy can have hardly intended to censure Mela,
to whose learning he had been so much indebted for his geographical
information, by applying to him the epithet " imperitus," ' ignorant '
or ' unskilled' ; he therefore suggests that the proper reading here is,
" ut non imperiti dixere," " as some by no means ignorant persons have
asserted." * The Attacori are also mentioned in B. vi. c. 2(1

2 Sillig omits the word "non " here, in which case the reading woula
be, " Those writers who place them anywhere but, &c. j" it is difficult to
see with what meaning.

3 Herodotus, B. iv., states to this effect, and after him, Pomponius
Mela, B. iii. c 5.

yOL. I. 7i

338 .jihtt's fatiteal histoet. [Book rv.

them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the other,
till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this
custom, even, in time fell into disuse.

The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the
whole of the region which extends from the river Bory-
sthenes, is, according to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth
717. I am of opinion, however, that in this part of the
earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly doubtful.

CHAP. 27. — THE ISLANDS OF THE ETIXnTE. THE ISLANDS
OF THE NOBTHEEN OCEAN.

But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally
proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be de-
scribed. As for its seas, we have already made mention of
them.

(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe
that are worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a
distance of a mile and a half from the European shore, and
of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait, the two Cyanaean*
islands, by some called the Symplegades^, and stated in fabu-
lous story to have run the one against the other ; the reason
being the circumstance that they are separated by so short
an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite
to them they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed
in a somewhat oblique direction they have the appearance of
becoming gradually united into one. On this side of the
Ister there is the single island' of the Apolloniates, eighty
miles from the Thracian Bosporus ; it was from this place
that M. Lucullus brought the Capitoline'* Apollo. Those

1 These islands, or rather rocks, are now known as Fanari, and lie at
the entrance of the Straits of Constantinople.

2 From <Tvv and TrXriyT), "a striking together." Toumefort has ex-
plained the ancient story of these islands running together, by remarking
that each of them consists of one craggy island, but that when the sea is
distm'bed the water covers the lower parts, so as to make the different
points of eacli resemble isolated rocks. They are united to the mainland
by a kind of isthmus, and appear as islands only when it is invmdated in
stormy weather.

* Upon which the city of Apollonia (now Siaeboh), mentioned in.
C. 18 of the present Book, was situate.

* So called because it was dedicated by Lucullus in the Capitol. It
was thirty cubits in height.

Chap. 27.] ACCOUNT OF COXTNTEIES, ETC. 339

islands which are to be found between the mouths of the
later we have already mentioned ^ Before the Borysthenes
is Achillea^ previously referred to, known also by the names
of Leuce and Macaron^. Researches which have been made
at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles
from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyra, and of fifty from
the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in circumference.
The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are Cepha-
lonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the
Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed
by many writers that all the interior^ seas take their rise in
this one as the principal source, and not at the Straits of
Grades. The reason they give for this supposition is not an
improbable one — the fact that the tide is always running
out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb.
^ We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer por-
tions* of Europe. After passing the Eiphaean mountains we

* In C. 24 of the present Book.

* Mentioned in the last Chapter as the " Island of Achilles."

* From the Greek fxaKapuv, " (The island) of the Blest." It was also
called the " Island of the Heroes."

* Meaning all the inland or Mediterranean seas.

* As the whole of Pliny's description of the northern shores of Europe
is replete with difficulties and obscurities, we cannot do better than tran-
scribe the learned remarks of M.Parisot, the Geographical Editor of Ajas-
Bon's Edition, in reference to this subject. He says, " Before entering on
the discussion of this portion of Pliny's geography, let us here observe, once
for all, that we shall not remark as worthy of our notice all those ridiculous
hypotheses which could only take their rise in ignorance, precipitation, or
a love of the marvellous. We shall decline then to recognize the Doffre-
folds in the mountains of Sevo, the North Cape in the Promontory of
Bubeas, and the Sea of Greenland in the Cronian Sea. The absurdity
of these suppositions is proved by — I. The impossibility of the ancients
ever making their way to these distant coasts without the aid of large
vessels, the compass, and others of those appliances, aided by which Eu-
ropean skill finds the greatest difficulty in navigating those distant seas.
II. The immense lacvmse which would be fovmd to exist in the •descrip-
tions of these distant seas and shores : for not a word do we find about
those numerous archipelagos which are found 8(^attered throughout the
North Sea, not a word about Iceland, nor about the nionberless seas and
fiords on the coast of Norway. III. The absence of all remarks upon
the local phsenomena of these spots. The Norlih Cape belongs to the
second polar climate, the longest day there being two months and a half.
Is it likely that navigators would have omitted to mention this remarkable
phenomenon, well known to the Eomans by virtue of their astronomical

z2

340 PLDrr's NATUBAii histoet. [Book lY.

have now to follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the
left, until we arrive at Grades. In this direction a great

theories, but one with which practically they had neyer made themselves
acquainted ? — The only geographers who here merit our notice are those
who are of opinion that in some of the coasts or islands here mentioned
Pliny describes the Scandinavian Peninsula, and in others the Coast of
Finland. The first question then is, to what point Pliny first carries us ?
It is evident that from the Black Sea he transports himself on a sud-
den to the shores of the Baltic, thus passing over at a single leap a con-
siderable space filled with nations and imknown deserts. The question
then is, what line has he followed ? Supposing our author had had before
his eyes a modem map, the imaginary line which he would have drawn
in making this transition wovdd have been from Odessa to the Kurisch-
Haff. In this direction the breadth across Europe is contracted to a
space, between the two seas, not more than 268 leagues in length. A
very simple mode of reasoning will conclusively prove that Pliny has
deviated Httle if anything from this route. If he fails to state in precise
terms upon what point of the shores of the Baltic he alights after leaving
the Eipha»n mountains, his enumeration of the rivers which discharge
themselves into that sea, and with which he concludes his account of
Germany, will supply us with the requisite information, at all events in
great part. In following his description of the coast, we find mention
madeof the following rivers, theGuttalus, the Vistula, theElbe, theWeser,
the Ems, the Khine, and the Meuse. The five last mentioned follow in
their natural order, from east to west, as was to be expected in a descrip-
tion starting fi^m the east of Europe for its western extremity and the
shores of Cadiz. We have a right to conclude then that the Guttalus
was to the east of the Vistida. As we shall now endeavour to show,
this river was no other than the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel, which
the Romans probably, in advancing from west to east, considered as the
principal stream, from the circumstance that they met with it, before
coming to the larger river. The Pregel after being increased by the waters
of the Alle or Guttalus falls into the rrisch-Hafi", about one degree
further west than the Kurisch-Haflf. It may however be here remarked,
Why not find a river more to the east, the Niemen, for instance, or the
Dima, to be represented by the Guttalus ? The Niemen in especial would
suit in every respect equally well, because it discharges itself into the
Kurisch-HafF. This conjecture however is incapable of support, when
we reflect that the ancients were undoubtedly acquainted with some
points of the coast to the east of the mouth of the Guttalus, but which,
according to the system followed by our author, would fonn part of the
Continent of Asia. These points are, 1st. The Cape Lytaimis (men-
tioned by Pliny, B. vi. c. 4). 2ndly. The mouth of the river Carambucis
(similarly mentioned by him), and 3rdly, a little to the east of Cape Ly
tarmis, the mouth of the Tanais. The name of Cape Lytarmis suggests
to us Lithuania, and probably represents Domess-Ness in Courland ; the
Carambucis can be no other than the Niemen ; while the Tanais, upon
■which so many authors, ancient and modem, have exhausted their con-

Chap. 27.] AOCOUTTT OP COTJNTEIES, ETC. 841

number of islands^ are said to exist that have no name ; among
which there is one which lies opposite to Scythia, mentioned
under the name of Raunonia^, and said to be at a distance
of the day's sail from the mainland ; and upon which, accord-
ing to TimaBus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the spring
season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are
only knowTi from reports of doubtful authority. "With refer-
ence to the SeptentrionaP or Northern Ocean; Hecataeus
calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river Parapa-
nisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian

jectures, from confounding it with the Southern Tanais which fells into
the Sea of Azof, is evidently the same as the Dwina or Western Dima.
This is estabHshed incontrovertibly both by its geographical position (the
mouth of the Dwina being only fifty leagues to the east of Domess-Ness)
and the identity evidently of the names Dwina and Tanais. Long since,
Leibnitz was the first to remark the presence of the radical T. n, or D. n,
either with or without a vowel, in the names of the great rivers of Eastern
Europe ; Danapris or Dnieper, Danaster or Dniester, Danube (in Ger-
man Donau, in Hungarian Duna), Tanais or Don, for example; all
which rivers however discharge themselves into the Black Sea. There
can be httle doubt then of the identity of the Duna with tlie Tanais, it
being the only body of water in these vast countries which bears a name
resembhng the initial Tan, or Tn, and at the same time belongs to the
basin of the Baltic. We are aware, it is true, that the White Sea re-
ceives a river Dwina, which is commonly called the Northern Dwina,
but there can be no real necessity to be at the trouble of combatmg the
opinion that this river is identical with the Northern Tanais. As the
result then of our investigations, it is at the eastern extremity of the
Frisch-Haff and near the mouth of the Pregel, that we would place the
point at which Pliny sets out. As for the Riphsean moimtains, they have
never existed anywhere but in the head of the geographers from whom
our author drew his materials. From the mountains of Ural and Poiaa,
which Pliny could not possibly have in view, seeing that they he in a
meridian as eastern as the Caspian Sea, the traveller has to proceed 600
leagues to the south-west without meeting with any chains of moimtains
or indeed considerable elevations."

^ It is pretty clear that he refers to the numerous islands scattered over
the face of the Baltic Sea, such as Dago, Oesel, Gothland, and Aland.

2 The old reading here was Bannomanna, which Dupinet would trans-
late by the modern Bomholm. Parisot considers that the modem Runa,
a calcareous rock covered with vegetable earth, in the vicinity of Domess-
Ness, is the place mdicated.

* It has been suggested by Brotier that Phny here refers to the Icy-
Sea, but it is more probable that he refers to the north-eastern part of
the Baltic, which was looked upon by the ancients as forming part of
the open sea.

34i2 plint's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

sea, the word ' Amalchian' signifying'iii the language of these
races, frozen. Philemon again sa^s that it is called Morima-
rusa or the " Dead Sea" by the Cunbri, as far as the Promon-
tory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the Cro-
nian^ Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance
of three days' sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an
island of immense size called Baltia'^, which by Pytheas is
called Basilia^. Some islands "* called Oonse are said to be

1 With reference to these divisions of land and sea, a subject which is
involved in the greatest obscurity, Parisot states it as his opinion that
the Amalchian or Icy Sea is that portion of the ^altic which extends
from Cape Rutt to Cape Grinea, while on the other hand the Cronian
Sea comprehends all the gulfs which lie to the east of Cape Rutt, such
as the llaff, the gidfs of Stettin and Danzic, the Frisch-Hatt', and the Ku-
risch-Haft'. He dso thinks that the name of 'Cronian' originally belonged
only to tliat portion of the Baltic which washes the coast of Covu-lauad,
but that travellers gradually apphed the term to the whole of the sea.
He is also of opinion that the word " Cronium" owes its origin to the
Teutonic and Danish adjective groen or " green." The extreme verdure
which characterizes the islands of the Danish archipelago has given to
the piece of water which separates the islands of FaLst<?r and Moen the
name of Groensund, and it is far from improbable that the same epithet
was given to the Pomeranian and Prussian Seas, which the Romans would
be not vmUkely to call 'Gronium' or 'Cronium fretum,' or 'Cronium
mare.' In the name 'Parapamsus' he also discovers a resemblance to that
of modem Pomerania.

2 Upon this Parisot remarks that on leaving Cape Rutt, at a distance
of about twenty -five leagues in a straight line, we come to the island of
Funen or Fyen, commonly called Fionia, the most considerable of the
Danish archipelago next to Zealand, and which lying between the two
Belts, tlie Greater and the Smaller, may very probably from that cir-
cumstance have obtained the name of Baltia. Brotier takes Baltia to
be no other than Nova Zembla — so conflicting are the opinions of com-
mentators !

3 Parisot suggests that under this name may possibly lie concealed
that of the modem island of Zealand or Seeland, and that it may have
borne on the side of it next to the Belt the name of Baltseeland, easily
corrupted by the Greeks into Basilia.

■* Brotier takes these to be the islands of Aloo, and Bieloi or Ostrow,
at the mouth of the river Paropanisus, which he considers to be the same
as the Obi. Parisot on the other hand is of opinion that islands of the
Baltic are here referred to ; that from the resemblance of the name Oonse
to the Greek woV, "an egg," the story that the natives subsisted on the
eggs of birds was formed ; that not improbably the group of the Hippo-
podes resembled the shape of a horse- shoe, from which the story men-
tioned by Pliny took its rise j and that the Fanesii (or, as the reading here

Chap. 27.1 JlCCOTTST 01 COTHSfTEIES, ETC. 843

here, the inhabitants of which live on the eggs of birds
and oats; and others again upon which human beings
are produced with the feet of horses, thence called Hippo-
podes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of
tlie Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extra-
ordinary size as to cover the rest of the body, which is
otherwise left naked.

Leaving these however, we come to the nation of tlie In-
gflBvones^ the first in Germany ; at which we begin to have
some information upon which more implicit reliance can be
placed. In their country is an immense mountain called
Sevo^, not less than those of the Riphaean range, and which
forms an immense gulf along the shore as far as the Promon-
tory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name of the
* Codauian,' is filled with islands ; the most famous among
which is Scandinavia', of a magnitude as vet unascertained :
the only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation
of the Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a
second world: it is generally supposed that the island of

has it, the Panotii, " all*ean") wore their hair very short, firom which
circumstance their ears appeared to be of a larger size than usual.

* Tacitu3 speaks of three great groups of the German tribes, the In-
gsevones forming the first thereof, and consisting of those which dwelt on
the margin of the ocean, the Hermiones in the interior, and the Istsevones
in the east and south of Germany. We shall presently find that Pliny
adds two groups, the Vandili as the fourth, and the Peucini and Bastema
as the fifth. This classification however is thought to originate in a mis-
take, for Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the Vandili belonged to the
Hermiones, and that Peucini and Bastemse are only names of individvial
tribes and not of groups of tribes.

* Brotier and other geographers are of opinion that by this name the
chain of the Doffrefeld moimtains is meant ; but this cannot be the case
if we suppose with Parisot that Pliny here returns south from the Scan-
dinavian islands and takes his departure from Cape Butt in the territory
of the Ingsevones. Still, it is quite impossible to say what mountains he
would designate under the name of Sevo. Parisot suggests that it is a form
of the compound word " seevohner," " inhabitants of the sea," and that it
is a general name for the elevated lands along the margin of the sea-shore.

3 Parisot supposes that under this name the isle of Fimen is meant,
but it is more generally thought that Norway and Sweden are thus de-
signated, as that peninsula was generally looked upon as an island by the
ancients. The Codanian G\ilf was the sea to the east of the Cimbriwi
Chersonesus or Jutland, filled with the islands which belong to the modem
kingdom of Denmark. It was therefore the southern part of the Baltic.

344 plint's nattjeal histoet. [Book IV.

Eningia* is of not less magnitude. Some writers state that
tliese regions, as far as the river Vistula, are inhabited by the
Sarmp-ti, the Venedi^, the Sciri, and the Hirri^, and that there
is a gulf there known by the name of Cylipenus^, at the mouth
of which is the island of Latris, after which comes another
gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the Cimbri. The
Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great
distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of Cartris^.
Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which
have been made known by the Eoman arms^: the most
famous of which is Burcana^, called by our people Fabaria,
from the resemblance borne ^ by a fruit which grows there
spontaneously. There are those also called Glaesaria** by our

* By Eningia Hardouin thinks that the coxmtry of modem Finland is
meant. Poinsinet thinks that xrnder the name are included Ingria, Li-
vonia, and Cotirland ; while Parisot seems inclined to be of opinion that
under this name the island of Zealand is meant, a village of which, about
three-fourths of a league firom the western coast, according to him, still
bears the name of Heininge.

2 Parisot is of opinion that the Venedi, also called Vinidse and Vin-
dni, were of Sclavish origin, and situate on the shores of the Baltic. He
remarks that this people, in the fifth century, founded in Pomerania, when
quitted by the Goths, a kingdom, the chiefs of which styled themselves
the Konjucs of Vinland. Their name is also to be found in Venden, a
Russian town in the government of Riga, in Windenbm'g in Courland, and
in Wenden in the circle of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin.

* Parisot remarks that these two peoples were probably only tribes
of the Venedi.

* Parisot feels convinced that Pliny is speaking here of the Gulf of
Travemunde, the island of Femeren, and then of the gulf which extends
from that island to Kiel, where the Eider separates Holstein from Jut-
land. On the other hand, Hardouin thinks that by the Gulf of Cylipe-
nus the Gulf of Riga is meant, and that Latris is the modem island of
Oesel. But, as Parisot justly remarks, to put this construction on Pliny's
language is to invert the order in which he has hitherto proceeded, evi-
dently from east to west.

5 The modem Cape of Skagen on the north of Jutland.
8 When Drusus held the command in Germany, as we learn from
Strabo, B. vii.

7 It is generally agreed that this is the modem island of Borkhum, at
the mouth of the river Amaiius or Ems.

8 To a bean, from which (faba) the island had its name of Fabaria.
In confirmation of this Hardouin states, that in his time there was a
tower still standing therewhich was called by the natives Set boon huys^
" the bean house."

' From the word gles or glas^ which primarily means ' glass,' and then

Chap. 28.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC.

845

soldiers, from their amber ; but by the barbarians they are
known as Austeravia and Actania.

CHAP. 28. — GEEMANT.

The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the Scaldis\
a river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions
of whose respective territories it is quite impossible to state,
BO immensely do the authors differ who have touched upon
this subject. The Greek wTiters and some of our own
countrymen have stated the coast of Germany to be 2500
miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Ehsetia and Nori-
cum in his estimate, makes the length to be 686^ miles, and
the breadth 148'. (14.) The breadth of Ehaetia alone how-
ever very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed
we ought to state that it was only subjugated at about the
period of the death of that general ; while as for Germany,
the whole of it was not thoroughly known to us for many
years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a conjec-
ture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short
of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a
straight line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by
Agrippa.

There are five German races ; the Yandili'*, parts of whom

figuratively " amber." Probably (Eland and (Gothland. They will be
found again mentioned in the Thirtieth Chapter of the present Book.
See p. 351. ^ Now the Scheldt.

2 In a straight line, of course. Parisot is of opinion that in forming
this estimate Agrippa began at the angle formed by the river Piave in
lat. 46° 4', measuring thence to Cape Rubeas (now Rutt) in lat. 54° 25'.
Tliis would give 8° 21', to which, if we add some twenty leagues for obli-
quity or diiference of longitude, the total would make exactly the distance
here mentioned.

* As Parisot remarks, it is totally impossible to conceive the source
of such an erroneous conclusion as this. Some. readings make the amount
248, others 268.

4 As already mentioned, Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the Van-
dili or Yindili properly belonged to the Hermiones. Tacitus mentions
but three groups of the Grerman nations ; the Ingaevones on the ocean,
the Hermiones in the interior, and the Istsevones in the east and south
of Germany. The Vandili, a Gothic race, dwelt originally on the northern
coast of Germany, but afterwards settled nqrth of the Marcomanni on the

346 PLENT's NATUEiLL HISTOET. [Book IV.

are tlie Burgundiones^, the Yarini^, the Carini', and the
Gutones'*: the Ingaevones, forming a second race, a por-
tion of whom are the Cimbri*, the Teutoni**, and the tribes

Eiesengebirge. They subsequently appeared in Dacia and Pannonia, and
in the beginning of the fifth century invaded Spain. Under Genseric they
passed over into Africa, and finally took and plundered Rome in a.d. 455.
Their kingdom was finally destroyed by Belisarius.

1 It is supposed that the Burgundiones were a Gothic people dwelling
in the country between the rivers Viadus and Vistula, though Ammianus
Marcellinus declares them to have been of pure Roman origin. How
they came into the country of the Upper Maine in the south-west of
Germany ia a.d. 289, historians have found themselves at a loss to in-
form us. It is not improbable that the two peoples were not identical,
and that the similarity of their name arose only from the circxunstance that
they both resided in " burgi" or burghs. See Gibbon, iii. 99. Bohn's Ed.

^ The Varini dwelt on the right bank of the Albis or Elbe, north of the
Langobardi. Ptolemy however, who seems to mention them as the Ava-
rini, speaks of them as dwelhng near the soiu-ces of the Vistula, on the
site of the present Cracow. See Gibbon, iv. 225. Bohn's Ed.

s Nothing whatever is known of the locaUty of this people.

* They are also called in history Gothi, Gothones, Gotones and Gut».
According to Pytheas of MarseiUes (as mentioned by Pliny, B. ixxvii.
c. 2), they dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, in the vicinity of what is
now called the Fritsch-Haff. Tacitus also refers to the same district,
though he does not speak of them as inhabiting the coast. Ptolemy
again speaks of them as dwelling on the east of the Vistida, and to the
south of the Venedi. The later form of their name, Gothi, does not occur
till the time of Caracalla. Their native name was Gutthinda. They are
first spoken of as a powerful nation at the beginning of the third cen-
tury, when we find them mentioned as 'Getse,' from the circumstance of
their having occupied the countries formerly inhabited by the Sarmatian
Getse. The formidable attacks made by this people, divided into the
nations of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, upon the Roman power during
its decline, are too well known to every reader of Gibbon to require
further notice.

5 The inhabitants of Chersonesus Cimbrica, the modem peninsula of
Jutland. It seems doubtful whether these Cimbri were a Germanic na-
tion or a Celtic tribe, as also whether they were the same race whose
numerous hordes successively defeated six Roman armies, and were finally
conquered by C. Marius, B.C. 101, in the Campi Raudii. The more
general impression, however, entertained by historians, is that they were
a Celtic or GfiUic and not a Germanic nation. The name is said to have
signified "robbers." See Gibbon, i. 273, iii. 365. Bohn'sEd.

6 The Teutoni or Teutones dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, adjacent
to the territory of the Cimbri. Their name, though belonging originally
to a single nation or tribe, came to be afterwards appHed collectively to
the whole people of Gtennany. See Gibbon, iii. 139. BohrCs Ed.

Chap. 28.] ACCOUNT OP C0T7NTEIES, ETC. 847

of the Chauci\ The IstaBvones', who join up to the Bhine,
and to whom the Cimbri^ belong, are the thu*d race ; while
the Ilermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior,
and include the Suevi^, the Hermunduri*, the Chatti', and

* Also called Cauchi, Cauci, and Cayci, a German tribe to the east of
the Frisians, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. The modem Olden-
burg and Hanover are supposed to pretty nearly represent the coimtry
of the Chauci. In B. xvi. c. 1. 2, will be found a further account of them
by Pliny, who had visited their comitry, at least that part of it which lay
on the sea-coast. They are mentioned for the last time in the third cen-
tury, when they had extended so far south and west that they are spoken
of as hving on the banks of the Rhine.

' Mentioned by Tacitus as dwelling in the eaat and south of Germany.

8 It has been suggested by Titzius that the words " quorum Cimbri,"
** to whom the Cimbri belong," are an interpolation ; which is not im-
probable, or at least that the word "Cimbri" has been substituted for
some other name.

< This appears to be properly the collective name of a great number of
the German tribes, who were of a migratory mode of life, and spoken of
in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went vmder the general name
of Ingsevones. Csesar speaks of them as dwelling east of the Ubii and
Sygambri, and west of the Cherusci. Strabo makes them extend in an
easterly direction beyond the Albis or Elbe, and southerly as far as the
sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole
of the east of Germany, from the Danube to the Baltic. The name of
the modem Suabia is derived from a body of adventurers from various
German tribes, who assumed the name of Suevi in consequence of their
not possessing any other appellation.

' A large and powerful tribe of Germany, which occupied the exten-
sive tract of country between the mountains in the north-west of Bohe-
mia and the Roman Wall in the south-west, which formed the boundary
of the Agri Decumates. On the east they bordered on the Narisci, on
the north-east on the Cherusci, and on the north-west on the Chatti.
There is Uttle doubt that they originally formed part of the Suevi. At
a later period they spread in a north-easterly direction, taking possession
of the north-western part of Bohemia and the country about the sources
of the Maine and Saale, that is, the part of Franconia as tar as Kissingen
and the south-western part of the kingdom of Saxony. The name Her-
munduri is thought by some to signify highlanders, and to be a com-
pound oi Her or Ar, "high," and Mund, "man."

^ One of the great tribes of Germany, which rose to importance after
the decay of the power of the Cherusci. It is thought by ethnographers
that their name is still preserved in the word "Hessen." They formed the
chief tribe of the Hermiones here mentioned, and are described by Csesar
as belonging to the Suevi, though Tacitus distinguishes them, and no
German tribe in fact occupied more permanently its original locahty than
the Chatti. Their original abode seems to have extended from the Wester-

848 PLnrr's natueal mstOET. [Book IV.

the Cherusci^ : the fifth race is that of the Peucini', who are
also the Eastemae, adjoining the Daci previously mentioned.
The more famous rivers that flow into the ocean are the
G-uttalus^, the Vistillus or Vistula, the Albis^, the Visurgis^,
the Amisius®, the Rhine, and the Mosa'. In the interior is
the long extent of the Hercynian® range, which in grandeur
is inferior to none.

■wald in the west to the Saale in Franconia, and from the river Maine
in the south as far aa the sources of the EUson and the Weser, so that
they occupied exactly the modem country of Hessen, including perhaps
a portion of the north-west of Bavaria. See Gibbon, vol. iii. 99. Bohn's J£d.

* The Cherusci were the most celebrated of all the German tribes, and
are mentioned by Csesar as of the same importance as the Suevi, from
whom they were separated by the Silva Bacensis. There is some diffi-
culty in stating their exact locality, but it is generally supposed that
their coimtry extended from the Visui^ or Weser in the west to the
Albis or Elbe in the east, and from Melibocus in the north to the neigh-
bourhood of the Sudeti in the south, so that the Chamavi and Lango-
bardi were their northern neighbours, the Chatti the western, the Her-
munduri the southern, and the Silingi and Semnones their eastern
neighbours. This tribe, mider their chief Arminius or Hermann, form-
ing a confederation with many smaller tribes in a.d. 9, completely defeated
the Romans in the famous battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In later times
they were conquered by the Chatti, so that Ptolemy speaks of them
only as a small tribe on the south of the Hartz mountain. Their name
afterwards appears, in the beginning of the fourth century, in the con-
federation of the Franks.

^ The Peucini are mentioned here, as also by Tacitus, as identical with
the Bastemse. As already mentioned, supposing them to be names for
distinct nations, they must be taken ao only names of individual tribes,
and not of groups of tribes. It is generally supposed that their first
settlements in Sarm&tia were in the higldands between the Theiss and
the March, whence they passed onward to the lower Danube, as far as
its mouth, where a portion of them, settling in the island of Pence, ob-
tained the name of Peucini. In the later geographers we find them
settled between the Tyrus or Dniester, and the Borysthenes or Dnieper,
the Peucini remaining at the mouth of the Danube.

3 According to Parisot, the Guttalus is the same as the Alle, a tribu-
tary of the Pregel. Cluver thinks that it is the same as the Oder.
Other writers again consider it the same as the Pregel.

4 Or Elbe. ^ Now the Weser. ^ The modem Ems. 7 The Meuse.

* The ' Hercynia Silva,' Hercynian Forest or Range, is very differently
described by the writers of various ages. The earliest mention of it is
by Aristotle. Judging from the accounts given by Caesar, Pomponius
Mela, and Strabo, the ' Hercynia Silva' appears to have been a general
name for almost all the moimtains of Southern and Central Germany,
that is, from the sources of the Danube to Transylvania, comprising the

Chap. 29.] ACCOXJITT OP COUNTEIES, ITO. 849

CHAP. 29. (15.) — NINETT-BIX ISLAITDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN.

In the Ehine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the
most famous island' of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as
also other islands of the Frisii^ the Chauci, the Frisian
bones', the Sturii\ and the Marsacii, which lie between He-
lium' and Flevum'. These are the names of the mouths

Schwarzwald, Odenwald, Spessart, Rh6n, Thuringer Wald, the Harts
mountain (which seems in a great measure to have retained the ancient
name), Raube Alp, Stei^rwald, Fichtelgebirge, Erzgebirge, and Riesen-
gebirge. At a later period •<irhen the mountains of Germany had become
better known, the name was appUed to the more limited range extending
around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Himgary.

* This island appears to have been formed by the bifurcation of the
Rhine, the northern branch of wliich enters the sea at Katwyck, a few
miles north of Leyden, by the Waal and the course of the Maas, alter it haa
received the Waal, and by the sea. The Waal or Vahalis seems to have
undergone considerable changes, and the place of its junction with the
Maas may have varied. Pliny makes the island nearly 100 miles in length,
which is about the distance from the fort of Schenienschanz, where the
first separation of the Rhine takes place, to the mouth of the Maae. The
name of Batavia was no doubt the genuine name, which is still preserved
in Betuwe, the name of a district at the bifurcation of the Rhine and the
Waal. The Canninefates, a people of the same race as the Batavi, also
occupied the island, and as the Batavi seem to have been in the eastern
part, it is supposed tliat the Canninefates occupied the western. They
were subdued by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus.

' The Frisii or Frisones were one of the great tribes of north-western
Germany, properly belonging to the group of the Ingsevones. They in-
habited the country about Lake Flevo and other lakes, between the Rhine
and the Ems, so as to be boxmded on the south by the Bructeri, and on
the east by the Chauci. Tacitus distinguishes between the Frisii Ma-
jores and Minores, and it is supposed that the latter dwelt on the east of
the canal of Dnisus in the north of Holland, and the former between the
rivers Flevus and Amisia, that is, in the coimtry which still bears the
name of Fi'iesland. The Chauci have been previously mentioned.

3 The Frisiabones or Frissevones are again mentioned in C. 31 of the
present Book as a people of Gtiul. In what locahty they dwelt has not
been ascertained by historians.

* The Sturii are supposed to have inhabited the modem South Holland,
while the Marsacii probably inhabited the island which the Meuse forms
at its junction with the Rliine, at the modem Dortrecht in Zealand.

' Supposed to be the site of the modem fortress of Briel, situate at
the mouth of the Meuse.

' Probably the same as the modem Vlieland (thus partly retaining its
ancient name), an island north of the Texel. The more ancient writers
speak of two main arms, into which the Rhine was divided on entering

350 Flint's i^atueal histoet. [Book ly.

into wliicli the Eliine divides itself, discharging its waters on
the north into the lakes there, and on the west into the river
Mosa. At the middle mouth which lies between these two,
the river, having but a very small channel, preserves its own
name.

CHAP. 30. (16.) — BEITAITNIA.

Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so
celebrated in the records of Greece^ and of our own country.
It is situate to the north-west, and, with a large tract of
intervening sea, lies opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain,
by far the greater part of Europe. Its former name was
Albion^ ; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we
shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the
name of " Britanniae." This island is distant from Gesoriacum,
on the coast of the nation of the Morini', at the spot where
the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas and
Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is
barely thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was
gained by the successes of the Koman arms, and even as yet
they have not penetrated beyond the vicinity of the Caledo-
nian^ forest. Agrippa believes its length to be 800 miles, and

the territory of the Batavi, of which the one on the east continued to bear
the name of Rhenus, while that on the west into which the Masa, Maas
or Meuse, flowed, was called Vahahs or Waal. After Drusus, B.C. 12,
had connected the Flevo Lacus or Zujder-Zee with the Rhine by means
of a canal, in forming which he probably made use of the bed of the
Yssel, we find mention made of three mouths of the Rhine. Of these
the names, as given by Pliny, are, on the west, Hehum (the Yahahs of
other writers), in the centre Rhenus, and at the north Flevum j but at
a later period we again find mention made of only two mouths.

1 Britain was spoken of by some of the Greek writers as superior to
all other islands in the world. Pionysius, in his Periegesis, says, " that
no other islands whatsoever can claim equaUty with those of Britain."

2 Said to have been so called from the whiteness of its chfis opposite
the coast of Gaul. .

3 Afterwards called Bononia, the modem Boulogne. As D'AnviQe
remarks, the distance here given by Phny is far too great, whether we
measure to Dover or to Hythe ; our author's measurement however is
probably made to Rutupise (the modem Richborough), near Sandwich,
where the Romans had a fortified post, which was their landing-place
when crossing over from Gaul. This would make the distance given by
Pliny nearer the truth, though still too much.

* Probably the Grampian range is here referred to.

Chap. 30.] ACCOITNT OF COtnTTEIES, ETC. 851

its breadth 300 ; lie also thinks that the breadth of Hibemia
is the same, but that its length is less by 200 miles. This
last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage across
being the shortest from the territory of the Silures', a distance
of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said to
have a greater circumlerence than 125 miles. Among these
there are the Orcades', forty in number, and situate within
a short distance of each other, the seven islands called Ac-
modae^, the Haebudes, thirty in number, and, between Hi-
bemia and Britannia, the islands of Mona'',Monapia*,Kicina*,
Vectis', Limnus^, and Andros'. Below it are the islands
called Samnis and Axantos'", and opposite, scattered in the
German Sea, are those known as the Glaesariae", but which*

1 The people of South Wales.

* The Orkney islands were included under this name. Pomponius
Mela and Ptolemy make them but thirty in nmnber, while Solinus fixes
their number at three only.

* Also called jEmodse or Haemoda?, most probably the islands now
kno-wn as the Shetlands. Camden however and the older antiquarians
refer the Hsemodae to the Baltic sea, considering them different from the
Acmodse here mentioned, while Salmasius on the other hand considers the
Acmodfle or Heemodee and the Hebrides as identical. Parisot remarks
that off the West Cape of the Isle of Skye and the Isle of North Uist,
the nearest of the Hebrides to the Shetkmd islands, there is a vast gulf
filled with islands, which still bears the name of Mamaddy or Maddy,
from wliich the Greeks may have easily derived the words At MaSdai,
whence the Latin Hsemodse.

* The Isle of Anglesea. • Most probably the Isle of Man.

^ Camden and Gosselin (Rech. sur la Geogr. des Anciens) consider
that under this name is meant the island of Racklin, situata near the
north-eastern extremity of Ireland. A Eicina is spoken of by Ptolemy,
but that island is one of the Hebrides.

7 This Yectis is considered by Gosselin to be the same as the small
island of White-Horn, situate at the entrance of the Bay of Wigtown in
Scotland. It must not be confounded with the more southern Yectis, or
Isle of Wight.

^ According to QosseHn this is the island of Dalkey, at the entrance of
Dublin Bay.

^ Camden thinks that this is the same as Bardsey Island, at the south
of the island of Anglesea, while Mannert and Gosselin think that it is
the island of Lambay.

^° According to Brotier these islands belong to the coast of Britanny,
being the modem isles of Sian and Ushant.

11 As already mentioned, he probably speaks of the islands of CEland
and Gotliland, and Ameland, called Austeravia or Actania, in which
glcBSum or amber was found by the Roman soldiers. See p. 344

352 PLINY* S NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book IT.

the Greeks have more recently called the Electrides, from
the circumstance of their producing electrvm or amber.
The most remote of all that we find mentioned is Thule^ in
which, as we have previously stated^, there is no night at the
summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign
of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice
there is no day. Some writers are of opinion that this state
of things lasts for six whole months together. Timaeus the
historian says that an island called Mictis^ is within six days'
sail of Britannia, in which white lead^ is found ; and that the
Britons sail over to it in boats of osier*, covered with sewed
hides. There are writers also who make mention of some
other islands, Scandia^ namely, Dumna, Bergos, and, greater

1 The opinions aa to the identity of ancient Thiile have been numerous
in the extreme. We may here mention six : — 1. The common, and ap-
parently the best founded opinion, that Thule is the island of Iceland.
2. That it is either the Ferroe group, or one of those islands. 3. The
notion of Ortelius, Famaby, and Schoenning, that it is identical with
Thylemark in Norway. 4. The opinion of Malte Brun, that the conti-
nental portion of Denmark is meant thereby, a part of which is to the
present day called Thy or Thyland. 5. The opinion of Rudbeck and of
Calstron, borrowed originally from Procopius, that this is a general
name for the whole of Scandinavia. 6. That of Gossehn, who thinks
that under this name Mainland, the principal of the Shetland Islands, is
meant. It is by no means impossible that imder the name of Thule
two or more of these locahties may have been meant, by diflferent authors
writing at distant periods and under different states of geographical
knowledge. It is also pretty generally acknowledged, as Parisot re-
marks, that the Thvile mentioned by Ptolemy is identical with Thylemark
in Norway. ^ B. ii. c. 77.

3 Brotier thinks that under this name a part of Cornwall is meant, and
that it was erroneously supposed to be an island. Parisot is of opinion
that the copyists, or more probably PUny himself, has made an error in
transcribing Mictis for Yectis, the name of the Isle of Wight. It is not
improbable however that the island of Mictis had only an imaginary
existence,

4 " White lead" : not, however, the metallic substance which we un-
derstand by that name, but tin.

5 Commonly known as " coracles," and used by the Welch in modem
times. See B. vii. c. 57 of this work, and the Note.

^ Brotier, with many other writers, takes these names to refer to va-
rious parts of the coast of Norway. Scandia he considers to be the same
as Scania, Bergos the modem Bergen, and Nerigos the northem part of
Norway. On the other hand, Gossehn is of opinion that under the name
of Bergos the Scottish island of Barra is meant, and imder that of Neri-

Chap. 31.} ACOOITNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 353

than all, Nerigoa, from which persons embark for Thule.
At one day's sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by
some is called the Cronian Sea.

CHAP. 31. (17.) — GALLIA BELGICA.

The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one
general name of Comata^, is divided into three races of
people, which are more especially kept distinct from each
other by the following rivers. From the Scaldis to the Se-
quana^ it is Belgic Gaul ; from the Sequana to the Garumna'
it is Celtic Gaul or Lugdunensis'* ; and from the Garumna
to the promontory of the Pyrensean range it is Aquitanian
Gaul, formerly called Aremorica*. Agrippa makes the en-
tire length of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, mea-
sured from the Ehine to the Pyrenees: and its length,
from the ocean to the mountains of Gehenna and Jura,
excluding therefrom Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at
420 miles, the breadth being 318.

Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyond* are inhabited
by the Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with
many names ; after whom come the Menapii', the Morini*,
the Oromarsaci^, who are adjacent to the burgh which is
known as Gesoriacum'", theBritarmi", the Ambiani^^, theBel-

g09, the island of Lewis, the northern promontory of which is in the old
maps designated by the name of Nary or Nery. Ptolemy makes men-
tion of an island called Doumna in the vicinity of the Crcades.

^ Transalpine Gaul, with the exception of that part of it called Nar-
bonensis, was called Gallia Comata, from the custom of the people
allowing their hair to grow to a great length.

2 From the Scheldt to the Seine. ' From the Seine to the Gkronne.

■* LyoneseGaul, fromLugdimum, the ancient name of the city of Lyons.

* Said by Camden to be derived from the Celtic words Ar • mor, " by
the Sea." ^ The provinces of Antwerp and North Brabant.

7 Inhabiting Western Flanders.

8 So called, it is supposed, from the Celtic word Mor, which means
"the sea." Terouane and Boulogne are supposed to occupy the site of
their towns, situate in the modem Pas de Calais.

^ D' AnviUe places them between Calais and GraveUines, in the Pas de
Calais, and on the spot now known as the Terre de Marck or Merk.

^'^ Boulogne, previously mentioned.

^^ Cluver thinks that "Brianni" would be the correct reading here ; bu*
D'Anville places the Britanni on the southern bank of the stream called
La Canche in the Pas de Calais.

^" According to Parisot and Ansart they occupied the department of
VOL. I. 2 A

854 pLnrr's natueal histokt. [Book IV.

lovaci^, tlieHassi', and, more in tlie interior, the Catoslugi',
the Atrebates*, the Nervii^, a free people, the Veromandui*,
the Suaeuconi', the Suessiones®, a free people, the Ulmanetes',
a free people, the Tiingri*", the Sunuci", the Frisiahones",
theBetasi^^, the Leuci*^, a free people, the Treveri*^, who were

the Somme, with places on the site of Amiens (derived from their name)
and Abbeville for their chief towns.

^ They dwelt in the modem department of the Oise, with Beauvais
(which 8tni retains their name) for their chief town.

2 D'Anville is of opinion that the place called Haiz or Hez in the
diocese of Beauvais, received its name from this people, of whom nothing
else is known. The name is omitted in several of the editions.

3 D'Anville is of opinion that their chief town was situate at the
modem Chaours, at the passage of the river Serre, not far from Vervins
in the department of the Aisne.

* According to Ptolemy their chief town woxild be on the site of the
modern Orcliies in the department du Nord, but Csesar makes it to be
Nemetacum, the modem Arras, the capital of the department of the
Pas de Calais.

5 According to Ansart their chief town was Bavai, in the department
du Nord. They are called " Liberi," or free, because they were left at
hberty to enjoy their own laws and institutions.

' Their capital w£is Augusta Veromanduorum, and it has been sug-
gested that tlie place called Vermand, in the department de 1' Aisne, de-
notes its sit« ; but according to Bellay and D'Anville the city of St.
Quentin, which was formerly called Aouste, marks the spot.

' Nothing whatever is known of them, and it is suggested by the com-
mentators that this is a corrupted form of the name of the Suessiones,
which follows.

8 They gave name to Soissons in the southern part of the department
de I'Aisne.

^ It has been suggested that these are the same as the Silvanectes,
the inhabitants of Senhs in the department de I'Oise.

^o The people of Tongres, in the provinces of Namur, Liege, and
Limbourg.

^^ They are supposed to have dwelt in the eastern part of the province
of Limbourg.

^2 They probably dwelt between the Sunuci and the Betasi.

^' They are supposed to have dwelt in the western part of the province
of Limbourg, on the confines of that province and South Brabant, in the
vicinity probably of the place which still bears the name of Beetz, upon
the river Gette, between Leau and Haclen, seven miles to the east of
Louvain.

1* According to Ptolemy the Leuci dwelt on the sites of Toid in the
department of the Meurthe, and of Nais or Nays in that of the Meuse.

^ From them Treves or Trier, in the Grand Duchy of the Lower
Bhine, takes its name.

Chap. 32.] ACCOTTNT OF COTrNTEIES, ETC. 855

formerly free, and the Lingones^ a federal state, the federal
Eemi^, the Mediomatrici', the Sequani^, the Eaurici*, and
the Helvetii". The Eoman colonies are Equestris' and
Rauriaca*. The nations of Germany which dwell in this
province, near the sources of the Rhine, are the Nemetes',
the Triboci^^ and the Vangiones" ; nearer again *^, the Ubii",
the Colony'* of Agrippina, the Cugerni", the Batavi'*, and
the peoples whom we have already mentioned afi dwelling
on the islands of the Ehine.

CHAP. 32. (18.) — GALLIA LUGDUITENSIS.

That part of Gaul which is known as Lugdunensis^^ con-

1 Their chief town was on the site of Langres, in the department of
the Haute Mame.

' They gave name to the city of Rlieims in the department of the Mame.

* Their chief town stood on the site of the modem Metz, in the
department of the Moselle.

* Besanfon stands on the site of their chief town, in the department
of the Doubs, extending as far as B&le.

* The inhabitants of the district called the Haut Bhin or Higher Ehine.
^ The inhabitants of the west of Switzerland.

7 Or the" Equestrian Colony," probably founded by the Roman Equites.
It is not known where this colony was situate, but it is suggested by
Cluver and Monetus that it may have been on the lake of GenevSj in the
vicinity of the modem town of Nyon.

8 Littre, in a note, remarks that Rauriaca is a barbarism, and that the
reading properly is " Raurica."

^ Spire was their chief city, in the province of the Rhine.

'" They are supposed to have occupied Strasbourg, and the greater part
of the department of the Lower Rhine.

^^ They dwelt in the modem Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt ; Worms
was their chief city. ^ That is, nearer the mouths of the Rhine.

^3 They originally dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, but were
transported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, at their own request,
from a wish to escape the attacks of the Suevi.

^* Now kno^vn as the city of Cologne. It took its name from Agrippina,
the wife of Claudius and the mother of Nero, who was bom there, and who,
as Tacitus says, to show off her power to the allied nations, planted a colony
of veteran soldiers in her native city, and gave to it her own name.

^5 Their district was in the modem circle of Cloves, in the province of
Juliers-Berg-Cleves.

IS Dwelling in the Insula Batavorum, mentioned in C. 29 of the pre-
sent Book.

^7 He first speaks of the nations on the coast, and then of those more
in the interior.

2a2

356 plint's natueal histoet. [Book IV.

tains the Lexovii*, the Yellocasses^, the Galeti', the Yeneti^,
the Abrincatui*, the Ossismi®, and the celebrated river Lige-
ris^, as also a most remarkable peninsula, which extends into
the ocean at the extremity^ of the territory of the Ossismi,
the circumference of which is 625^ miles, and its breadth at
the neck 125^*?. Beyond this are the Naunetes'\ and in the
interior are the ^dui^^, a federal people, the Carnuti'^, a federal
people, the Boii^^ the Senones'', the Aulerci, both those sur-
named Eburo vices ^^ and those called Cenomanni'^, the
Meldi^^, a free people, the Parisii*^, the Tricasses^", the An-

I Dwelling in the west of the department of Calvados, and the east of
the department of the Eure. From them Lisieux takes its name.

' They occupied the department of the Lower Seine.
' They are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of Lillebonne, in
the department of the Lower Seine.

* They gave name to the town of Vannes in the department of Morbihan.

* From them the city of Avranches, in the department of La Manche,
derives its name.

* They occupied the modem department of Finisterre. ^ The Loire.

8 This spot is placed by D' Anville near the modem city of Saint Brieuc.
He refers here to the peninsula of Brittany, which ends in Finisterre.

9 Ansart remarks that the circuit of the peninsula from Saint Brieuc
to the mouth of the river Vilaine is only 450 miles, but that if taken from
the city of Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, it is 650.

^° Ansart states that from Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, in a
straight line, is twenty miles less than the distance here given by Pliny.

II Inhabitants of the department of the Lower Loire or Loire Inferieure.

12 This extensive people inhabited the present departments of the Saone
et Loire, AUier, Nievre, Rhone nord, and Loire nord. Autun and Chalons-
sxu'-Mame stand on the site of their ancient towns.

13 They inhabited the departments of the Eure et Loire, and portions
of those of the Seine et Oise, of the Loire et Cher, and of the Loiret.
Chartres occupies the site of their town.

1'* They occupied a part of the department of the AUier. Moulins stands
on the site of their chief town.

15 Sens, in the department of the Yonne, stands on the site of their
chief town.

1^ The chief town of the Atderci Eburo vices was on the site of the
present Passy-sur-Eure, called by the inhabitants Old Evreux, in the
department of the Eure.

1' They dwelt in the vicinity of the city of Le Mans, in the department
of the Sarthe.

18 Meaux, in the department of the Seine et Mame, denotes the site of
their principal town. i' Paris, anciently Lutetia, denotes their locaHty.

* The city of Troyes, in the department of the Aube, denotes tht'ir
locality.

Chap. 33.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 357

decavi^, the Viducasses^, the Bodiocasses', the Yenelli*, the
Cariosvelites'*, the Diablinti^ the Rhedones^, the Turones",
the Atesui^, and the Secusiani'", a free people, in whose ter-
ritory is the colony of Lugdunum".

CHAP. 33. (19.) — GALLIA AQITITANICA.

In Aquitanica are the Ambilatri", the Anagnutes", the

* Their chief town stood on the site of Angers, in the department- of
the Maine et Loire.

2 D'Anville says that their chief town stood on the spot now known
as Vieux, two leagues from Caen, in the department of Calvados.

^ The reading here is not improbably " Vadicasses." If so, they were a
people situate at a great distance from the other tribes here mentioned
by Pliny. They dwelt in the department De I'Oise, in the district for-
merly known as Valois, their chief town or city occupying the site of Vez,
not mr from Villers Cotterets.

* D'Anville assigns to the Venelli, or TJneUi, as some readings have
it, the former district of Cotantin, now called the department of La
Manche.

* According to D'Anville, Corseuil, two leagues frova Dinan, in the
department of the Cotes du Nord, denotes the site of their chief town.
Ilardouin takes Quimper to mark the locality.

^ They are supposed by Ansart to have occupied that part of the
department of La Mayenne where we find the village of Jublains, two
leagues from the city of Mayenne.

7 D'Anville assigns to them the greater part of the department of the
He et Vilaine, and is of opinion that the city of Rennes occupies the
site of Condate, their chief town.

^ Tours, in the department of the Lidre et Loire, marks the site of
their cliief town.

8 They are supposed to hare occupied a portion of the department of
the Loire.

^^ They probably occupied a part of the department of the Loire, as
also of that of the Rhone. Their town. Forum Secusianorum, stood on
the site of the present Feurs, in the department of the Loire.

^^ The city of Lyons occupies the site of ancient Lugdunum. It is
suggested by Hardouin, that the name Lugdunum is a corruption of
" Lucudunum," a compound of the Latin word luctis, " a grove," and
the Celtic dun, "a hill" or "mountain."

^2 They are mentioned by Csesar (B. C. iii. 9), in conjunction veith the
Nannetes, Morini, and others, but nothing can be inferred as to the
precise position they occupied.

^^ Their locaUty also is unknown, but it is supposed that they dwelt
in the yicinity of the department of La Vendee. •

358 plent's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book IV,

Pictones\ the Santoni^, a free people, the Bituriges', sur-
named Yivisci, the Aquitani*, from whom the province derives
its name, the Sediboviates^, the Convenae , who together
form one town, the Begerri'', the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani^,
the Cocosates Sexsignani', the Venami", the Onobrisates",

* From them ancient Poitou received its name. They are supposed
to have occupied the department of the Haute-Vienne, and portions of
the departments of La Vendee, the Loire Inferieure, the Maine et Loire,
the Deiix-Sevres, and La Vienne.

2 They gave name to the former Saintonge, now the department of
Charente and Charente Inferieure. The town of Saintes occupies the
site of their chief town.

3 They occupied the modem department of the G-ironde. The city
of Bordeaux occupies the site of their chief town.

* They gave name to Aquitaine, which became corrupted into Guyenne.
Pliny is the only author that makes the Aquitani a distinct people of
the province of Aquitanica. The Tarusates are supposed to have after-
wards occupied the site here referred to by him, with Atures for their
chief town, afterwards called Aire, in the department of the Landes.

* Their locahty is imknown, but it has been suggested that they
occupied the departments of the Basses Pyrenees, or Lower Pyrenees.

^ So called from the Latin verb convenire, " to assemble " or " meet
together." They are said to have received this name from the circum-
stance that Ptolemy, after the close of the Sertorian war, finding a pas-
toral people of predatory habits inhabiting the range of the Pyrenees,
ordered them to imite together and form a community in a town or city.
From them the present town of Saint Bertrand de Comminges, in the
S.W. of the department of the Haute Garonne, derives its Latin name
" Lugdunum Convenarum."

7 By Coesar called the Bigerriones. Their name was preserved in that
of the district of Bigorre, now the department of the Hautes-Pyrenees.
Their cliief town was Turba, now Tarbes.

8 By calling the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani^ he seems to imply that
their cliief town was a place garrisoned by four maniples of soldiers, each
with a signum or standard. Aquae TarbeUicse was their chief town, the
modern Acqs or Dax, in the S.W. of the department of the Landes.

8 Their chief town was probably gamsoned by six signa or maniples.
Cocosa, or Coequosa, as it is written in the Antonine Itinerary, is the first
place on a road from Aquae TarbeUicse or Dax to Burdegala or Bordeaux,
now called Marensin. Their locahty was in the southern part of the
department of the Landes, the inhabitants of which are stiU divided into
two classes, the Bouges, those of the north, or of the Tete de Buch ; and
the Cousiots, those of the south. i" Their locahty is unknown.

^^ D ' An ville would read " Onobusates," and thinks that they dwelt in
the district called Nebousan, in the department of the Hautes Pyrenees,
He is |ilso of opinion that their town stood on the site of the modem
Cioutat, between the rivers Adour and Neste.

Chap. 83.] ACCOITPrT OF OOXmTETES, ETC. 359

the Belendi\ and then the Pyrenaean range. Below these
are the Monesi ^, the Oscidates^ a mountain race, the Sibyl-
lates^, the Camponi*, the Bercorcates*', the Pindedmmi^,
the Lassunni*^, the Vellates', theTomates^", the Consoranni",
the Ausci^^, the Elusates^^, the Sottiates^^, the Oscidates
Campestres^*, the Succasses^*', the Tarusates^^, the Basabo-
cates'^, the Vassei^', the Sennates, and the Cambolectri Ages-
sinates^'*. Joining up to the Pictones are the Biturigea'''^ a

* They occupied the southern part of the department of the Gironde.

* From them Hardouin suggests that Moneins, in the department of
the Basses Pyrenees, takes its name.

3 D'Anville is of opinion that they inhabited and gave name to the
VaUee d'Ossun, between the P^n^nees and the city of Oleron in the
department of the Basses Pyrenees.

