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THE
Seer URAL HISTOR Y
Be aoiiektcoe cod? ©,
CONTAINING
A DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY, AND THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL PRODUCTIONS IN ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD.
TOGETHER WITH
AN ACCOUNT OF THE. CLIMATE, INHABITANTS, AND DISEASES; PARTICULARLY OF THE PLAGUE.
Bx ALEX...RUSSELL, M.D.
EHE SECOND “EDITION.
REVISED, ENLARGED, AND ILLUSTRATED WITH NOTES.
Peer nt. RUSSELL, M. D.:'& F.R. 5.
V OL, -&
LONDON:
Printep For G.G. anp J. Rosinson, PATER-NOSTER-ROW.
1794+
Complete set - S.B.N. = 0:5 mt This volume oo - eal 03201,
Republished in 1969 by Greer International P lis Westmead, pata Hants., England reowesarTatl . exinoH res Printed in offset by rece Wolf, Heppenheim/ Berg. Western Germany
q
THE
Pea § O R’s. PRK F ACE
TO THE SECOND EDITION.
MID the fatigues of an extenfive Pra@ice in his Fro- feflion, in a Country where much time mutt be facri- ficed to the medical attendance expeéted by Perfons of the higher Clafs, the Author of The Natural Hiftory of Aleppo, with difficulty found leifure to fketch the introduétory part of his Work. But he confidered it of importance to commit his Remarks to paper, while impreflions were frefh, and he had an opportunity, on the fpot, of rectifying errors, as well as of profecuting fuch further inquiries as new objects fhould fuggeft.
The arrangement of materials thus promifcuoufly accumu- lated, was little attended to; being referved for future hours of leifure, which he flattered himfelf with hopes of enjoying at one time or other. In this expectation, however, it was his lot to be difappointed; as he foon after his arrival in England in 1754, found his fituation more diftant than ever from the quiet of retirement; and after a flight revifal of his papers, was too eafily perfuaded to haften their publication.
Though his work met with an indulgent reception, the Author himfelf was fenfible of the advantages he had loft, by not beftowing more pains on its preparation for the Prefs; and from
a2 that.
Vi
PR E FB Sac. 2.
that time he meditated a New Edition, which he conceived might be introduced with confiderable improvement, in point of arrangement, as well as by additions to fuch parts as ap- peared to be defeétive.
In matters of Faé, little occurred for correétion; but he difcovered in feveral inftances, that he was liable to the impu- tation of being obfcure by endeavouring to be concife; or that by fuppofing his Reader already informed of matters familiar to himfelf, he had fometimes omitted circumftances in his de- {criptions, which perfpicuity required to be inferted.
He found reafon alfo to regret the reftraint he had impofed upon himfelf, in his account of the Oriental cuftoms, by con- fidering it as chiefly fubfervient to the medical part of his Work. He knew that the Polity and Manners of the Turks had been amply defcribed by feveral refpeétable Writers; but he had frequent occafion to remark in converfation, that many domeftic minutiz, lying lefs in the way of Travellers, had cither efcaped notice altogether, or been erroneoufly reprefent- ed: while their utility, from their connexion with Scriptural Hiftory, rendered them interefting to the Curious.
It being expedient in the profecution of his plan, to maintain acorrefpondence for procuring additional information from Syria, he communicated his intentions to the prefent Editor, who had lived with him feveral years at Aleppo, and who in 17:53, fucceeded him as Phyfician to the Britifh Factory.
By the earlieft opportunity after the publication of his Book, he tranfmitted a copy to Aleppo, accompanied with a requeft
to the following purpofe, ‘‘ That the whole fhould be critic-
“ally
Bol RO EAF WAS CAE:
‘© ally perufed; that inaccuracies of every kind fhould be “noted, and inquiry made into all fuch matters as feemed <¢ dubious; that corrections or additions fhould be fuggefted ‘¢ with unreferved freedom; and that by attention to objects of *« Natural Hiftory, every afliftance fhould be given to render ‘¢ that part of his Work lefs defective.’—The requeft of a Brother, not lefs endeared by efteem, than by the ties of na- tural affection, met with ready compliance; and had ability been equal to inclination, the communications from Syria, in the courfe of a correfpondence of fourteen years, would have been more important than in reality they proved to be.
The death of the Author, in 1768, caufed a temporary in- terruption of ftudies, which his Brother found himfelf unable to refume, without fuffering, by affociation, many painful re- collections, which for a long while, too fenfibly perhaps, affected his mind.
In the year 1771, the Editor having protracted his ftay on the Continent, in his return from Aleppo, and various obfta- cles intervening after his arrival in Britain, feveral years elapfed before he had an opportunity of examining the papers, be- queathed to him by his deceafed Brother; among which were found the following Manufcripts. The Natural Hiftory, with a few marginal alterations. A Diary of the progrefs of the Plague in 1742, 1743, and 17443; Journals of Peftilcntial Cafes; and The Meteorological Regifter for ten Years. He found alfo feveral of his.own Letters from Syria, in anfwer to Queries fent to him at different times from England.
The pleafure excited on the difcovery of thefe Materials, was foon checked by the reflection, that he who could beft have
V1
PA RO EAPWAR CALE:
have reduced them into order, was in the Grave !—The profe- cution of his Brother’s Plan, now forcibly {truck the Editor, in the light of a debt due to friendfhip; but the difcharge of it was often procraftinated, and entered upon at laft, with fome hefitation. Cheerfully would he have continued to la- bour as an afliftant; but his f{pirits were depreffed at the thoughts of the Tafk devolving fingly on himfelf: while, difident of his own powers, it was not eafy at all times, to fupprefs an apprehenfion, that, by his defective execution of the Work, he might injure the Memory of a Friend, whom his Affection, as well as Gratitude, wifhed to honour.
The Editor has entered into the above explanation of his connexion with the Author, as on that muft be founded his apology (fhould one be wanting) for the unreferved liberty he has taken in new modelling the Performance of another.— It remains to give fome Account of the Alterations and Addi- tions, contained in the prefent Edition.
The various Topics which were difperfed through the Firft Book of the former Edition, have been collected and arranged under feparate Chapters: a deviation from the mifcellaneous mode formerly adopted, which rendered it neceflary to make numerous additionsto the Text. But care has been taken in the infertion of thefe, to affimilate them as nearly as poffible with the ideas of the Author; keeping in view his primary intention of rendering the Introduétioi fubfervient to the Medical part of his Work. In a few inftances, where it was thought he had been mif-informed, or where fome material correétion of the Fext has be.n admitted, an Explanatory Note is either fub-
joined
Pak PAF GRE CAES
joined at the bottom of the page, or placed among the Notes at the end of the Volume.
The prefent Work is divided into Six Books.
The Firft Book contains a Defcription of the City and its Environs; of the Seafons, Agriculture, and Gardens.
The Second contains a general Account of the Inhabitants; a more particular Defcription of the Manners and Cuftoms of the Mohammedans; of the interior of the Turkifh Harem; and a Sketch of the Government of the City.
The Third contains an Account of the European Inhabi- tants; of the native Chriftians and Jews; and of the prefent State of Arab Literature in Syria.
The Fourth Book is wholly employed on the remaining branches of Natural Hiftory, and treats of indigenous Quadru- peds, Birds, Fifhes, Infeéts, and Plants.
The Fifth contains Meteorological Obfervations; with an Account of the Epidemical Difeafes at Aleppo, during the Author’s Refidenee there.
The Sixth and laft Book, treats folely of the Plague; and the Method purfued by the Europeans for their prefervation.
To each Volume are added Notes and Illuftrations, with an Appendix.
The Defcription of the City may appear unnecefiarily prolix, if it is not recolleéted that fome previous acquaintance with Diftriés or local Situations, are requifite for underftanding the progrefs of the Plague: a confideration which induced the Editor toadd a Plan of the City, procured from his refpected friend M. Niebuhr, who kindly communicated one which had
been
Vil
Vill
PU RVEAP YAR,
been engraved for his own Work, but was never publifhed: an obligation I take this public method of acknowledging.
The only additions made to this Plan, are the Names of the Hills, and of certain Streets and Diftri€ts, in the Town and Suburbs, from the Editor’s Notes and recollection. The view of the City prefixed to the Work, was taken from an original Painting now in his pofleffion.
Names of Public Buildings, Public Offices, of Animals, Vege- tables, and various domeftic articles, are occafionally fubjoined in Arabic, as vulgarly written without the vowel points; but, fhould the frequent admiflion of exotic chara¢ters, feem to de- form the page, thofe will be difpofed to excufe it, who have found themfelves embarraffed by the difcordance in the Ortho- graphy of Oriental words: not only among Travellers of different Nations, but among contemporary writers in the
fame language.
With refpeé& to the pronunciation as expreffed in Roman characters, I have endeavoured, as far as my ear and memory would enable me, to adhere to the vulgar ufage at Aleppo, without regard to the ftrict analogy of correfpondent Letters in the two Alphabets. The A, except fometimes in the ar- ticle Al, is always pronounced broad, and the I final is gene- rally to be read as double E (ce).
The Catalogue of Plants, growing in the vicinity of Aleppo, will be found to have undergone material alteration, and to be much improved. But it is my duty to acknowledge that this is to be afcribed to the friendly affiftance of Sir Jofeph Banks, (and the late Doctor Solander,) who, with their ufual readinefs to countenance every attempt tending to the advance-
ment
Ree wf A © #.
ment of Natural Hiftory, beftowed many hours on the exa- mination of a large Collection of Specimens from Syria; and,
after correcting numberlefs errors in the former arrangement, compofed the claflical catalogue now fubftituted for the old one.
Some of the other claffes in Natural Hiftory, particularly thofe of Reptiles and Infe&s, remain nearly in the fame de- fective {tate as in the former Edition; owing partly to the difficulty for many years paft, of procuring fpecimens from Syria: which is the more to be regretted, as the Britifh fettlement at Aleppo having lately been relinquifhed, there is no profpect of future information, but from tranfient travellers.
Since the beginning of the 17th Century, the Curious in Europe, owe moft of what they have learned relating to modern Syria, either to the cafual remarks of mercantile Gen- tlemen fettled abroad, or to the refearches of a few more in- quifitive travellers. The former often poffeffed the advantage of fpeaking the Arabic, but were little verfed in Natural Hiftory and Antiquities ; the latter though better qualified for inquiry by preparatory ftudies, may be fuppofed from ignorance of the language, to have been fometimes led into error by the menial fervants, on whofe fidelity, as Interpreters, they are ufually obliged to rely: while from the mode of travelling, and their fhort ftay in places, fuch matters were left uncx- plored, as, requiring a greater length of time to inveftigate, more naturally became fit objects for perfons refident in the
country. Vou. I. b Du.-ing
PR Eck £7008
During a long refidence abroad, the Editor was often. led to think that a {mall collection of Books on Aftronomy, ancient Geography, and Natural Hiftory, together with a few Inftruments, might advantageoufly have been placed in the Libraries of the Levant Company, at their principal Settle- ments ; to which might be added, heads of inquiry adapted to the refpedtive ftations, under the form of Queries. At the fame time, it feems advifeable that the progrefs already made in the fubjeé& fhould be pointed out, with fuch Books as might aftord auxiliary hints.
By affiftance of this kind, fome of the Gentlemen fettled abroad, would be induced to dedicate a portion of their leifure to purfuits, of which they otherwife would never have thought: while that difcouragement would be leffened, which, in fituations remote from literary communication, is produced by the apprehenfion of felecting from the various local objeéts of refearch, fuch as are already fuffciently known in Europe ; and of wafting in fuperfluous labour, that time which, under proper direétion, might have been ufefully employed.
In confequence of fuch an eftablifhment, the fubjeéts of refearch, contracted within narrower bounds, would be pur- fued with more vigour; and perfons abroad, being more con- fident of their communications proving acceptable in Europe, would more readily tranfmit their obfervations.
The negle& of inquiries, when in Syria, from a miftaken notion of their being unneceflary, becaufe already made, is now with regret remembered by the Editor; and conceiving the like apprehenfion may have becn experienced at other Britifh fettlements in remote parts of the Globe, he is per-
fuaded that a well concerted Plan of the nature fugzgefted above,
rR B wa CS EK
above, might be widely extended, and conduce greatly to the improvement of Natural Hiftory.
The account of the domeftic manners of the inhabitants of Aleppo, has for reafons already mentioned, been much extend- ed. But it is the wifh of the Editor, not to be underftood as infinuating that the additional circumftances incorporated with the text are altogether new. He is not ignorant that fome of them have not only been mentioned by former travellers, but have alfo been more circumftantially defcribed; nor is he in- fenfible, that his reading is far from being fufficiently extenfive, to warrant him in thinking that thofe facts have never been publifhed, which he has not happened to meet with in Books. What he has added, is either from his own experience, or from verbal information collected on the {pot ; his remarks may there- fore be confidered, as accidentally confirming the teftimony of thofe travellers, with whofe obfervations they may happen to coincide. Inthe mean while, the fault of blending the different orders of Society, in the defcription of Eaftern Manners, which has too often juftly been imputed to travellers, and from which the contradictory defcriptions, refpeéting the economy of the higher ranks, have chiefly proceeded, has feduloufly been
avoided.
By the additions regarding the religion of the Mohamme- dans, it was intended to exhibit a concife account of their re- ligious practices, without entering into a detail of their rites and ceremonies. Their {peculative Theology and Metaphyfics have been left untouched; but a few ftri€tures on what feemed
b2 to
x1
Xil
PR 2 Fie Ge
to be prejudices, or inferences rafhly drawn from external appearances, have been inferted among the Notes.
Whatever is faid refpeéting the Polity of the Turks, fhould be underftood in a fenfe reftri@ed to a Provincial City, as well as to the magiftrates placed at a diftance from the immediate control of the Porte: whence -peculiarities, in their nature merely local, may probably be remarked.
Should the charaéter drawn of the Turks, and the other inhabitants of Aleppo, be found fomewhat different from that in which they fometimes have been reprefented, it fhould be recollected that in the lapfe of years, national manners undergo a change, even in the Eaft; and that the fame objeéts make a very different imprefiion, when viewed tranfiently, or at leifure. The Editor, though he can fafely difclaim intentional mifre- prefentation, aiferts his pretenfions to impartiality with more diffidence: fenfible as he is, of the extreme difficulty of di- vefting one’s felf of prejudices contraéted in familiar intercourfe with the Natives, in a long feries of years; and convinced that opinions formed of Men and Manners, from private ex- perience, muft inevitably in the reprefentation to others, take fome tincture from the obferver’s condition of life, as well as from his conftitutional temper.
The Author, in conformity to his general Plan, was very brief in his account of the Harem. The Editor therefore, availing himfelf of a licence affumed on other occafions, has entered more at large on a fubject of general curiofity, and but imperfeétly known in Britain.
For
a pRD fa ed AAT eC
For many years before he engaged in the prefent Work, he had little leifure for perufing the journals of Eaftern travellers; and after his return to Britain, he refolved, with a view to avoid blending matters collected from reading, with what might be fuggefted by his experience in Turkey, not to look into Books of Travels, till he fhould have fketched from recollection, all he meant to infert as fupplementary to his Brother’s Book. It was his intention after this, to perufe as many as time would permit, and comparing them with his own Manufcript as he proceeded, to note down fuch circumftances as fhould appear to him new, doubtful, or erroneous.
In this courfe of reading, fome of the early travels were perufed with much fatisfaction. The writers, though credu- lous in fome things, were generally found correct in thofe matters which fell under their own obfervation ; and however miftaken zeal might fometimes betray them into mifreprefen- tation of the religion and moral practice of the Mohammedans, their prejudices did not perhaps influence their accounts of the manners of the people, more than fubtile Theories of civil Society have, in modern times, influenced the obfervations of fome more philofophical travellers.
If the Editor had fometimes the mortification to find him- felf under the neceflity of differing from writers whofe accu- racy he refpeéted, he often on the other hand, had the fatif- faction to find them, in the moft material circumftances, agree with the Author, and himfelf, and occafionally prove more full than either. In the firft cafe, a note was fufficient to explain, or reconcile the difference; and in the fecond, references to fuch Authors whofe defcriptions feemed to be moft exaét, were all that was required.
Where
Xiil
XIV
PP!) RE ie Gar
Where he met with circumftances, which he did not before know had been detailed in Books, it was not confidered as a reafon for defacing his Manufcript: the analogous paffage was permitted to remain in its place, and in fome inftan- ces confirmed by citing the concordant teftimony in a note. It was not meant to rejeét whatever had been faid before, for that reafon only; but to give a concife account of the Inha- bitants of an Afiatic City, holding many things in common with a mighty people, whofe general cuftoms have often been defcribed.
In colleéting materials for the intended notes, various matters prefented themfelves for difcuffion, which required more room than could well be afforded at the bottom of the page, with- out rifk of diftra@ting the attention of the Reader. Hence naturally arofe a diftinétion between fuch Notes as more im- mediately tended to elucidate the Text, and fuch as, though alfo illuftrative, were fo in a more remote degree. With re- fpect to the firft, they are progreflively fubjoined to the Text, or fimple references are made to Authors: as to the latter, which are difpofed at the end of each Volume, a greater latitude of citation was admitted ; hiftorical anecdotes, and allufions were introduced more freely; and fome of them, being intend- ed for thofe Readers who may be difpofed to purfue the fub- ject farther than the Text intended to go, may be perufed, or not, at the option of the reader.
The chapter on Literature might have been rendered much more interefting, by one more converfant in Oriental Learning. All the Editor has prefumed to attempt, is fuch an imperfe& account, as a very moderate knowledge of the Arabic language, enabled him to colleé& in converfation with the Ullama*. A
* Literati.
fketch
rR £ FOS eve.
fketch of Arabic learning; not as preferved in the neglected volumes of ancient Authors, but as it exifts at prefent at Aleppo. To this fketch are added copious Notes, compiled from various Books; and in the Appendix to the Second Vo- lume, a Lift is given of the principal Arab Medical Writers, together with fome hiftorical remarks: and likewife a com- prefled account of the introdudtion of the Greek Phyfic among the Saracens in Spain.
It may here be proper to deprecate the feverity of the Orientalift, for Typographical errors in the Arabic words, which the Editor is afraid, notwithftanding the pains taken to prevent them, will too frequently occur.
The Fifth Book, which commences with an account of the weather, was found on revifal, to require little or no correc- tion; a few remarks only, fuggefted by fubfequent obfervation, have been added in the form of Notes.
The influence that may be afcribed to the weather, whether in the production of Epidemical Difeafes, or in the fpreading fuch as are contagious, can only be afcertained by a long feries of impartial obfervations. To fill up, therefore, the chafm in the former Edition, occafioned by the omiffion of three years, an account of the weather in that interval, ex- tracted from the original Meteorological Regifter, has been in- ferted in its proper place.
The Author himfelf having beftowed more pains on the Medical, than on the other parts of his work, little was left for the Editor, befides the neceflary tranfpofition of paragraphs, in confequence of the alteration made in the arrangement of Chapters. The Author’s fenfe has been carefully preferved,
and variation from his expreflion admitted, only in matters of little
XV
XVI
P R E 8% ©.
little moment. Few additions have been made to the Text, except in the general account of the annual difeafes, where they feemed to be required.
The Sixth and laft Book, treats of the Plague; and the method of fhutting up Houfes againft infection. It has been fubdivided into Chapters; and faéts and circumftances which before lay too widely feparated or difperfed, have been brought together under their refpective heads) A few Explanatory Notes are alfo fubjoined.
The Editor is fully fenfible, that the propriety of his nu- merous Notes, and his felection of Authorities, as well as the judgement exercifed in refpeét to the additions interwoven with the Text, muft not expe& to meet from all with equal appro- bation. In a complicated Work of this kind, the expeétation of Readers is not lefs various than their different difpofitions and purfuits: what to one may afford entertainment, or, per- haps, information, to another may appear fuperfluous, tedious, or fuperficial. It certainly was his wifh, and his beft endea- vours have been exerted, to fatisfy in fome degree, the mode- rate expectations of every one, who may happen to perufe the following fheets: but his vanity feels no humiliation in ac- knowledging a confcioufnefs, that it required other, and far greater powers than he poffefles, to fucceed completely in fo arduous an attempt,
London, Fune 18, 1794.
ADVER-
EUV OE OR POTS ME NT
PREFIXED TO THE FIRST EDITION.
HE Author’s intention, when he firft began to
digeft his materials, was only to exhibit an ac- count of the epidemic difeafes at Aleppo, particularly of the Plague, which raged three years in that city during his refidence therein. A long and extenfive practice among all ranks and degrees of people, had furnifhed him with the means of being perfectly well acquainted with the cuftoms and manners of the inha- bitants. The neighbourhood of this place, its fite, and natural productions, he found had not been fo fully de- {cribed, but that there ftill was room left for improve- ment. Inftead, therefore, of confining himfelf fingly to fo much of the general hiftory of the place as might’ be fufficient for the purpofe of his profeffion, he has en- tered into the fubject more at large, and has endeavoured to prefent the reader with a fuccinét, but at the fame time an exa¢t account of fuch things relative thereto as feemed moft to merit attention. It muft however be remembered that his obfervations are confined to one city, and its environs only. Other places, and thofe
too at no great diftance, may have other cuftoms; and wou, I. | Cc to
XVlll
A.D ¥ Esk Tf WS Boe TT.
to this it may be afcribed, that different writers on the head of the cuftoms cf Eaftern nations, prefent us with very different accounts.
When it is confidered that the Author refided many years abroad, and converfed daily in other languages more than in his own, which he had but little leifure to cultivate, the defects in his ftyle, it is hoped, will be
forgiven.
In the plates he has not only endeavoured to give an idea of the various drefles of the people, but a view of their furniture, habitations, and amufements.
The birds and fifhes here delineated are fuch as, to the beft of the Author’s knowledge, have not before been properly reprefented, and thofe of the plants are chiefly of the fame kind. So many of the Arabic names of thefe as were collected, would have been given, had it been poffible to have expreffed them juftly in Englifh characters, or eafy to have had them correétly printed in Arabic; in which language, it muft be obferved, all the names of places, &c. in this work are given, unlefs mentioned to be otherwife.
The different fubjects in the firft part were intended to have been pointed out, by varying the running-title according to the fubject; but, by miftake, this was omitted till too late.
The
mY -E R T Pash cee iN. UT.
The method ufed by the Europeans for their pre- fervation during the rage of a Peftilence was chiefly in- tended for the ufe of the Author’s friends in Aleppo, to whom it was prefented on his leaving that country. To thofe in Europe he fincerely wifhes that it may never otherwife be ufeful than to fatisfy their curiofity.
How far the Author’s abilities have been equal to the tafk he has undertaken, the Public will judge; and he intreats their candour. ‘That he has had fair opportu- nities of obferving, that he has given a faithful narrative of facts, and that he has ufed no falfe colouring in his re- prefentation, he prefumes to appeal to his contempora- ries and acquaintance, who, in vifiting thofe places again in his defcription, may perhaps call to mind many agreeable hours they have fpent in fcenes far diftant from their native country. *
» The Firft Edition was dedicated to Alexander Drummond, Efq. Confu}, the Gentlemen of the Britifh Fa€tory at Aleppo; and thofe now in England, who have formerly refided there.
Cc 2 CONTENTS,
xix
hte EN od on Bet Net Loo nth
OF THE
Bel Resi TT). Ve O LoVe Mes,
BO, Q4K Th DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY AND THE PARTS ADJACENT.
CHAP.* i
DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY.
LATITUD E—Situation—The River Kowick—Walls of the City—Gates—Hilly Diftri¢ts— Streets —Mofques— Khanes— Bazars—Coffee-Houfes—Seraglios, or Palaces—State Apart- ments—Divans—Kiofk—Harem—Dwelling Houfes—Of the Agas—Of the Merchants—Of the Chriftians, and the Jews —Keifarias—The Caftle of Aleppo, &c. &c. &c. Pave 1
CirAP.. tb
OF THE AQUEDUCT, GARDENS, AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.
Tue Aqueduét—Private Refervoirs—Public Fountains—Wells— Aleppo Gardens, on the Banks of the River and Aqueduét— Defcription of the Gardens—Orchards, and Piftachio Planta- tions—Quarries—Stone, Lime and Clay—Fuller’s Earth— Valley of Salt—Sunk Village—Muneral Springs, on the Scan- deroon Road, and at Khillis—General Sketch of the Maritime Coaft, and of the Face of the Country - - 41
GH AP, Ht.
OF THE SEASONS AT ALEPPO, THE HUSBANDRY, AND VARIOUS PRODUC- TIONS OF THE GARDENS, AND CULTIVATED FIELDS.
Description of the Seafons—Hot Winds—Rain—Snow and Ice —Lightning—Hail—Meteors—Aurora Borealis not obferved at Aleppo
XX
Cc O NT 2a
Aleppo—Earthquakes—Soil and Hufbandry—Subterraneous Granaries—Water Mills—Articles of Cultivation, Cotton, Tobacco, Olives, Vines, &c.—Caftor and Sefamum Oil— Piftachio Nuts—Mulberry—Pomegranate, Fig, &c.—Orange and Lemon Trees houfed in the Winter—Efculent Roots, Legumes, and other Vegetables. = ate. Page
BD O © Xe i. OF THE INHABITANTS. OF THE Cia Cia 2 Eee
OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.
NuMBER of Inhabitants—Language—Stature and Complexion—
Drefs of the Men—Turban—Drels of the Women—Female Jewels, and Ornaments—Eaftern Drefs has undergone fome Alteration, in Cities—Staining the Nails, Eyelids, Eyebrows, and Beard—Perfumes—Women always veiled, when they walk abroad—Diet of the Inhabitants—Preparations of Milk, named Kaimak, and Leban—Coffee—Tobacco—Perfian Man- ner of Smoking—Ufe of Opium far from general—Intoxicating
Herb ufed with Tobacco. = = 2
CHAP.a
OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.
Tue Bagnios, and mode of Bathing defcribed—Depilatory—The
Ziraleet, or Exclamation of the Women, expreflive of Joy— People lead a fedentary Life—Games—Dances—Regular Hours —Beds and Night-drefs—Coffee-Houfe Entertainments, Pup- pet Show, Story Tellers, 8&c.—Turkith Mufic—Various In- ftruments—Vocal Mufic—Feftive Entertainments—Buffoons, &c. &c. - > =
63
97
131
CASE:
eomnpvperM Ds nee
CG FLAIR, Fim
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
Distinction of the Mohammedan Inhabitants—Ofmanli—Ullama —Agas, &c.—Merchants—Different ‘Trades—Arabs—Turk- mans, &c. &c.—Turkifh Mode of Living—Ceremonial Vifits —Dinner, &c.—Dict of the ordinary Ranks—LEvening Con- verfation—Religion and Women, Topics feldom introduced there—Drunkennefs not a common Vice. i Page 158
CH APs iv.
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
ReLicious Ceremonies—Fafts—Byrams—Obfervances at the Feaft after Ramadan—Ablutions and Prayers—Attendance at Mofque — Minarets — Pilgrimage — Circumcifion — Alms— Monks—Dancing Dervifes—lItinerant Sheihs—Idiots, and Madmen—Tourks not zealous in making Converts—Toleration in Turkey—Mohammedanshold all other Religions in Contempt —Eunuchs—Exercifes—The Gired—Charaéter of the Turks —Slavery in Turkey—Hofpitality—The Turks a domettic People—Refignation under Misfortune—Natives of Aleppo feldom travel. - - - ~ 186
CAAA nM
OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.
Entrance of the Harem—Superintendent, or Harem Kehiafy— Morning Vifits, of the Ladies—Grandees attended by Females, in the Harem—Their Amufements—Female Pedlers—Auftere Behaviour of the Men, in prefence of the Women—The Turks when indifpofed, retire into the Harem—Reception of Phyfi- cians, and mode of their vifit, defcribed—Ordinary Employ- ment and amufements of the Jadies—Diverfions out of the Harem—Female Intrigues—Female Education—Perfons and Drefs of the Ladies—Female Slaves—Remarks on the Patfiion of Love in Turkey. - - - - 236
CHAP.
XXIV
Nores and Illuftrations = BE s APPENDIX.
CO 'N Ti Rit ays.
CH APA 1: OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.
PotycAmMy—Divorce—Interior GEconomy of the Harem—Mar-
riage Ceremonies—Comparative Eftimate of Connubial Hap- pinefs in Turkey—Women feldom interfere in Politics—Re- {peét paid them in Public—Poligamy as it refpeéts Population —Child-bed Ceremonies—Funeral Ceremonies—The Wulwaly, or Dirge—Vifitation of the Sepulchres. - - Page
CH APS AE
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEPPO.
ExTeEntT of the Bafhawlick—The Revenue of the Governors—The
Bafhaw perambulates the City, in difguife—The Cady, and Courts of Juftice—The Mufti—The Nakeeb, or Chief of the Greenheads—The Divan of the City—Soldiery—Bafhaw not abfolutely defpotic—Intrigues in the Divan—lInfurreétions occafioned by fcarcity of Grain—Punifhments—Decline of the Ancient Political Principles of the Ottoman Government— Prophecy of the Ruin of the Empire—The frequent Change of Bafhaws produétive of numerous Evils, in the Provinces— Mountainous Diftriéts lefs fubjeét to Oppreffion, and better cultivated—The depreffed State of the Peafants—Hamlets de- ferted on Account of the Depredations of difbanded Cavalry,
&c. = = a a 2 r
276
THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF ALEPPO.
B,OnQoKy evh
DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY AND THE PARTS ADJACENT.
CEH A Py iol DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY.
LATITUDE—SITUATION—THE RIVER KOWICK—WALLS OF THE CITY-- GATES—HILLY DISTRICTS—STREETS—MOSQUES--KHANES—BAZARS —COFFEE-HOUSES—SERAGLIOS; OR PALACES—STATE APARTMENTS —DIVANS~—KIOSK—HAREM—DWELLING HOUSES—OF THE AGAS— OF THE MERCHANTS—OF THE CHRISTIANS, AND THE JEWS—KEI- SARIAS—THE CASTLE OF ALEPPO, ETC. ETC. ETC.
ALEPPO ', the prefent metropolis of Syria, is deemed, in importance, the third city in the Ottoman dominions. In fituation, magnitude, population, and
*In Arabic Uta Haleb; to which is ufually added the epithet Ligiw! Al Shahba. Note I.
It has by fome been fuppofed to be the Zobah of Scripture, 2 Sam. vill. 12. But the authority for its being the Berrhcea of the Greeks is better founded. Note II.
Vo. I. B opulence,
CH AP.
2
A’ DESCRIPTION
BOOK opulence, it is much inferior to Conftantinople and
‘~ Cairo; nor can it prefume to emulate the courtly fplen-
dor of either of thofe cities. But in falubrity of air, in the folidity and elegance of its private buildings, as well as the convenience and neatnefs of its ftreets, Aleppo may be reckoned fuperior to both: and, though no longer poffefled of the fame commercial advantages as in former times, it ftill continues to maintain a fhare of trade far from inconfiderable ”.
The latitude of Aleppo is thirty-fix degrees, eleven minutes, twenty-five feconds North. The longitude from Greenwich, thirty-feven degrees, nine minutes, Eaft. Its height from the level of the fea, is confiderable, but has not hitherto been afcertained. “The diftance from Scan- deroon, (the neareft fea port) is between fixty and feventy miles, in a ftraight line; but the ufual road for caravans, through Antioch, is computed to be between ninety and an hundred miles.
In clear weather, the top of mount Cafius +, bearing Weft by South, and part of the mountain Amanus to the Northward, may be feen diftinétly from feveral parts of the town.
Somewhat nearer, to the Weft by North, at the diftance of thirty miles, appears the remarkable conical hill named Sheih Barakat ; and ten miles to the South South Eaft is
PocNNote> 197: > Connoiffance du Temps. 1792. * Jible al Akrah. The Bald Mountain,
feen
OF THE! CLITXA0OON ALEPPO.
3
feen part of a narrow chain of rocky hills, called by the © 4/4 ¥
Europeans the Black Mountains, which runs out towards the Defert by the Valley of Salt. But none of thefe mountains are fuppofed to have much influence on the air of the city, except perhaps mount Amanus in the winter, when crowned with fnow; and the neareft part of that mountain is between thirty and forty miles diftant.
Aleppo is encompaffed, at the diftance of a few miles, by a circle of hills, which, though not high, are in moft places higher than the rifing grounds nearer the town. They are in general rocky, fcantily provided with fprings, and totally deftitute of trees, but they afford good paf- ture for fheep and goats, and many fpots among them are cultivated. The fpace within this circle is compofed of a few floping hills, and numerous hillocks, interfected by plains and little valleys. The foil in fome of the plains is of a reddifh, or black, colour, rich and fertile, but in general it is whitifh, fhallow, and mixed with many {mall ftones. The high grounds are, for the moft part, thinly covered with this poor whitifh mould, and in many places towards the fummit, they exhibit the bare chalky rock.
The river Kowick 5 glides with a flow and filent cur- rent Weftward of the city. This river, which is faid to rife near Aintab, enters the boundary of Aleppo by a
ae 5
Be narrow
4.
A DESCRIPTION
B00 narrow valley a little below the village Heylan, and, after enya feveral windings through the gardens, arrives at the
king’s Meidan®, within three miles of the city to the North Weft. Flowing thence, in a South- -eafterly direction, it eradually approaches the town, and within a quarter of a mile of one of the Weftern gates, making a fudden turn Kaftward, it pafles near that gate, under a bridge leading to the fuburb Mafhirka. It then, after a courfe of about one third of a mile, to the Weft of South, turns off from the city towards the hills, and leaving mount Zeilet’ on the right, it purfues a Southerly courfe of three or four miles, through a cultivated valley, before it regains the open country. Where the Aleppo gardens terminate, the banks of the river being remarkably verdant, the Franks, or Europeans, often, in their excurfions, choofe this as a pleafant fituation for the tent.
The Kowick is reduced to a fmall ftream by the time it reaches Aleppo: having been let off into the adjacent fields in its way from Aintab, as well as drained of large quantities of water for the ufe of the Aleppo gardens, commencing at Heylan. In the winter, when thofe tri- butes are not exacted, this river flows in a bolder cur- rent. I have known it, in fome winters, fwell to a formidable river, lay the lower garden grounds under water, and overflow the bridges. In fuch remarkable
feafons, vaft flocks of ftorks took poffeffion of the gardens,
© Al Meidan al Ahder—The Green Meidan.
7 Jible Nehafs. ; a bird
OF THE) (CIfY3OF! ALEPPO.
5
a bird feldom feen in other years, except in ftraggling c HAP.
parties.
Thefe extraordinary floods of the river happen only in very wet feafons, or when much {now has fallen to the Northward. In moft fummers the channel of the Kowick below the gardens is almoft quite dry, and continues fo for feveral miles, till recruited from fprings in its own bed, and from the fountain of Rigib Bafhaw, fix or feven miles from the town. From the appearance of the Kowick in the fummer, it cannot eafily be conceived how a ftream fo inconfiderable fhould have proved fo fatal to the Chriftian army encamped on its banks, when the Franks, in the time of the holy wars, befieged the city *.
The ground rifes from the banks of the river to the town by a gentle afcent, interrupted by a few hillocks. On the oppofite fide of the town, the country, for the moft part, is flat and open to the bottom of the fur- rounding hills. On the South-fide, the ground is rocky and uneven, and the hillocks in fome places, approaching very near the ditch, overlook the ramparts. On the North-fide, the hill in one place begins to {well gradually from the fkirt of the fuburb, but in others, the hills rife more abruptly, and fome of the fuburbs are built on the declivity.
The city of Aleppo, including its extenfive fuburbs, occupies eight fmall hills of unequal height, the inter- mediate vailies, and a confiderable extent of flat ground:
* Note IV. the
Qe eed
6
A DESCRIPTION
BOOK the whole comprehending a circuit of about feven
{eae coed
miles %.
The city itfelf is not above three miles and a half in circumference; and is furrounded by an ancient wall, which, like thofe of other fortified towns in that country, is mouldering faft into ruin through neglect. M. d’Ar- vieux '° reprefents them as in a ruinous condition in his time. The walls are generally fuppofed to have been built, or in moft places at leaft repaired, by the Mamaluke princes, and this indeed feems probable, when it is con- fidered how much the city fuffered from the Tartar con- quefts in the year 1260, under Hulaku, and again under Tamerlane in the year 1400. ‘They certainly bear no marks of high antiquity, though it may reafonably be con- jectured, from the narrow openings in the towers adapted to the bow, and the fize of the ftones employed in many parts of the works, that they are anterior to the ufe of cannon, and belong to an zra when the warlike fpirit of the times, as well as the unfettled condition of the coun- try, maintained univerfally a maflive ftyle of architecture which has long been obfolete in Syria.
Befides the wall, the city was formerly fortified with a broad deep ditch; which at prefent is in moft places
° The circuit was performed on horfeback in two hours and four mi- nutes, and [ am inclined to think that in riding out an airing (not encum- bered with baggage) the ufual progrefs is nearer four miles an hour than three and a half.
© ‘Note’ ¥.
OF, TRE) CITYD OR), ALEPPO.
cs
filled up with rubbifh, or converted into garden grounds. c HAP.
In fome parts, more efpecially on the North fide of the =
town, the gardens thus formed are of confiderable extent, affording an agreeable profpect from the houfes, which by gradual encroachments have been raifed on the ruins of the old ramparts; but the putrid exhalations from the {tagnant water, at certain feafons, prove offenfive and unwholfome to thofe who dwell there.
The city at prefent has nine gates ; two to the South, two to the Eaft, the fame number to the North, and three to the Weft. The moft magnificent of thefe gates, but the moft decayed, is Kinafreen Gate '', fo called from a place of that name, formerly a principal city of Syria” By the Europeans it is called the Prifon Gate. The next Southern gate is called Bab al Makam "3, or Damaf- cus Gate. Between thefe two the wall runs for fome way along the ridge of a high fteep rock, inclofing two fides of one of the principal hills of the town, called Kullat al Shereef. On the Eaft fide, the firft gate is that of Neereb ; the other is only a poftern, and is named the Red Gate '*. On the North fide is Iron Gate '5, leading
* yay pot WL Bab Kinafreen. This gate is fuppofed to have been built by Saif al Doula eben Hamdan, about the end of the tenth century, and rebuilt about the year 1244, by Milek al Nafer, great grandfon ef Saladin.