* D'Anville places them in the Vall& do Soule, in the department of
the Basses Pyrenees.

* From them Campon, a place in the department of the Hautes
Pyrenees, is supposed to have received its name.

8 Biscarosse, not far from Tete de Buch in the department of the
Landes, is supposed to derive its name from this tribe.
5^ Nothing whatever is known of them.

* The more general reading is " Sassumini." Ansart suggests that
the town of Sarrum, between Cognac and Perigueux, in the department
of the Dordogne, may have received its name from them.

* Ansart suggests thatKiexmieSjinthe department of the Haute Garonne,
occupies the site of Ryesium, their chief town, mentioned by Ptolemy.

^° They are supposed to have given name to Toumay, in the depart-
ment of the Hautes Pyrenees.

" Supposed to be the same as the Consuarini, mentioned in B. iii. c. 5.

^ They probably gave name to Auch, in the department of Q^rs.

" Their chief town occupied the site of Euse or Eause, in the depart-
ment of Qera.

^* Their locality is marked by Soz, in the department of the Lot-et-
Garonne.

15 Or " Oscidates of the Plains." They probably gave name to Ossun,
two mUes from Tarbes, in the department of the Hautes Pyrenees.

1^ From them the village of Cestas, three leagues from Bordeaux, in
the department of the Gironde, is supposed to derive its name.

^' The village of Tiu-san, in the department of the Landes, probably
derived its name from this tribe.

^* Their town was Cossio, afterwards Vasates, now Bazas, in the de-
partment of the Gironde.

^^ The site of the Yassei and the Sennates appears to be unknown.

^ D'Anville is of opinion that this tribe gave name to Aisenay or
Azenay, a village four leagues distant from Bourbon- Vendee, in the
department of La Vendee.

2^ They occupied the district formerly known as Berry, but now the

360 pLurr's natueal histoet. [Book IT.

free people, who are also known as the Cubi, and then the
Lemovices^, the Arverni^, a free people, and the Gabales'.

Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are theEu-
teni*, the Cadurci^ the Nitiobriges^ and the Petrocori^,
separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas
around the coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to
the mouth of the Ehine, the Britannic Ocean between the
Ehine and the Se(j[uana, and, between, it and the Pyrenees,
the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging to the
Veneti, which bear the name of " Veneticae^," as also in the
Aquitanic Gulf, that of Uliarus'.

CHAP. 34. (20.) — ITEAEEE SPAIN, ITS COAST ALON& THE
GALLIC OCEAIS^.

At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more
narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itself*" in its

departments of the Indre, the Cher, and the west of the department of
the Allier. Their chief town was Avaricum, now Bourges.

^ They inhabited the district formerly known as the Limosin, now the
departments of the Creuse, the Haute Vienne, and the Corr^ze. Their
chief town was Augustoritum, afterwards Lemovices, now Limoges.

2 They occupied the district formerly known as Auvergne, forming the
present department of the AUier, and the southern part of thePuy deD6me
and the Cantal. Augustonemetum was their chief town, now Clermont.

3 Situate in the district formerly known as Gevaudan, now the de-
partment of La Loz&re. Their chief town stood on the site of the
present small town of Javoulx, four leagues from Mende.

* They are supposed to have occupied the former district of Eouergue,
now known as the department of Aveyron. Their chief town was Sego-
dunxmi, afterwards Ruteni, now known as Rhodez.

* Tlxey occupied the former district of Querci, the present department
of Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Divona, afterwards Cadurci, now Cahors,
was their principal town.

^ According to Ptolemy their town was Aginnimi, probably the mo-
dem Agen, in the present department of Lot-et-Garonne. " Antobroges,"
however, is the more common reading.

7 They occupied the district formerly known as Perigord, in the de-
partment of theDordogne j their town was Yesanna, afterwards Petrocori,
now Perigueux.

* Ansart says they are about 200 in number, consisting of BeUe Isle,
Groaix, Houat, Hoedic, and others. Also probably Morbihan.

^ The Isie of Oleron, the fountain-head of the maritime laws of Europe.

^^ He means to say that it gradually increases in breadth after leaving
the nan*ow neck of the Pyrenees and approaching the confines of Lu-
sitania.

Chap. 34.] ACCOTTNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 861

other parts, as we have previously mentioned*, seeing to what
an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the
one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of
the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-west^, divides
Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the
larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is
that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis.
On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we
meet with the forest ranges of the Vascones^, Olarso*, the
towns of the Varduli*, the Morosgi", Menosca', Vesperies*,
and the Port of Amanus', where now stands the colony of
Plaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine
states of the Cantabri *°, the river Sauga", and the Port of
Victoria of the Juliobrigenses'^, from which place the sources
of the Iberus'^ are distant forty miles. We next come to
the Port of Blendium^^, the Orgenomesci", a people of the
Cantabri, Yereasueca'* their port, the Country of the As-

* B. iii. c. 3. * From Ruscino to Gbdes.
8 In the province now known as Guipuzcoa.

* Supposed to be the present Cabo do la Higuera.

* Probably inhabiting the eastern part of the provinces of Biscay and
Alava, the eastern portion of Navarre, and, perhaps, a part of the pro-
vince of Guipuzcoa. • According to Hardouin the
modem San Sebastian occupies the site of their town.

^ On the same site as the modem Bermeo, according to Mannert.
Hardouin thinks, however, and with greater probabiUty, that it was
situate at the mouth of the river Orio.

^ D'Anville considers this to be the site of the city of Bermeo.

' Poinsinet thinks that this is Flavio in Bilbao, D'Anville calls it
Portugalette, and Mannert thinks that it is the same as Santander, with
which opinion Ansart agrees.

^^ According to Ptolemy, the Cantabri possessed the western part of
the province of La Montana, and the northern parts of the provinces of
Palencia and Toro.

^^ Most probably the present Eio de Suanc^s, by Mannert called the Saya,
into which the Besanga flows. Hardouin however calls it the Nervio.

^2 Ansart suggests that this is the modem San Vicente de la Barquera.
If the river Sauga is the same with the Suanc^, this cannot be the port of
Santander, as has been suggested. ^3 Qr Ebro.

^* According to Ansart, this is either the modern Ensenada de BaUota
or else the Puerta de P6.

^^ According to Ansart, the Orgenomesci occupied the same territory
which Ptolemy has assigned to the Cantabri in general. See Note ^^ above.

IS Hardouin takes this to be YiUaviciosa. Ansart thinks that Eia
de Oella occupies its site.

362 TLTSY*Q UTATTIEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

tures^ the town of Noega^, and on a peninsula*, the Paesici.
Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of
Lucus^, after passing the river Navilubio^, the Cibarci^ the
Egovarri, sumamed Namarini, the ladoni, the Arrotrebae^,
the Celtic Promontory, the rivers Florins^ and Nelo, the
Celtici^, sumamed Neri, and above them the Tamarici^", in
whose peninsida^^ are the three altars called Sestianae, and
dedicated^^ to Augustus ; the Capori^^, the town of Noela^"*,
the Celtici sumamed Praesamarci, and the Cileni^* : of the
islands, those worthy of mention are Corticata^^ and Aunios.
After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the
Bracari^', we have the Heleni^^, the Gravii^^, and the fortress
of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks.

* Th^ are supposed to have occupied the greater part of the princi-
pality of the Asturias and the province of Leon.

2 Hardouin and Mannert consider this to be identical with Navia or
Nava, six miles to the east of Oviedo, an obscure place in the interior.
Ansart however would identify it with Villaviciosa.

3 No doubt the headland now known as the Cabo de Penas.

* Now Lugo in GtiUicia.

« Supposed by Ansart to be the Rio Caneiro, into which the Rio
Labio discharges itself.

^ Supposed by Ansart to have dwelt in the vicinity of the Celtic pro-
montory, now Cabo de Finisterra or Cape Finisterre. Of the Egovarri
and ladoni nothing whatever is known.

7 Their towns are mentioned by Ptolemy as being situate on a bay
near Nerium or the promontory of Cape Fimsterre.

8 Mannert thinks that the Nelo is the same as the Rio Allones j the Flo-
rins seems not to have been identified.

9 The inhabitants of Cape Finisterre.

^•^ Dwelling on the banks of the river which from them takes its
modem name of Tambre.

^^ Mannert and Ansart are of opinion that this peninsula was probably
the modem Cabo Taurinan or C^bo Villano, most probably the latter.

^2 On the occasion probably of his expedition against the Cantabri.

^ Their towns, Iria Flavia and Lacus Augusti, lay in the interior, on
the sites of the present Santiago de ComposteUa and Lugo.

^* Probably the modem Noya.

^* They are supposed to have occupied the district in which the warm
springs are found, which are known as Caldas de Contis andCaldas deRey.

1^ It is suggested by Ansart that the islands here meant are those called
Carreira, at the mouth of the river UUa, and the Islas de 0ns, at the
mouth of the Tenario. ^'^ See B. iii. c, 4.

^8 Inhabiting the vicinity of the modem Pontevedra.

19 According to Ptolemy also their town was Tudse, the modem Tuy.

Chap. 36.] ACCOITNT OF COIWTEIES, ETC. 363

Also, the islands called CicsB*, the famous city of Abo-
brioa*, the river Minius^, four miles wide at its mouth, the
Leuni, the Seurbi*, and Augusta*, a town of the Bracari,
above whom lies Gallaecia. We then come to the river
Limia^, and the river Durius', one of the largest in Spain,
and which rises in the district of the Pelendones^, passes
near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccaei,
dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallaeci from Lusi-
tania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The
whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is
full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and
white*.

CHAP. 35. (21.) — LUSITAlflA.

After passing the Durius, Lusitania" begins. "We here have
the ancient Turduli^^ the Paesuri, the river Vaga^^, the town
of Talabrica, the town and river '^ of jEmii^um, the towns of
Conimbrica", Collippo^*, and Eburobritium'®. A promontory^''
then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn ; by some
it has been called Artabrum^', by others the Great Promon-

* The modem Islas de Scyas or of Bayona,

2 The town of Bayona, about six leagues from the mouth of the river
Minho. * The Minho.

* They occupied the tract of country lying between the rivers, and
known as Entre Douro y Minho. * Now Braga on the Cavado.

« The Lima. 7 The river Douro. ^ Qqq b. iii. c. 3.

' Both lead, properiy so called, and tin.

^" In a great degree corresponding with modem Portugal, except that
the latter includes the tract of country between the Minho and Douro.

" To distinguish them from the nation of the same name sprung
from them, and occupying the Farther Spain. (B. iii, c. 3.) The Psesuri
occupied the site of the present towns of Lamego and Arouca.

^ The modem Vouga, which runs below the town of Aveiro, raised
from the ruins of ancient Talabrica.

^ ^3 ^gueda, which, according to Hardouin, is the name of both the
river and the town. *■* Coimbra, formerly Condeja la Yeja.

^^ Leiria is supposed to occupy its site.

^^ According to Hardouin, the modem Ebora de Alcobaza, ten leagues
from Leiria.

^7 The modem Cabo de la Eoca, seven leagues from Lisbon.

^8 Pliny, in C. 34, places the Arrotrebse, belonging to the Con-
ventus of Lucus Augusti, about the Promontorium Celticum, which, if not
the same as the Nerium (or Cape Finisterre) of the others, is evidently
in its immediate neighbourhood j but he confuses the whole matter by

864 pLnnr's natueal histoet. [Book rv.

tory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from
the city' near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the
land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side^ of
Spain ; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the
front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North
and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the "West and the Atlantic.
The length of this promontory has been estimated by some
persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable
number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to
the Pyrenees at 1250 miles ; and, committing a manifest
error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation
that never^ was here. Per, making a slight change in the
name, they have placed at this spot the ArrotrebsD, whom
we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the
Celtic Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated
rivers. Prom th^ Minius, which we have previously men-
tioned, according to Varro, the river -^minius ^ is distant
200 miles, which others* suppose to be situate elsewhere,
and called Limaea. By the ancients it was called the " Biver
of Oblivion," and it has been made the subject of many
fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the
Durius is the Tagus, the Munda^ Ijiiig between them.
The Tagus is famous for its golden sands'. At a distance

a very curious error. He mentions a promontory called Artabrum as
the headland at the N. W. extremity of Spain ; the coast on the one side of
it looking to the north and the G-alUc Ocean, on the other to the west and
the Atlantic Ocean. But he considers this promontory to be the west
headland of tJie estuary of the Tagus, and adds, that some called it
Magnum Promontorium, or the " Great Promontory," and others OHsi-
ponense, from the city of OHsipo, or Lisbon. He assigns, in fact, all the
west coast of Spain, down to the mouth of the Tagus, to the north
coast, and, instead of being led to detect his error by the resemblance of
name between his Artabrum Promontorium and his Arrotrebse (the
Artabri of his predecessors, Strabo and Mela), he perversely finds fault
with those who had placed above the promontory Artabrum, a people of
the same name who never were there.

^ On the site of which the present city of Lisbon stands.

* See note ^^ in the preceding page. 3 ggg notQ ^^.
^ See note ^^ in the preceding page.

^ Among these is Pomponius Mela, who confoimds the river Limia^
mentioned in the last chapter, with the ^minius, or Agueda.

• Now the river Mondego, 7 gee B. xxxiii. c. 21.

Chap. 35.] ACCOUNT OF COtTNTEIES, ETC. 365

of 160 miles from it is the Sacred Promontory \ projecting
from nearly the very middle of the front* of Spain. From
this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a
distance of 1400 miles ; while to the Anas, by which we
have mentioned^ Lusitania as being separated from Baetica,
is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Uades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the
Tagiis, the Vettones*. From the river Anas to the Sacred
Promontory* are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of men-
tion on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of
Olisipo^ famous for its mares, which conceive' from the
west wind; Salacia^ which is sumamed the Imperial
City ; Merobrica^ ; and then the Sacred Promontory, witli
the other known bv the name of Cuneus'®, and the towns of
Ossonoba", Balsa'-, and Myrtili''.

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdic-
tions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in
all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies,

* Now Cape St. Vincent.

* Pliny continues his error here, in taking part of the western side of
Spain for tlie north, and part of the southern coast for the western.

3 B. iii. c. 2.

* With the Vettones, situate in the province of the Alentejo. See
B. iii. c. 3.

* In the present province of Algarve.

^ Now Lisbon. Both Strabo, SoUnus, and Martianns Capella make
mention of a story that Ulysses came to Spain and founded this city.

7 See B. viii. c. 67 of the present work.

^ According to Hardouin, followed by D'AnvUle and Uckert, this
place gives name to Alcazar do Sal, nearly midway between Evora and
the sea-shore. Mannert says Setuval, which D'Anville however supposes
to be the ancient Cetobriga.

9 On its site stands Santiago de Cacem, nearly midway between Lisbon
and Cape St. Vincent.

^•^ Or the " Wedge," generally supposed to be Cabo de Santa Maria.
Ansart however thinks that it is the Punta de Sagres, near Capo St.
Vincent. Pliny's words indeed seem to imply a closer proximity than
that of Capes St. Vincent and Santa Maria.

" According to Hardouin, the modem Estombar; according to
D'Anville, in the vicinity of Faro ; but ten leagues from that place, ac-
cording to Mannert.

^2 Hardouin and D'Anville are of opinion that Tavira occupies
its site.

^ Now Mertola, on the river Guadiana.

366 PJilKT's HATUEAL HISTOBT. [Book TV.

one immicipal town of Eoman citizens, three with the
ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries.
The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita\ situate on the
river Anas, Metallinum^, Pax^, and Norba*, surnamed Cae-
sariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of
Castra Servilia^ and Castra Csecilia® resort. The fifth juris-
diction is that of Scalabis'^, which also has the name of
Praesidium Julium®. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia^, is a
municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Eoman
citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin
rights are Ebora^", which also has the name of Libera-
litas JuHa", and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have pre-
viously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it
may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those already ^^
alluded to among the names of those in Baetica, are the
Augustobrigenses'^, the Ammienses^^, the Aranditani, the
Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Caesarobricenses, the Ca-
perenses'*, the Caurenses^*, the Colami, the Cibilitani, the
Concordienses^', the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lan-

* Now Merida, on the Guadiana. A colony of veterans (Emeriti)
Wis planted there by Augustus.

3 Now MedeUin, in the province of Estremadura.

3 Pax Juha, or Pax Augusta, in the co\mtry of the Turduli, or Tur-
detani ; now Beja, in the province of the Alentejo.

4 Now Alcantara, in the province of Estremadura.

* Now Truxillo, so called from Turns Julia.
' Now Caceres.

'f Now called Santarem, from Saint Irene, the Virgin.

8 " The Garrison of Jixlius."

9 " The Success of Juhus."

w Evora, between the Giiadiana and the Tagus.

" " The Liberahty of Juhus."

12 B. iii. c. 3.

*3 Hardouin takes Augustobriga to have stood on the site of Villar
del Pedroso on the Tagus. Other writers think that it is represented
by the present Ponte del Arcobispo.

i< From Ammia, now Portalegre, on the frontier of Portugal. The
sites of Arabrica and Balsa do not appear to have been ascertained.

15 Capera stood on the site now called Las Yentas de Capara, between
Alcantara and Coria. The site of Csesarobrica has not been ascer-
tained.

16 Coria, in Estremadura, probably occupies the site of Caura.

17 Hardouin suggests that the modem Tomar occupies the site of
Concordia.

Cliap. 36.] ACCOUNT OP COUNTEIES, ETC. 367

cienses^ the Mirobrigenses, sumamed' Celtici, tlie Medu-
brigenses', surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses* or Lanci-
enses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori.
Agrippa states, that Lusitauia, with Asturia and Gallaecia,
is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The pro-
vinces of Spain, measured from the two extreme* promontories
of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are
thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some
writers make them to be but 2600.

CHAP. 36. — THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the
Greeks called Cassiterides^in consequence of their abounding
in tin : and, facing the Promontory' of the ArrotrebsB, are
the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have
called the Fortunate Islands®. At the very commencement

' Mannert is of opinion that the city of Lancia was situate in the
north of Lusitania, on the river Durius, or Douro, near the modem
Zamora.

2 To distinguish them from the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Turduli,
mentioned in B. iii. c. 3. Some writers tliink that this Mirobriga is the
present Ciudad Rodrigo ; but Ambrose Morales takes it to be the place
called Malabriga, in the vicinity of that city.

3 The name of Medubriga was afterwards Aramenha, of which Har-
douin says the ruins only were to be seen. They were probably called
Plumbarii, from lead mines in their vicinity.

■* According to Hardouin, Ocelum was in the vicinity of the modem
Capara.

^ From Cape de Creuz to the Promontory between the cities of Fon-
tarabia and Saint Sebastian.

^ From the Greek /eacrfftrppos, " tin.'* It is generally supposed that the
*' Tin Islands" were the Scilly Isles, in the vicinity of Cornwall. At the
same time the Greek and Roman geographers, borrowing their knowledge
from the accounts probably of the Phoenician merchants, seem to have had
a very indistinct notion of their precise locality, and to have thought them
to be nearer to Spain than to Britain. Thus we find Strabo, in B. iii.,
saying, that " the Cassiterides are ten in nimaber, lying near each other
in the ocean, towards the north, from the haven of the Artahri." From
a comparison of the accounts, it wovdd almost appear that the ancient
geographers confused the Scilly Islands with the Azores, as those, who
enter into any detail, attribute to the Cassiterides the characteristics
almost as much of the Azores and the sea in their vicinity, as of the
Scilly Islands. 7 Cape Finisterre.

8 Or the " Islands of the Blest." We cannot do better than quote a

368 plikt's TTATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book IT.

of Baetica, and twenty-five milea from the mouth of the
Straits of Grades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long
and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its
nearest part, it is less than 700 feet^ distant from the main-
land, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than
seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a
city which enjoys the rights of Eoman citizens^, and whose
people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia
Graditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about
100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide,
on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and
Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timajus and Silenus Aphro-
disias^, and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timseus says,
that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa*, from its
portion of the article on this subject in Dr. Smith's "Dictionary of
Ancient Geography." " ' Fortunatae Insulae' is one of those geographical
names whose origin is lost in mythic darkness, but which afterwards
came to have a specific appHcation, so closely resembling the old mythical
notion, as to make it almost impossible to doubt that that notion was
based, in part at least, on some vague knowledge of the regions afterwards
discovered. The earliest Greek poetry places the abode of the happy
departed spirits far beyond the entrance of the Mediterranean, at the
extremity of the earth, and upon the shores of the river Oceanus, or in
islands in its midst ; and Homer's poetical description of the place may
be applied almost word for word to those islands in the Atlantic, off the
west coast of Africa, to wliich the name was given in the historical
period. (Od. iv. 1. 563, seq.) ' There the life of mortals is most easy ;
there is no snow, nor winter, nor much rain, but Ocean is ever sending
up the shriU breathing breezes of Zephyrus to refresh men.' Their de-
licious climate, and their supposed identity of situation, marked out tlie
Canary Islands, the Madeira gwup, and the Azores, as worthy to re-
present the Islands of the Blest. In the more specific sense, however,
the name was appHed to the two former groups ; while, in its widest
application, it may have even included the Cape de Verde Islands, its
extension being in fact adapted to that of maritime discovery." Pliny
gives a further description of them in B. vi. c. 37.

1 The strait between the island and the mainland is now called the
River of Saint Peter. The circuit of the island, as stated by Pliny,
varies in the MSS. from fifteen to twenty-five miles, and this last is pro-
bably correct.

2 JuUus Csesar, on his visit to the city of Gtides, during the Civil War
in Spain, B.C. 49, conferred the citizenship of Rome on all the citizens of
Gades. Under Augustus it became a municipimn, with the title of
* Augusta xu-bs Julia Gaditana.' The modem city of Cadiz is built upon
its site. ^ Or the Island of Venus.

* From the Greek word corivos, " an olive-tree."

Chap. 37.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 369

olives ; the Eomans call it Tartessos^ ; the Carthaginians
Gadir^, that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge.
It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original an-
cestors of the Cartha^nians, were said to have come from
the Erythraean, or Eed Sea. In this island Geryon is by
some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off
by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island
is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there
formerly called by that name^.

CHAP. 37. (23.) — THE GENEEAL MEASUEEMENT OF EUEOPE.

Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now
give the complete measurement of it, in order that those
who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel
themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given
its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Poly^
bius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a
line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even
in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance
of Italy, as we have previously^ stated, as far as the Alps, is
1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British
port of the Morini*, the direction which Polybius seems to

^ If Gades was not the same as Tartessus (probably the Tarshish
of Scripture), its exact locaHty is a question in dispute. Most ancient
writers place it at the mouth of the river Beetisj while others identify
it, and perhaps with more probability, with tiie -city of Carteia, on
Mount Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole country west of
Gibraltar was called Tartessis. See B. iii. c. 3.

2 Or more properly ' Agadir,' or 'Hagadir.' It probably received
this name, meaning a ' hedge,' or ' bulwark,' from the fact of its being
the chief Phoenician colony outside of the Pillars of Hercules.

3 Of Erythraea, or Erytheia. The monster Geryon, or Greryones, febled
to have had three bodies, Uved in the fabulous Island of Erytheia, or the
" Red Isle," so called because it lay under the rays of the setting sun in
the west. It was originally said to be situate off the coast of Epirus,
but was afterwards identified either with Ghides or the Balearic islands,
and was at aU times beUeved to be in the distant west. Geryon was
said to have been the son of Chrysaor, the wealthy king of Iberia.

* AUuding to B. iii. c. 6. From Rhegium to the Alps. But there the
reading is 1020.

5 Meaning Gessoriacum, the present Boulogne. He probably calls it
Britannicum^ from the circumstance that the Romans usually embarked
there for the purpose of crossing over to Britain.

VOL. I. 2 B

370 plint's NATITEAL HISTOET. [Book IV.

follow, IS 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, thougli
greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the
Camp of the Legions' in Germany, in a north-westerly
direction, to the mouth of the Khine, being 1543 miles.
"We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia.

StTMMAET. — Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted
rivers * * * *. !b'amous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *.
People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Kemarkable
events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

EoMAN AuTHOES QUOTED. — Catotho Censor', M. Yarro',
M. Agrippa^, the late Emperor Augustus*, Varro Atacinus^,
Cornelius Nepos', Hyginus", L. Vetus", Mela Pomponius'",
Licinius Mucianus", Fabricius Tuscus*^, Ateius Capito^,
Ateius the Philologist '\

FoEEiGN AuTUOES QUOTED. — Polybius", HecatsBus",

* The present Santen in the Duchy of Cleres.

' See end of B. iii. » See end of B. ii. •* See end of B. iii.

6 See end of B. iii. « See end of B. iii. ^ See end of B. iL

« See end of B. iii. » See end of B. iii. " See end of B. iiL

» See end of B. ii. >2 See end of B. iii. " See end of B. iii.

^* Ateius, sumamed Prcetextatus, and also Philologus, which kst
name he assumed to indicate his learning, wa« bom at Athens, and was
one of the most celebrated grammarians of Rome, in the latter part of
the first century B.C. He was originally a fireedman of the jurist Ateius
Capito, by whom he was described as " a rhetorician among grammarians,
and a grammarian among rhetoricians." He was on terms of intimacy
with SaUust the historian, and Asinius PoUio. It is supposed that he
assisted Sallust in the compilation of his history ; but to what extent is
not known. But few of his nvunerous commentaries were extant even
in the time of Suetonius.

10 A native of Megalopohs in Arcadia, bom about B.C. 204. He was
trained probably in political knowledge and the mihtary art under
Philopcemen, and was sent as a prisoner to Rome, with others, to
answer the charge of not aiding the Romans in their war against
Perseus. Here, by great good fortune, he secured the friendship of
Scipio Africanus, with whom he was present at the destruction of Car-
thage. His history is one of the most valuable works that has come
down to us from antiquity.

i<5 Of Miletus, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek his-
torians and geographers. He Hvcd about the 65th Olympiad, or B.C.
520. A few fragment;?, quoted, are all that are left of his historical and

Chap. 37.] ACCOUNT OF COUTfTBIES, ETC. 371

Hellanicus^ Damastes*, Eudoxus', Dicaearchus*, Timo-
sthenes*, Eratosthenes', Ephorus', Crates the Grrammarian*,
Serapion' of Antioch, Callimachus*", Artemidorus", Apol-
lodorus ", Agathocles ", Eumachus ", Timaeus the Sici-

geographical works. There is little doubt that Herodotus extensively
availed himself of this writer's works, though it is equally untrue that
he has transcribed whole passages from him, as Porphyrius has ventured
to assert.

^ Of Mitylene, supposed to have flourished about B.C. 450. He ap-
pears to have written numerous geographical and historical works, which,
with the exception of a considerable number of fragments, are lost.

^ Of Sigseum, a Greek historian, contemporary with Herodotus. He
wrote a history of Greece, and several other works, all of which, with a
few unimportant exceptions, are lost.

* See end of B. ii. * See end of B. ii.

• A Rhodian by birth. He was admiral of the fleet of Ptolemy Phila-
delphus, who reigned from B.C. 285 to 247. He wrote a work " On
Harbours," in ten books, which was copied by Eratosthenes, and is
frequently quoted by ancient writers. Strabo also says that he com*
posed poetry. • See end of B. ii.

' Of Cumse, or Cymse, in Ionia. He flourished about B.C. 408. He
studied imder Isocrates, and gained considerable fame as a historian.
Though anxious to disclose the truth, he has been accused of sometimes
forcing his authorities to suit his own views. Of his history of Greece,
and his essays on various subjects, a few fragments only survive.

8 A grammarian of Mallus, in Cilicia. He hved in the time of Ptolemy
Philopater, and resided at Pergamus,imder the patronage of Eumenes II.
and Attains II. In his grammatical system he made a strong distinc-
tion between criticism and grammar, the latter of wliich sciences he re-
garded as quite subordinate to the former. Of his learned commentaries
on the Iliad and the Odyssey, only a few fragments have come down
to us. • See end of B. iL

^^ Of Gyrene, an Alexandrian grammarian and poet. He flourished
at Alexandria, whither Ptolemy Pliiladelphus had invited him to a place
in the Museum, Of his Hymns and Epigrams many are still extant. His
Elegies, which were of considerable poetical merit, with the exception of
a few fragments, have aU perished. Of his numerous other works in
prose, not one is extant in an entire state. ^^ See end of B. ii.

^2 Probably ApoUodorus of Artemita, in Mesopotamia. It is probably
to him that a Treatise on Islands and Cities has been ascribed by Tzetzes,
as also a History of the Partliians, and a History of Pontus.

^3 Probably the author of that name, who wrote the History of Cyzicus,
is the person here referred to. He is called by Athenseus both a Baby-
lonian and a Cyzican. His work is entii'ely lost ; but it appears to have
been extensively read, and is referred to by Cicero and other ancient
writers.

^* Of Neapolis. He wrote a History of Hannibal, and to him has

2b2

372 PLINT's IfATTTEAL HISTOBT. [Book IV.

lian\ Myrsilus^, Alexander Polyhistor*, Thucydides '',
Dosiades*, Anaximander ^, Philistides Mallotes', Dio-
nysius ^, Aristides ^, Callidemus ^°, Mensechmus ", Agla-

been ascribed a Description of the Universe, of which a fragment still
survives.

1 Of Tauromenium, in Sicily ; a celebrated historian, who flourished
about the year B.C. 300. He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles,
and passed his exile at Athens. He composed a History of Sicily,
from the earUest times to the year B.C. 264. The value of his history
has been gravely attacked by Polybius ; but there is httle doubt that it
possessed very considerable merit. Of this, and other works of Timseus,
only a few fragments survive.

2 A Greek historian ; a native of Lesbos. When he hved is imknown.
Dionysius, of Hahcamasstis, has borrowed from him a portion of his ac-
count of the Pelasgians. He is said to have been the author of the notion
that the Tyrrhenians, in consequence of their wanderings after they left
their original settlement, got the name of ireXapyoi, or " storks." He is
supposed to have written a History of Lesbos, as also a work called
" Historical Paradoxes." * See end of B. iii. •* See end of B. iii«

• * Of this author nothing whatever seems to be known.

• Of Miletus, bom B.C. 610. One of the earhest pliilosophers of the
Ionian school, ^nd said to be a pupil of Thales. Unless Pherecydes of
Si-yros be an exception, he was the first author of a philosophical treatise
ill Greek prose. Other writings are ascribed to liim by Suidas ; but, no
doubt, on insufficient grounds. Of his treatise, which seems to have
contained summary statements of his opinions, no remains exist.

7 Of this writer nothing whatever is known, beyond the fact that,
from his name, he seems to have been a native of Mallus, in Cihcia.

* It seems impossible to say which, out of the vast number of the
authors who bore this name, is the one here referred to. It is not im-
probable that Dionysius of Chalcis, a Greek historian who Hved before
the Christian era, is meant. He wrote a work on the Foundation of
Towns, in five books, which is frequently referred to by the ancients. It
is not probable that the author of the PeriegesLs, or " Description of the
World," is referred to, as that book bears internal marks of having been
compiled in the third or fourth century of the Christian era.

9 Of Miletus. He was the author of the " Milesiaca," a romance of
licentious character, which was translated into Latin by L. ComeHus
Sisenna. He is looked upon as the inventor of the Greek romance, and
the title of his work is supposed to have given rise to the term Milesian^
as appHed to works of fiction.

1" A Greek author, of whom nothing is known, except that Pliny,
and after him Solinus, refer to him as the authority for the statement
that Euboea was originally called Chalcis, from the fact of (xaXicds) copper
being first discovered there.

^^ Probably Mensechmus of Sicyon, who wrote a book on Actors, a
History of Alexander the Great, and a book on Sicyon. Suidas says
that he flourished in the time of the successors of Alexander.

Chap. 37.] ACCOITNT OP COUNTEIES, ETC. 373

osthenes\ Anticlides', Heraclides', Philemon'', Xenophon*,
Pytheas', Isidorus'', Philonides^ Xenagoras^ Astynomus^**,
Staphylus", Aristocritus'^, Metrodorus'^ Cleobulus", Posi-
donius**.

* When he flourished is unknown. He is said by Hyginus to have
written a History of the Island of Naxos.

2 He lived after the time of Alexander the Great ; but his age is un-
known. He wrote a book, irepi votrrtDv^ on the returns of the Greeks
fix)m their various expeditions, an account of Delos, a History of Alex-
ander the Great, and other works, all of which have perished.

3 Of Heraclsea, in Pontus. He was a pupil of Plato, and, after him,
of Aristotle. His works upon philosophy, history, mathematics, and
other subjects, were very numerous ; but, unfortimately, they are nearly
all of them lost. He vnrote a Treatise upon Islands, and another upon
the Origin of Cities.

* A geographical writer, of whom nothing ftirther is known.

' The Greek historian, the disciple of Socrates, deservedly styled th«
*' Attic Bee." His principal works are the Anabasis, or the History of
the Expedition of the yomiger Cyrus and the Retreat of the Ten Thou-
sand ; the Hellenica, or History of Greece, from the time when that of
Thucydides ends to the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362 ; and the Cyropsedia,
or Education of Cjrus. The greater portion of his works is now lost.

* See end of B. ii. ' See end of B. ii.

* There were two physicians of this name, one of Catana, in SicUy, the
other of Dyrrhachium, in Illyricxmi, who, like liis namesake, was the
author of numerous works. It is doubtful, however, whether Pliny here
refers to either of those authors.

' A Greek historian, quoted by Dionysius of Halicamassus. If the
same person as the father of the historian Nympliis, he must liave hved
in the early part of the second century B.C. He wrote a work on Islands,
and another entitled Xpovoi, or Chronicles.

^^ A Greek geographer, who seems to have written an account of Cyprus.

'^ He is quoted by Strabo, Athenseus, and the Scholiasts ; but all that
is known of him is, that he wrote a work on Thessaly, iEolia, Attica,
and Arcadia.

** He wrote a work relative to Miletus ; but nothing further is knovra
of him. 13 gee end of B. iii.

1* Probably a writer on geography, of whom no Darticulars are known.

1* See end of B. ii.

374

BOOK y.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEO-
PLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1.— THE TWO MAUEITANIAS.

The Greeks liave given the name of Libya' to Africa, and
have called the sea that lies in front of it the Libyan Sea.
It has Egypt for its boundary, and no part of the earth is
there that has fewer gulfs or inlets, its shores extending in a
lengthened line from the west in an oblique direction. The
names of its peoples, and its cities in especial, cannot pos-
sibly be pronounced with correctness, except by the aid of
their own native tongues. Its population, too, for the most
part dwells only in fortresses^.

(1.) On our entrance into Africa, we find the two Mauri-
tanias, which, until the time of Caius Caesar^, the son
of Germanicus, were kingdoms; but, suffering under his
cruelty, they were divided into two provinces. The extreme
promontory of Africa, which projects into the ocean, is called
Ampelusia^ by the Greeks. There were formerly two tovms,
Lissa and Cotte", beyond the Pillars of Hercules ; but, at
the present day, we only find that of Tingi*, which was for-

^ Not reckoning under that appellation the country of Egypt, which
was more generally looked upon as forming part of Asia. Josephus in-
forms us that Africa received its name from Ophir, great-grandson of
Abraham and his second wife, Ketiutih.

2 ' Castella,' fortified places, erected for the purpose of defence j not
towns formed for the reception of social communities.

3 The Emperor Cahgida, who, in the year 41 a.d., reduced the two
Mauritanias to Roman provinces, and had King Ptolemy, the son of
Juba, put to death.

^ Now Cape Spartel. By Scylax it is called Hermseum, and by
Ptolemy and Strabo Cote, or Coteis. PHny means " extreme," with re-
ference to the sea-line of the Mediterranean, in a direction due west.

* Mentioned again by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 6. Lissa was so called,
according to Bochart, from the Hebrew or Phoenician word lisSy *a
lion.' At the present day there is in this vicinity a headland called the
' Cape of the Lion.' Bochart tliinks that the name ' Cotta,' or * Cotte,'
was derived from the Hebrew quothef^ a * vine- dresser.'

• The modem Tangier occupies its site. It was said to have derived

Chap. 1.] ACCOTJUT Or COUNTEIES, ETC. 375

merly founded by Antaeus, and afterwards received the name
of Traducta Julia*, from Claudius Csesar, when he esta-
blished a colony there. It is thirty miles distant from
Belon', a town of Bsetica, where the passage across is the
shortest. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Tingi,
upon the shores of the ocean', we come to Julia Con-
stantia Zili8^ a colony of Augustus. This place is exempt
from all subjection to the knigs of Mauritania, and is in-
cluded in the legal jurisdiction of Baetica. Thirty-two
miles distant from Jidia Constantia is Liios*, which was
made a Roman colony by Claudius Cffisar, and which ha«
been the subject of such wondrous fables, related by the
w^riters of antiquity. At this place, according to the
story, was the palace of Antaeus ; this was the scene of his
combat with Hercules, and here were the gardens of the
Hesperides'. An arm of the sea flows into the land here,

its name from Tinge, the wife of Antffus, the giant, who was slain by
Hercules. His tomb, which formed a hill, in the shape of a man
stretched out at full length, was shown near the town of Tingis to a
late period. It was also believed, that whenever a portion of the earth
covering the body was taken away, it rained until the hole was filled up
again. Sertoriiis is said to have dug away a portion of the hill ; but, on
discovering a skeleton sixty cubits in length, he was struck with horror,
and had it iramediatelv covered again. Procopius says, that the fortress
of this place was built by the Canaanites, who were driven by the Je^irft
out of Palestine.

* It has been supposed by Salmasius and others of the learned, that
Pliny by mistake here attributes to Claudius the formation of a colony
which was really established by either Julius Csesar or Augustus. It is
more probable, however, that Claudius, at a later period, ordered it to
be called " Traducta Julia," or " the removed Colony of Juha," in re-
membrance of a colony having proceeded thence to Spain in the time of
JuHus Ctesar. Claudius himself, as stated in the text, established a
colony here.

2 Its ruins are to be seen at Belonia, or Bolonia, three Spanish miles
west of the modem Tarifa.

' At this point Pliny begins his description of the western side of
Africa.

* Now Arzilla, in the territory of Fez. Ptolemy places it at the mouth
of the river ZUeia. It is also mentioned by Strabo and Antoninus.

* Now El Araiche, or Larache, on the river Lucos.

* Mentioned again in B. ix. c. 4 and c. 5 of the present Book, where
Pliny speaks of them as situate elsewhere. The story of Antceus is
further enlarged upon by Solinus, B. xxiv. ; Lucan, B. iv. 1. 589, et seq. ;
and Martianus Capella, B. vi.

376 pLurr's katueal histoet. [Book V.

with a serpentine channel, and, from the nature of the
locality, this is interpreted at the present day as having been
what was really represented by the story of the dragon
keeping guard there. This tract of water surrounds an
island, the only spot which is never overflowed by the tides
of the sea, although not quite so elevated as the rest of the
land in its vicinity. Upon this island, also, there is still in
existence the altar of Hercules ; but of the grove that bore
the golden fruit, there are no traces left, beyond some wild
olive-trees. People will certainly be the less surprised at
the marvellous falsehoods of the Greeks, which have been
related about this place and the river Lixos\ when they re-
flect that some of our own' countrymen as well, and that
too very recently, have related stories in reference to them
hardly less monstrous ; how that this city is remarkable for
its power and extensive influence, and how that it is even
greater than Great Carthage ever was ; how, too, that it is
situate just opposite to Carthage, and at an almost im-
measurable distance from Tingi, together with other details
of a simikr nature, aU of which Cornelius Nepos has believed
with the most insatiate credulity*.

In the interior, at a distance of forty miles from Lixos, is
Babba'', sumamed Julia Campestris, another colony of Augus-
tus ; and, at a distance of seventy-five, a third, called Banasa*,

' Now the Lucos.

2 Hardouin is of opinion, that he here has a hit at Gabinius, a Roman
author, who, in liis Annals of Mauritania, as we learn from Strabo
(B. xvii.), inserted numerous marvellous and incredible stories.

^ When we find Pliny accusing other writers of credulity, we are
strongly reminded of the proverb, ' Clodius accusat moechos.'

* Or the " Julian Colony on the Plains." Marcus suggests that the
word Bahha may possibly have been derived from the Hebrew or Phoe-
nician word heah or beaba, " situate in a thick forest." Poinsinet takes
Babba to be the Beni-Tuedi of modem times. D'Anville thinks that it
is Naranja.

* There is considerable difficulty about the site of Banasa. Moletiua
thinks that it is the modem Fanfara, or Pefenfia as Marmol calls it.
D'Anville suggests that it may be Old Mahmora, on the coast ; but, on
the other hand, Ptolemy places it among the inland cities, assigning to
it a longitude at some distance from the sea. PUny also apj^ears to
make it inland, and makes its distance from Lixos seventy-five miles,
while he makes the mouth of the Subur to be fifty miles from the
same place.

Chap. 1.] ACCOTTlfT OF COUNTBIES, ETC. 377

"with the surname of Yalentia. At a distance of thirty-five
miles from this last is the town of Volubilis, which is just
that distance also from both' seas. On the coast, at a
distance of fifty miles from Lixos, is the river Subur^, which
flows past the colony of fianasa, a fine river, and available
for the purposes of navigation. At the same distance from
it is the city of Sala', situate on a river which bears the
same name, a place which stands upon the very verge of the
desert, and though infested by troops of elephants, is much
more exposed to the attacks of the nation ol the Autololes,
through whose country lies the road to Mount Atlas, the
most fabulous* locality even in Africa.

It is from the midst of the sands, according to the story,
that this mountain* raises its head to the heavens ; rugged
and craggy on the side which looks toward the shores of the
ocean to which it has given its name, while on that which
faces the interior of Africa it is shaded by dense gi'oves
of trees, and refreshed by flowing streams; fruits of all
kinds springing up there spontaneously to such an extent,
as to more than satiate every possible desire. Throughout
the daytime, no inhabitant is to be seen ; all is silent, like
that dreadful stillness which reigns in the desert. A religious
horror steals imperceptibly over the feelings of those who
approach, and they feel themselves smitten with awe at the
stupendous aspect of its summit, which reaches beyond the

of the

clouds, and well nigh approaches the very orb of the moon.
At night, they say, it gleams with fires innumerable lighted

* From both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. According to
Poinsinet, Volubilis was the synonym of the Afirican name Fez, signify-
ing a * band,' or * swathe.' Mannert conjectures that it is the same as
the modern WalUi, or QualiH. D'Anville calls it Guulili, and says that
there are some remains of antiquity there.

2 The modem Subu, or Sebou. D'Anville is of opinion that this river
has changed a part of its course since the time of Phny.

* Most probably the modem Sallee stands on its site.

* Not in reference to the fact of its existence, but the wonderful stories
\rhich were told respecting it.

5 Like others of the ancient writers, Pliny falls into the error of con-
sidering Atlas, not as an extensive chain of mountains, but as an isolated
mountain, surrounded by sands. With reference to its height, the whole
range declines considerably from west to east ; the highest summits in
Morocco reaching near 13,000 feet, in Tunis not 5000.

378 plint's natubal histoet. [Book V.

up ; it is then the scene of the gambols of the .Sgipans' and
the Satyr crew, while it re-echoes with the notes of the flute
and the pipe, and the clash of drums and cymbals. All this
is what authors of high character have stated, in addition to
the labours which Hercules and Perseus there experienced.
The space which intervenes before you arrive at this moun-
tain is immense, and the country quite unknown.

There formerly existed some Commentaries written by
Hanno^, a Carthaginian general, who was commanded, in
the most flourishing times of the Punic state, to explore
the sea-coast of Africa. The greater part of the Greek
and Eoman writers have followed him, and have related,
among other fabulous stories, that many cities there were
founded by him, of which no remembrance, noi: yet the
slightest vestige, now exists.

While Scipio ^milianus held the command in Sicily,
Polybius the historian received a fleet from him for the
purpose of proceeding on a voyage of discovery in this part
of tne world. He relates, that beyond' Mount Atlas, pro-

* Or " Goat-Pens ;" probably another name for the Faiini, or Fauns.
More usually, there is but one ^gipan mentioned, — the son, according
to Hyginus, of Zeus or Jupiter, and a goat, — or of Zeus and ^ga, the
wife of Pan. As a foundation for one part of the stories here men-
tioned, Brotier suggests the fact, that as the Kabylcs, or mountain tribes,
are in the habit of retiring to their dwellings and reposing during the
heat of the day, it would not, consequently, be improbable tliat they
would devote the night to their amusements, lighting up fires, and
dancing to the music of drums and cymbals.

' Under his name we still possess a " Periplus," or account of a
voyage round a part of Libya. The work was originally written in
Punic, but what has come down to us is a Greek translation. We fail,
however, to discover any means by which to identify him with any one
of the many Carthaginians of the same name. Some writers call
him king, and others dux, or imperaior of the Carthaginians ; from
wliich wo may infer, that he held the office of mffeies. This expedition
has by some been placed as far back as the time of the Trojan war, or of
Hesiod, while others again place it as late as the reign of Agathocles.
¥alconer, Bougainville, and Gail, place the time of Hanno at about
B.C. 570, wliile other critics identify him with Hanno, the father or son
of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, B.C. 480. Pliny often makes
mention of him ; more particularly see B. viii. c. 21.

• 8 M. Gossehn thinks that the spot here indicated was at the south-
western extremity of the Atlas range, and upon the northern frontier of
the Desert of Zahara.

Chap. 1.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. ^879

ceeding in a westerly direction, there are forests filled with
wild beasts, peculiar to the soil of Africa, as far as the
river Anatis', a distance of 485 miles, Lixos being distant
from it 205 miles. Agrippa says, that Lixos is distant from
the Straits of Gades 112 miles. After it we come to a
gulf which is called the Gulf of Saguti^, a town situat-e on
the Promontory of Mulelacha', the rivers Subur and Salat^,
and the port of Eutubis', distant from Lixos 213 miles
We then come to the Promontory of the Sun", the port of
Eisardir^ the Gtetulian Autololes, the river Cosenus', the
nations of the Selatiti and the Ma«ati, the river Masathat',
and the river Darat'°, in which crocodiles are found. After
this we come to a large gulf, 616" miles in extent, which is
enclosed by a promontory of Mount Barce'^, which runs
out in a westerly direction, and is called Surrentium'*.
Next comes the river Salsus", beyond which lie the Ethio-
pian Perorsi, at the back of whom are the Pharusii", who

* Supposed by some geoffraphera to be the same as that now called
the Ommirabili, or the Ora-Rabya. This is also thought by some to have
been the same river as is called by Pliny, in p. 381, by the name of
Asana ; but the distances do not agree.

* Supposed by Gossehn to be the present bay of Al-cazar, on the
African coast, in the Straits of Cadiz ; though Hardouin takes it to be
the (coXttos f/iTropiicds, or " Gulf of Commerce," of Strabo and Ptolemy,
By first quoting from one, and then at a tangent fi'om another, Ptiny
involves this subject in almost inextricable confusion.

* Probably the place called Thymiat^rion in the Periplus of Hanno.

* The present Subu, and the river probably of Sallee, previously
mentioned.

* The modem Mazagan, according to Gosselin.

* Cape Cantin, according to GosseUu; Cape Blanco, according to
Marcus. 7 Probably the Safi, Asafi, or Saffee of the present day.

* The river Tensift, which runs close to the city of Morocco, in the
interior. ^ The river Mogador of the present day.

^^ The modem river Sua, or Sous.

" The learned GosseUn has aptly remarked, that this cannot be other
than an error, and that " ninety-six" is the correct reading, the Gulf of
Sainte-Croix being evidently the one here referred to.

^2 Mount Barce seems to be here a name for the Atlas, or Daran chain.

'3 Supposed by Gosselin to be the present Cape Ger.

^^ The river Assa, according to Gosselin. There is also a river Suse
placed here in the maps.

^ These two tribes probably dwelt between the modem Capes Gtet
and Non.

880 tLHSTT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

are bordered upon by the Gsetulian Darse^ lying in the
interior. Upon the coast again, we find the Ethiopian
Daratitae, and the river Bambotus^, teeming with croco-
diles and hippopotami. From this river there is a con-
tinuous range^ of mountains till we come to the one which
is known by the name of Theon Ochema^, from which to the
Hesperian Promontory^ is a voyage of ten days and nights ;
and in the middle of this space he® has placed Mount Atlas,
which by all other writers has been stated to be in the ex-
treme parts of Mauritania.

The Roman arms, for the first time, pursued their con-
quests into Mauritania, under the Emperor Claudius, when
the freedman -Sidemon took up arms to avenge the death of
King Ptolemy', who had been put to death by Caius Csesar ;

1 Marcus believes these to have been the ancestors of the present race
of the Touaricks, while the Melanogtetuli were the progenitors of the
Tibbos, of a darker complexion, and more nearly resembling the negroes
in bodily conformation.

3 Supposed by Gossehn to be the present river Nim, or Non. Ac-
cording to Bochart, tliis river received its name from the Hebrew or
Phoenician word behemoth or bamoth, the name by which Job (xl. 15)
calls the crocodile [or rather the hippopotamus]. Bochart, however,
with Mannert, Bougainville, De Rennet, and De Heeren, is of opinion,
that by this name the modem river Senegal is meant. Marcus is of
opinion that it is either the Non or the modem Sobi.

* Marcus here observes, that from Cape Alfach, below Cape Non,
there are no mountains, but continual wastes of sand, bordering on the
sea-shore. Indeed there is no headland, of any considerable height,
between Cape Sobi and Cape Bajador.

* " The Chariot of the Gods." Marcus is of opinion that it is the
modem Cape Verde ; while, on the other hand, Gosselin takes it to be
Cape Non. Brotier calls it Cape Ledo.

* In B. vi. c. 36, Pliny speaks of this promontory as the " Hesperian
Horn," and says that it is but four days' sail from the Theon Ochema.
Brotier identifies this promontory vrith the modem Cape Roxo. Marcus
is of opinion that it was the same as Cape Non ; but there is considerable
difficTilty in determining its identity.

^ AUuding to Poly bins ; though, according to the reading which Sillig
has adopted a few lines previously, Agrippa is the last author mentioned.
Pliny has here mistaken the meaning of Polybius, who has placed Atlas
midway between Carthage, from which he had set out, and the Pro-
montory of Theon Ochema, which he reached.

7 Ptolemy the son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, was summoned to Rome
in the year a.d. 40, by Caligula, and shortly after put to death by him,
his riches having excited the emperor's cupidity. Previously to this, he

Chap. 1.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 381

and it is a -well-known fact, that on the flight of the bar-
barians our troops reached Mount Atlas. It became a boast,
not only among men of consular rank, and generals selected
from the senate, who at that time held the command, but
among persons of equestrian rank as well, who after that
period held the government there, that they had penetrated as
far as Mount Atlas. There are, as we have already stated, five
Eoman colonies in this province ; and it may very possibly ap-
pear, if we listen only to what report says, that this mountain
is easily accessible. Upon trial, however, it has been pretty
generally shown, that all such statements are utterly fal-
lacious ; and it is too true, that men in high station, when
they are disinclined to take the trouble of inquiring into
the truth, through a feeling of shame at their ignorance arc
not averse to be guilty of falsehood ; and never is implicit
credence more readily given, than when a falsehood is sup-
ported by the authority of some personage of high considera-
tion. For my own part, I am far less surprised that there are
still some facts remaining undiscovered by men of the eques-
trian order, and even those among them who have attained
senatorial rank, than that the love of luxury has left any-
thing unascertained; the impulse of which must be great
indeed, and most powerfully felt, when the very forests are
ransacked for their ivory and citron- wood \ and all the rocks
of Q-aetulia are searched for the murex and the purple.

From the natives, however, we learn, that on the coast, at
a distance of 150 miles from the Salat, the river Asana'^ pre-
sents itself; its waters are salt, but it is remarkable for its
fine harbour. They also say that after this we come to a
river known by the name of Fut^, and then, after crossing
another called Vior which lies on the road, at a distance of
200 miles we arrive at Dyris'', such being the name which in
their language they give to Mount Atlas. According to their

had been on terms of strict alliance with the Eoman people, who had
decreed him a toga picta and a sceptre, as a mark of their friendship.

^ Ivory and citron- wood, or cedar, were used for the making and in-
laying of the tables used by the Roman nobility. See B. xiii. c. 23.

2 Supposed by some geographers to be the modem Wadi-Tensift. It
has been also confounded with the Anatis (see note ^, p. 369) ; while
others again identify it with the Anidus. It is more commonly spelt
* Asama.' » Or Phuth. It does not appear to have been identified.

■* The range is still called by the name of Daran.

382 PLUfT's ITATUEAL HISTORY. PBook V.

story there are still existing in its vicinity many vestiges which
tend to prove that the locality was once inhabited ; such as
the remains of vineyards and plantations of palm-trees.