* Note VI.
* So named from its leading to the Makam, ple. or {tation of Abraham.
It was begun by Milek al Daher, and finithed by his fon Milek al Azeez. ** Bab al Ahmer.
** Eab al Hadeed; formerly called Bab Bankufa. to
8
A DESCRIPTION
BOOK to the fuburb Bankufa. On the fame fide, but more “~~ Weftward, is Bab al Nafer, called by the Europeans, St.
Georges Gate. It formerly was called the Jews Gate ; but that name was changed by the fon of Saladin, Milek al Daher, who rebuilt the gate more fuperbly than it had been before, and called it Bab al Nafer, or Gate of Vic- | tory. Under this gate a lamp is conftantly burning, near an iron grate ;. and the Turks may often be obferved to {top there for a few minutes, and to mutter certain prayers or ejaculations. According to the miflionaries, it was once the refidence of the prophet Elifha, and the lamps are kept burning in commemoration of that faint °°. From Damafcus Gate to the Iron Gate, the wall ftands on the plain, is of no great height, and in many places low and ruinous: the moat is hardly vifible. But from {ron Gate to St. George’s Gate the wall is of a very con- fiderable height, and the moat very broad, inclofing a fecond hilly diftri@, named Jibeely. From St. George’s to the firft Weftern gate the wall has alfo been of great height, but is now converted into high piles of private houfes, inhabited by the Jews.
The wall on the Weft fide of the town is lofty and well built, but in many places its ruin has been haftened by the encroachments of the private buildings within. The ditch is moftly filled up, though not planted as in other parts; the high road paffing under the wall. The
"© Memoires des Miffions dans Le Levant. Paris, 1793. Tom. vi.
p. I 75: firit
OF THEY Crim OU AREPPO. 9
firft gate on that fide is Bab al Furrage '’, known to the ¢ #4 P. Franks by the name of Garden Gate. It is of mean ap- —~—~ pearance in refpect of all the others, except the Red Gate. The next gate, which ftands about two hundred paces to the South, is by the Franks called the Dark Gate, but by the natives, Bab al Ginein* It leads to the bridge which croffes the Kowick at this place in the way to the fuburb Mafhirka. ‘The ninth and laft gate opens to the great Weftern road, and is called Antioch Gate '9. Between St. George’s Gate and Garden Gate lies Bahfeeta, one of the more elevated diftricts. Between the Dark Gate and Antioch Gate, are two hills, or rifings, of which the higheft is called the Akaby ; and towards Prifon Gate is a fifth named Jilloom. But a more lofty hill than any of thofe hitherto mentioned, is that on which the caftle is built. This appears at firft fight to be in the centre of the city, but is in fact not far from the
This gate, according to Eben Shiddad, was, at firft, called Bab Pha- radeefe, or Gate of Gardens. Bab al Abara was another appellation be- flowed on it.—It was originally built by Milek al Daher, but afterwards fhut up, and not opened again till the reign of his grandfon Milek al Nafer.
iN peeved WL Bab al Ginein, fo pronounced at Aleppo, and written ; but by Eben Shuhny always written Ginan, (.,, who fays it was fo called from its leading tothe gardens; Ginan, like Pharadeefe, fignifying gardens.
*» Bab Antakee ath WL In the year 962, this gate was deftroyed by the Emperor Nicephorus, but foon after rebuilt by Saif al Dowla, eben Hamdan. In Al Nafar’s time it was again deftroyed, and by that prince rebuilt, about the year 1244.
moi, I. & North
to A DESCRIPTION
BOOK North Eaft corner, when the fuburbs are not included. —-— It is encompaffed by a broad deep ditch about half a mile in circumference ; which, except in a few places where the water conftantly remains, is, like the foffe of the town, planted with trees, reeds, or kitchen greens. ‘The earth removed in making this ditch, may probably have been employed in levelling the fides of the hill, which, no doubt, owe in fome meafure their prefent form to art ; and in fome places the declivity from top to bottom is faced with hewn ftones: but for its height it appears to be indebted to nature alone; the live rock being vifi- ble on the fummit, a few feet under the furface ; and, in digging the foundation of houfes within the caftle, the ~ fame ftrata are difcovered as in the other eminences in the neighbourhood.
Several travellers fpeak of the Caftle Hill as an arti- ficial mount, in which cafe it would indeed be a furpriz- ing work. The learned Golius, who had feen it, fpeaks of it in fuch a manner as to favour the opinion, and, on the authority of an Arab writer, fays the number of co- lumns employed in fupporting the mount, was eight thoufand. It would have been ftrange to form at great — expence an artificial mount on which to build a caftle, when fo many convenient natural hills prefented them- {elves on all hands: befides, the received tradition con- cerning the patriarch Abraham’s refidence there, ex- cludes the notion of the hill being artificial. But ocular infpection of the ftrata at the top puts the matter beyond
doubt.
OF THE! CIP ALEPPO. II
doubt. On the other hand, much art has been employed ¢ HAP. to fmooth the hill, and the declivity in many places is fo ~~ fteep, that it became neceflary to fupport the foil, which might otherwife have been wafhed away by the heavy rains. Subftructions intended for that purpofe are vifible in fome parts of the declivity, where the falling away of the earth has left them bare; thefe confift of howara or chalk ftone. At the period when Golius was at Aleppo, the Europeans did not enjoy the fame privileges in Turkey they have done fince, and, the means of information be- ing confequently more difficult, he has in fome circum- {tances relative to Aleppo been mifled, while his account in other refpecis, fo far as his own obfervation went, is very exact. The fuburbs without Damafcus Gate fpread irregularly a confiderable way to the South Eaft, but that part only has been reckoned in the circuit of the town which lies almoft contiguous to the walls. That fuburb, as well as the others which extend from Neereb Gate to Bankufa, are inhabited chiefly by Turkmans, Kurdeens, Arabs, and others employed in hufbandry. Immediately with- out Iron Gate, commences the fuburb Bankufa, which extends a confiderable way between the North and the Eaft, ftanding partly in the plain, but moftly on the fteep declivity of feveral hills, which are diftinguifhed by dif- ferent names, as Sheih Yaprak, Sheih al Arab, &c. This fuburb contains many handfome houfes, feveral mofques, or chapels, bazars, khanes, and coffee houfes. i 2 Among
a A DESCRIPTION
Boo©x Among other markets, that for corn is kept there; and
—~— the conftant concourfe of people, as well as of caravans, is not lefs confiderable than in the moft crouded bazars within the walls. Many wealthy Shereefs, or Green- heads, dwell in Bankufa, as likewife the Delibafh, and other foldiery. The people have little commerce with {ftrangers, and are lefs civilized than in the interior parts of the town. In all popular tumults they commonly take the lead, and compofe a formidable body.
From Bankufa other extenfive fuburbs fpread to the North Weft; and ftill further Weftward are the Hizazy and Jideida ; in all which, efpecially the two laft, a large proportion of the inhabitants are Chriftians. On the Weft fide of the town lie the fuburbs Mafhirka and Hizazy ; the former on the oppofite fide of the Kowick. Both are inhabited by Turks of the lower clafs.
The annexed plan of the city, will convey a better idea of the relative fituation of diftricts than any verbal defcription, and, in tracing the progrefs or courfe of the plague at Aleppo, it will be found of ufe to have fome previous notion of the fite of thofe diftricts neceflarily mentioned in the narrative. A few remarks on the plan, by way of elucidation are fubjoined *°.
7° In this plan, which I received from my efteemed friend Mr. Nieburh, with permiffion to make whatever ufe of it I thought fit, I have, in the interior of the city and fuburbs, inftead of ftreets, marked the ele- vated diftricts, and inferted a few of the principal buildings. I have like- wife ventured, from recollection, to trace a flight alteration in the courfe of the river from Kitab’s Bridge, (28 to 29) as alfo in the fituation of the fuburb
YW re |
> OF THE
oe
] C Luftle of A
Lat irk: Na cid oi, eth vba AM) Pit do
Brees: \ es
oa rote
e of one Statute Mile
OFF THE CITEAcGH ALEPPO, 13
The Caftle of Aleppo may be diftinguifhed at a con- © #,4 P: fiderable diftance ; but in his approach from the Weft, a ~~
fuburb Mafhirka, and have marked the bridge leading to that fuburb. But in order to avoid deforming Mr. Nieburh’s valuable plan, thefe variations
are diftinguithed by dotted lines. REFERENCES TO THE PLAN OF THE CITY.
Son So Og oho ob
CON An PW N =
14
Bab Kinafreen Bab al Makam Bab al Neereb Bab al Ahmer Bab al Hadeed Bab al Nafer Bab al Furrage Bab al Ginein Bab Antakee Bab al Jideida Bab al Urbain Bab al Kurad
Seraglio
Great Mofque Mahkamy Great Khane Jews Contrada Sahet Bizzy Khafeely
Haret Bab al Neereb Beiada & Firafara
Abfey’s Khane Khanes Bankufa
Arian
Jideida
mS HAO an oD
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
The Caftle
Kullat al Shereef Jibeely
Bahfeeta
Ohabeit al Yafamine Al Akaby
Al Jilloom
Sheih Yaprak
Sheih Araby
Sheih Antar
Skak al Urbain Market Place Saleeby, Chriftian Churches Caftle Haramy Haret al Kurad Makamat Phardoofe Killafy
Rope Village Mathirka Aquedu&
Burial Grounds Sheih Abubecker Kitab’s Bridge
Were the city to be divided by a line carried from St. George’s Gate to about fifty paces Weft of Prifon Gate, four high diftriéts would be found
in
T4
A DESCRIPTION
BOOX traveller can fee little more of the city till he gains the “~~ brow of one of the adjacent hills, within two or three
miles of the gates, whence it becomes a ftriking object, and, though part only can be obferved from. that point of view, it appears of vaft extent. The mofques, the minarets, and numerous cupolas, form a fplendid fpec- tacle ; and the flat roofs of the houfes which are fituated on the hills, rifing one behind another, prefent a fuccef- fion of hanging terraces, interfperfed with cyprus and poplar trees. “lowering above all, in a fituation to com- mand the whole, ftands the caftle, which from that diftance feems to have fome claim to refpect.
But the ideas of fplendor, fuggefted by a diftant profpect of the city, ufually fubfide upon entering the gates. ‘The ftreets, on account of the high ftone walls on each hand, appear gloomy, and more narrow than
in the lower or Weftern divifion, namely Bahfeeta, Ohabeit al Yaffamine, Akaby, Jilloom. The intermediate ground, though not abfolutely flat, may in general be called a plain, particularly between the bottom of the two laft mentioned hills and the Seraglio; and in that area are fituated fome of the principal mofques and bazars; the cuftom houfe; and the khanes in- habited by the Europeans. In the Eaftern divifion, would be found Kullat al Shereef, Jibeely, the Caftle, and the Seraglio. ‘Towards Neereb Gate the ground is nearly level, but in moft other places it flopes irregularly Weftward. Moft of the houfes of the grandees and the principal mer- chants are fituated in the upper divifion.
The Eaftern fuburbs are moftly built on the plain. A great part of Bankufa (as remarked before) ftands upon the hills ; anda continuation of the fame hill bending Northward is covered with buildings to the extremity of Arian. From Arian to the Jideida the ground is uneven. The remain- ing fuburbs in general ftand in the plain.
they
GF THE |CITYoOR! ALEPPO.
»
they really are: fome even containing the beft private ¢ A @ &. houfes, feem little better than alleys winding among the -~—~
melancholy walls of nunneries; for a few high windows guarded with lattices are only vifible, and filence and folitude reign over all. The fhops make a mean ap- pearance ; the baths and fountains are unadorned build- ings; and the mofques, as well as the palaces, ftriking the eye tranfiently through the court gates, contribute little, on a curfory view, to the embellifhment of the city.
Of all thefe difadvantages, Aleppo partakes in com- mon with moft other Turkifh cities. But it is in ge- neral well built, and the houfes within are grand and handfome. The ftreets are better difpofed, and fome of them much broader than ufual in the Eaft; they are well paved, and remarkably clean, with a commodious footway, on each fide, raifed half a foot above the reft. The middle part is referved for thofe who ride, as well as for camels and other beafts of burden: and anfwers occafionally the purpofe of a kennel to carry off the rain water. It is remarked by Perry, that ‘* fome of the ** ftreets are fpacious and handfome, and well paved ** with flag ftones. In fome of the ftreets you look at ‘*‘ once through feveral fucceffive arches, which form ‘* an agreeable vifta *’.”
The mofques * are numerous in Aleppo. Seven or
*» View of the Levant, p. 53. ** Giama, col eight
ch A DESCRIPTION
BOO eight of them are reckoned magnificent, though none
~— have more than a fingle minaret, or fteeple, whence the people are fummoned to prayers. Ali the mofques are built nearly in the fame ftyle*. They are of an oblong fquare form, and covered in the middle with a large dome, on the top of which is fixed a gilt crefcent. In front there is a handfome portico covered with feveral fmall cupolas, and raifed one ftep above the pavement of the court. The Turks fometimes, in the hot fea- fon, perform their devotions there; and between the columns, upon crofs iron bars, are fufpended a number of lamps, for illuminations on the ‘Thurfday nights, and on all feftivals. “The entrance into the mofque is by one large door. All thefe edifices are folidly built of freeftone, and, in feveral, the domes are covered with lead. The minarets ftand on one fide adjoining to the body of the mofque. They are fometimes fquare, but more com- monly round and taper. ‘The gallery for the maazeen, or cryers, projecting a little from the column near the top, has fome refemblance to a rude capital; and from this the {pire tapering more in proportion than before, foon terminates in a point crowned with a crefcent.
*> The mofques at Conftantinople are much more magnificent. Grelot has given a defcription of St. Sophia, and of feveral other mofques, with drawings—Some have fcur or five minarets. At Adrianople alfo, the mofques are very magnificent, on account of the fine marble columns ; but the prints and defcription given lately by M. D’Ohfon exceed all that have before appeared. Tableau General de l’Empire Othoman.
The
OF! THE, CIT YIN AVEPPO.
oF
The minaret of Ifmael Bafhaw’s mofque makes a CH 4?.
handfome appearance; it was built partly upon a plan “77”
given by an European, and was originally intended to have been a column with a regular capital: but the bafhaw, upon reflection, did not chufe to rifk fo confpi- cuous a deviation from common cuftom.
Al Waleed, who fucceeded to the Khalifat in the eighty-fixth year of the Hegira, is faid to be the firft who built, or joined minarets to the mofques.
In front of the mofque is a fpacious paved court, round which, under a low portico, alms houfes are fome- times built; and in the middle ftands a covered fountain, with cocks on all fides, to fupply water for the ap- pointed ablutions before prayer. Behind and at each fide of the mofque, there is ufually a fmall enclofure planted with cyprus, laurel, and other ever-greens: the fepulchres of the founder’s family are fometimes placed there; but the Turks never bury within the body of the mofque.
None but Moflems are permitted to enter the mofques; and, at Aleppo, it is only of one that Chrif- tians and Jews are even fuffered to enter the court yard. It is the more remarkable that the court of this mofque fhould be left as a thoroughfare, hours of prayer not excepted, confidering how fuperftitioufly ftrict they are with regard to the others. ‘They are lefs particular at Conftantinople, and other places near that capital. ‘I have
VoL. I. D “* sone
18 A. DESCRIFTIGN
BOOK ¢ gone into feveral mofques, fays Moutray*, (at Conftan-
—~— “ tinople) during prayer time, without being able to re- ‘¢ mark any one that fo much as caft his eyes upon me.” The Rev. Mr. Chifhull, in his journey into Afia Minor, had every where accefs to the mofques; and at Adri- anople, not only vifited them, but was permitted to afcend to the gallery of the minaret *.
The public edifices next in importance, are the Khanes **, or as they are fometimes called, caravanfaries. Of thofe there are about twenty which may be reckoned confiderable, befides a number of lefs note difperfed in the city. The khanes are fpacious folid ftone build- ings, ufually conftructed in a quadrangular form, and one ftory high; of which the ground floor on each fide is divided into apartments, arched above, and lighted only by a window in. front, and the door. ‘The ftory above, inftead of windows, prefents an open gallery, or piazza, from which is a range of rooms like the back rooms below. The ftair cafes leading to the firft ftory are on each fide of the gate-way; andthe roof, as in moft other buildings, is flat and terraced. The ground floor ferves for warehoufes, counting houfes, lodgings, and fometimes for ftables ; the other floor is chiefly for the reception of travellers, who find lodging there at a very moderate expence. Moft of thefe apartments are
** De la Moutray. Travel. Vol. I. p. 86. * Chifhull’s Travels in Turkey. p. 64. ae Y e fill
OF THE) ‘CITY> OF 1 ALEPPO.
19
ftill worfe lighted than the ground rooms, there feldom ¢ 1.4 P. being windows backward. Matts are all the furniture “~~~
provided by the khane; travellers bring the reft with their baggage.
The khanes in the city are not, like thofe on the road, intended folely for the accommodation of ftrangers ; feveral of them are principally rented by the merchants of Aleppo, who prefer them as places of fecurity for their goods, and, as more conveniently fituated for bufinefs. Adjoining to their warehoufe they have a fmall cham- ber, plainly fitted up, where they’ may be found from morning till the afternoon prayer time, when they retire to their own houfes, fituated perhaps in remote parts of the town.
Fach khane has one gate only, which is regularly fhut at fun-fet; but there is a wicket by which perfons can have accefs at night. Here alfo is a chamber for an Aga, or fuperintendant, appointed by the proprietor to collect the duties on goods that enter, and to regu- late other matters relative to the khane. Under him is an Oda bafhi, or porter, who conftantly refides within the khane, and is a perfon of truft. The oda bafhis are commonly Armenians. A fountain in the middle of the court fupplies water, and there are always cooks- fhops and a coffee-houfe near the khane, for the ac- commodation of the merchants.
The Europeans, from their firft eftablifhment, have been lodged in fome of the principal khanes. Their
D 2 houfes
20
A’ DESCRIPTION
BOOB houfes are fpacious, and commodious ; one houfe occu- “—~— pying the half, fometimes the whole of one fide of the
{quare. ‘The piazza being walled up, large windows in the European fafhion are made towards the court; the floors are neatly paved with ftone, or marble; and the apartments enlarged, and handfomely fitted up. ‘The warehoufes are on the ground floor.
The Bazars ’7, or markets, are lofty ftone edifices, in the form of a long gallery, for the moft part very nar- row, arched above, or elfe roofed with wood. The fhops, which are placed either in receffes of the wall, or formed of wooden fheds projecting from it, are ranged on each fide upon a ftone platform two or three feet high, which runs the whole length of the gallery ; and they are fecured at night by folding doors, and pad- locks. In many of the old bazars thefe fhops are fo confined as barely to leave room for the fhopkeeper to difplay his wares, and for himfelf and one gueft to fit conveniently. The buyers are obliged to remain ftand- ing on the outfide ; and, when oppofite {hops happen to be in full employment, it is not eafy for a paffenger to make his way through the crowd. Some of the modern bazars are indeed wider, and the fhops much more commodious, but all are gloomy; the fun being ex- cluded as much as poffible, in order to keep them cool: for a like reafon, they are watered two or three times a
21 Sok FP gos Bazar bls is Perfian and Turkith. day,
OEP TERE) ClTY) ORF ATJEPPO: 2I
day, in the fummer. In cold weather, the fhopkeepers ¢ 52% are defended by their furs, or have recourfe to pans of -~—~ charcoal.
The principal bazars are fituated clofe together in that part of the city contiguous to the great khane; and, diftinct bazars being allotted to the refpective trades and fhops, it is eafier for ftrangers to find what they may happen to want. ‘There are many fingle bazars in other parts of the town ; befides which, fome of the moft frequented fireets, bch in the city and fuburbs, exhibit a mixture of fhops, felling grocery, fruit, bread, greens, and other neceflaries of life. Thefe ftreets are alfo called bazars, and are defended from the fun by matts fpread on wooden rafters projecting from each fide.
The Bazar Gates are regularly fhut at fun-fet, and watchmen **, provided with a pole and a lamp, remain all night in the infide; whofe bufinefs alfo it is to open the gates to the patrol, or to others who may have oc- cafion to pafs that way. It is matter of furprize to ftrangers to find thefe gates, which are ftrongly cafed with iron, fecured only by wooden locks and keys. The locks have been well defcribed by Rauwolff. “‘ Their doors and houfes are generally fhut with *“ wooden bolts which are hollow within, and they un- * lock them with wooden keys about a fpan long, and “about the thicknefs of a thumb. Into this key they
** Harifs, Ore
‘¢ have
22 BOOK If ee ame
A DESCRIPTION
‘¢ have driven five, fix, feven, eight, or nine fhort nails, ‘¢ or ftrong wires, in fuch an order and diftance that ‘‘ they juft fit others that are within the lock, and fo *¢ pull them forwards, or fhut them backwards as they ““epleatesy”
Thefe wooden locks are not now in ufe for the doors of private houfes, which are univerfally provided with European locks: but they are ftill found in the bazars, khanes, and ftables.
Moft of the principal ftreets are likewife provided with gates and watchmen, which renders it difficult for any offender, when purfued, to make his efcape; and perfons of fufpicious appearance, are not only liable to be ftopped by the patrol, but to be queftioned at every corner by the watchmen. Thefe precautions, and its being criminal for any perfon to appear in the ftreet without a lantern, greatly contribute to the pre- vention of houfe-breaking, robbery, or other offences ufually perpetrated in the night, and which confequently are rare at Aleppo. As to nocturnal brawls in the {treets they are hardly known. ‘The natives, habitually fober and regular, retire early to their homes, and the dread of being carried to the Seraglio by the patrol, is fufficient to reftrain the moft riotous fpirits from drunken
frolicks.
2 Ray’s Collection, Vol. i. p. 18. On the fubject of ancient keys, fee Bifhop Lowth’s Tranflation of Ifaiah, p. 127. and the Rev. Mr. Beloe’s Tranflation of Herodotus. Vol. il. p. 145.
It
OF THE CITY OF ALEPPO. 23
It has been already remarked, that the public Baths 3° © #4 P. do not contribute much to the embellifhment of the city; “~~ their fronts to the ftreet being perfectly fimple. A parti- cular defcription of their infide will be given hereafter.
The coffee-houfes naturally attract the notice of a ftranger, more than any of the objects he meets with in rambling over the city. “They are found in all quarters of the town, and fome of them are fpacious and hand- fome. They are gaudily painted, and furnifhed with matted platforms and benches: thofe of the better fort have a fountain in the middle, with a gallery for mu- ficians. A row of large windows difcovers to a paf- fenger all that is going on within, and the company, being fupplied with fmall, low, wicker ftools, often choofe in the fummer to fit before the door, in the open air. Thefe coffee-houfes are not frequented by perfons of the firft rank, but occafionally by all others, fo that they are feldom empty, and, at certain hours are full of com- pany. To a fpectator not ufed to the Eaftern garb and manners, fuch a motley aflembly, varioufly grouped, and placed in picturefque attitudes, compofes a no lefs amufing than interefting fcene.
The dwelling houfes may be ranged under three clafles. The firft comprehending the feraglios, or pa- laces **; the fecond the houfes of the opulent mer-
°° Hummam, elyn
3 Serai Cohn. The word is Perfic, but ufed commonly at Aleppo, as
24,
A DESCRIPTION
BOOK chants; and the laft the houfes of the middling and or- ——-—— dinar y? people:
The Seraglio in which the Bafhaw of Aleppo ufually refides, is fituated near the caftle on the Weft fide, and is a very extenfive, ancient building. It is encompaffed by a {trong wall, in fome parts as high as the ramparts of the city. “he principal entrance is on the Eaft fide, through two magnificent gates, between which there is a court communicating on each fide with fmaller courts, where there are barracks and other offices. The fe- cond gate leads immediately into the great court, which is very large, unpaved, and ferves as an hippodrome; with {tables and offices on each fide. The principal build- ing, in which are apartments for the bafhaw, his harem, houfehold officers, and pages, confifts of three fmall courts. The Divan, where the bafhaw gives public au- dience is in the fecond of thefe; and in front of the Divan is a large bafon, or fountain, whence the fakals, or water carriers, are permitted to take water for the ufe of the public. Within the walls of the Seraglio are comprehended, befides the apartments already men- tioned, barracks for the foot guard, and for two or three troops of Delibafh, or cavalry, various offices, and ftabling for three or four hundred horfes. “The whole of this fpacious building, except a few apartments im-
as well as in other parts of Turkey, for a palace, or great houfe. The proper Arab word for a palace is Kufr, yes though it is feldomer ufed in
that fenfe at prefent. mediately
OF THED! CITY) OF] ALEPPO.
25
mediately occupied by the Bafhaw himfelf, is kept in ¢ HAP. very ill repair, and, had it not been originally a very —~—~
folid edifice, muft long fince have been in ruins.
There are five or fix other feraglios of more modern date, much fmaller, and well built, but it may be per- ceived at firft fight, that ftrength and durability were lefs confidered in their conftruction, than gaudy deco- ration. Thefe have been built at different periods by former bafhaws of Aleppo, who happened either to be natives of the place, or who wifhed to eftablifh a family there. They ftill remain in poffeffion of the heirs, but are occafionally let to fuch governors as do not choofe to refide in the old feraglio; or to other officers of the Porte, who are fent to Aleppo on fpecial bufinefs. Be- fides thefe, there are a great number of old as well as modern houfes, which though not (ftrictly fpeaking) called feraglios, are nearly on the fame plan, but on a fmaller fcale: they are inhabited by the principal Agas, and Effendees.
The modern feraglios, at Aleppo, are huge piles of building, in the compofition of which, fymmetry is moft perverfely violated, though fome parts, taken feparately, have claim to elegance, and are well adapted to the climate. In all of them the approach is through a large unpaved court, where the bafhaw’s horfes are regularly exercifed by the pages, and allowed afterwards, in the fummer, a few hours excepted, to remain ail day in the open air.
VoL. 8 E. The
26 A DESCRIPTION
Book The front of the main building is generally deformed
—~— by the irregular difpofition of the windows, and _pro- jection of the Kiofks at unequal heights. The gate is arched and decorated with marble of various colours. Perfons of a certain rank pafs, on horfeback, through this to the bottom of the great ftaircafe, in the fecond court, which leads up to a grand colonade, expofed either to the North or the Weft, and protected from the fun by a frame of wood projecting above, richly painted and gilt *, or by curtains fufpended between the columns: it is pro- vided alfo with fmall fountains, and with divans for the accommodation of perfons in waiting. The ftate apart- ments are of an oblong form, with lofty flat cielings, and are well lighted by a row of large windows. ‘The walls and cielings are adorned with flowers, fruits, or other fancy ornaments, painted in lively colours intermixed with gilding, and richly varnifhed. In fome chambers, views of towns, gardens, or houfes are painted over the doors ; but no human figures are admitted, and little re- gard is paid to the rules of perfpective. On the pannels, over the windows and cupboards, are infcribed proverbs, fentences from the Koran, ftanzas from their poets, and fometimes complimentary verfes to the mafter of the houfe. Thefe are all in the Arabic language, and painted in an embellifhed character peculiar to infcrip- tions.
3 Rifraf.
Between
OF THE (CITY ):O8? ALEPPO.
27
Between the door and the Divan is left a fpace pro- ¢ HAP. portionate to the fize of the chamber, paved in Mofaic, —~—~
or with large marble flabs of different colours. ‘This is called the Attaby, and is allotted for the pages in wait- ing. The reft of the floor intended for the Divan is raifed a foot and a half higher, and terraced. The Divan 33 is formed.in the following manner. Acrofs the upper end and along the fides of the room, is fixed a wooden platform four feet broad, and fix inches high. Upon this are laid cotton mattreffes exactly of the fame breadth, and over thefe a cover of broad cloth, trimmed with gold lace and fringes, hanging over to the ground. A number of large oblong cufhions, ftuffed hard with cotton, and faced with flowered velvet, are then arranged on the platform clofe to the wall. ‘The two upper corners of the Divan are furnifhed alfo with fofter cufhions, half the fize of the others, which are laid upon a thin, fquare, fine mattrafs fpread over thofe of cloth: both being faced with brocade. Ihe corners, in this manner dif- tinguifhed, are held to be the places of honour, and a great man never offers to refign them to perfons of in- ferior rank. ‘The terraced floor in the middle, being firft matted, is covered with the fineft carpets of Perfia or Turkey. The Divan thus completed is kept extremely neat, and ferves for the reception of company ; the guetts,
** Diwan «ylgs0. This word is alfo ufed for a number of perfons af- fembled in council.
ee accordin o"
28 A DESCRIPTION
BOOK according to their rank, being placed more or lefs dif-
“—~——~ tant from the corner; while fuch, as are not entitled to fit in the prefence of the grandee, remain in the Atta- by, or ftand at one end upon the carpet.
At the upper end of thefe rooms there is fometimes a light wooden Kiofk 3+ projeting from the body of the building, and fupported in the manner of a balcony. It is raifed a foot and a half higher than the floor of the Divan, of which it forms a continuation, and is deco- rated in the fame fafhion. It is nearly of the fame breadth with the room, but the cieling is lower, and having windows on the three fides it is more airy.
The ftate apartments on the ground floor have feldom more than a row of windows on one fide; correfpond- ing to which, on the oppofite fide, are an equal number of cupboards, with doors painted like the cieling. Some of thofe apartments have a fountain in the attaby; and there is ufually a large bafin, or fountain >, in the fecond court.
The apartments of the principal officers are handfome and fpacious, but not magnificently furnifhed. Such as are allotted to the inferior officers of the Seraglio being fmall, are encumbered with luggage: but, by the help of an additional mattrefs and coverlet, the Divan, at night, can be converted into a commodious bed. ‘The
4 Kiofk oe gS is the Perfian word, and conftantly ufed inftead of the Arabian, Teiara Dib * Burky. pages
OF THE: Cin sor ALEPPO.
pages and menial fervants are for the moft part badly lodged, feveral being cbliged to fleep in one chamber ; which at the fame time is fo filled with baggage, that it is impoflible to prevent litter, or preferve that airy clean- linefs requifite in a hot climate.
The Harem *°, or quarter allotted to the women, con- fifts of a large court, communicating with others much fmaller, in which are the bath, the private kitchen, laundry, and other offices. Part of the principal court is planted with trees, and flowering fhrubs; the reft is paved. At the South end is a fquare bafin of water with jet d’eaus, and clofe to it, upon a ftone muftaby 37, is built a fmall pavilion: or the muitaby being only railed in, an open divan is occafionally formed on it. This being fome fteps higher than the bafin, a fmall fountain is ufually placed in the middle of the divan, the Mofaic pavement round which, being conftantly wetted by the jet deaus, difplays a variety of {plendid colours, and the water, as it runs to the bafin, through marble channels which are rough at bottom, produces a pleafing murmur. Where the fize of the court admits of a larger fhrubbery, temporary divans are placed in the grove; or arbours are formed of flight latticed frames, covered by the vine, the rofe, or the jafmine : the rofe fhooting to a moft luxu- rient height, when in full flower, is elegantly picturefque.
35 ? = , 7 Muftaby, a ftone platform, raifed about two or three feet above the pavement of the court.
Facing
ao
CiHitArrP. I. een sone
30 BOOK {. \aeeasentn omens
A DESCRIPTION
Facing the bafin, on the South fide of the court, is a wide, lofty, arched Alcove, about eighteen inches higher than the pavement, and entirely open to the court. It is painted in the fame manner as the apartments, but the roof is finifhed in plain or gilt ftucco, and the floor round a {mall fountain, is paved with marble of fundry colours, with a jet d’eau in the middle. A large Divan is here prepared in the manner already defcribed, but, being in- tended for the fummer, chints, and Cairo matts, are em- ployed inftead of cloth, velvet, and carpets. It is called by way of diftin¢étion the Divan **, and, by its North afpect, and a floping painted fhed projecting over the arch, being protected from the fun, it offers a delicious fituation in the hot months. ‘The found, not lefs than the fight, of the jet deaus, is extremely refrefhing; and if. there be a breath of air ftirring, it arrives fcented by the Ara- bian jafmine, the henna%, and other fragrant plants growing in the fhrubbery, or ranged in pots round the bafin. There is ufually on each fide of the alcove a fmall room, or cabinet, neatly fitted up, and ferving for re- tirement. Thefe rooms are called Kubbe, whence pro- bably the Spaniards derived the word rendered by fome
other nations in Europe alcove *°.
* Diwan. This is always underftood when the word is ufed by itfelf: when any of the other divans are meant, they are diftinguifhed by adding the name of the chamber to which they belong.
39 Tawfonia inermis, of Linneus.
‘© There can be no doubt that the Alcoba of the Spaniards is the Al Kobbe a! of the Arabs, and perhaps the term alcove has been impro-
perly
OF THE) CITY 7OF ALEPPO.
31
On another fide of the court is a hall named the cu ap.
Kaah*', fuited for thofe fultry hours, when the reflection eae
from the ftone walls and the pavement is too ftrong in the divan. This hall, which is fpacious, is nearly of a fquare form, and covered in the middle by a dome, fup- ported on three wide arches. The pavement (or attaby) under the dome is marble, and, in the centre, there is a round fountain with jet d’eaus. ‘The reft of the floor is raifed the ordinary height for divans, and the edge and front of the ftep are, as ufual, faced with marble of different colours; while the back corners of the hall, being feparated by wooden partitions, form two fmall {quare rooms **, leaving three large fpaces under the arches for divans ; one facing the door, and one on each hand. ‘The Kaah is always richly fitted up; and may occafionally be rendered delightfully cool, by laying the whole attaby under water. In this, as well as in all the other apartments, except thofe of ftate, a fhelf* goes quite round the rooms within three feet of the cieling, on which are arranged large china bowls, intermixed with veflels of filver and chryftal.
The Divan and the Kaah are confidered as common ;
perly applied above to the grand arch of the divan. It is not the {mall rooms contiguous to the divan which only are named kubbe; the fame appellation is given to the inner fmall rooms adjoining to other apartments. ** asl * ‘Thefe rooms are called kubbe alfo; and as the others were kubbt al diwan, thefe are diftinguifhed by the appellation of kubbt al kaah. ” Riff. the
\
32
A DESCRIPTION
pies the private apartments of the ladies occupy the other build- —— ings, with which part of the court is ufually furrounded.
The principal rooms all look into the court; they are well lighted and airy, being refrefhed by ventilators in the wall 4+; they are alfo richly ornamented: but unlefs there happens to be a yard behind belonging to the harem, the back rooms are fmall and dark. It is fel- dom that the fides of the court are of equal heighth, but they never exceed one ftory. The bed-chambers are generally on the ground floor; thofe on the floor above are called Marubba, and, being referved for ceremonial occafions, are large, and handfomely furnifhed. Stone ftairs on the outfide lead to the upper rooms, and are fometimes fhaded by a vine; at the landing place alfo, there is a feat fhaded in the fame manner. Some of the Marubba have handfome Kiofks projecting over the {hrubbery.
Under the divan, and fome of the other apartments, are excellent vaults 45; and ftill lower is a large refer- voir, for water, which will be mentioned hereafter *.
The houfes of the principal Agas and Effendees, as be- fore remarked, are built much in the manner of the fe- raglios here defcribed, though of courfe on a much fmaller fcale, efpecially the outer apartments. As to the harems, there is lefs difproportion; feveral of them
“* Bazhinge. See Profp. Alpin. Hift. Egvpt. Natur. p. 22. “> Murrara. *° Sahreege re gn
OF THE! CIPM<cOe ALEPPO.
33
are extremely handfome, and occupy a confiderable ex- ¢ HAP.
tent of ground.
The houfes of the merchants feldom have an unpaved court, the entrance being immediately from the ftreet, by a large door. ‘The outer apartments are f{mall, and furnifhed in a plain, but neat manner. ‘They ferve only for the reception of familiar vifitors in the morning, or at fupper; for, on extraordinary occafions, the harems are made ufe of, which, in point of elegance, often rival thofe of the feraglios, and in the richnefs of ithe female apartments, efpecially in china and carpets, fometimes excel them.
The houfes of the Turks of middle rank, have feldom more than one court, but many of them have a Kaah, and all have a Divan, with a little garden, or a fountain, before it. In this refpeCt their habitations, if not un- commonly f{mall, are airy, and kept tolerably neat. From thefe, a gradation may eafily be imagined, down to the houfes of the loweft clafs. But it may be remarked that the meaneft of them are feldom without a Divan, and have at leaft a few bufhes planted in the court yard, by way of garden; their beft room is rudely painted, and the fhelf near the cieling is ornamented with copper utenfils inftead of china.
The houfes of the Chriftians, of the upper clafs, con- fift of a fingle court, refembling the harems of the Turkifh merchants. Very few have an outer yard, or
Wow. I. ik feparate
en aed
34 A DESCRIPTION
BOOK feparate quarter for the women, except where the houfe
“——~ has been originally built for a Turk. ‘The entrance of the modern Chriftian houfes is not to be diftinguifhed from thofe of the Turks; but that of many of the old houfes, is by a very fmall, low door, difproportionate to the magnificence often found within; for many of them are {pacious, and have good apartments richly fitted up. The houfes of the inferior Chriftians refemble thofe of the fame rank among the Turks, but are more excep- tionable in point of neatnefs.
The European Jews have handfome houfes, in the Eaftern fafhion, which are kept carefully clean. The native Jews are lefs attentive to this laft point, though many of them have large, handfome houfes. The lower ranks of that nation are miferably lodged; many of their houfes are in a ruinous condition; fome of them are funk confiderably lower than the level of the ftreet; others from their fituation are expofed to the exhalations of the town ditch: and as all of them generally are crowded with inhabitants, difguftfully negligent of clean- linefs, they become dreadful receptacles for contagious diftempers.
All houfes are provided with privies, but thefe, from the manner of their conftruction, are apt, in the {mall houfes, to be offenfive in the fummer ; and for the moft part are prepofteroufly placed juft in the entrance
of the houfe. There are public conveniencies of the fame
OF THE) CITMOOP ALEPPO.
fame kind near moft of the mofques. ‘The fewers are generally covered, and proper care taken to keep them in good order.
The roofs of all the houfes (except where there are domes) are flat, and plaftered with a compofition of mortar, tar, afhes, and fand, which in time becomes very hard: but when not laid on at the proper feafon, the terrace is apt to crack in the winter. Thefe flat roofs, or terraces *’, are feparated by parapet walls, and moft of the natives fleep on them in the fummer. The Franks who live contiguous have doors of communication, and by means of their own and the bazar terraces, can make a large circuit without defcending into the ftreet; an agreeable circumftance in times of the plague. The na- tives have no intercourfe by the terrace, and if they happen to be fo fituated as to be overlooked, they heighten the wall by way of fkreen, leaving a number of {mall holes to admit the air. So eafy a paffage from one houfe to another, would, in fome countries, prove an irrefiftible temptation to houfebreaking ; and, in fact, robberies are fometimes, though very feldom, committed in that way. As to illicit atchievements of another kind, a prevalent notion that leaping over the parapet of a neighbour's terrace, is not lefs ignominious than break- ing open his houfe, joined to the chance of difcovery, by perfons either on the fame, or fome adjacent terrace,
47, Stooh.
F 2 proves
35
CHAP. Jig \cemenmy etoamaced
36 A DESCRIPTION
BOOK proves a better defence againft gallantry, at leaft by this ~— channel, than the height of the wall.
To conclude the account of dwelling houfes, it fhould be obferved that there is a kind of building, generally appropriated to the lower clafs of ftrangers, as Arabs, Kurds, other Turks of foreign extraction, and Arme- nian Chriftians. It is called a Keifaria **, and is a large area furrounded by a number of mean, low houfes, each confifting of two or three rooms. The area is common to all the inhabitants, and irregularly paved, except in front of the houfe door, where fome bufhes are planted. There is no fountain, but feveral draw-wells. Of thefe keifarias a great number are fcattered both in the town and fuburbs. The fame name is given to fmaller build- ings in the form of a clofe, or court, which are allotted to the weaving, or other manufactories; and of thofe, there are fome within the city, which are employed as khanes ; but the firft kind are moft common.
The fituation and diftant appearance of the caftle have already been defcribed. The entrance is on the South fide, by a bridge over the ditch, confifting of feven high narrow arches, upon which are two gates fortified with turrets: the bridge at the fecond gate drawing up. Under this gate fits the Aga of the caftle, with two or three guards, who do not ftand in the manner of cen-
tinels,
OF THE) (City ver ALEPPO.
37
tinels, but are employed in fome work, as embroidery ¢ ise.
or the like, their arms being fufpended behind them on “~—~
the wall. From this fecond gate, the afcent is gentle and direct, till where the bridge terminates at a third gate loftier than the others, over which are handfome apartments for ftate prifoners of a certain rank. The reft of the afcent is rather fteep, but winds through a wide, high, covered paflage, which appears from without like a ftrong redoubt, and within is encumbered on each fide with gun-carriages, and large beams. As it re- ceives light only from fome narrow apertures in the wall, it may eafily be imagined how horribly dark it muft ap- pear to the defponding prifoner on the way to his dun- geon. Beyond this paflage there is a fourth but fmaller gate; and from that a narrow, ill paved ftreet leads, by a fteep afcent, to the top of the hill. In walking up, after pafling the fourth gate, fome fhops appear on the left, oppofite to which are feveral cells with iron grates. Still higher, on the left, are a few ancient large houfes, which occafionally ferve for perfons in confine- ment; and, on the other hand, are feveral fhort crofs ftreets, with neat houfes for the garrifon. At the fum- mit of the hill flands a mofque; near to which there is a well, or refervoir, of vaft depth, from which the water is drawn up by a wheel worked by a horfe.
The Aga of the caftle is dependent immediately on the Porte, and fubjeét only in certain cafes, to the Bafhaw. He commands a numerous garrifon; of which the pri-
vate
38
A DESCRIP PION
BOOK vate men with their families lodge in the caftle. They “——~_ have liberty to keep fhops, or purfue fome trade in the
city, but are obliged to return before the hour of fhutting the gates.
European ftrangers, by an application to the Seraglio, may obtain permiffion to fee the caftle; and phyficians of every nation, as likewife Chriftian natives, who have any pretence of bufinefs, eafily obtain accefs by afking leave of the Aga at the gate. There is nothing how- ever to be feen fufficient to compenfate the trouble of walking up, unlefs it be the extenfive profpect from the. battlements.
The caftle of Aleppo is, by the natives, deemed abfo- lutely impregnable, if not attacked by furprize, or fur- rendered by treachery; but its walls and turrets are in fuch miferable repair, that they could not long fuftain the fhock of a few cannon it has for its defence, and for which indeed the fortrefs was not originally conftructed. It is in the mean while of confiderable importance as a magazine for military ftores, in times of war with Perfia ; it keeps the city in awe, or affords an afylum for the magiftrates, during the tumult of domeftic infurre¢tions ; it ferves alfo as a prifon for ftate criminals, and a place of execution for the Janizaries when condemned to die.
The city is more incommoded by duft than fmoke. The fuel ufed univerfally is wood and charcoal. The former, though brought on camels from the mountains
two
OF THE (CrEY OG ALEPPO.
39
two or three days journey diftant, is fold at a reafonable © 4,4 ?. rate; the latter is confumed 1n vaft quantities, and is “~~
proportionably dearer. ‘The natives very rarely make fires in their chambers ; indeed the principal apartments having no chimnies, the great confumption of fuel is in the kitchen. The bagnios are the greateit nuifance within the city. The fuel employed for heating them
confifts chiefly of the dung of animals, the filth of ftables, —
and the parings of fruit, with other offals collected by -perfons who go about the ftreets for the purpofe. Thefe materials accumulated in a yard adjoining to the bagnio, both in drying, and when burning, are extremely offen- five to the neighbourhood. ‘The bakehoufes ufe brufh- wood, but thefe are only troublefome an hour or two in the day *. Cow dung is feldom ufed in the city; but, by the Arabs and peafants, it is not only ufed as fuel, but employed to make a kind of flat pan in which they fry their eggs: camel and fheeps dung with brufh- wood, or ftalks of fuch plants as grow in the defert, are the common fuel. ‘The plants quickly dry in that coun- try, when cut down or plucked up.
There is a glafshoufe in Mafhirka which is employed during a few weeks in the winter. But moft of the glafs ufed in the city is brought chiefly from Armenafs, a village thirty-five miles to the Weft; whence alfo is
” On the fubject of fuel in ancient times, the reader may find fome cu- rious remarks in Harmer, Vol. I. p. 254. and in the Rev. Mr. Beloe’s Tranflation of Herodotus, Vol. II. p. 233.
brought
40
A DESCRIPTION
Bho Oso lat thie fand employed in the manufactory in Ma- -—~— fhirka. The glafs is thin, of a whitifh colour, and courfe
in quality, but the veffels are well enough formed.
There is a Tannery to the South Weft of the town near the river; the tanner’s khane is a little way without Neereb Gate. The flaughter houfes are re- moved to an open airy field in the fkirts of the fuburbs towards Bankufa, whence the carcaffes are tranfported on men’s fhoulders to the butchers’ fhops in different parts of the town. ‘Lhe principal flefh market is in the Jideida.
Clofe almoft to the walls, on the South Weft, feveral lime kilns are conftantly employed; and at the Rope Village, half a mile to the South, there is a manufactory of catgut, which, at certain times of the year, produces a moft offenfive ftench.
There is only one public burial ground within the walls, but a number of fmall private cemeteries. With- out the walls, the burial grounds are of a vaft extent all round the town; and, ina clear, bright day, the mul- titude of white tombs and grave ftones, when viewed from a diftance, adds to the rocky fteril appearance of the country.
CHAP.
oy & Pt Uh
OF THE AQUEDUCT, GARDENS, AND ENVIRONS OF ALE PPO.
THE AQUEDUCT — PRIVATE RESERVOIRS — PUBLIC FOUNTAINS — WELLS—ALEPPO GARDENS, ON THE BANKS OF THE RIVER AND AQUEDUCT—DESCRIPTION OF THE GARDENS—ORCHARDS, AND PISTACHIO PLANTATIONS—QUARRIES—STONE, LIME, AND CLAY— FULLER’S EARTH—VALLEY OF SALT—SUNK VILLAGE—MINERAL SPRINGS, ON THE SCANDEROON ROAD, AND AT KHILLIS—GENE- RAL SKETCH OF THE MARITIME COAST, AND OF THE FACE OF THE COUNTRY.
Tue city is fupplied with good water from two fprings which rife near Heylan, a village about eight miles diftant to the Northward. It is conveyed thence by an aqueduct, partly on a level with the ground, in fome places covered, but moftly open; and partly fub- terraneous, refrefhed by air fhafts. After making feve- ral turnings, the aqueduct enters the city on the North [aft fide, and the water, by means of earthen or leaden pipes, is diftributed to the public fountains, baths, fe- raglios, and to as many of the private houfes as choofe to be at the expence: the others, or fuch as are fituated in the higher parts of the town, are fupplied by the fackals, or watermen, who tranfport the water from the fountains
Vor. I. G in
CHA PF.
42 BOOK sf Sen aed
OF THE” GARDENS
in goat {kins prepared on purpofe, which they either load upon horfes, or carry upon their own fhoulders.
This aqueduct is fuppofed, by fome of the Arabian writers, to be coeval with the city, but is faid to have been repaired by the Emprefs Helena, mother of Con- ftantine the Great, who built alfo the church now con- verted into the principal mofque. In the year 1218, Milek al Daher, the fon of Saladin, found the aqueduct in a ruinous condition, and at a great expence, as well as by a vigorous exertion of power, he not only repair- ed, but enlarged it. Eben Shuhny places this tranfac- tion in the 615th year of the Hegira, and fays, al Daher levied part of the expence of the work from the Emeers under his dominion, obliging them to encamp in perfon upon the ground, that they might at the fame time over- fee, and encourage the workmen. From a previous furvey it appeared that the body of water which, near the fource, was reckoned 160 inches, was reduced un- der 20, by the time it reached the city. Eben Shuhny adds, from Eben al Hateeb, that al Daher eftablifhed a Wakf, or fund, for keeping the aqueduct in repair, but that in his time it no longer exifted *.
The Aleppo authors, efpecially the poets, talk highly of the excellent quality of the water, preferring it not only to the waters of Damafcus, and of the Eu- phrates, but even to that of the Nile. When it is
MS. Hiftory of Aleppo. firft
AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO. © 43
firft taken up, it is apt to be muddy, but becomes clear ¢ 4 AP. after ftanding a few hours. It is preferved in the houfes —~—” in large earthen jars, under which are placed veflels to receive what is filtered through the bottom; and this
being perfectly clear is referved for more delicate pur-
pofes. The aqueduct being fo much expofed to the
duft, it becomes neceflary to cleanfe it annually ; a work performed in the month of May, under the direction of
the Cadi, and which generally takes up eight or ten
days. During this interval, the fupply being cut off
from the city, the baths are fhut up; and though, in confeqnence of previous notice to the public, provifion
be made in refervoirs, the people find themfelves re- duced to a dearth which they fuffer with much im- patience *.
Many of the Khanes, as well as private houfes, are provided with large fubterraneous refervoirs for water, named fahreege. Into fome of thefe the water is brought directly by pipes from the aqueduct; but moft of them are filled early in the fpring by the fackals. When filled, the mouth of the refervoir is fhut, and the water referved for the hot months, when, by means of a leaden cup and a rope, it is drawn up perfectly clear, and moft delicioufly cool. It is ufually drank in this ftate through- out the fummer, although fufpected, by fome, to be lefs wholefome, after remaining ftagnant two or three months.
* Note VII. G 2 The
14 OF THE GARDENS
poo ‘The public fountains of the city are neat, plain build-
—~— ings, with large arched windows, guarded by an iron eraten “The water is preferved in leaden cifterns, to the fide of which is chained a {mall copper cup, for the convenience of paffengers who choofe to drink ; while fuch as come to fill their pails, receive the water from brafs cocks turned towards the ftreet. Thefe fountains are common in the principal ftreets; there is always one near each mofque and bazar. ‘They are moftly works of private charity. The large bafons, that de- corate the outer courts of the feraglios, are open alfo to the neighbourhood, by which means little of the water is permitted to run to wafte.
Moft houfes are provided with a draw-well. The wells in general are deep, and apt to become fcanty or dry, in the fummer: in the higher parts of the town it is neceflary to dig to a very confiderable depth for water. The well-water being hard and brackifh is employed in wafhing the court yards, in fupplying the cifterns for the jet deaus, and for other inferior ufes.
During the time of cleanfing the aqueduct, water is fometimes brought in fkins from the Kowick; but un- lefs for the inhabitants near the Dark Gate, or in Ma- fhirka, that river contributes very little towards the fup- ply of the city.
The aqueduét, in its courfe from Heylan, furnifhes a confiderable quantity of water for the fervice of a range of gardens, which have by degrees been formed on its
banks,
AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.
45
banks, and are commonly called the gardens of Ba- ¢™ 4?
bullah, from a village * of that name in the vicinity. “~~
The water is diftributed with much induftry through all thofe grounds, by means of {mall interfecting channels dug in the earth; and, as it paffes in fucccflion, from the gardens lying near the aqueduct to the lower grounds, regulations are eftablifhed to prevent its being unfairly detained, longer than the time allotted to each, fo that all may receive their juft proportion. Between Ba- bullah gardens and Heylan, are the gardens of Baya- deen, known to the Franks by the name of the Trian- gular gardens, which are planted alfo on the banks of the aqueduct.
‘Lhe Babullah gardens are bounded on one part by a chain of low hills, on the extremity of which ftands a Sheih’s houfe, called Sheih Fares; on the other part by a beautiful pyramidal hill, whofe fides, floping by an eafy afcent, are covered with vineyards and corn fields, and at the fummit, in a moft picturefque fituation, ftands the Dervife convent of Sheih Abu Becker, elegantly built, and adorned with tall cyprus trees. On the South of the gardens, the high road leading to the city mounts over feveral rifings, leaving on the right a fine meadow, already mentioned, which, being refrefhed partly by {fprings, and partly by the waters that run off through the gardens, preferves unfading verdure throughout the year.
3 ee Babily. Clofe
46 BOOK Ie ap
OF THE GARDENS
Clofe to this meadow *, and fituated in the middle of a garden, is a royal villa, where the Turkifh Emperors ufed occafionally to refide when they led their armies into Syria ; but it has long been neglected, and is hardly habitable in its prefent ftate. The Meidan garden is watered by the Kowick, which at this place makes its turn to the Southward. ‘The garden, though under the care of a Boftangee from the Porte, who refides on the {pot, is very ill kept, and the ftone divans, bridges, and pavillions are running faft to ruin.
This is the place mentioned by Rauwolff. What he terms a chapel built over the river, is a ftone Kiofk, or pavillion, which ftill remains, though much decayed. In this pavillion it is fuppofed the converfation pafled be- tween the emperor Solyman and his counfellors, which was related to Rauwolff by the gardener °.
Mention has already been made of a confiderable tract of gardens, extending near twelve miles in length, that is, from Heylan to about four miles on the other fide of the city Southward. This tract lies along the river, but is of unequal breadth, as the width of the valley, or the fhelving banks happen to favour or obftruct its extenfion: fometimes one fide only of the river, but generally both, are planted.
Thefe gardens commonly make part of fome religious
+ Meidan al Ahder. Note VIII. * Ray’s Collection.
eftate,
AND eENVIRONSI OE ADEPPO. 47
eftate, or belong to fome Effendee®, or Aga’, poffeft c HAP. of influence fufficient to protect his tenants ; for they are —~—~ cultivated with care, but, from their fituation fo near to
the town, are liable, efpecially in the fruit feafon, to the depredations of the foldiery, or other ftrollers. For
the fame reafon tenants are often Greenheads, or Jant-
zaries.
The gardens are feparated from. each other by low ftone walls; and, though fome variety muft neceflarily arife from difference of ground, they differ fo little in the mode of plantation, that the defcription of one will be fufficient to give an idea of all the Syrian gardens *. As they are planted with a view more to profit than pleafure, very little labour is beftowed in removing un- fightly deformities, in levelling, or floping the ground, or in any other improvements not ftrictly connected with lucrative cultivation. They are a compound of the kitchen and flower garden blended, without the inter- vention of parterres or grafs plats.
The whole extent is fubdivided into fquare or oblong fields, irregularly bordered with dwarf trees, flowering fhrubs, and trees of taller growth, among which the plane, the weeping willow, the afh, and the white pop- lar, make a confpicuous figure. Within fome of thefe
* Man of the law.
7 Gentleman.
* Relative to the fubjeé&t of Eaftern gardens, the reader may perufe with pleafure, the learned Bifhop Lowth’s entertaining note on Ifaiah i. 30.
enclofures
48
OF THE GARDENS
BOOK enclofures are cultivated mad-apples, melons, and cu- “—+— cumbers, together with a variety of efculent roots,
greens, and legumes, for the kitchen: in others, cotton, tobacco, fefamum, palma Chrifti, and lucern; and fome are fown with barley, to be cut green for the ufe of the horfes in the fpring.
Interfperfed among the kitchen enclofures are large plantations of pomegranate, of plum, or of cherry trees ; and fometimes groves, compofed of the various fruit trees that the country produces. All thefe trees are ftandards ; and, though fometimes planted in rows, they are for the moft part crowded clofe together with little regard to fymmetry, forming wild and almoft impervious thickets. But a more complete fhade is met with in other parts of the grounds, formed by tufts of lofty trees, which, uniting their branches at top, give fhelter to rofes of different forts, and to a profufion of wild aro- matic herbs, which, thus protected from the fun, long retain their fragrance. ‘The flowers cultivated for fale, contribute little to the ornament of the gardens ; being neither difplayed regularly in parterres, nor artfully fcat- tered among the plantations.
The gardens, thofe of Babulla excepted, are fupplied from the river, by the aid of Perfian wheels; and the water, by means of pumps, and wooden pipes, or troughs, is conveyed to refervoirs in the higher grounds, whence it is occafionally let off into the watering chan- nels, as defcribed before. Where the grounds happen
to
AND “ENVIRONSTOF ,ADEP PO.
49
to be well fhaded, and require lefs watering, feveral of © 2+ iin
the diverging rills, being made to unite, efcape in a ~~~
fwifter current through the fhade, and the fwollen brook difcovers itfelf at intervals amid the foliage, or, when concealed, is traced by its pleafing murmur.
Inelegant as the Aleppo gardens may appear to the cultivated tafte of an European, they afford a voluptuous noontide retreat to the languid traveller %. Even he, whofe imagination can recal the enchanting fcenery of Richmond or of Stow, may perhaps experience new pleafure in vicwing the gliftning pomegranate-thickets, in full bloffom. Revived by the frefhning breeze, the purling of the brooks, and the verdure of the groves, his ear will catch the melody of the nightingale, delightful beyond what is heard in England "° ; with confcious gra- titude to heaven, he will recline on the fimple mat,
blefs the hofpitable fhelter, and perhaps, while indulg-
* *Tis raging noon ; and, vertical, the fun Darts on the head direct his forceful rays. O’er heaven and earth, far as the ranging eye Can {weep, a dazzling deluge reigns ; and all From pole to pole is undiftinguifh’d blaze.
In vain the fight, dejected to the ground, Stoops for relief; thence hot afcending fteams And keen reflection pain.
*° Cool thro’ the nerves, your pleafing comfort glides ; The heart beats glad; the frefh expanded eye And ear refume their watch ; the finews knit ; And life fhoots {wift thro’ all the lightened limbs.
Pou. I. H ing
50 BOOK I. eee nd
OF THE GARDENS
ing the penfive mood, he will hardly regret the abfence of Britifh refinement in gardening.
But though in laying out the grounds, profit be the principal object, fome attention, at the fame time, is paid to pleafure. In moft of the gardens near the town, there are fummer houfes, for the reception of the pub- lic, furnifhed with fountains, and with Kiofks projeét- ing over the river. In others, at a greater diftance, there are tolerably commodious villas, to which the Franks refort in the fpring, as the natives do in the fummer.
As walking is not a favorite exercife among the Turks, little care is taken to keep the garden walks in order, or to prune luxuriant branches. One broad walk generally furrounds the whole, while another runs. through the middle; but the reft of the grounds are traverfed by narrow, intricate paths.
The river Kowick, to which moft of the gardens owe their exiftence, contributes lefs than it might eafily be made to do, to their embellifhment. Near the kiofks and bridges, where it is banked with ftone, it has the ap- pearance of an artificial canal; and in a few places, where moles have been raifed for mills or water engines, it forms cafcades: but the ftream is flow and turbid, and its banks in many parts are either overfpread with reeds and bufhes, or deformed by the roots of trees fhooting out from the fide, which undermine the foil, and choak up the channel. Still in this neglected flate,
in
AND ENVIONS OF ALEPPO. 51
in a country where the fight of water is always pleaf-cuar ing, the river fomewhat varies and enlivens the pro- —~—~ {pect.
The floping hills to the Weft and South Weft of the town, on both fides of the river, which are too diftant, or too fteep to be from thence fupplied with water, are laid out into vineyards, olive plantations, and fig gardens; or into orchards, where all thofe trees are planted pro- mifcuoufly, piftachio trees being interfperfed. But very extenfive piftachio orchards cover the rough rifing grounds to the Eaft and South Eaft of the town, which are remarkably ftony and arid, their fole fupply of water, in the fummer, being from draw-wells, or from cifterns filled in the fpring. In all the orchards a fmall {quare watch-houfe is built for the accommodation of the watch- men in the fruit feafon; or, in their ftead, temporary bowers are conftru¢cted of wood, and thatched with green reeds, and branches.
The natives always talk with rapture of the Aleppo Gardens. The city is fupplied from them with plenty of greens and fruits; and they contribute both to the health and amufement of the inhabitants, by alluring them from alife too fedentary, to the enjoyment of gentle exercife and a purer air: it may be added, that, in the fummer months, when the open fields retain hardly a veftige of verdure, they prefent an agreeable contraft, more efpecially to ftrangers who come from crofling the
H 2 parched
52
OF THE GARDENS
B 00K parched and naked tracts, met with in feveral parts of the “——— road from Scanderoon.
Clofe to the city are many extenfive quarries, which afford a white gritty ftone, eafily cut at firft, but indurat- ing after being expofed for fome time to the air. The buildings are all of that ftone, except the flight partition- walls, which are conftructed of a coarfe chalk ftone, found in abundance to the North of the town. The more ancient quarries are vaft excavations, forming large ca- verns, fome of which communicate by fubterraneous paflages of great length.” In their prefent ftate they afford a winter habitation to certain Bedoween Arabs, who are accuftomed at other times of the year to en- camp under the city walls; they ferve alfo occafionally as {tables for camels; and are often by the janizaries converted into dens of debauchery. “The modern quar- ries are worked in a different manner: a large furface of ground is laid open, or the quarry is carried along the face of a hill.
They have an inferior kind of yellowifh marble, which takes a tolerable polifh, and is ufed for the ornamental parts of building, and for paving the court-yard. But a
*“ Paul Lucas, who in 1714 vifited fome of thefe grottoes near Prifon- gate, gives an exact account of them, fo far as I am able to judge from the little I have feen myfelf. The vaft length of the fubterraneous paffages fpoken of by the natives, I always regarded as fabulous.
See Paul Lucas Voyage dans la Turquie An: 1714, v.1. p.288.
variety
ADN “ENVIRONS! OF ‘ALEPPO. 53
variety of other marble is brought from parts more CHAP. diftant. From Damafcus they receive a red marble ; ——~ thence alfo, and from Khillis, a coarfe black fort; a
fine white fort is imported from Italy; and from An-
tioch they procure various ancient fragments. The com-
mon Aleppo Marble is brought to refemble the Damaf-
cus red, by rubbing it with oil, and letting it ftand
fome hours in an oven moderately heated.
Though lime-ftone be found in abundance in the neighbourhood, the expence of burning renders lime rather a dear article. Befides the ordinary comfump- tion in building, large quantities are required for the compofition with which they lay the terraces. ‘Their plafter of Paris is prepared froma gypfum found at fome diftance from town, but is not abundant. It is em- ployed in the finifhing of the principal rooms, and like- wife by way of cement for the fmall earthen pipes of the fountains ‘’.
The environs of the town afford hardly any clay, and that of fo bad a quality as to be unfit for ordinary pur- pofes: the jars, and even the bricks made of it, falling to pieces of themfelves. In making the common pipe bowls, they are obliged to mix a certain proportion of
clay brought from diftant parts; and their beft pipe
* The fountains, or bafins, not lined with marble, are plaftered with a compofition of quick-lime and pounded chalk-ftone, (howara) cotton, and oil. The plafter is durable, and effectually prevents the oozing of the water.
bowls
oo
OF ‘THE "GARDENS
800k bowls are made of clay from Damafcus, or Sidon. Their -—— beft water jars, and other potter’s ware, are brought
from fome diftance.
From a village, diftant about twenty computed miles, a kind of fuller’s earth, called Byloon, is brought to town in great quantities, and carried about on affes to be fold in the ftreets. It is much ufed in the bagnio by way of foap, and for cleanfing the hair, being mixed with dried tofe-leaves, and made up into balls. Breeding women and fickly girls, by ftealth, confume a confiderable quantity of this earth.
Some of the rocky hills have the appearance of con- taining iron ore; but no metals are at prefent found near Aleppo, nor, fo far as I know, any where elfe in Syria 3. Lead, tin, and iron, are imported chiefly from England and Holland. ‘There are mines of lead and of copper in Armenia; and from Tocat, large quantities of ready made copper utenfils are brought by mule cara- vans, to Aleppo, where they are afterwards tinned and burnifhed '*. Garnets of inferior quality are fometimes found near Antioch.
3 A little to the Weftward of the hill called by the Franks Mount Ze- let, there is what is called the Copper Mountain, Jible al Nihas, where it is faid a copper mine exifted formerly, but on account of the dearnefs of fuel, it did not turn to account to work it.
** Two forts of copper are brought from Armenia, one of which bears a higher price than the other, becaufe the veffels made of it are, by the natives, fuppofed to boil water in a much fhorter time than the ordinary copper vefiels.
About
AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO. 55
About eighteen miles diftant from the city to the South cH ap. Eaft, is an extenfive plain, generally known by the name —~—~ of the Valley of Salt, or Salt Lake, from which Aleppo, as well as the country for many miles round, are fup- plied with falt %. ‘The plain is partly fkirted by a chain of low rocky hills, but ftretches out on the other fides toward the Defert, as far as the eye can reach. In what appears to be the middle of the plain, in approach- ing it on the fide of the village Jibool, a fmall hill rifes which is worth vifiting on account of the profpect from the top; but the traveller will be vexatioufly difappointed who expects to meet with any of thofe remains of an- cient buildings, or monuments, which the peafants never fail to affure him are ftill to be feen there.
The rains which fall during the wet months, together with the little temporary torrents which defcend from the bordering hills; the celebrated ftream named the Golden River '®, which comes from a fountain fome miles diftant, towards the village of Bab, join with the fprings rifing in the valley itfelf, and form a fhallow but very extenfive lake ; the water of which being exhaled by flow evaporation in the fummer, the falt, feparated
" Subkhet al Jibool (4 _=! | sxsw. Golius renders axan Terra faluginofa.
* Naher al Dahab is mentioned particularly by Eben Shuhny, who fays it was reckoned one of the wonders of the world; the other two were the caftle of Aleppo, and a Well famous for curing perfons bitten by a mad dog. MS. cap. 7. and 18.
from
56
OF THE GARDENS
BOO©X from the foil beneath, is left cryftallized on the furface, —-~— forming a cruft of various thicknefs, in different parts of
the valley.
When viewed about fun rife in the month of Auguft, the lake has much the appearance of a vaft expanfe of water frozen over, and flightly covered with fnow. Numbers of men, women, and children, are employed at that feafon in breaking up the cruft of falt, which is found from half an inch to one or two inches thick, and the upper furface being feparated from the parts beneath, which are always mixed with earth, the two forts are laid up in {mall diftinét heaps; they are then put into facks and tranfported on affes to Jibool, where the falt being thoroughly dried, is winnowed in the fame man- ner as corn, and then more carefully feparated into heaps of different finenefs. The beft fort is perfectly white and of excellent quality.
The foil of the plain is a ftiff clay ftrongly impregnated with falt; but the fprings in the neighbourhood feem all to be frefh. At the bottom of the hill in the middle of the lake, there is a fpring which the peafants faid was falt, but I did not fee it. The falt on that fide was con- creted into much larger maffes than in other parts : fome of the cakes were above three inches thick, and of a beautiful pale reddifh colour. The kali, and leaves of other plants, at fome diftance from the border of the lake, were found covered with falt, in the fame manner
as plants growing on the fea fhore.
That
AND “ENVIRONS OF “ADEPPO.
That the jake is chiefly fupplied with rain water is probable, from the quantity of falt produced, being always in proportion to the wetnefs of the winter. On the fide towards Jibool the falt is found in greateft abundance ; the water fettling there to a greater depth: in many other parts of the plain it is mixed with fo large a pro- portion of earth as not to be worth gathering.
To the Weftward of Aleppo, at the diftance of about eleven miles, and three or four miles to the South of the village Hanjar, there is a remarkable cavity in the earth, known to the inhabitants, by the name of the Sunk Village '’. It is fituated in a little plain, lefs ftony and better cultivated than the country around, which is re- markably rocky and uneven, though no very high hill is in view, nearer than Sheih Barakat to the North Weft.
This vaft cavity is nearly circular, fomewhat of the form of a punch bowl, being narrower towards the bot- tom than at the brim, which is one thoufand five hun- dred and eight-ynine feet in circumference. The fides all round, confift of rock almoft perpendicular, to the depth of one hundred and feventy feet, after which, the cavity contracting, the rock is no longer vifible, on account of the earth and {mall loofe ftones which feem to have fallen from above. The defcent is continued a confiderable way over the rubbifh to the bottom. ‘The rock lining
” Note IX. Vot. I. I this
57
GH <A P. Ve
(stn sete
58
OF THE GARDENS
BOOK this ftupendous cavity is compofed of feveral horizontal -———’ ftrata, each about fourteen feet thick, in the interftices of
which are many holes, or fiffures, that afford fhelter to birds, bats, and winged infects. The fubftance of the rock itfelf is compofed of coral, and various fea fhells, incrufted and confolidated by means of a calcarious matter, almoft as white as {now, unlefs where it has been difcoloured by the foil wafhed down by the rain ™.
It is rather an arduous enterprize to get fafe to the bottom, and fcarcely to be attempted but on the Eaftern fide, where the defcent is fometimes by winding footpaths, and irregular fteps in the fide, at other times through holes or arches in the folid rock. Half way down, on the right hand, is the entrance into a low roofed grotto, at the farther end of which are two apertures like win- dows, from whence the profpect of the whole, is ftriking and romantic; a variety of trees, fhrubs, and plants fhooting out from the fides of the precipice, or growing luxuriantly at the bottom ".
There are no fprings to be feen, nor any ftagnant water ; but, befides many large pieces of rock that have tumbled down from the fides, there are at the bottom
** The fpecimens brought to England were foffile fcollops, cone fhells, and corals of the Madrepore kind.
? In the middle of October were found the following plants. Punica granatum ; amygdalus communis ; piftacia lentifcus ; rhus corriaria ; cap- paris fpinofa; falicornia Syriaca; peganum harmala; falfola altiffima ; plumbago Europea ; onofma orientalis; gundelia; and two or three other
common plants. feveral
AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.
59
feveral oblong-fquare hewn ftones, exactly like the ftones © #4 ®-
found among the ruins of a deferted village, which ftands at a little diftance from the brink of the cavity. Be- tween thefe ruins and the cavity, there is a very deep well, or pit for corn; as likewife a grotto intended for fheep and cattle”.
It does not appear whence a notion entertained by the Franks fhould have arifen, that this chafm was pro- duced by an Earthquake. The natives have no tradi- tionary tale of fuch a kind, but regard it as a natural production as old as the creation. Its form has fome- what the refemblance of a Crater: but there are no veftiges of Lava, nor other appearances of a Volcano, either near it, or in the neighbouring country. Some travellers have made mention of a Volcano about nine hours diftant from Scanderoon”
Some hot fprings are found at the diftance of about twelve hours on the Scanderoon road; between Ar- menafs and Antioch; the neareft village to them being Kaferdibbin. Teixeira mentions having refted, the fecond night of his journey from Aleppo to Scanderoon, near two ftreams of water, (probably thefe) the one ful- phurous, the other frefh and perfectly good, though within four paces of each other. On the fide of a
*° Tam obliged to a friend for feveral of the above circumftances; who, at my requeft, kindly vifited the place in October 1775, and from his account I have correéted my own memoranda.
=" Note’ X.
I 2 hill
ee ame
60 BOOK if (cect tmmemese)
OF THE GARDENS
hill at a little diftance from Khillis, there is a cold mi- neral fpring. None of thefe waters are ufed medici- nally at Aleppo; but the latter is fometimes drank by the people of Khillis in large quantities, by way of me- dicine, having a flight purgative quality *.
The rough hilly country (like that adjacent to Aleppo) extends to the diftance of at leaft twenty miles between the Weft-South-Weft, and North Weft by Weft, inter- fected by a number of fmall fertile plains. A juft and picturefque defcription of the beauty of the country between Aleppo and Scanderoon, in the month of April, has been given by Teixeira; and Moryfon has drawn a pleafing picture of the mountains and plains, on the road from Tripoly, in the month of June *.
To the North and South, the country, becoming level at the diftance of fix or feven miles, is no longer {tony ; and, about the fame diftance Eaftward, the defert com- mences, the foil of which, for many miles on the Baf- fora road, is fine, light, and fertile.
The coaft of Syria is every where bounded by high mountains, except near Seleucia, where the Orontes, in it’s way to the Mediterranean Sea, runs through a plain between Mount Pieria and Mount Cafius. The moun- tains are covered with a variety of trees, fhrubs, and plants, and, being watered by abundance of frefh
°° Note XI. *> Note XII.
{prings,
AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.
fprings, they retain their verdure all the fummer. The fide towards the fea is in fome places fteep; in others the defcent is by 2 gentle flope, and in many places nar- row plains intervene between the Lottom and the fhore. Numberlefs fmall ftreams and winter torrents from the mountains, after watering the low grounds, empty them- felves by a rapid current into the Sea; but in wider parts of the plains, where the level of the Beach does not favour the efcape of the water, noxious marfhes are formed, and by their putrid exhalations in the hot months, infe& all the adjacent country: which is particularly the cafe at Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, the Sea-Port of Aleppo.
The Rivulets which defcend on the land fide, are foon loft in the extenfive plains behind the mountains, but diffufe a lively verdure as far as they run; and, winding beautifully beneath fhades of Myrtle and Oleander, en- rich the profpect from the hills. “The oppofite boundary of thefe interjacent plains, confifts of low, rocky, barren hills, beyond which are other plains like the firft exceed- ingly fertile, although watered only by rain, and tem- porary torrents. ‘This alternate fucceffion of hill and dale extends about fixty or feventy miles within land, after which the country, as I have been informed, is level all the way to Baffora, and conftitutes what is pro- perly termed Arabia Deferta *.
4 Note XIII. ** Note XIV. ie
61 CHAP. II. eed
62
BOOK
OF THE GARDENS
To this general {ketch of the face of the country it may
UL ~~ be added, that of the rivers which rife on the land
fide of the maritime mountains, the Orontes alone finds its way to the Mediterranean. The others in this part of Syria, (which are indeed but few in number, and not large) are foon abforbed in their courfe through the thirfty plains, or loft in lakes. And even the Orontes, though it receives a fupply from the lake of Antioch, and is often fwelled by the brooks and mountain-ftreams which fall into it, does not appear more confiderable where it empties itfelf into the Sea, than it is at the diftance of many miles nearer its fource.
CHAP.
Ft Ars, fle
OF THE SEASONS AT ALEPPO, THE HUSBANDRY, AND VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS OF THE GARDENS AND CULTIVATED FIELDS.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SEASONS—HOT WINDS—RAIN—SNOW AND ICE —LIGHTNING —HAIL—METEORS—AURORA BOREALIS NOT OBSER- VED AT ALEPPO—EARTHQUAKES—SOIL AND HUSBANDRY—SUBTER- RANEOUS GRANARIFS—WAT ER MIT.LLS—ARTICLES OF CULTIVATION. COTTON, TOBACCO, OLIVES, VINES &c.—CASTOR AND SESAMUM OIL—PISTACHIO NUTS— MULBERRY —POMEGRANATE, FIG &c.— ORANGE AND LEMON TREES HOUSED IN THE WINTER—ESCULENT ROOTS, LEGUMES, AND OTHER VEGETABLES.—
ALEPPO, although encompaffed by hills, is well © #4 ventilated, and enjoys a pure penetrating air; but ~~~ is too fubtile for confumptive perfons, and difpofes ftrangers to relapfe, who have lately before their arrival been recovered from intermittent fevers. Some afcribe to it the fingular property of exciting latent diforders '. The Wefterly Winds predominating in the Summer, ferve to moderate the exceflive heats, which, were it not for this kind difpenfation of Providence, would render the country in a great meafure uninhabitable ;
*"Note XV. Ccon-
64
OF THE SEASONS
80 © confidering the cloudlefs fky, the intenfe power of the eaene fun, with the reflection from the white chalky foil, and
the ftone walls of the houfes. The viciffitude of the feafons is much lefs irregular than in regions more Northern, and the air is fo falubrious, that from the end of May to the middle of September, it is ufual for the inhabitants to fleep expofed on their terraces under the canopy of Heaven, without danger from damps, or other noxious qualities of the atmofphere. As I fhall have occafion hereafter to enter into a meteorological detail, introductory to the account of Epidemical dif- tempers, it will be fufficient at prefent to exhibit fuch a general defcription of the feafons, as refpeéts Syrian Agriculture, with fome fpeculative opinions on the in- fluence of climate upon human life and manners.