Suetonius Paulinus^ whom we have seen Consul in our
own time, was the first Eoman general who advanced a
distance of some miles beyond Mount Atlas. He has given
us the same information as we have received from other
sources with reference to the extraordinary height of this
moimtain, and at the same time he has stated that all the
lower parts about the foot of it are covered with dense
and lofty forests composed of trees of species hitherto un-
known. The height of these trees, he says, is remarkable ;
the trunks are without knots, and of a smooth and glossy
surface ; the foliage is like that of the cypress, and besides
sending forth a powerful odour, they are covered with a
flossy down, from which, by the aid of art, a fine cloth might
easily be manufactured, similar to the textures made from the
produce of the silk-worm. He informs us that the summit
of this moiuitain is covered with snow even in summer, and
says tliat having arrived there after a march of ten days, he

Proceeded some distance beyond it as far as a river which
ears the name of Ger^; the road being through deserts
covered with a black sand', from which rocks that bore the
appearance of having been exposed to the action of fire, pro-
jected every here and there ; localities rendered quite uninha-
bitable by the intensity of the heat, as he himself experienced,

1 The same general who afterwards conquered the Britons under Boa-
dicea or Bonduca. While Propraetor in Mauritania under the Emperor
Claudius, in the year a.d. 42, he defeated the Mauri who had risen in
revolt, and advanced, as Pliny here states, as far as Mount Atlas. It is
not known from what point PauHuus made his advance towards the Atlas
range. Mannert and Marcus are of opinion that he set out from Sala,
the modem Sallee, while Latreille, Malte Brun, and Walkenaer think
that his point of departure was the mouth of the river Lixos. Sala was
the most southerly town on the western coast of Africa that in the time
of Pliny had submitted to the Roman arms.

* Some of the editions read ' Niger' here. Marcus suggests that that
river may have been called 'Niger' by the Phoenician or Punic colonists
of the western Mauritania, and 'Ger' or • Gbr' in another quarter. The
same writer also suggests that the Sigilmessa was the river to which
Paulinus penetrated on his march beyond Atlas.

• The Sigilmessa, according to Marmol, flows between several moun*
tains which appear to be of a blackish hue.

Chap. 1.] ACCOUKT OP COrKTBIES, ETC. 883

although it was in the winter season that he visited them.
We also learn from the same source that the people who
inhabit the adjoining forests, which are full of all kinds of
elephants, wild beasts, and serpents, have the name of Ca-
narii ; from the circumstance that they partake of their food
in common with the canine race, and share with it the
entrails of wild beasts.

It is a well-known fact, that adjoining to these localities
is a nation of JLtliiopians, which bears the name of Perorsi.
Juba, the father of Ptolemy, who was the first king* who
reigned over both the Mauritanias,and who has been rendered
even more famous by the brilliancv of his learning than by
his kingly rank, has given us similar inlbrmation relative to
Mount Atlas, and states that a certain herb grows there,
which has received the name of * euphorbia'* from that of his
physician, who was the first to discover it. Juba extols with
wondrous praises the milky juice of this plant as tending to
improve the sight, and acting as a specific against the bites
of serpents and all kinds of poison ; and to this subject alone
he has devoted an entire book. Thus much, if indeed not
more than enough, about Mount Atlas.

(2.) The province of Tingitana is 170 miles in length'.
Of the nations in this province the principal one was for-
merly that of the Mauri*, who have given to it the name of
Mauritania, and have been by many writers caUed the
Maurusii*. This nation has been greatly weakened by the
disasters of war, and is now dwinciled down to a few fami-
lies only''. Next to the Mauri was formerly the nation of

* Bocchus however, the kinsman of Ma«sims8a, had previously for
some time reigned over both the Mauritanias, consisting of Mauritania
Tingitana and Maiuitania Ceesariana.

> See B. XIV. c. 7. 12, and B. xxvi. c. 8.

' Extending from tlie sea to the river Moluga, now called the Molucha
and Molochath, or Malva and Malvana.

* From whom the Moors of the present day take their name. Marcus
observes here, that though Pliny distinguishes the Mauri from the Gsetuli,
they essentially belonged to the same race and spoke the same language,
the so-called Berber, and its dialects, the Schellou and the Schoviah.

* ' Maurusii' was the Greek name, ' Mauri' the Latin, for this people.
Marcus suggests that Mauri was a synonym only for the Greek word
nomades, 'wanderers.'

' As Marcus observes, PUny is here greatly in error. On the inroads of
Paulinus, the Mauri had retreated mto the interior and taken refuge in

384j pliny's natural histobt. [Book V..

the Massaesyli^ ; they in a similar manner have become ex-
tinct. Their country is now occupied by the Gsetulian na-
tions', the Baniura)^, the Autololes^, by lar the most power-
ful people among them all, and the Vesuni, who formerly
were a pai-t of the Autololes, but have now separated from
them, and, turning their steps towards the ^Jlthiopians*,
have formed a distinct nation of their own. This province,
in the mountainous district which lies on its eastern side,
produces elephants, as also on the heights of Mount Abyla'
and among those elevations which, from the similarity of
their height, are called the Seven Brothers'. Joining the
range of Abyla these mountains overlook the Straits of Gades.
At the extremity of this chain begin the shores of the in-
land sea ^, and we come to the Tamuda^, a nangable stream,
with the site of a former town of the same name, and then

the deserts of Zahara, whence they had again emerged in the time of the
geographer Ptolemy.

* From the time of the second Punic War this people had remained
in undisputed possession of the coimtry situate between the rivers Mo-
lochath or Moluga and Ampsaga, which formed the Ctesarian Maurita-
nia. Ptolemy speaks of finding some remains of them at Siga, a town
pituate on a river of the same name, and at which King Syphax had
formerly resided.

2 While Pomponius Mela does not make any difference between the
Mauri and the Gsetuli, Pliny here speaks of them as being essentially
different.

3 Derived, according to Marcus, from the Arabic compound hani-our^
* child of nakedness,' as equivalent to the Greek worA gymneteSy by which
name Pliny and other ancient writers designate the wandering naked
races of Western Africa.

* The Autololes or, as Ptolemy calls them, the Autololte, dwelt, it is
supposed, on the western coast of Africa, between Cape Cantin and Cape
Ger. Their city of Autolala or Autolake is one of Ptolemy's points of
astronomical observation, having tlie longest day thirteen hours and a half,
being distant three hours and a half west of jUexandria, and having the
Sim vertical once a year, at the time of the winter solstice. Eeichard
takes it for the modem Agulon or Aquilon.

5 The ^Ethiopian Daratitee, Marcus says. ^ The present Ceuta.

7 They were so called from the circumstance, Marcus says, of their
peaks being so numerous, and so strongly resembling each other. They
are now called, according to D' Anville, ' Gebel Mousa,' wliich means " the ''
Mountain of Apes," an animal by which they are now much frequented,
instead of by elephants as in Pliny's time. ^ Qr Mediterranean.

" The modern Bedia, according to Olivarius, the Tasanel, according to
Dupinet, and the Alamos or Kerkal, according to Ansart. Marcus says

Chap. 1.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTBIES, ETC. 385

the river Laud', which is also navigable for vessels, the town
and port of Khysaddir', and Malvane', a navigable stream.

The cityofSiga^ formerly the residence of King Syphax, lies
opposite to that of MalacaJ in Spain : it now belongs to the
second* Mauritania. But these countries, I should remark,
for a long time retained the names of their respective kings,
the further Mauritania being called tbe "land of BogudV'
while that which is now called Caesariensis was called the
" country of Bocchus." After passing Siga we come to the
haven called "Portus Magnus *"' from its great extent, with a
town whose people enjoy the rights of Eoman citizens, and
then the river Mulucha , which served as the limit between
the territory of Bocchus and that of the Massaesyli. Next
to this is Quiza Xenitana'", a town founded bjr strangers,
and Arsenaria", a place with the ancient Latin rights, tliree
miles distant from the sea. We then come to Cajrtenna^'^, a

that it is called the Setuan, and is the largest stream on the northern
shores of Western Africa.

^ The modem Goniera according to Hardouin, the Nocor according
toMannert. * The modem MeUlla most probably.

» The modem Maluia. Antoninus calls it Malva, and Ptolemy Maloua.

* Its site is occupied by the modem Aresgol, according to Mariana,
Guardia or Sereni according to Dupinet, Ned-Roma according to Man-
nert and D'Anville, and Tachumbrit according to Shaw. Marcus is in-
cUned to be of the same opinion as the last-mentioned geographer.

* Now the city of Malaga.

' Mauritania Ceesariensis, or CsBsarian Mauritania, now forming the
French province of Algiers.

7 " Bogudiana ;" from Bogud or Bogoas. The last king Bogud waa
deprived of his kingdom by Bocchus, king of Mauritania Ceesariensis, a
warm partisan of Csesar.

^ Or the " Great Harbour," now Arzeu according to D'Anville, and
Mars-el-Kebir according to Marcus.

^ The same river probably as the Malva or Malvana previously men-
tioned, the word mulucha or malacha coming from the Greek fioXoxv, " a
marsh mallow," wliich malva, as a Latin word, also signifies. See p. 383.

^" From the Greek word iivos^ " a stranger." Pomponius Mela and
Antoninus call this place Guiza, and Ptolemy Quisa. D'Anville places
it on the right side of the river Malvana or Mulucha, and Shaw says
that it was situate in the vicinity of the modem town of Oran.

'^ Now Marz-Agolet, or situate in its vicinity, according to Hardouin
and Ansart, and the present Arzen, according to Marcus, where nume-
rous remains of antiquity are found.

^^ Now Tenez, according to D'Anville, and Mesgraim, according to
Mannert ; with which last opinion Marcus agrees.

VOL. I. 2 0

886 pLurr's natueal histoet. [Book V.

colony founded under Augustus by the second legion, and
G-unugum\ another colony founded by the same emperor, a
praetorian cohort being established there; the Promon-
tory of Apollo^, and a most celebrated city, now called
Caesarea^, but formerly known by the name of lol; this
place was the residence of King Juba, and received the
rights of a colony from the now deified Emperor Claudius.
Oppidum Novum* is the next place ; a colony of veterans
was established here by command of the same emperor.
Next to it is Tipasa*, which has received Latin rights, as
also Icasium'', which has been presented by the Emperor
Vespasianus with similar rights; EusconiBe^, a colony
founded by Augustus; Rusucurium*, honoured by Clau-
dius with the rights of Eoman citizens ; Ruzacus', a colony
founded by Augustus; Salde*", another colony founded
by the same emperor ; Igilgili", another ; and the town of

* Ptolemy and Antoninus place this colony to the east of the Pro-
montory of Apollo, and not the west as Pliny does.

' The present Cape Mcstagan.

3 According to Dupinet and Mannert, the modern Tenez occupies its
site, Zershell according to Hardoiiin and Shaw, Vacxu* according to
D'Anville and Ansart, and Algiers according to others. It is suggested
by Marcus that the name lol is derired from the Arabic verb galla^ " to
be noble" or " femous." There is no doubt that the magnificent ruins
at Zershell are those of lol, and that its name is an abbreviation of
Cseaarea lol. * Or New Town.

* Scylai calls it Thapsus ; Anunianus Marcellinus, Tiposa. According
to Mannert it was situate in the vicinity of the modem Damas.

• Or Icosium. It has been identified by inscriptions discovered by
the French as standing on the same site as the modem Algiers. D'Anville,
Mannert and others identify it with SchercheU or Zershell, thus placing
it too far west. Mannert was evidently misled by an error in the Anto-
nine Itinerary, whereby all the places along this coast are, for a con-
siderable distance, thrown too far to the west ; the researches however
which followed the French conquest of the country have revealed inscrip-
tions wliich completely set the question at rest.

^ According to Mannert, this was situate on the modem Cape Arbatel.
Marcus thinks that the Hebrew ros, or Arab ras^ " a rock," enters into
the composition of the word.

8 Now Hur according to D'Anville, Colcah according to Mannert.

• The modem Acor, according to Marcus.

^ The modem Pedeles or Delys, according to Ortellius and Mannert,
Tedles according to D'Anville.

" The modem JigeU or Gigeri. It was probably in ancient times the
emporiiun of the surroimding country.

Chap. 2.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTBLES, ETC. 887

Tucca\ situate on the eea-shore and upon the river Amp-
saga. In the interior are the colony of Augusta, also called
Succabar^, Tubusuptus^, the cities of Timici and Tigavie*,
the rivers 8ardabal'^, Aves', and Nabar', the nation of the
Macurebi, the river Usar*, and the nation of the Nababes.
The river Ampsaga is distant from Csesarea 322" miles. The
length of the two Mauritaniaa is 1038, and their breadth
407 miles.

CHAP. 2. (3.) — NTJMIDIA.

At the river Ampsaga Numidia begins, a countrv rendered
iUustrious by the faiue of Masinissa. By the Greeks this
region was called Metagonitis'" ; and the Numidians received
the name of " Nomades " from their frequent changes of pas-
turage ; upon which occasions they were accustomed to carry"
their mapalia^ or in other words, their houses, upon waggons.

* Destroyed, according to Hardouin, and probably by the incuwions
of the sea. At the mouth of the Ampsaga (now callea the Wad-El- Kebir
or SuQimar, and higher up the Wadi Roiunel) there is situate a small
sea-port called Marsa Zeitoun.

2 Near the present Mazuaa, according to Mannert.

' The modem Burgh, according to D'Anville and Mannert, but more
probably considerably to the east of that place.

^ The modem El-Herba, according to Mannert.

' Marcus suggests that this is the Chinalaph of Ptolemy, and probably
the modem Sehellif.

* The same that is called Savis by Ptolemy, who places Icosium on
its banks.

7 By Mela caUed the Vabar. Marcus supposes it to be the same as
the modem Giffer.

* By Ptolemy called the Sisar ; the Ajebbi of modem geographers,
which falls into the Mediterranean, near the city of Budja.

* Brotier says that this reading is incorrect, and that 222 is the pro-
per one, that being the true distance between the river Ampsaga or Wad-
el- Kebir and the city of Csesarea, the modem Zershell.

^^ It was not only Kvmiidia that bore this name, but all the northern
coast of Africa from the frontiers of the kingdom of Carthage near Hippo
Regius to the Colvunns of Hercules. It was thus called from the Greek
metagonos, a " descendant " or " successor ;" as the Carthaginians
estabhshed a number of small towns and villages on the coast,, which
were thus posterior in their origin to the large cities already founded
there.

1^ Hardouin says that the Moors in the interior stUl follow the same
usage, carrying their houses from pasture to pasture on waggons.

2c2

388 PLIirr's IfATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

The towns of this country are Cullu^ and Eusicade^ ; and
at a distance of forty-eight miles from the latter, in the in-
terior, is the colony of Cirta^, sumamed " of the Sitiani ;'*
still more inland is another colony called Sicca*, with
the free town of Bulla Kegia'. On the coast are Tacatua*,
Hippo Eegius^, the river Annua ^ and the town of Tabraca*,
with the rights of Roman citizens. The river Tusca'® forms
the boundary of Numidia. This country produces nothing
remarkable except its marble" and wild beasts.

CHAP. 3. (4.) — AFEICA.

Beyond the river Tusca begins the region of Zeugitana",
and that part which properly bears the name of Africa".

* Now Chollum or Collo.

* The modern Sgigada or Store, according to Mannert, D'Anville,

and Shaw.

' The modem Constantina occupies its site. Numerous remains of
the ancient town are still discovered- Sitius was an officer who served
under Ctesar, and obtained a grant of this place after the defeat of Juba.

* Called Urbs, or Kaflf, according to D'Anville and Shaw ; the latter
of whom found an inscription there with the words Ordo Siccensium.

* Or * Royal Bulla' ; which epithet shows that it was either a residence
or a foimdation of the kings of Numidia, and distinguishes it from a small
place called Bulla Mensa, south of Carthage. Bulla Regia was four days'
journey south- west of Cartilage, on a tributary of the river Bagrada, the
vaUey of which is still called Wad-el-BouL This place was one of the
points of Ptolemy's recorded astronomical observations, having its longest
day fourteen hours and one-eighth, and being distant from Alexandria
two hours to the west.

* The modem Tamseh, according to Shaw and Mannert, and Tagodet,
according to D'Anville.

7 Its ruins are south of the modem Bona. It received the name of
Regius or * Royal' from being the residence of the Numidian kings. It
was also famed as being the see of St. Augustine. It was a colony of
Tvre, and stood on the bay now forming the Gulf of Bona. It was one
of' the most flourishing cities of Africa till it was destroyed by the Van-
dals A.D. 430.

8 Now the Mafragg, according to Mannert.

" Still called Tabarca, according to Hardouin.

^0 Now the Zaina, according to Marcus.

^1 For the character of the Numidian marble, see Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 7.

'2 Extending from the river Tusca, or Zaina, to the northern frontiers
of Byzacium. It corresponds with the Turkish province or beylik of
Tunis.

" He says this not only to distinguish it from Africa, considered as

Chap. 3.] ACCOUNT OF COFNTEIES, ETC. 389

We here find three promontories ; the White Promontory*,
the Promontory of Apollo*, facing Sardinia, and that of
Mercury', opposite to Sicily, Projecting into the sea these
headlands form two gulfs, the first of which bears the name
of "Hipponensis" from its proximity to the city called
Hippo iu-utus*, a corruption of the Greek name l)iarrhy-
tus, which it has received from the channels made for irriga-
tion. Adjacent to this place, but at a greater distance from
the sea-shore, is Theuclalis', a town exempt from tribute.
We then come to the Promontory of Apollo, and upon
the second gulf, we find Utica", a place enjoying the rights
of Eoman citizens, and famous for the death of Cato ; the
river Bagrada^, the place called Castra Cornelia', the co-
one-third of the globe, but also in contradistinction to the proconsular
province of the Roman empire of the same name, which contained not
only the province of Zeugitana, but also those of Numidia, Byzacium,
and TripoUs.

^ Candidum : now Ras-el-Abiad.

* The references to this headland identify it with Cape Farina, or Ras
Sidi Ah-al-Mekhi, and not, as some have thought, the more westerly Cipe
Zibeeb or Ras Sidi Bou-Shoushe. Shaw however apphes the name of
Zibeeb to the former. • Now Cape Bon, or Ras-Addar.

* More properly called Hippo Diarrhytus or Zaritus, a Tyrian colony,
situate on a large lake wliich communicated with the sea, and received
the waters of another lake. Its situation exposed it to frequent inunda-
tions, whence, as the Greeks used to state, the epithet SidppvTos. It
seems more probable however that this is the remnant of some Phoeni-
cian title, as the ancients were not agreed on the true form of the name,
and of this uncertainty we have a further proof in the Hippo Diruiu*
of our author.

^ This is placed by Ptolemy to the south-east of Hippo, and near the
southern extremity of Lake Sisar.

^ Tliis important city stood on the north part of the Carthaginian
Gulf, west of the mouth of the Bagrada, and twenty-seven Roman miles
N.W. of Carthage ; but the site of its ruins at the modem Bou-Shater is
now inland, in consequence of the changes made by the Bagrada in the
coast-line. In the Third Pimic war Utica took part with the Romans
against Carthage, and was rewarded with the greater part of the Car-
thaginian territory.

^ Now called the Mejerdah, and though of very inconsiderable si^e, the
chief river of the Carthaginian territory. The main stream is formed
by the \mion of two branches, the southern of Avhich, the ancient Bagrada,
is now called the MeUig, and in its upper course the Meskianah. The
other branch is called the Hamiz.

® Or the "Cornelian Camp." The spot where Comehus Scipio Africa-

390 PLiirr's itatubal histoet. [Book V.

lony^ of Carthage, founded upon the remains of Great Car-
thage^, the colony of Maxula^, the to-wTis of Carpi\ Misua,
and Clypea*, the last a free town, on the Promontory of
Mercury ; also Curubis, a free town*', and Neapolis^

Here commences the second division^ of Africa properly
so called. Those who inhabit Byzacium have the name of
Libyphcenices^. Byzacium is the name of a district which
is 250 miles in circumference, and is remarkable for its ex-
treme fertility, as the ground returns the seed sown by the
husbandman with interest a hundred-fold'". Here are the

nus the Elder first encamped, on landing in Afidca, B.C. 204. Csesar de-
scribes this spot, in his description of Curio's operations against Utica,
B. C. b. ii. c. 24, 25. This spot is now called Ghellah.

1 This colony was first estabhshcd by Caius Gracchus, who sent 6000
settlers to found on the site of Carthage the new city of Junonia. The
Eoman senate afterwards annulled this with the other acts of
Gracchus. Under Augustus however the new city of Carthage was
founded, which, when Strabo wrote, waa as prosperous as any city in
Africa. It was made, in place of Utica, which had favoured the Pom-
peian party, the seat of the proconsul of Old Africa. It stood on the
peninsula terminated by Eas-Sidi-Bou-Said, Cape Carthage or Car-
thagena. As Gibbon has remarked, "The place might be vmknown if
some broken arches of an aqueduct did not guide the footsteps of the
inquisitive traveller."

2 The original city of Carthage was called ' Carthago Magna' to di-
stinguish it from New Carthage and Old Cartilage, colonies in Spain,

3 Now Khades, according to Marcus.

"* Marcus identifies it with the modem Gurtos.

6 By the Greeks called ' Aspis.' It derived its Greek and Roman names
from its site on a hill of a shield-hke shape. It was built by Agathocles,
the Sicilian, B.C. 310. In the first Punic war it was the landing-place
of Manlius and Regulus, whose first action was to take it, B.C. 256. Its
site is still known as Kalebiah, and its ruias are peculiarly interesting.
The site of Misua is occupied by Sidi-Doud, according to Shaw and
D'Aaville.

6 Shaw informs us that an inscription found on the spot designates this
place as a colony, not a free city or town. Its present name is Kurbah.

7 The present Nabal, according to D'AnvLlle.

* Zeugitana extended from the river Tusca to Horrea-Cselia, and Byza-
cium from this last place to Thense.

9 As sprung partly from the Phoenician immigrants, and partly from •
the native Libyans or Africans.

10 Pliny says, B. xvii. c. 3, "A hundred and fifty fold." From Shaw
we learn that tliis fertility no longer exists, the fielda producing not more
than eight- or at most twelve-fold.

Chap. 4.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 391

free towns of Lepti8\ Adrumetum', Euspina', and Thapsus* ;
and then Thenae^ Macomades^ Tacape^ and Sabrata^ which
touches on the Lesser Syrtis ; to which spot, from the
Ampsaga, the length of Numidia and Airica is 580 miles,
and the breadth, so far as it has been ascertained, 200.
That portion which we have called Aijica is divided into
two provinces, the Old and the New ; these are separated
by a dyke which was made by order of the second Scipio
Africanus'' and the kings*", and extended to Thenffi, which
town is distant from Carthage 216 miles.

CHAP. 4. — THE STETES.

A third Gulf is divided into two smaller ones, those of
the two Syrtes", which are rendered perilous by the shallows

^ The modem Lempta occupies its site.

^ Originally a Phoenician colony, older than Carthage. It was the
capital of Byzacium, and stood within the southern extremity of the
Sinus NeapoUtanus or Gulf of Hammaniet. Trajtm made it a colony,
under the high-sounding name, as we gather from inscriptions, of Colonia
Concordia tllpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetana, or, as set
forth on coins, Colonia Concordia Julia Hadrumetanu Pia. The epithet
Frugifera refers to the fact that it was one of the chief sea-ports for the
corn-producing country of Byzacium. It was destroyed by the Vandals,
but restored by the Emperor Jvistinian under the name of Justiniana or
Justinianopohs. The modem Sousa stands on its site ; and but slight
traces of the ancient city are to be found.

* Situate in the vicinity of the modem Monastir.

* Shaw discovered its ruins at the modem town of Demas.

* Now Taineh, according to D'Anville. This place formed the boun-
dary between the proconsular province of Africa and the territory of the
Numidian king Masinissa and his descendants.

^ The present Mahometa, according to Marcus, El Mahres according
to D'Anville.

7 Now Cab^s, according to D'Anville, giving name to the Gulf of
Cabes. Marcus calls it Giaps.

® Now Tripoli Vecchio ; also called Sabart according to D'Anville.

* Scipio jEmUianus, the son-in-law of -^Emihus Paulus.

^^ Micipsa, the son of Masinissa, and his two legitimate brethren.
Scipio having been left by Masinissa executor of his will, the sovereign
power was divided by him between Micipsa and his two brethren Gvdussa
and Mastanabal. On this occasion also he separated Numidia from
Zeugitana and Byzacium, by a long dyke drawn from Thense, due south,
to the borders of the Great Desert, and thence in a north-westerly direc-
tion to the river Tusca.

" The Syrtes or 'Quicksands' are now called, the Lesser Syrtes the

392 PLurr's TTATUEAL HISTOET. [Book T.

of their quicksands and the ebb and flow of the sea. Poly-
bius states the distance from Carthage to the Lesser Syrtia,
the one which is nearest to it, to be 300 miles. The inlet
to it he also states to be 100 miles across, and its circum-
ference 300. There is also a way^ to it by land, to find
which we must employ the guidance of tlie stars and cross
deserts which present nothing but sand and serpents. After
passing these we come to forests filled with vast multitudes
of wild beasts and elephants, then desert wastes^, and beyond
them the Garamantes', distant twelve days' journey from
the Augylae*. Above the Garamantes was formerly the na-

Gulf of Cab^s, and the Greatefr the Gulf of Sydra. The country situate
between the two Syrtes is called Tripoli, formerly Tripohs, a name
wliich, according to Solinus, it owed to its three cities, Sabrata, Leptis,
a^dGEa.

^ Marcus observes with reference to this passage, that both Hardouin
and Poinsinet have mistaken its meaning. They evidently think that Pliny
is speaking here of a route to the Syrtes leading from the interior of
Africa, whereas it is pretty clear that he is speaking of the dangers wliich
attend those who approach it by the hue of the sea-coast, as Cato did, on
his march to Utica, so beautifully described by Lucan in his Ninth Book.
This is no doubt the same route which was taken by the caravans on their
passage from Lebida, the ancient Leptis, to Berenice in Cyrenaica.

2 Those which we find at the middle of the coast bordering upon the
Greater Syrtis, and which separate the mountains of Fezzan and Atlas
from Cyrenaica and Barca.

3 In its widest sense this name is apphed to aU the Libyan tribes in-
habiting the Oases on the eastern part of the Great Desert, as the Gsetu-
Hans inhabited its western part, the boundary between the two nations
being drawn at the sources of the Bagrada and the mountain Usargala.
In the stricter sense however, and in which the term must be here under-
stood, the name 'Ga,ramantes' denoted the people of Phazania, the mo-
dem Fezzan, which forms by far the largest oasis in the Grand Desert
of Zahara.

t Augyla;, now Aujelah, was an oasis in the desert of Barca, in the
region of Cyrenaica, about 3^° south of Cyrene. It has been remarked
that Pliny, here and in the Eighth Chapter of the present Book, in abridg-
ing the accoimt given by Herodotus of the tribes of Northern Africa, has
transferred to the Augylae what that author really says of the Nasamones.
This oasis forms one of the chief stations on the caravan route from Cairo
to Fezzan. It is placed by Rennell in 30° 3' North Lat. and 22° 46' East
Long., 180 miles south-east of Barca, 180 west by north of Siwah, the
ancient Ammonium, and 426 east by north of Mourzoiik. Later autho-
rities, however, place the village of Aujelah in 29° 15' North Lat. and
21° 55' East Long.

Chap. 4.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 393

tion of the Psylli*, and above them again the Lake of Lyco-
medes^, surrounded with deserts. The Augylae themselves
are situate almost midway between ^Ethiopia which faces
the west^, and the region which lies between* the two Syrtes,
at an equal distance from both. The distance along the
coast that lies between the two Syrtes. is 250 miles. On it
are found the city of (Ea*, the river Cinjrps", and the country
of that name, the towns of Neapolis', Graphara**, and Abroto-
num', and the second, surnamed the Greater, Leptis^".

We next come to the Greater Syrtis, 625 miles in cir-
cumference, and at the entrance 312 miles in width ; next
after which dwells the nation of the Cisippades. At the
bottom of this gulf was the coast of the Lotophagi, whom
some writers have called the Alachroae^^ extending as far as
the Altars of the Phila^ni^^ ; these Altars are formed of heaps

1 For an account of the Psylli see B. vii. c. 2. They probably dwelt
in the vicinity of the modem Cape Mesurata.

2 Now Lake Lynxama, according to Marcus.

3 Marcus observes that in order properly to understand this passage we
must remember that the ancients considered Africa as terminating north
of the Equator, and imagined that from the Straits of Hercules the western
coast of Africa ran, not towards the south-west, but slanted in a south-
easterly direction to the Straits of Babelmandel. ■* The modem TripoU.

5 A flourishing city with a mixed population of Libyans and Sicilians.
It was at tliis place that Apuleius made his eloqtJcnt and ingenious de-
fence against the charge of sorcery brought against him by his step-sons.
According to some writers the modem Tripoh is biult on its site, while
other accounts make it to have been situate six leagues from that city.

8 Now called the Wady-el-Quaham.

' Mannert is of opinion that this was only another name for the city
of Leptis Magna or the "Greater Leptis" here mentioned by PHny.
There is little doubt that his supposition is correct.

** The more common reading is Taplira or Taphara. D'Anville iden-
tifies it with the town of S fakes.

" Scylax identifies it with NeapoHs or Leptis, and it is generally looked
upon as being the same place as Sabrata or Old TripoU.

10 Now called Lebida. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Sep-
timius Severus. It was almost destroyed by an attack from a Libyan
tribe a.d. 366, and its ruin was completed by the iavasion of the Arabs.
Its ruins are considerable.

11 " Men of sea complexion," is the meaning of this Greek name. Ac- '
cording to Marcus they dwelt between the Greater Leptis and the Lake
Tritonis, at the present day called Schibkah-el-Loudeah. For a further
account of the Lotophagi, see B. xiii. c. 32.

12 Two brothers, citizens of Carthage, who in a dispute as to their

394 pLUfr's irATrBAL histobt. [Book y.

of sand. On passing these, not far from the shore there is
a vast swamp ^ which receives the river Triton^ and from it
takes its name : by Callimachus it is called Pallantias^, and
is said by him to be on the nearer side of the Lesser Syrtis ;
many other ^Titers however place it between the two Syrtes.
The promontory which bounds the Greater Syrtis has the
name of Borion"* ; beyond it is the pro^'ince of Cyrene.

Africa, from the river Ampsaga to this limit, includes
516 peoples, who are subject to the Eoman sway, of which
six are colonies; among them Uthina* and Tuburbi*, be-
sides those already mentioned. The towns enjoying the
riglits of Eoman citizens are fifteen in number, of which
I shall mention, as lying in the interior, those of Assura',
Abutucum, Aborium, Canopicum®, Cilma', Simithium, Thu-
nusidium, Tuburnicum, Tynidnmium, Tihiga, the two towns
called Ucita, the Greater and the Lesser, and Yaga. There
is also one town vrith. Latin rights, Uzalita by name, and
one town of tributaries, Castra Cornelia"'. The free towns
are thirty in number, among wliich we may mention, in the
interior, those of Acholla", Aggarita, Avina, Abzirita, Cano-

respective territories with the people of Cyrene, submitted to be buried
alive in the sand, at the boundary-line between the two countries. Sal-
lust (Jugurthine War) is the main authority for the story. It is also
related by Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 7, and Valerius Maxiraus, B. v, c. 6,
but from the Greek name of the brothers, meaning " lovers of praise," it
is doubtful whether the story is not of spurious origin.

^ The Lake Tritonis mentioned in note ", p. 393.

' Now called El Hammah, according to Shaw.

' According to some accounts the goddess Pallas op Minerva was bom
on the banks of Lake Tritonis.

* The modem Cape of Tajuni.

* Now called Udina, according to Marcus.

« Now called Tabersole, according to Marcus.

7 In the north of Byzacium, near the Bagrada and the confines of
Nimiidia. It was the station of a Roman garrison, and considerable
remains of it are still visible near the modem Zanfour.

8 Called Cannopissse by Ptolemy, who places it to the east of Tabraca.
' There is great doubt as to the correct orthography of these places,

most of which can be no longer identified.

^0 According to Marcus the present Porto Tarina.

^* Also called Achilla and Achidla, the ruins of which are to be seen at
the modem El Ahah. It stood on »the sea-coast of Byzacium, a little
above the northern extremity of the Lesser Syrtis. It was a colony from
the island of Melita, now Malta.

Chap. 5.] ACCOtJlTT OP COUWTBEES, ETC. 395

pita, Melizita, ^fatera, Salaphita, Tusdrita^ Tiphica, Tunica',
Theuda, Tagasta*, Tiga^ Ulusubrita, a second Vaga, Visa, and
Zaraa*. Of the remaining number, most of them should be
called, in strictness, not only cities, but nations even ; such
for instance as the Natabudes, the Capsitani", the Musu-
lami, the Sabarbares, the Massyli', the Nisives, the Vama-
cures, the Cinithi, the Musuni, the Marchubii*, and the whole
of Gsetulia", as far as the river Nigris'", which separates
Africa proper from Ethiopia.

CHAP. 5. (5.) — CTRENAICA.

The region of Cyrenaica, also called Pentapolis", is ren-
dered famous by the oracle of Hammon*', which is distant
400 miles from the city of Cyrene ; also by the Fountain of

1 Now called El-Jemma, according to Marciu.

2 From it modem Tmiis takes its name.

' The birth-place of St. Augustin. It was to the north-west of Hippo
Regius.

* In the vicinity of this place, if it is the same as the Tigisis mentioned
by Procopiua, there were two columns to be seen in his day, upon which
was written in the Phoenician language, " We fled from before the robber,
Joshua the son of Nun."

' There were two towns of this name in the proconsular province of
Africa. The first was situate in the country of Zeugitana, five days'
journey west of Carthage, and it was here that Scipio defeated HannibaL
The other bore the surname of Regia or Royal, from being the frequent
residence of the Numidian kings. It lay in the interior, and at the pre-
sent day its site bears the name of ' Zowarin' or ' Zewarin.'

* The ruins of Capsa still bear the name of Cafsa or Ghafsah. It was
an important city in the extreme south of Numidia, situate in an oasis,
in the midst of an arid desert abounding in serpents. In the Jugvuthine
war it was the treasiuy of Jugxirtha, and was taken and destroyed by
Marius ; but was afterwards rebuilt and made a colony.

7 They dwelt between the river Ampsaga or Wady-El-Kebir and the
Tusca or Wady-Zain, the western boimdary of the Carthaginian territory.

8 Dwelling to the east of the mountain Zalycus, now known as the
Wanashrise, according to Shaw.

* The ancients called by the name of * Gaetulians' all the people of
Africa who dwelt south of the Mauritanias and Numidia, as far as the
hue which, according to then* ideas, separated Africa from Ethiopia.

^® The Quorra most probably of modem geographers.

^^ So called, as mentioned below, from its five principal cities.

^* Where Jupiter Ammon or Hammon was worshiped under the form
of a ram, the form he was said to have assumed when the deities were
dispersed in the war with the Giants. Ancient Ammonium is the pre-
sent oasis of Siwah in the libyan Desert.

396 PLINT's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

the Sun' there, and five cities in especial, those of Bere-
nice^, Arsinoe^, Ptolemais*, Apollonia', and Cyrene® itself.
Berenice is situate upon the outer promontory that bounds
the Syrtis ; it was formerly called the city of the Hesperides
(previously mentioned'), according to the fables of the

1 The same that has been already mentioned in B. ii. c. 106. It is
mentioned by Herodotus and Pomponius Mela.

2 Previously called Hesperis or Hesperides. It was the most westerly
city of Cyrenaica, and stood just beyond the eastern extremity of the
Greater Syrtis, on a promontory called Pseudopenias, and near the river
Lethon. Its historical importance only dates from the times of the
Ptolemies, when it was named Berenice, after the wife of Ptolemy III.
or Euerf^etes. Having been greatly reduced, it was fortified anew by the
Emperor Justinian. Its ruins are to be seen at the modem Ben Ghazi.

3 So called from Arsinoe, the sister of Ptolemy Pliiladelphus. Its
earlier name was Taucheira or Teucheira, which name, according to
Marcus, it still retains.

* Its ruins may still be seen at Tohneita or Tolomcta. It was situate
on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, and originally bore the name of Barca.
From which of the Ptolemies it took its name is not known. Its splendid
ruins are not less than four miles in circumference.

5 Its ruins are still to be seen, bespeaking its former splendour, at the
modem Marsa Sousah. It was originally only the port of Cyrene, but
xmder the Ptolemies it flourished to such an extent as to ecHpse that
city. It is pretty certain that it was the Sozusa of the later Greek writers.
Eratosthenes was a native of this place.

* The chief city of Cjrenaica, and the most important Hellenic colony
in Africa, the early settlers having extensively intermarried with wives of
Libyan parentage. In its most prosperous times it maintained an ex-
tensive commerce with Greece and Egypt, especially in silphium or
assafcetida, the plantations of which, as mentioned in the present chapter,
extended for miles in its vicinity. Great quantities of this plant were
also exported to Capua in Southern Italy, where it was extensively
employed in the manufacture of perfumes. The scene of the * Rudens,'
the most picturesque (if we may use the term) of the plays of Plautus, is
laid in the vicinity of Cyrene, and frequent reference is made in it to the
extensive cultivation of silpliimn ; a head of which plant also appears on
the coins of the place. The pliilosophers Aristippus and Cameades were
bom here, as also the poet Callimachus. Its ruins, at the modem
Ghrennah, are very extensive, and are indicative of its former splendour.

7 In C. 1 of the present Book. It was only the poetical fancy of the
Greeks that found the fabled gardens of the Hesperides in the fertile re-
gions of Cyrenaica. Scylax distinctly mentions the gardens and the lake
of the Hesperides in this vicinity, where we also find a people called
Hesperidse, or, as Herodotus names them, Euesperidse. It was probably
in consequence of this similarity of name, in a great degree, that the
gardens of the Hesperides were assigned to this locaHty.

Chap. 5.] ACCOTTfTT OF COITNTBIES, ETC. 397

Greeks, wliicli veiy often change their localities. Not far
from the city, and running before it, is the river Lethon,
and with it a sacred grove, where the gardens of the Hes-
perides are said to have formerly stood ; this city is distant
from Leptis 375 miles. From Berenice to Arsinoe, com-
monly called Teuchira, is forty-three miles ; after which, at
a distance of twenty-two, we come to Ptolemais, the ancient
name of which was Barce ; and at a distance of forty miles
from this last the Promontory of Phycus', which extends far
away into the Cretan Sea, being 350 miles distant from Tsena-
rum^, the promontory of Laconia, and from Crete 225 . After
passing this promontory we come to Cyrene, which stands
at a distance of eleven miles from the sea. From Phycus
to Apollonia^ is twenty-four miles, and from thence to the
Chersonesus'' eightv-eight ; from which to Catabathmos^ is a
distance of 216 miles. The Marmaridae^ inhabit this coast,
extending from almost the region of Paraetoniiun' to the
Greater Syrtis ; after them the Ararauceles, and then, upon
the coasts of the Syrtis, the Nasamones*, whom the Greeks

1 Now called Ras-Sem or Eaa-El-Kazat. It is situate a little to the
west of Apollonia and N.W. of Cyrene.

' According to Ansart, 264 miles is the real distance between Capes
Ras-Sem and Tsenanmi or Matapan.

3 As already mentioned, Apollonia formed the harboiu* of Cyrene.

* This was called the Chersonesus Magna, being so named in contra-
distinction to the Chersonesus Parva, on the coast of Egypt, about thirty-
five mUes west of Alexandria. It is now called Kas-El-Tin, or more
commonly Raxatin.

^ So called from the pecuhar features of the locaUty, the Greek word
KaTa^aOfibs, signifying " a descent." A deep vaUey, bounded east and
west by ranges of liigh hills, runs from tins spot to the frontiers of
Egypt. It is again mentioned by Phny at the end of the present
Chapter. The spot is still known by a similar name, being called Marsa
Sollem, or the " Port of the Ladder." In earher times the Egyptian
territory ended at the Gulf of Plinthinethes, now Lago Segio, and did not
etxtend so far as Catabathmos.

* This name was xmknown to Herodotus. As Marcus observes, it
was probably of Phoenician origin, signifying " leading a wandering Hfe,"
like the term " nomad," derived from the Greek.

7 Now called El Bareton or Marsa-Labeit. This city was of consi-
derable importance, and belonged properly to Marmaria, but was included
politically in the Nomos Libya of Egypt. It stood iicar the promontory
of Artos or Pythis, now Ras-El-Hazeit.

* So called from the words Matd-Ammon^ " the tribe of Ammon," ac-

898 PLurr's natueal histoet. [Book V.

formerly called Mesammonee, from the circumstance of
their being located in the very midst of sands ^ The terri-
tory of Cyrene, to a distance of fifteen miles from the shore,
is said to abound in trees, while for the same distance
beyond that district it is only suitable for the cultivation of
corn : after which, a tract of land, thirty miles in breadth
and 250 in length, is productive of nothing but laser [or
eilphium^].

After tlje Nasamones we come to the dwellings of the
Asbystse and the Macae', and beyond them, at eleven days'
journey to the west of the Greater Syrtis, the Amantes*, a
people also surrounded by sands in every direction. They
find water however without any difficulty at a depth mostly
of about two cubits, as their district receives the overflow of
the waters of Mauritania. They build houses with blocks
of salt*, which thev cut out of their moimtains just as we
do stone. From this nation to the Troglodytae' the distance
is seven days' journey in a south-westerly direction, a peo-
ple with whom our only intercourse is for the purpose of
procuring from them the precious stone which we call the
carbuncle, and which is brought from the interior of Ethiopia.
Upon the road to this last people, but turning off" towards
the deserts of Africa, of which we liave previously' made
mention as lying beyond the Lesser Syrtis, is the region of
Phazania^ ; the nation of Phazanii, belonging to which, as

cording to Bochart. The Nasamones were a powerful but savage people
of Libya, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Grrcatcr Syrtis, but
were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards by
the Romans. ^ From fieaos " the middle," and a^/ios " sand."

2 See note « in p. 396.

3 Herodotus places this nation to the west of the Nasamones and on
the river Cinyps, now called the Wadi-Quaham.

* In most of tlie editions they are called ' Hammanientes.' It has been
suggested that they wert5 so called from the Greek word dfi/ios " sand."

^ This story he borrows from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 158.

* From the Greek word TpojyXodvrai, " dwellers in caves." Pliny has
used the term already (B. iv. c. 25) in reference to the nations on the banks
of the Danube. It was a general name applied by the Greek geographers
to various uncivilized races who had no abodes but caves, and more
especially to the inhabitants of the western coasts of the Bed Sea, aloug
the shores of Upper Egypt and ^Ethiopia.

7 At the beginning of C. 4.

» Which gives name to the modem Fezzan.

Chap. 6.] ACCOtrWT OP COtnTTBtES, ETC. 899

well as the cities of Alele* and Cilliba'^, we have subdued
bj force of arms, as also Cydamus^, which lies over against
Sabrata. Al'ter passing these places a range of mountains
extends in a prolonged chain from east to west : these have
received from our people the name of the Black Moun-
tains ^ either from the appearance which they naturally bear
of having been exposed to the action of fire, or else from the
fact that they have been scorched by the reflection of the
sun's rays. Beyond it' is the desert, and then Talgse, a city of
tlie G-aramantes, and Debris, at which place there is a spring*,
the waters of which, from noon to midnight, are at boiling
"heat, and then freeze for as many hours until the following
noon; Garama too, that most famous capital of the Ga-
ramantes ; all which places have been subdued by the Broman
anns. It was on this occasion that Cornelius Balbus'' was
honoured ^vith a triumph, the onlv foreigner indeed that was
ever honoured with the triumphal chariot, and presented
with the rights of a Eoman citizen ; for, although by birth
a native of G^des, the Eoman citizenship was granted to him
as well as to the eider Balbus', his uncle by the father's side.
There is also this remarkable circumstance, that our writers

* * Now called Tanet-Mellulen, or the station of Mellulen, on the route
from Qndamez to Oserona.

2 Zaouila or Zala, half way between Augyla and Mourzouk.

^ Now Gbdairiez, which, according to Marcus, is situate almost under
the same meridian as Old Tripoli, the ancient Sabrata.

* According to Marcus this range still bears the name of Gibel-Assoud,
which in the Arabic language means the " Black Mountain."

* In a southerly direction. He alludes probably to the Desert of
Bildxdgerid.

^ Tliis spring is also mentioned by Pliny in B. ii. c. 106. Marcus sug-
gests that the l3ebri3 of PUny is the same as the Bedir of Ptolemy. He
also remarks that the English traveller Oudney discovered caverns hewn
out of the sides of the hills, evidently for the purposes of habitation, but
of wliich the use is not known by the present people. These he con-
siders to have been the abodes of the ancient Troglodytee or "cave-
dwellers." In the Tibesti range of moimtains, however, we find a race
called the Eock Tibboos, from the circumstance of their dwelling in caves.

7 Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the Younger, who, upon his victories
over the Guramantes, obtained a triumph in the year B.C. 19.

8 L. Cornelius Balbus the Elder, also a native of Gades. He obtained
the consulship in B.C. 40, the first instance, as we find mentioned by
PHny, B. vii. c. 44, in which thia honour had been conferred upon one
who was not a Eoman citizen.

400 PLIKT's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

have handed down to us the names of the cities above-men-
tioned as having been taken by Balbus, and have informed
us that on the occasion of his triumph \ besides Cy damns
and Garama', there were carried in the procession the
names and models of all the other nations and cities, in
the following order: the town of Tabudium', the nation
of Niteris, the town of Nigligemella, the nation or town of
Bubeium^, the nation of Enipi, the town of Thuben, the
mountain known as the Black Mountain, Nitibrum, the
towns called Rapsa, the nation of Discera*, the town of
Debris®, the river Nathabur^, the town of Thapsagum*,
the nation of Nannagi, the town of Boin, the town of
Pege^, the river Dasibari; and then the towns, in the
following order, of Baracum, Buluba, Alasit, Galia, Balla,
Maxalla^", Zizama, and Mount Gryri", which was preceded by

* On the occasion of a triumph by a Eoman general, boards were
carried aloft on "fercula," on which were painted in large letters the names
of vanquished nations and countries. Here too models were exhibited in
ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and pictures of the moun-
tains, rivers, and other great natural featiu^s of the subjugated region,
with appropriate inscriptions. Marcus is of opinion that the names of
the places here mentioned do not succeed in any geographical order, but
solely according to their presumed importance as forming part of tho
conquest of Balbus, He also thinks that Balbus did not penetrate
beyond the fifteenth degree of north latitude, and that his conquests did
not extend so far south as the banks of Lake Tchad.

=2 The site of Garama still bears the name of ' Gherma,' and presents
very considerable remains of antiquity. It is four days' journey north
of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan.

3 Now Tibesti, according to Marcus.

4 Marcus suggests that this is probably the Febabo of modem geo-
graphers, to the N.E. of Belma and Tibesti.

6 Discera was the Im-Zerah of modem travellers, on the road from
Sockna to Mourzouk, according to Marcus, who is of opinion that the
places which foUow were situate at the east and north-east of Thuben
and the Black Mountain.

6 Om-El-Abid, to the N.W. of Garama or Gherma, according to
Marcus, and Oudney the traveller.

7 The same, Marcus tliinks, as the modem Tessava in Fezzan.

8 Marcus suggests that this may be the modem Sana.

3 The town of Winega mentioned by Oudney, was probably the
ancient Pega, according to Marcus.

10 The modem Missolat, according to Marcus, on the route from Tri-
poli to Murmuck.

u According to Marcus, this was the Mount Goriano of the English

Chap. 6.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 401

an inscription stating that this was the place where precious
stones were produced.

Up to the present time it has been found impracticable
to keep open the road that leads to the country of the
Garamantes, as the predatory bands of that nation have filled
up the wells with sand, which do not require to be dug for
to any great depth, if you only have a knowledge of the
locality. In the late war^ however, which, at the beginning
of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the Romans carried
on with the people of (Ea, a snort cut of only four days'
journey was discovered ; this road is known as the " Prseter
Caput Saxi'*." The last place in the territory of Cyrenaica
is Catabathmos, consisting of a town, and a valley with a
sudden and steep descent. The length of Cyrenean Africa,
up to this boundary from the Lesser Syrtis, is 1060 miles ;
and, so far as has been ascertained, it is 800' in breadth.

CHAP. 6. (6.) — LIBYA MAEEOTIS.

The region that follows is called Libya Mareotis^, and
borders upon Egypt. It is held by the Marmaridae, the
Adyrmachidae, and, after them, the Mareotae. The di-
stance from Catabathmos to Paraetonium is eighty-six

travellers Denhain, Clapperton, and Oudney, where, confirming the
statement here made by Pliny, they found quartz, jasper, onyx, agates,
and cornelians.

• Mentioned by Tacitus, B. iv. c. 50. The town of (Ea haa been
alluded to by Pliny in C. 4.

2 "Past the head of the rock." Marcus suggests that this is the
Gibel-Gelat or Rock of Gelat spoken of by the English traveDers Den-
ham, Clapperton, and Oudney, forming a portion of the chain of Guriano
or Gyr. He says, that at the foot of this mountain travellers have to
pass from Old and New Tripoli on their road to Missolat, the Maxala of
Pliny, and thence to Gerama or Gherma, the ancient capital of Fezzan.

3 As Marcus observes, this would not make it to extend so far south
as the sixteenth degree of north latitude.

* The Mareotis of the time of the Ptolemies extended from Alexandria
to the Gulf of Plinthinethes ; and Libya was |)roperly that portion of
territory which extended from that Grdf to Catabathmos. PHny is in
error here in confounding the two appellations, or rather, blending them
into one. It includes the eastern portion of the modem Barca, and the
western division of Lower Egypt. It most probably received its name
from the Lake Mareotis, and not the lake from it.

TOL. I. '21)

402 pltbt's natural histobt, [Book V.

miles. In this district is Apis^ a place rendered famous by
tlie religious belief of Egypt. From this toAvn Paraetonium
is distant sixty -two miles, and from thence to Alexandria
the distance is 200 miles, the breadth of the district being
169. Eratosthenes says that it is 525 miles by laud from
Cyrene to Alexandria; while Agrippa gives the length of
the whole of Africa from the Atlantic Sea, and including
Lower Egypt, as 3040 miles. Polybius and Eratosthenes,
who are generally considered as remarkable for their extreme
correctness, state the length to be, from the ocean to Great
Carthage 1100 miles, and from Carthage to Canopus, the
nearest mouth of the Nile, 1628 miles ; while Isidorus speaks
of the distance from Tingi to Canopus as being 3599 miles.
Artemidorus makes this last distance forty miles less than
Isidorus.

CHAP. 7. (7.) — THE ISLAITDS IN THE VICINITY OF AFEICA.

These seas contain not so very many islands. The most
famous among them is Meninx', twenty-five miles in length
and twenty-two in breadth: by Eratosthenes it is called
Lotophagitis. This island has two towns, Meninx on the
side whicn faces Africa, and Troas on the other ; it is situate
off the promontory which lies on the right-hand side of the
Lesser Syrtis, at a distance of a mile and a half. One hun-
dred miles from this island, and opposite the promontory
that lies on the left, is the free island of Cercma*, with a

* This was a seaport town on the northern coast of Africa, probably
about eleven or twelve miles west of Paraetonium, sometimes spoken of
as belonging to Egypt, sometimes to Marmorica. Scylax places it at the
western boundary of Egypt, on the frontier of the Marmaridse. Ptolemy,
like Pliny, speaks of it as being in the Libyan Nomos. The distances
given m the MSS. of Pliny of this place from Paraetonium are seventy-
two, sixty-two, and twelve miles; the latter is probably the correct
reading, as Strabo, B. xvii., makes the distance 100 stadia. It is extremely
doubtful whether the Apis mentioned by Herodotus, B. ii. c. 18, can be
the same place : but there is Httle doubt, from the words of Pliny here,
that it was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian god Apis, who was
repi'esented under the form of a buU.

* Now called Zerbi and Jerba, derived from the name of G-irba, which
even in the time of Aurelius Victor, had supplanted that of Meninx. It
is situate in the Gulf of Cabes. According to Solinus, C. Marius lay in
concealment here for some time. It was famous for its purple. See
B. ix. c. 60. ' Now called Kerkeni, Karkenah, or Kamlah.

Chap. 8.] ACCOUNT OP COIIlfTBIES, ETC. 403

city of the same name. It is twenty-five miles long, and
half that breadth at the place where it is the widest, but
not more than five miles across at the extremity : the di-
minutive island of Cercinitis*, which looks towards Car-
thage, is united to it hy a bridge. At a distance of nearly
fifty miles from these is the island of Lopadusa^ six miles
in length ; and beyond it Gaulos and Ghdata, the soil of which
kills the scorpion, that noxious reptile of Africa. It is
also said that the scorpion will not live at Clypea ; opposite
to which place lies the island of Cosyra', vrith a town of the
same name. Opposite to the Gulf of Carthage are the two
islands known as the JEgimuri*; the Altars*, which are
rather rocks than islands, Tie more between Sicily and Sar-
dinia. There are some authors who state that these rocks
were once inhabited, but that they have gradually subsided
in the sea.

CHAP. 8. (8.) — COTTNTRIES ON THE OTHER SIDE OE AEEICA.

If we pass through the interior of Africa in a southerly
direction, beyond the Gaetuli, after having traversed the
intervening; deserts, we shall find, first of all the Liby-
Egyptians*, and then the country where the Leucaethio-

^ Now Gherba. It was reckoned as a mere appendage to Ccrcina, to
which it was joined hj a mole, and which is found often mentioned in
history.

' Still called Lampedusa, off the coast of Tunis. This bland, with
Gaulos and Galata, has been already mentioned among the islainds off
Sicily ; see B. iii. c. 14.

* Now PanteUaria. See B. iii. c. 14.

* A lofty island surrounded by dangerous cliffs, now called Zowamour
or Zembra.

' In the former editions the word "Arse" is taken to refer to the
^gimuri, as meaning the same islands. SiUig is however of opinion
that totally distinct groups are meant, and pxmctuates accordingly. The
" Arse " were probably mere rocks lying out at sea, which received their
name from their fancied resemblance to altars. They are mentioned by
Virgil in the ^neid, B. i. 1. 113, upon which lines Servius says, that they
were so called because there the Eomans and the people of Africa on
one occasion made a treaty.

^ The greater portion of this Chapter is extracted almost verbatim
from the accotmt given by Mela. Ptolemy seems to place the Liby-
Egyptians to the south of the Greater and Lesser Oasis, on the route
thence to Darfour.

2d2

404 PLINY's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

pians^ dwell. Beyond^ these are the Nigritse', nations of
-Ethiopia, so called from the river Nigris^, which has been
previously mentioned, the Grymnetes^, sumamed Pharusii,
and, on the very margin of the ocean, the Perorsi®, whom
we have already spoken of as lying on the boundaries
of Mauritania. After passing all these peoples, there are
vast deserts towards the east until we come to the Gara-
mantes, the Augylae, and the TroglodytaB; the opinion of
those being exceedingly well founded who place two -Sthio-
pias beyond the deserts of Africa, and more particularly
that expressed by Homer^, who tells us that the -Ethiopians
are divided into two nations, those of the east and those of
the west. The river Nigris has the same characteristics as
the Nile ; it produces the calamus, the papyrus, and just
the same animals, and it rises at the same seasons of the
year. Its source is between the Tarraelian Ethiopians
and the (Ecalicae. Magium, the city of the latter people,
has been placed by some writers amid the deserts, and, next

^ Or "White Ethiopians," men though of dark complexion, not
negroes. Marcus is of opinion that the words " intervenientibus desertis"
refer to the tract of desert country lying between the Leucsethiopians and
the Liby-Egyptians, and not to that between the Gsetuhans on the one
hand and the Liby-Egyptians and the Leuctethiopians on the other.

2 Meaning to the south and the south-east of these three nations, accord-
ing to Marcus, Rennel takes the Leucsethiopians to be the present Man-
dingos of higher Senegambia : Marcus however thinks that they are the
Azanaghis, who dwell on the edge of the Great Desert, and are not of so
black a complexion as the Mandingos.

3 Probably the people of the present Nigritia or Soudan.

* Marcus is of opinion that Pliny does not here refer to the Joliba of
Park and other travellers, as other commentators have supposed; but
that he speaks of the river called Zis by the modem geographers, and
which Jackson speaks of as flowing from the south-east towards north-west.
The whole subject of the Niger is however enwrapped in almost impene-
trable obscurity, and as the most recent inquirers have not come to any
conclusion on the subject, it would be little more than a waste of time
and space to enter upon an investigation of the notions which Pliny and
Mela entertained on the subject. ^ JVom yu/xvos, " naked."

^ Mentioned in C. 1 of the present Book.

7 He refers to the words in the Odyssey, B. i. 1. 23, 24. —
AiQioiras Toi Six9a dpdaidrai, ecrxaroi dvSpojv'
Oi fiev dvffofievov 'YTrepiovos, oi 8' dviovTos.
" The iEthiopians, the most remote of mankind, are divided into two
parts, the one at the setting of Hyperion, the other at his rising."

Chap. 8.] i.CCOTJNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 405

to them the Atlantes ; then the ^gipani, half men, half
beasts, the Blemmyae^ the Gamphasantes, the Satyri, and
the Himantopodes.

The Atlantes^, if we believe what is said, have lost all
characteristics of humanity ; for there is no mode of distin-
guishing each other among them by names, and as they look
upon the rising and the setting sun, they give utterance to
direful imprecations against it, as being deadly to them-
selves and their lands ; nor are they visited with dreams^, like
the rest of mortals. The Troglodytae make excavations in
the earth, which serve them for dwellings ; the flesh of ser-
pents is their food ; they have no articulate voice, but
only utter a kind of squeaking noise^ ; and thus are they
utterly destitute of all means of communication by language.
The Garamantes have no institution of marriage among
them, and live in promiscuous concubinage with their
women. The Augylse worship no deities* but the gods of the
infernal regions. The Gamphasantes, who go naked, and
are unacquainted with war®, hold no intercourse whatever
with strangers. The Blemmyae are said to have no heads,

* A tribe of Ethiopia, whose position varied considerably at different
epochs of history. Their predatory and savage habits caused the most
extraordinary reports to be spread of tlieir appearance and ferocity.
The more ancient geographers bring them as fiar westward as the region
beyond the Libyan Desert, and into the vicinity of the Oases. In the
time however of the Antonines, when Ptolemy was composing his de-
scription of Africa, they appear to the south and east of Egypt, in the
wide and almost imknown tract which lay between the rivers Astapus
and Astobores.

2 Mela speaks of this race as situate farthest to the west. The de-
scription of them here given is from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183-185, who
speaks of them under the name of " Atarantes."

3 The people who are visited by no dreams, are called Atlantes by
Herodotus, the same name by which PHny calls them. He says that
their territory is ten days' journey from that of the Atarantes.

* This also is borrowed from Herodotus. As some confirmation of
this account, it is worthy of remark, that the Rock Tibboos of the pre-
sent day, who, hke the ancient Troglodyte, dwell in caves, have so
peculiar a kind of speech, that it is compared by the people of Aujelah
to nothing but the whistling of birds. The Troglodytae of Fezzan are
liere referred to, not those of the coasts of the Eed Sea.

5 Mela says that they look upon the Manes or spirits of the departed
as their only deities.

^ This is said, in almost the same words, of the Garamantes, by He-

406 pliny's natueal histoet. [Book V.

their mouths and eyes being seated in their breasts. The
Satyri\ beyond their figure, have nothing in common with
the manners of the human race, and the form of the jEgi-
pani^ is such as is commonly represented in paintings. The
Himantopodes^ are a race of people with feet resembling
thongs, upon which they move along by nature with a ser-
pentine, crawling kind of gait. The Pharusii, descended
from the ancient Persians, are said to have been the compa-
nions of Hercules when on his expedition to the Hesperides.
Beyond the above, I have met with nothing relative to
Africa^ worthy of mention.

CHAP. 9. (9.) — EGYPT AND THEBAIS.

Joining on to Africa is Asia, the extent of which, accord-
ing to Timosthenes, from the Canopic mouth of the Nile
to the mouth of the Euxine, is 2689 miles. From the
mouth of the Euxine to that of Lake Maeotis is, according to
Eratosthenes, 1545 miles. The whole distance to the Ta-
nais, including Egypt, is, according to Artemidorus and
Isidorus, 6375* miles. The seas of Egypt, which are several

rodotus. The mistate was probably made by Mela in copying from
Herodotus, and continued by Pliny when borrowing from him.

^ So called from their supposed resemblance in form to the Satyrs
of the ancient mythology, who were represented as little hairy men with
horns, long ears, and tails. They were probably monkeys, which had been
mistaken for men. 2 Half goat, half man. See the Note relative to
-S^gipan, in C. 1 of the present Book, p. 378.

** Evidently intended to be derived from the Greek ijids "a thong,'*
and Tropes " the feet." It is most probable that the name of a savage
people in the interior bore a fancied resemblance to this word, upon
which the marvellous story here stated was coined for the purpose of
tallying with the name. From a statement in the iEthiopica of Helio-
dorus, B. X., Marcus suggests that the story as to theBlemmyse having
no heads arose from the circumstance, that on the invasion of the Per-
sians they were in the habit of falling on one knee and bowing the head
to the breast, by which means, without injury to themselves, they
afforded a passage to the horses of the enemy.

* It must be remembered, as already mentioned, that the ancients
looked upon ^gypt as forming part of Asia, not of Africa. It seema
impossible to say how this supposition arose, when the Eed Sea and the
Isthmus of Suez form so natural and so palpable a frontier between
Asia, and Africa.

5 It is not improbable that these numbers are incorrectly stated in
the MSS. of our author.

Cliap. 9.] ACCOTJirr OF COTJNTEIES, ETC. 407

in number, have received their names from those who dwell
upon their shores, for which reason they will be mentioned
together.

Egypt is the country which lies next to Africa ; in the in-
terior it runs in a southerly direction, as far as the territory
of the Ethiopians, who lie extended at the back of it. The
river Nile, dividing itself, forms on the right and left the
boundary of its lower part, which it embraces on every side'.
By the Canopic mouth of that river it is separated from
Africa, and by the Pelusiac from Asia, there being a distance
between the two of 170 miles. For this reason it is that
some persons have reckoned Egypt among the islands, the
Nile so dividing itself as to give a triangular form to the
land which it encloses: from which circumstance also
many persons have named Egypt the Delta^, after that of
the Grreek letter so called. The distance from the spot
where the channel of the river first divides into branches, to
the Canopic mouth, is 146 miles, and to the Pelusiac, 166.

The upper part of Egypt, which borders on Ethiopia, is
known as Thebais. This district is divided into prefec-
tures of to'w^s, which are generally designated as " Nomes."
These are Ombites^, Apollopolites^, Hermonthites^ Thi-
nites®, Phaturites', Coptites^, Tentyrites^ Diopolites'", An-

* Parisot remarks that Pliny is in error in this statement. A consi-
derable part of Lower Egypt lay both on the right and left of the Delta
or island formed by the branches of the Nile. It must be remembered,
however, that our author has already included a portion of what was
strictly Egypt, in his description of Libya Mareotis.

2 By reason of its triangular form, A.

2 The Ombite nome worshipped the crocodile as the emblem of Sebak.
Its capital was Ombos.

* This nome destroyed the crocodile and worshipped the sun. Its
capital was ApollinopoUs Magna.

* It worshipped Osiris and his son Orus. The chief town was Ther-
monthis.

^ Probably the original kingdom of Menes of This, the founder of the
Egyptian monarchy. It worshipped Osiris. Its capital was This, after-
wards called Abydos.

7 The nome of Thebes, which was its chief town.

8 Its capital was Coptos.

3 Its chief town was Tentyra. This nome worshipped Athor or Venus,
Isis, and Typhon. It destroyed the crocodile.

*" Perhaps the same as the Panopolite or Chemmite nome, which had

408 plint's FATFEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

taeopolites^ Aphroditopolites^, and Lycopolites'. The di-
strict which lies in the vicinity of Pelusium contains the
following Nomes, Pharbaethites, Bubastites*, Sethroites,
and Tanites^. The remaining Nomes are those called the
Arabian ; the Hammonian, which lies on the road to the
oracle of Jupiter Hammon ; and those known by the names
of Oxyrynchites, Leontopolites, Athribites^, Cynopolites^,
Hermop elites^, Xoites, Mendesiimi, Sebennytes^, Cabasites,
Latopolites, Heliopolites, Prosopites,Panopolites,Busirites^°,
Onuphites", Saites^^, Ptenethu, Phthemphu^^, Naucratites^'*,
MeteHtes, Gynaecopolites, Menelaites, — all in the region of
Alexandria, besides Mareotis in Libya.

Heracleopolites^^ is a Nome on an island^^ of the Nile,

for its chief town Chemmis or Panopolis. It paid divine honours to a
deified hero.

* It probably worshipped Typhon. Its capital was Antseopolis.

2 Probably an oflfshoot from a nome in theHeptanomis of similar name.

8 Dedicated to the worship of the wolf. Its chief town was Lycopohs.
It should be remarked that these names do not appear to be given by
Pliny in their proper geographieal order.

^ Some of these nomes were inconsiderable and of Httle importance.
The Bubastite nome worshipped Bubastis, Artemis, or Diana, of whom
it contaraed a fine temple.

* Its chief town was Tanis. In this nome, according to tradition,
Moses was bom.

^ Its capital was Athribis, where the shrew-mouse and crocodile were
worshipped.

7 The seat of the worship of the dog-headed deity Anubis. Its capital
was Cynopohs ; which is to be distinguished from the Deltic city and
other places of that name, as this was a nome of the Heptanomis or
Middle Egypt, to which also the Hammonian nome belonged.

8 The border nome of Upper and Middle Egypt.

^ Its capital was Paclmamunis. It worshipped a goddess correspond-
ing to the G-reek Leto, or the Latona of the Romans.

^^ Its capital was Busiris. It worshipped Isis, and at one period was
said to have sacrificed the nomad tribes of Syria and Arabia.

" Its chief town was Onuphis.

12 Its chief city was Sais, and it worshipped Neith or Athene, and
contained the tomb and a sanctuary of Osiris. ^^ j^g capital was Tava.

1* Its chief town was Naucratis on the coast, the birth-place of Athe-
nseus, the Deipnosophist. By some authors it is made part of the Saitic
nome. The names given by Pliny vary very considerably from those
found in others of the ancient writers.

16 The capital of this nome was Heracleopolis, * The city of Hercules,*
as Pliny calls it, situate, as he says, on an island, at the entrance of the

Chap. 9.] ACCOTTNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 409

fifty miles In lengtli, upon wliicli there is a city, called the
' City of Hercules.' There are two places called Arsinoites* :
these and Memphites^ extend to the apex^ of the Delta ; ad-
joining to which, on the side of Africa, are the two Nomes
of Oasites"*. Some writers vary in some of these names and
substitute for them other Nomes, such as Heroopolites*
and Crocodilopolites^. Between ArsinoTtea and Mem-
phites, a lake', 250 miles, or, according to what Muci-
anus says, 450 miles in circumference and fifty paces deep,
has been formed by artificial means: after the king by
whose orders it was made, it is called by the name of Moeris.
The distance from thence to Memphis is nearly sixty-two
miles, a place which was formerly the citadel of the kings of
Egypt ; from thence to the oracle of Hammon it is twelve
days' journey. Memphis is fifteen miles from the spot where
the river Nile divides into the different channels which we
have mentioned as forming the Delta.

nome of Arsinoites, formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis
and Heliopolis, it was probably the most important city couth of the
Thebaid. Its ruins are inconsiderable ; a portion of them are to be seen
at the modem hamlet of Amasieh.

^ He probably means Arsinoe or Arsinoitis, the chief town of the
nome of that name, and the city so called at the northern extremity of
the Heroopolite Gulf in the Eed Sea. The former is denoted by the
modem district of El-Fayoom, the most fertile of ancient Egypt. At
this place the crocodile was worshipped. The Labyrinth and Lake
Moeris were in this nome. Extensive ruins at Medinet-el-Fayoom, or
El-Fares, represent its site. The modem Ardscherud, a village near
Suez, corresponds to Arsinoe on the Red Sea. There is some httle doubt
however whether this last Arsinoe is the one here meant by Pliny.

2 Memphis was the chief city of this nome, which was situate in
Middle Egypt, and was the capital of the whole country, and the resi-
dence of the Pharaohs, who succeeded Psammetichus, B.C. 616. This
nome rose in importance on the decline of the kingdom of Thebais, but
was afterwards ecHpsed by the progress of Alexandria under the suc-
cessors of Alexander the Great.

3 At which Middle Egypt terminates.

'* They are more generally looked upon as forming one nome only,
and included imder the name of Hammonium.

5 Its chief town was Heroopohs, a principal seat of the worship of
Typhon, the evil or destroying genius.

^ The same as the nome of Arsinoites, the capital of which, Arsinoe,
was originally called CrocodilopoHs.

7 Now known as Birket-cl-Keroum. This was a vast lake on the
western side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, used for the reception and

410 plint's NATXJEAL HTSTOET. [Book V.

CHAP. 10. — THE EITEE NILE.

The sources of tlie Nile^ are unascertained, and, travelling
as it does for an immense distance through deserts and burn-
ing sands, it is only known to us by common report, having
neither experienced the vicissitudes of warfare, nor been
visited by those arms which have so effectually explored all
other regions. It rises, so far indeed as King Juba was
enabled to ascertain, in a mountain^ of Lower Mauritania,
not far from the ocean ; immediately after which it forms a
lake of standing water, which bears the name of Nilides^.
In this lake are found the several kinds of fish known by
the names of alabeta", coracinus, and silurus ; a crocodile
also was brought thence as a proof that this really is the
Nile, and was consecrated by Juba himself in the temple of
Isis at Caesarea*, where it may be seen at the present day.
In addition to these facts, it has been observed that the
waters of the Nile rise in the same proportion in which the

subsequent distribution of a part of the overflow of the Nile. The sup-
position that it was formed by artificial means is now pretty generally
exploded, and it is regarded as of natural formation. It was situate in
the nome of Arsinoites or Crocodilopolites. Its length seems to be over-
stated by our author, as at the present day it is only thirty miles in
length and five in breadth at the widest part.

^ And it is generally supposed that they are so up to the present day.
The ethnographer Jablonski is of opinion that this river derives its name
from the Coptish word tneialei " to rise at stated times." Servius, the
commentator on Virgil, says that it is derived from the two Greek words
vea I'Xiis "fresh mud," in allusion to the fresh mud or slime which it
leaves after each inundation. Singularly enough, ChampoUion prefers
this silly etymology to that suggested by Jablonski.

3 An interesting disquisition on the probable sources of the Nile, as
viewed by the ancients, is to be foxmd in the Ninth Book of Lucan's
Pharsalia. The Indian word " nilas" " black," has also been suggested
as its possible origin.

3 What spot is meant under this name, if indeed it is anything more
than the creation of fancy, it is impossible to ascertain with any degree
of precision. It is possible however that the ancients may have had
some knowledge of Xake Tchad, and the Mountains of the Moon, or
Djebel-Kumri, though at the same time it is more than doubtful that
the Nile has its source in either of those localities, the former especially.

^ Perhaps a kind of river lamprey. As to the Coracinus, see B. ix.
c. 24, 32, and B. xxxii. c. 19, 24, 34, 44, and 53 ; and as to tke Silurus,
B. ix. c. 17, 25, and B. xxxii. c. 31, 36, 40, 43, 44, &c.

* The modem Vacur in Northern Africa.

Chap. 10.] ACCOrNT OF COITNTIIIES, ETC. ' 411

snows and rains of Mauritania increase. Pouring forth from
this lake, the river disdains to flow through arid and sandy-
deserts, and for a distance of several days' journey conceals
itself; after which it bursts forth at another lake of greater
magnitude in the country of the Massaesyli\ a people of
Mauritania Cacsariensis, and thence casts a glance around, as
it were, upon the communities of men in its vicinity, giving
proofs of its identity in the same peculiarities of the animals
which it produces. It then buries itself once again in the
sands of the desert, and remains concealed for a distance of
twenty days' journey, till it has reached the confines of -Ethio-
pia. Here, when it has once more become sensible of the pre-
sence of man, it again emerges, at the same source, in all pro-
bability, to which WTiters have given the name of Niger, or
Black. After this, forming the boundary-line between Africa
and Ethiopia, its banks, though not immediately peopled by-
man, are the resort of numbers of wild beasts and ani-
mals of various kinds. Giving birth in its course to dense
forests of trees, it travels through the middle of -Slthiopia,
under the name of Astapus, a word which signifies, in the
language of the nations who dwell in those regions, " water
issuing from the shades below." Proceeding onwards, it
divides^ innumerable islands in its course, and some of them
of such vast magnitude, that although its tide runs with the
greatest rapidity, it is not less than five days in passing
them. When making the circuit of Meroe, the most
famous of these islands, the left branch of the river is called
Astobores^, or, in other words, " an arm of the water that
issues from the shades," while the right arm has the name
of Astosapes^, which adds to its original signification the

^ A district which in reaHty was at least 1200 or 1500 miles distant
from any part of the Nile, and probably near 3000 from its real source.

2 " Spargit." It is doubtful whether this word means here " waters,"
or " divides." Probably however the latter is its meaning.

3 This is the third or eastern branch of the river, now known as the
Tacazze. It rises in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11° 40' north
lat. and 39° 40^ east long., and joins the main stream of the Nile, formed
by the union of the Abiad and the Azrek, in 17° 45' north lat. and about
34° 5' east long. ; the point of junction being the apex of the island of
Meroe, here mentioned by Pliny.

* Possibly by this name he designates the Bahr-el-Abied, or White
Eiver, the main stream of the Nile, the sources of which have not been

412 PLimr's natiteal histoey.

meaning of " side\" It does not obtain the name of " Nile'*
until its waters have again met and are united in a single
stream; and even then, for some miles both above and
below the point of confluence, it has the name of Siris.
Homer has given to the whole of this river the name of
Mgj-ptus, while other writers again have called it Triton^.
Every now and then its course is interrupted by islands which
intervene, and which only serve as so many incentives to
add to the impetuosity of its torrent ; and though at last
it is hemmed in by mountains on either side, in no part is
the tide more rapid and precipitate. Its waters then hasten-
ing onwards, it is borne along to the spot in the country of
the -<iEthiopians which is known by the name of "Catadupi^ ;"
where, at the last Cataract^ the complaint is, not that it
flows, but that it rushes, with an immense noise between the
rocks that lie in its way: after which it becomes more
smooth, the violence of its waters is broken and subdued,
and, wearied out as it were by the length of the distance it
has travelled, it discharges itself, though by many mouths*,
into the Egyptian sea. During certain days of the year, how-
ever, the volume of its waters is greatly increased, and as it
traverses the whole of Egypt, it inundates the earth, and,
by so doing, greatly promotes its fertility.

There have been various reasons suggested for this increase
of the river. Of these, however, the most probable are,

hitherto satisfactorily ascertained. The Astapus is supposed to hare
been really the name of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, the third
branch of the Nile, the sources of which are in the highlands of Abys-
sinia, in about 11° 40' north lat. and 39° 40' east long.

1 Or " side of the water that issues from the shades." As Hardouin
says, this does not appear to be a very satisfactory explanation.

2 Said by Tzetzes to have been derived from the Greek rptVos, '' the
third," because it had three times changed its name : having been called,
first, the Ocean ; secondly, Aetus, or the Eagle ; and thirdly, jEgyptus.

3 Or the " Cataracts," for which it is the Greek name. The most
northerly of these cataracts, called the First Cataract, is, and always
has been, the southern boundary of Egypt. According to the most
recent accounts, these Cataracts are devoid of any stupendous features,
such as characterize the Falls of Niagara.

* The one now called the First Cataract.

5 Seven mouths in ancient times, which have now dwindled down to
two of any importance, the Damietta mouth on the east, and the Eosetta
on the west.

Chap. 10.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC, 413

either that its waters are driven back by the Etesian winds \
which are blowing at this season of the year from an oppo-
site direction, and that the sea which lies beyond is driven
into the mouths of the river ; or else that its waters are
swollen by the summer rains of ^thiopia^, wnich fall from
the clouds conveyed thither by the Etesian winds from
other parts of the earth. Timaeus the mathematician has
alleged a reason of an occult nature : he says that the source
of the river is known by the name of Phiala, and that the
stream buries itself in channels underground, where it sends
forth vapours generated by the heat among the steaming
rocks amid which it conceals itself; but that, during the days
of the inundation, in consequence of the sun approaching
nearer to the earth, the waters are drawn forth by the
influence of his heat, and on being thus exposed to the
air, overflow; after which, in order that it may not be
utterly dried up, the stream hides itself once more. He
says that this takes place at the rising of the Dog-Star,
when the sun enters the sign of Leo, and stands in a vertical
position over the source of the river, at which time at
that spot there is no shadow thrown. Most authors, however,
are of opinion, on the contrary, that the river flows in greater
volume when the sun takes his departure for the north, which
he does when he enters the signs of Cancer and Leo, because
its waters then are not dried up to so great an extent ; while
on the other hand, when he returns towards the south pole and
re-enters Capricorn, its waters are absorbed by the heat,
and consequently flow in less abundance. If there is
any one inclined to be of opinion, with Timaeus, that the
waters of the river may be drawn out of the earth by the
heat, it will be as well for him to bear in mind the fact, that
the absence of shadow is a phaenomenon which lasts conti-
nuously^ in these regions.

^ The Etesians are periodical winds, which blow steadily from one
quarter for forty days each year, during the season of the Dog-days.
The opinion here stated was that promidgated by Thales the philosopher.
Seneca refutes it in B. iv. c. 2. of his Quaest. Nat.

2 This was the opinion of Democritus of Abdera, and of Agathar-
chidas of Cnidos. It is combated by Diodorus Sicidus, B. i., but it is
the opinion most generally received at the present day. See the disqui-
sition on the subject introduced in the Ninth book of Lucan's Pharsaha.

3 And that the high tide or intmdation would be consequently con-
tinuous as well.

414 PLTirr's katxjeal histoet. [Book V.

Tlie Nile begins to increase at the next new moon after
the summer solstice, and rises slowly and gradually as the
sun passes through the sign of Cancer ; it is at its greatest
height while the sun is passing through Leo, and it falls as
slowly and gradually as it arose while he is passing through
the sign of Virgo. It has totally subsided between its
banks, as we learn from Herodotus, on the hundredth day,
when the sun has entered Libra. While it is rising it has been
pronounced criminal for kings or prefects even to sail upon
its waters. The measure of its increase is ascertained by
means of wells ^ Its most desirable height is sixteen cubits* ;
if the waters do not attain that height, the overflow is not
universal ; but if they exceed that measure, by their slowness
in receding they tend to retard the process of cultivation.
In the latter case the time for sowing is lost, in consequence
of the moisture of the soil ; in the former, the ground is so
parched that the seed-time comes to no purpose. The country
has reason to make careful note of either extreme. When
the water rises to only twelve cubits, it experiences the
horrors of famine ; when it attains thirteen, hunger is still
the result ; a rise of fourteen cubits is productive of glad-
ness ; a rise of fifteen sets all anxieties at rest ; while an
increase of sixteen is productive of unbounded transports of
joy. The greatest increase known, up to the present time,
is that of eighteen cubits, which took place in the time
of the Emperor Claudius ; the smallest rise was that of five,
in the year of the battle of Pharsalia^, the river by this
prodigy testifying its horror, as it were, at the murder of
Pompeius Magnus. When the waters have reached their
greatest height, the people open the embankments and admit
them to the lands. As each district is left by tlie waters,
the business of sowing commences. This is the only river
in existence that emits no vapours'*.

The Nile first enters the Egyptian territory at Syene*, on

1 The principal well for this purpose was called the " Kilometer," or
«' Gauge for the Nile."

-* On this subject see Pliny, B. xviii. c. 47, and B. xxxvi. c. 11.

3 Seneca says that the Nile did not rise as usual in the tenth and
eleventh years of the reign of Cleopatra, and that the circumstance wafl
said to bode ruin to her and Antony. — Nat. Qusest. B. iv. c. 2.

* He means dense clouds, productive of rain, not thin mists. See what
is said of the Borysthenes by our author, B. xxxi. c. 30.

* Syene was a city of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the ISil '

Chap. 10.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 415

the frontiers of -Ethiopia ; that is the name of a pemnsula a
mile in circumference, upon which Castra' is situate, on the
side of Arabia. Opposite to it are the four islands of
Philae^, at a distance of 600 miles from the place where
the Nile divides into two channels ; at which spot, as
we have already stated, the Delta, as it is called, begins.
This, at least, is the distance, according to Artemidorus,
who also informs us that there were in it 250 towns ; Juba
sa^s, however, that the distance between these places is 400
miles. Aristocreon says that the distance from Elephantis
to the sea is 750 miles; Elephantis' being an inhabited
island four miles below the last Cataract, sixteen'' beyond
Syene, 585 from Alexandria, and the extreme limit of the
navigation of Egypt. To such an extent as this have the
above-named authors* been mistaken! This island is the
place of rendezvous for the vessels of the Ethiopians : they
are made to fold up**, and the people carry them on their
shoulders whenever they come to the Cataracts.

just below the First Cataract, and was looked upon as the southern
fi'ontier city of Egypt against Ethiopia. It was an important point ia
the geography and astronomy of the ancients ; for, lying just under the
tropic of Cancer, it was chosen as the place through wluch they drew
their chief parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to Syene at the
time of the summer solstice, and a well was shown there where the face
of the sun was seen at noon at that time. Its present name is Assouan
or Ossouan.

^ If this word means the "Camp," it does not appear to be known
what camp is meant. Most editions have " Cerastse,' ' in which case it
would mean that at Syene the Cerastes or homed serpent is found.

2 One of these (if indeed Philse did consist of more than a single
island, wliich seems doubtful) is now known as Djeziret-el-Birbe, the
"Island of the Temple."

3 This island was seated just below the Lesser Cataract, opposite Syene,
and near the western bank of the Nile. At this point the river becomes
navigable downward to its mouths, and the traveller from Meroe or
-Ethiopia enters Egypt Proper. The original name of this island was
" Ebo," Eb being in the language of hieroglyphics the symbol of the ele-
phant and ivory. It was remarkable for its fertihty and verdure, and
the Arabs of the present day designate the island as Djesiret-el-Sag, or
" the Blooming."

* This is a mistake of PHny's, for it was opposite to Syene. Brotier
thinks that Pliny intended to write ' Philse,' but by mistake inserted Syene.

^ Artemidorus, Juba, and Aristocreon.

^ They were probably made of papyrus, or else of hides, Hke the British
coracles.

416 plint's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

CHAP. 11. — THE CITIES OF EGYPT.

'Egypt, besides its boast of extreme antiquity, asserts that
it contained, in the reign of King Amasis\ 20,000 inhabited
cities : in our day they are still very numerous, though no
longer of any particular note. Still however we find the
following ones mentioned as of great renown — the city of
Apollo^ ; next, that of Leucothea^ ; then Great Diospolis*,
otherwise Thebes, known to fame for its hundred gates ;
Copt OS*, which from its proximity to the Nile, forms its
nearest emporium for the merchandise of India and Arabia ;
then the town of Venus', and then another town of Jupi-

* The last king of the line of Psammetichus, B.C. 569. He succeeded
Apries, whom the Egyptians put to death. He died just before the in-
vasion by Carabyses, having displayed great abilities as a ruler.

2 There was the Greater ApolUnopolis, the modem Edfoo, in the
Thebaid, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 25° north, about thirteen
miles below the lesser Cataract : its inhabitants were enemies of the cro-
codile and its worshippers. The remains of two temples there are con-
sidered second only to the temple of Denderah as specimens of the sacred
structures of Egypt. A Lesser Apollinopolis was in Upper Egypt, on
the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° north. Another Lesser Apol-
linopolis was a town of the Thebaid in the Coptite Nome, in lat. 26°
north, situate between Thebes and Coptos. It was situate at the pre-
sent Kuss.

3 Its site is unknown. Hardouin suggests that it is the Eilethuia of
Ptolemy, the modem El-Kab.

* " City of Jupiter," the Greek name for Thebes, the No or No Ammon
of Scripture. It stood in the centre of the Thebaid, on both banks of the
Nile, above Coptos, and in the Nomos Coptites. Its ruins, which are the
nr.ost magnificent in the world, enclose within their site the four villages
of Camac, Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Goumou.

5 Its hieroglyphical name was Kobto, and its site is now occupied by
the modem town of Kouft or Keft. It was situate in lat. 26° nortli,
on the right bank of the Nile, about a mile from its banks. As a halting
place or rather watering-place for the caravans, it was enriched by the
commerce between Libya and Egypt on the one hand, and Arabia and
India and Egypt on the other, the latter being carried on through the
port of Berenice on the Red Sea, founded by Ptolemy Pliiladelphus,
B.C. 266. In the seventh century of the Christian era, it bore for some
time the name of Justinianopolis. There are a few remains of Roman
buildings to be seen on its site.

6 Also called Aphrodite or Aphroditopolis. Of this name there
were several towns or cities in ancient Egypt. In Lower Egypt there
was Atarbechis, thus named, and a town mentioned by Strabo in the
acme of Leontopolites. In the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt there was

Cliap. 11.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 417

ter\ After this comes Tentyris', below which is Abydus', the
royal abode of Memnon, and famous for a temple of Osiris^,
which is situate in Libya*, at a distance from the river of
seven miles and a half. Next to it comes Ptolemais**, then
Panopolis', and then another towTi of Venus*, and, on the
Libyan side, Lycon', where the mountains form the boun-
dary of the province of Thebais. On passing these, we come
to the towns of Mercury^", Alabastron", the town of

the place, the ruins of which are called Aftyeh, on the east side of the
Nile, and the capital of the nome of AphroditopoUtes. In Upper Egypt
or the Thebais there was the present Tachta, oil the west side of the Nile,
between Ptoleraais and Panopolis, capital of another nome of Aphrodito-
poUtes, and that one the ruins of which are now called Deir, on the west
bank of the Nile, higher up than the former, and, like it, some distance
from the river. It was situate in the nome Hermonthites.

* Another Diospolis. Great DiospoHs is mentioned in the preceding
page. ' Or Teutyra. The modem Dendera of the
Arabs, called Dend6ri or Hidenddri by the ancient Egyptians.

3 In ancient times called This, and in Coptic Eb6t, the ruins of which
are now known as Arabat-el-Matfoon. It was the chief town of tlie
Nomos Thinites, and was situate in lat. 26° 10' north and long. 32° 3'
east. In the Thebaid it ranked next to Thebes itself. Here according
to general belief was the burial-place of Osiris. In the time of Strabo it
had sunk into a mere village. Its ruins, though nearly buried in the
sand, are very extensive. There is, however, some uncertainty as to the
exact identity of This with Abydus.

* The ruins of these places are still to be seen at Abydus.

s He calls the whole of the country on the western bank of the Nile
by this name. * Called Absou or Absai by the Arabs, and Psoe by

the ancient Egyptians. It has been suggested that it was the same place
as This, more generally identified with Abydus.

7 Its site is now called Ekhmin or Akhmia by the Arabs, Khmim being
its ancient Egyptian name. It was the chief town of the nome of Pano-
poUtes, and the deity Phthah was worshipped there under the form of
Priapus.

** Another Aphroditopolis, the present Tachta, mentioned above, in
Note ^ in the last page. Pliny distinguishes it from that now called
Deir, mentioned above. » Now known as Es-Siout.

^° Or HermopoHs — the modem Esh-moon or Ash-mounion, on the
eastern bank of the NDe, in lat. 27° 54' north. It was the capital of
the Hermopohte nome in the Heptanomis. It was a place of great
opulence and densely populated. The deities Typhon and Thoth were
principally worshipped at this place. The latter, the inventor of the
pen and letters, nearly corresponded with the Hermes of the Greeks (the
Mercury of the Romans), from which the Hellenized name of the place.
Its ruins are very extensive.

" This town ^ras no doubt connected with the alabaster quarries of
VOL. I. 2 E

418 plint's natueal histoet. [Book y.

Dogs\ and that of Hercules already mentioned^. We next
come to Arsinoe^, and Memphis^, which has been previously
mentioned ; between which last and the Nome df Arsino-
ites, upon the Libyan side, are the towers known as the
Pyramids, the Labyrinth* on Lake Moeris, in the construc-
tion of which no wood was employed, and the town of
Crialon^. Besides these, there is one place in the interior,
on the confines of Arabia, of great celebrity, the City of
the Sun^.

Mount Alabastemus, now Mount St. Anthony, and the hiU of Alabas-
trites, now the C6teau Hessan, ^

* Or Cynopolis, the chief place of the Cynopolite nome. The Dog-
headed deity Anubis was worshipped here. The modem Samallus occu-
pies its site. This place was in the Heptanomis, but there were several
other towns of the same name, one of which was situate in the Delta or
Lower Egypt.

* In C. 9, when speaking of the nome of Heracleopolites ; of which
nome, this place, called Heracleopolis, was the capital. It was situate at
the entrance of the valley of the Fayoum, on an island formed by the
Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis it was probably the
most important city north of the Thebaid. It furnished two dynasties
of kings to Egypt. The ichneiunon was worshipped liere, from which it
may be inferred that the people were hostile to the crocodile. Its ruins
are inconsiderable ; the village of Anasieh covers part of them.

3 The capital of the nome of Arsinoites, seated on the western bank of
the Nile, between the river and Lake Moeris, south-west of Memphis, in
lat. 29° north. It was called under the Pharaohs, " the City of Croco-
diles," from the reverence paid by the people to that animal. Its ruins
are to be seen at Medinet-el-Fayoom or El-Fares.

■♦ Its magnificent ruins, known by the name of Menf and Metrabenny,
are to be seen about ten miles above the pyramids of Gizeh.

5 This lay beyond Lake Moeris, or Birket-el-Keroun, at a short distance
from the city of Arsinoe. It had 3000 apartments, 1500 of which were
imderground. The accounts given by modern travellers of its supposed
ruins do not agree with what we have learned from the ancients respect-
ing its arcliitecture and site. The purposes for which it was built are
unknown. Its supposed site is called Havara.

^ If this is not an abbreviation or corruption for Crocodilon, as Har-
douin suggests, it may probably mean the " town of Rams," from the
worship perhaps of that animal there.

^ HeUopoHs or Rameses. In Scripture it is called by the names
of On and No — Gren. xli. 45 and Ezek. xxx. 15. It stood on the
eastern side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, near the right bank of
the Great Canal which connected the river with the Red Sea, and close
adjoining to the present overland route for travellers to India. It was
. one of the most ancient of the Egyptian cities j here the father-in-law of

Chap. 11.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 419

(10.) "With the greatest justice, however, we may lavish
our praises upon Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great
on the shores of the Egyptian Sea, upon the soil of Africa,
at twelve miles' distance from the Canopic Mouth and near
Lake Mareotis^ ; the spot having previously borne the name
of B-hacotes. The plan of this city was designed by the
architect Dinochares^, who is memorable for the genius which
he displayed in many ways. Building the city upon a wide
space' of ground fifteen miles in circumference, he formed
it in the circular shape of a Macedonian chlamys^, uneven
at the edge, giving it an angular projection on the right and
left ; while at the same time he devoted one-fifth part of the
site to the royal palace.

Lake Mareotis, which lies on the south side of the city,
is connected by a canal which joins it to the Canopic mouth,
and serves for the purposes of communication with the in-
terior. It has also a great number of islands, and is thirty

Joseph exercised the office of high-priest, and here the prophet Jeremiah
is supposed to have written his Book of Lamentations. Its priests were
the great depositaries of the theological and historical learning of Egypt.
Solon, Thales, and Plato were reputed each to hivve visited its schools.
According to Macrobius, Baalbec, the Syrian City of the Sun, was a
colony from this place. It was the capital of the nome Hehopolites,
and paid worship to the sun and the bull Mnevis, the rival of Apis.
From Josephus we learn that after the dispersion and fall of the tribes
of Judah and Israel, great numbers of the Jews took refuge at this place,
forming almost one-half of its population. The ruins, which were ex-
tremely magnificent, occupied in the twelfth centm*y an area nearly three
miles m extent. Pliny speaks of the great obelisk there, which is still
standing. (See B. xxxvi. c. 9.) The village of Matarieh occupies a part
of its site, and besides the obelisk of red granite, there are a few remains
of the Temple of the Sun.

^ Now called Birk-el-Mariout.

2 Or Dinocrates. He was the architect of the new temple of Diana at
Ephesus, which was built after the destruction of the former one by He-
rostratus. It was this architect who formed a design for cutting Mount
Athos into a statue of Alexander, with a city in the right hand and a re-
servoir of the mountain streams in the left.

3 Holland seems to think that the word "laxitate" appUes to
chlamys.

* The chlamys was a scarf or cloak worn over the shoulders, and espe-
cially used by military persons of high rank. It did not reach Iowot
than the knees, and was open in front, covering only the neck, back, and
ehoulders.

2e2

420 pliny's natueal histoet. [Book Y.

miles across, and 150 in circumference, according to Claudius
Caesar. Other writers say tliat it is forty schoeni in length,
making the schoenum to be thirty stadia; hence, accord-
ing to them, it is 150 miles ^ in length and the same in
breadth.

There are also, in the latter part of the course of the Nile,
many towns of considerable celebrity, and more especially
those which have given their names to the mouths of the
river — I do not mean, all the mouths, for there are no less
than twelve of them, as well as four others, which the people
call the False Mouths^. I allude to the seven more famous
ones, the Canopic^ Mouth, next to Alexandria, those of Bol-
bitine'', Sebennys^, Phatnis®, Mendes', Tanis^, and, last of all,
Pelusium^. Besides the above there are the towns of Butos^'',

1 Its real dimensions were something less than 300 stadia, or thirty
geographical miles long, and rather more than 150 stadia wide.

2 Or " Pseudostomata." These were crossed in smaU boats, as they
were not navigable for ships of burden.

3 In the Pharaonic times Canopus was the capital of the nome of
Menelaites, and the principal harbour of the Delta. It probably owed
its name to the god Canobus, a pitcher full of holes, with a human head,
which was worshipped here with peculiar pomp. It was remarkable for
the number of its festivals and the general dissoluteness of its morals.
Traces of its ruins are to be seen about three miles from the modem
Aboukir.

* Corresponding to the modem Easchid or Eosetta. It is supposed
that this place was noted for its manufactory of chariots.

5 The town of Sebennys or Sebennytum, now Samannoud, gave name
to one of the nomes, and the Sebennytic Mouth of the Nile.

6 Or the Pathinetic or Bucolic Mouth, said to be the same as the
modem Damietta Mouth.

' The capital of the Mendesian nome, called by the Arabs Ochmoun.
This mouth is now known as the Deibeh Mouth.

8 Now called Szan or Tzan. The Tanitic Mouth, which is sometimes
called the Saitic, is at the present day called Omm-Faredje.

9 Its ruins are to be seen at the modem Tineh. This city in early
times had the name of Abaris. It was situate on the eastern side of the
most easterly mouth of the Nile, which, after it, was called the Pelusiac
Mouth, about two mUes from the sea, in the midst of morasses. Being
the frontier city towards Syria and Arabia it was strongly fortified. It
was the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer.

I'' Butos or Buto stood on the Sebennytic arm of the Nile near its
mouth, on the southern shores of the Butic Lake. It was the chief seat
of the worship of the goddess Buto, whom the Greeks identified with
Leto or Latona. The modem Kem Kasir occupies its site.

Chap. 11.] ACCOmS^T or COTTNTEIES, ETC. 421

PharbsBthos^ Leontopolis*, Athribis', the town of Isis^,
Bupi^is^ Cynopolis^, Aphrodites^, Sais^, and Naucratis^, from
which last some writers call that the Naucratitic Mouth,
which is by others called the Heracleotic, and mention it
instead^" of the Canopic Mouth, which is the next to it.

* Called Harbait by the Arabs, and Farbait by the ancient Egyp-
tians.

2 In the Delta. It was the capital of the norae of Leontopolites, and
probably of late foundation, as no writer previous to Pliny mentions it.
Its site is imcertain, but Thall-Essabouah, the " Hill of fiie Lion," has
been suggested.

* The chief town of the Athribitic nome in Lower Egypt. It stood on
the eastern bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile. This nome and
town derived their name from the goddess Thriphis, whom the inscrip-
tions there and at Panopolis designate as the " most great goddess." The
ruins at Atrieb or Trieb, at the spot where the modem canal of Moneys
turns off from the Nile, represent the ancient Atliribis. They are very
extensive, and among them are considerable remains of the Koman era.

* This was situate near the city or town of Busiris in the Delta. The
modem villago of Bahbeyt is supposed to cover the ruins of the temple
of Isis.

^ The modem Busyr or Abousir, where considerable ruins of the an-
cient city are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the nome of
Busirites, and stood south of Sais, near the Phatnitic mouth, on the
western bank of the Nile. This was also the name of a town in Middle
Egypt, in the neighbourhood of Memphis, and represented by another
vihage of the name of Abousir. Phny, B. xxxvi. c. 16, speaks of the
Catacombs in its vicinity.

^ The place of that name in the Delta is here meant.

7 Probably the town of that name, otherwise called AphroditopoUs,
in the nome of Leontopohtes.

* The ruins of which are now called Sa-el-Hajjar. It was situate in
the Delta, on the east side of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was the
ancient capital of Lower Egypt and contained the palace and burial-place
of the Pharaohs. It was the chief seat of the worship of the Egyptian
goddess Neith, also known as Sais. It gave its name to the nome of
Saites.

3 It was situate in the Delta of Egypt and in the nome of Saites,
on the eastern bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It Was a
colony of the Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Amasis,
about B.C. 550, and remained a pure Greek city. It was the only place
in Egypt in which, in the time of the later Pharaohs, foreigners were
permitted to settle and trade. In later times it was famous for the
worship of Aphrodite or Yenus, and rivalled Canopus in the dissolute-
ness of its manners.

^" Ptolemy the geographer does this.

422 PLINY's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

CHAP. 12. (11.) — THE COASTS OF ARABIA, SITUATE ON THE
EGYPTIAN SEA.

Beyond the Pelusiac Mouth is Arabia^ which extends to
the Red Sea, and joins the Arabia known by the surname of
Happy ^, so famous for its perfumes and its wealth. This'
is called Arabia of the Catabanes^, the Esbonitae^, and the
ScenitsB® ; it is remarkable for its sterility, except in the parts
where it joins up to Syria, and it has nothing remarkable
in it except Mount Casius^. The Arabian nations of the
Canchlaei^ join these on the east, and, on the south the
Cedrei^, both of which peoples are adjoining to the Naba-
taei^". The two gulfs of the Eed Sea, where it borders upon

1 Arabia Petrcea j that part of Arabia which immediately joins up to
Egypt. 2 Ctilled Arabia Fehx to the present day.

3 The part of Arabia which joins up to Egypt, Arabia Petrsea namely.

* Strabo places this people as far south as the mouth of the Eed Sea,
i.e. on the east of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Forster (in his ' Arabia,'
vol. ii.) takes this name to be merely an inversion of Beni Kahtan, the
great tribe which mainly peoples, at the present day, central and south-
ern Arabia.

^ Probably the people of Esebon, the Heshbon of Scripture, spoken of
by Jerome as being the city of Sihon, king of the Amorites.

^ The " tent-people," from the G-reek (TKijvrj, " a tent." This seems to
have been a name common to the nomadic tribes of Arabia. Ammianus
Marcellinus speaks of them as being the same as the Saraceni or Saracens.

7 The modern El Katieh or El Kas ; which is the summit of a lofty
range of sandstone hills on the borders of Egypt and i\j*abia Petrsea, im-
mediately south of the Sirbonian Lake and the Mediterranean Sea. On its
western side was the tomb of Pompey the Great.

8 The same as the Amalekites of Scripture, according to Hardouin.
Bochart thinks that they are the same as the Chavilffii, who are men-
tioned as dwelling in the vicinity of Babylon.

^ The position which Pliny assigns to this nation would correspond
with the northern part of the modem district of the Hedjaz. Forster
identifies them with the Cauraitse, or Cadraitse of Arrian, and the Darrae
of Ptolemy, tracmg their origin to the Cedar or Kedar, the son of Ishmael,
mentioned in Genesis xxv. 13, and represented by the modem Harb nation
and the modem town of Kedeyre. See Psalm cxx. 5 : " Woe is me, that
I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar !"

^ An Arabian people, said to have descended from the eldest son of
Ishmael, who had their original abodes in the north-western part of the
Arabian peniasula, east and south-east of the Moabites and Edomites.
Extending their territory, we find the Nabatsei of Greek and Eoman
history occupying nearly the whole of Arabia Petraea, along the north-
east coast of the Red Sea^ on both sides of the ^lauitic Gul^ and on the

Cliap. 13.] ACCOTTNT OF COXTNTEIES, ETC. 423

Egypt, are called the Heroopolitic' and the ^lanitic^. Be-
tween the two towns of ^lana' and Gaza'' upon our sea*,
there is a distance of 150 miles. Agrippa says that Arsinoe*,
a town on the Eed Sea, is, by way oi the desert, 125 miles
from Pelusium. How different the characteristics impressed
by nature upon two places separated by so small a distance !

CHAP. 13. (12.) — STEIA.

Next to these countries Syria occupies the coast, once the
greatest of lands, and distinguished by many names ; for the
part which joins up to Arabia was formerly called Palaestina,
Judaea, Coele', and Phoenice. The country in the interior
was called Damascena, and that further on and more to the
south, Babylonia. The part that lies between the Euphrates

Idumeean mountains, where they had their capital, Petra, hewn out of
the rock. * Now the Bahr-el-Soueys, or Gulf of Suez.

2 The Bahr-el-Akabali, or Gulf of Akabali.

* Now Akabah, an Idumsean town of Arabia Petrsea, situate at the head
of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, which was called after this town "iEla-
niticus Sinus." It was annexed to the kingdom of Judah, with the other
cities of Idumaea, by David, 2 S,am. viii. 14, and was one of the harbours
on the Red Sea from which the ships of Solomon sailed for Ophir. See
1 Kings ix. 26 and 2 Chron. viii, 17. It was a place of commercial im-
portance under the Romans and the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion.
A fortress now occupies its site.

* Its site is now known as Guzzah. It was the last city on the south-
west frontier of Palestine, and from the earUest times was a strongly forti-
fied place. It was taken from the Philistines by the Jews more than once,
but as often retaken. It was also taken by Cyrus the Great and Alex-
ander, and afterwards by Ptolemy Lagus, who destroyed it. It after-
wards recovered, and was again destroyed by Alexander Jannseus, B.C.
96, after which, it was rebuilt by Gabinius and ultimately united to the
Roman province of Syria. In a.d. 65 it was again destroyed, but was
rebuilt, and finally fell into the hands of the Arabs, in a.d. 634.

^ Meaning the Mediterranean. ^ The present Suez. See B. vi. c. 33.

^ Or the " Hollow" Syria. This was properly the name given, after
the Macedonian conquest, to the great valley between the two great
ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria, bordering upon Phoe-
nicia on the west, and Palestine on the south. In the wars between the
Ptolemies and the Seleucidse, the name was applied to the whole of the
southern portion of Syria, which became subject for some time to the
kings of Egypt ; but under the Romans, it was confined to Ccelesyria
proper with the district east of Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a
portion of Palestine east of Jordan.

424 PLKfx's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

and tlie Tigris was called Mesopotamia, that beyond Taurus
Sophene, and that on this side of the same chain Comagene.
Beyond Armenia was the country of Adiabene, anciently
called Assyria, and at the part where it joins up to Cilicia,
it was called Antiochia. Its length, between Cilicia and
Arabia^ is 470 miles, and its breadth, from Seleucia Pieria^ to
Zeugma^ a town on the Euphrates, 175. Those who make
a still more minute div-ision of this country will have it that
Phoenice is surrounded by Syria, and that first comes the
maritime coast of Syria, part of which is Idumsea and Judaea,
after that Phoenice, and then Syria. The whole of the tract
of sea that lies in front of these shores is called the Phoe-
nician Sea. The Phoenician people enjoy the glory of having
been the inventors of letters ^ and the first discoverers of the
sciences of astronomy, navigation, and the art of war.

CHAP. 14. — IDUMiEA, PALiESTrN^A, AND SAMAEIA.

On leaving Pelusium we come to the Camp of Cha-
brias'"'. Mount Casius", the temple of Jupiter Casius, and the
tomb of Pompeius Magnus. Ostracine', at a distance of
sixty-five miles from Pelusium, is the frontier town of Ara-

* Or Ostracine, the northern point of Arabia.

3 This was a great fortress of Syria founded by Seleucus B.C. 300, at
the foot of Mount Pieria and overhanging the Mediterranean, four miles
north of the Orontes and twelve miles west of Antioch. It had fallen
entirely to decay in the sixth century of our era. There are considerable
ruins of its harbour and mole, its walls and necropoUs. They bear the
name of Seleukeh or Kepse.

3 From the Greek ^evyfia, " a junction ;" built by Seleucus Nicator on
the borders of Commagene and Cyrrhestice, on the west bank of the
Euphrates, where the river had been crossed by a bridge of boats con-
structed by Alexander the G-reat. The modem Kumkaleh is supposed
to occupy its site.

4 On this subject see B. vii. c. 57. The invention of letters and the
first cultivation of the science of astronomy have been claimed for the
Egyptians and other nations. The Tyrians were probably the first who
applied the science of astronomy to the purposes of navigation. There
is little doubt that warfare must have been studied as an art long before
the existence of the Phoenician nation.

* Strabo places this between Mount Casius and Pelusium.

" See C. 12 of the present Book. Chabrias the Athenian aided Nee-
tanebus II. against his revolted subjects.

7 Its ruins are to be seen on the present Eaa Straki.

Giap. 14] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 425

bia. (13.) After this, at the point where the Sirbonian
Lake^ becomes visible, Idumoea and Pala^stina begin. This
lake, which some writers have made to be 150 miles in circum-
ference, Herodotus has placed at the foot of Mount Casius ;
it is now an inconsiderable fen. The towns are Rhinocolura',
and, in the interior, Rhaphea^, Gt&za, and, still more inland,
Anthedon*: there is also Mount Argaris^. Proceeding along
the coast we come to the region of Samaria ; Ascalo®, a free
town, Azotus^, the two JamnisB*, one of them in the in-

* Now called the Sabakat BardowaL It lav on the coast of Egypt,
east of Mount Casius, and it is not improbable that the boundary-line
between Egypt and Palsestina or Idumeea ran through the middle of its
waters. It was strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A connection
formerly existed between it and the Mediterranean, but this being stopped
up, it gradually grew smaller by evaporation and is now nearly dr}'.