The Spring may be faid to commence early in Feb- ruary*. The fields which were partly green before, by the fpringing up of the later grain, now, become covered with an agreeable verdure. The Almond tree puts forth its bloflom about the middle of the month, being foon followed by the Apricot, the Peach and the Plumb; and, though other trees remain in their leaflefs {tate till the fecond week of March, thofe which are in bloffom, together with the lively vegetation of the plants
* In the above defcription of the Seafons, the New Stile is under ftood : in the former Edition it was the Old Stile beneath,
AND HUSBANDR Y,)/ AT ALEPPO.
65
beneath, give a pleafing vernal appearance to the gar- CHAP dens. The fame winds, which are peculiarly cold in the “~~~
Winter, though at ‘this time they often blow more ftrongly, are much lefs bleak; and, though the Sky be often loaded with black hovering clouds, accompanied with a good deal of rain, the heavy fhowers are of fhort duration, and in the variable weather, there is a large proportion of fun-fhine.
In April the Spring haftens rapidly forward; the Sky is more conftantly clear, and, the Sun fhining out with increafing power, the intervening fhowers prove not lefs grateful to the fenfes, than refrefhing to vegeta- tion. The fields are in full beauty towards the end of this month; the verdure being every where finely variegated by an exuberance of plants, left to expand their flowers, amidft the corn.
Early in May the corn begins to be yellow, from which period the gay livery, that clad the fields in the two preceeding months, fades rapidly. A few weeks more bring on the harveft; and, the grain near Aleppo being ufually plucked up by the roots, the whole country aflumes fo bare, and parched an afpect, that one would be apt to think it incapable of producing any thing befides the few robuft plants fcattered here and there, which have not been torn up by the Reapers, and have vigour to refift the fcorching heat.
The tranfition to the Summer, though it may be marked in its gradations, is ftill abrupt. Some fhowers
Vo. I. K com-
66
OF THE SEASONS
BOOK commonly fall in the firft fortnight in June ; but, from —~—~ that time to the middle of September, it is extraordinary
to fee any rain. The fky of a fine pale blue, is conftantly ferene, a few white fleecy clouds excepted, which fometimes appear about noon, and tranfiently intercept the Sun’s rays. The heat increafing gradually in June, continues nearly at the fame degree throughout July and part of Auguft, and would be much more haraf- fing, were it not mitigated by the Wefterly breezes, which, in the day time, may be almoft conftantly ex- pected. When thefe breezes fail, the weather becomes extremely hot; but by no means fo oppreflive as when the wind blows from the North, the North Weft, the Eaft, the North Eaft or South Eaft.
From the points now mentioned, light airs are not uncommon in the Summer, rendering the weather more difagreeably fultry, than when an abfolute calm prevails ; but when, keeping in the fame quarters, they rife to brifk gales, efpecially from the Eaft or South Eaft, they are then felt dry, and ardent, like air iffuing from an Oven; they parch the eyes, the lips and noftrils, and produce a laffitude, joined with a certain ineffable op- preffion at the breaft, to which the Natives are not lefs fenfible than the Europeans. Within doors, the locks, with the metal utenfils of all kinds, become nearly as hot as if expofed to the direct rays of the Sun; and fuch is the ftate of the Atmofphere, in refpect to eva- poration, that water, preferved in the porous earthen
veffels,
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.
67
veffels which are brought from Bagdat, becomes confi- © #4? derably cooler, than when expofed to a frefh Weftern —~—
Wind;. Thefe remarkable hot Winds are not obferved every year; many Summers are altogether without them, and I never obferved more than four or five fuch days in the fame feafon. It is ufual, while they laft, to fhut the doors and windows in order to exclude them; for though they do not produce fuch fatal effects as the Defert Wind named Simooly‘, they are extremely oppreflive.
The true Simooly+ Wind never reaches Aleppo, nor is it common in the Defert between that City and Baffora: at leaft accidents from it very feldom happen to the Baffora Caravans. “The Arabs report a variety of fingular circumftances concerning it, fome of which are probably exaggerated. They affert, that it’s pro- greffion is in feparate, or diftin¢ét currents, fo that the Caravan, which, on it’s march in the Defert fometimes fpreads to a great breadth, fuffers only partially in cer- tain places of the line, while the intermediate parts remain untouched. ‘That fometimes thofe only who happen to be mounted on Camels are affected, though more commonly fuch as are on foot: but that both never fuffer alike. That lying down flat on the ground till the blaft paffes over, is the beft method of avoiding
7 (Cyano * Note XVI.
K 2 the
08
OF THE SEASONS
BOOK the danger, but that the attack is fometimes fo fudden —~— as to leave no time for precaution. It’s effects fome-
times prove inftantly fatal, the corpfe being livid or black, like that of a perfon blafted by lightning; at other times it produces putrid fevers, which prove mortal in a few hours ; and that very few of thofe who have been ftruck recover 5.
In Auguft the weather is calm and fultry, till towards the end of the month, when the Nile Clouds, as they are called, ufually make their appearance, and are often attended with dew ; circumftances, which, joined to the increafing length of the night, render the air cooler.
About the Autumnal Equinox, fome fhowers com- monly fall either at Aleppo, or in the Neighbourhood, which greatly refrefh the Air, ftill fultry in the day ; and though thefe fhowers feldom laft more than a few hours, yet, if they have been in any degree confiderable, the fields foon affume fomewhat of a fpring-like verdure. Thefe are termed the firft rains®, and are ufually pre- ceded by irregular gufts of wind which raife the duft remarkably in Vortices’. From that time for at leaft
* Note XVII.
* The Reader may find fome curious remarks on the former and latter rains of Scripture, in Harmer’s obfervations Vol. 1. p. 34. To the term firft is fometimes added Autumnal. Owel Mutter al Hareef. and fo of the fecond. But Autumn is often omitted ; The terms firft and fecond being always underftood of the Autumnal rains, and, in converfation, never ap- plied to thofe of other Seafons,
7 Proverbs XXV. 14.
twenty
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.
69
twenty or thirty days, or till the fall of the fecond rains, c HAP. the weather is ferene, temperate, and really delightful. ——~
The fecond rains are in quantity more plentiful than the firft, and the weather after them becomes variable, as well as much cooler. The tranfition however from the Autumn to the Winter, is flower than that from Spring to Summer. The cold does not increafe fud- denly, the rain falls in fhowers lefs heavy, but of longer continuance ; and the Sky, during the fair intervals, is oftner cloudy.
The trees retain their leaves till the beginning of December, and the moft delicate of the Europeans fel- dom have fires before the middle of that month. The Natives make an alteration in their clothing, imme- diately after the fecond rains; but few of them ufe fires, and then only in the depth of Winter, when the feafon happens to be uncommonly fevere. The rigour of the Winter, as they fuppofe, commences about the twentieth of December, and lafts forty days, naming it for that reafon the Murbania, in which feafon they do not hold it advifeable to take medicines of any kind, in chronic difeafes. Their computation of this term is pretty near the truth; for though froft as well as fnow has been obferved both earlier and later than the limits of the Murbania, yet, in moft years, the true wintery weather falls within them: and the Air at fuch times is often fo fharp and piercing, that the cold appears excef-
five
70
OF THE SEASONS
BOOK five even to ftrangers lately arrived from much colder Sana Climates:
But the Winters of different years vary confiderably, both in the degree of cold, and the quantity of rain and fnow which falls in the months of December, January, and February. In the thirteen years of my refidence at Aleppo, it happened not more than three times, that the Ice was of fufficient ftrength to bear the weight of a man, and then only in fhady fituations, where the Pool was not much expofed to the Sun. It is very feldom that there is not fome frofty weather in the Winter ; but many years pafs entirely without fnow. The fnow does not remain long unmelted in the ftreets; it was obferved only in three out of thirteen Winters to lye more than one day. When it is clear and calm, the Sun has fo much power that the weather is always warm, fometimes rather hot, in the open air. The Narciffus is in flower moft part of the Winter; and Hyacinths and Violets become plentiful in January: yet neither Oranges nor Lemons are cultivated in the gar- dens, and fome Winters are even too fevere for the Pomegranates.
Violent ftorms of wind are rare at Aleppo. It fome- times blows hard, but only in fudden gufts of fhort duration. The Winter and Spring Winds blow chiefly from between the North Weft and the South Eaft, being
proportionably colder as they verge towards the Eaft. Plt
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.
71
It has been remarked before, that thofe winds, from May c HAP.
till September, are peculiarly hot.
The winds, in the winter, are in general moderate, feldom rifing to a brifk gale. In the fummer, the weft wind, of all others the moft conftant, fometimes blows hard in the night; but its ufual courfe is to {pring up foon after the fun, to rife gradually to a frefh breeze, and to ceafe fuddenly in the evening. Squalls, accom- panied with heavy fhowers, and fometimes with thunder, are frequent in the fpring and autumn.
It is very feldom that mifchief is done by lightning, within the city ; nor are accidents frequent in the fields : The fhepherds and flocks fometimes fuffer, but the inftances being rare, are much talked of when they happen.
Hail falls moft commonly in the latter part of the {pring, in very heavy ftorms; and the hail-ftones are often of a moft enormous fize. I have feen fome that meafured two inches in diameter; but fometimes irre- gularly fhaped pieces are found among them, weighing above twenty drams. Thefe ftorms make terrible ha- vock among the windows ; as likewife among the glazed frames, which are often employed in the winter, to fhut up the great Divan facing the court-yard, by which means it is converted into a chearful winter apart- ment. In the fummer, thefe frames are removed. Above twelve hundred panes of glafs, in one feraglio, have been broken by a fhort hail-ftorm.
Through-
72
BOOK I
OF THEYSEASONS
Throughout the fummer and autumnal months, co-
.+—’ rufcations near the horizon are frequently feen in the
evening; and, when the night is more advanced, the the meteors called falling ftars, make a beautiful appear- ance. [he Aurora Borealis was never obferved ; nor does it feem to be known to the natives of Syria.
In the months of September and October, lightning, unaccompanied by thunder, is frequently, in the night, obferved darting out from the heavy black clouds, which hover about for fome time before the autumnal rains. The fame kind of lightning is fometimes feen alfo in the fummer ; but the nocturnal fky, in the hot months, is almoft perpetually ferene, exhibiting a mcft glorious {cene to the aftronomer, who may, at the fame time, indulge his ftudy, and enjoy the cool air on the terrace.
There are few years that earthquakes are not felt at Aleppo; but being in general flight, and fo long a time having elapfed fince the city has fuffered much from them, the dread they occafion is only momentary: unlefs where the public happen to be alarmed by exaggerated accounts of what may have at the fame time befallen other towns of Syria; and then indeed, the return of fuch flight fhocks, as would have otherwife paffed unre- garded, fpread univerfal terror *°.
When the fhocks happen in the day time, though {mart, they often are not felt by people walking in the
© See an Account of Earthquakes in feveral parts of Syria, in the year 1759, Philof. Tranfac. V. _— Part 2.
{treets,
AND HUSBANDRY} ATIALEPPO. 73
ftreets, or in the crouded bazars; but in the filence of c HA P. the night, they are very dreadful, and make an awful~~—~ impreffion on perfons roufed from fleep.
The. nature of the foil in the vicinity of Aleppo, has been already mentioned. In the plains fomewhat more diftant, it confifts of a reddifh, fometimes of a blackifh, light mould, and produces the fruits of the earth in great abundance.
The fields cultivated near the city, are made, by force of manure, to yield annually two or three crops of different kinds. Where manure is not employed, which is the cafe in moft places remote from towns, the fields are fown only once a year, with different forts of grain alternately, but are feldom permitted to lye fallow.
They begin to plough, the latter end of September, or as foon as fome rain has fallen to foften the parched ground; and the froft is feldom fevere in a degree to prevent their ploughing at all times, throughout the Winter. The plough ufed near the town, is commonly fo light that a man cf moderate ftrength might carry it in one hand. It is drawn by one or two fmall Cows, fometimes by a fingle Afs, and is managed with much eafe by one man, who ufually fmokes his pipe all the time he is at work. The furrows are extremely fhallow, but fo remarkably ftraight, though of great length, that one would imagine they muft have ufed a line in tracing them.
Vou. I. L; They
74+ BOOK I
OF THE SEASONS
They fow the following grains: wheat °, barley '°,
—.— lentils "", chiches ', beans "3, chichling '*, {mall vetch "5,
a {mall green kidney bean '°, and India millet '7. Oats are not cultivated near Aleppo, but I have obferved fome fields of them about Antioch, and on the Sea Coaft. The horfes are fed univerfally with barley ; but Lucern ‘* is alfo cultivated for their ufe, in the fpring.
The earlieft wheat is fown about the middle of October, other grains continue to be fown till the end of January; and barley even fo late as the end of February. The harrow is feldom ufed; the grain being: covered by repafling the plough along the edge of the furrow ; and, in places where the foil is fandy, they fow firft, and then plough.
The barley harveft commences early in May, ten days or a fortnight before that of the wheat; and, early in June, moft of the corn of every kind is off the ground. Wheat as well as barley, in general does not grow half fo high as. in Britain, and is therefore, lke other
» Honta abin Triticum Linnei
0 Shaeir ans Hordeum.
™ Addes (wars Ervum Lens.
* Hummes (gos Cicer Arietinum.
* Fool S43 Vicia Faba..
4 Jilban Wye Lathyrus..
* Kifhna aunt Vicia.
* Maath (il Phafeolus Max.
7 Durra alo Holeus Sorghum.
an SE Medicago Sativa. wv
erain,
AND HUSBANDRY)! AT) ALEPPO. 75
grain, not reaped with the fickle, but plucked up with c HA P. the root by the hand. In other parts of the country —~—~ where the corn grows ranker, the fickle is ufed. The reapers go to the field very early in the morning, and return home foon in the afternoon. ‘They carry pro- vifions along with them, and leathern bottles, or dried bottle gourds, filled with water. They are followed by their own children, or by others who glean with much fuccefs: for a great quantity of corn is fcattered in the reaping, and in their manner of carrying it. There is a cuftom peculiar to the reapers, which ex- tends all over Syria, and bears fome refemblance to what, in fome counties of England, is called a Largefs. When a traveller happens to pafs a field where the reapers are at work, they defpatch one of their number with a handful of corn, which he offers to the traveller, laying hold at the fame time of the horfes bridle. The meffenger runs as faft as he can, and, from the moment he fets out, continues calling with a loud voice, Sha- bafh, Sha-bafh', which words are repeated by the whole band. A fmall prefent is expected in return to this compliment, and when received, the meffenger holding up his hand as a fignal, the women join in a general Ziraleet *°, by way of thanks.
As foon as the corn is reaped, it is carried on Affes to the fummit of the neareft rifing ground or hill, where
9 oO ebLS Obl,
2° Sound of joy or exultation made by the women, to be explained in an- other place.
L 2 it
76
OF THE SSEASONG
Book it is laid in a heap, on a fpot of hard even ground, in- ae ftead of a barn. Here it is feparated from the chaff,
not by thrafhing, but by means of a fledge fixed upon two or three rollers, armed with feveral iron rings with ferrated edges, fo fharp as to cut the ftraw. This machine, which is drawn by oxen, mules, or affes, is eafily driven by a man feated on the fledge, and as it paffes round in a circle, over the corn fpread beneath, the grain by repeated operation is trodden out while the ftraw is chopped by the iron rings*. The chaff and bruifed {pikes are now feparated from the grain, “by throwing up the whole into the air with wooden fhovels, when the wind blows moderately. The cleaner grain being depofited, together with the chopped ftraw, in a heap by itfelf, the fpikes imperfectly trodden, are again fubmitted to the fledge. After fome days, the grain being more perfectly winnowed and feparated from the {ftraw, is thrown all together in a large heap called the Bydre, where it remains to be divided between the land- lord and the hufbandman, in the proportions eftablifhed by agreement. The cattle employed in the harveft are left unmuzzled at the heap, as mentioned in feripture. The grain, when divided, is tranfported in facks to the granaries, which are large fubterraneous grottoes with one round opening at top; and this being clofe fhut,
» Tfaiah chap. xxviii. 27, 28. A curious note on this paflage may be feen in Bifhop Lowth’s Commentary. when
AND) HUSBANDRY, (AT ALEPPO. 77
when the magazine is full, is covered over with earth, CHAP in fuch a manner as to remain completely concealed ~~ from an enemy. ‘Thefe magazines are fometimes found
in the middle of a ploughed field, fometimes on the verge,
nay even in the middle of the high-way ; and as they
are often, when empty, left carelefly uncovered, travel-
ling near the deferted villages, in the night, becomes extremely dangerous. ‘The grain, which in general is
of excellent quality, and perfectly dried before it is laid
up, is well preferved in thefe granaries. It is not much fubject to. vermin, except when kept too long, which avarice is often led to do, in expectation of a future dearth.
There are fome water mills upon the Kowick; but the corn is chiefly ground in mills worked by mules, and, among the lower people, by fimple hand mills ”*. Wind mills are unknown. ‘The corn, as may eafily be imagined, from their manner of managing it, is liable to be mixed with various feeds, {mall ftones, and earth ; for which reafon, in the better houfes, which always lay in provifion for the family, it is carefully wafhed and picked by the women, before it is fent to the mill”,
“ See Harmer, v. i. p. 250.—It is remarked by Bifhop Lowth that water mills were not invented till a little before the time of Auguftus. Notes on Ifaiah p. 217.
* They ufe the fame care in preparing the grain for the mill in Egypt. Maillet, Lett. ix. p. 96.
Befides
78
BOOK I.
OF THE SEASONS
Befides wheat, barley, and different kinds of pulfe already mentioned, a variety of vegetables are cultivated in the fields as well as in the gardens ; as mufk melon”,
26 fennel flower 7,
water melon*®, a {mall cucumber fefamum **, palma Chrifti??, hemp 2°, foenugreek 3* and baftard faffron 3”.
Cotton *# is chiefly fown in the gardens, though fome- times alfo in the open fields ; but no great quantity is raifed at Aleppo. It is not gathered till October, and the {pots where it grows, prefent a pleafant verdure, in the hot months.
Tobacco *+ is raifed only in the gardens. It is planted regularly in rows, and the ftems, being ftripped of the leaves when ripe, are left ftanding ; for a certain tax is levied by tale on the number of ftems. The leaves are ftrung on threads, and then fufpended in the open air to
dry. It is reckoned ftronger, and of inferior quality to
* Bateeh arhs Cucumis Melo. Linnei
** Jibbes (As Cucumis Citrullus.
a Ajoor_jy=* Cucumis.
” Hebtalbaraky a_s. ee lous Nigella Sativa.
* Simfim i Sefamum Orientale.
* Khurwa ¢ 3 Ricinus Communis. Kunbis (A5 Cannabis Saliva.
* Hulby cule Trigonella Fenum Grecum.
* Curtim 3 Carthamus Tinctorius.
* Kutn (yaks Goflypium Herbaceum.
* Tutton wig Nicotiana Tabacum.
what
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 79
what is produced at the villages, and efpecially in the © #,4? mountains between Shogle and Latachea, where it jg So cultivated in fuch quantities, as to form a confiderable
article of trade with Egypt. It is remarked by M. D’Arvieux in 1683, that they had only a few years be-
fore cultivated tobacco in the environs of Aleppo ;_ that
great quantities were confumed, and the price of
Brafil tobacco thereby lowered. Whence it would ap-
pear that moft of their tobacco had been imported from Europe before that time *.
The olives *° produced at Aleppo refemble the Spanifh olives, but are not quite fo large. ‘The annual produce is little more than fufficient for pickling. ‘The city is fupplied with oil from other parts, efpecially from Edlib and the villages in that quarter, where there are olive plantations of great extent. The oil *” is much efteemed by the natives, and fometimes is very good, but from the little care beftowed on it’s preparation, the quality is generally indifferent; fo that the Europeans, commonly. ufe French or Italian oil. Large quantities are employ- ed in making foap, of which fome is manufactured at Aleppo, but the greater part at Edlib. The afhes em- ployed in this manufacture, are brought from the Defert, by the Arabs.
+* Memoires, v. 6. p. 470. %6 Zeitoon (., yy) Olea Europea. 7 Zeit. Sy) Oleum Oliyarum.
An
80
BOOK I
OF THE SEASONS
An oil called Seerige** is prepared from the Sefamum
“+~— and much ufed in the Jewifh cookery ; but it is dif.
agreeably ftrong both to the tafte and fmell. Some eat it mixed with the infpiffated juice of the grape, called Dibs, but very few, except the Jews, ufe it inftead of olive oil.
The oil of the Palma Chrifti is principally ufed by the common people for their lamps; little or nothing is known of it’s medicinal virtues. The plant is cultivated chiefly in the fields near the river.
The gardens afford feveral varieties of grapes 39; par- ticularly a fmall white grape reckoned {uperior to the reft. The large grapes produced in the houfes, upon the vines that cover the ftairs or arbours, are of beauti- ful appearance, but have little flavour. The ripe grapes begin to appear in the market in September, but the height of the vintage is not till November. It is cuf- tomary to draw off the new wine at Chriftmas, and reckoned neceffary that the juice fhould remain in the jar fix weeks, in order to be properly fermented. The grapes produced in the environs of the city, though not employed for making wine, are not fufficient for the annual confumption. A part is ufed for making Huf- rum *°, which is the juice expreffed from the grape while
unripe,
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 81
unripe, and by the Turks preferred to vinegar; the reft © 4,4” are permitted to ripen, and are confumed at table. The “~~ grapes for making wine are brought from Khillis and other places. The Chriftian and Jewith fubjects have permiflion, on paying a certain duty, to bring into the city a limited quantity of grapes, for making wine, or brandy, for their own ufe: the Franks have a fimilar privilege tax free; but, as few of them have proper con- veniences at their own houfes, their wine is ufually made in the Jideida. ‘The white wines are palatable, but fo thin and poor, that it is with difficulty they can be preferved found from one year to another. ‘The red wine feldom appears at the European tables; it is deep coloured, ftrong, heady, without flavour, and more apt to produce droufy ftupidity, than to raife the fpirits. One third part of white wine mixed with two parts of red, make a liquor tolerably palatable, and much lighter than the red wine by itfelf. In this way it is fometimes drank by the Europeans, when Provence wine (which is their ufual beverage) happens to be fcarce.
It might be worth while to attempt the improvement of the flavour of the Aleppo wine, by fufpending in the jar, a bunch of the dried flowers of the grape, while the juice is fermenting, in the manner mentioned by M. Peyffonel to Haffelquift. I believe the experiment has not been made at Aleppo *".
“For the ufual manner of making the wine. See Memoires d’Arvieux, Tom. VI. p. 462,
Vo. I. M Tie
82
BOOK Ie
OF THE SEASONS
The dried fruit of the vine * makes part of the food
—~—— of the inhabitants. It is eaten with bread, and ufed in
Sherbets ; a very large quantity of raifins is confumed alfo in the diftillery, which is carried on both by Turks and Chriftians. Anifeed is added in the diftillation, and the. fpirit, which is very ftrong, is called Araki *°. The infpiffated juice of the ripe grape is much ufed by the natives. It is named Dibs ‘++, and has much the ap- pearance of coarfe honey, but is of a firmer confiftence. It is brought to town in goat-fkins, and retailed in fmall quantities in the Bazars, ferving for the common people, inftead of honey. Thus the vine remains an important article of Syrian hufbandry, though, in confequence of a precept of the national religion, comparatively a fmall proportion of the fruit, is employed in the vat. M. d’Arvieux however, afferts that the annual confump- tion of grapes is 28c00 Kintals, of which 14000 Kintals are confumed in making wine *.
The piftachio tree *° is cultivated with great induftry, and the nuts are reckoned fuperior to thofe produced in any other part of the world. Pliny fays that piftachios were firft brought from Syria into Italy, by Lucius
a Zbeeb. may 4 Araki Ca » Dibs (wd «* Memoires, Tom. VI. p. 456. * Fiftuk U3 sins Vitellius,
AND TMUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.
Vitellius, in the reign of Tiberius *7; and Galen men- tions Berrhoea as being famous for that fruit in his time *’. Befides a confiderable confumption of them at home, large quantities are exported to Europe. The fruit lofes much of it’s beauty by drying, but improves perhaps in flavour. The tree, when laden with clufters of the ripe fmooth nuts, of a beautiful pale blufh colour, makes a fine appearance, but at other times is far from handfome, it’s branches being remarkably fubdivided, and crooked. It feldom exceeds thirty feet in height, and is often not more than twenty; the trunk, which is proportionally fhort, is about three, or three feet and a half in circumference. The female tree, when not ingrafted, bears a fmall nut of little value. It is very liable to injury from blafts in the fpring. The nuts are of various fizes, the kernel alike green in all, but the outer hufk is of different colours, from almoft entirely white, to a red; but thefe two colours are moft com- monly blended, and the varieties are produced by in- graftment.
The piftachio delights in a dry foil. As the male and female flowers grow on feparate trees, it is found neceffary for the fecundation of the nut, that a male fhould be planted at intervals among the female trees. In the back yard of a houfe belonging formerly
* Lib. 13. cap. 5. Lib. 15. cap. 24. 41 De aliment. Facult. Lib. 2. c. 30.
M 2 to
84
OF ‘THE SEASONS
80 °K to one of the Englifh Gentlemen, ftood a very flourifh-
—~— ing female piftachio tree, which was almoft every year
laden with nuts of the faireft appearance, but perpetu- ally without kernels. It’s folitary fituation was confi- dered, by the gardeners, as the only caufe of this.
The nuts of the wild piftachio # are brought to town from the mountains, the tree not growing near Aleppo®. They refemble the other in flavour, but are very {mall, flatter, and ufually divefted of the outer hufk.
The white mulberry 5' is common in the gardens. The trees are permitted to grow to a great height, being cultivated chiefly on account of the fruit, which is very large, reddifh on one fide, and of an infipid fweetifh tafte. The lower people are neverthelefs very fond of it; and, in the month of May, many perfons are em- ployed in bringing the fruit to market, heaped upon large flat round boards, which they carry adroitly on their heads.
The fruit of the red mulberry ** is delicious, but 1s not ripe till two months later. ‘The tree grows alfo to a great height.
Very little filk is made at Aleppo, nor is the quantity confiderable that is made at any of the adjacent villages;
” Butem : *° The tree was found by Dr. Freer growing at the funk village.
* Toot i Morus alba Linnai.
* Toot Shamy acle Wy! M. nigra. although,
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.
85
although, wherever a ftream of water is found, they © 4,4. ufually plant filk gardens. The filk exported from “~—~
Aleppo to Europe, by way of Scanderoon, is chiefly the produce of Antioch, and the mountains in that neigh- bourhood; or is brought to Aleppo from places ftill more diftant. It is the leaves of the white mulberry on which the filk worm feeds; and the trees intended for that ufe are not permitted to grow tall.
The pomegranate 53 is common in all the gardens. The ripe fruit is feldom abundant earlier than the end of Auguft; and then moft families lay in a ftock for their winter confumption. ‘There are three varieties of this fruit, one fweet, another very acid, and a third that partakes of both qualities agreeably blended. ‘The juice of the four fort is ufed inftead of vinegar, or verjuice, the others are cut open when ferved up to table, or the grains, taken out and befprinkled with fugar and rofe water, are brought to table in faucers. ‘The grains alfo frefh as well as dried, make a confiderable ingredient in cookery. The pomegranate trees are apt to fuffer much in fevere winters; and, in the fpring, by extraor- dinary colds.
The markets are plentifully fupplied with figs5+ of feveral varieties, the middle fized yellowifh fig, being moft efteemed. The ordinary mode of caprification is
5 . . e > Roman Ube J) Punica Granatum Linnezi. * Teen oi Ficus Carica.
86
OF THE SEASONS
BOOK to fufpend fome of the fruit of the wild fig, on feveral “—~— branches of the fig tree ; and this is believed to be ne-
ceffary to the maturation of the fruit. In the fruit of the wild fig is bred a kind of gnat, which, at a certain time, wounds the growing figs of the tree on which the fruit for that purpofe was fufpended. The wound is inflicted at the end of the fig furtheft from the ftalk, and, when a drop of gum is obferved to iffue from that part, it is reckoned a fure fign of the fruit’s having been pricked by the infect, and of its being now ripe. I have heard that the Aleppo gardeners, in imitation of this operation of the gnat, fometimes prick a few figs with a needle dipped in oil, in order to have early figs for prefents to great men. But the manner of conduét- ing this procefs in the Archipelago, as defcribed by M. Tournefort % is little known at Aleppo, and is fo ill fuited to the natural indolence of the people, that, were fuch labour abfolutely requifite, they probably would fooner give up the fruit, than take fo much pains to procure it.
The gardens produce abundance of other fruits which may be confidered as articles of luxury. The common red cherry °° the white heart 5’, and the vifna cherry **: the latter of which is more common than the others,
** Tournefort Voyages V. I. p. 258. See Beloe’s tranflation of Heroditus v. I. p. 194. * Kirraz Stambooly aie Prunus Cerafus Linnzi. 37 Pe * P. and
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 87
and much ufed in confection. Two varieties of apricots, ©") * one common, of an inferior quality, and efteemed lefs Laem wholefome5?, the other a beautiful well flavoured fruit ® with a fweet kernel. Peaches®, which though not of the enormous fize of thofe of Tripoly, nor fo highly flavoured as in fome other parts of the world, are a delicious fruit when permitted to ripen; but the natives are fond of them when unripe, and great quantities are alfo gathered in that ftate to be preferved in fugar. Sundry varieties of plumbs *, ® one of which “ is fup- pofed to be the fruit on which the Beccaficos principally feed. Iwo or three varieties of apples, °> of very indif- ferent quality. Pears,°° tolerably good. Quinces,® lefs juicy than in France. Cornelian cherry *, almonds ®, walnuts 7°, and hazel nuts7', jujubes”*, and fumach”3 ;
© Mifhmooth apiwe Prunus Armeniaca Linnzi. “ Mifhmooth louzy rag oy Ome P.
* Dirrak Wl J Amygdalus Perfica.
© Ajaz owlal Prunus.
=i Houh C= Pi.
* Kulb al Tair coy los P.
© Tuffah cli Pyrus Malus.
© Injaz Qolxt Pyrus Communis.
* Sfirjle U> ~ rho Pyrus Cydonia.
* Kirrafie eal 5 Cornus Mas.
~ Louz_},J Amygdalus Communis *° Jouz jy Juglans Regia.
™ Binduck SE Iye) Corylus Avellana.
* Anab WUI Rhamnus Ziziphus.
* Summak Olan Rhus Coriaria.
the
88
OF THEMSEASONS
BOOK the former in great requeft as a medicine, the latter as —~— an ingredient in cookery. ‘There is one tree only of
St. John’s bread, or locuft tree 74, to be found in the gardens, but the fruit, which is brought from the coaft, is plentiful in the Bazars. They are fupplied with chefnuts 75 from Natolia, and with dates 7° from Baffora; neither of thefe growing near Aleppo. The pigniole7’, or kernels of the ftone pine, are very much ufed in the kitchen, and are brought from the mountains. All thofe fruit trees, as remarked before, are ftandards, planted for the moft part as clofe as they can grow to- gether. Little pains are beftowed on their culture, and the tree, however overladen, is never thinned with a view to improve the fruit. It is a common prat¢tice among the gardeners to fell the produce of the trees, as foon as the fruit is fet. The purchafer being obliged to run all rifk of the future crop, takes care, when the fruit approaches to maturity, to fend perfons to watch it. Birds are the moft formidable enemy, and it is im- poflible to prevent their depredation, though numbers of people are conftantly employed, at that feafon, to fcare them by cracking of flings, by loud hallooing and clapping the hands.
* Hurnoob Wi Ceratonia Siliqua Linnei. ** Aboo Furwa Oo L333 > ga! Fagus Caftanea.
* Timmer yo Pheenix Dactylifera.
” Sinnoober py Pinus Cembra.
It
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 89
It may be remarked that oranges”, lemons’, and c HAP. citrons *°, are mentioned by Rauwolff as common fruit ———- in the orchards of Aleppo *'; and M. d’Arvieux, a cen- tury later, exprefily mentions them among other fruit common in his time **. This circumftance, confidering the particular bent of Rauwolff’s ftudies, which renders it unlikely he fhould have been liable to miftake, feems in fome degree, to countenance a notion entertained by the natives, that the winters in Syria are in reality more rigorous than they were in ancient times. It is certain that thofe fruits are not at prefent cultivated in the gar- dens, and that in general they cannot refift the vigour of the Murbania in the open air; for fuch as are kept in the court yards in town, are either planted in chefts, and houfed in the winter, or otherwife protected, if planted in the ground. ‘The city however, is well fupplied with thofe fruits from Byas, Latachia, and other mari- time towns. Adam’s apples, or plaintains, goofeberries, currants, and myrtles, are alfo mentioned by Rauwolff, none of which now grow in the gardens; on the other hand, cherries, unknown in his time, are now common. Strawberries have been brought from Europe, and cul- tivated in chefts on the terraces. I have known them
™ Naringe a JG Citrus Aurantium Linnzi. 77 Leimoon Cyr C. Medica Limon. *° Kubbad Olas C. Medica.
= Ray's Colleétion of Voyages. v. i. p. 47. Memoires v. vi. p. 412 and 458.
Vo. I. N alfo
90 OF THE SEASONS
p00 alfo planted by way of experiment in the gardens. But
user fruit had not the fame flavour as in England. ‘The common {carlet ftrawberry only was tried; other forts may perhaps fucceed better.
Among the vegetables which enter into the diet of the inhabitants, the mad apple * claims a principal place. There are three varieties of it. They make their appearance in June, but are moft abundant during the four fucceeding months, and univerfally in requeft at the tables of every clafs: they are even dried, or preferved in falt, fo as to furnifh an occafional difh throughout the winter. ‘They are indeed reprobated by the Faculty, as prejudicial on account of their hot quality, and their tendency to produce atrabile, but the decifion is little regarded by perfons in health *4.
The remaining efculent vegetables may be arranged in the order of their refpective feafons. From the be- ginning of November to the end of March, the markets are fupplied with cabbage *, rapecole *, fpinach *,
” Badinjan (jl’ob Solanum Melongena Linnai.
* The love apple or tomato, which ufed only to be raifed in pots, like other flowers, has of late been cultivated, and is brought to the Bazars. The ufe of it was introduced among the Franks by an Englifh Gentleman who had refided long in Portugal and Spain. This fruit by the natives is called Frank Badinjan. It is the Solanum Lycoperficum.
*s Milfoof Fate Braffica Oleracea * Kurunb iS Braffica Gongylodes. *” T{banah eile! Spinacea Oleracea.
beet
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 91
beet **, endive *, raddifh%°, red beet 9', carrot %, and c HA P. turnip %. Cauliflower %* comes in towards the end of —-—~ January and is plentiful till the middle of March. In April and May come ix lettuce %, beans %, peafe %, ar- tichoke, %, purflain 9, and two forts of cucumbers '*°, all which continue in feafon till July. Young cucumbers are again brought to market in September, for the pur- pofe of pickling.
From June to September there is abundance of mufk melon '', of tolerable flavour, though inferior to the cantalupe melon cultivated in England. The Beer
melon'”, comes in late inthe autumn. It is a beautiful
* Silk Ct Beta Vulgaris. Linnzi. * Hindby suo Cichoreum Endivia.
° Fidjle bx? Raphanus Sativus.
* Shawinder jl 4% Bete Vulgaris Radix. 3° cag Daucus Carota.
3 Lift CaJ Braffica Rapa.
* Karnabeet CUS Braffica Botrytis.
9° Khufs (ws Lactuca Sativa.
%° Fool ,| ) Vicia Faba.
os” Beezy oj ** Ardi Showky er: iy (2 2)! »° Bukly ay ‘eo Hiar jlo
7: Bateeh eae:
102
Pifum Sativum. Cynara Scolymus. Portulaca Oleracea. Cucumis Sativus. Cucumis Melo Cucumis.
N 2 as
Q2
OF THESE ASONS
BOOK as well as delicate fruit; and is cultivated on the banks U~— of the Euphrates.
The water melons’*} do not appear till July; they are of excellent quality, and, being preferved in grottoes, or in cool cellars, vaft quantities are confumed in the fum- mer and autumn: fome even keep them throughout the winter, efteeming it a high luxury to eat them in the bagnio. To the fame feafon with the mufk melon, belong alfo adder cucumber '*, kidney bean '% efculent mallow '’, orange fhaped pumpion’®, and
, Jews mallow '*
feveral varieties of Gourd °°. Squafh '° comes in towards the end of September, and remains in feafon till January.
The following pot herbs are alfo cultivated in the gardens: coriander", fennell', garlic ', onions ‘",
3 Jibbes (wae Cucurbita Citrullus. Linnzi. ** Kutty acs Cucumis flexuofus.
*° Lubie arg) Phafeolus Vulgaris. 6 Miluhia dA Ho Corchorus Olitarius. «7 Bamia a_wly Hibifcus Efculentus. 8 Kufa fiffer suwly 33 Cucurbita.
»> Kurrah cP Cucurbita Pepo.
™ Kuzbura ou; Coriandrum Sativum. 12 Shumra | _.¢ Anethum Feeniculum. 3 Toom ¢ i Allium Sativum.
™ Bufle hos Allium Cepa.
leek,
AND) HUSBANDRY; AT? ALEPPO. 93
leek:'5, parfley "°, celery '”, caraway ''*, crefs '°, foenu- c HAP. greek **°, mint '*' and fennel flower *.
Befides the vegetables produced by culture, the fields afford capers‘, borrage’*+, common mallow, forrel '”° dandelion *’, water crefs °, and truffles
(eee ned
Savory "3°, wild as well as garden, is much ufed by the natives to give a relifh to bread; they pound it when dry, then mix a certain proportion of falt, and dip their bread in it at breakfaft, or after meals. Muftard*?* is very little ufed except by the Franks; it is found in abundance growing wild, but is not cultivated. The Shikakool ",
Kurrat co!