2 The present Kulat-el-Arich or El Arish, situate at the mouth of the
brook El- Arish, called by the Scriptures the " river of Egypt." Its name
signifies in Q-reek, " cutting off of noses," and is probably derived from
the fact of its having been the place of exile for criminals who had been
so mutilated, under the -Ethiopian kings of Egypt. Poinsinet suggests
however that the name means the " town of the circumcised."

3 The place on its site is still called Refah, but it was really situate on
the coast. Gaza has been already mentioned in a Note to C. 12, p. 423.

* Anthedon was on the coast of Palestine, although Pliny says to the
contrary. It was situate about tlu*ee miles to the south-west of Gaza,
and was destroyed by Alexander Jannseus. In the time of Julian it was
addicted to the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Yenus. According to
Dupinet the present name of its site is Daron.

* Brotier says that this is the same as the Mount Gerizim of Scrip-
ture, but that was situate in Samaria, a considerable distance from the
southern coast of Palsestina. Pliny is the only author that mentions it.

^ The Ascalon of Scripture, one of the five cities of the Philistines,
situate on the coast of the Mediterranean, between Gtiza and Jamnia.
In early times it was the seat of the worship of Derceto, a fish with a
woman's head. The rmns, which still bear the name of Askulan, are very
extensive, and indicative of great strength. The shalot or scaUion was
originally a native of this place, and thence derived its name.

7 The Ashdod of Scripture. It was one of the five cities of the Phi-
listines and the chief seat of the worship of Dagon. Herodotus states
that it stood a siege of twenty-nine years from Psammetichus, king of
Egypt. It was afterwards taken and retaken several times. It was
situate between Ascalon and Jamnia, and its site is indicated by the
modem village of Esdad, but no ruins of the ancient city are visible.

* One of these was a city of the Plulistines, assigned to the tribe of
Judah in the fifteenth Chapter of Joshua, 45, according to the Septua-
gint version, but omitted in the Hebrew, which only mentions it in

426 PLurr's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

terior; and Joppe*, a city of the PhcBnicians, which existed,
it is said, before the deluge of the earth. It is situate on
the slope of a hill, and in front of it lies a rock, upon which
they point out the vestiges of the chains by which Andro-
meda was bound^. Here the fabulous goddess Ceto^ is
worshipped. Next to this place comes Apollonia^, and
then the Tower of Strato**, otherwise Caesarea, built by

2 Chron. rjcri. 6 (where it is called Jabneh in the English version), as one
of the cities of the Philistines taken and destroyed by King Uzziah. The
place of this name that lay in the interior, is probably the one spoken of
by Josephus as in that part of the tribe of Judah occupied by the children
of Dan, as also in the 1 Maccabees, x. 69-71. The one was probably the
port of the other. The ruins of the port still retain the name of Yebora,
and are situate on an eminence about an hour's distance from the sea, on
the banks of the river RAbin.

^ Or Joppa of Scripture, now called Y&fa or Jaffa. The timber from
Lebanon intended for both the first and second Temples was landed here.
It was taken and retaken more than once during the wars of the Macca-
bees, and was finally annexed by Pompey to the Eoman province of Syria.
It is mentioned several times in the New Testament in connection with
Saint Peter. In the Jewish war, having become a refuge for pirates, it
was taken by Cestius and destroyed, and even the verv niins were de-
molished by Vespasian. It was afterwards rebuilt, and m the time of the
Crusades was alternately in the hands of the Cludstians and the Moslems.

2 To be devoured by the sea monster, from which she was delivered
by Perseus, who had borrowed for the occasion the talaria or winged
shoes of Mercury. In B. be. c. 4, Pliny states that the skeleton of the
monster was exhibited at Home by M. -^mUius Scaurus, when he was
Curule ^dile.

3 Probably the same as Derceto or Atargatis, the fish-goddess with a
woman's head, of the Syrians.

* Situate between Ca;sarea and Joppa. It is probable that it owed its
name to the Macedonian kings of either Egypt or Syria. Ars-uf, a de-
serted village, but which itself was of considerable importance in the time
of the Crusades, represents the ancient ApoUonia.

5 The site of the Turris Stratonis was afterwards occupied by Csesarea,
a city on the coast, founded by Herod the Great, and named Csesarea in
honour of Augustus Csesar. It was renowned for the extent and magni-
ficence of its harbour, which was secured by a breakwater of stupendous
construction. For some time it was considered the principal city of
Palestine and the chief seat of the Eoman government. Although it
again changed its name, as Pliny states, it stiU retained its name of
Csesarea as the MetropoHtan See of the First Palestine. It was also of
considerable importance during the occupation of the Holy Land by the
Crusaders. Its ruins are still visible, but have served as a quarry for
many generations, and Jaffa, Sidon, Acre and Beyrout have been sup-

Chap. 15.] ACCOUNT OF C0TJNTEIE8, ETC. 427

King Herod, but now the Colony of Prima Flavia, esta-
blished by the Emperor Vespasianus : this place is the fron-
tier town of Palaestina, at a distance of 188 miles from the
confines of Arabia ; after which comes Phoenice^ In the in-
terior of Samaria are the towns of Neapolis^, formerly called
Mamortha, Sebaste^, situate on a mountain, and, on a still
more lofty one, Gamala*.

CHAP. 15. (14.) — jrn^A.

Beyond Idumsea and Samaria, Judaea extends far and
wide. That part of it which joins up to Syria* is called
G-alilfea, while that which is nearest to Arabia and Egypt
bears the name of Peraja®. This last is thickly covered with
rugged mountains, and is separated from the rest of Judaea
by the river Jordanes. The remaining part of Judaea is
divided into ten Toparchies, which we will mention in the
following order : — That of Hiericus^, covered with groves of

plied with stones from this site. Massive remains of its mole or break-
water and its towers still exist. ^ Or Phoenicia.

' By some regarded as the Scriptural town of Sichem, but by others
as a distinct place, though in its immediate vicinity. Its present name is
Naplous or Nabolos, situate between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim. Its
proper name under the Eomans was Flavia Neapolis. It was the birth-
place of Justin Martyr.

3 The city of Samaria, so called from Shemer, the owner of the hiU
which Omri, King of Israel, purchased, about B.C. 922, for its site. Herod
greatly renovated tliis city, which he called Sebaste, in honour of his pa-
tron Augustus, in Greek " Sebastos." Its site is now occupied by a poor
village, which bears the name of Sebustieh.

* A town of Palsestina, frequently mentioned by Josephus as remarkable
for the strength of its fortifications, and situate on the Lake Tiberias,
opposite to Tarichtea. After a spirited defence, it was taken by Vespasian,
who slaughtered 4000 of the survivors, upon which 5000 threw themselves
fi^m the walls, and were dashed to pieces below. The site had been for-
gotten for nearly eighteen centuries, when Lord Lindsay discovered it on
a lofty liiU on the east of Lake Tiberias, and nearly opposite the town of
that name. It is now called El-Hossn, and the ruins of the fortifications
are very extensive. 5 Antiochian Syria.

* Persea was the general name of that part of Palsestina which lay east
of the river Jordan ; but more usually, in a restricted sense, it signified
a part only of that region, namely the district between the rivers Hiero-
max on the north, and Amon on the south.

^ Jericho, BO oftea mentioned in Scriptxire. It was celebrated for ita

428 Flint's nattjeal histoet. [Book V.

palm-trees, and watered by numerous springs, and tlioee of
Emmaiis^ Lydda^, Joppe, Acrabatena^, Groplma'', Thamna*,
Bethleptephene^, Orina^, in which formerly stood Hiero-
Bolyma®, by far the most famous city, not of Judaea only,
but of the East, and Herodium^, with a celebrated town
of the same name.

(15.) The river Jordanes" rises from the spring of Panias",
which has given its surname to Caesarea, of which we shall

palm-grove, which was presented by Antony to Cleopatra. A Bedouin
encampment called Riha is all that now occupies its site.

^ A city eight or ten nules from the village Emmaiis of the New Tes-
tament. It was called NicopoHs, in commemoration, it has been sug-
gested, of the destruction of Jerusalem. Its site is still marked by a
village called Ammious, on the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa.

2 So often mentioned in the New Testament. This town lay to the
S.E. of Joppa, and N.W. of Jerusalem, at the junction of several roads
which lead from the sea-coast. It was destroyed by the Romans in the
Jewish war, but was soon after rebuilt, and Cidled DiospoHs. A village
called Lud occupies its site.

' So called from Acrabbim, its chief town, situate nine miles from
Nicopohs. The toparchy of Acrabbim, which formerly formed part of
Samaria, was the most northerly of those of Judaea.

* Situate in the coimtry of Benjamin. Josephus reckons it second in
importance only to Jerusalem, from which, according to Eusebius, it was
distant fifteen miles, on the road to the modem Nablous. That author
also identifies it with the Eshcol of Scripture. Its site is marked by a
small Cliristian village, called by the natives Jufna.

5 Like the two preceding ones, tliis toparchy for a long time belonged
to Samaria. Thamna, or Thamnis, was the Timnath-Serah in Mount
Epliraim, mentioned in Joshua xix. 50, and xxiv. 30, as the place where
Joshua was buried.

6 The toparchy of Bethleptepha of other authors. It appears to
have been situate in the south of Judsea, and in that part which is by
Josephus commonly called Idumsea. Reland has remarked, that the
name resembles Beth-lebaoth, a city of the tribe of Simeon, mentioned
in Joshua xix. 6.

From the Grreek, meaning the "mountain district," or the "hill
country," as mentioned in Luke i. 39.
8 Or " Sacred Solyma."

* A fortress of Palsestina, erected by Herod the Great, at a distance of
about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and not far from Tekoa. Its site has
been identified by modem travellers with El-Furedis, or the Paradise ;
probably the same as the spot called the " Frank Moimtain," on the
top of which the ruined walls of the fortress are still to be seen.

1" Called by the Arabs Bahr-el-Arden.

11 Situate on Mount Panias, or Paneas, on the range of Anti-Libanus.

Chap. 15.] ACCOTJNT OF COITNTEIES, ETC. 429

have occasion to 8peak\ This is a delightful stream, and,
so far as the situation of the localities will allow of, winds
along"^ in its course and lingers among the dwellers upon
its banks. With the greatest reluctance, as it were, it
moves onward towards Asphaltites^, a lake of a gloomy and
unpropitious nature, by which it is at last swallowed up,
and its bepraised waters are lost sight of on being mingled
with the pestilential streams of the lake. Tor this reason
it is that, as soon as ever the valleys through which it runs
afford it the opportunity, it discharges itseli' into a lake, by
many writers known as Genesara'*, sixteen miles in length
and six wide ; which is skirted by the pleasant towns of
Julias'^ and Hippo ^ on the east, of Tarichea^ on the south
(a name which is by many persons given to the lake itself),
and of Tiberias^ on the west, the hot springs^ of which are
so conducive to the restoration of health./'

(16.) Asphaltites^" produces nothing whatever except bitu-

1 In C. 16 of the present Book.

2 On the contrary, as Parisot observes, the Jordan runs in a straight
line ahnost into the Dead Sea.

3 The Lake of Sodom, or the Dead Sea, in which the Cities of the
Plain were swallowed up.

■* In Scripture also called the Lake Tiberias, and the Sea of Genne-
sareth, or Cliinnereth. It is now called the Sea of Tabariah, or Tabarieh,

5 The one of the two Bethsaidas, which was situate on the north of
the Sea of Tiberias. It was enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch, who greatly
beautified it, and changed its name to Julias, in honoiu* of the daughter
of Augustus, the wife of Tiberius. It is generally supposed by the
learned world, that this was not the Bethsaida mentioned so often in the
New Testament. Its ruins are probably those now seen on a hill called
Et-Tell, on the north-western extremity of the lake.

^ On the east of the lake. From it the district of Hippene took its
name. ,

7 Its ruins are to be seen at El-Kereh, on the south side of the lake.
It was strongly fortified, and made a vigorous resistance against the
Eomans in the Jewish War. It received its name from the great quan-
tities of fish which were salted there, rdpixoi.

Now Tabariah, or Tabarieh, a miserable village. It was built by
Herod Antipas, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius. After the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish Sanhedrim.

^ These hot springs are by Josephus called Emmavis, probably a form
of the Hebrew name Hammath. Dr. Kobinson, in lus Bibhcal Re-
searches, identifies this with the town of Hammath, of the tribe of Naph-
thali, mentioned in Joshua xix. 35. ^" From the Greek a<r^aXros.

430 PLimr's ITATTJBAIi HISTOET. [Book y.

men, to whicli indeed it owes ita name. Tlie bodies of
animals will not sink^ in its waters, and even those of bulls
and camels float there. In length it exceeds 100 miles
being at its greatest breadth twenty-five, and at its smallest
six. Arabia of the Nomades^ faces it on the east, and
Machaerus on the south^, at one time, next to Hierosoljma,
the most strongly fortified place in Judaea. On the same
side lies Callirrhoe^, a warm spring, remarkable for its me-
dicinal qualities, and which, by its name, indicates the cele-
brity its waters have gained.

(17.) Lying on the west of Asphaltites, and sufficiently
distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the Esseni*, a

* This is an exaggeration, though it is the fact that many heavy sub-
stances, which in ordinary water would sink immediately, will float on
the surfiaco of this lake. It has been suggested, that the story here
mentioned arose from the circxunstance of the name of * bulls,' or ' cows,'
having been applied bv the ancient Nabatsei to the largo masses of
asphaltum which floated on its surface.

^ Ihe country of the Arabian Scenitee, or " tent people."

' It lay on the east of the Dead Sea, and not the south, as here men-
ioned by Pliny, being a border fortress in the south of Persea, and on
che confines of the Nabatsei. There was a tradition that it was at this
place that John the Baptist was beheaded. The city now bears the
name of Mascra.

^ A Greek name, signifying the " Fine Stream." These were warm
springs, situate on the eastern side of Jordan, to which Herod the Great
resorted during his last illness, by the advice of his physicians. The
valley of CaUirhoe was visited by Captains Irby and Mangles in 1818,
and an interesting account of it is to be found in their ' Travels,' pp. 467-469.
The waters are sulphureous to the taste.

^ The Essenes, or Hessenes. These properly formed one of the great
sects into which the Jews were divided in the time of Christ. They are
not mentioned by name in the New Testament, but it has been con-
jectured that they are alluded to in Matt. xix. 12, and Col. ii. 18, 23.
As stated here by Pliny, they generally lived at a distance from large
towns, in communities which bore a great resemblance to the monkish
societies of later times. They sent gifts to the Temple at Jerusalem,
but never offered sacrifices there. They were divided into four classes,
according to the time of their initiation. Their origin is uncer-
tain. Some writers look upon them as the same as the Assidians, or
Chasidim, mentioned in 1 Maccabees, ii. 42, vii. 13. Their principal
society was probably the one mentioned by Pliny, and from this other
smaller ones proceeded, and spread over Palestine, Syria, and Egypt.
The Essenes of Egypt were divided into two sects ; the practical
Essenes, whose mode of life was the same as those of Palestine ; and the
oontemplative Essenes, who were called TherapeutcB. Both sects main-

Chap. 16.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTRIES, ETC. 431

people that live apart from the world, and marvellous beyond
all others throughout the whole earth, for they have no women
among them ; to sexual desire they are strangers ; money
they have none ; the palm-trees are their only companions.
Day after day, however, their numbers are fully recruited by
multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither
to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune, and wearied
with the miseries of life. Thus it is, that throi%h thousands
of ages, incredible to relate, this people eternally prolongs
its existence, witliout a single birth taking place there ; so
fruitful a source of population to it is that weariness of
life which is felt by others. Below this people was for-
merly the town of Engadda\ second only to Hierosolyma in
the fertility of its soil and its groves of palm-trees ; now,
like it, it is another heap of ashes. Next to it we come to
Masada^, a fortress on a rock, not far from Lake Asphaltites.
Thus much concerning Judaja.

CHAP. 16. (18.) — DECAP0LI8.

On the side of Sjrria, joining up to Judaea, is the region
of Decapolis^, so called from the number of its cities ; as to
which all writers are not agreed. Most of them, however,
agree in speaking of Damascus* as one, a place fertilized

tained the same doctrines ; but the latter were distinguished by a more
rigid mode of hfe. It has been suggested by Taylor, the editor of
* Cahnet's Dictionary of the Bible,' that John the Baptist belonged to
this sect.

^ Or Engedi. Its ancient name was Hazezon- Tamar, when it was
inhabited by the Amorit^s. See Gen. xiv. 7 ; 2 Chron. xx. 2. Accord-
ing to Josephus, it gave name to one of the fifteen toparchies of Judsea.
It still retains its name, Ain-Jedey, or " Fountain of the Goats," and
was so called from a spring which issued out of the limestone rock at the
base of a lofty cliiF.

'^ Its site is now known as Sebbeh, on the south-west of the Dead Sea.

3 Ae.Ka TToXets, the " Ten Cities." He alludes to the circumstance,
that the number of cities varied from timfe to time in this district ;
one being destroyed in warfare, and others suddenly rising from its
foundation.

* The capital city of Syria, both in ancient and modem times. It is
now called Es-Sham. The only epithet given to it by the ancient poets
is that of " Tentosa," or *' windy," found in the Pharsaha of Lucan, B. iii.
1. 215, wliich, it has been remarked, is anything but appropriately chosen.

432 PLunr's ITATTJEAL HTSTOET. [Book y.

by the river Chrysorroos\ which is drawn off into its
meadows and eagerly imbibed; Philadelphia^, and E-ha-
phana^, all which cities fall back towards Arabia; Scy-
thopolis** (formerly called Nysa by Father Liber, from his
nui'se having been buried there), its present name being
derived from a Scythian colony which was established
there ; Gadara", before which the river Hieromix® flows ;
Hippo, which has been previously mentioned ; Dion^, Pella',
rich with its waters ; Galasa', and Canatha'". The Tetrar-

* Or the " Golden Eiver." It is uncertain whether this was the
Abana or Pharpar, mentioned in 2 Kings v. 12. Strabo remarks, that
the waters of the Chrysorroos " are almost entirely consumed in irriga-
tion, as it waters a large extent of deep soil."

2 The ancient Eabbath Ammon, a city of the Ammonites. It was after-
wards called Astarte, and then Philadelphia, in honour of Ptolemy Phila-
delphus. According to D' Anville, the present name of its site is Amman.

3 Thirty-three miles from Apamea. Its ruins are probably those
mentioned by Abulfeda imder the name of Rafianiat. William of Tyre
says, that it was taken in the ye^ 1125 by the Count of Tripoh.

* Previously called Beth-shau. It was the next city of the DecapoUs
in magnitude after Damascus. It was situate in the land of the tribe of
Issachar, though it belonged to the Manasites. At this place the bodies
of Savd and his sons were hung up by the Philistines ; see 1 Sam. xxxi.
10-12. Rcland suggests that it received the name of ScythopoHs, not
from a Scythian colony, but from the Succoth of Gen. xxxiii. 17, which
appears to have been in its vicinity. Its ruins, which still bear the name
of Baisan, are very extensive.

5 Called by Josephus the capital of Pertea, and the chief place of the
district of the Gadarenes of the Evangehsts. Its ruins, about six miles
south-east of the Sea of Ghililee, are very extensive.

8 Still called the Yarmak, evidently from its ancient name. Hippo
has been mentioned in the last Chapter.

7 Or Dium, between Pella and Gadara. In later times, this place was
included in Roman Arabia.

8 Also called Butis. It was the most southerly of the ten cities which
comprised the Decapolis, standing about five miles south of ScythopoHs,
or Beth-shan. Its exact site seems not to have been ascertained ; but it
has been suggested that it is the modem El-Bujeh. From the expression
used by Pliny, it would appear to have had mineral waters in its vicinity.

8 Of this place nothing is known ; but it is most probable that the
Gerasa of Ptolemy and Josephus is meant. According to the former
vmter, it was thirty-five miles from Pella. Its site is marked by ex-
tensive ruins, thirty-five miles east of the Jordan, known by the name
of Gerash, and on the borders of the Great Desert of the Hauvan. Ac-
cording to Dr. Keith, the ruins bear extensive marks of splendour,

^ Rolemy mentions a city of this name in Coelesyria.

Chap. 17.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETa 433

cbies* lie between and around these cities, equal, each of
them, to a kingdom, and occupying the same rank as so
many kingdoms. Their names are, Trachonitis^, Panias^,
in wiiich is Caesarea, with the spring previously mentioned*,
Abila*, Arca^, Ampeloessa', and Gabe,*.

Chap. 17. (19.) — pucenice.

We must now return to the coast and to Phoenice. There
was formerly a town here known as Crocodilon ; there is still
a river' of that name : Dorum^" and Sycaminon" are the names

^ So called from having been originally groups of four principalities, held
by princes who were vassals to the Roman emperors, or the kings of Syria.

'^ Containing the northern district of Palestine, beyond the Jordan,
between Antihbanus and the mountains of Arabia. It was bounded on
the north by the territory of Damascus, on the east by Auranitis, on the
south by Iturffia, and on the west by Qtiulanitia. It was so called from
its ranges of rocky moimtains, or rpax^ves, the eaves in which gave
refuge to numerous bands of robbers.

3 So called from the mountain of that name. Csesarea Philippi also
bore the name of Panias. It was situate at the south of Mount Hermon,
on the Jordan, just below its source. It was built by Phihp the Tetrarch,
B.C. 3. King Agrippa called it Neronias ; but it soon lost that name.

* In C. xiv. of the present Book, as that in which the Jordan takes
its rise. * A place of great strength in Coele-Syria, now
known as Nebi Abel, situate between Hehopolis and Damascus.

* Situate between TripoUs and Antaradus, at the north-west foot of
Mount Libanus. It lay witliin a short distance of the sea, and was
fiamous for the worship paid by its inhabitants to Astarte, the Syriari
Aphrodite. A temple was erected here to Alexander the Great, in
which Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor, was bom, his parents
having resorted thither to celebrate a festival, a.d. 205. From this cir-
cumstance, its name was changed to Caesarea. Burckhardt fixes its site
at a hill caUed Tel-Arka.

7 Of tliis place, which probably took its name fi^m its numerous
vines, nothing whatever is known.

* Called by Pliny, in B. xii. c. 41, Gabba. It was situate at the foot
of Mount Carmel between Csesarea and Ptolemais, sixteen miles from
the former. No remains of it are to be seen. It must not be con-
founded with Gabala, in Gtihlee, fortified by Herod the Great.

" The town was situate between Csesarea and Ptolemais. The river
has been identified with the modem Nahi-el-Zerka, in which, according
to Pococke, crocodiles have been found.

*" Called Dor, before the conquest of Canaan by the Israehtes. See
Joshua xvii. 11, and Judges i. 27. It afterwards belonged to the half-
tribe of Manasseh. Its site is now called Tortura.

" Its site is now called Atlik, according to D' Anville. Parisot suggests
TOL. I. 2 E

454 plint's NATUBAL HISTOET. [Book V.

of cities of which the remembrance only exists. "We then
come to the Promontory of Carmeliis\ and, upon the moun-
tain, a town^ of that name, formerly called Acbatana. Next
to this are Getta^, Jeba, and the river Pacida, or Belus^,
which throws up on its narrow banks a kind of sand from
which glass* is made : this river flows from the marshes of
Cendebia, at the foot of Mount Carmelus. Close 'to this
river is Ptolemais, formerly called Ace*, a colony of Claudius
Caesar; and then the towna of Ecdippa', and the promon-
tory known as the White Promontory*. We next come
to the city of Tyre', formerly an island, separated from
the mainland by a channel of the sea, of great depth, 700
paces in width, but now joined to it by the works which
were thrown up by Alexander when besieging it, — the
Tyre so famous ui ancient times for its off*spring, the cities
to which it gave birth, Leptis, TJtica, and Carthage^", —
that rival of the Roman sway, that thirsted so eagerly for the

that it is the modem Keufah ; others that it b Hepha, near Mount
Carmel.

* Insignificant in height and extent, but celebrated in Scripture history.
It still bears the name of Cape Carmel.

'^ It is not improbable that. he means the town of Porphyrium, now
Khaifa, at the foot of the mountain.

3 Probably the Gitta of Polybius. Of it and Jeba, nothing is known.

* The Nalu-'Naman, or Abou, on which Ptolemais was situate.

* Employed in the extensive manufacture of that article at Tyre and
Sidon, to the north of this district.

^ A corruption of Acco, the native name ; from which the English
name Acre, and the French St. Jean d'Acre. The earUest mention of it
is in the Book of Judges, i. 31. It is supposed that it was Ptolemy I.,
the son of Lagus, who enlarged it and gave it the name of Ptolemais.
Its citadel, however, still retained tlie name of Ace. Under the. Eomans,
Ptolemais, as mentioned by Pliny, was a colony, and belonged to Qtililee.
The modem city of Acre occupies its site.

7 The Ach-Zib of Scripture, mentioned in Joshua xix. 29, and Judges
1. 31. Its ruins are to be seen near the sea-shore, about three hours'
journey north of Acre. The spot is still called Es-Zib.

' StiU called the Ras-el-Abiad, or White Promontory.

* A colony of the Sidonians : its scanty ruins are still to be seen at the
poor village of Sur. The wars of the Crusades completed its downfall.
The island is stiU joined to the mainland by the mole which was erected
by Alexander the Great during the siege of the place ; or, according to
some, by the Syrians themselves.

^^ Carthage is supposed to have been colonized immediately by the
people of Utica.

Chap. 17.] ACCOUNT OFCOUNTHIES, ETC. 435

conquest of the whole earth ; Gades, too, which she founded
beyond the limits of the world. At the present day, all her
fame is confined to the production of the murex and the
purpled Its circumference, including therein Palaetyrus^ is
nineteen miles, the place itself extending twenty-two stadia.
The next towns are Sarepta' and Ornithon^, and then
Sidon'*, famous for its manufacture of glass, and the parent
of Thebes'' in Boeotia.

(20.) In the rear of this spot begins the chain of Libanus,
which extends 1500 stadia, as far as Simyra ; this district
has the name of Coele Syria. Opposite to this chain, and
separated from it by an intervening valley, stretches away
the range of Antilibanus, which was formerly connected
with Libanus^ by a wall. Beyond it, and lynig in the in-
terior, is the region of Decapolis, and, with it, the Tetrarchies
already mentioned, and the whole expanse of Palaestina. On
the coast, again, and lying beneath Libanus, is the river
Magoras*^, the colony ot Berytus', which bears the name of
Felix Julia, the town of Leontos'", the river Lycos", Palae-
byblos'", the river Adonis", and the towns of By bios",

* From which was made the famous Tyrian purple.

' Or " ancient Tyre," which was built on the mainland.

* The Zarephath of 1 Kings ivii. 9, 10, whither Elijah was sent to
the widow, whose son he afterwards raised from the dead. Its site is
now known as Sarfand.

* Probably meaning " City of the Birds," perhaps from the quantitieg
of game in its vicinity. Its site now bears the name of Adlan.

* Its site is now called Saida. In the time of David and Solomon, it
was probably subject to the kings of Tyre. ^

" Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, was said to have been the son of its
king Agcnor. 7 The Lebanon of Scripture. This inter-

vening space, the ancient Coele-Syria, is now inhabited by the Druses.

* Perhaps the modem Nahr-el-Damur.

* Now Beyrout. By some it has been identified with the Berotha, or
Berothai, of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its fuU name as a Koman colony
was, " Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus." It was colonized by the
veterans of the Fifth, or Macedonian, and the Eightli, or Augustan,
Legions. Beyrout, or Berut, is now, in a commercial point of view, the
most important place in Syria.

1° Nothing is known of this place. The name seems to mean, the
«Town of the Lion." " Now the Nahr-el-Kelb, or " Dog s River."

^2 The site of this place seems not to be known.
^3 Now the Nahr-el- Ibrahim.
** The modem town which stands on its site is called JebeiL It ii

2r2

4M PLINY's NATURAL HISTOKT. [Book V*

Botrys\ Gigarta^, Trieris^, Calamos'', Tripolis®, inhabited,
by the Tyriaiis, Sidonians, and Aradians ; Orthosia®, the
river Eleutheros'', the towns of Simyra and Marathos* ; and
opposite, Arados^, a town seven stadia long, on an island,
distant 200 paces from the mainland. After passing
through the country in which the before-named mountains
end and the plains that lie between, Mount Bargylus'®
is seen to rise.

CHAP. 18. — STRIA AKTIOCHIA.

Here Phoenicia ends, and Syria recommences. The towns

situate at the foot of Lebanon. The ancient name seems to have been
Gebal, and the GebHtes are mentioned in Joshua, xiii. 5 ; 1 Kings, v. 18 ;
and Ezek. xxvii. 9. The ruins of the ancient city are very extensive.
Astarte and Isis seem to have been worshipped here.

^ Now Batrun, a small town about twelve miles north of Byblus, said
to have been founded by Ithobal, king of Tyre.

2 Now Grazir, according to D'AnviUe.

3 Twelve miles from Tripolis. Its name would seem to bear reference
to a trireme, or galley. It has been said that this is the place referred to
in the Book of Daniel, xi. 30.

^ Polybius speaks of this place as being burnt by Antiochus. Its site
Btill bears the name of Calamon, according to D'Anville.

* This properly consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each
with its owTi walls, but all connected in a common constitution ; having
one place of assembly, and forming in reality one city only. They were
colonies, as here suggested by Pliny, of Tyre, Sidon, and Arados respec-
tively. It is still a considerable place, called Tarabolos, or Tarablis, by
the Turks.

6 Its site is still known as Ortosa, or Tortosa.

7 Probably the same as the Nahr-el-Kebir, or " G-reat River," to the
north of TripoHs. It may have derived its Greek name, which signifies
*'free," from its similarity to that given to it by the people of the
country.

* This was an important city, near Antarados. Its ruins are spoken
of as very extensive. Simyra is still called Sumira.

5* Now called Euad ; an island off the northern coast of Phoenicia, at
a distance of twenty stadia from the mainland, Pliny falling short here
in his measurement. The city of Arados was very populous, though
built on a mere rock ; and, contrary to Eastern custom, the liouses con-
tained many stories. It is spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel vmder the
name of Arvad : see c. xxvii. 8, 11. In importance, it ranked next to
the cities of Tyre and Sidon.

^^ Its modern name does not appear to be known.

Chap. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 437

are, Came\ Balanea', Paltos', and Gabale* ; then the pro-
montory upon which is situate the free town of Laodicea' ;
and then Diospolis^ Heraclea^ Charadrus^ and Posidium".
(21.) We then come to the Promontory of Syria Antio-
chia. In the interior is the free city of Antiochia^" itself,
Bumamed Epidaphnes", and divided by the river Orontes".

* Also called Antarados, as lying nearly opposite to the city of Arados.
According to Strabo, the port of Antarados was called Came, or Camos.
In the tune of the Crusades, it was known under the name of Tortosa.
Its present name is Tartus.

' Now Banias. It was situate twenty-four mUes north of Antarados.
Its name is supposed to have originated in the baths in its vicinity.
The site is deserted ; but a few ruins of the ancient town are still to
be seen.

8 Eight miles firom Balanea. Its ruins are known by the name of Boldo.

* Its site is now known as Djebeleh, a small village in the vicinity of
Laodicea, or Latakia. The sun was probably worshipped here, and
hence the Emperor Hehogabalus derived his name.

^ About fifty miles south of Antioch, now called Ladikiyeh, or Latakia,
noted for the excellence of its tobacco, which has an European reputation.
It was bmlt by Seleucus I., on the site of an earher city, called Eamitha.
It was afterwards greatly favoured by Juhus Csesar. Herod the Great
built an aqueduct here, the ruins of which are still in existence. It is
now a poor Turkish village ; but there are considerable remains of the
ancient city to be seen in its vicinity.

* It has been suggested, that Phny means the city of Lydda, in the
tribe of Benjamin, which of course would be very much to the south,
and quite out of the order in which he is proceeding. If that is not the
place meant, this Diospohs is utterly unknown.

7 At some miles' distance to the nortli of Laodicea. Pococke foimd
some traces of its site at a spot called Minta Baurdeleh, or the Bay of
the Tower.

* Pliny is in error here most probably, and is speaking of a place as
being in Syria which in reality was inCihcia, between Platanus andCragus.
The name impHes its situation near a mountain torrent.

9 On a small bay, some miles north of Heraclea.

^^ Or Antioch, the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and the most
famous of the sixteen cities built by Seleucus Nicator, and called after
the name of his father, (or son, as some say,) Antiochus. It was built on
the Orontes, and formed one of the most beautiful and pleasant cities of
the ancient world. The modem Antakieh is a poor town, built on the
north-western part of the site of the ancient city, by the river. The
walls, built by Justinian, may still be traced for a circuit of four miles.
Here the followers of ovir Saviour first obtained the name of "Christians."

" That is, *' Near Daphne," there being a celebrated grove of that
jiame, consecrated to Apollo, in its immediate vicinity.

*2 Now called the Nahr-el-Asy.

438 plint's NATUBAL HISTOET. [Book V.

On the promontory is Seleucia\ called Pieria, a free city.
(22.) Beyond it lies Mount Casius*, a different one from tne
mountain of the same name^ which we have already mentioned.
The height of this mountain is so vast, that, at the fourth
watch ^ of the night, you can see from it, in the midst of the
darkness, the sun rising on the east ; and thus, by merely
turning round, we may at one and the same time behold both
day and night. The winding road which leads to its summit
is nineteen miles in length, its perpendicular height four.
Upon this coast there is the river Orontes, wliieh takes its
rise near Heliopolis*, between the range of Libanus and An-
tilibanus. The towns are, Ehosos^, and, behind it, the Grates
of Syria^, lying in the space between the chain of the Eho-
sian mountains and that of Taurus. On the coast there is the
to\STi of Myriandros*, and Mount Amanus', upon which is the
town of Bomitae ^". This mountain separates Cilicia from Syria.

CHAP. 19. (23.) — THE EEMAINING PAETS OF STEIA.

"We must now speak of the interior of Syria. Coele Sjrria

* Now Seleuca, or Kepse, at the foot of Mount Pieria. It has been
referred to in a previous note. ^ j^q^^ known as Djebt'l-el-Akra.

* In the extreme north-east of Egypt. See pp. 422 and 424.

* The beginning of the fourth watch was three o'clock in the morning.
The height of this mountain does not in reahty appear to be anything
remarkable, and has been ascertained to be but 5318 feet. There is
probably no foundation for the marvellous stoiy here told by Pliny ;
nevertheless, we are told by Spartianus, that the Emperor Adrian passed
a night upon the mountain, for the purpose of seeing this extraordinary
sight J but a storm arising, it prevented the gratification of his curiosity.
It lay near Nymphreum and Seleucia, and its base was washed by the
waters of the Orontes. * Or Baalbec, in the interior of Syria.

^ According to Ansart, it still retains that name.

7 Now called Bylan. This was the name of the narrow pass between
a portion of Mount Taurus and the Rock of Rossicum. According to
Ansart, the spot is called at the present day Saggal Doutan.

* This was a Phoenician colony, on the eastern side of the Gulf of
Is^s ; it is said by Ansart still to retain its ancient name.

^ Now called Aima-Dagh, a branch of Mount Taurus, running from
the head of the Gulf of Issus, north-east, to the principal chain, and
dividing Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia. There were two passes in
it, the Syrian Gates and the Amanian Gates. It is often spoken of by
Cicero, who was the Roman governor of CiUcia.

^^ The locality of this place is unknown, as Pliny is the only author
who mentions it.

Chap. 19.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 439'

has the town of Apamea\ divided by the river Marsyas from
the Tetrarchy of the Nazerini'' ; Bambyx, the other name of
which is Hierapolis', but by the Syrians called Mabog^
(here the monster Atargatis^, called Derceto by the Greeks,
is worshipped) ; and the place called Chalcis' on the Belus',
from which the region of Chalcidene, the most fertile part of
Syria, takes its name. We here find also Cyrrhestice, with
Cyrrhum*', the Gazatce, the Gindareni, the Gabeni, the two
Tetrarchies called Granucomatae', the Emeseni^", the Hyla-

* Now Kulat-el-Mudik, situate in the valley of the Orontes, and capital
of the province of Apamene. It was fortified and enlarged by Seleucus
Nicator, who gave it its name, after his wife Apama. It also bore the
Macedonian name of Pella. It was situate on a hill, and was so far sur-
rounded by the windings of the Orontes, as to become a peninsula, whtuce
itB name of Chersonesus. Very extensive ruins of this place still exist.

^ It is suggested, that these are the Phy larch i Arabes of Strabo, now-
called the Nosairis, who were situate to the east of Apamea. The river
Marsyas here mentioned was a small tributary of the Orontes, into
wliicli it falls on the east side, near Apamea.

* This was situate in Cyrrhestica, in Syria, on the high road from
Antioch to Mesopotamia, twenty-four miles to the west of the Euplirates,
and thirty-six to the south-west of Zeugma ; two and a half days' jour-
ney from Beroea, and five from Antioch. It obtained its Greek name
of the " Sacred City" from Seleucus Nicator, owing to its being the cliief
seat of the worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte. Its ruins were first
discovered by MaundreU.

* In the former editions it is " Magog ; " but Sillig's reading of
"Mabog" is correct, and corresponds with the Oriental forms of Mun-
bedj, Manbesja, Manbesjun, Menba, Manba, Manbegj, and the modem
name, Kara Bambuche, or Buguk Munbe^.

* Astarte, the semi-fish goddess.

^ This Chalcis is supposed to have been situate somewhere in the
district of the Buckaa, probably south of HeUopoUs, or Baalbec. It has
been suggested, that its site may have been at, or near Zahle ; in the
vicinity of which, at the village of Heusn Nieba, are to be seen some
remarkable remains. Or else, possibly, at Majdel Anjar, where Abul-
feda speaks of great ruins of hewn stone.

^ Ansart suggests, that Belus is here the name of a mountain, and
that it may be the same that is now called Djebel-il-Semmaq.

* To the north of Chalcidene, a town of Syria, on the slopes of the
Taiu-us, eighty miles to the north-east of Antioch. In the Roman times,
it was the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion, The ruins near the modem
village of Corus represent the ancient Cyrrhus. Of the Oazatae and
Gindareni, nothing is known. ' Possibly meaning the " Burghers
of Granum." Nothing is known of these people.

^^ The people of Emesa, a city in the district of Apamene, on the right.

440 rLnrx's tstattteal histoet, [Book V.

taB\ the nation of the Itursei, and a branch of them, the
people called the Bsetarreni ; the Mariamitani-, the Te-
trarchy known as Marnmisea, Paradisus^, Pagrse*, the
Pinaritse*, two cities called Seleucia, besides the one already
mentioned, the one Seleucia on the Euphrates*, and
the other Seleucia'^ on the Belus, and the Cardytenses.
The remaining part of Syria (except those parts which will
be spoken of in conjunction with the Euphrates) contains
the Arethusii®, the Beroeenses'', and the Epiphanseenses^";

OT eastern bank of the Orontes, to which, in C. 26 of the present Book,
Pliny assigns a desert district beyond Palmyra. It was celebrated in
ancient times for its magnificent temple of the sun, and the appointment
of its priest, Bassianus, or Heliogabalus, to the imperial dignity, in his
fourteenth year. It was made a colony, with the jtts Italicum, by Cara-
caUa, and afterwards became the capital of Phoenicia Libanesia. The
present name of its site is Hems.

* The HylatfiB are totally unknown. Ttursea was situate in the north-
east of Palestine, and, with Trachonitis, belonged to the tetrarchy of
Philip. Its boundaries cannot be precisely determined; but it may
probably be traversed by a line drawn from the Lake of Tiberias to
Damascus.

' According to Ptolemy, the people of Manama, some miles to the
west of Emesa.

3 In the district of Laodicea, according to Ptolemy.

* Near the Portse Amani, or " Passes of Amanus."

* Pinara was near Pagrse, in Pieria, last mentioned.

' Probably Seleucia, in Mesopotamia, now called Bir, on the left bank
of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma, a fortress of con-
siderable importance.

7 Its site is doubtful. Sebj d' Aboulgazi has been suggested.

* The people of Arethusa, a city of Syria, not far from Apamea,
situate between Epiphania and Emesa. In later times, it took the
name of Restan.

^ The people of Beroea, a town of Syria, midway between Antioch and
Hierapohs. Seleucus Nicator gave to it the Macedonian name of Beroea ;
but, in A.D. 638, it resumed its ancient name of Chaleb, or Chalybon.
The modem Haleb, or Aleppo, occupies its site. Some excavations, on
the eastern side of it, are the only vestiges of ancient remains in the
neighbourhood.

1" The people of Epipliansea, placed by Ptolemy in the district of
Cassiotis, in which also Antioch and Larissa were situate. The Itine-
rary of Antoninus places it sixteen miles from Larissa, thirty-two from
Emesa, and 101 from Antioch of Syria. It is supposed to have been
identical with the ancient Hamath, mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. 9 ; 1 Kings
viii. 65 ; Isaiah x. 9, and called " Hamath the great" in Amos vL 2,
which name it also retained in the time of St. Jerome.

Chap. 20.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 441

and on the east, the Laodiceni\ who are called the Laodiceni
on the Libanus, the Leueadii^, and the Larissaei, besides
seventeen other Tetrarchies, divided into kingdoms and
bearing barbarous names.

CHAP. 20. (24.) — THE EUPHBATE8.

This place, too, will be the most appropriate ohe for
making some mention of the Euphrates. This river rises in
Caranitis', a prefecture of Greater Armenia, according to
the statement of those who have approached the nearest to
its source. Domitius Corbulo says, that it rises in Mount
Aba ; Licinius Mucianus, at the foot of a mountain which
he calls Capotes*, twelve miles above Zimara, and that at its
source it has the name of Pvxurates. It first flows past
Derxene', and then Anaitica , shutting out^ the regions of
Armenia from Cappadocia. Dascusa* is distant from Zimara
seventy-five miles ; from this spot it is navigable as far as

* The people of Laodicea ad Libanum, a city of Coele-Syria, at the
northern entrance to the narrow valley, between Libanus and Anti-
Libanus. During the po38e88ion of Coele-Syria by the Greek kings of
Egypt, it was the south west border fortress of Syria. It was the chief
city of a district called Laodicene.

^ Of Leucas, or Leucadia, nothing is known. Larissa, in Syria, was
a city in the district of Apamene, on the western bank of tlie Orontes,
about half-way between Apamea and Epiphania. The site is now called
Kulat-Seijar.

* In the western branch of the plateau of Iran, a portion of the Taurus
chain. Considerable changes in the course of the lower portion of the
river have taken place since the time when Pliny wrote. Caranitis is
the modem Arzrum, or Erznim, of the Turks.

< Now called Dujik Tagh, a mountain of Armenia.
» It has been suggested, that the proper reading here would be
Xerxene.

* Probably the district where the goddess Anais was worshipped,
who is mentioned by PHny in B. xxxiii. c. 24.

''' From the place of confluence where the two mountain streams
forming the Euphrates imite. This spot is now known as Kebban
Ma'den.

* A fortress upon the river Euphrates, in Lesser Armenia. > It
has been identified with the ferry and lead-mines of Kebban Ma'den,
the points where the Kara Su is. joined by the Myrad-Chai, at a distance
of 270 miles from its source ; the two streams forming, by their con-
fluence, the Euphrates.

442 PLurr's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

Sartona*, a distance of fifty miles, thence to Melitene', in
Cappadocia, distant seventy-four' miles, and thence to Ele-
gia'*, in Armenia, distant ten miles ; receiving in its course the
rivers Lycus^, Arsanias®, and Arsanus, At Elegia it meets
the range of Mount Taurus, but no effectual resistance is
offered to its course, although the chain is here twelve
miles in width. At its passage^ between the mountains,
the river bears the name of Omma^ ; but afterwards, when it
has passed through, it receives that of Euphrates. Beyond
this spot it is full of rocks, and runs with an impetuous
tide. It then divides that part of Arabia which is called
the country of the Orei**, on the left, by a channel three

1 Other readings have "Paatona" here, said by D'AnvUle to be the
modem Pastek.

2 Called the metropolis of Lesser Armenia by Procopius. It was
situate between Anti-Taurus and the Euphrat<»8, and celebrated for its
fertility, more especially in fruit-trees, oil, and wine. The site of the
city Melitene is now called Malatiyah, on a tributary of the Euphrates,
and near that river itself.

* It is generally supposed that " twenty -four " would be the correct
reading here.

^ There were two places of this name. The one here spoken of was a
town of Lesser Armenia, on the right bank of the Euphrates, at the
first, or principal curve, which takes place before the river enters Mount
Taurus. It is represented by the modem Iz Oghlu.

^ No other writer is foimd to make mention of the Lycus, which
flows into the Euphrates, though there is a river formerly so adled, which
flows into the Tigris below Larissa, the modem Nimroud. D'Anville
is of opinion, that it is formed from the numerous springs, called by the
people of the district Bing-ghexd, or the " Thousand Springs."

6 Now called the Mymd-Chai. Eitter considers it to be the south
arm of the Euphrates. The Arsanus is mentioned by no writer except
Pliny.

7 The defile at this place is now called the Cataract of Nachour, ac-
cording to Parisot.

8 The more general reading here is "Omira." Hardouin is of opinion,
that this is the district referred to in the Book of Judith, ii. 24. In the
Vulgate, it appears to be twice called the river Mambre; but in our
version it is called Arhondi.

' Bumouf has concluded, from a cuneiform inscription which he
deciphered, that the name of this people was Ayurd, and that Hardouin
is wrong in conjecturing that it was a name derived from the Greek
o/oos, " a mountain," and designating the people as a mountain tribe.
If Bumouf is right, the proper reading here would seem to be Arcei, or
Arrhoei.

Chap. 21.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 44(3

schoeni' in width, from the territory of the Commageni* on
the right, and it admits of a bridge being thrown across it,
even where it forces a passage through the range of Taurus,
At Claudiopolis^, in Cappadocia, it takes an easteriy direc-
tion ; and here, for the first time in this contest, Taurus
turns it out of its course ; though conquered before, and
rent asunder by its channel, the mountain-chain now gains
the victory in another way, and, breaking its career, com-
pels it to take a southerly direction. Thus is this warfare
of nature equally waged, — the river proceeding onward to
the destination which it intends to reach, and the mountains
forbidding it to proceed by the path which it originally
intended. After passing the Cataracts*, the river again
becomes navigable ; ;ind, at a distance of forty miles iroia
thence, is Samosata*, the capital of Commagene.

CHAP. 21. — SYRIA UPON THE EUPHRATES.

Arabia, above mentioned, has the cities of Edessa^ for-
merly called Antiochia, and, from the name of its fountain,
Callu'hoe^, and Carrhae*, memorable for the defeat of Crassua

^ The length of the schaenus has been mentioned by our author in
C. 11 of the present Book. M. Saigey makes the Persian parasang to be
very nearly the same length as the schoenus of Pliny.

* Commagene was a ^strict in the north of Syria, bounded by the
Euphrates on the east, by Cihcia on the west, and by Amanus on the
north. Its capital was Samosnta.

' The place here spoken of by Pliny is probably the same mentioned
by Ptolemy as in Cataonia, one of the provinces of Cappadocia. Ac-
cording to Parisot, the site of the place is called at the present day
*EaClaudie.'

* Salmasius has confounded these cataracts with those of Nachour, or
Elegia, previously mentioned. It is evident, however, that they are not
the same.

5 Now called Someisat. In literary history, it is celebrated as being
the birth-place of the satirist Lucian. Nothing remains of it but a heap
of ruins, on an artificial mound.

* In the district of Osrhoene, in the northern part of Mesopotamia.
It was situate on the Syrtus, now the Daisan, a small tributary of the
Euphrates. PUny speaks rather loosely when he places it in Arabia.
It is supposed that it bore the name of Antiochia during the reign of
the Syrian king, Antiochus IV. The modern town of Orfahor Uufah is
supposed to represent its site. ^ " The beautiful stream." It is
generally supposed that tliis was another name of Edessa.

Supposed to be the Haran, or Charan, of the Old Testament. It

444 plikt's NATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

there. Adjoining to this is the praefecture of Mesopotamia,
which derives its origin from the Assyrians, and in which are
the towns of Anthemusia^ and Nicephorium^ ; after which
come the Arabians, known by the name of PrsBtavi, with Sin-
gara^ for their capital. Below Samosata, on the side of Syria,
the river Marsyas"* flows into the Euphrates. At Cingilla
ends the territory of Commagene, and the state of the
Immei begins. The cities which are here washed by the
river are those of Epiphania^ and Antiochia^, generally
known as Epiphania and Antiochia on the Euphrates ; also
Zeugma, seventy-two miles distant from Samosata, famous
for the passage there across the Euphrates. Opposite
to it is Apamia', which Seleucus, the founder of both
cities, united by a bridge. The people who join up to
Mesopotamia are called the Ehoali. Other towns in Syria
are those of Europus*, and what was formerly Thapsa-

was here, as alluded to by Pliny, that Crassus was defeated and slain by
the Parthian general, Surena. It was situate in Osroene, in Mesopo-
tamia, and not far from Edessa. According to Stephanus, it had its
name from Carrha, a river of Syria, and was celebrated in ancient times
for its temple of Luna, or Lunus.

* According to Strabo, the Aborras, now the Khabur, flowed round
this town. By Tacitus it is called Anthemusias. According to Isidorus
of Charax, it Lay between Edessa and the Euphrates.

* Now Bakkah, a fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates,
near the mouth of the river Bilecha. It was built by order of Alexander
the Great, and complet<?d probably by Seleucus. It is supposed to have
been the same place as Cfdlinicum, the fortifications of which were re-
paired by Justinian. Its name was changed in later times to Leontopolis
by the Emperor Leo.

3 Now called Sinjar, according to Brotier. Some writers imagine
that this was the site of " the plain in the land of Shinar," on wliich the
Tower of Babel was built, mentioned in the Book of Genesis, xi. 2.

* Mentioned in C. 17 of the present Book.

* Probably not that in the district of Cassiotis, and on the western
bank of the Orontes, mentioned in C. 19 of the present Book, Of this
locahty nothing seems to be known, except that Dupinet states that it
is now called Adelphe by the Turks.

8 Probably the " Antiochia ad Taurum " mentioned by the geographer
Stephanus, and by Ptolemy. Some writers place it at the modem
Aintab, seventy-five miles north-east of Aleppo.

'^ Now called Eoimi-Cala, or the "Roman Castle." For Zeugma
Bee p. 424.

* In the north-east of the district of Astropatene, originally called
Bhaga. It was rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator, and by him called Euro-

Chap. 21.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIEB, ETC. 445

CU8\ now Amphipolis. "We then come to the Arabian
Scenitse^. The Euphrates then proceeds in its course till
it reaches the place called Ura^, at which, taking a turn
to the east, it leaves the Syrian Deserts of Palmyra^,
which extend as far as the city of Petra' and the regions
of Arabia Felix.

(25.) Palmyra is a city famous for the beauty of its site,
the riches of its soil, and the delicious quality and abundance
of its water. Its fields are surrounded by sands on every
side, and are thus separated, as it were, by nature from the rest
of the world. Though placed between the two great empires
of Rome and Parthia, it still maintains* its independence ;
never failing, at the very first moment that a rupture
between them is threatened, to attract the careful attention
of both. It is distant 337 miles from Seleucia' of the
Parthians, generally known as Seleucia on the Tigris, 203
from the nearest part of the Syrian coast, and twenty-seven
less from Damascus.

pus. Colonel Rawlinson has identified it with the present Veramin, at
no great distance from the ancient Rhages. '

^ Its ruins are to be seen at the ford of El Hamman, near the modem
Bakkah. It stood on the banks of the Euphrates ; and here was the
usual, and, for a long time, the only ford of the Euphrates. It is sup-
posed to have derived its name from the Aramean word " Thiphsach,"
signifying " a ford." ' Or " Dwellers in Tents." See p. 422.

* According to Ortelius and Hardouin, this is the place called Sura
by Pliny, in C. 26 of the present Book ; but Parisot differs from that
opinion. Bochart suggests, that " Ur, of the Chaldees," is the place
referred to under this name ; but, as Hardouin observes, that place lay
at a considerable distance to the south.

* So called from the circumstance that Palmyra stood in the midst
of them. It was built by King Solomon, in an oasis of the Desert, in
the midst of palm groves, from which it received its Greek name, which
was a translation also of the Hebrew " Tadmor," " the city of palm-trees."
It lay at a considerable distance from the Euphrates. Its site presents
considerable ruins ; but they are all of the Roman period, and greatly
inferior to those of Baalbec or HeliopoUs.

* The rock fortress of the Idumseans in Arabia Petrsea, now called
Wady-Musa, half-way between the head of the GuK of Akabah and the
Dead Sea.

^ Which it continued to do until it was conquered xmder its queen,
Zenobia, by the Emperor AureUan, in a.d. 270. It was partially de-
stroyed by him, but was afterwards fortified by Justinian ; though it
never recovered its former greatness. 7 gee B. vi. c. 30.

446 plikt's natttkal history. [Book T.

(26.) Below the deserts of Palmyra is the region of
Stelendene\ and Hierapolis, Beroea, and Chalois, already
mentioned'. Beyond Palmyra, Emesa' takes to itself a
portion of these deserts ; also Elatium, nearer to Petra by
one-half than Damascus. At no great distance from Sura*
is Philiscum, a town of the Parthians, on the Euphrates.
From this place it is ten days' sail to Seleucin, and nearly
as many to Babylon. At a distance of 5f4 miles be-
yond Zeugma, near the village of Massice, the Euphrates
divides into two channels, the left one of which runs through
Mesopotamia, past Seleucia, and falls into the Tigris as it
flows around that city. Its channel on the riglit runs towards
Babylon, the former capital of Chalda^a, and flows through
the middle of it ; and then through another city, the name of
which is Otris', after which it becomes lost in the marshes.
Like the Nile, this river increases at stated times, and at
much about the same period. When the sun has reached
the twentieth degree of Cancer, it inundates' Mesopotamia ;
and, after he has passed through Leo and entered Virgo,
its waters begin to subside. By the time the sun has
entered the twenty-ninth degree of Virgo, the river has fully
regained its usilal height.

CHAP. 22. (27.) — CILICIA ATTD THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

But let us now return to the coast of Syria, joining up
to which is Cilicia. We here find the river Diaphanes*,

* Pliny is the only author that makes mention of Stelendene.
2 In C. 19 of the present Book.

' Previously mentioned by Pliny. See p. 439. Of Elativmi nothing
is known.

* The same place that is also mentioned in liistory as Elavia Firma
Sura. The site of Philiscum is totally imknown.

fi Nothing is known of this place.

5 Parisot remarks, that it is true that the Euphrates increases peri-
odically, much in the same manner as the Nile ; but that its increase
does not arise from similar causes, nor are the same results produced by
it, seeing that the river does not convey the same volume of water as the
Nile, and that the country in the vicinity of its bed does not, like Egypt,
form a valley pent up between two ranges of hills.

7 So called probably from the Greek Siatpavi^, "transparent." It
has not been identified, but it was no doubt a small stream falling into
the Gulf of Issus.

Chap. 22.] ACCOmTT Or C0UNTEIE8, ETC. 447

Mount Crocodilus, the Gates* of Mount Amanus, the rivers
Androcus^ Pinarus', and Lycus*, the Gulf of Issos', and the
town of that name ; then Alexandria", the river Chlorus^,
the Tree town of -^gae', the river Pvramus', the Gates'" of
Cilicia, the towns of Mallos" and Magarsos", and, in the
interior, Tarsus". We then come to the Aleian Plains", the
town of Cassipolis, Mopsos", a free town on the river Py-
ramus, Thynos, Zephynum, and Anchiale*". Next to these

* Or " Passes." As to Mount Amanus, see C. 18 of the present Book.
^ Parisot suggests that this is the Chcrsos of Xenophon, the modern

Kermes.

* The Deh-Su of modem times according to D'Anville, the Mahor-
Su according to Pococke.

< Phny is the only writer that mentions this river Lycus.

• The Gulf of Issos is now called the Gulf of Scanderoon or Isken-
dorun, from the town of that name, the former Alexandria ad Issum,
mentioned hero by Pliny. In tlio vicinity of Issus, Alexander defeated
the army of Darius. The exact site of the town appears not to have
been ascertained.

• Wliicli still preserves its name in Iskenderun, on the east side of the
Gulf It probably received its name in honour of Alexander the Great.

7 Or the " Green" River. Its identity is vmknown.

■ Now called Ayas Kala or Kalassy. It was a place, in the Boman
period, of some importance. ' The modem river Jihan.

10 Or " Passes " of Cihcin, through the range of Taurus.

^' Called Mallo in modem times, according to llardouin and Dupinet.

** At the mouth of the Pyramus, according to Tzetzes.

^ Famous as the birth -pfaoe of St. Paul, the Ajwstle of the Gentiles.
Its ruins still bear the name of Tersus. During the civil war it took part
"with Julius Csesar, and fix>m him received the name of JuUopolis.

1* They Ue between the rivers Djihoun and Syhoun, according to Ansart.

^* Now called Messis, according to D'Anville and Mannert. The site
of Cassipolis, or Cassiopolis according to some readings, is unknown.

^^ The sites of Thynos and Zephyrium appear to be unknown. Anchiale
was situate on the coast, upon the river Anchialeus, according to the
geographer Stephanus. Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo, says that at tliis
place was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and on it a rehef in stone repre-
senting a man snapping the fingers of the right hand. He adds,
*' It is said that there is an Assyrian inscription also, recording that Sar-
danapalus built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day, and exhorting the reader
to eat, drink, &c., as everything else is not worth That, the meaning of
which was shown by the attitude of the figure." Athenseus however
cites Amyntas as his authority for stating tliat the tomb of Sardanapalus
was at Nineveh. Leake is of opinion that a mound on the banks of the
river beyond the modem villages of Kazalu and Kaiaduar forms the re-
Duiins of Anchiale,

448 PLINTHS NATURAL HISTOET. [Book V.

are the rivers Saros^ and Cydnus^, tlie latter of which, at
some distance from the sea, runs through the free city of
Tarsus, the region of Celenderitis with a town^ of similar
name, the place where Nymphaeum"* stood, Soli of.Cilicia^,
now called Pompeiopolis, Adana^, Cibyra^, Pinare^, Pedalie',
Ale, Selinus*", Arsinoe", lotape^^, Doron, and, near the sea,

* The modem Syhou, according to Ansart.

* Now called the Tersoos Chai. It is remarkable for the coldness of
its waters, and it was here that Alexander the Q-reat nearly met with his
death from bathing when heated, in the stream.

3 Now Chelendreh. It was a strong place on the coast, situate on a
high rock nearly surrounded by the sea. None of its ruins seem older
than the early period of the Roman empire. The Turks call it Gulnare.

* Probably so called from a temple to the Sea Nymphs there.

* To distinguish it from Sol® or Soh of Cyprus. It was situate be-
tween the rivers Cydnus and Lam us, and was said to have been colonized
by Argivcs and Lydians from Rhodes. Alexander mulcted its inha-
bitants of 200 talents, for their adhesion to the Persians. It was cele-
brated as the birth-place of the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, the comic
poet Philemon, and the poet and astronomer Aratus. Its name is per-
petuated in the word Solecism, which is said to have been first appUed to
the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken by the inhabitants of this city, or as
some say, of SoU in Cyprus.

^ It still retains its ancient name, and is situate on the western side of
the Sarus, now the Syhoun or Syhan. Pompey settled here some of the
Cihcian pirates whom he had conquered.

7 Leake, in his ' Asia Minor,' p. 196, says, " The vestiges of Cibyra are
probably those observed by Captain Beaufort upon a height which rises
from the right bank of a considerable river about eight miles to the
eastward of the Melas, about four miles to the west of Cape Karabumu,
and nearly two miles from the shore." Ptolemy mentions Cibyra as an
inland town of Cihcia Trachea, but Scylax places it on the coast.

8 Its ruins are still called Pinara or Minara. It was an inland city of
Lycia, some distance west of the river Xanthus, and at the foot of
Moimt Cragus.

" Or perhaps ' PodaUe.' Of it nothing seems to be known.

^^ Or SeUnuntum, now Selenti, on the coast of Cihcia. In consequence
of the death here of the Emperor Trajan, it received the name of Trajano-
pohs. Of Ale, if that is the correct reading, nothing whatever is known.

^^ On the coast of Cihcia ; mentioned by Strabo as having a port,
Leake places it at or near the ruined castle called Sokhta Kalesi, below
which is a port, and a peninsula on the east side of the harbour covered
■with ruins.

12 In the district of Selenitis. It has been identified with the site of the
modern fortress of Lambardo. It is also suggested that it may have
been the same place as Laerte, the native city of Diogenes Laertius.
Of Doron nothing seems to be known.

Chap. 22.] ACCOUNT OP COrNTEIES ETC. 449

Coiycos, there being a town^ port, and cave^ all of the same
name. Passing these, we come to the river Calycadnus^
the Promontory of Sarpedon"*, the towns of Holmoe^ and
Myle, and the Promontory and town of Venus®, at a short
distance from the island of Cyprus. On the mainland there
are the towns of Myanda, Anemurium^, and Coracesium^,
and the river Melas^, the ancient boundary of Cilicia. In
the interior the places more especially worthy of mention
are Anazarbus^", now called Caesarea, Augusta, Castabala",
Epiphania'^, formerly called (Eniandos, Eleusa^^, Iconium",

1 Its ruins are supposed to be those seen by Leake near the island of
Crambusa. Here the walls of an ancient city may still be traced, and a
mole of unhewn rocks projects from one angle of the fortress about 100
yards across the bay.

2 Strabo describes this cave as a vast hollow of circular form, sur-
roianded by a margin of rock on all sides of considerable height; on
descending it, the ground was found fidl of shrubs, both evergreens and
cultivated, and in some parts the best satfron was grown. He also says
tbat there was a cave wliich contained a large spring, from which arose a
river of clear water wliich immediately afterwards sank into the earth
and flowed imdergrotmd into the sea. It was called the Bitter Water.
This cave, so famed in ancient times, does not appear to liave been
examined by any modem traveller. It was said to have been the bed of
the giant Typhon or Typhoeus. 3 jfow known as the Ghiuk-Su.

* Supposed to be the same as the modem Lessan-el-Kahpeh.

' Or Holmi, on the coast of Cilicia Tracheia, a Httle to the south-west
of Seleucia. Leake thinks that the modem town of Aghalinjan occupies
the site of Holmoe.

6 Probably the same place as the Aplu-odisias mentioned by Livy, Dio-
dorus Siculus, and Ptolemy.

7 On the headland now called Cape Anemour, the most southerly part
of Asia Minor. Beaufort discovered on the point indications of a con-
siderable ancient tovm.

8 Its site is now called Alaya or Alanieh. This spot was Strabo' s
boundary-line between Pamphylia and Cihcia. Some sHght remains of the
ancient towTi were seen here by Beaufort, but no inscriptions were found.

9 Identified by Beaufort with the modem Manaugat-Su.

^0 So called, either from an adjacent mountain of that name, or its
founder, Anazarbus. Its later name was Csesarea ad Anazarbura. Its site is
called Anawasy or Amnasy, and is said to display considerable remains of
the ancient town. Of Augusta nothing is known": Ptolemy places it in a
district called Bryehce.

" Identified by A ins worth with the ruins seen at Kara Kay a in CiHcia.

^2 Pompey settled some of the CiUcian pirates here after his defeat of
them. It was thirty miles east of Anazarbus, but its site does not appear
to have been identified. ^^ j^ island off the shore of Cihcia, also
called Sebaste. !■* Some of the MSS. read " Eiconium " here,

VOL. I. 2 a

450 PLINT's NATXTEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

Seleucia^ upon the river Calycadnus, sumamed Tracheotis,
a city removed^ from the sea-shore, where it had the name of
Holmia. Besides those already mentioned, there are in the
interior the rivers Liparis^, Bombos, Paradisus, and Mount
Imbarus*.

CHAP. 23. — ISAUEIA AlfD THE HOMONADES.

All the geographers have mentioned Pamphylia as joining
up to Cilicia, without taking any notice of the people of
Isauria^. Its cities are, in the interior, Isaura®, Clibanus,
and Lalasis ; it runs down towards the sea by the side of
Anemurium^ already mentioned. In a similar manner also,
all who have treated of this subject have been ignorant of
the existence of the nation of the Homonades bordering upon
Isaiu-ia, and their town of Homona^ in the interior. There
are forty-four other fortresses, which lie concealed amid
rugged crags and valleys.

^ Its ruins are called Selefkeh. This was an important city of Seleucia
Aspera, bililt by Seleucus I. on the western bank of the river Calycadnus.
It had an oracle of ApoUo, and annual games in honour of Zeus Olympius.
It was a free city under the Romans. It was here that Frederick Bar-
barossa, the emperor of Germany, died. Its ruins are picturesque and
extensive.

2 Meaning that the inhabitants of Holmia were removed by Seleucus
to his new .city of Seleucia.

3 Said by Vitruvius to have had the property of anointing those who
bathed in its waters. If so, it probably had. its name from the Greek
word XiTrapos, " fat." It flowed past the town of Soloe. Bombos and
Paradisus are rivers which do not appear to have been identified.

^ A branch of the Taurus range.

* It bordered in the east on Lycaonia, in the north on Phrygia, in the
west on Pisidia, and in the south on Cilicia and Pamphylia.

^ A well-fortified city at the foot of Mount Taurus. It was twice
destroyed, first by its inhabitants when besieged by Perdiccas, and again
by the Roman general Servihus Isauricus. Strabo says that Amyntas of
Galatea built a new city in its vicinity out of the ruins of the old one.
T)*Anville and others have identified the site of Old Isauria with the
modem Bei Sheher, and they are of opinion that Seidi Sheher occupies
the site of New Isaura, but Hamilton thinks that the ruins on a hill
near the village of Olou Bounar mark the site of New Isaura. Of the
two next places nothing seems to be knovni at the present day.

7 In the last Chapter.

8 In Pisidia, at the southern extremity of Lake Caralitis. Tacitus,
Annals, iii. 48, says that this people possessed forty-four fortresses:

Oliap. 25.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 451

CHAP. 24. — PISIDIA.

The PisidsB^ formerly called the Solymi, occupy the higher
parts of the mountains. In their country tliere is the colony
of Caesarea, also called Antiochia^, and the to^vns of Oro-
anda' and Sagalessos.

CHAP. 25. — LTCAONIA.

These people are bounded by Lycaonia*, which belongs to
the jurisdiction of the province of Asia'', to which also resort
the people of Philomelium*, Tymbrium', Leucolithium*,
Pelta, and Tyrium. To this jurisdiction is also added a

whereas Strabo speaks of them as the most barbarous of all the Pisidian
tribes, dwelling only in caves. They were conquered by the consul Qoi-
rinius in the time of Augustus.

^ Pisidia was a mountainous region formed by that part of the main
chain of Mount Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle parallel to
the shore of the PamphyUan Gulf; the shore itself at the foot of the
mountains forming the district of Pamphyha. On the south-east it was
boimded by Cilicia, on the east and north-east by Lycaonia and Isauria,
and by Phrygia Parorios on the north, where its boundaries greatly
varied at different times.

2 Gt3nerally called " Antioch of Pisidia," was situate on the south side of
the mountain boundary between Phrygia and Pisidia. The modem Ya-
lobatch is supposed to occupy its site. The remains of the ancient town
are numerous. Its title of Csesarea was probably given to it on its be-
coming a Koman colony early in the imperial period..

3 D'Anville suggests that the modem Haviran occupies its site, and
that Sadjakla stands on that of Sagalessos.

* This country was bounded on the north by Galatia, on the east by
Cappadocia, on the south by Cihcia Aspera, on the south-west by Isauria
and Phrygia Parorios, and on the north-west by Great Phiygia. It
was assigned under the Persian empire to the satrapy of Cappadocia,
but tx)nsidered by the Greek and Eoman geographers the south-east part
of Phrygia.

^ Ph^^gia, or the western part of Asia, the first part of the Asiatic
continent that received the name of Asia. See Chapters 28 & 29 of the
present Book.

^ D'Anville thinks that the place called Il-Goim occupies the site of
Philomela.

^ Hardouin suggests that the reading here is "Tibriani," the people
of Tibrias. Ansart is of opinion that Thymbrium is meant, the place at
which Cyrus defeated the army of Croesus.

8 Its site is unknowTi. It was probably so called from the quarries of
wliite stone or marble in its vicinity. Pelta and Tyrixim are also equally
imknown.

2g2

452 ^LKfy's NATUEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

Tetrarchy of Lycaonia in that part which joins up to Galatia,
containing fourteen states, with the famous city of Iconium\
In Lycaonia itself the most noted places are "Thebasa^ on
Taurus, and Hyde, on the confines of Galatia and Cappa-
docia. On the [western] side of Lycaonia, and above Pam-
phylia, come the Milyae', a people descended from the
Thiacians ; their city is Arycanda.

CHAP. 26. — PAMPHTLIA.

The former name of Pamphylia'* was Mopsopia*. The
Pamphylian Sea^ joins up to that of Cilicia. The towns of
Pamphylia are Side^, Aspendum^, situate on the side of a
mountain, Pletenissum^, and Perga^°. There is also the Pro-
montory of Leucolla, the mountain of Sardemisus, and the

1 Tconium was regarded in the time of Xenophon as the easternmost
town of Phrygia, while all the later authorities described it as the prin-
cipal city of Lycaonia. In the Acts of the Apostles it is described as a
very populous city, inhabited by Gh^jeks and Jews. Its site is now called
Kunjah or Koniyeh.

2 It has been suggested that this may be the Tarbassus of Artemidorus,
quoted by Strabo. Hyde was in later times one of the episcopal cities of
Lycaonia.

3 Their district is called Melyas by Herodotus, B. i. c. 173. The city
of Arycanda is unknown.

■* United with Cilicia it now forms the provmce of Caramania or Ker-
manieh. It was a narrow strip of the southern coast of Asia Minor,
extending in an arch along the Pamphylian Gulf between Lycia on the
west, Cilicia on the east, and on the north bordering on Pisidia.

* Tradition ascribed the first Greek settlements in this country to
Mopsus, son of Apollo (or of Rhacius), after the Trojan war.

^ Now called the Gulf of Adalia, lying between Cape Xhelidonia and
Cape Anemour.

^ Now called Candeloro, according to D'Anville and Beaufort.

8 Or Aspendus, an Argeian colony on the river Eurjniiedon. The
" mountain " of Pliny is nothing but a hill or piece of elevated ground.
It is supposed that it still retains its ancient name. In B. xxxL c. 7,
Pliny mentions a salt lake in its yicinity.

^ Hardouin suggests that the correct reading is 'Petnelessimi.'

"^^ A city of remarkable splendom*, between the rivers Catarrhactes and
Cestrus, sixty stadia from the mouth of the former. It was a celebrated
seat of the worsliip of Artemis or Diana. In the later Roman empire it
was the capital of PamphyHa Secunda. It was the first place visited by
St. Paul in Asia Minor. See Acts, xiii. 13 and xiv. 25. Its splendid
ruins are still to be seen at Murtana, sis^teen miles north-east of Adalia.

Chap. 27.] ACCOITNT OF COUNTBIES, ETC. 453

rivers Eurymedon', which flows past Aspendus, and Catar-
ractes"^, near to which is Lymesus; also the towns of
Olbia^, and Phaselis^ the last on this coast.

CHAP. 27. — MOUNT TATJEUS.

Adjoining to Paniphylia is the Sea of Lycia and the coun-
try of Lycia^ itsell', where the chain of Taurus, coming from
the eastern shores, terminates the vast Gulf' by the Promon-
tory of Chelidonium". Of immense extent, and separating
nations innumerable, after taking its first rise at the Indian
Sea', it branches off to the north on the right-hand side,
and on the left towards the south. Then taking a direction
towards the west, it would cut through the middle of Asia,
were it not that the seas check it in its triumphant career
along the land. It accordingly strikes off in a northerly
direction, and forming an arc, occupies an immense tract of
country, nature, designedly as it were, every now and then
throwing seas in the way to oppose its career ; here the Sea
of Phoenicia, there the Sea of Pontus, in this direction the
Caspian and Hyrcaniau^, and then, opposite to them, the
Lalte Ma?otis. Although somewhat curtailed by these ob-
stacles, it still winds along between them, and makes its

* Now knowTi as the Kapri-Su.

' Now called Duden-Su. It descends the mountains of Taurus in a
great broken waterfall, whence its name.

3 Probably occupying the site of the modem Atalieh or Satalieh.

■* On the borders of Lycia and Pamphyha, at the foot of Mount
Solyma. Its ruins now bear the name of Tekrova.

5 It was inclosed by Caria and Pamphylia on the west and east, and
on the north by the district of Cibyrates in Phrygia.

6 The Gulf of SataHeh or Adalia.

7 Still known as Cape Khelidonia or Cameroso.

* Parisot remarks here, " Pliny describes on this occasion, with an
exactness very remarkable for his time, the chain of mountains which
runs tlirough the part of Asia known to the ancients, although it is evident
that he confines the extent of them within much too small a compass."

* The Caspian and the Hyrcanian Seas are generally looked upon as
identical, but we find them again distinguished by Pliny in B, vi. e. 13,
where he says that this inland sea commences to be called the Caspian
after you have passed the river Cyrus (or Kur), and that the Caspii hve
near it ; and in C. 16, that it is called the Hyrcanian Sea, from the Hyr-
cani who Hve along its shores. The western side would therefore in
strictness be called the Caspian, and the eastern the Hyrcanian Sea.

454 PLINT'S NATURAL HISTOBT. [BookT.

way even amidst these barriers ; and victorious after all, it
then escapes with its sinuous course to the kindred chain
of the Eiphsean mountains. Numerous are the names
which it bears, as it is continuously designated by new ones
throughout the whole of its course. In the first part of its
career it has the name of Imaiis\ after which it is known
successively by the names of Emodus, Paropanisus, Circius,
Gambades, Paryadres, Choatras, Oreges, Oroandes, Niphates,
Taurus, and, where it even out-tops itself, Caucasus. AVhere
it throws forth its arms as though every now and then it
would attempt to invade the sea, it bears the names of Sar-
pedon, Coracesius, Cragus, and then again Taurus. "Where
also it opens and makes a passage to admit mankind, it still
claims the credit of an unbroken continuity by giving the
name of " Gates " to these passes, which in one place are
called the "Grates of Armenia,'' in another the "Gates of the
Caspian," and in another the "Gates of Cilicia." In addition
to this, when it has been cut short in its onward career, it
retires to a distance from the seas, and covers itself on the
one side and the other Avith the names of numerous nations,
being called, on the right-hand side the Hyrcanian and the
Caspian, and on the left the Paryadrian', the Moschian, the
Amazonian, the Coraxican, and the Scythian chain. Among
the Greeks it bears the one general name of Ceraunian^.

^ " The name of Iitiaus was, in the first instance, apphedby the Greek
geographers to the Hindu- Kiish and to the chain parallel to the equator,
to which the name of Himalaya is usually given at the present day. The
name was gradually extended to the intersection running north and south,
the meridian axis of Central Asia, or the Bolor range. The divisions of
Asia into ' intra et extra Imaum,' were unknown to Strabo and PHny,
though the latter describes the knot of mountains formed by the inter-
sections of the Himalaya, the Hindu-Kiish, and Bolor, by the expression
* quorum (Montes Emodi) promontorium Imaiis vocatur.' The Bolor
chain has been for ages, with one or two exceptions, the boundary be-
tween the empires of China and Turkestan." — Dr. SmiWs Dictionary of
Ancient Geography.

2. The Gates of Armenia are spoken of in B. vi. c. 12, the Gates of the
Caspian in C. 16 of the same Book, and the Gates of Cihcia in C. 22 of
the present Book. * See C. ix. of the next Book.

^ " Strabo gives this name to only the eastern portion of the Cauca-
sian chain which overhangs the Caspian Sea and forms the northern
boundary of Albania, and in which he places the Amazons. Mela seems
to apply the name to the whole chain which other writers call Caucasus,
confining the latter term to a part of it. Pliny (B. v. c. 27 & B. vi c. 11)

Chap. 28.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 455

CHAP. 28. — LTCTA.

In Lycia, after leaving its promontory^ we come to the
town of Simena, Mount Chimaera', which sends forth flames
by night, and the city of Hephsestium', the heights above
which are also frequently on fire. Here too formerly stood the
city of Olympus^ ; now we find the mountain places known
as Gagae', Corydalla^, and Rhodiopolis'. Near the sea is
Limyra' with a river of like name, into which the Arycandus

gives precisely the same representation, with the additional error of
making the Ceraunii (i. e. the Caucasus of others) part of the Great
Taurus Chain, He seems to apply the name of Caucasus to the spurs
which spread out both to the north-east and the south-east from the
main chain near its eastern extremity, and which he regarded as a con-
tinuous range, bordering the western shores of the Caspian. See B. vi.
e. 10." — Dr. SmiWs Dictionart/ of Ancient Geography.

* Of Chelidoniura, now Khelidonia, formed by the range of Taurus.

* See B. ii. c. 116. The flame which continually burned on this moun-
tain has been examined by Beaufort, the modern traveller. The name of.
the mountain is now Yanar : it is formed of a mass of scaglia with ser-
pentine. Sprat t says that the flame is notliing more than a stream of
inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen in several places
in the Apennines. By Homer it is represented as a fabulous monster,
which is explained by Servius, the commentator of Virgil, in the following
manner. He says that flames issue from the top of the mountain, and
that there are lions in the vicinity ; the middle part abounds in goats,
and the lower part with serpents. Simena appears to be unknown.

3 So called from "RtpaitTTo^, the Greek name of Vulcan. PHny men-
tions this spot also in B. ii. c. 110. The flame probably proceeded from
an inflammable gas, or else was ignited by a stream of naphtha.

^ More generally known as Phoenicus, a flourishing city on Mount
Olympus ; now Yanar Dagh, a volcano on the eastern coast of Lycia, with
wliich it often exchanged names. Having become the head-quarters of
the pirates, it was destroyed by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus.
Its ruins are to be seen at a spot called Dehktash.

^ Mentioned again in B. xxxvi, c. 34, as the spot whence the g agates
lapis or 'agate' took its name. The ruins at Aladja are regarded by
Leake as marking the site of Gagse ; but Sir Charles Fellowes identifies
the place with the modem village of Hascooe, the vicinity of which is
covered with ruins.

^ On the road from PhaseUs in Lycia to Patara. Its site is a village
called Hadgivella, about sixteen miles south-west of Phaselis. The re-
mains are very considerable.

7 The remains of Rhodiopolis were found by Spratt and Forbes in the
vicinity of Corydalla.

8 On the Limyrus, probably the modem Phineka ; the ruins to the
north of which are supposed to be those of Limyra.

456 PLimr's natubal histobt. [Book V.

flows, Mount Masycites', the state of Andriaca^, Myra', tlie
towns of Aperrae'' and Antiphellos^, formerly called Ha-
bessus, and in a corner Phellos^, after which comes Pyrra,
and then the city of Xanthus^, fifteen miles from the sea,
as also a river known by the same name. We then come
to Patara^, formerly Pataros, and Sidyma, situate on a moun-

1 The modem Akhtar Dagh.

2 Now Andraki. This was the port of Myra, next mentioned. It stood
at the mouth of the river now known as the Andraki. Cramer observes
that it was here St. Paul was put on board the ship of Alexandria, Acts
xivii. 5, 6.

^ Still called Myra by the Greeks, but Dembre by the Turks. It was
built on a rock twenty stadia from the sea. St. Paul touched here on his
voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and from the mention made of it in Acts
xxvii. 5, 6, it would appear to have been an important sea-port. There
are magnificent ruins of tliis city still to be seen, in part hewn out of the
soUd rock.

From an inscription found by CockereU at the head of the Hassac
Bay, it is thought that Aperies is the proper name of this place, though
again there are coins of Gordian which give the name as Aperrce. It ia
fixed by the Stadismus as sixty stadia west of Somena, which Leake sup-
poses to be the same as the Simena mentioned above by Pliny.

5 Now called Antephelo or Andifilo, on the south coast of Lycia, at
the head of a bay. Its theatre is stiU complete, with the exception of
the proscenium. There are also other interesting remaifls of antiquity.

^ Fellowes places the site of Phellos near a village called Saaret, west-
north-west of AntipheUos, where he found the remains of a town ; but
Spratt considers this to mark the site of the Pyrra of Pliny, mentioned
above — -judging from Pliny's words. Modem geographers deem it more
consistent with his meaning to look for Phellos north of AntipheUos than
in any other direction, and the ruins at Tchookoorbye, north of Anti-
pheUos, on the spm* of a mountain called FeUerdagh, are thought to be
those of PheUos.

7 The most famous city of Lycia. It stood on the western bank of the
river of that name, now caUed the Echen Chai. It was twice besieged,
and on both occasions the inhabitants destroyed themselves with their
property, first by the Persians under Harpagus, and afterwards by the
Romans under Brutus. Among its most famous temples were those of
Sarpedon and of the Lycian ApoUo. The ruins now known by the name
of G-unik, have been explored by Sir C. FeUows and other travellers,
and a portion of its remains are now to be seen in the British Museum,
under the name of the Xantliian marbles.

^ Its ruins stiU bear the same name. It was a flourishing seaport, on
a promontory of the same name, sixty stadia east of the mouth of the
Xanthus. It was early colonized by the Dorians from Crete, and became
a chief seat of the worship of ApoUo, from whose son Patarus it was said
to have received its name. Ptolemy Philadelphus enlarged it, and caUed

Chap. 28.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 457

tain. Next comes the Promontory of Cragus\ and beyond
it a gulf ^, equal to the one that comes before it ; upon it are
Pinara', and Telmessus^, the frontier town of Lycia.

Lycia formerly contained seventy towns, now it has but
thirty-six. Of these, the most celebrated, besides those
already mentioned, are Canas*, Candyba, so celebrated for
the ffinian Grove, Podalia, Choma, past which the river
-^desa flows, Cyaneae^, Ascandalis, Amelas, Noscopium,
Tlos^ and Telandrus^. It includes also in the interior the
district of Cabalia, the three cities of which are (Enianda,
Balbura^, and Bubon^".

it Arsinoe, but it still remained better knovm by its old name. This
place was visited by St. Paul, who thence took sliip for Phoenicia. See
Acts xxi. 1.

^ This was more properly the name 6f a mountain district of Lycia.
Strabo speaks of Cragus, a mountain with eight summits, and a city of
the same name. Beaufort tliinks that Yedy-Booroon, the Seven Capes,
a group of high and rugged mountains, appear to have been the ancient
Mount Cragus of Lycia.

2 Probably the Gulf of Macri, equal in size to the Gulf of Satalia,
which is next to it.

3 This place lay in the interior at the base of Cragus, and its ruins are
still to be seen on the east side of the range, about half-way between
Telmessus and the termination of the range on the south coast.

* Its ruins are to be seen at Mei, or the modem port of Macri.

5 Its site is unknown. That of Candyba has been ascertained to be a
place called Gendevar, east of the Xanthus, and a few miles from the coast.
Its rock-tombs are said to be beautifully executed. The CEnian grove or
forest, it has been suggested, may still be recognized in the extensive
pine forest that now covers the mountain above the city. The sites of
Podalia and Choma seem to be unknown.

^ In some editions " Cyane." Leake says that this place was discovered
to the west of Andriaca by CockereU. It appears from Scott and Forbes' s
account of Lycia, that three sites have been found between port Tristorus
and the inland vaUey of Kassabar, wluch from the inscriptions appeared
anciently to have borne this name, Yarvoo, Ghiom-istan, and Toussa.
The former is the chief place and is covered with ruins of the Eoman and
middle-age construction. At Ghiouristan there are Lycian rock-tombs.

7 Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Doover, in the interior of
Lycia, about two miles and a half east of the river Xanthus. Of the
three places previously mentioned the sites appear to be unknown.

^ Mentioned by the geographer Stephanas as being in Caria.

^ Its site is fixed at Katara, on both sides of the Katara Su, the most
northern branch oi the Xanthus. The ruins are very considerable, lying
on both sides of the stream. Balbm'a is a neuter plural.

^° It lay to the west of Balbura, near a place now called Ebajik, on a

458 PLIIfT's NATURAL HISTOET. [Book V.

On passing Telmessus we come to the Asiatic or Carpa-
thian Sea, and the district which is properly called Asia.
Agrippa has divided this region into two parts ; one of which
he has hounded on the east by Phrygia and Lycaonia, on the
west by the JEgean Sea, on the south by the Egyptian Sea,
and on the north by Paphlagonia, making its length to be
473 miles and its breadth 320. The other part he has
bounded by the Lesser Armenia on the east, Phrygia, Ly-
caonia, and Pamphylia on the west, the province of Pontus
on the north, and the Sea of Pamphylia on the south, making
it 575 miles in length and 325 in breadth.

CHAP. 29 — CAEIA.

Upon the adjoining coast is Caria\ then Ionia, and beyond
it -Solis. Caria surrounds Doris, which lies in the middle,
and runs down on both sides of it to the sea. In it^ is the
Promontory of Pedalium', the river Glaucus*, into which
the Telmedium' discharges itself, the towns of Daedala*,
Crya^, peopled by fugitives, the river Axon^, and the town
of Calynda''.

small stream that flows into the Horzoom Tchy. In B. xxxv. c. 17, Pliny
mentions a kind of chalk found in the vicinity of this place. Its ruins
are still to be seen, but they are not striking.

1 In the south-west comer of Asia Minor, bounded on the north and
north-east by the mountains Messagis and Cadmus, dividing it from
Lvdia and Phrygia, and adjoining to Phrygia and Lycia on the south-east.

'2 Caria.

3 Now Cape Ghinazi. It was also called Artemisium, from the temple
of Artemis or Diana situate upon it.

•* Discharging itself into the bay of Telmissus, now Makri.

5 "Telmissus" is the reading here in some editions.

6 Situate in the district of Caria called Persea. It was also the name
given to a mountainous district. In Hoskyn's map the ruins of Dajdala
are placed near the head of the Gulf of Glaucus, on the west of a small
river called Inegi Chai, probably the ancient Ninus, where Deedalus was
bitten by a water-snake, in consequence of which he died.

^ On the Gulf of Glaucus: Stephanus however places it in Lycia.
Mela speaks only of a promontory of this name.

* Leake places tliis river immediately west of the Gulf of Glaucus.

' Placed by Strabo sixty stadia from the sea, west of the Gulf of
Glaucus, and east of Carinus, Its site is uncertain, b»t it may possibly
be the place discovered by Fellows, which is proved by inscriptions to
have been called Cadyanda, a name otherwise unknown to us. Tliis Hea

Chap. 29.] ACCOTINT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 459

(28.) The river Indus ', which rises in the mountains of
the Cibyratae^, receives sixty-live rivers which are constantly
flowing, besides upwards of 100 mountain torrents. Here
is the free town of Caunos^, then the town of Pymos*, the
port of Cressa*, from which the island of Rhodes is distant
twenty miles ; the place where Loryma formerly stood, the
towns of Tisanusa , Paridion', and Larymna*, the Gulf of
Thymnias", tlie Promontory of Aphrodisias^", the town of
Hyda, the Gulf of Schoentis, and tne district of Bubasus".
There was formerly the town of Acanthus here, another

N.N.E. of Malcri, on the Gulf of Glaucus or Makri, at a place called
Hoozoomlee, situate on an elevated plain.

' The same as the river Calbis of Strabo and Mela, at present the
Dalamon Tchy, Quingi or Taas, having its sources in Mount Cadmus
above Cibyra. It was said to have derived itp name from an Indian, who
had been tlu*own into it from an elephant.

^ Their district was Cibyratis, of which the chief city was Cibyra.
This place, uniting with the towns of Balbura, Bubon, and (Enianda,
had the name of Tetrapohs ; of which league Cibyra was the head, mus-
tering 30,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. The iron found in this district
was easily cut with a chisel or other sharp tool. The site of this power-
ful city has been ascertainecJ to be at Horzoom, on the Horzoom Tchy,
a branch of the Dalamon Tchy or Indus. The ruins are very extensive,
and the theatre in fine preservation.

' Placed by Strabo west of Calynda. The ancient descriptions of its
locality vary, but the pl6ce now known as Kaiguez is said to denote its
site. The Caunii are frequently mentioned in the Persian, Grecian, and
Roman histories. It was noted for its dried figs, mentioned by Pliny in
B. XV. c. 19.

^ Supposed by Mannert to be the Physcus of Strabo and the Phuscse
of Ptolemy.

5 Leake says that this harbour is now called Aplothika by the Greeks,
and Porto Cavahere by the Itahans. He also says that on its western
shore are the ruins of an Hellenic fortress and towTi, which are undoubt-
edly those of Loryma.

* It had a port of the same name.

7 Called Pandion by Mela, according to Parisot.

^ Parisot suggests that it is the same as Loryma previously mentioned.

' Like the Gulf of Schoenus, a portion probably of the Dorian Gul^
now the Gulf of Syme.

^^ The modem name of this promontory is not given by Hamilton, who
sailed round it. It has been confoimded with the Cynos Sema of Strabo,
now Cape Velo. The site of Hyda or Hyde is unknown.

" There was a town of this name as well. Stephen of Byzantium
tells us that it received its name from a shepherd who saved the life of
PodaliriuB, when shipwrecked on the coast of Caria.

460 plint's natxjeal histoet. [Book Y.

name of whicli was Dulopolis. We then come to Cnidos\
a free town, situate on a promontory, Triopia^, and after
that the towns of Pegusa and Stadia.

At this last town Doris begins ; but, first, it may be as
well to describe the districts that lie to the back of Caria
and the several jurisdictions in the interior. The first of
these^ is called Cibyratica , Cib}Ta being a town of Phrygia.
Twenty-five states resort to it for legal purposes, together
with the most famous city of Laodicea"*.

(29.) This place at first bore the name of Diospolis, and
after that of Ehoas, and is situate on the river Lycus, the
Asopus and the Caprus* washing its sides. The other people
belonging to the same jurisdiction, whom it may be not
amiss to mention, are the Hydrelitse*, the Themisones', and
the Hierapolitse*. The second jurisdiction receives its title

* Part of it was situate on an island now called Cape Krio, connected
by a causeway with the mainland. Its site is covered with ruins of a
most interesting character in every direction. The Triopian promontory,
evidently alluded to by PHny, is the modem Cape Krio.

2 It has been remarked that in his description here Pliny is very brief
and confused, and that he may intend to give the name of Triopia either
to the small peninsula or island, or may include in this term the western
part of the whole of the larger peninsula.

^ Of these conventus. For an account of Cibyra see last page.

* On the Lycus, now known as the Choruk-Su. By different writers
it has been assigned to Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, but in the ultimate
division of the Eoman provinces it was assigned to the Greater Phrygia.
It was founded by Antiochus II. on the site of a previous town, and
named in honour of his wife Laodice. Its site is occupied by ruins of
great magnificence. In the Apostolic age it was the seat of a floiu-ishing
Christian Church, which however very soon gave signs of degeneracy,
as we learn from St. John's Epistle to it. Revel, ii. 14-22. St. Paul also
addresses it in common with the neighbouring church of Colossse. Its
site is now called Eski-Hissar, or the Old Castle.

6 A tributary of the Plirygian Mceander.

fi The people of Hydrela, a town of Caria, said to have been founded
by one of three brothers who emigrated from Sparta.

7 The people of Themisonium, now called Tseni.

*• The people of HierapoHs, a town of Phrygia, situate on a height be-
tween the rivers Lycus and Mseander, about five mUes north of Laodicea,
on the road from Apamea to Sardis. It was celebrated for its warm
springs, and its Plutonium, or cave of Pluto, from which issued a me-
phitic vapour of a poisonous nature ; see B. ii. o. 95. The Christian
Church here is alluded toby St. Paul in liis Epistle to theColossians, iv. 13.
Its ruins are situate at an iminhabited place called Pambuk-KalessL

Chap. 29.] ACOOITNT OP COTTNTEIES, ETC. 461

from Synnas*; to it resort the Lycaones', the Appiani',
the Eucarpeni*, the Dorylaei', the Midaei, the Julienses^ and.
fifteen other peoples of no note. The third jurisdiction has
its seat at Apaniea^ formerly called Celaenae', and after that
Cibotos. This place is situate at the foot of Mount Signia,
the Marsyas, the Obrima, and the Orga, rivers which fall
into the Maeander, flowing past it. Here the Marsyaa,
rising from the earth, again makes its appearance, but soon
after buries itself once more at Aulocrense', the spot where

* Situate in the north of Phrygia Salutaris ; its ruins being probably
those to be seen at Afiour-Kara-Hisar. From the time of Constantine
this place became the capital of Phrvgia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful
])lain, near a mountain quarry of the celebrated Synnadic marble, which
was white with red veins and spots. This marble was also called " Doci-
miticus," from Docimia, a nearer place.

2 As already mentioned in C- 25 of the present Book.

* The site of Appia does not appear to be known. Cioero speaks of
an application made to him by the Appiani, when he was governor of
Cilicia, respecting the taxes with which they were burdened, and the
buildings of their town.

* Euearpia was a town of Phrygia, not far from the sources of the
JVIfcander, on the road from Dorylaium to Apamea Cibotus. The vino
grew there in great luxuriance, and to its fruitfulness the town probably
owed its name. Eliepert places it in the vicinity of Segielar, but its exact
site is xmknown.

* The site of DorylsDum is now called Eski-Shehr. The hot-baths here
are mentioned by Athenseus, and its waters were pleasant to the taste.
Sheep-feeding appears to have been carried on here to a great extent, and
under the Greek empire it was a flourishing place. The -site of Midseura
does not seem to be known.

^ The people of Julia, Juliopolis, or JulianopoUs, a town of Lydia^
probably to the south of Mount Tmolus.

7 This place was built near Celsenae by Antiochus Soter, and named
after his mother Apama. Strabo says that it lay at the mouth of the
river Marsyas. Its site has been fixed at the modem Denair. Some
ancient ruuis are to be seen.

' PHny commits an error here ; Celseuse was a different place from
Apamea, though close to it.

9 Meaning the " Fountains of the Pipe," and probably deriving its
name from the legend here mentioned by Phny, and in B. xvi. c. 44.
Strabo describes the Marsyas and Marauder as rising, according to report,
in one lake above Celsenae, which produced reeds adapted for making the
mouth-pieces of musical instruments, but he gives no name to the lake.
Hamilton found near Denair or Apamea, a lake nearly two miles in cir-
cumference, full of reeds aiid rushes, which he looks upon as the lake on
the mountain Aulocrene, described by Pliny in the Slst Chapter of the

462 pltkt's natural HISTOET. [Book V.

Marsyas had the musical contest with Apollo as to supe-
riority of skill in playing on the flute. Aulocrenae is the
name given to a valley which lies ten miles on the road
towards Phrygia from Apamea. As belonging to this juris-
diction, it may be as well to mention the Metropolitae^, the
Dionysopolitae^, the Euphorbeni^, the Acmonenses'*, the Pel-
teni*, and the SiJbiani^, besides nine other nations of no note.

Upon the Gulf of Doris^ we have Leucopolis, Hamaxitos,
Eleus, and Euthene^. We then come to Pitaium, Eutane®,
and Halicarnassus^", towns of Caria. To the jurisdiction of
this last place six towns were appended by Alexander the
Great, Theangela", Sibde, Medmasa, Euralium, Pedasus,
and Telmissus ^^. Halicarnassus lies between two gulfs,
those of Ceramus^^ and lasus^''. We then come to Myn-
present Book. His account however is very confused, as he mentions on
different occasions a region of Aulocrene, a valley of Aulocrene, and a
mountain of Aulocrene.

^ People of " the Mother City," said by Stephen of Byzantium to have
received that name from Cybcle, the Mother of the Gods.

2 Notliing is known of the site of Dionysopohs. It is mentioned in a
letter of Cicero's to his brother Quintus, in which he speaks of the people
of this place as being very hostile to the latter.

3 The site of Euphorbium is denoted, according to Leake, by the mo-
dem SandukU. It lay between Synnas and Apamea, and not impro-
bably, like Eucarpia, received its name from tlie fertility of its territory.

* The site of Acmona has been fixed at Ahatkoi, but it seems doubtful.

* The site of Pelta is by D'Anville called Eis-Chak or Hou-Chak.
^ The people of SLlbium or Snbia, near Metropolis.

7 The Dorian settlements on the coast of Caria were so called. The
Dorian Gulf was probably the Sinus Ceramicus mentioned below.

^ Of these places nothing whatever seems to be known.

' Pitaium and Eutane seem to be unknown.

^^ A member of the Dorian Hexlpolis, or League of the Six Cities.
The site of this famous city is occupied by the modem Boodroum, and
its ruins are very extensive. It was famous as being the birth-place of
the two historians Herodotus and Dionysius. It was the largest and
best fortified city of Caria. ^^ According to Parisot the site of this

place is now called Angeh and Karabaglas.

^2 This place must not be confounded with Telmessus or Telmissus in
Lycia, which has been previously mentioned. It was situate six miles
from HaHcamassus. Of the other places here mentioned nothing seems
to be known.

^3 Now the Gulf of Staneo, Kos, or Boodroum. It took its name from
the port of Ceramus, now Keramo, according to D'Anville.

^^ Now the Gulf of Mandeliyeh. It took its name from the city of
lasus, the site of which is now called Askem or Asyn-Kalessi.

Cliap. 29.] ACCOUNT OF COITNTEIES, ETC. 463

dos\ and the former site of Palaeomyndos ; also Nariandos,
Neapolis'^, Caryanda^ the free town of Termera'', Bargyla*,
and the town of lasua®, from which the lasian Grulf takes
its name.

Caria is especially distinguished for the fame of its places
in the interior ; for here are Mylasa'^, a free town, and that
of Antiochia*, on the site x)f the former towns of Sym-
ma^thos and Cranaos : it is now surrounded by the rivers
Maeander'^ and Orsinus'". In this district also was formerly
Maeaudropolis" ; we find also Eumenia^^, situate on the river

CludroSjthe river Glaucus*', the town of Lysias andOrthosa",

*

^ Its ruins are to be seen at the port called Gumishlu. This was a
Dorian colony on the coast of Caria, founded probably on the site of the
old town of the Leleges.

2 It has been suggested that this was only another name for the new
town of Myndo3, in contradistinction to Palceomyndos, or "old MyndoS."

3 Scylax the geographer is supposed to have been a native of this
place. The town is supposed to have been built partly on the mainland
and partly on an island. Pastra Limani is supposed to have been the
harbour of Caryanda.

* A Dorian city on the Promontory of Termerimn.

* Situate near lasus and Myndos. Leake conjectures that it may have
been on the bay between Pastra Limane and Asyn Kalesi. There was a
statue here of Artemis Cindyas, under the bare sky, of which the incre-
dible story was told that neither rain nor snow ever fell on it.

^ See note ^* on the last page.

7 Its ruins are to be seen at the spot stiU called Melasso. It was a
veiy floiu-ishing city, eight miles from the coast of the Gulf of lasus, and
situate at the foot of a rock of fme white marble. It was partly destroyed
in the Roman civil wars by Labienus. Its ruins are very extensive.

*^ Hamilton has fixed the site of tliis place between four and five miles
south-east of Kuyuja, near the mouth of the valley of the Kara-Su. The
surrounding district was famous for the excellence of its figs. The city
was built by Antiochus, the son of Seleucus.

9 Now called the Mendereh or Meinder.

^^ Pococke thinks that the present Jenjer is the Orsinus, while Mannert
takes it to be the Hadeliizik, a little winding river tliat falls into the
Mseander. ^^ Now called Guzel-Hissar, according to Ansart.

^' On the road from Doiylseum to Apamea. It is said to have received
its name from Attains II., who named the town after lus brother and
predecessor Eumenes 11. Its site is known as Ishekie, and it is still
marked by numerous ruins and sculptures.

^3 A tributary of the Mseander. Its modem name is not mentioned.

^'^ Mannert takes the ruins to be seen at Jegni-Chehr to be those of
ancient Orthosia. The town of Lysias does not appear to have been
identified.

464 plint's katukal histoet. [Book V.

the district of Berecynthus^ Nysa*, and Tralles^, also called
Euanthia"*, Seleucia, and Antiochia: it is washed by the
river Eudon, while the Thebais runs through it. Some
authors say that a nation of Pygmies formerly dwelt here.
Besides the preceding towns, there are Thydonos, Pyrrha*,
Eurome^, Heraclea^, Amyzon^, the free town of Alabanda',
which has given name to that jurisdiction, the free town of
Stratonicea^", Hynidos, Ceramus", Troezene^, and Phorontis.

* The situation of this district is not known. See B. xvi. c. 16, where
it appears that tliis region was famous for its boxwood.

2 One of the Numerous places of that name devoted to the worship of
Bacchus. It was built on both sides of the ravine of the brook Eudon,
which fell into the Mseander. Its ruins are to be seen at Sultan-Hissar,
a little to the west of Hazeli.

3 Its ruins are to be seen at Ghiuzel-Hissar, near Aidin. This was a
flourishing commercial city, included sometimes in Ionia, sometimes ia
Caria. It stood on the banks of the Eudon, a tributary of the river
Mseander. Under the Seleucidse it was called Antiochia and Seleucia.

■* FTom the beauty and fertility of the surroimding country.

5 An Ionic town of Caria, on the north side of the Sinus Latmicus,
fifty stadia from the mouth of the Mseander.

6 Or Euroraus, a town of Caria, at the foot of Mount Grion, which
runs parallel with Latmos. Ruins of a temple to the north-west of Ala-
banda are considered to belong to Euromus.

7 A town of uncertain site. It must not be confounded with the place
of the same name, mentioned in c. 31 of the present Book.

8 The ruins of its citadel and walls stiU exist on the east side of
Mount Latmos, on the road from Bafi to Tchisme.

• ^ Situate about twenty miles south of Tralles. The modem site is
doubtful, but Arab Hissa, on a branch of the Mseander, now called the
Tchma. is supposed to represent Alabanda. It was notorious for the
luxuriousness of its inhabitants. A stone found in the vicinity was used
for making glass and glazing vessels. See B. xxxvi. c. 13.

1" Built by Antiochus I. Soter, and named, in honour of his wife, Stra-
tonice. It stood south of Alabanda, near the river Marsyas. It is sup-
posed that it stood on the site of a former city called Idrias, and stiU
earlier, Chrysaoris.

^1 D'AnviUe identifies it with a place called Keramo, but no such
place appears to be known. Strabo places it near the sea between Cnidus
and Halieamassas, and Ceramus comes next after Cnidus. Ptolemy
seems to place it on the south side of the bay. Of Hynidos nothing
appears to be known. '

12 Its situation is unknown ; but there can be httle doubt that it was
founded by the Dorians who emigrated to the coast of Asia Minor from
Argolis and Troezene in the Peloponnesus. Phorontis appears to be
unknown.

Chap. 30.] ACCOUNT Or COTTNTEIES, ETC. 465

At a greater distance \ but resorting to the same place of
jurisdiction, are the Orthronienses, the Alindienses^ orHip-
pini, the Xystiani', the Ilydissenses, the ApoUoniatae^, the
Trapezopolitce*, and the Aphrodisienses*, a free people. Be-
sides the above, there are the to^vn^ of Coscinus^, and Har-
pasa', situate on the river Harpasus', which also passed the
town of TraUicon when it was in existence.

CHAP. 30. — LTDIA.

Lydia, bathed by the sinuous and ever-recurring windings
of the river Maeander, lies extended above Ionia ; it is joined
by Phrygia on the east and Mysia on the north, while on the
south it runs up to Caria: it formerly had thenameof Maeonia^".
Its place of tne greatest celebrity is Sardes", which lies on
the side of Mount Tmolus^', formerly called Timolus. From
this mountain, which- is covered with vineyards, flows the

> Parisot observes that many of the towns here mentioned belonged
to the northern part of Phrygia.

2 The people of Alinda in Caria, which was surrendered to Alexander
the Great by AUnda, queen of Caria. It was one of the strongest places
in Caria. Its position has been fixed by FeUowes at Demnieergee-derasy,
between Arab-Hissa and Karpuslee, on a steep rock.

* Of Xysti8, as also of Hydissa, nothing appears to be known.

* Inhabitants of Apollonia in Caria, of which place nothing appears
to be kno\vn.

5 Pococke says that the modem site of Trapezopolis is called Karadche.

^ The people of Aphrodisias, an ancient' city of Caria, situate at the
modem Ghera or Geyra, south of Antiochia on the Maeander. Aphro-
dite or Yenus seems to have been principally worshipped at this place.
Strabo places it in Phrygia.

7 Or Coscinia, a place in Caria, which, as we may gather from Strabo,
ranked below a town. Leake thinks that Tshina, where Pococke foimd
considerable remains, is the site of this place.

8 On the eastern bank of the Harpasus, a tributary of the Maeander.
Its ruins are supposed to be those seen at a place called Harpas Kalessi,
In B. ii. c. 98, Pliny speaks of a wonderful rook at this place.

^ Now known as the Harpa.

^° By this name alone it is known to Homer.

1^ Its ruins, now called Sart, are very extensive, though presenting no-
thing of importance. Its citadel, situated on a rock, was considered to
be almost impregnable.

12 Now called Kisilja MusaDagh. It was fiamous for its wine, saflGron,
and gold.

VOL. I. 2 H

466 PLIirr's TH'ATtritAL HISTOET. [Book V.

river Pactolus\ also called the Chrysorroas, and the sources
of the Tarnus : this famous city, which is situate upon the
Gygaean Lake^, used to be called Hyde^ by the people of
Maeonia. This jurisdiction is now called that oi Sardes,
and besides the people of the places already mentioned, the
following now resort to it — the Macedonian Cadueni'*, the
Loreni, the Philadelpheni^, the Maeonii, situate on the river
Cogamus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, the Tripolitani, who
are also called the Antoniopolitae, situate on the banks of
the Maeander, the Apollonihieritae®, the Mesotimolitae^, and
some others of no note.

CHAP. 31. — IONIA.