"* Bukdunes (wi su Kirrifs on
Kirrawy &_. lS
"9 Rifhad ki y
"° Hulby ada
™ Nana ¢ ss
= Hebt il baraky aS or "3 Kibbar_jUs
m¢ AJ Sanal Towr sll "5 Hubeify sj
6 Homaid ays
“ Los wos
“* Rithad il moy WJ! Okay ° Kimmaie oh
0 Zatre As)
'* Hurdle ae)
3? Shikkakool pees
Allium Porrum. Linnai. Apium Petrofelinum. Apium Graveolens. Carum Carvi. Lepidium Sativum. Trigonella Fenum Grecum. Mentha Sativa.
Nigella Sativa.
Capparis Spinofa Borrago Officinalis. Malva Rotundifolia. Rumex Acetofa. Leontodon Taraxacum. Sifymbrium Nafturtium. Lycoperdon Tuber. Satureia Hortenfis. Sinapis Orientalis. Tordylium Syriacum.
which
94
OF THE SEASONS
BOOK which is a fpecies of hartwort, grows plentifully in the U_— fields : it is fometimes confected in the manner of eringo
root, but is not much in ufe. Liquorice 3 grows in great abundance towards the Defert, and vaft quantities of it are confumed in making a deco¢tion, which is drank cold in the manner of Sherbet, inthe fummer. Wild afparagus "3+ is brought from Harem.
The Colocafia '35 is fometimes brought from the coaft, but at prefent not in requeft at Aleppo; which is the more remarkable from what Rauwolff fays of it in his time "°°. It is plentiful on the coaft; and, at Tripoly, the grocers employ the leaves inftead of paper, for wrapping up their wares; a circumftance, by the Author juft named, referred to Aleppo.
The trees and plants hitherto mentioned under the Arabic names by which they are vulgarly known at Aleppo, will again be inferted under their proper Claf-
133 Soofe ons Glycyrrhiza Glabra. Linnei. "* Hillioon «glo Afparagus Officinalis. "5 Kolea® (ale Arum Colocafia.
"6 «¢ But beyond all, (in the Aleppo gardens) they plant Colocafia in “‘ fuch plenty as we do turnips.” p. 48. Colocafia is not now cultivated at Aleppo, no more than the Mufa, or Adam’s apple, both which were com- mon in Rauwolff’s time; neither is the Agnus Caftus nor Myrtle found now there, except in the courts of the houfes. Ray’s Coll. v. ii.
Pp. 47 and 75.
fes
AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 95
fes in the botanical Catalogue of plants growing in CHAP. the vicinity of that city, to be given in a future chapter "37, —~—~
*” A manufcript on the fubject of agriculture, the work of a Spanifh Arabian Writer of the 13th century, is mentioned in the Efcurial Catalogue. Note XVIII.
CHAP.
te zi ve i a
“toMemeon ¢ oa Wo oft 7 aa
f a ze < 7 4 (ek Se tenet » » z
¥ ad Rang if ory ' algarly J their { she ficinall . a i. they ‘1a Biles’ f mo J 218 e, both . «A cle i a pA Pa t
THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF ALEPPO.
B OOK IL. OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE CITY.
con F. &.
OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.
NUMBER OF INHABITANTS— LANGUAGE —STATURE AND COM- PLEXION—DRESS OF THE MEN—TURBAN—DRESS OF THE WOMEN— FEMALE JEWELS, AND ORNAMENTS—EASTERN DRESS HAS UNDER- GONE SOME ALTERATION, IN CITIES—STAINING THE NAILS, EYE- LIDS, EYEBROWS, AND BEARD—PERFUMES—WOMEN ALWAYS VEIL- ED, WHEN THEY WALK ABROAD—DIET OF THE INHABITANTS— PREPARATIONS OF MILK, NAMED KAIMAK, AND LEBAN—COFFEE— TOBACCO—PERSIAN MANNER OF SMOKING—USE OF OPIUM FAR FROM GENERAL—INTOXICATING HERB USED WITH TOBACCO.
Tue number of inhabitants at Aleppo, has been CHAP. computed at three hundred thoufand. M. dArvieux, —~—~ in 1683, makes the number to amount to 285,000 or
Vor. I. O 290,000.
98
OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK 290,000. M. Tavernier, nearly thirty years before, —~— fays they reckoned about 258,coo fouls, in the city and
fuburbs '. But it is now conjectured, with more pro- bability, that they do not exceed two hundred and thirty five thoufand: of which two hundred thoufand are Turks, thirty thoufand Chriftians, and five thoufand Jews ’.
The language univerfally fpoken by the natives, is the vulgar Arabic. The people of condition are taught alfo the Turkifh, which, on account of its being the Court language, is always ufed at the Seraglio, as alfo by perfons connected with the Porte. The people of Cairo pretend to a fuperiority in correét pronunciation of the Arabic, and, in common difcourfe, they certainly appear to pronounce it nearer to the manner in which thofe of Aleppo read the literary language: but, in this refpect, fome local peculiarity may be remarked in almoft every diftrict of Syria, and the Arabs of the Defert, in their pronunciation, differ confiderably from all. The Turkifh fpoken at Aleppo, is reckoned to be corrupted by the concourfe of ftrangers from the Nor- thern Provinces.
The people in general are of a middle ftature, rather meagre than corpulent, indifferently well made, but neither vigorous, nor active. It is rare to fee a hump-
* Memoires d’Arvieux, v. vi. p. 439. Tavernier’s Voyages. p. 56. = Note XIX.
backed,
IN GENERAL.
72
backed, or deformed perfon; but it muft be remembered ¢ # a P. that the oriental drefs conceals flight deformities, and a
efpecially ill formed limbs. ‘They are naturally of a fair complexion, their hair black, or of a dark chefnut colour, and their eyes for the moft part black. Both fexes are handfome, while children (which has been re- marked by P. Teixeira’) but they alter much as they grow up; the men are foon disfigured by the beard, and the women, as they arrive foon at puberty, and are married at an early period, quickly lofe the bloom of youth, and often wear the appearance of old age, by the time they reach thirty. A {mall waiftbeing confidered rather as a defect than a beauty, the women {ftrive to appear full, and plump; they ufe no ftays, and wear their girdle very loofe. “The men gird tightly with a broad belt, and a long fhawl cin¢cture.
In proportion as the people are expofed to the fun, they become fwarthy. ‘The lower clafs of thofe in town, are of a dufky complexion; the peafants are very dark; and fome of the Bidoweens, or Arabs of the Defert, are almoft black. The women of condition, with proper care, preferve their fair complexion to the laft, but they are apt to grow negligent after a certain age. The others are more or lefs tawny; for though all are clofely veiled when they walk in the ftreet, they are at home much expofed to the fun, in going from
* Voyage, p. 71. }'2 one
I0o OF: THES TN ERSTE ANTS
BOOK one apartment to another acrofs their courts ; and the “—~—~ ufe of umbrellas is unknown.
{t has been thought proper to enter into a more minute defcription of the Turkifh drefs than what ftood in the former Edition; but it will be expedient alfo to have recourfe to the plates Il. and IIl.
The men drefs in the long Eaftern habit, and, during fix months of the year, they wear furs. The piercing cold which fucceeds the autumn, renders a defence of that kind in fome degree neceffary ; but fafhion con- tinues the ufe of furs when the neceffity ceafes, and many of the people of rank retain them all the fummer. Furs are the moft expenfive article of the Eaftern habit. A perfon in full drefs, wears no lefs than three furred garments, one over another. ‘The firft comes half way down the thigh, is made of fine Kermazoot *, lined with ermine, or other fhort hair fur, without fleeves, and with a narrow trimming of fur round the collar. The fecond reaches half way down the leg, and has fhort fleeves which come as low as the bend of the arm. This, like the other, is of Kermazoot, lined with fur, but, from the collar down to the bottom, as likewife round the fhort fleeve, is trimmed with a border of fur,
+ A ftuff made of filk and cotton. Some are plain, others flowered and very coftly.
five
IN GENERAL. IOL
five inches broad. Thefe garments hang loofe on the ¢ HA P. body, the larger, being of width fufficient to fold half —--—~ round: both are named Giubbe. ‘The third, by way of eminence called the Fur, or Kurk, is a large, loofe gown, of cloth, with long, wide fleeves, or fometimes narrow at the wrift, with great cuffs turning up. It is furred with fable, or other rich furs, and the collar, fides, and fleeves, are trimmed with the moft coftly long haired furs.
As the Grandees ufually fit in fpacious, airy apart- ments, without fire, and ride on horfeback when they go abroad, they can bear fuch exceflive clothing without inconvenience , but perfons who walk on foot, wear one fur only. or at moft two, and, inftead of the Kurk, they have an upper garment of cloth, without lining, called a Kurtak, or Binnifh. People of fafhion wear alfo the Kurtak, in undrefs, with a long fur under it, dif tinguifhed from the Giubbe by its reaching to the heels, and having fleeves that come over the fingers. The common people wear a fingle fur, ufually made of coarfe fox fkins.
The garments, under the furs, confift of a filk, or linen fhirt 5, and drawers®; wide trowfers of red cloth’, to which are fewed focks of yellow leather *, ferving at
> Kamees, * Libas |W 7 Chahkchir_jys-<*> or Shahkfhoor _) gis
2 Meft an ng
once
102 OF THESINAASIEANTS
80 °K once for breeches, ftockings, and, within doors, for fhoes; ——~—" but in walking, except on the Divan, they ufe flippers without heels % A waiftcoat, called a Kunbaz, that comes lower than the knee; and a long veft, reaching down to the heels, which covers all, and is named a Dulaman"’. Thefe two fit eafily on the body, they fold over, and are faftened with tapes on the fide. The fleeves are open, but have a number of fmall buttons and loops, and (in full drefs), are always clofe buttoned. The Dulaman is tucked up fo as to fhow part of the waiftcoat. They are made of plain, or flowered ftuts, chiefly of home manufacture. In the fummer are ufed India Kermazoots, calico, or muflin. An explanation
of Plate II. is here fubjoined". In
° Babooch: but properly Babooge cal
° Dulaman (be 40 or Dulmai alo
™ Plate II. The windows are reprefented as opening on the court yard of a Seraglio, where the colonnade, the ftair cafe leading to it, and, on the other fide, a Kiofk may be eafily diftinguifhed. In the front of the pi€ture is exhibited the Turkifh mode of decorating rooms with infcriptions in embellifhed charatters, painting in flowers, gilding, &c. The carpet, the raifed wooden platform covered with a mattrefs, and a fringed cloth, the large cufhions in front, and the additional {mall ones, with the fringed mat- trefs in the corners, fhow a Divan completely furnifhed. See p. 26.
In the neareft corner fits a Cady {moking a Kalian, which ftandsat a dif- tance on the carpet. He is drefled in the Kurk, or Furwy, which is lined throughout with fur, and has large wide fleeves. It is the ceremonial drefs of the Effendees, though fometimes alfo worn by other people of diftinc- tion; but the Turban is peculiar to the Ullama or learned. In the center
fits a Sardar, or Aga of the Janizaries. His turban belongs exclufively to the
hee) Lag
TaD WY, he ahy) H
IN GENERAL. 103
In the oriental drefs, ligatures of no kind are ufed, c HAP. except round the middle, which is girt with a belt--~—~ under the waiftcoat, and, a long Perfian fhawl above the Dulaman. This laft Cin@ture ’ ferves by way of belt for a fmall dagger’, or knife 't, which is ftuck obli- quely on the right fide, and faftened to the Cincture by
the Officers of that body; the fafhion of his robe, with the clofe furred fleeve, is that of the outer veftment, (lined with fhort haired furs, as ermine, {quirrel, &c.) worn by people of rank in the fpring and autumn. He has received his coffee ; anda page ftands before him, in the humble fubmiffive attitude in which the pages are accuftomed to wait. He ftands ready to take the empty cup, but in ftrict propriety the Dulaman (which is tucked up in order to fhow the flowered Kunbaz beneath) fhould have hung down to the ground before, as it does behind. In the further cogner, fits a Bafhaw {moking a pipe, the bow] refting on the Niffada, an utenfil con- trived to fave the carpet. His turban is the fame with that of other people of rank. His Kurk isa full drefs one for the winter. It is lined with long haired furs, and the trimmings of the large cuffs, the neck, and down the breaft, &c. are of the fineft parts of coftly furs, as of fable, lynx, black fox, and the like. Both he and the Cady have one or two fhorter furs under the large Kurk, but they do not appear ; becaufe good manners require, in fit- ing, that the Kurk fhould be tucked in under the knees, fo as not, in a flaunting manner, to expofe the rich clothes beneath.
It is for a like reafon that the Dulaman of the page is let down when he is in waiting, and the fleeves are clofe buttoned, from the wrift: when he ap- pears with a Kurtak over the reft of his clothes, he takes care to double it before him as he ftands in the prefence. The fame cuftom of doubling, or lapping the outer garment, is obferved by all who approach a fuperior.
» Zinar_ jG), On the fubject of the girdle, fee a curious note in Bifhop Lowth’s Ifaiah, p. 52.
* Hanjar.
™ Sikkeen.
a filver
104 OF THE INHABITANTS
Bo ox a filver chain. Among people of bufinefs, the Cinéture “——— ferves to fupport,a filver inkhorn.
The Turban" confifts of the Kaook, and the Shafh, which is rolled round it. The Kaook "° is a ftiff, quilted, round cap, flat at the top, and covered with cloth, of whatever colour the wearer choofes. The Shafh ’’ is a piece of muflin about twenty-four yards in length, and one and a half broad, commonly white, but fometimes dyed of a pale, or deep green colour. The Effendees, or perfons of the law, as alfo certain officers, civil as well as military, wear Turbans of a peculiar fhape ; thofe of perfons of condition, are all nearly alike in fhape, being only diftinguifhed by their finenefs, from the Turbans of the lower people. ‘The Chriftians and Jews wear Shafhes of a different colour from thofe of the Turks.
In the inferior ranks, both of Turks and Chriftians, many, inftead of the Kaook, wear a {mall cloth cap, roll- ing a coarfe Shafh loofely round it. The Kurdeens wear a high, tapering, felt Kaook, with a {mall Shath ; the Dervifes, one of another form, and without a Shafh. The Oriental head drefs admits of great variety in its fafhion"®.
1s Dilband WWI 8 U9 4b els '® The Turbans moft commonly worn at Aleppo are reprefented in Plate II. and IV. But there are feveral other kinds which may be feen in Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabie, &c. p. 129. Few
IN GENERAL. 105
Few people in fummer, unlefs thofe of the upper clafs ¢ #4 P.
when in ceremony, retain their furs, and then rarely ufe —~—~ any other than ermine. Inftead of the Kurk they wear a filk, or camelot gown, with large fleeves, laced down the feams with a narrow gold lace. ‘This goes by the name of Abai, the name given to the ordinary veftment of the Arabs. The Kurtak, inftead of cloth, is made of fhalloon, under which is worn a light, fhalloon Giubbe, without fur; and the Shahkfhoors are made of camelot. The ordinary people lay afide their Shahkfhoor, wearing drawers only; and for the cloth Dulaman fubftitute one of linen. By thefe alterations, the fummer drefs is rendered eafy and cool.
Reference might have been made to Lady Mary Wortley’s defcription of the female drefs '°, had it not in fome refpects, efpecially the head drefs, been rather Grecian than Turkifh, and different from the drefs at Aleppo.
The drefs of the ladies, refembles in many refpects that of the men. But their Dulaman, and Kunbaz, fit clofer to the fhape, and, not folding over the breaft, leave the neck uncovered. Both, as alfo the furred Giubbe, are made of European filks, brocade, or flower- ed ftuffs of Aleppo. Their Shahkfhoors, called Gin- tian*°, are of filk, or India ftuff, and purfed at the ancle
» Letter xxix, &c. i uli Vou. I. P with
106 OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK with a ribband. They wear no Meft, but only a thin
foot-fock of green, or any other coloured leather, and not fewed to the Shahkfhoors. ‘Their fhift 7‘ is of fine filk gauze, hanging down to the feet, under the Kunbaz and over the Gintian. Their Cin¢ctures are three in- ches broad, richly embroidered, and faftened before by a large gilt clafp, fet with pearls, or precious ftones.
The fafhion of their furs is different from that of the men. ‘They are better fitted to the fhape, have fleeves open from the elbow, fall off at the fides, and do not conceal the neck. ‘The coftly, long haired furs, are feldom worn by the ladies, who prefer the fable, or the ermine, ard rarely wear. more than one fur at a time. The trimming round the collar of their furs is much broader, but, on the breaft, narrower than in the men’s furs, and it is peculiar to them to wear the ermine tails pendent on the outfide trimmings.
It would be an arduous tafk to defcribe in words, the female head drefs, but fome notion may be formed of it from the print annexed. Many of the Turkifh ladies imitate thofe of Conftantinople, and form a high round Turban, of coloured muflin, decorated with pearls, diamond pins, egrets, and natural or artificial flowers ; but others wear the ordinary Aleppo head. ‘The hair, by fome is braided into a vaft number of {mail plaits ; others form it, in two or three plaits, letting them, like the firft, hang loofely down: but: neither
”™ Kumfan cy bass mode
SL (LL
VL Fage 107
ais T A) I| | \\ (\ = mE = aes a Sas ss 4 EZ Zz Gj Ze : yi Shi \\ WN _ ¢ 1 D Re ee Zz : y \e SF zie ( f . a. tS Bogs a Se DON. SEF SS. & » Ja Hi = = Sie =
Z
Yj,
YUL
(Ne
IN GENERAL. 107
mode is fo graceful as that of the Greek ladies at cuar. Conftantinople **. —— The ladies are extremely fond of long hair, and be- ftow much pains in preferving it. They encourage it’s growing as thick as poflible, and, as they ufe a warm cloth cap, by way of bafis for the fuperftru€ture of cotton and muflin, which compofe the reft of the attire, their head-drefs is much warmer than that of the men. But, though they feldom venture to comb out their hair, ex- cept in the Bagnio, they are very fubject to rheums in the head, or other complaints, ufually afcribed to having caught cold. They wear earings *, a necklace, or rather a collar, of gold*t; large clumfy gold bracelets *, on the wrifts and ankles”; a ftring of Zechins ” clofe to the hair, on the forehead; and another, very long, crofs the body,
* Plate III. Exhibits a Turkith lady of condition in the proper drefs of Aleppo. She is reprefented fitting carelefly on a Divan fmoking, while her maid advances to prefent a difh of coffee, holding the bottom of the under cup between her finger and thumb. The lady’s head drefs is that conftantly worn by the Aleppeen Chriftians ; but many of the Turkith ladies drefs in the high Turban after the Conftantinople fafhion. Her toke and other ornaments are exprefled, except the ankle rings, which are hid by her trow- fers. Her Pellice has fleeves, but is only thrown loofely over her fhoulders. She has a thin leather fock on the foot ; the maid’s feet are bare.
*> Khuldi 4 or Hylk CUS
* Toke 4b
** Sowar ) Mavs
** Khalkhal JW
” Killade ss or Killani GT
P 2 in
108
OF THES INHABITANTS
BOOK in the manner of a fafh. Both fexes wear rings * on .——~ the fingers, and fome of the women wear them alfo on
the great toes.
From the earlieft times, it has been the cuftom of the Eaftern people to beftow great expence on the jewels, and other ornaments of their women ; but it is only of late that the men have fo generally adopted the ufe of coftly furs, and flowered garments. The change is by the Turks regarded as a fign of their degeneracy, and they affect to lament the rapid progrefs towards extra- vagance and effeminacy, fo vifible, within the laft forty years, among the people of middle rank, in moft great towns of the Empire. ‘This luxury is faid to have been firft introduced. in the time of Bajazet II. who fucceeded to the Empire about the year 1481 9. It would appear from Belon, that the Eaftern drefs, in the middle of the fixteenth century, was much the fame with what is worn at prefent. Neverthelefs it has altered in fome circum- {tances 3°.
The fafhion of the Eaftern habit among the Arabs of the Defert, has perhaps, fince the moft early periods, undergone little or no change ; but the cafe is different among the inhabitants of cities. ‘The alterations of
* Khatem ,i|X Moft of thefe ornaments are mentioned in Scripture. Ezekiel xvi. 11, &c. See al Ifaiah iii. 18, &c. with Bithop Lowth’s learned commentary.
* Note XX.
* Note XXI.
fafhion
IN) sGENERAL,
109
fafhion however happen feldom, and are lefs confiderable ¢ # 4 P. than in Europe. ‘The head drefs of the men remains -—~—~
invariably the fame ; that of the ladies, as well as the reft of their drefs, admits of many fmall variations, and affords an opportunity of difplaying their tafte, in the difpofition of jewels, pearls, and flowers.
The ufe of Rouge is hitherto very little known. The Jewifh brides fometimes paint their faces on their nuptial day ; but among the Turks and Chriftians, it is only women of ill fame who venture a practice, which is con- fidered as a mark of their profeflion. The ladies how- ever have no averfion to artificial decoration, and practife a kind of painting more unnatural than the moft extra- vagant abufe of Rouge. ‘This confifts in ftaining the fingers, the palm and back of the hands, the feet, and the toes, with the plant called Henna3", which gives them a dufky yellow colour. As the practice is univer- fal, the quantity of the leaves of the Henna, imported from Egypt, is very confiderable.
The ordinary mode is fimply to tinge the points of the fingers and toes with the Henna; but, on extraordi- nary occafions, the figure of ftars, of rofes, or other flowers, are impreffed on the hands and feet, in the following manner. A pafte is formed of the powdered leaves of the Henna and water; of which one portion is
*“ Hienna x The Lawfonia ramis inermibus, of Linnzus.
rolled
IIo
OF THE -INHASPTANTS
Bo OX rolled into {mall threads, and the other is referved for “—~—~ the tips of the fingers and toes. A thin cake of leaven-
ed dough is then prepared, upon which the threads of pafte are difpofed in fuch figures as are intended to be imprefled on the parts. The tips of the fingers and toes being covered with the Henna pafte, morfels of the cake with the threads difpofed on them, are applied to the palms, the back of the hands, feet, &c. and fecur- ed by proper bandages. At the expiration of two or three hours, the parts are found tinged of a dufky red, or yellow colour.
The hands and feet are then covered with another pafte compofed of wheat flower and water, with a fmall proportion of crude Salt Armoniac and quick lime, which is allowed to remain about half an hour, when the dufky colour of the dye, is found converted into a fort of black, or rather a very dark green.
Both operations, but efpecially the laft, are attended with pain; for in order to imprefs the figures, a very tight bandage is applied, and the pafte is permitted to remain for feveral hours. The colour of the dye is at firtt a dark green, but, in the courfe of eight or ten days, gradually refumes a dufky yellow hue. This ap- plication is an indifpenfable ceremony, at marriages, as alfo on other feftive occafions. ‘The operation is ufually performed by the women who attend the ladies at the bath. ‘he Henna is likewife employed to give an auburn tint to the hair; and fome of the old women,
by
IN GENERAL.
by the addition of other ingredients, give their hair a brick colour.
Another univerfal cuftom among the women, is blacking the infide of the eyelids, by means of a fhort {mooth probe of ivory, wood, or filver, charged with a powder named the black Kohol 3. The probe being firft dipt in water, a little of the powder is fprinkled on it; the middle part is then applied horizontally to the eye, and the eyelids being fhut upon it, the probe is drawn through between them, leaving the infide tinged, and a black rim all round the edge *.
The Kohol is ufed likewife by the men, but not fo generally by way of ornament merely, the practice be- ing deemed rather effeminate. It is fuppofed to ftrengthen the fight, and prevent various diforders of the eye; with which view, ingredients of different kinds are occafionally added. The Kohol is applied to child- ren as foon as they are brought into the world, and is renewed at the interval of a few days throughout their adolefcence, by which means the women acquire great
s» Kohol —- or Kohol Ifphahany. In Turkith and Perfic Surma Coops See note XXII. » The Roman Satyrift alludes to this cuftom, as well as to that of black- ing the eyebrows, in the following lines : Ille fupercilium madida fuligine taétam Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes Attollens oculos. Juvena Sat. i. v. 67.
dexterity
IIt C HesA P-
Le (ey
112 OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK dexterity in performing an operation, in appearance dif- ae ficult and painful to a ftranger.
The women have another cuftom lefs in fathion now than formerly. This confifts in applying a certain com- pofition, named Khatat, to the eyebrows, which tinges them of a fine black colour, and makes the hair fmooth and glofly +.
The men fometimes ftain their nails, and the points of their fingers with Henna, but the praétice is not common. ‘They are decently neat in their drefs, while a too particular attention to that article, conftitutes, in their op:aion, a frivolous and contemptible charaéter.
It is the cuftom to let the beard grow, after a certain age, or after performing the pilgrimage to Mecca, and much pains are beftowed in dreffing it; but many of the Turks wear whifkers only. Some tinge the beard with a black dye, in order to conceal the approach of grey hairs; others make it red with the Henna; in either way the dye requires to be frequently renewed. It is not however a reputable practice, and therefore not common; though the Prophet himfelf ufed to tinge his beard with Henna, and the example was followed by many of the Khalifs 5. Trimming the beard, paring the nails, and dreffing the Turban, are offices in the
%* Khatat bihx Note XXIII. * Note XXIV. province
IN GENERAL.
113
province of the ordinary barbers who fhave the head. ¢ #4 P. Perfons of rank keep valets on purpofe. An excellent “~~
defcription of an Arab, or rather Turkifh, barber, may be found in d’Arvieux’s Memoirs by Labat**, and an account of the refpedt paid to the beard by the Arabs, is given in his Journey into Paleftine?.
Both fexes ufe a variety of compound perfumes, of which mufk, fandal-wood, and fpikenard, are always ingredients. Thefe fewed up in fmall flattifh bags, are carried in the breaft pockets. They have alfo the ottar, of rofes, and other eflences, from India. The aloes-wood, and fragrant waters will be mentioned in another place.
Women of every clafs, when they walk abroad, wear thin, yellow boots, reaching half up the leg, and, over thefe, yellow Babooge or {flippers ; but in wet weather, inftead of the Babooge, they wear a kind of wooden clogs, fix or eight inches high, called Kabkab **. With- in doors, they conftantly ufe clogs in going from one apartment to another, but much higher, being from a foot to eighteen inches in height, and curioufly inlaid with mother of pearl.
They never appear in the ftreets without their veils %9; wearing them being particularly enjoined in the Koran*.
3 Tom. iii. p. 220.
TE 87 4:
8 LaGl5
* Zar 11 Or Rhutta lhe
” Note XXV.
Vou. I. Qv Thefe
114 OF THE INHABITANTS
poox Thefe are of two kinds, the Furragi, and the common
“~— Aleppo veil; the former being worn by fome of the Turkifh women only, the other indifcriminately by all. The firft is in the form of a large Kurtak, with long {trait {leeves, and a fquare hood hanging flat on the back; it is fometimes of white linen, fometimes made of fhawl, or cloth. ‘This Furragi, reaching to the heels, conceals the whole of the drefs, from the neck downwards, while the head and face are covered by a large white handkerchief over the head drefs and forehead, and a fmaller one, tied tranfverfely over the lower part of the face, hanging down on the neck. Muffled up in this manner, the women fuffer fo much from the confine- ment that they are glad to get rid of it as foon as they enter the Harem. Many of the Turkifh women, in- ftead of the fmaller handkerchief, ufe a long piece of black crape, ftiffened, which, floping a little from the forehead, leaves room to breathe more freely. In this laft manner the ladies are completely difguifed; in the former, the eyes and nofe remaining vifible, they are eafily known by their acquaintance.
The ordinary Aleppo veil is a linen fheet, large enough to cover the whole habit, from head to foot, and is brought over the face in a manner to conceal all but one eye. The veils of the Chriftian, and Jewifh wo- men, are of plain white calico; thofe worn by the Turkifh women, are of the fame form, checkered blue or red: but the Jews wear their veils in a fafhion pecu-
liar
IN GENERAL. 115
liar to themfelves, leaving one arm free, fomething in © #/4?. the manner of the plaids formerly worn by the Scotch“~—~ ladies.
The men feldom appear in the ftreets in Kabkabs ; wearing them only in the Bagnio, or in the houfe when the pavements happen to be wet. On other occafions, they conftantly walk in Babooge or flippers, which, hav- ing neither heels nor quarters, fuit very ill with dirty ftreets. The common people who are obliged to go much about in the winter, wear red boots fhod with iron. The Janizaries wear red Babooge, with quarters. Thofe of the other Turks are always yellow, as like- wife, their boots, it is only fome of the common people, as before remarked, who wear red boots.
Such of the inhabitants of Aleppo as can afford it, ufe a confiderable proportion of animal food, in their ordinary diet. ‘Their difhes confift chiefly of mutton, or lamb, cut into {mall pieces, either roafted fimply on fkew- ers *'; or ftewed, with rice, herbs, and pretty ftrong fauces *. Mad apples, cucumbers, and gourds, ftuffed with flefh and rice *3, are difhes in great requeft. Fowls are ufed in making broth or fricafees ; they are never roafted whole. A more particular account of the
** Kubab. 47 Yahne,
43 Mahthee. Q2 Turkifh
116
BOO ik Ee
Neen ene
OF THE -INERABITANTS
Turkifh table will be given in the following chapter ; it wil, in this place, be fufficient to remark, that, at the Leticr tables, a great number of difhes being ferved up in quick fucceffion, it is in a manner unavoidable to make the meal from a variety: but at ordinary tables, the number feldom exceeds three or four. The lower people live moftly on rice, butter, milk, new cheefe, greens, and fummer fruits, with a very {mall proportion of mutton.
The ordinary bread is in the form of a flat thin cake, made of wheat flour, not well fermented, ill baked, and generally eaten frefh from the oven. ‘There are in the Bazars loaves of a better quality, mn the fhape of rings, with the feeds of fefamum, or of fennel flower, {trewed on the top: various kinds of rufk are alfo fold in the Bazar. But moft families make their bread, at home, -and fend it to be baked at the public oven: it is formed into {mall loaves, fermented with more care, and, in every refpect is better than what is fold in the Bazars. The Europeans are fupplied with excellent bread made in the French manner.
Rice enters as an ingredient into a number of difhes, and, in the form of Pilaw ‘+, is conftantly ferved up twice a-day. The Turkifh Pilaw is made fimply of
rice and butter, but occafionally is mixed with other
* Bilaw 4s fo written in Arabic, but the word is properly Perfic and Turkiii, and written Pllaw oY
difhes.
IN GENERAL.
difhes. At the tables of the great it is the laft difh in- troduced. ‘The confumption of rice is very confidera- ble, there being no idea among the natives of it’s being prejudicial to the eyes: a prevalent notion in fome parts of England. It is imported chiefly from Egypt, very little being cultivated in Syria.
Burgte *, which is wheat prepared in a certain man- ner, is likewife an article of univerfal ufe in the Eaftern cookery. . It is fometimes, like rice, made into a Pilaw, but more commonly, being beat up with minced meat, fuet, and fpiceries, is formed into large balls, and either boiled, or fried *°.
Chiches, lentils, and mafh ‘’, find place in a variety of difhes, and are material articles in the diet of the poor. ‘The greens, roots, and other productions of the garden, which make up fo large a fhare of the popular diet, have been particularly enumerated in another place. It is a remark of M. d’Arvieux, that a greater quantity of fruit is confumed at Aleppo, than in any three cities in Europe of equal fize +.
«* Burgle Us, It is prepared by firft foftening the grain in hot water, and then breaking and unnu‘king it by nxans co} a hand mill; it is after- wards dried in the fun, and thus preferved for ufe.
Kubby oi
Math xl, is a fmail kidacy beaa. Phafeolus max. Linnzi.
* Pook i. Chap. iii.
yee. V1 p. 157.
From
118 OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK From the beginning of April to the month of Sep-
“-~-— tember, the city is fupplied with excellent milk 5° by large herds of goats, which are fed on the hills and pafs early every morning through the ftreets. During the fame feafon, abundance of frefh cheefe, Kaimak 5", and above all Leban %*, is brought to market from the vil- lages, and from the camps of the wandering tribes of Arabs and Turkmans. It being impoffible, to preferve the milk fweet, in the fummer, longer than a few hours, they are obliged to force the cream by a flow fire, and the fmoke of the dried dung or brufh-wood employed for fuel, is apt to give it a difagreeable tafte. The cheefes are exceffively falt. The Leban arrives in greateft perfection, and, while the feafon lafts, makes up a great part of the food of the lower people. It is ferved alfo univerfally at all tables, either in {mall bowls by itfelf, or mixed with fallad herbs, and is fometimes poured over the roaft meat, and ragouts. In winter, the inhabitants are fupplied with cow milk, but, the cat- tle being kept within doors at the gardens, and poorly fed, the milk often taftes ftrongly of cabbage leaves, or garlic.
°° Haleeb Uy: \a is always ufed, in the vulgar Arabic, for milk.
‘+ 243 refembles the Devonfhire cream. Note XXVI.
s Leban cpa In the literary language is often tranflated milk, but con- ftantly, at Aleppo, meansa particular preparation of ‘our milk, much the fame with what in India is called Tyre. Note XXVII.
Butter
IN GENERAL.
119
Butter is much more ufed in the kitchen than oil. cH aP.
The city is chiefly fupplied with it by the Turkmans, ——~
Rufhwans, and Arabs, who, rich in vaft herds and flocks, journey over the wafte plains of Syria, and lead the paftoral, or patriarchal life, almoft in it’s primitive fimplicity. The butter is made indifcriminately of the milk of goats, cows, fheep, and buffaloes. It is churned in goatfkins, in which alfo it is tranfported to town; fo that in order to free it from hairs, and other impurities, it becomes neceffary to melt, and ftrain it, by which procefs it acquires a certain rancid tafte, difagreeable for the moft part to ftrangers, though not to the natives. As it is intended to enter hereafter into a detail of the Turkifh mode of receiving vifits, of their converfa- tion, their manner of fitting at meals, and, other cere- monies of the table, I fhall proceed at prefent to matters which are common to all claffes of the Inhabitants. Coffee 3, without fugar or milk, is in ufe, among all ranks. It is ferved as hot as poflible, in a china cup, placed in an under cup of filver fillagree, to protect the fingers. Among people of fafhion, the cup is only half filled, and the coffee made exceffively ftrong. The common people ufe larger cups, which they fill to the brim; but their coffee is thinner. It is drank conftantly after meals ; and, at all familiar vifits, is prefented at the fame time with the pipe. Few of the lower people
*> Kahwa 04g3 drink
120 OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK drink lefs than three of four cups of coffee in the
“—~— twenty-four hours; their fuperiors drink more: and perfons who frequent the great, drink perhaps twenty cups daily. When taken thus to excefs, coffee injures the appetite, by loading the ftomach, but the free ufe of it has neither been obferved to heat the body, nor to affect the nerves; and it is regarded, even in the mid- dle of fummer, as one of their principal refrefhments. The ufe of coffee was introduced into Syria, about the middle of the fixteenth century, or perhaps fome years earlier than at Conftantinople 5. M. d’Arvieux talks of the cuftom of drinking fugar with coffee, as lately introduced among the Turks, in his time %. It is cer- tainly not at prefent the cuftom.
Tobacco is fmoked immoderately by all the men, the very mechanics and common labourers are feldom feen without a fhort pipe in their mouth; the practice has alfo been adopted by numbers of the women, and feems daily to increafe. The children acquire early a tafte for tobacco, by being occafivnally employed to light the p'pe for their parents ; but the boys, before the age of fourteen, are not permitted to fmoke in prefence of the father; and the girls, befure tuey are married, fel- dom venture to {moke in company.
s Note XXVIII. 35 Tom. vl. p. 457.
The
IN GENERAL. 1%
The men begin to fmoke as foon as they awake in cu ap. the morning, and, the time of meals excepted, hardly —— ceafe the whole day. Each perfon carrics a tobacco pouch, or bag, fome of which are made of fhawl em- broidered. ‘They do not ufually fill the pipe themfelves, that being the office of a fervant, who, taking the bag, returns with the pipe filled and lighted, and, folding up the bag, delivers it to his mafter. The natives feldom fpit when they fmoke ; which is partly to be attributed to the mildnefs of the tobacco, not exciting the faliva, and partly to the power of habit. Europeans who have for fome time continued to fpit in the fame manner as when they ufed Virginia tobacco, have been known to adopt at once the cuftom of the natives, without incon- venience.
The tobacco pipes are made of the twigs of cherry- tree, almond, rofe, or jafmine, which the pipe makers have ihe art of ftraightning, and boring with great dexterity. They are from three to fix feet in length, are decorated with filver or gilt ornaments, at the top, and have mouth- pieces of amber, or ivory. The bow] is made of a red- difh clay, and requires to be often changed; the pipes laft for feveral years, and are not efteemed till they have been feafoned by ufe, but they are cleaned daily, by means of a wire inftrument contrived for that purpofe. In the fur:mer, the pipe is neatly covered with fhawl, under whch is a thin layer of cotton, and, this cover being thoroughly moiftened with water, when the pipe
Vou. I. R is
122 OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK is to be ufed, the fmoke is rendered remarkably cool.
-—~— The pipes ufed by the ladies are commonly {maller, more richly ornamented, and the cover of their fummer pipes is often finely embroidered.
The Tobacco confumed at Aleppo, is brought from different parts of Syria, chiefly from Latachia. It is much milder than the American Tobacco, but at the fame time fo oily, that the pipe bowls become very foon unfit for ufe, and great care is requifite to keep the ftem clean. A mixture of various forts of Tobacco, is rec- koned preferable to the fimple production of one foil. The Turks in this refpect are no lefs curious than the Europeans are in their choice of Snuff. Nothing is ever mixed with the Tobacco to fcent it, but it is common to lay a bit of Aloes Wood, or of Ambergrife, upon the lighted Tobacco, which perfumes the whole apart- ment.