Ionia begins at the Gulf of lasos, and has a long winding
coast with numerous bays. First comes the G-ulf of Basili-
cum^, then the Promontory' and town of Posideum, and the
oracle once called the oracle of the Branchidae^", but now of
Didymsean Apollo, a distance of twenty stadia from the sea-
shore. One hundred and eighty stadia thence is Miletus",

1 Now called the Sarabat. It was famous for its gold-producing sands.

2 On the road between Thyatira and Sardes : near it was situate the
necropolis of Sardes.

•' Strabo says tliat some persons called the citadel only by that name.

4 There was a city of Mysia or Phrygia of the name ot Cadus or Cadi ;
but nothing is known of the place here alluded to, whose people would
appear to have been a colony from Macedonia,

5 The people of Pluladeiphia, now Ala-Cher, or the "Fine City,"
twelve leagues south-east of Sardes, and nine leagues south of Attaha.

^ So called from the Greek ' AiroWwvos iepbv, " the temple of Apollo,"
in the vicinity of which, south-east of Pergamus, their town was probably
situate. Notliing is known of these locahties.

7 Dwellers in Mesotmolus, a town which, from its name, would ap-
pear to have been situate on the middle of Mount Tmolus.

8 Now called the Gulf of Melasso. ^ Now the Cape of Melasso.

^^ The remains of the Temple of Didymgean Apollo at Branchidse are
still visible to those sailing along the coast. It was in the Milesian ter-
ritory, and above the harbour Panormus. The name of the site was
probably Didyma or Didymi, but the place was also called Branchidse,
from that being the name of a body of priests who had the care of tho
temple. We learn from Herodotus that Croesus, king of Lydia, consulted
this oracle, and made rich presents to the temple. The temple, of which
only two columns are left, was of white marble.

" The ruins of this important city are difficult to discover on account

Chap. 31.] ACCOITNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 467

the capital of Ionia, which formerly had the names of Lele-
geis, Pityusa, and Anactoria, the mother of more than ninety
cities, founded upon all seas ; nor must she be deprived of the
honour of having Cadmus^ for her citizen, who was the first
to write in prose. The river Maeander, rising from a lake in
Mount Aulocrene, waters many cities and receives numerous
tributary streams. It is so serpentine in its course, that it
is often thought to turn back to the very spot from which
it came. It first runs through the district of Apamea, then
that of Eumenia, and then the plains of Bargyla; after
which, with a placid stream it passes through Caria, water-
ing all that territory with a slime of a most fertilizing quality,
and then at a distance of ten stadia from Miletus with a
gentle current enters the sea. We then come to Mount
Latmus^, the towns of Heraclea', also called by the same
name as the mountain, Carice, Myus"*, said to have been first
built by lonians who came from Athens, Naulochum*, and
Priene^. Upon that part of the coast which bears the naine
of Trogilia'' is the river Gesaus. This district is held sacred
by all the lonians, and thence receives the name of Panionia.
Near to it was formerly the town of Phygela, built by

of the great changes made on the coast by the river Mffiander. They are
usually supposed to be those at the poor village of Palatia on the south
bank of the Mendereh ; but Forbiger has sliown that these are more
probably the remains of Myus, and that those of Miletus are buried in a
lake formed by the Mendereh at the foot of Mount Latmus.

^ See B. vii. c. 57. Josephus says that he hved very shortly before
the Persian invasion of Greece.

2 Now called the Monte di Palatia.

3 Generally called " Heraclea upon Latmus," from its situation at the
western foot of Mount Latmus. Ruins of this town still exist at the
foot of that moimtain on the borders of Lake Bafii.

* Its ruins are now to be seen at Palatia. It was the smallest city of
the Ionian Confederacy, and was situate at the mouth of the Maeander,
thirty stadia from its mouth.

^ Mannert says that its ruins are to be seen at a spot called by the
Turks Sarasun-Kalesi.

^ One of the twelve Ionian cities, situate at the foot of Mount Mycale.
It stood originally on the shore, but the change in the coast by the allu-
vial deposits of the Mseander left it some distance from the land. It was
celebrated as being the birth-place of the philosopher Bias. Its ruins
;are to be seen at the spot called Samsim.

7 Now called Cape Santa Maria, or Samsim.

2h2

468 PLInt's natural histoet. [Book V.

fugitives, as its name implies^ and that of Marathesimn *.
Above these places is Magnesia*'', distinguished by the sur-
name of the "Mseandrian,'* and sprung from Magnesia inThes-
saly : it is distant from Ephesus fifteen miles, and three more
from Tralles. It formerly had the names of Thessaloche and
Androlitia, and, lying on the sea-shore, it has withdrawn from
the sea the islands known as the Derasidse* and joined them
to the mainland. In the interior also is Thyatira*, washed
by the Lycus ; for some time it was also called Pelopia and
Euhippia^.

Upon the coast again is Mantium, and Ephesus', which
was founded by the Amazons^, and formerly called by so
many names : Alopes at the time of the Trojan war, after that
Ortygia and Merges, and then Smyrna, with the surname of
Trachia, as also Samornion and Ptelea. This city is built
on Mount Pion, and is washed by the Cayster', a river which
rises in the Cilbian range and brings down the waters of
many streams*", as also of Lake Pegasaeus", which receives

1 He implies that it is derived from 0uy») " flight."

- Between Ephesus and Neapolis. It belonged to the Samians who
exchanged with the Epheaiana for Neapohs, which lay nearer to their
island. The modem Scala Nova occupies the site of one of them, it is
uncertain which.

3 Its ruins are to be seen at the modem Inek-Bazar. It was situate
on the river Lethseus, a tributary of the Mseander. It was famous for ita
temple of Artemis Leucophryene, the ruins of which still exist.

4 See B. ii. c. 91.

5 Now known as Ak-Hissar or the " White Castle." Strabo informs
us that it was founded by Seleucus Nicator.

6 From the excellence of its horses.

7 Its ruins are to be seen near the modem Ayazaluk. It was the chief
of the twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, and devoted to
the worship of Artemis, whose temple here was deemed one of the won-
ders of the world. Nothing, except some traces of its foundations, is
now to be seen of this stupendous building.

8 It was more generally said to have been founded by the Carians and
the Leleges.

» Now called the Kara-Su, or Black River, or Kuchuk-Meinder, or
Little Mseander.

^0 It has been observed that though Pliny seems to say that the Cayster
receives many streams, they must have had but a short course, and could
only be so many channels by which the rivers descend from the mountain,
elopes that shut in the contracted basin of the river.

'^ This lake or marsh seems to be the morass situate on the road from

Chap. 31.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 469

those discharged by the river Phyrites \ From these streams
there accumulates a large quantity of slime, which vastly
increases the soil, and has added to the mainland the island
of Syrie^, which now lies in the midst of its plains. In this
city is the fountain of Calippia' and the temple of Diana,
which last is surrounded by two streams, each known by the
name of Selenus, and flowing from opposite directions.

After leaving Ephesus there is another Mantium, belong-
ing to the Colophonians, and in the interior Colophon'' itself,
past which the river Halesus* flows. After this we come to
the temple** of the Clarian Apollo, and Lebedos^ : the city
of Notium® once stood here. Next comes the Promontory
of Cor^ceium^, and then Mount Mimas, which projects 150
miles into the sea, and as it approaches the mainland sinks
down into extensive plains. It was at this place that Alex-
ander the G-reat gave orders for the plain to be cut through, a
distance of seven miles and a half, for the purpose of joining
the two gulfs and making au island of Erythrae^" and Mimas.

Smyrna to Ephesus, into which the Phyrites flows, and out of which it
comes a considerable stream.

^ The Phyrites is a email river that is crossed on the road from Ephesus
to Smyrna, and joins the Cayster on the right bank ten or twelve miles
above Ayazaluk, near the site of Ephesus.

2 See B. ii. c. 91. for further mention of this island.

3 Said to be derived from the Greek, meaning '* The beautiful (stream)
from Pion."

■* One of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia, founded by Andrsemon.
Notium was its port. There do not seem to be any remains of either of
these places.

* Called also the Hales or Ales, and noted for the coolness of its
waters.

' At Clarus, near Colophon. When G^e^mamcus was on his way to
the East, this oracle foretold to him his speedy death. Chandler is of
opinion that he discovered the site of this place at Zille, where he found
a spring of water with marble steps to it, which he considers to have
been the sacred fountain. Others again suggest that these ruins may be
those of Notium.

7 Its site was probably near the modem Ekklesia, but no traces of the
city itself are to be found.

8 Implying that in his time Notium was not in existence, whereas in
reahty Notium superseded Old Colophon, of which it was the port, and
was sometimes known as New Colophon.

9 Now known as Cape Curco.

^0 The site of this place is now known as Eitri, on the south side of a

470 PLrprr's nattjeal histoet. [Book V.

Near Erytlirge formerly stood the towns of Pteleon, Helos,
and Dorion; we now find the river Aleon, Corynaeum, a
Promontory of Mount Mimas, Clazomenae^ Parthenie^, and
Hippi^, known by the name of Chytrophoria, when it
formed a group of islands ; these were united to the con-
tinent by the same Alexander, by means of a causeway^ two
stadia in length. In the interior, the cities of Daphnus,
Hermesia, and Sipylum", formerly called TantaHs, and the
capital of Mseonia, where Lake Sale now stands, are now
no longer in existence : ArchsBopolis too, which succeeded
Sipylum, has perished, and in their turns Colpe and Libade,
which succeeded it.

On returning thence^ towards the coast, at a distance of
twelve miles we find Smyrna'', originally foiuided by an
Amazon [of that name], and rebuilt by Alexander ; it is re-
freshed by the river Meles, which rises not far off". Through
this district run what may almost be called the most famous
mountains of Asia, Mastusia in the rear of Smyrna, and
Termetis^, joining the foot of Olympus. Termetis is joined

small peninsula, which projects into the bay of Erythrffi. The ruins are
considerable.

1 On the south side of the bay of Smyrna. In Strabo's time this city
appears to have been removed from Chytrium, its original site. Chandler
found traces of the city near Vourla, from which he came to the conclu-
sion that the place was very small and inconsiderable.

2 According to Nicander, tliis was a mountain of the territory of Cla-
zomense, almost surrounded by sea.

' Or " the Horses," originally four islands close to the mainland, off
Clazomenee.

^ This was probably the same causeway that was observed by Chandler
in the neighbourhood of Vourla, the site of ancient Clazomenge.

* See B. ii. c. 91, where he speaks of this place as being swallowed up
in the earth.

6 From Clazomense.

7 Now called Izmir by the Turks, Smyrna by the western nations of
Europe ; the only one of the great cities on the western coast of Asia
Minor that has survived to the present day. This place stood at the
head of the cities that claimed to be the birth-place of Homer ; and the
poet was worshipped here for a hero or demi-god in a magnificent build-
ing called the Homereum. There are but few remains of the ancient
city : the modern one is the greatest commercial city of the Levant.

' Hardouin takes this to be the name of a town, but Ortehus and
Pinetus seem to be more corree"- ii? thinking it to be the name of a
mountain.

Chap. 31.] ACCOUNT OF OOITNTBIES ETC. 47 L

by Draco, Draco running into Tmolus, Tmolus into Cadmus \
and Cadmus into Taurus. Leaving Smyrna, the river Hermus
forms a tract of plains, and gives them its own name. It
rises near Dorylseum^, a city of Phrygia, and in its course
receives several rivers, among them the one called the Phryx,
which divides Caria from the nation to which it gives
name ; also the Hyllus^ and the Cryos, themselves swollen
by the rivers of Phrygia, Mysia, and Lydia. At the mouth
of the Hermus formerly stood the town of Temnos^ : we
now see at the extremity of the gulf* the rocka called
Myrmeces*, the town of Leuce'' on a promontory which
was once an island, and Phocsea*, the frontier town of
Ionia.

A great part also of ^olia, of which we shall have pre-
sently to speak, has recourse to the jurisdiction of Smyrna ;
as well as the Macedones, sumamed Hyrcani^, and the Mag-
netes'° from Sipylus. But to Ephesus, that other great lumi-
nary of Asia, resort the more distant peoples known as the

* It does not appear that all these mountains have been identified.
Cadmus is the Baba Dagh of the Turks.

3 Mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

3 In tlie time of Strabo this tributary of the Hermus seems to have
been known as the Plirygius.

* Its site is now called Menemen, according to D'Anville. The Cryus
was so called from the Greek jcpuos, " cold."

* The present Gulf of Smyrna,
e Or the "Ants."

7 Probably so called from the whiteness of the promontory on which
it was situate. It was built by Tachos, the Persian general, in B.C. 352,
and remarkable as the scene of the battle between the Consul Licinius
Crassus and Aristonicus in B.C. 131. The modem name of its site is
Lefke.

s Its ruins are to be seen at Karaja-Fokia or Old Fokia, south-west of
Fouges or New Fokia. It was said to have been founded by Phocian
colonists under Philogenes and Damon.

^ The people of Hyrcania, one of the twelve cities which were prostrated
by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Csesar ; see B. ii. c. 86.

^^ The people of Magnesia " ad Sipylum," or the city of Magnesia on
the Sipylus. It was situate on the south bank of the Hermus, and is
famous in liistory as the scene of the victory gained by the two Scipios
over Antiochus the Great, which secured to the Romans the empire of
the East, B.C. 190. This place also suffered from the great earthquake
in the reign of Tiberius, but was still a place of importance in the fifth
century.

472 Flint's nattieal histoet. [Book V.

Caesarienses\ the MetropolitsB^, the Cilbiani^, both the
Lower and Upper, the Mysomacedones'*, the Mastaurenses*,
the Briulitae®, the Hypsepeni^, and the DioshieritsB*.

CHAP. 32. (30.) — JEOLIS.

JEolis^ comes next, formerly known as Mysia, and Troas
which is adjacent to the Hellespont. Here, after passing
Phocaea, we come to the Ascanian Port, then the spot where
Larissa*" stood, and then Cyme", Myrina, also called Sebas-
topolis^^, and in the interior, JEgae^^, Attalia'*, Posidea, Neon-

^ The people, it is supposed, of a place called Hierocsesarea.

* The people probably of Metropolis in Lydia, now Turbali, a city on
the plain of the Cayster, between Ephesus and Smyrna. Cilbis, perhaps
the present Dnrgiit, was their chief place.

' A people dwelling in the upper valley of Cayster.

* Or Mysian Macedonians.

5 The people of Mastaura in Lydia. Its site is still known as Mas-
taura-Kalesi.

8 The people of Briula, the site of which is unknown.

7 The people of Hypsepse, a small town of Lydia, on the southern
slope of Mount Tniolus, forty-two miles from Ephesus. Under the
Persian supremacy, the worship of Fire was introduced at this place.
Arachne, the spinner, and competitor with Minerva, is represented by
Ovid as dwelling at this place; he calls it on two occasions "the little
Hypsepse." Leake is of opinion that the ruins seen at Bereki belong to
tliis place.

** The people of Dios Hieron, or the " Temple of Jupiter." This was
a small place in Ionia between Lebedus and Colophon. It has been sug-
gested that it was on the banks of the Cayster, but its site is uncertain.

3 -Solis, properly so called, extended as far north as the promontory
of Lectum, at the northern entrance of the bay of Adramyttium.

^ Near Cyme, a place of Pelasgian origin. It was called Egyptian
Larissa, because Cyrus the Great settled here a body of his Egyptian
soldiers. According to D'Anville its site is still known as Larusar,

^^ Said to have been so called from Cyme an Amazon. It was on the
northern , side of the Hermus : Herodotus gives it the surname of Phri-
conis. Its site is supposed to be at the modem Sanderli or SandarHo.
The father of the poet Hesiod was a native of this place.

^2 It was probably so called in honour of the Emperor Augustus.

^ Situate at a short distance from the coast. We learn from Tacitus
that it suflPered from the great earthquake in the time of Tiberius. Its
site is called Guzel-Hissar, according to D'Anville.

1"* Originally named Agroeira or Alloeira. There is a place still called
Adala, on the river Hermus, but Hamilton found no remains of anti-
quity there.

Chap. 32.] ACOOTTNT OP COTJKTEIES, ETC. 473

tichos^ and Temnos'. Upon the shore we come to the river
Titanus, and the city which from it derives its name. Grynia'
also stood here on an island reclaimed from the sea and joined
to the land : now only its harbours are left*. We then come
to the town of Elsea*, the river Caicus", which flows from
Mysia, the toA^Ti of Pitane^, and the river Canaius. The fol-
lowing towns no longer exist — Canae^ Lysimachia^, Atarnea*",
Carene", Cisthene^^ Cilla'^ Cocylium", Theba^^ Astyre",

* Or the " Now Walls." Strabo speaks of it as distant thirty stadia
from Larissa.

3 Its site is unknown ; but it must not be confounded with the place
of that name mentioned in the last Cliapter, wliicli stood on the sea-coast.
It suffered from the great earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Csesar.

5 Or Grynium, forty stadia from Myrina, and seventy from Elsea. It
contained a sanctuary of Apollo with an ancient oracle and a splendid
temple of white marble. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, took the
place by assault and sold the inliabitants as slaves. It is again mentioned
by PUny in B. xxxii. c. 21.

* This passage seems to be in a corrupt state, and it is difficult to
arrive at Pliny's exact meaning.

' The port of the Pergameni. Strabo places it south of the river
Caicus, twelve stadia from that river, and 120 from Pergamum. Its site
is uncertain, but Leake fixes it at a place called Kliseli, on the road from
the south to Pergamum.

^ Its modem name is said to be Ak-Su or Bakir.

7 On the coast of the Elaitic gulf. It was almost destroyed by an
earthquake in the reign of the Emperor Titus. Its site is by some thought
to Have been at Sanderh.

8 Supposed to have been situate near the modem Cape Coloni. It
was here that in the war with Antiochus, B.C. 191-190, the Roman
fleet was hauled up for the winter and protected by a ditch or rampart.

' So called from Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles.

1® A strong place opposite to Lesbos. It was on the road fix>m Adra-
myttium to the plain of the Caicus. Its site is generally fixed at Dikeli
Koi.

" Or Carine. The army of Xerxes, on its route to the Hellespont,
marched through this place. Its site is unknown.

'2 It lay outside of the bay of Adramyttium and the promontory of
Pyrrha.

^3 Mentioned in the Iliad with Chryse and Tenedos.

*^ A place called Kutchulan, or, as some write it, Cotschiolan-Kuni,
is supposed to occupy its site.

Js Or Thebes, in the vicinity of Troy.

^s In the plain of Thebes between Antandros and Adramyttium. Ife
had a temple of Artemis, of which the Antandrii had the superintendence.
Its site does not appear to have been ascertained.

474 plent's NATITEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

Chrysa\ Palaescepsis^, G-ergitha', and Neandros"*. "We
then come to the city of Perperene^, which still survives,
the district of Heracleotes, the town of Coryphas^ the
rivers Grrylios and Ollius, the region of Aphrodisias^,
which formerly had the name of Politice Orgas, the di-
strict of Scepsis^, and the river Evenus', on whose banks
the towns of Lyrnesos^" and Miletos have fallen to decay.
In this district also is Mount Ida", and on the coast Adra-
mytteos^^, formerly called Pedasus, which gives its name to
the gulf and the jurisdiction so called. The other rivers are
the Astron, Cormalos, Crianos, Alabastros, and Hieros, flow-
ifig from Mount Ida : in the interior is Mount Gargara*^

* Not improbably the Chiyse, mentioned by Homer in the Hiad, B. i.
IL 37, 390, 431 ; but there were several places of this name.

2 See the note to Scepsis in the present Chapter.

3 Or Gergis, Gergithus, or Q^rgithes, a town in the Troad, north of
Scamander. It was a place with an acropolis and strong walls. Attains,
king of Pergamus, transplanted the people of Gergis to another spot
near the sources of the Caicus, whence we afterwards find a place called
Gergetha or Gergithion, in the vicinity of Larissa. The old town of
Gergis was by some said to have been the birth-place of the Sibyl, and
its coins have her image impressed on them.

* Also called Neandria, upon the Hellespont.

* South of Adramyttium ; in its vicinity were copper-mines and cele-
brated vineyards. It was here that Thucydides is said to have died.

* In the district of Coryphantes, opposite to Lesbos, and north of
Atameus. Pliny speaks of the oysters of Coryphas, B. xxxii. c. 6.

7 This Aphrodisias does not appear to have been identified.

8 Again mentioned by Pliny in B. xi. c. 80. Scepsis was an ancient
city in the interior of the Troad, south-east of Alexandria, in the moun-
tains of Ida. Its inhabitants were removed by Antigonus to Alexandria ;
but being permitted by Lysimachus to return to their homes, they built
a new city, and the remains of the old town were then called Palsescepsia.
This place is famous in Uterary history for being the spot where certain
MSS. of Aristotle and Theophrastus were buried to prevent their transfer
to Pergamus. When dug up they were found nearly destroyed by mould,
and in this condition were removed by SyUa to Athens.

9 Sometimes called the Ly cormas, now known as the Fidhari or Fidharo.
^0 Frequently mentioned by Homer.

11 Still known as Ida or Kas-Dagh.

^ More generally known as Adramyttium or Adramyteum, now Adra-
miti or Edremit. According to tradition it was founded by Adramys,
the brother of Croesus, king of Lydia. It is mentioned as a sea-port in
the Acts, xxvii. 2. There are no traces of ancient remains on its site.

18 One of che heights of Moimtlda in the Troad, now called Kaz-Dag.
The territory in this vicinity, as we learn from Yirgil and Seneca, was

Chap. 32.] ACOOTTNT OF COTTNTEIES, ETC. 475

wdth a town of the same name. Again, on the coast we
meet with Antandros\ formerly called Edonis, and after
that Cimmeris and Assos, also called Apollonia. The town
of Palamedium also formerly stood here. The Promontory
of Lecton^ separates ^olis from Troas. In jEolis there
was formerly the city of Polymedia, as also Chrysa, and a
second Larissa. The temple of Smintheus' is still standing ;
Colone'' in the interior has perished. To Adramyttium
resort upon matters of legal business the Apolloniatae',
whose town is on the river Rhyndacus'', the Erizii', the
Miletopolitffi*, the Poemaneni', the Macedonian AsculacsB,
the Polichnsei'", the Pionitae", the Cilician Mandacadeni,
and, in Mysia, the Abrettini'^, the people known as the
Hellespontii^^, and others of less note.

famous for its fertility. The modern village of In^ is supposed to occupy
the pito of the ancient town of Gargara.

1 Now Antandro, at the head of the Gidf of Adramyttium. Aristotle
also says that its former name was Edonis, and that it was inhabited by
a Thracian tribe of Edoni. Herodotus as weU as Aristotle also speak of
the seizure of the place by the Cimmerii in their incursion into Asia.

* Now Cape Baba or Santa Maria, the south-west promontory of the
Troad.

' Or Sminthian Apollo. This appears to have been situate at the
Chrysa last mentioned by Pliny as no longer in existence. Strabo places
Chrysa on a hill, and he mentions the temple of Sminthcus and speaks
of a symbol which recorded the etymon of that name, the mouse which
lay at the foot of the wooden figure, the work of Scopas. According to
an ancient tradition, Apollo had his name of Smintheus given him as
being the mouse-destroyer, for, according to Apion, the meaning of Smin-
theus was a " mouse."

* According to tradition this place was in early times the residence of
Cycnus, a Thracian prince, who possessed the adjoining country, and the
island of Tenedos, opposite to which Colone was situate on the mainland.
Pliny however here places it in the interior.

6 The site of this Apollonia is at AbuUionte, on a lake of the same
name, the ApoUoniatis of Strabo. Its remains are very inconsiderable.

* Or Lycus, now known as the Edrenos.

7 Of thus people nothing whatever is known. ^ D' Anville thinks
that the modem BaH- Kesri occupies the site of MiletopoHs.

^ Stephanus Byzantinus mentions a place called Poemaninum near
Cyzicus. ^° The inhabitants of Polichna, a town of the Troad.

^^ The people of Pionia, near Scepsis and Gargara.

12 They occupied the greater part of Mysia Proper. They had a native
divinity to which they paid peculiar honours, by the Greeks called Ztvs^
'ABpeTTrjvbs.

^ The same as the Olympeni or Olympieni, in the district of Olyinpene

476 PLINT's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

CHAP. 33. — TEOAS AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

The first place in Troas is Hamaxitus\ then Cebrenia',
and then Troas^ itself, formerly called Antigonia, and now
Alexandria, a Roman colony. We then come to the town
of Nee"*, the Scamander^, a na\agable river, and the spot
where in former times the town of Sigeum^ stood, upon a
promontory. We next come to the Port of the Achaeans^, into
which the Xanthus' flows after its union with the Simois',
and forms the Palsescamander^", which was formerly a lake.
The other rivers, rendered famous by Homer, namely, the
Ehesus, the Heptaporus, the Caresus, and the Ehodius, have
left no vestiges of their existence. The Granicus", taking a
different route, flows into the Propontis^^. The small city of
Scamandria, however, still eidsts, and, at a distance of a mile

at the foot of Mount Olympus ; next to whom, on the south and west,
•wrere the Abretteni.

1 On the south-westem coast of the Troad, fifty stadia south of La-
rissa. In the time of Strabo it had ceased to exist. No ruins of this
place have been known to be discoTered, but Prokesch is induced to think
that the architectiu^ remains to be seen near Cape Baba are those of
Hamaxitus.

2 Or Cebrene or Cebren. It was separated from the territoTy of Scepsis
by the river Menander. Leake supposes it to have occupied the higher
region of Ida on the west, and that its site may have been at a place
called Kushunlu Tepe, not far from Baramitsh.

3 Mentioned in Acts xvi. 8. It is now called Eski Stambul or Old
Stambul. It was situate on the coast of Troas, opposite to the south-
eastern point of the island of Tenedos, and north of Assus. It was
founded by Antigonus, under the name of Antigonia Troas, and peopled
with settlers from Scepsis and other neighbouring towns. The ruins of
this city are very extensive. •♦ Or Nea, mentioned in B. ii. c. 97.

^ Now called the Mendereh-Chai.

6 On the north-west promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the
Grecian fleet and camp during the Trojan war. The promontory is now
called Yenisheri.

7 Now called Jeni-Scher, according to Ansart. It was at this spot
that the Greeks landed in their expedition against Troy.

8 Usually identified with the Mendereh-Chai or Scamander.

9 The modem Gumbrek.

10 Or " ancient Scamander."

11 Now known as theKoja-Chai ; memorable as the scene of the three
great victories by which Alexander the Great overthrew the Persian
empire, B.C. 334. Here also a victory was gained by Lucullus over
Mithridates, B.C. 73. ^ Or Sea of Marmora.

Chap. 83.] ACCOXTNT OF COXTNTBIES, ETC. 477

and a half from its harbour, Ilium \ a place exempt from
tribute^, the fountain-head of universal fame. Beyond the
gulf are the shores of Khoeteum *, peopled by the towns of
Khoeteum^, Dardanium', and Arisbe". There was also in
former times a town of Achilleon', founded near the tomb of
Achilles by the people of Mitylene, and afterwards rebuilt
by the Athenians, close to the spot where his fleet had been
stationed near Sigeum. There was also the town of ^an-
tion^, founded by the Rhodians upon the opposite point,
near the tomb of Ajax, at a distance of thirty stadia from
Sigeum, near the spot where his fleet was stationed. Above
jEolis and part of Troas, in the interior, is the place called
Teuthrania , inhabited in ancient times by the Mysians.
Here rises the river Caicus already mentioned. Teuthrania
was a powerful nation in itself, even when the whole of ^olis
was held by the Mysians. In it are the Pioniae*", Andera",

* It is not exactly known whether New Hium was built on the same
site as the Ilium or Troy whicli had been destroyed by the Greeks ; but
it has been considered improbable that the exploits mentioned in the
Iliad sliould have happened in so short a space as that lying between the
later Ilium and the coast. The site of New Ilium is generally considered
to be the spot covered with ruins, now called Kissarlik, between the
villages called Kum-kioi, Kalli-fath, and Tchiblak.

2 The Dictator Sylla showed especial favour to Ilium.
« Now called Cape Intepeh or Barbieri.

* The modem Paleo Castro probably occupies its site.

5 More generally called Dardanus, or Dardanum, said to have been
built by Dardanus. It was situate about a mile south of the promon-
tory Dardanis or Dardanium. Its exact site does not appear to be
knowTi : from it the modern Dardanelles are supposed to have derived
their name.

6 Situate between Percote and Abydus, and founded by Scamandriua
and Ascanius the son of ^neaa. The village of Moussa is supposed to
occupy its site. The army of Alexander mustered here after crossing
the Hellespont.

"^ Alexander the Ghreat visited this place on his Asiatic expedition in
B.C. 334, and placed chaplets on the tomb of Achilles.

*» So called from ^as, the Greek name of Ajax.

' Teuthrania was in the south-western comer of Mysia, between Tem-
nus and the borders of Lydia, where in very early times Teuthras was
said to have founded a Mysian kingdom, which was early subdued by
the kings of Lydia : this part was also called Pei^amene,

1° Called Pionitse in the preceding Chapter.

^^ A town in the Troad, the site of which is unknown.

478 plint's NATTJEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

Cale, Stabulum, Conisium, Teium, Balcea\ Tiare, Teuthranie,
Samaca, Haliserne, Lycide, Partheniiim,Thymbre,Oxyopum,
Lygdamum, ApoUonia, and Pergamum^, by far the most fa-
mous city in Asia, and through which the river Selinus runs ;
the Cetius, which rises in Mount Pindasus, flowing before
it. Not far from it is ElsBa, which we have mentioned^ as
situate on the sea-shore. The jurisdiction of this district is
called that of Pergamus ; to it resort the Thyatireni^, the
Mosyni, the Mygdones^, the Bregmeni, the Hierocomette*,
the rerpereni, the Tiareni, the Hierolophienses, the Her-
mocapelitae, the Attalenses^, the Panteenses, the ApoUoni-
dienses, and some other states unknown to fame. The little
town of Dardanum^ is distant from Rhoeteum seventy stadia.
Eighteen miles thence is the Promontory of Trapeza**, from
which spot the Hellespont first commences its course.

Eratosthenes tells us that in Asia there have perished the
nations of the Solymi'", the Leleges", the Bebryces", the

^ A town on the Propontis, according to Stephanus. The sites of
most of the places here mentioned are utterly unknown.

3 Also called Pergama or Pergamus. Its ruins are to be seen at the
modem Pergarao or Bergamo. It was the capital of the kingdom of
Pergamus, and situate in the Teuthranian district of Mysia, on the
northern bank of the river Caicus. Under its kings, its hbrary almost
equalled that of Alexandria, and the formation of it gave rise to the in-
vention of parchment, as a writing material, which was thence called
Charta Pergamena. This city was an early seat of Christianity, and is
one of the seven churches of Asia to whom the Apocalyptic Epistles are
addressed. Its ruins are still to be seen.

3 At the beginning of the preceding Chapter.

* The people of Thyatira, mentioned in B. v. c. 31.

* The people of Mygdonia, a district between Mount Olympus and
the coast, in the east of Mysia and the west of Bithynia.

^ " The people of the Holy Village." Hierocome is mentioned by Livy
as situate beyond the river Mseander.

7 The people of Attalia, mentioned in C. 32.

8 Previously mentioned in the present Chapter.

* Or " the Table." Now known as Capo de Janisseri.

^0 Also called the Milyse, probably of the Syro- Arabian race ; they
were said to have been the earhest inhabitants of Lycia.

^^ The Leleges are now considered to have been a branch of the great
Indo-Germanic race, who gradually became incorporated with the Hel-
lenic race, and thvis ceased to exist as an independent people.

^2 A nation belonging probably more to mythology than history.
Strabo supposes them to have been of Thracian origin, and that their
first place of settlement was Mysia.

Chap. 34.] ACCOUNT OP COUNTRIES, ETC. ' 479

Colycantii, and the Tripsedri. Isidorus adds to these the
Arimi*, as also the Capretae, settled on the spot where Apa-
mea^ stands, which was founded by King Seleucus, between
Cilicia, Cappadocia, Cataonia, and Armenia, and was at first
called Damea^ from the fact that it had conquered nations
most remarkable for their fierceness.

CHAP. 34. (31.) — THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE IN FRONT OF ASIA.

Of the islands which lie before Asia the first is the on©
situate in the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, and which received
its name, it is said, from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaiis. A
second, called Pharos, is joined by a bridge to Alexandria,
and was made a colony by the Dictator Caesar. In former
times it was one day's sail* from the mainland of Egypt ; at
the present day it directs ships in their course by means of
the nres which are lighted at night on the tower* there ; for
in consequence of the insidious nature of the shoals, there
are only three channels by which Alexandria can be ap-
proached, those of Steganus", Posideum' and Taurus.

In the Phoenician Sea, before Joppe there is the island of
Paria*, the whole of it forming a town. Here, they say,
Andromeda was exposed to the monster : the island also of
Arados, already mentioned', between which and the con-
tinent, as we learn from Mucianus, at a depth of fifty cubits
in the sea, fresh water is brought up from a spring at the
very bottom by means of leather pipes ^'*.

* By some supposed to have been a people of Phrygia.
' Mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

' From the Greek Safidu), " to subdue." Hardouin thinks that this
appellation is intended to be given by PUny to Asia in general, and not
to the city of Aparaea in particular, as imagined by OrteUus and others.

* It is so described by Homer.

5 Tliis was the light-house built upon it by Ptolemy II. PhUadelphus,
whence the name oi pharus came to be appUed to similar structures. It
was here also that, according to the common story, the seventy Translators
of the Greek version of the Old Testament, hence called the Septuagint,
were confined while completing their work.

^ The narrow or fortified channeL

' The Neptunian channel.

® Mentioned also in C. 14 of the present Book.

' In C. 17 of the present Book.

^® The boatmen of Euad, the ancient Aradus, still draw fresh water

480 PLINT's NATTTBAL HISTOBT. [Book V.

CHAP. 35. — CTPRXrs.

The Pamphylian Sea contains some islands of little note.
The Cilician, besides four others of very considerable size, has
Cyprus \ which lies opposite to the shores of Cilicia and Sy-
ria, running east and west ; in former times it was the seat
of nine kingdoms. Timosthenes states that the circumfer-
ence of this island is 427 miles, Isidorus^ 375 ; its length,
between the two Promontories of Dinae' and Acamas* lying
on the west, is, according to Artemidorus, 160^ miles, ac-
cording to Timosthenes, 200. Philonides says that it was
formerly called Acamantis, Xenagoras that it had the
names of Cerastis*, Aspelia, Amathusia, and Macaria',
while Astynomus gives it the names of Cryptos' and Co-
linia. Its towns are fifteen in number, Neapaphos',
Palaepaphos', Curias", Citium", Corineum,. Salamis'^, Ama-

from the spring A in Ibrahim, in the sea, a few rods from the shore of
the opposite coast. * Now called Kibris.

3 Strabo makes it 425. Hardouin remarks that Isidorus has not made
allowance for the margin of the creeks and bays.

3 The north-eastern extremity of Cyprus. It is now called Capo Sant
Andreas. It is more generally known in the editions of Pliny by the
name of Dinaretum.

< Now called Capo Sant Epifanio, or Pifano, after the celebrated me-
tropolitan of Cyprus. It is the western extremity of the island.

* From the Greek repasr, " a horn." It was not improbably so called
from the numerous horns or promontories on its coast.

8 From the Greek fiaKapios, " blessed," in compliment to its fertile
soil and delightful temperature.

7 Apparently from the Greek Kpvirrbi, " concealed." Stophanus By-
zantinus says that it was so called because it was frequently hidden
beneath the surface of the sea.

« Or New Paphos. The spot is still called Bafa or Bafo.

9 Or Old Paphos, now Kukala or Konuklia. Old Paphos was situate
near the promontory Zephyrium on the river Bocamo, where it had a
good harbour ; while New Paphos lay more inland, in the midst of a
fertile plain, sixty stadia from the former. Old Paphos was the cliief
seat of worship of Aphrodite or Venus, who was said to have landed at
that place after her ascent from the sea.

10 Situate on the most southerly point in the island ; now Capo Gavatta
or delle Gatte.

11 A town situate on the south coast of Cyprus. Its ruins are to be
seen between Lamika and the port now known as Salines ; they are very
extensive. In B. xxx. c. 9, Pliny speaks of the salt lakes near this place,
which are worked at the present day.

1* In the middle of the east coast. It was said to have been founded

Chap. 35.] ACCOUNT OP COXINTBIES, ETC. 481

thu8\ Lapethos', Soloe, Tamasos", Epidarum, Chytri^, Arsi-
noij*, Carpasium", and Gols^'. The towns of Cinyria, Ma-
rium, and Idalium® are no longer in existence. It is distant
from Anemurium' in Cilicia iifty miles ; the sea which runs
between the two shores being called the Channel of Cilicia*".
In the same locality" is the island of Eleusa'-, and the four

by Teucer the son of Telamon, who gave it the name of his native land
from which he had been banished by his father.

^ Now called Old Limasol, a town on the south coast, celebrated for
its worship of Aphrodite or Venus. It was a Phoenician settlement, and
Stephanus calls it the most ancient city in the island. It long preserved
its oriental customs, and here the Tyrian Hercules was worshipped under
his name of Melkart. * Its site is now called Lapitho or Lapta.

* Probably the same as the Temese of Homer. It was situate in a
fertile district in the middle of Cyprus, and in the neighbourhood of ex-
tensive co})pcr -mines. Near it was a celebrated plain, sacred to Venus,
mentioned by Ovid.

* Now called Chytria, a town of Cyprus on the road from Cerinea to
Salamis.

* In the east of Cyprus, near the Promontory of Acamas, formerly
called Marion. Ptolemy Soter destroyed this town, and removed the
inhabitants to Paphos. The modem name of its site is Polikrusoko or
Crisophou, from the gold mines in the neighbourhood. There was more
than one city of this name in Cyprus, which was probably bestowed on
them during its subjection to the princes of the hne of Lagus. Another
Arsinoe is placed near Ammochostus to the north of the island, and a
third of the same name appears in Strabo with a harbour, temple and
grove, between Old and New Paphos.

^ Or Carpasia, to the north-east of the island, facing the Promontory
of Sarpedon on the Cilician coast. It was said to have been founded by
Pygmalion, khig of Tyre. Pococke speaks of remains at Carpas, the site
of this place, especially a long wall and a pier.

7 Or Golgos, famous for the worsliip of Aphrodite or Venus, which
had existed here even before its introduction at Paphos by Agapenor.
Its position is imknown.

8 Or Idalia, adjoining to which was a forest sacred to Aphrodite. The
poets, who connect this place with her worship, give us no indications
what^jver of its precise locahty. Engel identifies it with the modem
Dalin, situate to the south of Leucosia, at the foot of Mount Olympus.

^ Now Cape Anamur.

'° " Aulon Cilicium," now the Sea of Caramania or Cyprus.

*^ The Cilician Sea, namely.

^ There were several islands of this name. It is not improbable that
Pliny alludes to the one lying off the coast of Caria between the isle of
Rhodes and the mainland, and which seems to be the island marked
Alessa in the maps. There was another of the same name close to the
shore of Cihcia, afterwards known by the name of Sebaste.
TOL. I. 2 I

482 PLINT's ITATTfEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

islands known as the Clides\ lying before the promontory
which faces Syria ; and again at the end of the other cape*
is Stiria: over against Neapaphos is Hierocepia', and op-
posite to Salamis are the Salaminiae.

In the Lycian Sea are the islands of Illyris, Telendos,
and Attelebussa^, the three barren isles called Cyprise, and
Dionysia, formerly called Caretha. Opposite to the Pro-
montory of Taurus are the Chelidonise*, as many in num-
ber, and extremely dangerous to mariners, rurther on we
find Leucolla with its town, the PactyaD*, Lasia, Nymphais,
Macris, and Megista, the city on which last no longer exists.
After these there are many that are not worthy of notice.
Opposite, however, to Cape Chimaera is Dolichiste', Choerogy-
lion, Crambussa", Ehoge^ Enagora, eight miles in circum-
ference, the two islands of Daedala'", the three of Crya",

^ Or Cleides, meaning the " Keys." This was a group of small islands
lying to the north-east of Cyprus. The name of the islands was after-
wards transferred by some geographer to the Cape which Phny above
calls Dinse, artd others Dinaretum. ' Cape Acamas, now Pifano.

3 Or the " Sacred Garden." The names of this and the Salaminia do
not appear to be known to the modem geographers.

^ This is identified by Beaufort with the islet called Bceshat, which is
separated by a narrow channel from the Lycian shore. The others do
not seem to have been identified. Attelebussa is supposed to take its
name irom a kind of destructive grasshopper without wings, called by
the Greeks arreXejSos.

^ Situate off the commencement of the sea-coast of Pamphylia, on the
borders of Lycia. Beaufort speaks of them as five in number ; he did
not meet with any of the dangers of the navigation here mentioned by
PUny. The Greeks still call them CheUdoniae, and the Italian sailors
Celidoni, which the Turks have corrupted into Shehdan.

^ Hardouin supposes these four islands to be the names of the group
forming the Pactyse. The names given appear to signify, the " Wild "
or " Eough Islands," the " Isle of the Nymphs," the " Long Island," and
the " Greatest Island." They were off the coast of Lycia, and seem to
have belonged to the Rhodians. The modem name of Megista is Ka-
Btelorizo, according to Ansart.

7 Or DoUche, the " Long Island," in the Lycian Sea, west of the ruins
of Myra. Its modem name is Kakava. It is now iminhabited.

* Still known as Grambousa, a small island off the east coast of Lycia.
There seems to have been another of the same name off the Lycian coast.

^ An island off the coast of Lycia.

^^ Hardouin thinks that they were opposite to the city of Dsedala on
the coast of Caria.

" Off the city of Crya, probably, in Caria.

Chap. 36.] AOCOTTNT OF COTJNTETES, ETC. 483

Strongyle, and over against Sidyma^ the isle of Antiochus.
Towards the mouth of the river Glaucus^, there are Lagussa^,
Maoris, DidymaB, Helbo, Scope, Aspis, Telandria, the town
of which no longer exists, and, in the vicinity of Caunus^,
Bhodussa.

CHAP. 36. — BHODES.

But the fairest of them all is the free island of Bhodes,
125, or, if we would rather believe Isidorus, 103 miles in
circumference. It contains the inhabited cities of Lindos,
Camirus*, and lalysus*, now called Ehodos. It is distant
from Alexandria in Egypt, according to Isidorus, 583 miles ;
but, according to Eratosthenes, 469. Mucianus says, that
its distance from Cyprus is 166. This island was formerly
called Ophiussa', Asteria*, jEthria^ Trinacrie'", Corymbia ,
Poeeessa^-, Atabyria", from the name of one of its kings ; and,
in later times, Macaria" and Oloessa*'. The islands of the
B-hodians are Carpathus^', which has given its name to the

* On the coast of Lycia.

* In Lycia. See C. 29 of the present Book.

* Probably so called from the number of hares found there.

* On the coast of Caria.

' Still known as Lindo and Camiro, according to D'Anville.

' One of the three ancient Doric cities of Rhodes. It lay three-quarters
of a mile to the south-west of the city of Rhodes, with which Phny
seems here to confound it. Its site is occupied by a village which still
bears the name of laliso, and where a few ancient remains are to be found.

^ From its productiveness of serpents.

8 Either from Asterius, its former king, or from its being a "constella-
tion" of the sea.

^ Probably because of the clearness and serenity of its atmosphere.
See B. ii. c. 62.

^° From its three-cornered shape.

^^ Perhaps so called from its fruitfulness in ivy, in Greek ropv/ijSjjOpa,
or else from Kopvfifios, " a summit," from its elevated position.

^2 From its verdant and grassy soil.

^ Either from King Atabyrius, or the mountain Atabyrion ; or else
from the temple of Jupiter Tabyrius, which Appian speaks of as situate
in this island.

" The " fortunate," or " blessed" island.

^^ " Venomous," or " deadly." This name it most probably had in
early times (and not more recently, as PUny says), when it was covered
with dense forests, the retreats of serpents and noxious reptiles.

16 Now knoA^ni as Skarpanto.

2i2

484 PLINy's KATUEAL HISTOKT. [^OokV.

surrounding sea ; Casos\ formerly known as Aeline^ ; Ni-
syros', twelve miles distant from Cnidos, and formerly
called Porphyris^ ; and, in the same vicinity, midway between
E.hodes and Cnidos, Syme^. This island is thirty-seven miles
and a half in circumference, and -vrelcomes as with eight fine
harbours. Besides these islands, there are, in the vicinity
of Ehodes, those of Cyclopis, Teganon, Cordylussa^, the
four islands called Diabetse^, Hymos, Chalce^, with its city
of that name, Seutlussa^, Narthecussa^", Dimastos, Progne;
and, off Cnidos, Cisserussa, Therionarce, and Calydne", with
the three towTis of Notium, Nisyros, and Mendeterus. In
Arconnesus'^ there is the town of Ceramus. Off the coast
of Caria, there are the islands known as the Argise, twenty
in number ; also Hyetussa^^, Lepsia, and Leros.

The most noted island, however, in. this gulf is that of
Oos^*, fifteen miles distant from Halicamassus, and 100 in
circumference, according to the opinion of many writers.
It was formerly caUed Merope ; according to Staphylus, Cea ;

^ Mentioned by Homer, II. ii. 676. See also B. iv. c. 23 of the present
work. It is described by Boss as a single ridge of mountains, of con-
siderable height. 2 Signifying " sea-foam."

3 Still known as Nicero.

* From its production of the * mnrex,' or ' purple.'

* Now called Symi, a small island off the south-west coast of Caria,
at the mouth of the Gulf of Doris, to the west of the Promontory of
Cynossema.

6 Now called the Island of St. Catherine, according to Ansart.

7 Stephanus Byzantinus mentions these islands as lying in the vicinity
at Syme. Perhaps they are the group lying to the south of it, now
called Siskle.

^ Distant about fifty miles from Carpathus, or Skarpanto. It was
probably subject to Ehodes, in the vicinity of which it was situate. Its
present name is Chalki.

"^ An island, according to Hardouin, not far from Hahcamassus, on
the coast of Ionia.

10 So called from its productiveness of the vdp9r)^, or ferula.

11 More probably Calydnse, because there were several islands forming
the group, of which Calymna was the chief. See B. iv. c. 23, where
Phny mentions only one town, that of Coos. There are some remains
of the ancient towns still to be seen.

12 A small island of Caria, south of Halicamassus. It is now called
Orak-Ada.

13 Probably so called from the almost continual rains there.

" Now called Stanko, or Stanchio, a corruption of es tclv Kw,

Chap. 37.] ACCOTTS-T Or COXTSTTBIES, ETC. 485

Meropis, as Dionysius tells us ; and, after that, I^yraphaBa.
In this island there is Moimt Prion. jSTisyros^ formerly-
called Porphyris, is supposed to have been severed from the
island of Cos. We next come to the island of Caryanda'^,
vrith a city of that name, and that of Pidosus^, not far
from Halicamassus. In the Gulf of Ceramicus we also find
Priaponnesos"*, Hipponnesos, Psyra, Mya,Lampsa,^myndu8,
Passala, Crusa, Pinnicussa, Sepiussa^, and INIelano. At a
short distance from the mainland is an island which bears
the name of Cina;dopolis, from the circumstance that King
Alexander left behind there certain persona of a most
disgraceful character.

CHAP. 37. — SAMOS.

The coast of Ionia has the islands of TrageaB, Corseae',
and Icaros, which has been previously' mentioned ; Lade*,
formerly called Late ; and, among others of no note, the two
CamelidaB^, in the vicinity of IVliletus ; and the three Tro-
gilia;'", near Mycale, consisting of Philion, Argennon, and
ISandalion. There is Samos also, a free" island, eighty-seven
miles in circumference, or, according to Isidorus, 100. Ari-
stotle tells us, that it was -at fir^t called Parthenia'^, after

* Which has been previously mentioned in this Chapter.

2 In C. 29, Pliny has mentioned a Caryanda on the mainland. It is
probable that there was a toNvn on the mairJand and another in the
island of the same name. Leake says, that there can be httle doubt that
the large peninsula, towards the west end of which is the fine harbour
called by the Turks Pasha Limani, is the ancient island of Caryanda, now
joined to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus.

3 The island of Hyali, near the harbour of Meffi, on the coast of
Caria, according to Dupinet.

* Probably so called from the worship of the god Priapus there.

^ Few, if any, of these islets can now be recognized. Sepiussa was
probably so called from the abimdance of the sepia, or cuttle-fish, there.
^ Over against the isle of Samos. 7 B. iy. c. 23.

8 Near the city of Miletus.

* So called from their resemblance to camels.

^•^ Lying before the Promontory of TrogiHum, mentioned in C. 31.

*^ Augustus gave their liberty to the Samians. The island is stiU
called by tbe Greeks Samo, and by the Turks Susam Adassi.

12 The " Virgin's Island," if so called after Juno, as some say ; but
according to Strabo, it received its name fr'om the river Parthenius.

486 pLnrr's ka-Titeal histobt. [Book V.

that Diyussa^ and then Anthemussa'. To these names
Aristocritus has added Melamphyllus* and Cyparissia*:
other writers, again, call it Parthenoarussa^ and Stephane*.
The rivers of this island are the Imbrasus, the Chesius, and
the Ibettes. There are also the fountains of Gigartho and
Leucothea ; and Mount Cereetius. In the vicinity of Samos
are the islands of Ehypara, Nymphaea, and Achillea.

CHAP. 38. — CHIOS.

At a distance of ninety-four miles from Samos is the free
island of Chios', its equal in fame, with a town of the same
name. Ephorus says, that the ancient name of this island
was ^thalia ; Metrodorus and Cleobulus tell us, that it had
the name of Chia from the nymph Chione ; others again say,
that it was so called from the word signifying snow" ; it was
also called Macris and Pityusa". It has a mountain called
Pelenntcus ; and the Chian marble is well known. It is 125'"
miles in circumference, according to the ancient writers ; Isi-
dorus however makes it nine more. It is situate between
Samos and Lesbos, and, for the most part, lies opposite to
ErythrfB".

The adjacent islands are Thallusa^', by some writers called
Daphnusa'^, (Enussa, Elaphitis, Euryanassa, and Arginusa,
with a town of that name. All these islands are in the vici-
nity of Ephesus, as also those called the Islands of Pisistra-
tus, Anthinse, Myonnesos, Diarreusa, — in both of these last
there were cities, now no longer in existence, — Poroselene'*,

* From its numerous oaks. * From the abundance of its flowers.
' " Of dark," or " black foliage j " in allusion probably to its cypresses.

* " Cypress-bearing." '

* Tliis is not improbably a compound, formed by a mistake of the
copyists, of the two names, Parthenia and Aryusa, mentioned by
Heraclides.

« " The Crown." This island was the birth-place of Pythagoras.
^ Now known as Khio, Scio, Saka Adassi, or Saksadasi. Chios wa«
declared free by the Dictator Sulla. *• X<wv, gen. Xjovos.

9 Macris, from its length, and Pityusa, from its pine-trees,
w Daleclmmps says 112 is the correct measurement.
" Mentioned in C. 31 of the present Book.

12 Meaning " green and flourishing."

13 " Productive of laurels." None of these islets appear to have been
recognized by their modem names.

" By Strabo called Pordoselene. He says that the islands in its

Chap. 89.] ACCOUITT OP COTTNTBrES, ETC. 487

with a city of that name, Cercise, Halone*, Commone,
Illetia, Lepria and Khesperia, Procusa?, Bolbul®, Phanae,
Priapos, Syce, Melane, -^nare, Sidusa, Pele, Drymusa',
Anhydros, Scopelos', SycuBsa, Marathussa, Psile, Perirreusa,
and many others of no note. In the main sea lies the
celebrated island of Teos, with a city* of that name, seventy-
one miles and a half distant from Chios, and the same firom
the Ervthrte.

In the vicinity of Smyrna are the Peristerides*, Carteria;
Alopece, Elajussa, Bachina, Pystira, Crommyonnesos, and
Megale*. Facing Troas there are the Ascaniae, and the
three islands called Platea*. We find also the Lamiae, the
two islands called Plitaniap, Plate, Scopelos, Getone, Arthe-
don, Coelaj, Laguasae, and Didymse.

CHAP. 39. — LESBOS.

But Lesbos^, distant from Chios sixty-five miles, is the
most celebrated of them all. It was formerly called Himerte,
Lasia, Pelasgia, ^gira, -^thiope, and Macaria, and is
famous for its nine cities. Of these, however, that of Pyrrha
has been swallowed up by the sea, Arisbe" has perished by
an earthquake, and Slethymna is now united to Antissa* ;
these lie in the vicinity of nine cities of Asia, along a
coast of thirty-seven miles. The to^Mis of Agamede and

vicinity were forty in number ; of which Pliny here gives the names of
two-and-twenty. * South of Proconnesus ; now called Aloni.

2 Near the city of Clazomenae. It is now called Vourla, according
to Ansart. * Now Koutah, according to Ansart.

* We learn from Strabo and other writers, that this city was on a pen-
insula, and that it stood on the southern side of the isthmus, connecting
Mount Munas with the mainland of Lydia. It was the birth-place of
Anacreon and Hecatseus.

' Or the " Dove Islands ; " probably firom the multitude of those birds
found on those islands.

^ Now called Antigona, according to Ansart.

^ Now Mitylene, or Metelin.

® We find it also stated by Herodotus, that this island was destroyed
by the Methyranseans. The cities of Mitylene, Methymna, Eresus,
Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, originally formed the -lEohan Heiapolis,
or Confederation of Six Cities.

' The ruins found by Pococke at Galas Limneonas, north-east of Cape
Sigri, may be those of Antissa. This place was the birth-place of Ter-
pander, the inventor of the seven-stringed lyre.

488 PLrSr's IfATUEAL HISTOET. [BookV.

Hiera have also perished. Eresos\ Pyrrha, and the free
city of Mitylene^, still survive, the last of which vras a
powerful city for a space of 1500 years. The circumference
of the whole island is, according to Isidorus, 168 miles',
but the older writers say 195. Its mountains are, Lepe-
thymnus, Ordymnus, Macistus, Creon, and Olympus. It is
distant seven miles and a half from the nearest point of the
mainland. The islands in its vicinity are, Sandaleon, and
the five called Leucse'* ; Cydonea^, which is one of them,
contains a warm spring. The ArginusscT^ are four miles
distant from Mge^ ; after them come Phellusa^ and Pedna.
Beyond the Hellespont, and opposite the shore of Sigeum,
lies Tenedos^, also known by the names of Leucophrys^'',
Phoenice, and Lyrnesos. It is distant from Lesbos lifty-six
miles, and twelve and a half from Sigeum,

CHAP. 40. (32.) — THE HELLESPONT AND MTSIA.

The tide of the Hellespont now begins to run with greater
violence, and the sea beats against the shore, undermining
with its eddies the barriers that stand in its way, until it
has succeeded in separating Asia from Europe. At this
spot is the promontory which we have already mentioned
as Trapeza" ; ten miles distant from which is the city of

1 Or Eressus, according to Strabo. It stood on a hill, reaching down
to the sea. Its ruins are said to be near a place still called Eresso, It
was the birth-place of the philosopher Theophrastus, the disciple of
Aristotle. , 2 g^iU called Mitylene, or Metelin.

8 Strabo makes it about only 137 miles. "• Or the White Islands.

5 So called from its fruitfulness in quinces, or " Mala Cydonia.'^

8 These were three small islands, near the mainland of jEolis. It
was off these islands that the ten generals of the Athenians gained
a victory over the Spartans, B.C. 4(^. The modem name of these
islands is said to be Janot.

7 One of the Leucse, previously mentioned.

8 So called from the ^eXXos, or " cork," which it produced.

9 Still known as Tenedos, near the mouth of the Hellespont. Here
the Q-reeks were said to have concealed their fleet, to induce the Trojans
to think that they had departed, and then introduce the wooden horse
within their walls.

10 « Having white eye-brows ;" probably from the wliiteness of its cliffs*
" In C. 33 of the present Book.

Chap. 40.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTEIES, ETC. 489

Abydos', where the straits are only seven stadia wide ; then
the town of Pereote^ ; Lampsacus^, at first called Pityusa ;
the colony of Parium^, which Homer calls by the name of
Adrastia ; the town of Priapos' ; the river -Slsepns^ ; Zelia^ ;
and then the Propontis^, that beinp; the name given to
the tract of sea where it enlarges. We then come to the
river Granicus**, and the harbour of Artace^", where a town
formerly stood. Beyond this is an island which Alexander
joined to the continent, and upon which is Cyzicus", a city
of the Milesians, which was formerly called Arctonnesos ,
Dolionis, and Dindymis ; above it are the heights of
Mount Dindymus^'. We then come to the towns of Placia,
Ariace^^ and Scylace ; in the rear of which places is Mount
Olympus, known as the " Mysian Olympus,** and the city of
Olympena. There are also the rivers Horisius** and Ehyn-
dacus*^ formerly called the Lycus ; this last river rises in
Lake Artynias, near Miletopolis, and receives the Macestos,
and many other streams, dividing in its course Asia'' from
Bithynia'^

^ Opposite to Sestos, made famous by the loves of Hero and Leander.
Aidos, or Avido, a village on the Hellespont, is thought to occupy its site.

2 Now called Bergase, according to D'Anville.

' Its ruins are still known as Lapsaki. This important city was cele-
brated for its wine, and was the chief seat of the worship of the god
Priapus. * Its site is now called Camanar, according to D'Anyille.

^ According to Ansart, the modem Caraboa marks its site.

* Now called the Satal-dere, according to Ansart.

^ Its locahty was not far from the modem Biga, according to Ansart.

** Now the Sea of Marmora.

^ Mentioned in C. 33 of the present Book.

*® Now called Artaki, or Erdek, a town of Mysia, and a Milesian
colony. A poor town now occupies its site.

" Its ruins are called by the Turks Bal Kiz, probably meaning " Old
Cyzicus." There are many subterraneous passages, and the ruins are of
considerable extent. Its temples and storehouses appear to have been
built on a scale of great magnificence. See Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 15.

^"^ The " Island of the Bears," which animals frequented the moim-
tain in its vicinity. ^5 Called Dindymvmi by Herodotus j

probably the modem Morad Dagh, in which the river Hermus rises,

i< Now called Saki, according to Ansart.

J5 Now called the Lartacho, according to Ansart.

1^ Previously mentioned in C. 32 of the present Book.

17 In its Umited sense ; considered as a portion only of Asia Minor.

18 On the west it bordered on Mysia, and on the south on Phrygia and
Galatia, while the eastern boundary seems to have been less definite.

490 pLnrr's natitbal histoet. [Book V.

This country was at first called by the name of Cronia,
after that, Thessalis, and then Malianda and Strymonis. The
people of it are by Homer called Halizones\ from the fact
that it was "a nation begirt by the sea. There was formerly
a vast city here, Attussa by name ; at present there are
twelve cities in existence; among which is Gordiucome^,
otherwise Juliopolis; and, on the coast, Dascylos'. We
then come to the river (ielbes^ ; and, in the interior, the
town of Helgas, or Germanicopolis, which has also the
other name of Booscoete* ; Apamea*, now more generally
known as Myrlea of the Colophonians : the river iltheleus
also, the ancient boundary of Troas, and the commencement
of Mysia. Next to this comes the gulf into which the
river Ascanius flows, the town of Bryllion*, and the rivers
Hylas and Cios, with a town of the same name as the last-
mentioned river ; it was founded by the Milesians at a place
which was called Ascania of Phrygia, as an entrepot for the
trade of the Phrygians who dwelt in the vicinity. We may
therefore look upon this as a not ineligible opportunity for
making further mention of Phrygia.

CHAP. 41. — PHETGIA.

Phrygia lies above Troas, and the peoples already men-

* Ephorus, as quoted bv Stephanus Byzantinu8, says, that the Hali-
zones inhabited the district lying between Caria, Mysia, and Lydia.
Hesychius incorrectly places them in Paphlagonia.

2 Meaning the " Village of Gordius," one of its ancient lings. It was
also called Gordium. After falling to decay, it was rebuilt by Augustus,
and called Juliopolis. It is celebrated in history as the place where
Alexander the Great cut the Gordian knot<; the scene of the adventure
being the Acropolis of the town, the former palace of King Gordius.

3 Therewere several Asiatic cities of the similar name of DascyUum. The
site of the one here mentioned does not appear to have been ascertained.

4 More generally read " Gebes." « The " Bull's Bed," or " Den."
It probably took its second name from the Roman general Germanicus.

* Now called Medania, or Mutania. It received its name of Apamea
from Prusias, king of Bithynia, in compUment to his wife. In the time
of the first Csesars, it was made a Roman colony.

' The Bay of Cios. The river runs into a lake, formerly known as
Lake Ascanius ; probably that mentioned by PUny in B. xxxi. c. 10.

® Stephanus Byzantinus says that it was the same as the town of Cios,
or Cius, here mentioned as near to it. It was on the shores of the
Propontis.

Chap. 42.] ACCOTJNT OF COrNTRIES, ETC. 491

tioned as extending from the Promontory of Lectum* to
the river Etheleus. On its northern side it borders upon
Galatia, on the south it joins Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Myg-
donia, and, on the east, it touches upon Cappadoeia. The
more celebrated towTis tliere, besides those already men-
tioned, are Anc3rra^, Andria, Celaense', CoIosssd*, Carina*,
Cotyaion', Ceraine, Coiiium, and Midaium. There are
authors who say that the Moesi, the Brygi, and the Thyni
crossed over from Europe, and that from them are descended
the peoples called the Mysi, Phryges, and Bithyni.

CHAP. 42. — GALATIA AND THE ADJOININO NATIONS.

On this occasion also it seems that we ought to speak of
Galatia^, which lies above Phrygia, and includes the greater
part of the territory taken from that province, as also its

^ Cape Baba, or Santa Maria j the south-western promontory of
the Tread.

* In Phrygia Epictctus, or ** Conquered Phrygia," so called from its
conquest by certain of the kings of iJitliynia. Strabo calls this place a
" small city, or hill-fortress, towards Lydia." It was probably situate
near the source of the Macestus, now the SusugherU Su, or the Simaul
Su, as it is called in its upper coxu:^e.

' The place from which the citizens were removed to Apamea, as men-
tioned in C. 29 of the present Book. Hamilton (Researches, &c., p. 499)
supposes its acropolis to have been situate about half a mile from the
Bom-ces of the river Marsyas.

^ First mentioned by Herodotus, and situate on the Lycus, a branch
of the Mffiander. It had greatly dechned in Strabo's time, and in the
middle ages there rose near it a town of the name of Chonse, and Colossse
disappeared. Hamilton found extensive ruins of an ancient city about
tlu*ee miles north of the modem Khonos. It was one of the early Chris-
tian churches of Asia, and the Apostle Paul addressed one of his Epistles
to the people of tliis place. It does not appear from it that he had ever
visited the place ; indeed, from Chap. ii. 1 we may conclude that he
had not.

* This does not appear to be the same as the Carine mentioned in
C. 32 of this Book, as having gone to decay. Its site is unknown.

^ Or Cotiseum, or Cotyajimi. It was on the Roman road from
Dorylffiimi to Philadelphia, and in Phrygia Epictetus, according to
Strabo. The modem Kutahiyah is supposed to denote its site; but
there are no remains of antiquity.

7 It was bounded on the west, south, and south-east by those
countries ; and on the north-east, north, and north-west by Pontus,
Paphlagonia, and Bithynia.

492 plint's katiteal histoet. pBook Y.

former capital, Grordium^ The G-auls" who have settled in
these parts, are called the Tolistobogi, the Yoturi, and the
Ambitouti; those who dwell in Maeonia and Paphlagonia
are called the Trocmi. Cappadocia stretches along to the
north-east of Galatia, its most fertile parts being possessed
by the Tectosages and the Teutobodiaci. These are the
nations by which those parts are occupied ; and they are
divided into peoples and tetrarchies, 195 in nimiber. Its
towns are, among the Tectosages, Ancyra'; among the
Trocmi, Tavium'' ; and, among the Tolistobogi, Pessinus*.
Besides the above, the best known among the peoples of
this region are the Actalenses, the Arasenses, the Comen-
ses^, the Didienses, the Hierorenses, the Lystreni^, the
Neapolitani, the (Eandenses, the Seleucenses^, the Sebas-

^ Mentioned in C. 40, under the name of Gordiucome.

2 Who invaded and settled in Asia Minor, at various periods during
the third century B.C.

3 Near a small stream, which seems to enter the Sangarius. It ori-
ginally belonged to Phrygia, and, its mythical founder was Midas, the
son of Gordius, who was said to have found an anchor on the spot, and
accordingly given the name to the town ; which story would, however,
as it has been observed, imply that the name for anchor {(iyKvpa) was the
same in the Greek and the Phrygian languages. The Tectosages, who
settled here about B.C. 277, are supposed to have been from the neigh-
bourhood of Toulouse. It is now called Angora, or Engareh ; and the
fine hair of the Angora goat may have formed one of the staple com-
modities of the place, which had a very considerable trade. The chief
monument of antiquity here is the marble temple of th& Emperor
Augustus, built in his honour during his lifetime. In the inside is the
Latin inscription known as the monumentum, or marmor Ancyranvm^
containing a record of the memorable actions of Augustus. The ruins
here are otherwise interesting in a high degree.

^ Now Tchoroum, according to Ansart.

5 Its ruins are called Bala-Hisar, in the south-west of Galatia, on
the southern slope of Moimt Didymus. This place was celebrated as
a chief seat of the worship of the goddess Cybele, vmder the surname of
Agdistis, whose temple, filled with riches, stood on a hiU outside of
the city.

^ Hardouin suggests that these are the Chomenses, the people of the
city of Choma, in the interior of Lycia, mentioned in C. 28 of the
present Book.

7 The people of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of
Isauria, celebrated as one of the chief scenes of the preaching of Paul
and Barnabas. See Acts xiv.

* The people of Seleucia, in Pisidia.

Chap. 43.] ACCOUNT OF COXTNTEIES, ETC. 493

tcni^, the Timoniacenses^, and the Tliebaseui'. Galatia
also touches upon Carbalia in Pamphylia, and the Milyse*,
about Baris ; also upon Cyllanticum and Oroandicum^, a di-
strict of Pisidia, and Obizene, a part of Lycaonia. Besides
those already mentioned^, its rivers are the Sangarius'^ and
the Gallus^, from which last the priests' of the Mother ol
the gods have taken their name.

CHAP. 43. — BITHTNTA.

And now as to the remaining places on this coast. On
the road from Cios into the interior is Prusa^°, in Bithynia,
founded by Hannibal at the foot of Olympus, at a distance
of twenty-five miles from Nictea, Lake Ascanius^^ lyii^g Tt)e-
tween them. We then come to Nicaea^-, formerly called

1 The people of Sebaste, a town of the Tectosages.

2 The people of Timonium, a town of Paphlagonia, according to Ste-
phanus Byzantmus.

3 Tliebasa, a town of Lycaonia, has been mentioned in C. 25 of the
present Book. * See C. 25 of the present Book.

5 The town of Oroanda, giving name to this district, is mentioned at
the end of C. 24 of the present Book.

^ The Cayster, the Khyndacus, and the Cios.

7 Now called the Sakariyeh, the largest river of Asia Minor after the
ancient Halys.

8 Now called the Lefke, which discharges itself into the Tangarius,
or Sakariyeh.

^ Called *' GtiUi." They were said to become mad from drinking of
the waters of this river, and to mutilate themselves when in a frantio
state. See Ovid's Fasti, B. iv. 1. 364 et seq.

^° Now called Brusa. It stood on the north side of Mount Olympus,
fifteen Roman miles from Cius. According to most accounts, it was
bmlt by Prusias, king of Bithynia. It is most probable that Hannibal
superintended the works, wlule staying as a refugee at the court of Prusias.

'^ Now Lakelznik.

^2 Its ruins are to be seen at Iznik, on the east side of the lake of that
name. Its site is supposed to have been originally occupied by the town
of Attsea, and afterwards by a settlement of the Bottiseans, called Ancore,
or Helicore, wliich was destroyed by the Mysians. On this spot, shortly
after the death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus built a city which
he named after liimself, Antigonaea ; but Lysimachus soon afterwards
changed the name into Nicsea, h\ honour of his wife. Under the kings
of Bithynia, it was often the royal residence, and it long dispiited with
Nicomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. The modem Izmk is only
a poor village, with about 100 houses. Considerable ruins of the ancient

494 PLIlfT's NATTTEAL HISTOET. [Book Y.

Olbia, and situate at the bottom of tlie Ascanian G-ulf ; as
also a second place called Prusa\ at the foot of Mount
Hypius. Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Coryphanta are
no longer in existence. Along the coast we find the rivers
JEsius, Bryazon, Plataneus, Areus, ^syros, Greodos, also
called Chrysorroas^, and the promontory' upon which once
stood the town of Megarice. The gulf that here runs
inland received the name of Craspedites from the circum-
stance of that town lying, as it were, upon its skirt^. Asta-
cum*, also, formerly stood here, from which the same gulf
has received the name of the * Astacenian' : the town of
Libyssa® formerly stood at the spot where we now see
nothing but the tomb of Hannibal. At the bottom of
the gulf lies Nicomedia-^, a famous city of Bithynia ; then
comes the Promontory of Leucatas^, by which the Asta-
cenian Gulf is bounded, and thirty-seven miles distant
from Nicomedia ; and then, the land again approaching
the other side, the straits" which extend as far as the
city are still in existence. Littre seems to think that there are two
Nicseas meant in these passages ; but it would seem that the same place
is alluded to in both lines. The only thing that seems to give counte-
nance to Littre's supposition (in which he is supported by Hardouin)
is, the expression " Et Prusa item altera."

^ It has been suggested, that this is only another name for the town
of Cios, previously mentioned ; but it is most probable that they were
distinct "places, and that this was originally called Cierus, and belonged
to the territory of Heraclea, but was conquered by King Prusias, who
named it after himself. It stood to the north-west of the other Prusa.

2 Or the *' Golden Stream."

'' Suggested by Parisot to be the modem Cape Fagma.

* From the Greek KpcKTireSov, a " skirt."

s Or Astacus, a colony originally from Megara and Athens. From
Scylax it would appear that this city was also called Olbia. Its site is.
placed by some of the modem geographers at a spot called Ovaschik,
and also Bashkele.

6 Called G^biseh, according to Busbequis, — at least in his day. The
modern Hereket, on the coast, has been suggested.

7 Its ruins now bear the name of Izmid, or Iznikmid, at the north-
eastern corner of the Sinus Astacenus, or Gulf of Izmid. It was the
chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, and one of the most splendid
cities in the world. Under the Eomans it was made a colony, and waa
a favourite residence of Diocletian and Constantine the Great. Arnan
the historian was bom here.

* Now Akrita. It is also called Akritas by Ptolemy.

* The Straits, or Channel of Constantinople.

Chap. 43.] ACCOUNT OF COFNTEIES, ETC. 495

Thracian Bosporus. Upon these are situate Chaleedon\
a free town, sixty-two miles from Nicomedia, formerly
called Proeerastis^, then Colpusa, and after that the " City
of the Blind," from the circumstance that its founders
did not know where to build their city, Byzantium being
only seven stadia distant, a site which is preferable in every
respect.

In the interior of Bithynia are the colony of Apamea',
the Agrippenses, the Juliopolitae, and Bith}Tiion* ; the rivers
Syrium, Laphias, Pharnacias, Alces, Serinis, Lilaeus, Scopius,
and Hieras^, which separates Bithynia from Galatia. Be-
yond Chalcedon formerly stood Chrysopolis^, and then Ni-
copolis, of which the gulf, upon which stands the Port of
Amycus'^, still retains the name ; then the Promontorv of
Naulochum, and Estiee^, a temple of Neptune'. We tlien
come to the Bosporus, which again separates Asia from
Europe, the distance across being half a mile ; it is distant
twelve miles and a half from Chalcedon. The first entrance
of this strait is eight miles and three-quarters wide, at the

* Its site is supposed to have been about two miles south of the
modem Scutari, and it is said that the modern Greeks call it Chalkedon,
and the Turks Kadi-Kioi. Its destruction was completed by the Turks,
who used its materials for the construction of the mosques and other
buildings of Constantinople.

2 So called, Hardouin thinks, from its being opposite to the Golden
Horn, or promontory on which Byzantium was built.
^ Or Myrlea, mentioned above in C. 40. See p. 490.

* Or Bithynium, lying above Tins. Its vicinity was a good feeding
country for cattle, and noted for the excellence of its cheese, as men-
tioned by Phny, B. xi. c. 42. Antinoiis, the favourite of the Emperor
Adrian, was born here, as Pausanias informs us. Its site does not
appear to be known.

* These rivers do not appear to have been identified by the modem
geographers.

6 The modem Scutari occupies its site. Dionysius of Byzantivim
states, that it was called ChrysopoHs, either because the Persians made
it the place of deposit for the gold which they levied from the cities, or
else from Chryses, a son of Agamemnon and Chryseis.

7 A king of the Bebrycians. For some further particulars relative to
this place, see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book.

8 Situate on a promontory, which is represented by the modem Algiro,
according to Hardouin and Parisot.

" Other writers say that it was erected m honour of the Twelve Greater
Divinities.

496 PLDJT's IfATITEAL HISTOET. [Book V.

place where the town of Spiropolis^ formerly stood. The
Thyni occupy the whole of the coast, the Bithyni the in-
terior. This is the termination of Asia, and of the 282
peoples, that are to be found between the Gulf of Lycia^
and this spot. We have already' mentioned the length of
the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian Bosporus as
bein^ 239 miles ; from Chalcedon to Sigeum, Isidorus makes
the distance 322^.

CHAP. 44. — THE ISLANDS OF THE PEOPOIS'TIS.

The islands of the Propontis are, before Cyzicus, Elaphon-
nesus"*, from whence comes the Cyzican marble ; it is also
known by the names of Neuris and Proconncsus. Next
come Ophiussa*, Acanthus, Phoebe, Scopelos, Porphyrione,
Halone , with a city of that name, Delphacia, Polydora, and
Artaceon, with its city. There is also, opposite to Nico-
media, Demonnesos' ; and, beyond Heraclea, and opposite
to Bithynia, the island of Thynias, by the barbarians called
Bithynia ; the island of Antiochia : and, at the mouth of
the Khyndacus, Besbicos^, eighteen miles in circumference ;
the islands also of El«a, the two called Ehodussse, and those
of Erebinthus^ Megale, Chalcitis^", and Pityodes".

1 Called Phinopolis in most of the editions. It is very doubtful
•whether this passage ought not to be translated, " At a distance thence of
eight miles and tliree- quarters is the first entrance to tliis strait, at the
spot," &c. We have, however, adopted the rendering of Holland, Ajas-
son, and Littre. ^ Mentioned in C. 28 of the present Book.

3 In B. iv. c. 24 "♦ Or " Deer Island."

^ Now Afizia, according to D'AnviUe.

^ There is still an island in the Sea of Marmora known by the name
Alon, which is separated from the north-western extremity of the Penin-
sula of Cyzicus by a narrow channel.

7 Hesychius says, that there were two islands near Byzantium called
by the common name of Demonnesi, but severally havmg the names of
Chalcitis and Pityusa. Pliny, on the other hand, places Demonnesus
opposite to Nicomedia, and at the same time mentions Chalcitis and
Pityodes (^probably the same as Pityusa) as distinct places. D'Anville
calls Demonnesus " The Isle of Princes."

8 The position assigned to this island by Pliny and Strabo corresponds
with that of Kalolimno, a small island ten miles north of the mouth of
the Ehyndacus. ^ Now called Prota, according to Parisot.

10 So called from its copper-mines ; now called Khalki, or Karki.
" Now called Prinkipo, east of Khalki.

Chap. 44.] ACCOUNT OF COTTNTBIES, ETC. 497

SuMMAHT. — Towns and nations spoken of * * * *. Xoted
rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands, 118 in
number. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *.
Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * ♦ *.

BoMAN Authors quoted. — Agrippa\ Suetonius Pau-
linus^, M. Varro', Varro Ataeinus**, Cornelius Nepos',
Hyginus^ L. Vetus', Mela^ Domitius Corbulo', Licinius
Mueianus'®, Claudius Caesar", Ammtius", Livius the Son",
Sebosus'^, the Eegister of the Triumphs".

* See end of B. iii.

' A celebrated Roman general, who was successively governor of
Numidia and Britain, where he defeated Queen Boadicea. He was a
supporter of the Emperor Otho, but afterv^arda obtained a pardon from
Vitellius on the plea that he had betrayed Otho at the battle of Bedri-
acum, and so contributed to his defeat ; which, however, was not the
case.

* See end of B. ii. * See end of B. iii. * See end of B. ii.
« See end of B. iii. ^ See end of B. iii. ® See end of B. iii.

* Brother of Csesonia, the wife of Caligula, and father of Domitia
Longina, the wife of Doraitian. He was the greatest general of his day,
and conquered Tiridates, the powerful king of Parthia. He slew himself
at Cenchreffi, A.D. 67, upon hearing that Nero had given orders for his
execution. *° See end of B. ii.

^^ The Roman emperor, grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. As
an author, the character in which he is here referred to, he occupied him-
self chiefly with historj', and was encouraged in the pursuit by Livy the
historian. At an early age he began to write a history from the death
of the Dictator Csesar, a plan which he afterwards abandoned, and began
his work with the restoration of peace, after the battle of Actium. Of
the earher period he had written only four books, but the latter work he
extended to forty-four. He also wrote memoirs of his own life, which
Suetonius describes as written with more sUliness than inelegance. A
fourth work was a defence of Cicero against the attacks of Asinius PoUio.
He also wrote liistories of Carthage and of Etruria in Greek. All of his
literary works have perished. ^2 gee end of B. iii.

'3 Kotliing whatever is known of this son of T. Livius, the great
Roman historian. It is not improbable that the transcribers have com-
mitted an error in inserting the word Jilio, and that the historian himself
is the person meant. " See end of B. ii.

^5 "Acta Triumphorum" probably mean the registers kept in the
Capitol, in which were inscribed the names of those who were honoured
with triumphs, and the decrees of the senate or the people in their
favour. This register must not be confounded with the "Tabidse
Consulares."

TOL. I. 2 K

498 . flint's U'ATUEAL HISTOEY. [Book V.

PoEEiGH^ AuTHOKS QUOTED. — King Juba^ Hecataeus*
Hellanicus^, Damastes^, Dicsearchus^, Baeton'', Timosthenes',
Philonides^, Zenagoras^, Astynomus'", Staphylus^\ Aris-
toteles^^, Aristocritus^^, Dionysius", Epliorus^^ Eratos-
thenes^®, Hipparclms^^, Pansetius'^, Serapion^^ of Antioch,
CaUimaehus^", Agatliocles2\ Polybius'^^ Timjeus^' the
mathematician, Herodotus'", Myrsilus^^, Alexander Poly-
histor^^, Metrodorus^^, Posidonius^^, who wrote the Peri-
plus and the Periegesis, Sotades^^, Periander^", Aristar-

1 Jnba II., king oi Mauritania. After the defeat of his father at
Thapsus, he was carried a prisoner to Rome, though quite a child, and
compelled to grace the conqueror's triumph. Augustus Csesar after-
wards restored to him his kingdom, and gave him in marriage Cleopatra,
or Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. To his literary pur-
suits he is chiefly indebted for his reputation. His works are continually
quoted by Pliny, who regards his authority with tlie utmost deference.
Among his numerous works he seems to have written a History of
Africa, Assyria, Arabia, and Rome; as also Treatises on the Stage,
Music, Grammar, and Painting. 2 Qf Miletus. See end of B. iv.

3 See end of B. iv. ■♦ See end of B. iv. * See end of B. ii.

^ He was employed by Alexander the Great in measuring distances in
his marches. He wrote a work upon this subject, entitled, " Distances
of the Marches of Alexander." 7 See end of B. iv.

8 See end of B. iv. • See end of B. iv.

10 See end of B. iv. " See end of B. iv.

12 See end of B. ii. " See end of B. iv.

14 Of Chalcis. See end of B. iv. '^ gee end of B. iv.

15 See end of B. ii. ■'" See end of B. ii.

13 Of Rhodes, the friend of P. Scipio jEmUianus and Lselius. He was
the head of the Stoic School at Athens, where he died. His principal
work was a Treatise on Moral Duties, which served as a model for Cicero
in the composition of his work, " De Officiis." He also wrote a work on
t)ie philosophical sects.

19 See end of B. ii. «> See end of B. iv.

21 See end of B. iv. 22 gee end of B. iv.

23 See end of B. ii. 24 g^e end of B. ii.

■25 See end of B, iv. 26 ggg g^d of B. iii.

27 See end of B. iii. 28 See end of B. ii.

2^ There are four literary persons mentioned of this name. 1. An
Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. 2. A native of Marongea,
in Thrace, or else of Crete, who wrote lascivious and abusive verses, and
was at last put to death by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was the
inventor of the Sotadean verse, or Ionic a Majore, Tetrameter Brachyca-
talectic. 3. An Athenian Philosopher, who wrote a book on mysteries.
4. A Byzantine philosopher, of whom nothing whatever is known.

^ There were two writers of this name, before the time of Pliny. 1.

Chap. 44.] AOCOTTirr OF COXTNTEIES, ETC. 499

chus* of Sicyon, Eudoxus^, Antigenes', Callicrates'*, Xeno-
phon* of Lampsacus, Diodonis® of Syracuse, Hanno'^, Him-
ilco", Nympliodorus^ Calliphanes*", Artemidorus", Meg-
asthenes^^, Isidorus", Cleobulus^'*, and Aristocreon^*.

Periander of Corinth, one of the Seven Wise Men, who wrote a didactic
poem, containing moral and poUtical precepts, in 2000 hnes ; and, 2. a
physician and bad poet, contemporary with Archidamas, the son of
Agesilaiis. It is uncertain to which PHny here refers.

^ Probably a writer on geography. Nothing appears to be known
of him.

' Of Cyzicns, see end of B. ii. ; of Cnidos, see end of B. iv.

* A Greek historian, who appears, firom Plutarch, to have written a
history of the expeditions of Alexander the Great.

* See end of B. iii. ' See end of B. iii. • See end of B. iii.
^ The author of the Periplus,or voyage wliich he performed round a part

of Libya, of wliieh we have a Greek translation from the Punic original.
His age is not known, but PHny states (B. ii. c. 67, and B. v. c. 1) that
the voyage was imdertaken in the most flourishing days of Carthage. It
has been considered on the whole, that he may be probably identified
with Hanno, the son or the father of Hamilcar, who was slain at
Himera, B.C. 480.

8 Mentioned also by Pliny, B. ii. o. 67, as having conducted a voyage
of discovery from Gaaes towards the north, along the western shores of
Europe, at the same time that Hanno proceeded on his voyage along the
western coast of Africa. He is repeatedly quoted by Festus Avienus, in
his geographical poem called Ora Maritima. His voyage is said to have
lasted fom* months, but it is impossible to judge how far it extended.

» See end of B. iii. '« See end of B. iii. " See end of B. ii

^2 A Greek geographer, and friend of Seleucus Nicator, by whom he
was sent on an embassy to Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, whose
capital was Pahbothra, a town probably in the vicinity of the present
Patna. Whether he had accompanied Alexander on his invasion of
India is quite uncertain. He wrote a work on India in four books, to
wliich tlie subsequent Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their
accounts of India. Arrian speaks highly of him as a writer, but Strabo
impeaches his veracity ; and we find Pliny hinting the same in B. vL
c. 21. Of his work only a few fragments survive.

« See end of B. ii. " See end of B. iv.

** There was a philosopher of this name, a nephew of Chrysippus, and
his pupil ; but it is not known whether he is the person referred to, in
C. 10, either as having written a work on universal geography, or on that
of Egypt.

END or TOL. I.

APPENDIX OP COEEECTIONS.

Page 1, line 9, The allusion, otherwise obscure, is to the fact that
some friends of Catullus had filched a set of table-
napkins, which had been given to him by Veranius
and Fabius, and substituted others in their place.

„ 13, „ %for Roman figures, read other figures.

„ 20, „ *l^for the God of nature ; he also tends, dovon to and
most excellent, read the God of nature. He supplies
light to the universe, and dispels all darkness ; He
both conceals and reveals the other stars. It is He
that regulates the seasons, and, in the course of
nature, governs the year as it ever springs anew into
birth ; it is He that dispels the gloom of the heavens,
and sheds his light upon the clouds of the human
mind. He, too, lends his brightness to the other
stars. He is most brilliant and most excellent.

„ 21, „ 13, /or elected, read erected.

„ 21, „ 13, /or good fortune, read evil fortune.

„ 23, „ 18, /or our scepticism concerning God is still increased,
read our conjectures concerning God become more
vague still.

„ 23, „ 31, /or and the existence of God becomes doubtful, read
whereby the very existence of a God is shewn to be
uncertain.

„ 33, „ 4, /or as she receives, read as receives.

„ 54, „ 15, /or the seventh of the circumference, read the seventh
of the third of the circumference.

„ 59, „ 36, /or transeuntia, read transcurrentia.

„ 67, „ 26, /or circumstances, read influences.

„ 78, „ 9, /or higher winds, read higher waves.

„ 78, „ Vl,for the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd
numbers, read hence it is that the odd nmnbers are
generally looked upon as males.

„ 79, „ 15, /or of the cloud, read of the icy cloud.

„ 79, „ 21, /or sprinkling it with vinegar, read throwing vinegar
against it.

^, 79, „ 22, /or this substance, reof? that liquid.

„ 80, „ 13, /or but not until, read and not after.

„ 80, „ 14, /or the former is difiTused, down to impulse, read the
the latter is difiused in the blast, the former is con-
densed by the violent impulse.

„ 80, „ 17. /or dash, read crash.

„ 81, „ 21, /or thunder-storms, read thimder-bolts.

„ 81, „ 2,1, for their operation, read its operation.

„ 82, „ 8, /or thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

„ 85, „ 2, /or blown up, read blasted.

., 88, „ 15, /or the east, read the west.

„ 89, „ 11, /or even a stone, read ever a stone.

„ 92, „ 9, /or how many things do we compel her to produce
spontaneously, read how many things do we compel
her to produce ! How many things does she pour
forth spontaneously !

„ 92, „ 10, /or odours and flowers read odours and flavours.

„ 93, „ 16, for luxuries, read caprices.

MESSES. BELL AND DALDY'S

CATALOGUE

BOHFS VAIIIOUS LIBRAmES

THEIR OTHER COLLECTIONS,

WITH A CLASSIFIED INDEX,

LOKDON:
No. 186, FLEET STKEET,

AND 6, YOKK STKEET, COVENT GAEDEN.
1864.

BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.

A complete Set, in 483 Yolumea, price 121Z. IBs.

No. of
Volumes.

SEPARATE LIBRARIES.

Price
£ s.

d.

150

Standard Library (including the Atlas to Coxe's
Marlborough) . . . . .

2G 15

0

13

Historical Library

3 5

0

6

Library of French Memoirs ....

1 1

0

43

Uniform with the Standard Library

8 3

6

19

Philological Library

4 0

0

29

British Classics

5 1

G

8

Ecclesiastical Library

2 0

0

40

Antiquarian Library

10 0

0

74

Cheap Series

5 19

6

7G

iLLrSTRATED LIBRARY

19 9

0

89

Classical Library 'including the Atlas)

21 18

6

63

Scientific Library

IG 4

0

IN PREPARATION,

BOETHIUS'S CONSOLATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY, rendered into
Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred : the Anglo-Saxon Metres and a
literal English translation by the Rev. Samuel Fox, (Antiquarian
Library,. Immediately.

LOWNDES'S BIBLIOGRAPHER'S MANUAL, Appendix Vol. con-
taining the Lists of Books published by various Societies and Clubs,
(Philological Library).

FOSTERS MISCELLANEOUS WORKS, including his Essay
on Doddridge, &c. (^Standard Library).

NOTICE.

^Messrs. Bell and Daldy beg to announce that they have
purchased of Mr. H. G. Bohn, who is preparing to retire
from business, after forty years of successful enterprise, the
entire stock of his various Libraries, consisting of more
than 600 different works, and comprising nearly half a
million of volumes.

These Libraries have been created by Mr. Bohn during
the past twenty years by an amount of energy and industry,
bibliographical knowledge and literary skill never before
luiited with the requisite amount of capital ; and they repre-
sent an accumulation of valuable works unexampled in the
history of literary undertakings.

Though Mr. Bohn was not the first to recognize the
power of cheapness as applied to the production of books,
he was the first to address his efforts exclusively to works
of a standard character and enduring interest. He threw
himself into the movement with characteristic energy ; and
in developing his aim he is known by those who have
watched the progi'ess of cheap literature to have distanced
all competitors. During the time that his Libraries have
been before the public, he has carried into all classes in all
parts of the world where ihe English language is under-
stood an unexampled choice of books, not only for students
and scholars, but for readers who merely seek amusement.
Such a choice, so varied, and at so low a price, does not
exist in this country or elsewhere ; and Mr. Bohn is entitled
to the gratitude of all who value the humanizing effects of

literature. Since the commencement of these Libraries at

B 2

IV NOTICE.

least three million volumes have been issued, and these
may fairly be taken to represent thirty million readers.

In accepting the responsibility of so large an under-
taking, Messrs. Bell and Daldy desire to carry on the pro-
jects of Mr. Bohn with the same spirit and energy which
have influenced him, and they are happy to announce they
will have the advantage of his bibliographical knowledge
and large experience.

In addition to the Libraries of ^Ir. Bohn, this Catalogue
comprises the various Collections published by Messrs.
Bell and Daldy during the last nine years, and now in
progress.

These Libraries and Collections together afford a choice
from about 800 volumes on general literature and educa-
tion.

To assist purchasers in making their selections a classi-
fied index is attached, by which they will be guided to the
subjects of the books.

Messrs. Bell and Daldy venture to add, that the Aldine
Poets, Aldine Series, British Worthies, Elzevir Series, and
Pocket Volumes, are specially prepared for the lovers of
choice books, and are specimens of careful editing combined
with the most finished workmanship in all external features.
They believe that they are not surpassed in these respects
by any similar productions of the present day.

Many of the above works are adapted for prizes and
presents ; and they may be had through any bookseller,
bound in a suitable style, by giving a short notice.

CLASSIFIED INDEX,

Amcsementp.

Ant'ler, Walton . . ."
Angler's Manual, Hofland
Chess Congress . . .

Games of, Morphy

Player's Companion

Handbook .

Praxis, Staunton .

Tournament . .

Games, Handbook of
Jlmily Exercises, Walker
Shooting, Recreations iu

\:;t.

Didron's Iconography
Holbein's Bible Cuts .

Dance of Death

lAnzi's Painting . . .
Ijoctures on Painting
Michael Angelo and Raphael
Reynolds' (Sir J.) Works
Schlegel's /Esthetic Work-s
Stanley's Synopsis of Painters
Vasivri's Lives of the Palmers

PAGB

41, 42

. 17

, 38

, -10

. 40

. 40

. 40

. 40

. 38

. 31

. 30

. 27

. 27

. 27

. 12

. 39

. 28

. 13

. 14

. 40

. 15

Atiases,

Classical Geography . . .

. 36

Long .

. 46

Grammar Scliool Atlas . .

. 47

Marlb^)rough's Campaigns .

. 10

1>:0(5RAPHY.

Burke's Life

. 19

Cellini, Memoirs of . . .

. 9

Foster's Life, &c

. 10

Franklin's Autobiography .

. 23

Irving's Life and Letters .

17,24

Johnson's Life, &c , . .

. 23

Locke's Life and Letters

. 12

Luther's Life, Michelet . .

. 12

Nelson's Life, Sou they . .

30,41

Pope's Life, Carruthers . .

. 30

Walton's Lives ....

41, 42

Washington's Life . . .

. 17,24

Wellington, Life of . . .

. 31

BRmsii Classics.

Addison's Works . . . .

. 19

Burke's Works ....

. 19

Speeches . . .

. 19

Milton's Prose ^Vorks . .

. 12

DlVIKPTY.

Butler's Analogy ....

42, 44

. 9
. 44

Sermons . . .

Works ....

. 44

Cullllngworth's Religion of ]

Pro-

testants

. 16

Gregory's Evidences . . .

. 11

Henry on the Psalms . .

. 17

KUtos Scripture Lands . .

. 27

Krummacher's Parables . .

. . 27

Neander's Christian Dogmas

. . 13

Christian Life .

. 13

PAGB

DiviNrry —continiMd.

Neander's Life of Christ "'. . . 13

Light in Dark Places . 13

New Testament— Greek . 16, 47, 47

Lexicon to . . . 16

Sturm's Communings .... 14
Taylor's Living and Dying 14,43,46

Wheatley on the Common Prayer . 15

DkAMATIC LtTERATURK.

Ik-aumont and Fletcher .... 9

Lamb's Dramatic Poets .... 23

Tales from Shakespeare . 41

Schlegel's Dramatic Literature . 14
Shakespeare's Plays . . . . 18, 42

Works .... 17

Sheridan's Dramatic Works. . . 14

Fiction.

Andersen's Tales 26

Berber, The 23

Bremer's Works 9

Cattermole's Haddon Hall ... 26

Cinq-Mars 23

Classic Tales 16

Defoes Works 20

Gil Bias 21

Goldsmi th 's Vicar of Wakefield . 4 1

Hawthorne's Tales 24

Howltt's English Life .... 27

Hunt's Book for a Comer ... 27

Irvhig's Works 17, 24

Keightley's Fairy Mythology . . 22

Lamartine's Genevieve .... 25

Stonemason, &c. . . 25

liong fellow's Prose Works ... 28

IViarryat's Works 23

Maybe w's Image of his Father . 25

Mitford's Our Village .... 13

iMixlern Novelists of France . . 25

^Munchausen's Life 25

Itobinson Crusoe 30

Sandford and Mtrton .... 25

Tales of the Genii 31

Taylor's El Dorado 25

Uncle Tom's Cabin . . . . 18, 25

White Slave 25

Wide, Wide World 18

Willis's Tales 25

Yule Tide Stories 23

French Authors.

Fe'n^lon's Telemaque .... 48

La Fontaine's Fables .... 48

Picciola ... .^ .... 48

Voltaire's Charles XII 48

Germ AX Authors.

G rman Bal'ads 48

Schiller's Wallenstein .... 48

German (the). Translations from.

Goethe's Works 1]

Heine's Poems 1 1

Schiller's Works 13

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

PAGE

Geeek Authobs.

iEschylus 45,47

Demosthenes 45

Euripides 45, 47

Herodotus 45, 47

Hesiod 45

Homer 45

Plato 46

Sophocles 46

Thucydides 47

Xenophon's Anabasis ... 47, 47
Qyropgedia .... 47

Greek (the) Traxslatk^ixs from.

Achilles Tatius 34

.(Eschines 16

JEschylus 32

Antholog}', Greek 34

Aristophanes 32

Aristotle's Ethics 32

History of Animals . . 32

Metiphyslcs .... 32

Organon .• . , . .32

Politics and Economics 32

Rhetoric and Poetics . 32

Athenaeua 33

Bion 36

Callimachus 34

Demosthenes' Orations . . . 16, 33

Diogenes Laertius 34

Euripides 34

Heliv)dorus 34

Herodotus 34

Analysis of .... 18

Notes 18

Hesiod 34

Homer's Iliad 34

Pope 30

Odyssey 3t

Pope .... 30

Longus 34

Moschus 36

Philo-Ju lajus 20

Pindar 35

Plato 35

Sophocles 36

Theocritus 36

Theognis 34

Thucydides ....*... 36

Analysis of . . . .19

Tyrtanis 36

Xenophon 36

Hist )RTCAL Mkmi>irs.

Carafas of Maddilonl 9

Co xe's Li fe of Marlborough . . 10

Memoirs of the House of

Austria 10

Gulzot's Life of Monk .... 24

Monk's Contemporaries . 24

Irving's ]-,i!e of Washington . 17, 24

James's Louis XIV 11

Richard Cueur de Leon . 11

Kossuth, Memoirs of .... 11
Lodge's Portraits of Illustrious Per-
sonages . ; 28

Memoir of Colonel Hutchinson . 11
Duke of Sully ... 16

PAGE

Historical Memoirs— continued.

Memoir of Hampden, by Lord Nu-
gent 15

Philip de Commines . 15

Naval and Militarj' Heroes of

Britain 29

Paull's Life of Alfred the Great . 22

Roscoe's Life of Leo X 13

Lorenzo de Medici 13

History axd Travels.

Anglo-S;ixons, Miller . . . . 2S
Antiquities, Popular, Brand . . 21
Arabs in Spain, Conde .... 9
Christianity, First Planting of,

Neander 13

Chronicles.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Bede
Florence of "Worcester's
Geoffrey de V'lnsauf
Henry of Huntingdon's
Ingulphs Chronicle
Matthew of Paris . .
Westminster

Richard of Devizes

Roger de Hovenden

Six Old English Chronicle

William of Malniesbury
Chronological Tables, Blair .
Cluirch History, Neander
Civilization, Gulzot . . .
Conquest of England, Thierry

IMary, Evelyn

Pepj'S

Ecclesiastical History, Bede

Eusebius

Ordericus Vi-

t,ills . .

Socrates

- — — Sozomen

Theodoret &

Evagrius .

Egypt, Lcpsius

England, History of, Hughes . .
Hume . . ,

English Constitution, Delolme . .

Revolution of 1640, Guizot

Florence, Machiavelll ....
French Revolutiun of 1848, Lamar-

tine

French Revolution, Michelet .

Mignet . . .

Smyth . . .

Germany, Menzel 12

Giraldus Cambrensis, Historical

Works 21

Girondists, Lamartine .... 12
History Philosophically Considered,

Miller 17

Hungary, History of ... . 11

Index of Dates 37

India, Conquest of. Hall .... 41
Jesuits, History of, Nicollnl . . 29
Modern History, Schlegel . . . 14.

Smyth. ... 14"

Naples under Spanish Dominion . 9

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

FAGK

History and Traveus— conhnwed.

Naval Battles, Allen .... 26

Nineteenth Century, Gervinns . . 21

Northern Antiquities, Mallet . . 22

IMiilosophy, Tenneman .... 19

of History, Hegel . . 18

Schlegel . 14

Popes, Riinke 13

Pretenders, Jesse 15

llepresentallve Government, Guizot 11
llestoration of the Monarchy, La-

martlne 12

Revolution, Counter, In England,

Carrel 9

Roman Kmpiro, Gibbon .... 20

Republic, Michelet ... 12

Russia, History of 13

Saracens, Ockley 13

Servia. Ranks 13

Stuarts, Jesse 15

Three Months in Power, Lamartine 25

Tiers Etat. Thierry 15

Travels, Early, in Palestine . . 21

in Americ i, Humboldt . 39

of Marco Polo .... 22

Wellington, Victories of ... 28

Italian (the) Translations fbom.

Ariosto's Orlando Furiosa . . 26

Dante, Gary 16

Wright 26

Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered . . 31

Latin Althoks.

Cajsar, De Bello Gallico . . . 46, i1

— Bks. 1-3 ... 46

Cicero's Cato Major . . . . 46, 47

Orations 45

Horace 45, 46, 47

Juvenal, Satires. 1-16 .... 46

and Persius .... 45

Lucretius 47

Ovid's Fasti 46

Sallust 46, 47

Tacitus, Germania, &c 46

Terence 46

Virgil 46,47

Latin (the). Translations fkom.

Ammianus Marcellinus .... 32

Antoninus's Thoughts .... 44

Apuleips, the Golden Ass ... 32

Boethius 21

Ca>sar 33

Catullus 33

Cicero's Academics, &c 33

Nature of the Gods, &c . 33

Offices, &c 33

On Oratory 33

Orations 33

Cornelius Nepos 34

Eutropius 34

Florus 36

Horace 17, 34

Johannes Secundus 35

Justin 34

Juvenal 34

Livy 34

PAGE

Latin (the) Trakslations kuom—
continued.

Lucan 35

Lucilius a-t

Lucretius 35

Martial's Epigrams 35

Ovid 35

Persius 34

I'etronius 35

Phaxlrus 36

Plautus 35

Pliny's Natural History .... 35

Propertlus 35

(^ulntilian's Institutes .... 36

Sallust 36

Suetonius 36

Sulpicia 34

Tacitus 36

Terence 36

Tibullua 33

Velleios Paterculus 30

Virgil 36

Literary History, &c.

Ix>wndes'8 Bibliographer's Manual 18

Schlegel's History of Literature . 14
Sismondi's Literature of South of

Europe 14

Miscellaneous.

Ascham's Scheie Master ... 45

Bacon's Essays 9. 44

Browne's (Sir T.) Works ... 21

Cape and the Kaffirs 23

Coin Collector's Manual, Hum-
phreys 39

Cotton Manufactures, Ure ... 40
Cruikshank's Three Courses, &c. . 26
Dictionary of Obsolete Words . . 19
Emerson's Orations and Lectures . 23
Representative Men . 23

Epitaphs 21

Foster's Essays, &c 10

Ijoctures, &c 10

Miscellaneous Works . 10

Fosterlana 10

Fuller's Works 10

Gray's Works 44

Hall's (Basil) Lieutenant ... 41

Midsliipman . . .41

(Robert) Works .... 11

Herbert's Works . . . .41,42

Jesse's Dogs, &c 27

Junlus's Letters 11

Lion Hunting 25

Locke's Conduct, &c 45

Luther's Table Talk 12

Magic (Ennemosers) 38

Manufactures (Philosophy of), Ure 40

Moral Sentiments, Smith ... 14

Political Cyclopaedia 18

Pottery and Porcelain .... 30

Preachers and Preaching ... 25

Proul's (Father) Reliques ... 30

Starlings Noble Deeds of Women. 30

'I'aylor's Logic in Theology ... 45

— Physical Theory . . .43

Ultimate Civilization . . 45

Till

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

PAGE

Misc -^LANEous— COW t iuued.

Temperance, Carpenter .... 23
Wines, Redding on ..*..' 30
Young Lady's Book . . j . ! 31

Natural History.

British Birds, Mudie .... 29

Cage Birds, Bechstein . . ! ! 26
Poultry, DicliBon and Mowbray . 16

Seasons, Howitt 27

Selborne, White ....*' 31 4i
Warblers, Sweet . . . * '. , ' 26

POETET.

Akenside's Poems 43

British Poets— Milton to Kirke

White 17

Bums's Poems. ...."* 41, 42

Songs '41

Butler's Hudibras 26

Coleridge's Poems . . . . 41, 42

Collins's Poems 43

Cowper's Poems ! 43

Works . . . . .' * 10

Dibdin's Sea Songs 23

Dryden's Poetical Works ... 43
Ellis's Metrical Romances ... 21

Goldsmith's Poems 41

Gowefs Confesslo Amantis ... 43

Gray's Poems 41,44

Herbert's Poems 41, 43

Kirke White's Poems .... 44
Longfellow's Poems . . . ! 28,41
Milton's Paradise Ijost . . 2>?, 41, 42

Piegained . . '28,41

Petrarch's Sonnets 29

Pope's Poetical Works .... 30

Robin Hood Ballads 41

Sea Songs and Ballads .... 41
Shakespeare's Poems ... 18, 43

Spenser's Works 43

Thomson's Poems . . . . ! 44

Seasons 44

"Vaughan's Poems 41, 45

Young's Poems '44

Pboverbs and Qdotatioxs.

Dictionary of Greek and Latin Quo-
tations 34

Handbook of Proverbs . . . ^21
Polyglot of Foreign I^overbs . . 22

Science and Philosophy.

Anatomy, Comparative, Lawrence . IT
Animal Physiology, Carpenter . . 38
Arts and Sciences, Joyce . . .17

Astrology, Lilly 17

Astronomy, Carpenter .... 38

Hind 39

Bacon's Advancement of Learning 37, 44

Novum Organum . . 37, 44

Botany, Carpenter 38

PAGE

SCiExcE AND Vmjx)SovsY— Continued.

Botany, De Jussieu 39

Bridgewater Treatises.

Chalmers on Moral Man . . 37

Kidd on Man 37

Kirby on Animals .... 37

Prout on Chemistry ... 37
Whewell's Astronomy and

General Physics .... 37

Chemistry.

Agricultural, Stockhardt . .40

Elementary, Parkes .... 18

Principles of, Stockhardt . . 40

Chevreul on Colour 38

Comparative Physiology, Agassiz . 37

Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences 38

Cosmos, Humboldt's 39

Geology.

General. Richardson ... 40

Medals of Creation, Mantell . 39

Of Isle of Wight, Mantell . . 39

Of Scripture, Pye Smith . . 40

Petrifactions, &c., Mantell . . 39

Wonders of Geology, Mantell 39

Horology, Carpenter 38

Inventions, Beckmann's History of . 9

Joyce's Scientific Dialogues . . , 39

Kant's Pure Reason 13

Life, Philosophy of, Schlegel . . 14

Ix)cke's Philosophical Works . . 12

Logic, Devey is

Mechanical Philosophy, Carpenter . 38

Medicine, Domestic 38

Mineralogy, Richardson ... 40

Natural Philosophy, Hogg ... 38
Oersted's Soul in Nature . . .40

Pala3ontology, Richardson ... 40

Pliysics, Hunt 39

Rixces of Man, Pickering. ... 29

Schouw's Karth, Plants, Man . . 40

Science, Poetry of, Hunt. ... 39

Technical Analysis, BoUey ... 37

Vegetable Physiology, Carpenter . 38

Views of Nature, Humboldt . . 39

Zoology, Carpenter 38

Topography.

Athens, Stuart and Revett ... 31

China 26

Egypt, Lord Lindsay's Letters . . 27

Geography, Modern 29

Strabo 36

India 27

London, Pictorial Handbook of . . 29

Redding 25

Nineveh, Bonomi 26

Norway 29

Paris 29

Rome 30

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0

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BOHN's BRITISH CLASSICS. 19

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21

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XL

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bohn's illustrated library. 27

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bohn's illusteated librabt. 29

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30 bohn's illustrated library.

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bohn's illustrated library. 31

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32

XIT.

Bohn's Classical Library.

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iEschylus. Literally Translated into Englisli Prose by an
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bohn's classical library. 83

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D

34 bohn's classical libbabt.

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