The Perfian manner of fmoking has of late years been introduced among a few people of rank, though chiefly confined to the merchants who have crofled the Defert, or who have concerns in the Baffora trade. The inftrument commonly ufed, is called a Kalian’®. Ti is a glafs vet- fel of an oval fhape, with a long neck, and is ornamented within, with coloured glafs flowers fixed at the bottom. To this is fitted a filver head, confifting of a cup for the reception of the Tobacco, communicating with the vel- fel by a long ftraight tube, which reaches to within two
* las wu thirds
IN GENERAL. 123
thirds of the bottom; a fhorter tube opens into the BOOK neck of the veffel near the top, and bends from the head+~—-~—~ in form of anarch. Thefe are finely worked, and fome- times gilt or enamelled; but the form of the inftru- ment will be better underftood from the figure’’. The veffel, when to be ufed, is filled with water to fuch a height that the ftraight tube remains immerfed about one or two inches ; and, the head being fo adjufted as to pre- vent any air from pafling but by the tubes, a flexible pipe, four or five feet in length, is fixed to the mouth of the fhort tube. The Tobacco properly prepared **, being then put into the cup, is lighted by one or more fmall balls of charcoal, which muft neceffarily remain on the top all the while. The fuétion, by means of the flexible pipe, produces at the fame time a bubbling of the water, and a vacuum in the neck of the veffel, which is foon filled with the fmoke impelled down the ftraight tube, and rif ing again through the water. ‘There is another Inftru- ment named a Nargeeli‘?, conftructed on the fame prin- ciples, and, at Aleppo, more generally ufed than the Kalian. Itis made of a Cocoa nut or a Gourd, but with a head of a different fhape from that of the Kalian, and it has a ftraight reed inftead of the fnake. As this Inftru- ment muft be held in the hand, it is not fo convenient as the other, which in confequence of the flexible tube,
‘7 Plate II.
** To the Tobacco, after being wafhed, isadded a litte rofe water and coarfe brown fugar, and the whole is beat up into a pafte. Some dry To-~ bacco is {prinked on the top, before applying the balls.
59 MSG Re is
124
OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK is managed with more eafe: fome have a ftand on pur- —~—— pofe for the Nargeeli, and ufe a flexible pipe.
In both thefe inftruments, the {moke of the Tobacco, by paffing through the water, is rendered much milder, and leaves a lefs difagreeable fmell, or tafte in the mouth. It may alfo be remarked that the mode of {moking, is different from that of the common pipe, in which the fuc- tion is wholly performed by the lips; whereas in thefe inftruments, the fmoker, applying his lips lightly to the pipe, draws in his breath fully, dilating the cheft at the fame time, fo that a great part of the fmoke feems to enter deeply into the breaft: or rather actually defcends into the lungs. If a perfon accuftomed to the Katian, attempts to draw a common pipe in the fame manner, he is immediately thrown into a fit of coughing. That the fmoke defcends into the lungs has been re- marked by Kempfer°?.
The Perfian Tobacco, or Tunbak®, is the only Tobacco fit to be fmoked through watcr. It appears to be ftronger than the ordinary Tobacco, and fmokes difagreeably in a common pipe; but, when wafhed and properly prepared for the Kalian, it has a peculiarly plea- fant flavour.
The Turks probably received the cuftom of f{moking through water from Perfia; that of fmoking in the or-
°° Ameenit. Exot. p. 642.
- ae bce ss «yai_ Tooton Ajeemy. r dinary
IN GENERAL. 125
dinary way they certainly had from Europe: and it is a © #4? curious circumftance in the hiftory of human luxury, “~~~ that a practice fo difagreeable at firft, and accompanied with fo little pofitive fenfual pleafure, afterwards fhould have fpread with fuch rapidity, among a people not much difpofed to adopt foreign cuftoms".
The common people ufe an inferior kind of Nargeeli; but, Tunbak being too coftly, they fubftitute ordinary To- bacco, moiftened either with Dibs and water, or with an infufion of raifins, to which they fometimes add the Haf- heefh®, or fheera®, which impregnates the fmoke with an intoxicating quality. There are men who go about the ftreets, and attend at coffee-houfes, with this Nar- geeli ready lighted, which they prefent to fuch as choofe it, and receive a fmall gratuity in return for one or more whiffs. A few of the lower people only thus fmoke the Nargeeli; and it is furprizing to fee with what ea- gernefs they apply to the reed, the enormous draughts they inhale, and, after a long interval, the volumes of fmoke they emit by the noftrils, as well as the mouth. The public ufe of the Nargeeli is fometimes prohibited by the magiftrate on account of the Sheera; which ap- pears to be the fame with what in India they call Bing. It ismade of the leaves of the Female hemp, firft powder-
** Note XXIX.
62 ‘ Or ie wha © dhe
ed,
126 OF THE INHABITANTS
* °° * ed, then put into wet paper, and covered with hot afhes,
== till at formisia pafte, which, being preffed into a thin cake, is cut into fmall Lozenges and dried. About halfa dram of this if fmoked in a pipe of Tobacco, or in the Nargeeli, will make a perfon drunk, or rather mad; anda few grains mixed with any thing {weet, particularly (as the natives pretend) a fig, will, if fwallowed, have the fame effect; but that acids will immediately put a ftop to its operation. It may be remarked that the intoxicating quality of hemp is mentioned by Galen®t. Since the year 1753, the practice of taking fnuff (which was fo little known at that time) has fo much become the fafhion, that the Porte, about the year 1760, thought it worth while to lay a duty on Rappee {fnuff, and to grant a monopoly for making and vending it at Aleppo. The taking of fnuff, however is ftill confined within narrow bounds, compared to {moking.
I never could find that the cuftom of taking Opium was fo general in Turkey, as commonly believed in Eu- rope. It prevails indeed more at Conftantinople than at Aleppo, where happily it is hitherto held almoft equally fcandalous as drinking wine, and practifed by few openly, except by perfons regardlefs of their re- putation. The natives of Aleppo the leaft {crupulous in the ufe of opium, are people of the Law; owing probably
6 Note XXX. to
IN GENERAL.
to the influence of example; for a new Cady coming annu- ally from Conftantinople, it feldom happens that either he himfeif, or fome of his officers, do not, by their own practice, give a frefh fanétion to a cuftom they have learnt at the capital, where the offence is regarded as venial, and ftands little in the way of preferment in that line. But though in this manner many of the Effendees acquire a habit of taking opium, neither they, nor others by whom the cuftom is adopted, go fo far as to attempt a direct juftification of it: they frame fome pretence on the fcore of health, and juftify the breach of the law, on the fame principle of neceflity, that leads them fome- times to drink wine.
Opium compounded with certain aromatics and fpices, made into an electuary with honey, is named Birs*s; and probably is prepared varioufly in different fhops. It is hot and very naufeous to the tafte. They take from ten to two hundred grains of it at a time.
It is not commonly made at Aleppo, but great quan- tities are prepared at Conftantinople, and fent into the Provinces in tin boxes. Opium, though ufually taken in this form, is often alfo taken pure, either in pills, or broken in fmall bits. They do not chew it, but fwallow it at once, drinking a difh of Coffee to help it down, the
6s
uy dofe
127 GH Ae. I. ee amend
128 OF THE INHABITANTS
Bo OX dofe of Birs being fometimes fo large that they are half —~— fuffocated in fwallowing it.
The largeft quantity of pure opium I ever knew taken, within the fpace of twenty four hours, was three drams®; in general the quantity is much lefs. It is fwallowed in feparate portions, at intervals of five or fix hours. “The immediate effect I have obferved it to have on fuch as were addicted to the ufe of it, was that of exhilarating the fpirits. From a relaxed, dull, depref- fed ftate, into which fuch perfons, if they happened to pafs the ufual time of taking their opium, were apt to fink, they were roufed at once by their dofe, and be- came quite alert.
It is remarkable how foon a fudden noife, or any other furprife difpels the power of the opium, even when at its height, throwing the wretched victim into a {tate of trepidation, from which nothing can recover him but a frefh dofe.
The Grandees fometimes divert themfelves with per- fons of inferior rank, who happen to be immoderately addicted to opium. I have feen a noted opium eater at the houfe of the Mohaffil®? of Aleppo, who, after a full dofe of Birs, creating himfelf a Bafhaw, indulged
** The quantity mentioned above by the Author, is more by half a dram than I ever knew taken of pure opium, where I had an opportunity of accurately determining the quantity.
*7 Farmer of the cuftoms.
i)
IN (GENERA.
129
in all the luxury of his fituation. He placed himfelf in c HAP. the cerner of the Divan, talked familiarly with the ma- ——~
fter of the houfe, entered into a detail of ideal bufinefs, ordered perfons brought before him to be drubbed, or imprifoned, difriaaiaa fome of the officers in waiting, and appointed others. In the midft of all thefe extra- vagancies, a page, who had been inftructed beforehand, getting unperceived behind him, made a loud and fud- den clatter with the window fhutter. In a moment the enchantment was diffolved. The unfortunate Bafhaw was feized with univerfal tremulation, his pipe fell from his hand, and, awaking at once to the horror of his con- dition, he fled to his Birs as his only refource under fuch a reverfe of fortune.
Perfons immoderately addicted to this pernicious practice are called Teriaki, or Afiooni; and fooner or later fuffer feverely for their indulgence. They are fub- ject at firft to obftinate coftivenefs; but in time, the opium feems to produce a contrary effect; they are frequently attacked with an obftinate Diarrhoea, and fuffcr conftantly from flatulencies in the bowels; the appetite fails, and, in the courfe of a few years, tie? ac- quire that fottifh, ftupid countenance, fo often obfervable in drinkers of {pirituous liquors. They feldom arrive at old age, though rarely are carried off by dropfies, or the other difeafes which, in Europe, are the general confe- quence of hard drinking; but lofing their memory, and by degrees their other faculties, they grow old before
Pou. I. S the
130
OF THE’ INHABITANTS
soox the natural period, and fink miterably into an untimely
Il. 68
There are very few who, having once been intemperat- ly habituated to opium, have refolution fufficient to fore- go it. They fuffer fo much from low fpirits, and a thoufand hypochondriac evils, that they ufually give up the attempt. Some, in diminifhing their dofe, fubfti- tute a glafs of wine or fpirits; but the fafeft method is to fubftract gradually from the quantity of opium, and give {mall dofes of the volatile fpirits, or of fome bitter Elixir, which may amufe the patient without the rifk of his becoming fond of the remedy: a confequence not unufual, when fpirituous liquors, and efpecially French Rofolis, are employed.
* 'Teriaki, though the appellation commonly given to a Perfon who ufes opium to excefs, is applied alfo to a Debauchee who is often inebriated by ‘wine or fpirits.
C di Ae
Cl 'A oPyoidl.
OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.
THE BAGNIOS, AND MODE OF BATHING DESCRIBED.—DEPILATORY— THE ZIRALEET, OR EXCLAMATION OF THE WOMEN, EXPRESSIVE OF JOY—PEOPLE LEAD A SEDENTARY LIFE—GAMES—DANCES—RE- GULAR HOUR—BEDS AND NIGHT-DRESS—COFFEE-HOUSE ENTER- TAINMENTS, PUPPET SHOW,STORY TELLERS, &.—TURKISH MUSIC— VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS—VOCAL MUSIC—FESTIVE ENTERTAIN- MENTS—BUFFOONS, &c.
A CUSTOM much more prevalent at Aleppo than that of taking opium, and common to both fexes, is the frequent ufe of the Bagnio, on Hummam'. The Mo- hammedans are under religious obligation to go oftner to the Bagnio than the other natives; and many perfons of rank have private baths, in their own houfes: but as thefe are too {mall for the reception of a large company, their women, on occafions of ceremonial invitation, are obliged to hire one of the public Bagnios.
1 oo
S 2 A de-
132
v
BOOK Il.
OF THE INHABITANTS
A de{cription of the interior of the Hummam was re-
——~——~ ferved for this place. The firft, or outer room, called the
Burany, is large, lofty, covered with a dome, and paved with marble. It has windows towards the ftreet, but is lighted chiefly by the lanthern of the dome. A broad ftone platform, or muftaby, four feet high, is built clofe to the wall on each fide, which, being fpread with mats and carpets, forms a Divan, on which the bathers may un- drefs and repofe. A large marble fountain in the mid- dle, ferves both as an ornament, and for rinfing the Bag- nio linen, which is afterwards, hung to dry on lines ex- tended above. The bathers, as well as the waiters, walk in this outer chamber in Kabkabs, for the ftoves having but {mall influence there, the pavement, which is always wet, is cold to the naked feet. In the month of Fe- bruary, when the mercury in Farenheit’s thermometer {tood at 54, in the open air, it rofe in the Burany to 64. From this chamber a door opens into a narrow paf- fage, leading to the Wuftany, or middle chamber, which has a Muftaby for the accommodation of fuch as may choofe to fit there, and is furnifhed with feveral round or oblong, ftone bafons, about a foot and a half in diameter, into each of which two pipes open with brafs cocks, the one conveying hot, the other cold water. Thefe are called Jurn, and are fixed to the wall two feet from the pavement. There are alfo brazen Bowls for laving the water duly tempered upon the bathers. ‘The ‘Thermometer
IN GENERAL
133
Thermometer in the paflage rofe to 75, and in this CHAP
chamber to go.
From the middle chamber a door opens immediately into the inner chamber, or Juany, which is much lar- ger than the Wuftany, and confiderably hotter, the mer- cury rifing here to 100. It has no Muftaby, fo that the bathers fit, or recline on the pavement, which towards the centre is exceflively hot. Both the middle and in- ner rooms are lefs lofty then the outer one; and are covered with fmall cupolas, from which they receive a dull light, by means of a few round apertures, glazed with a thick, coloured glafs. At each corner of the Juany is a fmall open recefs, in one of which (in fome Bagnios), there is a bafon about four feet deep, ferving occafionally for a temperate bath. It is called the Murtas *; but as the Turks.feldom ufe immerfion, it is found only in fome Bagnios.
The Bagnios are heated by ftoves underneath. The ordinary heat of the Juany is about 100 degrees, but when particularly defired, it is confiderably increafed. The men remain in the inner room about a quarter of an hour; the women continue much longer. Some Bag- nios are for the reception of women only, others are appropriated to the men; but in general both fexes are admitted: the men from morning till noon, the women from noon till fun-fet.
2 (»Uare The
ie |
134 BOOK pispceciencemdy
OF THE INHABITANTS
The bather, when undreft, ties a towel round his head, and a wrapper, named a Fouta, round his middle, reach- ing like a petticoat to the ankles. ‘Thus attired he paffes at once into the Juany, where he foon begins to perfpire profufely, and remains dripping wet, all the time he continues there, partly from fweat, and partly from the moifture of the chamber. The firft operation is that of applying the Dowa 3, or depilatory, to the pubes and armpits, which, after it has remained about two minutes, or till the hair becomes loofe, is carefully wafh- ed off: but it is not unufual for accidents to happen from negligence in this point. The depilatory is compof- ed of quick lime, and orpiment, in the proportion of one dram of the latter to an ounce of the former. Thefe are intimately rubbed together in a mortar, to a powder, which is moiftened a little with water, at the time of application +.
When the Dowa has been wafhed off, the bather fits down on the pavement, and one of the attendants begins to prefs and handle the tops of the fhoulders, the mufcles of the arm, and fucceflively the whole body ; firft gently, then by degrees increafing the pref- fure, till he comes to handle pretty roughly, but without giving pain. ‘This is repeated at fhort intervals till the {kin is perfectly foftened. The attendant then taking hold of the bather’s fingers, with a dexterous jerk makes
> Dowa Hummam ely 140 * Note XXXI. each
IN GENERAL, 135
each joint crack fucceflively ; after which, laying him flat cu a p. on his back, and bringing the arms acrofs the breaft, ——~ the fhoulder joints are made to crack in like manner: laft of all (and to ftrangers a part of the procefs the moft alarming) the neck is made to crack, by raifing the head and bringing the chin forward on the breaft. Thefe operations finifhed, the attendant, having his hand armed with a coarfe camelot bag, begins from the breaft, to fcrub the body and limbs, pouring warm water from time to time on the parts, and turning the bather in order to reach his back. He then makes a ftrong foap lather, and with a rubber, made of the fibrous part of the palm leaf, which is brought for this purpofe from Baffora and Egypt®, lathers the body univerfally, except thofe parts concealed by the Fouta, which the bather wafhes himfelf. Nothing now remains but to wafh off the foap, which is done by repeated effufions of warm water, the bather removing clofe to one of the jurn. Some inftead of foap ufe the faponaceous earth Byloon.° The bather is now reconducted to the middle chamber, and a dry towel and wrapper are prefented to him, in which he returns on Kabkabs to the Divan, where he left his clothes, and, being covered with freth towels, or if the feafon requires it, with a fur, he fmokes a pipe, drinks coffee, or eats water melon, before dreffing. Perfons of condition, particulaily women, fometimes
* See Rauwolff. Ray’s. Col’. v. ii. p. 21. * See page 54. fend
136 OF THE! INHABITANTS
BOOK fend their own Bagnio linen, confifting of towels and a
“—— wide gown; as alfo the Tafa or cup for laving water, the camelot bag, &c.—but moft of the men content them- felves with what is furnifhed by the Bagnio. M. Grelot has in moft circumftances given an exact account of the practice in the Bagnios at Conftantinople’.
The procefs, as now defcribed, takes up a confidera- ble time, although the attendants are very expert; but the Turks feldom go through the whole. In com- mon they go into the inner, or perhaps only the middle chamber, receive a few bowls of water on their body, are flightly rubbed, and retire in a few minutes.
The women remain much longer in the Bagnio than the men. The wafhing and plaiting the hair is a tedi- ous operation, and they are obliged alfo to attend the children. They do not however continue all the time in the hot Room, but amufe themfelves in the Burany; for the number of jurn not being fufficient to ferve fo great a crowd at once, they are obliged in fucceffion to take their turn: a circumftance which produces much clamorous altercation.
On ordinary days, women of every rank are admit- ted promifcuoufly, till the rooms are quite full. The confufion that reigns in fuch an affembly, may eafily be conceived; the noife is often heard in paffing the ftreet, and, when there happens to be a number of young
” Relation, p. 232.—See alfo Rauwolff, Tournefort, Thevenot, &c.
children,
IN GENERAL. 137
children, the women themfelves acknowledge the din to cu ar. be intolerable. They however are fond to excefs of ——~ going thither, amid inconveniences of which they per- petually complain. But the Bagnio is almoft the only public female affembly ; it affords an opportunity of dif- playing their jewels and fine clothes, of meeting their acquaintance, and of learning domeftic hiftory of vari-
ous kinds; for particular Bagnios being more in vogue
than others, the ladies are affembled from remote dif-
tricts, and if accidentally placed near each other on the
fame Divan, it is reckoned fufficient for joining in con- fidential converfation, though they were not acquainted before.
When ladies of different Harems make a party for the public bath, they take all the females of the refpective families along with them, and fometimes carry fruit, fweetmeats and fherbets, with which they regale in the outer room, on their return from the Juani. Befides thefe refrefhments, the attendants are charged with car- pets, fmall cufhions, pipes, copper utenfils, foap, by- loon, henna, apparel, and the linen appropriated to the Bagnio, confifting of a peculiar habit, with various orna- mented wrappers, and towels; of all which, a particular defcription has been inferted in the appendix: whence it will appear, how much female delicacy is refpected by national cuftom; and that the Eaftern ladies are not lefs attentive in the Hummam, than on other occafions, where an opportunity offers of difplaying their ornaments *.
* Note XXXII. Vox. I. T Each
138
BOOK i.
OF THE INHABITANTS
Each company isalfo provided with a Keiam, or
“—~— woman whofe province it is to fee that every thing be
properly prepared, and to attend the ladies in the hot room. It is requifite for her to be acquainted with the rules of the Bagnio, and well qualified to conteft all difputable matters, with fluency of language. The Turks and Jews often retain Bidoween women as Kei- ams.
Befides the ordinary times of bathing, the women go to the Bagnio after childbed, after recovery from ficknefs, before and after the marriage feaft, and at a ftated period after the death of relations. On thefe ceremonial occa- fions it is ufual for perfons of condition, to hire a Bag- nio on purpofe, and form fele& affemblies, where fuch only are admitted as have been invited. ‘The ladies with their fuit, come dreft in their richeft apparel; the Divan, and the refrefhments have been previoufly pre- pared ; a band of finging women Is retained, and, the company being known to one another, gaiety, decent freedom, and youthful frolic, are lefs under formal re- ftraint than in the mixed afflemblies at the common bath °.
As thefe private affemblies laft four or five hours, the wo- men go feveral times into the inner rooms, but pafs a great part of the time in the Burany, where they either fit in the Bagnio habit, or covered with furs, for they do not
* Note XXXIII. drefs
IN GENERAL 139
drefs till determined to enter no more into the hot rooms. ¢ #4 r. The mufic and refrefhments are placed in the outer cham- —~— ber.
The ladies, as before remarked, are provided with a habit made exprefsly for the Bagnio; but their flaves and fervants are equipped much in the fame manner with the men, and the younger girls, efpecially the flaves, claim a privilege of romping in the Hummam. Dafhing water at one another is no uncommon frolic ; the Fouta, or the wrapper, may eafily drop by accident, or be drawn away in fport, and fhould the girl at the time happen to be employed in carrying a cup of cof- fee, or fherbet, fhe may poflibly advance to deliver it, without ftooping to recover the Fouta. To this, or fume fuch accident, it muft be owing, if the women in the Bagnio are ever feen walking about, in a pure ftate of nature, at leaft at Aleppo”.
The firft time a woman goes to the Bagnio after childbed, fhe is attended by the midwife, who, placing her near one of the Jurn, anoints her belly and limbs, with a compofition named Shidood, confifting of ginger, pepper, nutmegs, and other hot ingredients, beat up with honey; which, after lying on a certain time, is wath- ed off with warm water: while this operation is per- forming, the numerous train of women, make the domes of the Hummam reecho with that fhrill, warb-
* Note XXXIV. T 2 ling
140 OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK ling fhout, which is the female mode of expreffing
setae exultation, and which at all feftivals, may be heard to a great diftance. It is termed Ziraleet, and, by Shaw, has been confounded with the difmal conclamation of the women at funerals. Belon thought it refembled the laft part of the cry of the village women, who fell milk at Paris. But Pietro della Valle defcribes it more accurately ; “a fharp and loud cry of joy, made in ** concert, by a quick and fomewhat tremulous ap- ‘¢ plication of the tongue to the palate, producing ‘ the found heli i li lili lili li’ ". The Shidood is fuppofed to prevent many diforders confequent to childbed; and is fometimes alfo applied to convalefcents from chronic diftempers.
The people of Aleppo lead in general a fedentary life. They do not confider exercife, as neceffary to the prefervation of health, and have no great opinion of its utility in the cure of any difeafe. Bufinefs in the city is tranfaéted in a manner that does not require much walking; and, in the way of pleafure, a mile’s excurfion to the gardens, is the extent of their walk: if the diftance happen to be greater, they fit down to teft by the way fide. Their ordinary gait in the ftreet is flow and grave; and, without the gate of the city, they commonly fmoke their pipe as they faunter along.
» Let. xiii. p. §36.—Belon, Lib. ii. Ch. 35. Note XXXV. The
IN GENERAL. 141
The women, as they live chiefly on the ground floor, cH 4 P. have feldom occafion to go up and down ftairs, and, —~—~ moft of the requifites of life being brought to the door of the Harem, they have not the exercife they might otherwife have by going to market. Neverthelefs many occafions call them abroad; and, were a ftranger to judge from the number he daily meets in the ftreets, he would hardly think himfelf in a country, where the women generally are f{uppofed to be prifoners for life. At certain times, when by order of the Governor they are required to keep within doors, the city appears a defert.
Dancing is not, as in Chriftendom, reckoned a genteel accomplifhment for people of condition, and even among the vulgar, is feldom practifed, unlefs by fuch as make it their trade. The Turkifh dance confifts lefs in high capers, in graceful fteps, or attitudes, than in lafcivious poftures, and movements inelegant, or in- decent’. It has no pretence to the feftive air of the chafter Greek Dance; and is rejected as an unfit exer- cife, for the youth of either fex.
* This lafcivious kind of dance is well defcribed by Juvenal, as perform- ed by a girl of Cadiz, which city is faid to have been founded by the Syri- ans, or Africans:
Forfitan expectes ut Gaditana canoro Incipiat prurire choro, plaufuque probate Ad terram tremulo defcendant clune puellz. Juv. Sat. xi. v. 162. More on this fubje&, as it regards antiquity, may be found in Cafaubon’s notes; and Note XXXVI. There
142 OF THE INHABITANTS
BooKx There are male and female public dancers. The
‘“——— latter only are admitted into the Harems; both have accefs to private parties among the men, but, in public, the part of women is ufually performed by boys, dreffed in female habits. When ladies are fpectators, the dancers retain a certain degree of decency, which they con- fider as unneceffary among the men. ‘The women dance unveiled, and fome of them are handfome. The dance is commonly performed by two perfons, who are provided with caftanets, and, at intervals, fing certain {tanzas, followed by a chorus in which the inftrumental performers join their voices.
The Turkifh diverfions within doors are moftly of the fedentary kind. Chefs", and a kind of Backgammon", which they are faid to have learnt of the Perfians, are played by both fexes. They play likewife Draughts ; and two others games unknown in England: the one called Mankala, and the other Tabwaduk. The firft is a game played by two perfons, the fuccefs de- pending chiefly on memory, and readinefs in counting. A defcription of it has been given by M. d’Arvieux ¥. The fecond is a mixed game, the movement of the pins on the board, being determined by cafting four fmall flat fticks, white on one fide and black on the other.
3 Sitringe oS piso “ “Taool eo
= La Rocque Voyage dans la Paleftine, p. 296. It
IN GENERAL. a It has been exactly defcribled by Niebuhr © = In the cuap.
long winter evenings, they have recourfe, among other as gambols, to the play of the ring, which is thus perform- ed. A number of coffee cups reverfed, being placed upon a large falver, the ring is hid under one of them. The perfons engaged are divided into two parties, and the game confifts in guefling where the ring is conceal- ed. The winning party have a right to blacken the faces of the lofers, to expofe them in fools caps to the derifion of the company, and to infult them with fongs of tri- umph. Servants only, or fuch as have talents for buf- foonery, are made butts on fuch occafions.
The Turks play merely for amufement. They fometimes rifk a difh of coffee, or the expence of a Bagnio, but never play for money, and are wholly unac- quainted with cards and hazard: all gaming being in the moft exprefs terms forbidden by the Koran'?. They oc- cafionly determine difputes by a {mall bet, but never lay confiderable wagers; regarding it as a {fpecies of gaming. Some of the Chriftians in the fervice of the Euro- peans, have of late learned to game; a refinement in manners upon which their mafters, fometime or other, _may have little caufe to congratulate themfelves.
The natives of every denomination obferve very regular hours. ‘They rife with the Sun, and ufually *© Voyage en Arabie, v. i. p. 139. ” Note XXXVII. are
144 OF THE INHABITANTS
80 OX are in bed between nine and ten at night. Moft of
— them lye down for an hour after dinner. Bufinefs is tranfacted between breakfaft and five in the afternoon. The Merchants commonly dine in their apartments in the Khanes ; fome have victuals fent from their own kitchen, but many content themfelves with bread, cheefe, and fruit, or perhaps a Kabab from the Bazar. ‘Their chief repaft is fupper, at their own houfes ; after which, many of the ordinary people go to the coffee houfe, where they pafs the time till evening prayer, and then retire. People of rank fometimes vifit after fupper, but feldom are feen abroad later than ten o’clock.
The women do not appear in the ftreet after it is dark. When they pay formal family vifits, they fet out early in the morning, and either return home about fun fet, or ftay all night. On thefe occafions they take entire poffeflion of the Harem, where a number of beds can foon be made ready, with little trouble; and the gentlemen of the family are ufually left to fhift for them- felves, in the outer apartments.
The beds confift of feveral mattreffes laid one upon another, acrofs the middle part of the Divan. Over the upper mattrefs is {fpread a cotton fheet, and an- other fheet is fewed to the coverlet, which is of filk, quilted more or lefs thick, according to the feafon, One of the Divan cufhions commonly ferves for a bolfter, but fome ufe down pillows. ‘The general cuftom is to fleep without curtains ; fome, who are more delicate,
fufpend
IN GENERAL.
fufpend a fly trap, or gauze curtains, by means of lines hung crofs the room. The mattreffes, and coverlets being removed in the morning, are folded up in a large recefs at one end of the room, and concealed by a cur- tain, fo that it is eafy to make eight or ten beds, in an apartment, which, in the day time, ferves for the recep- tion of company.
Their night drefs is compofed of an under waiftcoat and drawers, with a Turban of a particular fafhion by way of cap. When the hour of repofe approaches, they fit down on the bed, and continue fmoking till they grow drowfy; they then lay themfelves along, leaving it to their women, or (if in an outer apartment) to their pages, to take away the pipe, and to cover them with the coverlet. Some of the voluptuous Grandees are lulled to fleep by foft mufic, placed in an adjoining chamber, or by Arabian Tales, which their flaves are taught to read, or repeat. With the fame view, it is not uncommon to have their feet and legs gently ftroked, or rubbed by the hand of an attendant : a cuftom much pra¢tifed in India, where it is termed champooing. Ifthey happen to wake in the night, and find no more difpofition to fleep, they fit up in bed, drink coffee, or, in long nights, regale with dried fruits, and paftry. After which they fmoke their pipe till they once more drop afleep. Married perfons have feparate beds placed near one another.
In fummer, the beds are made in the Alcove or
Vou. I. U Great
14.5
CHAR. If.
(ese pa
146 OF THE INHABITANTS
BO°X Great Divan, or upon the wooden Divans placed in
—~— the court yard. Sometimes they are laid on a mat fpread on the pavement; but, in the warmer feafon, moft of the natives make their beds on the houfe top. In the winter, fmall rooms with low ceilings, on the ground floor, are preferred as bed chambers. They have always a lamp burning in the night, and often, in cold weather, are tempted to admit a pan of charcoal, though repeated experience has fhown them the de- fiructive effects of the fume, in fpight of all the care that can previoufly be taken, by burning the charcoal clear in the open air. Very few winters pafs without affording many alarming and fome fatal accidents from charcoal. It is commonly ufed in very large braziers in the grand apartments, where the conftant circulation of air prevents any other ill effects than flight head-achs. But in bed chambers, and other {mall rooms, where the air is excluded by window curtains, clofe doors, and antiports, it is then moft dangerous when the greateft pains have been taken to burn it clear; for the grofler fmoke, giving an early alarm, leaves time to efcape the danger, whereas the more fubtle vapour, (of which no means has hitherto been difcovered to diveft it,) has a fudden, and unexpected operation.
The coffee houfes are not frequented by perfons of the firft rank, but by all others indifcriminately. Some of them are large, and handfome rooms, and, for the
enter-
IN GENERAL. 147
entertainment of the cuftomers, a band of mufick, is re- c H A P. tained, a puppet fhow, and a ftory-teller. “Uhefe exhibit ~~ at different hours of the day, the audience, by a volun- tary contribution, raifing a trifle towards defraying the expence.
The Concert, which confifts of vocal and inftrumental mufick, continues more than an hour, without intermif- fion. They make no paufe between the airs, but flide from one into another, as if fo many movements of the fame concert. At inferior coffee houfes, not provided with a regular band, the company are occafionally en- tertained by fome volunteer performer, who fings gratis.
The puppet fhow is performed by fhadows, in the manner of Les Ombres Chinoife, but much inferior in point of execution. The ftage is very fimple, and con- ftructed in a few minutes. One perfon with great dexterity conducts the whole, changing his tone of voice, and imitating the provincial dialects, or other peculiarities of the characters introduced in the piece. Some faint attempts towards dramatic fable may be traced in thefe fhows, which are moreover diverfified and decorated by the march of caravans, bridal proceflions, and other gaudy pageants. But the whole is too often interrupted by the difgufting indecency of Kara-guze, the punch of their theatre: except where women happen to be pre- fent, as at private houfes, when the moft exceptionable parts of the dialogue are fuppreft. At the coffee houfes, the puppet fhow, in point of obfcenity, is under no re-
U 2 ftraint,
148 BOOK 1UE Se)
OF THE INHABITANTS
ftraint, but the magiftrate fometimes interpofes to protect individuals from being introduced on the ftage, and ex- pofed to the derifion of the populace. In the beginning of the Ruffian war in 1768, the Aleppo Janizaries, who had returned from the field rather in difgrace, were introduced on the ftage giving a ludicrous account of their achievements ; and Kara-guze could not well mifs the opportunity of throwing out fome fevere farcafms on their prowefs. This, though received with great ap- plaufe, was foon moft judicioufly put a ftop to; for though little was then to be apprehended from the Jani- zaries in their ftate of humiliation, it was probable that they might, when in motion the next campaign, have taken ample vengeance. In an affair of bankruptcy which had occafioned much popular clamour, certain perfons concerned applied to the Seraglio for proteétion againft the petulance of Kara-guze, who had, on the ftage affumed the character of a merchant, and, in allufion to recent tranfactions, reprefented a number of fraudulent intrigues, to the great entertainment of the populace.
Satyre muft be cautious of defcending to too pointed reflection on perfons immediately in power ; but has full fcope to lafh in general, the follies of private life, the perverfion of public juftice, and the corruptions of go- vernment. I have known a Bafhaw ridiculed on the ftage, after his departure from the city ; and a Cady fel- dom or never efcapes.
The recitation of Eaftern fables and tales, partakes fome-
IN GENERAL. 149
fomewhat of a dramatic performance. It is not merely ¢¥ 4 P. a fimple narrative ; the ftory is animated by the manner, —~—~ and aétion of the fpeaker. A variety of other ftory books, befides the Arabian nights entertainment, (which, under that title, are little known at Aleppo’’) furnifh materials for the ftory teller, who, by combining the incidents of different tales, and varying the cataftrophe of fuch as he has related before, gives them an air of novelty even to perfons who at firft imagine they are liftening to tales with which they are acquainted. He recites walking to and fro, in the middle of the coffee room, ftopping only now and then when the expreffion requires fome emphatical attitude. He is commonly heard with great attention, and, not unfrequently, in the midft of fome interefting adventure, when the expecta- tion of his audience is raifed to the higheft pitch, he breaks off abruptly, and makes his efcape from the room, leaving both his heroine and his audience, in the utmoft embarraflment. Thofe who happen to be near the door endeavour to detain him, infifting on the ftory being fini- fhed before he departs, but he always makes his retreat good ; and the auditors, fufpending their curiofity, are induced to return at the fame hour next day, to hear the fequel. He no fooner has made his exit, than the com- pany, in feparate parties, fall a difputing about the characters of the drama, or the event of the unfinifhed
* Note XXXVIII. adven-
150
OF ‘THE SNAASTEANTS
BOOK adventure. The controverfy by degrees becomes feri
“—— ous, and oppofite opinions are maintained with no lefs
warmth, than if the fate of the city depended on the decifion.
Excepting the public entry of bafhaws, or of European confuls, and the fports exhibited on certain occafions in the Seraglio court yard, there are no public fpectacles, at which the two fexes aflemble promifcuoufly. Fire works, at the great feafts and other times of rejoicing, are exhibited at the Seraglio, but the women, as obfery- ed before, do not come abroad at night.
The Aleppeens, in general, have a correct ear, and are fond of mufic. They have technical names for the notes, as well as for the different meafures, but they have no written mufic. They learn the airs and fymphonies by ear, retain them by memory, and com- municate them to others in the fame manner they them- felves were taught. The Arab mufical fcale, in the fubdivifion of intervals, differs confiderably from that of Europe'’. They have no mufic in parts; the per- formers in a concert, conftantly play in unifon; but both voices and inftruments have fometimes refts of
feveral bars, which they obferve with great exactnefs,
being for the moft part excellent timeitfts. The inftrumental mufic is of two kinds. The one martial and loud, intended for the field ; the other lefs
» Note XXXIX. fonorous,
IN GENERAL.
fonorous, adapted to the chamber. The martial band is compofed of Hautboys *, fhorter and fhriller than the European; trumpets; cymbals *; drums of a large fize 3, the head of which is beat with a heavy drum- ftick, and the bottom, at the fame time, ftruck gently with a very {mall ftick ; laftly, drums of a much fmaller fize which are beat in the manner of a kettle drum *. There are nine great drums in the band of a Vizir Bafhaw, and eight in that of a Bafhaw of two tails; the number of other inftruments is not fo ftriétly limited. A band of mufic, belonging to the caftle, fmaller than that of the Bafhaw, performs regularly twice a day from the battlements.
The Bafhaw’s band performs alfo twice a day in the court of the Seraglio. The concert, which lafts above half an hour, is divided into three parts, not diftinguifh- ed by intervals of paufe, but by a clofe executed by the firft hautboy, who in the length of his fwell, and his
fhake, out-trills all patience, as well as melody. The
meafure of the fymphony is commonly flow at firft, but by degrees changes into a pretty quick allegro, and it is ufual, in thefe movements, to introduce fome of the cantabile airs which happen to be moft in vogue.
* Zummer ye) “ Nafeer xi * Snuge ~v
* Tuble (ube * Nakara 31 lai
The
roi
C.H_A.P. Dts
en anne
152
BOOK II
OF THE INHABITANTS
The chamber mufic confifts of voices accompanied
—— with a dulcimer *, a guitar*, the Arab fiddle’, two
{mall drums **, the dervis’ flute ?°, and the diff, or tam- bour de Bafque*. Thefe compofe no difagreeable concert, when once the ear has been fome what ac- cuftomed to the mufic; the inftruments generally are well in tune, and the performers, as remarked before, keep excellent time’. The print reprefenting a Turkith concert, exhibits the feveral inftruments ufed in the
chamber mufic 32.
The
** Santeer pero called alfo Kanoon (il
** Tanboor_j4ib ” Kamangi asad * Nakara o! La = Naie (CU ° Diff _ 30 fometimes Daira 0 js!J * Tt is-worth remarking that the Romans according to Juvenal, received the Tympanum from Syria : Jampridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes, Et linguam, et mores, ct cum Tibicine chordas Obliquas, nec non gentilia Tympana fecum Vexit, Sat. ili. 3+ Plate IV. exhibits a Tuikith concert drawn from the life, and the feveral performers are dreffed in the habits peculiar to their rank. The firft isa Turk of the lower clafs, his white fhafh tied loofely round the Kavok, which gives the Turban a clumfy appearance, compared with thofe worn by perfons of fafhion. He beats the Diff, and fings at the fame time. The perfon next him is an ordinary Chriftian, drefled in a flovenly manner, he fings alfo, and plays the Tanboor. The middle figure is a dervife in his ordinary Kaook, without a fhafh, he is playing the Naie, or Dervis’s flute.
The fourth is a Chriftian of middlerank. He fits in his Curtak, and has a “ Doliman
V.I Fiage 142
| We \N | " i MW | MiMi
Cal
= = Nem S Ba : Lf p - = 43, Fall a Wy = Tae = —
‘rc
IN GENERAL.
a
The vocal mufic, to an European ear, feems at firft ¢ HA P. not lefs uncouth than the Arabic language, and it fel- —-~—~
dom happens that time, which by degrees reconciles the language, goes further in mufic than to render it merely tolerable. There is in particular, one f{pecies of fong, between an air and recitative, named Mowal*,
Dulaman which, being tucked under his legs, hides his Kunbaz, or waift- coat ; he has a knife in his girdle, the handle of which appears above the cinéture. The fhafh of the Turban is blue and white ftriped, like that of the other Chriftian, but a difference may be remarked in the drefs ; for the firft is without a Kurtak, and has only a long outer garment made faft with a Cinéture, and under it a Kunbaz. He plays the Kamangi, in the manner it commonly is held refting on its foot. The laft man is dreffed much in the manner of the other Turk, but the head drefs is after the fafhion of what is fometimes worn by the Janizaries, and very often by the Arabgeers, or Armenian grooms, in the fervice of the Europeans. He beats the Nakara with his fingers, in order to foften the found for the voice, but the drum- fticks, appear from under his veft. The flippers of the band, lye at the end of the Muftaby on which the Muficians are placed, they are all of the fame form, but the Turkifh flippers as mentioned before, are yellow, and the Chriftian red. The only inftrument wanting to complete the band is the Dulcimer, or Santeer.
The front of the ftone Muftaby is faced with marble of different colours, and part of the court is paved in Mofaic, in the manner reprefented in the print. Through one window, is feen part of a Mofque, with a Minaret, and its gallery near the top, whence the criers fummons the people to prayers. Through the other window is fhown, in miniature, the inner court of a great houfe. The door of the Kaah, and part of the cupola appears in front; on the fide, the high arched Alcove, or Divan, with the fhed above ; the marble facing of the Muftaby, the Mofaic pavement be- tween that and the bafon, and the fountain playing. The fhrubbery in the court is not vifible. See page 29, 30, and 31.
33 lye me ot., 1. X held
154
OF THE INHABITANTS
HO OK held univerfally in the higheft efteem. It is performed “—~— by a fingle voice unaccompanied with inftruments, and
the finger, placing a hand behind each ear, as if to fave the drum of that organ from deftruction, exerts his voice to the utmoft ftretch. The fubject of the poetry is generally of the plaintive kind. Some haplefs wight laments the abfence of his miftrefs, recals the memory of happier times, and invokes the full moon, or the liftning night, to bear witnefs to his conftancy. The performer frequently makes long paufes, not only be- ween the ftanzas, which are very fhort, but in the mid- dle of the line, and, taking that opportunity of recover- ing breath, he begins anew to warble, {welling his notes till his wind is quite exhaufted. Fond as the natives are of this Mowal, there are few ftrangers who can hear it with any patience, or without lamenting the perver- fion of voices, which often are ftrong, clear, and won- derfully melodious.
Although there are a great number of Arabian airs, there is no great variety, a ftrong fimilitude being ob- fervable in moft of them. ‘The verfes fet to mufic are commonly amorous, fometimes jovial ; and the fong is executed by one or more voices, accompanied with fe- veral inftruments. The dulcimer ferves inftead of the harpfichord, and the Diff, or Nakara, mark the time. Some of thefe fongs are pleafing, but the voices in ge- neral are too loud, efpecially in the chorufes: they are perhaps more agreeable to an European ear, when exe-
cuted
IN GENERAL. 155
cuted by a fingle voice, accompanied folely by the CH AP. guitar. ——
Notwithftanding mufic is fo much efteemed, and a conftant attendant at all entertainments, none of the people of condition are themfelves performers ; nor are the youth of either fex taught it as an accomplifhment. Few of the free women beftow pains on their voice ; and, though fome of the younger ladies may now and then join in the chorus, they do not think it confiftent with decorum to lead. Many of the men of inferior rank, fing readily in company, and it often happens, un- fortunately for a delicate ear, that there are few who do not think themfelves qualified to join occafionally in the chorus.
Befides the mufical inftruments already mentioned, there are others which are not admitted into concerts 3+. A hautboy much inferior to the zummer, feveral varieties of rude common flutes, and a bagpipe. The firft and latter of thefe are played by fellows who find ‘employ- ment at weddings, in the villages; and on holidays, they may be heard playing wretchedly, in the fkirts of the to wn.
The Syrinx, or Pan’s pipe, is ftill a paftoral inftru-
ment in Syria; it is known alfo in the city, but very
3+ Moft of the inftruments mentioned above, have been drawn by Kemp- fer, and in general the names are the fame; but he has alfo given figures of feveral inftruments not known in Syria. Amenit. Exot. p. 740. See Nie-
buhr Voyage en Arabie, Tom. i. p. 142. Note XXXIX. X 2 few
156
OF THE INHABITANTS
BOOK few of the performers can found it tolerably well. The ‘——~ higher notes are clear, and pleafing, but the longer
reeds are apt, like the dervis’s flute, to make a hiffing found, though blown by a good player. ‘The number of reeds of which the Syrinx is compofed varies in differ- ent inftruments, from five to twenty-three.
The natives, rather frugal in the general ceconomy of their family, are on certain occafions, profufely liberal. Their feafts have every appearance of plenty, and hof- pitality. The mafter of the houfe deputes his fons, or one or two of his kinfmen, to affift the fervants, in at- tendance on the guefts. A band of mufic, placed in the court yard, plays almoft inceffantly ; the fountains are all fet a fpouting ; the attendants deck their Turbans with flowers ; and the company, dreft in their beft apparel, affume an air of feftivity and cheerfulnefs. This laft cir- cumftance however refpects more efpecially the Chrif- tians and Jews; for the Turks of condition, in mixed company, very feldom lay afide their ufual folemnity.
A fet of Buffoons commonly attend at all great en- tertainments. Thefe are compofed of fome of the muficians, and of others who for hire, aflume the cha- racter of profeffed jefters. Some of them are good mimicks, taking off the ridiculous fingularities of perfons who happen to be well known, and fometimes, in an extempore interlude, making burlefque allufions to per- fons prefent in the company: but their wit borders too
near
IN GENERAL 157
near on the obfcene, and, though the natives appear to ¢ H A P. be highly entertained, the mummery foon becomes infi- —~~ pid to a ftranger.
There is hardly a man of rank who has not a jefter among his dependants, with whom he may divert him- feif at pleafure, and who, being invefted with the liberty of faying whatever he choofes, often exercifes his privi- lege with tolerable humour, both on his patron and the company. The Bafhaw’s Chaufes * occafionally affume the character of buffoons, and perform interludes for the entertainment of their mafter.
The women at their feftivals are much more noify than the men; their chorufes confift of more voices, and are often interrupted by the Ziraleet, in which all the young females join cheerfully. They have mufici- ans and buffoons of their own fex, among: the latter of which fome of the Keiams, who attend them at the Bag- nio, ufually diftinguifh themfelves.
*s Inferior officers who carry a fhort ftick ornamented with filver, and are employed in attendance at the gate of the Seraglio, in carrying fummonfes
to council, meflages, &c. Their Chief is a man of confequence, and atts as matter of ceremonies.
CHAP-
BOOK II.
C.F ALP... Wie
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
DISTINCTION OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS—OSMANLI— ULLAMA—AGAS, &.—MERCHANTS—DIFFERENT TRADES—ARABS— TURKMANS, &c. &.—TURKISH MODE OF LIVING—CEREMONIAL VISITS—DINNER, &.—DIET OF THE ORDINARY RANKS—EVENING CONVERSATION — RELIGION AND WOMEN, TOPICS SELDOM IN- TRODUCED THERE—DRUNKENNESS NOT A COMMON VICE.
Tue Turks, a denomination comprehending all Mohammedans whatever, are believed to compofe two hundred thoufand of the computed inhabitants of Aleppo. They are a mixed race, partly defcended from thofe who inhabited the city before it was fubdued by the Emperor Selim, in the year 1516, partly from fuch as came to fettle in the new conqueft, and from others drawn thither by commerce, from moft of the Ottoman Provinces. ‘They are united by living under the fame government, as well as by joining in the profeffion of the fame fyftem of religious faith, being all of them
Sonnites '.
* «© Or Traditionifts, becaufe they acknowledge the authority of the «¢ Sonna, or Collection of moral Traditions of the fayings and aétions of “ their Prophet, which is a fort of fupplement to the Koran, anfwering to “ the Mifhna of the Jews. Sale Prel. Difcourfe. p. 154.
The
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS &c. 159
The Bafhaw with his retinue, and all others immedi- c HAP. ately in the fervice of the Porte, are called Ofmanli*, and--—~ either fpeak, or affect to fpeak the Turkifh language. The Eftendees 3, compofe the body of the Ullama‘*, or learned men. ‘Their common language is the Arabic, for moft of them being natives of Aleppo, but few can fpeak the Turkifh with tolerable purity. The Agas ‘5 or (in a reftricted fenfe) thofe who rent thé lands, have ftill fome influence in the Divan, or council of the city, but their power and fplendor have been long on the decline, and moft of the old families are now extinct. Among the few ancient houfes which ftill remain is that of Shahny. An Effendee defcended from a famous hif- torian, (Eben al Shahny, who wrote a hiftory of the city of Aleppo,) was living in the year 1752, and the houfe made pretenfions of alliance to the celebrated lawyer and hiftorian of thatname. ‘The Agas alfo fpeak the Arabic, though fome of them, from intercourfe with the Seraglio, or occafional refidence at Conftantinople, have acquired the Turkith.
The Shereefs °, (or Greenheads, as they are called by
the Franks) compofe a numerous and very formidable
* Othmanli Jus
3 Efendeey as0us!
+ Ullama ike
* Agawat —! lel
The title of Aga, (él, is given indifcriminately to various perfons, mean- ing no more than Dominus, or mafter. The fenfe in which it is ufed above, diftinguifhes the Agas of Aleppo, who hold lands, and have a feat in the council, from the Bafhaw’s officers, the Sardar Aga, Mohaffil Aga, &c.
® Shereef or Seid Ow C&iyis
y) body,
160 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
8oox body, in which are comprehended perfons of all ranks.
~~ They are diftinguifhed by the green colour of the fhafh of their Turban, and, under the Nakeeb’, who is a chief nominated by the Porte, enjoy peculiar privileges. The number of Turks who wear the white fhafh, of courfe daily decreafes, on account of their intermarriage with the daughters of Shereefs; the children of fuch marriages becoming Greenheads, in right of the mother.
The merchants* at Aleppo are numerous, and a few of them are efteemed opulent. Some have travelled, in their youth, to Bagdat, Baffora, or even to India, and con- tinue, though advanced in years, to make a journey now and then to the capital, in the caravans which tranfport their merchandize : when they do not go themfelves, it is ufual to commit the care of their goods to fome trufty flave.
To the body of merchants belongs a confiderable number of ftrangers; there being a perpetual fucceffion of them, from all the great trading towns of the Empire. They remain till they can difpofe of the effects they brought along with them, or finifh their inveftments, and eafily find an opportunity of returning home, by the caravans, which, though not deftined for Aleppo, ap- proach near enough, in their way to other places, to take up paflengers.
The trades are divided into different companies, un-
7 CnArs
: Tager pb 3 but in Turkifh (and more commonly ufed) Bazargan ot
der
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
161
der their refpective mafters, or Sheihs’. They ufed in c HAT former times, to make fplendid proceffions on certain ——
occafions, but for fome years thofe Pageants have been prohibited, on account of tumults excited by difputes about precedency *°.
The mechanicks, in general, are induftrious, and frugal. ‘They work flowly, but work a great many hours in the four and twenty; they have few holydays; and drunkennefs, though not entirely unknown, is reckoned extremely fcandalous, and is really uncom- mon. ‘Their tools are coarfely made ; but natural in- genuity often fupplies the want of fuch, as might eafily be procured from Europe. Though they greatly admire the finifhed hardware, and cabinet work, brought from England, they labour under difcouraging circumftances, which muft for a long while, perhaps for ever, obftruct all attempts towards imitation. The Aleppeens poffefs the art of tentmaking unrivalled; the tents, for the Sul- tan, and great officers of the Porte, are ufually made at Aleppo.
A vaft number of hands are employed in the filk and cotton manufactures. Befides large factories, where a great many looms are kept under the fame roof, a mul-
» Sheikh ~_.& Vulgarly pronounced Sheih, by the natives. It ftri@ly means fenex, but is varioufly applied. The Arab princes, in fome places, are Called Sheikhs; there are Sheikhs of villages, of the refpedtive trades, of each diftrict within the city: in which inftances, it is equivalent to Chief- tan, mafter of a company, or head of a ward. See D’Arvieux’s Memoirs Tom. vi. Thevenot’s Voyages, p. 33.
® A defcription of thofe Pageants may be feen in Thevenot part ii. p. 35.
Vor. I. a. titude
162
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
a9 Oe titude of inferior artifans have one or two looms in their —~— own houfes. A great part of the filk, as well as of the
cotton, is fpun and prepared for the loom by the wo- men, who employ the time they can fpare from houfe- hold avocations, .in this kind of labcur, and many of them draw their chief fubfiftence from it. This laft cir- cumftance, when the city happens to be vifited by con- tagious diftempers, renders it doubly calamitous, for the mafter artifans being afraid to leave their property dif- perfed among a number of f{mall, obfcure houfes, expofed in a peculiar degree to infection, a ceffation of the ma- nufactures neceffarily enfues, and involves the middling people in the utmoft diftrefs.
A confiderable number of Arabs dwell within the city and fuburbs, in Keifarias"’, or in fmall, mean houfes. The men are employed in various kinds of manual Ia- bour, and the women are often attached to the Harems of the Great, as fervants, or nurfes. ‘They feldom marry out of their tribes, and retain the Arab drefs and man- ners. ‘[hefe are called Bidoweens, as are the Arabs of the Defert, and other tribes, which, in the fpring, en- camp under the city walls: The latter, in the fummer, removing their tents to the neighbouring villages, and, in the winter, taking fhelter in grottoes, or caverns, in the vicinity of the town "’.
The Arabs drefs in a fafhion more fimple, and in feveral refpeCts different from the Turks, efpecially in
** See before page 36. » Concerning the diftinction of the Arabs, Bidoweens and Moors, fee
Note XL. the
INHABITANTS OOF) ALEPPO. 163
the article of the Turban. D’Arvieux fays that there © 4A? is little difference between the drefs of the ArabS77 Emeers, and that of the Turks of diftinction ; but the Emeer, who comes occafionally to Aleppo, as well as his principal attendants, always wore the black fhath, hanging down on the neck on one fide, and the Arab Abai. He wore alfo a Kunbaz, but no Dulaman. Their women, by means of a needle and a certain pow- der, give a dark blue colour to the lips, and in the fame manner make blue marks, or imitations of flowers, on their cheeks, breafts, and arms. ‘They prick the parts with a needle, and then rub the powder into the punc- tures. The mark remains indelible, like what may be feen among failors, and fome of the common people in England". They wear a large ring of gold or filver, pendant from the nofe, the cartilage on one fide being pierced for that purpofe: it is ufually the external car- tilage of the right noftril’t. I have feen fome of the rings of at leaft an inch and a half diameter. La Roque de- {cribes them as made, not only of gold and filver, but of tin, lead, or copper, and of a fize fo large as to encom- pafs the mouth; he adds that it is a piece of gallantry ' among the Arabs, to kifs their women through them. Their arms and ankles are adorned with bracelets of filver, or of coloured glafs ; they wear ear-rings ; neck-
'? See Lowth’s notes on Ifaiah, p. 204. and p. 225. La Roque, ch. 17. * ‘This ancient ornament, the nofe jewel, is frequently mentioned in the
facred writings. Genefis, xxiv. 47. Ifaiah, iii. 21. Ezekiel, xvi. 12.
** La Roque, chap. 17. 1 2 laces
164 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
B00X laces of amber, or of Venetian beads; and their hair is +’ braided with beads and cowries. But fome of thofe at-
tached to the Harems, adopt more the fafhion of their miftreffes, and neither difcoiour their lips, nor ufe nofe- rings ; they wear neat linen, yellow boots, or Babooges, and appear abroad properly veiled. The others are clothed nearly in the fame manner as the Bidoweens who dwell in tents. ‘They wear a coarfe, blue garment, made in the form of a fhirt, with wide fleeves, open a little at the breaft, and reaching to the ankles. The black fhafh they wear on the head, ferves to conceal the face, one corner of it being brought acrofs the mouth, and the chin. At other times they ufe a muffler, and a fhort veil of linen, thrown loofely over the head. Their legs are naked, but, though in the country they com- monly walk barefoot, it is unufual to fee them in town without Babooges, or boots. The Arab inhabitants of the city retain enough of their national drefs, to diftin- guifh them from others, but they are infenfibly led, in that refpect, as well as in their manners, to borrow fome- thing from the more polifhed people among whom they dwell. Thofe who have been mentioned as encamping under the city walls, are of the meaner fort, and anfwer more the defcription given by D’Arvieux ”.
There are a good many Turkman'7 families fettled in the fuburbs. ‘They fpeak a dialect of the Turkifh
** Note XLI.
17 Cres
much
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 165
much harfher in found, than that ufed by the Ofmanli. c H A P. Being a ftout hardy people, they are chiefly employed in -~—~ agriculture, or as camel drivers in the caravans. By living in the fkirts of the town, and mixing lefs with the people in the interior parts, they retain their cuftoms and language more pure than the Arabs. They differ however, from the tribes that live conftantly in tents, and of which fome account may be found in the notes"’.
There are alfo in the fuburbs a great number of Kurdeens "9; one of the diftri¢éts, or Haras, is named the Kurdeen ftreet. Their language approaches nearer to the Turkifh than the Arabic, but differs confiderably from both. ‘They live in the fame manner as the Turk- mans, and are employed much in the fame way. Both wear the high tapering felt Kaook, with a fhort white fhafh wrapt round it. Befides the Kurdeens who inha- bit the mountains of Bylan, and are well known to the Franks, there is a wandering tribe which often vifits the champaign of Aleppo, and are known by the name of Rufhwans ”°.
The Arabs who encamp without the gates of the city, have been already mentioned. ‘The Chinganas *', who are a perfectly diftinct people, (though they live in the fame manner,) ufually encamp near them. ‘Their Jan-
* Note XLII.
*® Akrad dts Kurd Jy
2 Note XLIII.
guage
166 BOOK Il. (een, eens
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
guage is Arabic, but mixed with a number of words and phrafes hardly underftood in Syria. They migrate in the fummer to the adjacent villages, and return early in the fpring. Their drefs is like that of the Bidoweens, and their women colour their lips, and adorn themfelves, with rings, in the fame fafhion *.
It has already been remarked that the Turks are a temperate people: a more particular account of their mode of living, of their table, and of their manner of paffing their time, was referved for this chapter.
As foon as the Turks get out of bed, they fmoke a pipe, and drink a fmall difh of coffee. About an hour afterwards, breakfaft, confifting of bread, fruit, honey, leban, cheefe, eggs, or cakes made with butter, is ferved on a fmall table, fometimes in the Harem, but more commonly in the outer apartments.
The people of diftinction either fit at home after breakfaft, to receive company, or go abroad themfelves to make vifits. When they go abroad, not having the conveniency of wheel-carriages, they ride on horfeback, attended by two or four pages walking on each fide. The horfe is gorgeoufly decked. The furniture, which reaches almoft to the ground, is richly embroidered, or ftudded with filver; the bridle is ornamented with chains of plain, or gilt filver, and filk fringes, covering
* Note XLIV. the
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 167
the head and part of the horfes neck, in the manner of ¢ HA P. anet. A plain, or gilt poitrel of maffy filver, with a--~—~ bofs- and rich fringes hanging from the fide, cover the breaft. All thefe ornaments are finely worked, and fometimes enriched with precious ftones. ‘The faddle is of crimfon velvet plated behind with filver, and the ftirrups are of folid filver. A fcimitar*’, on the blade of which fome verfe from the Koran is ufually infcribed, is girt on the left fide of the faddle, and, on the right, a fhort warlike weapon refembling a mace *t: the head of this, and the hilt of the fcimitar are of worked filver, fometimes gilt.
The horfes are excellently broken, and walk grace- fully ; fo that the Turks, who are, in general, taught early to ride, make a noble appearance on horfeback. From the outer gate, where they difmount, they walk in their boots (their train being borne) to the door of the apartment, and there have them drawn off by a page, who carries the Babooge wrapped up in a piece of fcarlet cloth. The boots are made of fine yellow leather, fhort, and fo wide that they eafily flip over the Shahkfhoor. Per- fons of a certain rank, enter the chamber in their boots, and have them drawn off after ftepping on the Divan.
A Bafhaw rifes from his feat, on the entrance or de- parture, of the Mufti, Cady, Nakeeb, and fome of the
2 Seif Ce ww * Dabufe So
prin-
168 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK principal Ullama; but receives all other vifitors, fitting. t-——— Other perfons of diftinction ufually rife to welcome, or bid farewel, to their guefts. As foon as the vifitor has taken his place, a ftring of pages make their appearance in the Attaby, preceded by an officer’, diftinguifhed by a large filk apron, who carries a round falver, covered with red cloth, in the middle of which falver is placed a coffee pot, furrounded with half a dozen fmall cups reverfed. The firft page, carrying a large filk, or em- broidered, napkin, advances on the Divan, drops down on his knees, and, refting on his hams, fpreads the nap- kin over the ftrangers robe, fo as to prevent its being accidentally foiled. A fecond, in the fame attitude, pre- fents the fweetmeat *° in a chryftal cup, together with a {mall fpoon, with which the gueft helps himfelf. A third having received a cup from the Kahwagee, ftands ready with the coffee; he does not kneel, but ftooping gently forward, firft lowering, then quickly advancing the hand, delivers the cup with a dexterity to be acquired only by practice. A fourth brings the lighted pipe, and, firft laying down an utenfil*”, (for preferving the carpet) up-
* Kahwagee Coming
** The fweetmeat confifts of rofe leaves in conferve, acidulated with lemons; or Vifna cherry, orange flowers, orange peel, and other confections.
*” Niffada.
A round plate of tin, or of ftrong leather ftudded with filver, that flides eafily on the carpet, ledged in the middle and lined with filver, for receiving the pipe bowl. They fave the carpet from the burning tobacco or afhes, which drop from the pipe.
on.
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 169
on which the bowl of the pipe is placed, he prefents the c 1 4 p. other end of the pipe, by an eafy movement of one arm, —~—~ while the other hand is placed on the breaft. “The mo- ment the coffee is finifhed, a page is ready to reccive the empty cup, which he catches as it were between both hands, the left palm turned up; another page, kneeling alfo, removes the napkin, and, the coffee cup being replaced on the falver, the Kahwagee retires, while the pages, one hand laid on the girdle and crofled by the other, in the attitude of humble attendance, re- main in the attaby”’.
On ceremonial days, on which there is a conftant fucceflion of vifitors, the pages themfelves know the proper time to prefent the perfume, and bring it without orders from the mafter; but, at other times, they wait till the gueft lays down his pipe, or makes a fignal to one of them to take it away. The pipe and Niffada are then removed, and, after a little paufe, the pages again enter in proceffion. One fpreads a napkin of a different colour from the former ; another prefents a fmall bafon of Sherbet, and holds, difplayed in the other hand, an embroidered gauze handkerchief, for drying the lips; a third fprinkles the hand, with rofe, or orange flower water, from a filver veffel, with a long neck *. The napkin being then removed, one of the pages brings
** See page 27. ~ Kumkumi 44243
Vou. I. Vb a filver
170
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK a filver cenfer to the mafter of the houfe, who, taking “~~ from his pocket a fmall box containing aloes wood, cut
into little pieces, he either gives a bit to be laid on the live coal, or puts it himfelf into the cenfer. This is the laft part of the ceremonial, for the vifitor, as foon as he has been perfumed, takes leave. At the door he is re- ceived by his own pages, and, after putting on his boots, he walks away between two rows of officers of the houfe- hold, who bow to him as he paffes.
If the vifitor be a perfon of very high rank, the hoft attends him to the top of the ftairs, otherwife they part on the Divan. On particular occafions, the vifitor is prefented with a horfe, fometimes in rich furniture, but, for the moft part in a body cloth only. It is more ufual to make a prefent of a Fur; and then the perfon is in- vefted in the Bafhaw’s prefence, the Chaufes %°, at the inftant of inveftment, pronouncing a fhort benediction in a loud voice.
At vifits of mere ceremony, the converfation is made up of empty profeffions, and compliments often repeat- ed. ‘Thefe are generally compofed in a hyperbolical ftrain, and expreffed with much folemnity. The quef- tion “‘ haw do you do?” is repeated feveral times; and, after a long paufe, they begin anew, ‘‘ and once more ‘‘ how do you do?” This is common among both Turks
s See page Igy and
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 171
and Arabs, the former faying ‘‘ wa bir daha nidge Kaifi- © HA F- niz?” the latter, ‘‘ wa kummana kaif kaifkom?” The next —~—’ queftion after this is ‘‘ what news? how goes the world?” and the like". Converfation at ordinary vifits, is lefs fetter- ed by forms. Befides the weather, and other common topics, domeftic news is circulated, diverting ftories are familiarly told, and, if the great man feems to give en- couragement, fome of his guefts now and then exert their talents for raillery. When he is difpofed to con- verfe, the difcourfe is addreffed to him, but otherwife the company entertain one another, and he either joins them at intervals or continues mufing, as inclination may lead him: fometimes, indeed, a deep filence reigns, and, after the firft compliments, hardly a word is fpoken during the whole vifit. As the Grandees fit fo many hours in public, and receive all company, it is neceflary they fhould be indulged in the privilege of leaving the guefts to entertain themfelves ; but bufinefs in the mean while is not neglected, the officers, and others who have affairs to tranfact, come and go without interrupting converfation, and either talk aloud, or, kneeling down before the great man, fpeak fo low as not to be heard by any one elfe. Private bufinefs of more importance, is tranfacted at times when no vifitors are admitted; the Bafhaw regularly gives audience of this kind to his
# See La Rocque Voyage en Paleftine, chap. vi. 2 Kehia,
172 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK Kehia, or firft minifter, at Affora**, and then all perfons “—~—~ whatever are excluded The Turks go to dinner, about eleven o'clock in winter, but in fummer, fomewhat earlier. The table is prepared in the following manner. In the middle of the Divan, a round cloth is fpread, for the prefervation of the carpet, and upon that is either placed a folding ftand (refembling in form the croffes ufed at European tables,) or a {mall {tool about fifteen inches high, which ferves to fupport a large round plate, or table, fome- times of filver, but commonly of copper tinned. Upon this, a few faucers, are fymmetrically difpofed, containing pickles, falad, leban and falt, and all round, nearer the edge, are laid thin narrow cakes of very white bread, and wooden, or tortoife-fhell fpoons. They do not ufe table knives and forks, their fingers ferving inftead of them ; and the roaft meat is ufually fo much done, that it can eafily be torn afunder, or is carved by one of the attendants with his knife, or Hanjer. Each gueft then helps himfelf, and if the morfel happen to be too large, the cakes of bread fupply the place of plates. A filk and cotton towel, long enough to furround the table, is laid on the ground, which the guefts, when feated, take up over their knees. After the table is thus prepared, a filver ewer %, and
** Between three and four, afternoon.
33 [breek Hyp bafon,
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
ays
bafon ++, for wafhing the hands, is brought round to the ¢# P. guefts; who, laying afide their outer garment, in the “~—~
fummer, or the large Fur, in the winter, take their places, and fit all the while on their hams and heels: a pofture infufferably irkfome to thofe who have not been early accuftomed to it; and, to many elderly men, fo uneafy, that they either fit on the edge of the mattrefs, or are indulged with a cufhion reverfed. It is cuftom- ary for each perfon to fay a fhort grace for himfelf, in a low voice.
The difhes are brought up covered, and fet down in the middle of the table, one at a time in fucceffion; the whole amounting to twenty or thirty: and the fame fervice is repeated, with little variation, every day.
The firft difh is almoft conftantly foup*, and the laft a plain pilaw. The intermediate courfe confifts of a variety of difhes. A lift of Turkifh difhes which I brought from Aleppo, makes the number amount to one hundred and forty-one, exclufive of Khufhafs, creams, and confections. Mutton in fmall bits, roafted on iron fkewers, with flices of either apples or artichoak bot- toms, and onions, between each piece ; or mutton minc-
A ufht isl
The Ewer is made with a curved fpout. The bafon is of a round flat
form, with a cover pierced full of holes, through which the foiled water
efcapes out of fight. A page holds it in one hand, and with the other:
pours the water flowly from the ewer. Another page prefents.a towel. * Shoorba ly pes
ed
174. OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BLO OK ed {mall, and beat up with fpiceries into balls, and roatt- “—~—~ ed alfo on fkewers: both which are called Kubab 2. Mutton or lamb ftewed with gourds, roots, herbs, and chiches*’; fowls, pigeons, and fometimes quails, or other {mall birds, boiled or roafted, but more frequently made into ragouts. Farce-meat, which is called Mah- fhee *, compofed of mutton, rice, piftachios, currants, pine nutts, almonds, fuet, fpice, and garlic, is ferved up in a variety of fhapes, and takes an additional name from the refpective fruit which is farced or ftuffed, as Mahfhee*9 of mad apple, cucumber, or gourd. It is alfo enveloped in the leaves of vine, endive, beet, or borage, and is then called Yaprak. A lamb thus farced and roafted entire, is a difh not uncommon at feafts*#°. “The balls made of burgle, called kubby, have been mention- ed in another place, as well as the different kinds of cream; befides which they have feveral forts of pyes *'; minced meat with pomegranate grains, fpread upon thin cakes, and baked on an iron plate‘; faufages made without blood ; and a great variety of {weet difhes, and
arenas
*” ‘Yahny es
gota In Turkith Dulma aaJ 40
2° Badinjan Mahthy, or Dalmafy, Khiar Mahthee, &c. *° Kharoof Mahfhee.
* Sanbufak Ton gions
* Lahem Ajeen.
paftry
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 175
paftry 8; the former made with honey or dibs, and¢ #4? rather lufcious; the latter is very well made, but re-“~—~ tains the ftrong tafte of the Arab butter.
The Turks feldom eat fifh; and fea-fifh is rarely brought to town, except for the Europeans. Neither are they fond of geefe, or ducks; and wild-fowl, as well as other kinds of game, though very plentiful, are feldom feen at their tables.
A few plates of fweet flummery ‘+ are ferved by way of defert, for they feldom ferve fruit at that time: and laft of all, appears a large bowl of Khufhaf*, which is a decoction of dried figs, currants, apricots, cherries, apples, or other fruit, made into a thin firup, with pifta- chio nutts, almonds, or fome flices of the fruit, left fwimming in the liquor. This is ferved cold, fometimes iced, and, with a few fpoonfuls of it, the repaft con- cludes.
They drink nothing but water at meals, and very of- ten do not drink till an hour after dinner. They do not drink healths, but wifh health to the perfon after he has drank, whether water or Sherbet, and the compli- ment is returned by flightly touching the right temple, with the fingers of the right hand extended, and wifhing the continuance of health and long life**. They fit only a fhort while at table, and when a perfon does not
* Baklawa x 5G Kunafy aslig Burak wy J4 “ Paluza oj¥l in Turkifh, and Faluza in Arabic ojs) 3
Ye Wag ““ Note XLV. choofe
176
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK choofe cither to eat more, or to wait the Khufhaf, he ——— tid yen e without breach of good manners. But the
hoft often invites to tafte particular difhes, and the re- moves are at any rate fo quick, that the guefts by necef- fity, as well as complaifance, are induced to eat of a greater variety than they probably would do from choice.
After getting up from table, every one refumes his place on the Divan, and waits till water and foap be brought for wafhing the mouth, and hands; after which pipes and coffee are ferved round.
The defcription given above will be underftood of the tables of the Grandees, thofe of the inferior ranks are ferved much more frugally : among people of middling condition, who have feldom more than three or four difhes, the whole is fet down at once on the table, and when the mafters have finifhed, the fervants in waiting, after bringing the coffee and pipes, fit down to the victuals that are left. The number of difhes decreafes of courfe in the inferior ranks of life; but, except people of the loweft clafs, who live almoft wholly on vegetables, the quality of the difhes is nearly the fame, that is, they are highly feafoned, greafy, and generally made very acid with the j juice of lemons, pomegranates, or unripe grapes. From the defcription of the Eaftern table given by fome of the early travellers, one would be led to think, either that the manners of the modern Mo- hammedans- have been greatly polifhed, or that the de- {criptions regarded the ordinary people, not the fuperior
ranks
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 177
ranks of life. This laft circumftance feems to be the CHAP. moft probable ; for many of the later travellers have fallen--~—~ into the fame inaccuracy. ‘They prefent as a portrait of general cuftoms, what has been drawn from the inferior ranks, or elfe, confounding every diftinction together, they exhibit an afflemblage of contradictory circum- ftances. The few opportunities of affociating familiarly with perfons of a certain rank in Turkey, renders it dif- ficult for the moft fcrupulous traveller to avoid miftakes.
Between one and two in the afternoon, the great men retire into the Harem to take their Siefte, and are not vifible again till between three and four. It is con- fidered as a fanctuary into which only the moft urgent bufinefs dares intrude; and confequently thofe in high office, often retire to it for refuge*’ from the fatigues of folicitation. He is in the Harem! is an anfwer fuffici- ent to filence the moft importunate fuitors.
They fup in the winter about five o’clock, and in the fummer at fix, making little difference in the fervice be- tween that meal and dinner. ‘They frequently have company at fupper, or make familiar vifits after it, but feldom fit later then ten o’clock: this is meant of peo- ple of rank, for others fup at home, and are rarely feen in the ftreet after evening prayer.
At thefe nocturnal aflemblies, they fmoke inceffantly, drink coffee two or three times, and in the winter are
Peivote XLV. Vou. I. Aa regaled
178
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
80 0x regaled with Kunafy, or other fweet paftry. Several cir-
“——W cum f{tances render thefe affemblies more entertaining
than thofe of the forenoon; they are not fo often intrud- ed upon by bufinefs, the company is more fele¢t, the Sherbet and perfume are omitted, and the air of the whole is lefs formal.
The Ofmanli, who in general derive little of their knowledge from hooks, rarely talk on fubjects of a literary kind. The Ullama in order to difplay their learning, fometimes furprize the company with fome marvellous phenomenon in phyfiology, or fome ftriking hiftorical incident, which they may have collected in the courfe of their reading: or they will take occafion to recite a ftanza from their poets, more or lefs appofite to the fubjeét of difcourfe. This laft expedient is moft admired ; for when the verfes are happily introduced, the juftnefs of the allufion, being inftantly felt, is ex- tremely pleafing : and even where the propriety is not perceived, the Effendee’s reputation remains tolerably fecure ; the hearer modeftly diftrufts his own penetra- tion, applauds what he did not comprehend, and often af{cribes to a retentive memory, the merit due only to genius and judgment.
But among perfons whofe principal fchool has been the world, it is natural for converfation to take a narra- tive turn. The Ofmanli, who from the loweft rank in life fometimes rife to the firft offices of the ftate, have
themfelves been actors in fo great a variety of fcenes,
that
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
179
that their own experience fupplies ample matter of en- c HAP. tertainment. ‘They recal with pleafure the accidents of --~—~
times paft, the difficulties they have encountered, the dangers they have efcaped, and the contefts in which they have triumphed. With their own hiftory, they in- terweave that of their patrons, companions, and compe- titors: and, as they proceed, interfperfe the reflections of more mature age, fuggefted by natural good fenfe, un- tainted by the fophiftry of the fchools. It muft be con- fefled that their narratives are fometimes tedioufly pro- lix, but as for the moft part they comprehend matters of which the relater is well informed, and fuch as an European can have no opportunity of learning but on fuch occafions, they often are highly amufing, interefting and inftructive.
The Turks, though rather referved on political topics, are by no means filent. They declaim plaufibly on the decay of religion, the degeneracy of manners, the in- creafe of luxury, and the corruptions of government : and, while a cautious refpect is preferved for the actual adminiftration, that of preceding times is criticifed with ftrict feverity. But in thefe, as in all {peculative matters of opinion, concerning which they may happen to differ, the difpute is conducted on both fides with much tem- per; and feldom continues longer than till the mafter of the houfe (if a Grandee) declares his fentiments : a fer- vile complaifance always leading a majority of the com- pany over, to whatever opinion he happens to defend.
Aag2 ‘This
180
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
Bo ox ‘This in matters of perfonal intereft is not the cafe; ——~— the difpute there grows warm, they talk loud, and con-
tend obftinately.
The change of a grand Vizir occafions no great ftir among the bulk of the people, who, give themfelves lit- tle concern about revolutions by which they can be but remotely affected, though among the Ofmanli, it excites confiderable commotion. The Governor, by means of his refident agent *° at Conftantinople, receives the news by exprefs, in feven or eight days; and the fucceeding interval of feveral days, before the arrival of further particulars, is employed, by the politicians, in forming conjectures about future changes at the Porte, and the confequent changes in the provinces. ‘The characters of men in power are often, at fuch times, treated in converfation, with a degree of freedom, that feems neither to court favour, nor dread refentment ; which, confidering that the great men talk thus openly before their attend- ants, is the more remarkable ; for their inferior officers frequently change place, as well as the pages, and both are too often indulged in tattling, when their Aga has no company. What might rationally be expected, hap- pens often in fact; the fidelity of thefe domeftics is not proof againft the temptation of ingratiating themfelves with a new, at the expence of an old patron; and in- ftances of implacable quarrels, kindled or fomented in this manner, are far from being uncommon. It may
** Kapee Kehia. : juftly
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 18r
juftly feem ftrange that a want of caution fo prejudicial © # A P. in its confequence, fhould never be reformed. In tranf- -~-~ acting official bufinefs of privacy, a fignal is made for the attendants to leave the room: the like precaution is very rarely obferved at the evening affemblies.
It is feldom, among the Ofmanli, that religious fub- jects are canvaffed in converfation; and though in gene- ral, when introduced, they are treated with refpedct, they are fometimes difcuffed with a freedom, bordering on licentioufnefs. If an Effendee happen to be prefent, he is either applied to, or of courfe interferes; he talks learnedly and with much confidence, but his decifions meet with lefs obfequious fubmiffion than in moft other companies.
The Turks never talk of their own Harem, except among intimate friends; but the fex in general is not an uncommon topic of mixed converfation. The great men will fometimes divert themfelves at the expence of fome humble dependant, by affecting to enquire gravely into domeftic fquabbles, and drawing him to confefs a timid fubjection to his wives. ‘They rally one another on going often or feldom to the Bagnio, and occafionally repeat fome of thofe common-place farcafms on women, which are found current in every country. But it may be remarked to their honour, that, in talking of women, they commonly preferve a decency of expreffion, too of- ten violated, by nations who pride themfelves on their more refined and voluptuous civilization. So far at leaft
is
182 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK is true of genteel company; but as neither the Arabic
+—— nor Turkifh languages are deficient in obfcene words, individuals may be met with, in every rank of life, who are lavifh in the ufe of them.
The cuftom of drinking wine, or fpirituous liquors, is far from being fo common among the Turks at Aleppo, as it is faid to be at Conftantinople: and, the Janizaries excepted, is hitherto confined in a great mea- fure to perfons either of very high, or very low rank; the middling claffes remaining as yet untainted by a practice, fo inconfiftent with an exprefs precept given by Mohammed, in the fourth year of the Hegira. Under the name of wine was comprehended all inebriating liquors, and the prohibition is expreffed in more than one place of the Koran *.
The Turks who are given to drink, do it profeffedly with an intention of exciting a degree of intoxication, and therefore commonly prefer brandy to wine, on account of its producing the effect more f{peedily. For the fame reafon the whole quantity intended to be drank, is pour- ed at once into a bowl, and taken off at one or two draughts: nothing to them appearing more abfurd, than the European manner of drinking out of {mall glaffes, and fitting fo long over one or two bottles of wine.
The people of rank who give into the pra¢tice,
™ Kor. cap. ii. p. 25. cap. v. p. 94. Pocock Spec. p. 175. Sale Prelim, Difcourfe, p. 123. ufually
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 183
ufually drink privately in the Harem, and attempt, but cu 4p. in vain, to conceal it from their pages: when a debauch os is committed in company, it is always at night, and con- ducted with all poflible fecrecy. The lower people, however regardlefs they may be of reputation, are ob-
liged alfo to proceed with caution, for they are liable to punifhment when found drunk. The Janizaries in actual fervice, drink the moft openly of all; their employment
leads them much among the Chriftians and Jews, and brandy often proves a more effectual bribe with them
than money.
The cuftom of drinking, efpecially among the Of- manli, is thought to be on the increafe. It is talked of among them in general, with lefs abhorrence than formerly; and, befides the large quantity of French fpirituous liquors annually imported from Marfeilles, the diftillery at Aleppo is faid to have confiderably increaf- ed, of late years. It depends much on the Grandees to reprefs or promote the progrefs of this vice, by the in- fluence of their own example. When a Bafhaw, or other great man, is ftrictly abftemious, his dependants, or fuch as have bufinefs near his perfon, are afraid to approach, left their breath fhould betray them; but where that reftraint is once removed, it is not unufual to find half his retinue talking as familiarly of Rofolis, as they do of coffee.
A ftory is told of a certain Sardar of Aleppo, much addicted to drinking, who ufed to retire to one of the
gardens
184 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
soo xk gardens near town, in order to indulge more luxurioufly ~~ in a Kiofk clofe to the river.
Returning, one fummer’s evening, from a debauch of this kind, he obferved, as he paffed near the Chriftian burial ground, a Maronite fitting on a grave ftone, and | fmoking his pipe, who, as foon as he perceived the Sar- dar at fome diftance, rofe up, laid down his pipe, and at the fame time attempted haftily to conceal fomething in his pocket. This the old Sardar fufpected, and juftly, to be arrack; therefore, flopping his horfe, he defpatched one of his attendants to bring the culprit before him.
The Chriftian was not only reproached for drinking thus publickly, but threatned with inftant punifhment for having -aggravated the crime, by drinking on a tomb ftone. Upon his fwearing by the Gofpel that he had tafted no {trong liquor for a week, orders were given to fearch his pockets ; but he had taken care no teftimony fhould appear againft him from that quarter, by dropping the empty bottle before he was feized. ‘The Sardar then commanded another of his attendants to try whether the charge might not be proved from the cri- minal’s breath. Breathe ye, Giaur, exclaims the Janiza- ry, breathe full in my face. ‘The trembling culprit at firft hefitated, but, knowing the confequence of refufal, was at laft obliged tocomply. ‘I knew very well (faid the Sardar) I fhould detect this Jew of a damned Chriftian— ¢¢ does he not fmell abominably Muftafa? bring him nearer ¢«* me—Don’t you perceive his breath” Why really, (re-
plies
INTIABIFANTS OF “ALEPPO. 185
plies the half drunk Janizary) “‘ that there is a ftrong c HA P. «‘ fmell of arrack among us, cannot be doubted, but ~~~ ** whether it proceeds from you yourfelf Sir, from me,
‘or from this damned Infidel, may I perifh if I can
“ juftly determine.”
There are fome who regard coffee and tobacco in the fame light with wine, and, on a principle of confcience, abftain from both; but, at Aleppo, the number of fuch is very inconfiderable.
Bb GH Ac
Ghd, Ay P., 7) dW OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES -—-FASTS—BYRAMS —OBSERVANCES AT THE FEAST AFTER RAMADAN—ABLUTIONS AND PRAYERS—ATTEND- ANCE AT MOSQUE — MINARETS — PILGRIMAGE — CIRCUMCISION — ALMS—MONKS—DANCING DERVISES—ITINERANT SHEIHS—IDIOTS, AND MADMEN—TURKS NOT ZEALOUS IN MAKING CONVERTS — TOLERATION IN TURKEY—MOHAMMEDANS HOLD ALL OTHER RE- LIGIONS IN CONTEMPT —EUNUCHS — EXERCISES — THE GIRED— CHARACTER OF THE TURKS—SLAVERY IN TURKEY —HOSPITALI- TY—THE TURKS A DOMESTIC PEOPLE—RESIGNATION UNDER MIS- FORTUNE—NATIVES OF ALEPPO SELDOM TRAVEL.
BOOK In the following fketch of the religious practice of the Turks, it is not intended to enter into a minute ac- count of the Mohammedan religion. No more is pro-
ofed than to touch flightly on the feveral pofitive infti-
tutions of the Koran, fo far as they feem to operate on
the external manners of the people. ‘The reader, if de-
frous of a more extenfive knowledge of a religious
fyftem,
INEDABITANT SOF ALEPPO. 187
fyftem, which has overfpread fo large a portion of the CHAP. globe, may perufe the authors mentioned below '. Leccevagend
The Turks have not any religious inftitution analo- gous to the Chriftian Lent ; their fafts, like thofe of the Jews, confifting in abftinence from all fuftenance what- ever. ‘Their principal faft, is that which changes the time of eating from day to night, and is of univerfal ob- ligation; though it may be difpenfed with in cafe of ficknefs, or other juft impediment, on condition of keep- ing an equal number of days afterward, when circum- ftances will permit. It is in general ftricily obferved by both fexes.
From dawn of morn till fun fet, throughout the month of Ramadan, they tafte no food, drink no water, and abftain from tobacco: the more fcrupuloufly devout will not even fmell a flower. As the time is fuppofed to be dedicated to retirement and devotion, little bufi- nefs is tranfacted before noon; and the fhops in the Bazars are not open till late in the day. The people of condition keep much within doors, and fuffer principally from the want of coffee, and tobacco; but perfons who are under the neceflity of walking about, and.the day labourers who are expofed to the heats and cold, fuffer greatly from drought, or hunger. In this laft refpect the Ramadan, when it happens in winter, falls heavieft
‘ Pocock’s fpecimen.—Reland—Sale’s Preliminary difcourfe—and_ the. Tableau General de L’Empire Othoman par. M. d’Ohfon. See Note
mV i. Bb 2 on
188
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
eo © om the poor. ‘The faft of Ramadan happens fucceffively —~—~ in every feafon of the year, the Turks reckoning by
lunar months, without making an allowance (as the Jews do) to bring their account to correfpond with the fea- fons. By this means they lofe near eleven days in every folar year, and confequently the month of Ramadan an- ticipates about the fame number of days annually. In civil affairs, as the letting of farms, or cuftoms, they reckon by the Greek months, which correfpond to the Julian Calendar.
During the Ramadan they drink a difh of coffee, or more commonly a draught of cold water, at fun fet; and, after prayers, fit down regularly to breakfaft. There is an interval of between two and three hours from breakfaft to dinner, and another interval, re- culated by the feafon of the year, between dinner and fupper. Watchmen go round the ftreets, and with a kind of fmall drum?’ give notice of the progrefs of the night.
The Bazars are lighted up with innumerable lamps ; the fhops are kept open great part of the night; the coffee houfes and the Bagnios are not fhut till near day break ; and, as both Chriftians and Jews conform rea- dily to this nocturnal revelry, the ftreets are filled with a mixed concourfe of people. In fhort, the night is converted into day, and the Turks vifit more frequently
= Dub dub Woy and
INHABITANTS \OF (ALEPPO. 189
and entertain with greater expence, during that month, © #4 P. than at any other time of the year. ——
The women fuffer more from reftraint in the Rama- dan, than the men, as they cannot, like them, walk about in the night, and, in the day time, are feldomer than ufual feen in the ftreets.
The faft which, when no lawful impediment inter- venes, is religioufly obferved by the majority of the people, is often violated by the debauched foldiery, and fome of the more licentious Ofmanli: but even they ge- nerally pay a certain degree of refpect to external de- cency, and fin in private. Many authors have fhown with refpect to the tafts, as well as fome other pofitive Mohammedan precepts, how much has been borrowed from the Jewifh inftitutions *.
To the Ramadan fucceeds a feaft, or Byram, of three days continuance, which by many writers has errone- oufly been called the great feaft. It is announced by the caftle guns, as foon as a declaration, upon oath, has been made at the Mahkamy, of the appearance of the new moon. The perfon who bears this teftimony com- monly comes from one of the villages, and receives a prefent of a veft of cloth, in return for his trouble.
Moft of the fhops remain fhut during the three days of the Byram, and there is a total fufpenfion of bufinefs. At the gates of the city are erected tumbling wheels,
3 Pocock fpec. p. 308. Sale Prel. Dif. p. 112. and Reland Lib. I. c. xi. and
190
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK and flying horfes ; ftalls furnifhed with toys and fruit,
L~— are arranged, (as at fairs, in Tneland) in the open geq, ) 5 p
market places; where rope dancers, wreftlers, jugglers, and dancing boys, alfo exhibit their refpective perfor- mances. The wreftlers, after the manner of the ancient Athletx, anoint their bodies and limbs with oil. They wear only a pair of thin drawers, being from the waift upward, perfectly naked. They ftrut valiantly about, before the engagement, clapping their hands, with a hundred other threatning geftures, but make a forry figure when they come to wreftle.
The jugglers are more expert in tiieir way. They are attended by a boy who performs the part of a merry Andrew, and ferves, at intervals, to divert the fpeétators. They have no table, but fit on the ground, without an apron, and with their arms naked to the elbow. They are dexterous in the management of cups and balls, and perform feveral tricks with live fnakes. Mufic at the fame time is heard on all hands; every perfon appears in new clothes ; and the ftreets are tnufually crowded by multitudes of both fexes, fauntering from place to place:
The great men fit m ftate, at home, to receive vifits, moft part of the firft day ; and the Chriftians and Jews make their court at fuch times, as well as the Turks. Vifitors of a certam rank, after paying their compli- ments, are defired to fit down, and are entertained: with coffee and Sherbet: inferior dependants do not fit in prefence of their patron, but, after kiffing his hand, or
the
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. IQ
the fleeve cf his robe, retire to the outer apartment, CH AP. where they drink coffee. The ordinary compliment --~—~ confifts in wifhing a happy feaft, ‘‘ Aid embarak,” and
that the perfon may be found well at every annual re-
turn of it. “The Turks falute one another in the ftreet
in this manner, and, if more intimate, they embrace,
the one laying his chin on the neck of the other +.
On the fubfequent days, the Grandees vifit one an- other, and appear abroad in all the fplendor their condi- tion can afford: their retinue being new clothed, and their horfes fumptuoufly dretfed. The court at the Se- raglio remains all the time in Gala; and fireworks are exhibited every night, for the entertainment of the po- pulace.
The Agas of the town, during thefe three days, keep in a manner open houfe. They make prefents to their Vaflals, and diftribute victuals and money to the poor. The Turks of all denominations are more particularly bound to the exercife of liberality, at this feftive feafon.
The women on their part have alfo a great detail of ceremonial bufinefs. “The Harems whofe females are related, fend compliments of congratulation, vifit reci- procally, and interchange prefents to the children.
Two months and ten days after the Ramadan, another
* On the fubje& of Eaftern falutations the reader may find fome enter- taining remarks in Harmer, Vol. ii. p. 31—55. See alfo Lowth’s notes on Tfaiah, p. 226.
feaft
192 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BO OK feaft, called the feaft of facrifice, is celebrated. This alfo
“—-— lafts three days, beginning the tenth of the month Dul- hagi, it being the day on which the Mecca pilgrims flay the victims, in the valley of Mina. On the firft day of this feaft, early in the morning, feveral fheep are flain at the Seraglio gate, as well as at the houfes of fome of the other Grandees, and the flefh diftributed among the populace. For a week preceding the feaft, the children may be feen leading lambs about the ftreets, intended for victims, at private houfes.
But the facrifice is not univerfally performed; it pro- perly belongs to Mecca, and is confidered as one of the moft folemn rites of the pilgrimage. In other places, it makes lefs impreflion on the vulgar, and the feaft itfelf, which in reality is the great Byram, requires lefs pre- paration. ‘The people are already provided with holy- day clothes, and the changes in the great offices, which are annually made after the Ramadan, having already taken place, this Byram is expected with lefs impatience, and celebrated in a lefs {plendid manner than the little feaft- The Turks, at Aleppo, never term the feaft fucceeding Ramadan, the great feaft, but either Aid il izreer, the little feaft; or Aid il fitre, the feaft of breaking the faft: nor do they ever call the fecond feaft by any other name than the great feaft, Aid il kebeer; or feaft of facrifice, Aid il korban. At the fame time it fhould be remarked, that when they talk of the feaft fimply, with-
out
INHBABIPAN TS) ORS AREPPO. 193
out any epithet, the feaft immediately fucceeding Rama- c HAP.
dan is commonly underftood °. —~— Befides keeping the faft of Ramadan, the Turks, of
both fexes, impofe upon themfelves certain voluntary
fafts®. But that fpecies of devotion is far from being
common; extraordinary aufterity is inconfiftent with
the genius of their religion, and is indeed difcouraged
by the Koran ’.
The Turks, in general, may be reckoned a cleanly peo- ple; which is in fome meafure owing to the pofitive ordi- nance of ablution before prayer. “They are commanded to pray five times in the twenty-four hours, at certain fixed periods*; and, if prevented by intervening acci-
> Note XLVII.
6 Note XLVIII.
7 See Koran, c. 5. p. 94. and Sales note upon the paflage. « Certain of «« Mohanimed’s companions having agreed to oblige themfelves to continual « fafting, watching, &c. in imitation of fome felf denying Chriftians,” the Prophet difapproved of it, declaring that he would have no Monks in his religion.
* The times fpecified are as follow,
Day-break Sulwat al Subh Aa)! 3 gh
Noon al Dohre .25)| Afternoon al Afre pau |
Sun fet al Mugreb W.s4J| Evening al Afhee asl
Afre, according to the common opinion, is the middle time between noon and evening prayer ; but the juft mode of calculation, as I have been told, is to allow juft as much time after noon prayer, as half the time that elapfes between morning prayer and noon.
Pot. 1. Ce dents,
194
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK dents, they are obliged to make up for. the omiffions .—— afterwards, by repeating the prayers an equal number
of trmes. The ordinary preparation for prayer, confifts in wafhing the face, hands, and feet, and is termed Wodou; but, on certain occafions, it is requifite to wath the whole body, and for that purpofe they muft go to the Bagnio, where the ablution is performed, not al- ways by immerfion, but in the manner formerly defcrib- ed. In performing the Wodou, people of condition do not conftantly take off their Shahkfhoor, but, inftead of pouring water on the naked feet, content themfelves with flightly touching their Meft two or three times, with their wet fingers: the common people, who do not wear Shahkfhoor, or wear them not fewed to the meft, always wath their feet. “The Mohammedan purification is, by their Doctors, expiained in fuch a manner as fhows it far from being confidered as a mere external rite. It is termed Tahara, and is fpoken of by them in terms of high refpect ?.
It is not only the religious ablutions which oblige the Turks to fuch frequent application of water; they wafh before and after meals; carry an ewer always with them to the privy, and go often to the Bagnio from choice, as well as from neceffity. They pray with much apparent devotion, partly ftanding, partly kneeling, and perform alfo feveral proftrations, f{ometimes touching the ground
7 oce page 130. * Pocock fpecimen, p. 302. Note XLIX. with
INHABITANTS “OF -“ALEPPO. 1Q5
with the forehead '*. When they pray at home, they © 14 P. ufually lay afide the large Fur, retaining only a Jubbe ; —~—~ and the Effendees fometimes change their large “Turban for a lighter one. A fmall narrow carpet (referved for that purpofe) is fpread on the Divan, and they conftantly turn the face to the Kebla, that is, towards the temple of Mecca".
Befides the prayers enjoined by the Koran, which are confidered as of divine inftitution, the Sonna has dire¢ct- ed occafional prayers for rain, deliverance from public calamities, &c. and others are appropriated to the By- rams, and funerals. By Sonna’? (as already mentioned), is underftood the acts and fayings of the prophet, not contained in the Koran, but preferved firft by tradition, and afterwards committed to writing.
The Turks go twice or thrice a day to Mofque, at noon, Afre, and fun fet; but noon is the principal hour: at other times they pray wherever they happen to be, when the criers call from the Minarets. It is com- mon to fee them at prayers in their fhops, and if any perfon has immediate occafion to afk a queftion, they will anfwer by a fign, without appearing to be difcon- certed, but they do not willingly fpeak.
On certain occafions, the Bafhaw goes to Mofque, in
Note L. ™ Note LI. » See Pocock f{pecimen, p. 298. Sale p. 171. Herbelot p. 827. and Note LIT. (eg ftate.
196
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BO Ox ftate. The Bazars through which he rides are lighted “—~— up, and he is attended by his officers on horfeback, but
all difmount at the court gate. Other perfons of con- dition, for the moft part walk thither, and for that reafon ufually prefer the neareft Mofque. When they do not go themfelves, their domeftics do; or elfe an Imam {ays prayers at home, at which the Aga, with his officers and pages, aflifts. The Imam, in the fame manner as in the Mofque, conducts the whole, pronouncing part of the fervice aloud, and performing the feveral pro- {trations, in which he is accompanied by the affembly, in fuch exaét time that the whole move at once. When a perfon prays fingly at home, his devotion does not in- terrupt thofe who happen to be fitting with him at the time, nor does converfation ceafe on his account; but where the company is numerous, or affembled on par- ticular bufinefs, in that cafe he, either retires to a differ- ent chamber, or defers his prayers till another time.
A regard to the external forms of devotion, is, among the Turks, a political as well as religious obligation ; the neglect, or affected contempt of them, implies neither wit nor fuperior underftanding. Hence public decorum is generally preferved; and though religious, as well as moral precepts may be too often violated in practice, they are always fpoken of with refpect, while an at- tempt to turn either into ridicule, would be deemed ill breeding.
Friday
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
"OF
Friday "3 is the day of the week more efpecially dedi- ¢ HAP. cated to religious worfhip, but is obferved lefs rigor- —-—~
oufly than the fabbath of the Chriftians, and Jews; for moft of the fhops are kept open, except for one hour about noon, and the people, after divine fervice, return to their ordinary occupations. Some of the fcrupulous merchants do not, on that day, tranfact bufinefs them- felves, though they permit it to be done by their fervants.
It is fuficiently known, that the ufe of large bells is abfolutely profcribed in Turkey. The people are fum- moned to prayers by certain cryers, who at the ftated times afcend the gallery of the Minaret, and thence, ina very loud voice, chant certain verfes, as a fignal. Thefe cryers are called Maazeen, and, though for that purpofe attached to particular Mofques, they are not always of the Ecclefiaftic order, but are often chofen on account of their voice, and, having very trifling pay, purfue their refpective trades. Each Mofque has ufually one who officiates, and, who walking flowly round the gallery, directs his voice to all quarters. The Great Mofque has three or four who perform at the fame time. Al Walid, who fucceded to the Khalifat the 86th year of the Hegira, is faid to be the firft who built, or joined Minarets to the Mofques '*.
*> Yom al Giumah aac | See Pocock {pecimen, p. 317. Reland p. 97.
* Herbelot, p. go7. On this fubje& fee Reland, p. 93. Note LIII.
The fummons to prayer is termed Adan or Azan WII, and the Mi- naret itfelf Maazineh, dj jle, ufually pronounced Maadaneh ; but it is alfo called Minareh o li,
The
198 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
Book The fabbath, agreeably to the manner of reckoning
~—in the aft, commences on the Thurfday night, when the Minarets of all the Mofques are illuminated, by fe- veral rows of lamps bung round the gallery: the colon- nade alfo of the Mofque is illuminated. On the Friday, half an hour after eleven in the forenoon, the criers begin to chant from the Minarets, and their number on that day is ufually increafed. At noon every one repairs to the Mofque, where a fervice peculiar to the day is per- formed, and fometimes a fermon is preached by the Imam.
It is not on the Thurfday nights only that the Mina- rets are illuminated. They are lighted up every night throughout the month of Ramadan, at both Byrams, at other inferior feafts, and on occafional rejoicings on the birth of princes.
Befides thefe general illuminations, it is cuftomary for private perfons, on receiving good news from abfent re- lations, or on their return from a long journey, to caufe fome particular Minaret to be lighted up at their own expence, and to engage a band of five or fix Maazeen, to fing from the gallery. The neareft Mofque is chofen for this purpofe, and the band, afcending as foon as it is dark, continue to fing inceffantly two or three hours. Intermixed with prayers and hymns, the fafhionable coffee houfe airs and chorufes are performed, and from that diftance are heard to advantage. At the fame time the women affembled in the houfe, rejoice in their man-
rer?
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 199
ner; they have inftrumental mufic, and, at intervals, ° #4 ?- refpond to the chorus, from the Minaret, by a loud-~—~ Zilareet. The Maazeen finifh at Afhee, (evening prayer) but the women continue finging and feafting till midnight. At the time when intelligence arrives from
the Mecca caravan, and when the pilgrims return home,
the whole city refounds with this noify merriment.
The number of pilgrims who go from Aleppo to Mecca, is faid to be much lefs confiderable now, than formerly. This probably is owing partly to the decay- ing fpirit of Mohammedifm, but more to the decline of the trade with Mecca; for it was ufual with the mer- chants, formerly, to make the journey feveral times in their life, and the caravans were wont to come back, Jaden with Indian and Arabian, merchandife. It may be remarked that permiffion to trade during the pil- grimage, is granted by the Koran".
Befides ithe natives of Aleppo who go to Mecca, numbers from Perfia and the Northern Provinces, affem- ble at that city, in their way to Damafcus, which is the grand rendezvous for the Afiatic pilgrims. The cara- van fets out for Damafcus immediately after the leffer Byram, from whence, after the junGtion of the caravans from other towns, it proceeds under the conduét of the Bafhaw of Damafcus, who has always (at leaft for many
» Cap. th ps 23. years
RES OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK years paft) been appointed Emeer-Hadge, or conductor, “———’ and commander of the pilgrims.
When the caravan fets out from Aleppo, it is con- voyed for a few miles, by the Governor and Grandees, in proceffion °; and, many of the pilgrims being ac- companied {till further on their way, by their women and kinfmen, all is incommotion on the Damafcus road, for feveral days after the Byram. ‘The caravan, after it leaves Damafcus, is generally proteéted from hoftile in- terruption on its march, in confequence of treaties made by the Bafhaw of Damafcus, with the Defert Arabs ; but it is liable fometimes to fuffer from a fcarcity of water, when inteftine broils among the Arabs them- felves, oblige it, in order to avoid falling in with the contending tribes, to fteer an unufual courfe in the De- fert. That the fafety of the caravan depends more on the friendly difpofition of the Arabs, than its own power of refiftence, is fufficiently evident from a memorable inftance of its being attacked and plundered, in the year 1757; which has been mentioned by Sir James Porter, at that time Embaflador at the Porte. It occafioned great alarm at Conftantinople, and proved the ruin of an old Bafhaw, who had been ten or twelve years fuccef- fively, Emeer-Hadge; and whofe perfon, on that ac- count, was by the vulgar conceived to be facred’’.
‘* & defcription of this proceftion may be feen in the 6th. Volume p. 182. of the Memoirs of the Miffions. But the defcription there rather regards the departure of the caravan from Damafcus, than from Aleppo.
““Wote LIV. Perfons
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 201
Perfons of either fex who have performed the pil- CH AP. grimage have a right to the title of Hadgy"*, and in--—~ writings, or on other formal occafions, it is ufually pro- fixed to their name; but, a few of the merchants ex- cepted, it is feldom given in common difcourfe to per- fons above the middle rank. It is a miftaken notion, that the Hadgies, by peculiar grace, are exempt from capital punifhment: they remain in all cafes equally fubject to the laws with other Moflems; and, even in the Mecca caravan when on its march, criminals, after condemnation by the Cady, who accompanies the cara- van, are capitally punifhed.
The Hadge'’, or pilgrimage, was inftituted in the fixth year of the Hegira; but the vifitation of the Caba, or holy houfe at Mecca, as well as feveral other rites {till performed there, were ancient Arabian cuftoms, long before Mohammed’s time, and only, with fome altera- tion, adopted by him. A particular defcription of the temple of Mecca, and the ceremonies performed by the pilgrims, have been given by various authors *°.
18 sla
'? al Hadge Ax | |
Koran, c. il. p. 23. (Pocock fpecimen, p. 175. and 310.) Reland, p. 113. Sale Difcourfe, p. 114.
Galland—and M. D’Ohffon.
A print of the temple of Mecca given by M. Niebuhr (Defcrip. Arab. p. 310.) differs in feveral refpeéts from the prints given by Reland and Sale; and that of M. D’Ohffon differs from all.
VoL. I. Dd The
202 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
soox The pilgrimage is omitted by very few who can “——~ afford the expence of the journey. Many of the in- ferior clafs, find their way in the quality of menial fer- vants, or by exercifing fuch trades as can be of fervice in the caravan: for which reafon barbers are commonly Hadgies, and the journey furnifhes an inexhauftible fund of future hiftory, for the benefit of their cuftomers. A great many of the women perform the pilgrimage, but
not in proportion to the men.
The boys are circumcifed between the age of fix and ten, fometimes later, but very feldom earlier. From that period, their heads are fhaved, and they affume the Turban, inftead of the handkerchief which they wore dur- ing infancy. The ceremony is performed at the father’s houfe, where noify rejoicings are made for feveral days. The boy receives prefents from his kindred, as well as from others who have been invited to the feaft. He is dreffed in new clothes, his Turban is decked with flow- ers and tinfel, and, for five or fix days, he wears a kind of large filk apron faftened upon one fhoulder, as a badge of the operation he has undergone. In this drefs he is led on horfeback, in proceflion through the ftreets, pre- ceded by the caftle mufic, and feveral men armed with {cimitars and fhields. A number of female relations, clofe the proceffion, and, after every {top made for the mock champions to combat, the women fhout in their ufual manner, while the men huzza. It is cuftomary for peo-
ple
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 203
ple of condition, to have two or three of their depend- ¢ H A P. ant’s children circumcifed at the fame time, which adds thy ade to the pomp of the cavalcade. Circumcifion was a practice of very ancient date in Arabia, and, though not mentioned in the Koran, is univerfally practifed by the Mohammedans. There is a tradition that the prophet declared it to be a neceffary rite for men, and for wo-
men honorable ”'.
To beftow alms, is an effential obligation in the Mo- hammedan inftitution ; and, though the precepts on that head contained in the Koran, are not obeyed in their full extent, (a change of circumftances having rendered fome of them unneceffary) the Turks may with juftice be reckoned a charitable people *. The Mofques, and numerous fountains within the city ; the caravanfaries, the bridges, the fountains by the road fide, are for the moft part public inftances of a benevolent fpirit. ‘The provifion of caravanfaries for the indifcriminate reception of paffengers, was one of the inftances of Mohammedan liberality, which often made an impreffion upon the early travellers. Villamont (fpeaking of a certain caravanfary ) obferves that Chrifuans meet with the fame reception as Mohammedans ; Turkifh charity, extending to all per- fons, without regard to religious diftinGtions *.
“ Reland, p. 121. 71. and 268. Poc. Sp. 31g. Note LV. frarecw Vi.
** Voyages, p. 572. Dd2z But
204 BOOK eee
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
But a teftimony lefs equivocal than thofe monuments, which fometimes owe their exiftence to human vanity, is the fmall number of beggars to be feen, though no police interpofes to prevent their appearance in the ftreets, and no tax is levied on the inhabitants for the fupport of the poor. ‘There are alms houfes adjoining to fome of the Mofques, intended for the reception of holy men; but there are no work houfes provided for ordinary beggars; fo that fuch as happen not to have kindred, become folely dependent on the charity of ftrangers, and are forced into the public ftreets. “Turks of this clafs may be obferved, about fupper time, wait- ing at the outer doors, and imploring food in certain holy rhymes, which they chant in a doleful tone, through the key hole. Some of more decent appearance, who at other times are not diftinguifhable, may be feen at the houfes of the Grandees, on the Fridays, waiting in filence, with an expreflive air of humble patience. On that day alfo, the avenues of the Seraglios and prin- cipal Mofques, are befet by files of clamorous beggars, who feem as if confcious of a right to demand alms ; and few perfons pafs without beftowing fomething.
It is faid that if alms be regularly beftowed for fome- time, the perfon receiving them acquires a right of claim- ing the continuance of the charity, and that decifions of this kind have been made at the Mahkamy. ‘The matter is in all probability very feldom litigated, and the Cady would moft likely recommend an accommodation. An
inftance
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 205
inftance to this purpofe was given me by the Mufti of c HAP. Aleppo, in anfwer to my queftion, how far a perfon ——~ could be obliged to continue a penfion he had for fome-
time given voluntarily. .
The Mufti in his way to a certain Mofque, which he ufed to frequent every Friday, obferved, among the other beggars, a very old, infirm, blind man; and, com- pelled by a fudden impulfe of compaffion, he beftowed a Para, or fmall filver coin, inftead of the copper coin he ufually gave to the others. ‘This penfion was con- tinued weekly for above two years, during which time the Mufti often wondered within himfelf, how the old man came to hold out fo long, and ingenuoufly confeffed that he had now and then been difpofed to repent hay- ing exceeded the ordinary bounds of his charity, though he had not refolution fufficient to conteft the power of retrenching it. At length he perceived, one day, that another beggar had taken poffeflion of the old man’s poft; a perfon not only younger by feveral years, but who retained the fight of one eye. ‘I could not (continued “the Mufti) help feeling fome concern at firft, for the ‘< lofs of my old friend, whom I conceived to be dead, *‘ but I feon confoled myfelf with the reflection of being ‘* now able, at equal expence, to gratify feveral fuppli- ‘* cants, inftead of one. Upon prefenting a copper coin, *< or Filfs, to the new beggar, I was furprized to find him ‘“< feize the rein on one fide, and, in fpight of all that I
‘* and my pages could fay, to infift on {topping my horfe. “« Pray
206
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK ‘¢ Pray friend what means all this violence ? Look ye -——~ “ Sir (replied the beggar) God is juft! I have hired this
“¢ {tation of the blind Sheih, who is unable to come more ‘‘ abroad, we reckoned you fairly at one Para, and by ‘the Almighty! You fhall pay me. It was in vain ‘* (concluded the Mufti) that l urged the difadvantage on ‘« his fide of poffefling one eye, and being « younger man ‘¢ than the Sheih; the moft I could obtain was a kind of ‘‘ half promife, that, when he fhould come to be dif- “¢ abled, he would not fell me to his fuccedffor.”
Money is diftributed at funerals, and fome of the merchants, at certain times, diftribute bread at their Khane gate: on all which occafions, the Chriftian beg- gars, who make up a confiderable fhare of thofe who infeft the ftreets, aflemble with the others.
But the number who make their appearance thus publicly, is ftill {mall in proportion to the extent of the city. ‘The only exception to this is in times of dearth, when the ftreets become crowded with thofe real ob- jets of charity, who, content with the plaineft fufte- nance, fupport themfelves by manual labour, and never have recourfe to the public, till compelled by necefiity. For this reafon a dearth is particularly dreadful at Aleppo; fuch numbers of the induftrious poor being thrown out of employment, the refources of charity fali far fhort, though the Turks, in proportion to. their cir- cumftances, in general beftow liberally. To add to the calamity, the bread fold in the Bazar at fuch times, is
often
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 207
often of bad quality; for the grain, which may perhaps ¢ HA P. have been hoarded for many years, is then produced —~—~ from the pits where it lay buried, and when, in this
half putrid ftate, diftributed among the lower people,
it feldom fails to occafion fome epidemical diftemper. Dearths are fometimes the confequence of wicked com- binations, and occafion moft dangerous infurre¢tions ; of which an inftance will be given hereafter.
It has been already remarked, that the fpirit of the Mohammedan religion is not favourable to the monaftic life. Inftitutions of that kind began to be introduced in the third or fourth century of the Hegira, and, though increafed, are not numerous”. A. convent, named Sheih abu Becker ftands pleafantly fituated on an emi- nence, within half a mile of the northern fuburbs. Eight or ten Dervifes live very comfortably there, and their fuperior is treated in town with great refpect. The Bafhaws who die at Aleppo, are ufually buried within the walls of this convent. On the weft fide of the town, near the river, there is a fmaller convent belong- ing to the Moulewi or dancing Dervifes **. “They exhi- bit publicly one day of the week, and women are per- mitted to be fpectators.
** Some place the origin of the Sophi much earlier. Note LVII.
*s Moulewi CC. e)gno
The dancing Dervifes have been defcribed by a number of travellers, and very good drawings given of them. Note LVIII.
Thefe
208 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
nook Lhefe two are the only Mohammedan convents at roa Aleppo; but a number of Sheihs, or holy men, are dif- perfed within the city, who are not diftinguifhed by a particular habit, but wear the ordinary drefs of the Ullama**. They pafs much of their time in reading, and are {trict obfervers of external rites. They are well received at the houfes of rank, and reverenced by the vulgar, who prefs forward to kifs their hand, as they
pafs through the ftreets.
The title of Sheih is given alfo to fchool mafters, to copyifts or fcribes, and to the Maazeen, or others at- tached to the fervice of the Mofques, all which together compofe a numerous body +.
To the religious Sheihs, thofe itinerant Monks belong who wander from town to town, dreft fantaftically in rags, a rude Turban on their head, their hair hanging down to the neck, a dried bottle-gourd flung acrofs their fhoulder, and who carry in their hands a kind of halberd, trimmed with fhreds of cloth of diverfe colours. They profefs poverty, and impofe on the fuperftitious vulgar, by a pretence to extraordinary fanctity, and fometimes by boafting of fupernatural endowments. As it often happens that the moft flagitious wretches conceal them- felves under this difguife, the whole brotherhood lve under general fufpicion: fome few, who are betes known, find accefs to the great, and are well received
26 Tearned men.
+ Page roi.
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
2c9g
by the populace. By the former they are treated with c Har. outward refpect, though not efteemed in reality, by the ——~
latter they are fometimes led in proceffion through the ftreets, mounted upon a mule, or an afs, preceded by mufic, and followed by a mixed multitude of both fexes, of the lower clafs. ‘The found of the tympanum, to- gether with the wild fhouts of the rabble, give thefe pageants a refemblance to the orgies of Bacchus *’. Another kind of holy Sheihs, known to the Franks by the name of Barking Sheihs, are in fomewhat better repute among the middle rank of people, and refide conftantly at Aleppo. They are often heard in a ftill evening, from different parts of the town, and may be feen fometimes at the gardens, performing their rites in the open air. They do not perform alone, like the Dervifes, but may be joined by any Mo‘lem who has previoufly prepared himfelf by ablution. The Sheih, placed in the centre of a circle, confifting perhaps of twenty perfons, begins the fervice by chanting a prayer, while all the reft remain in an attitude of devout atten- tion. He then repeats the words Ullah hu! Ullah hu! accompanying them with a flow movement of the body backward and forward, the whole circle at the fame time following his example. After a fhort while, moving
the body more quickly, they drop the word Ullah! and
“ Wote LIX. VoL. I. Ee con-
210
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
8o0ox continue inceffantly to repeat the word hu! This cere- paced mony lafts near an hour, the Sheih all the while bark-
ing like the others, and from time to time turning flowly, fo as to front the circle fucceffively. His countenance appears ftrangely agitated, and he at length fits down as if quite exhaufted by the exercife. It is juftly remarked by Chifhul “that as they grow hoarfer ‘Cand weaker, both their found and action refemble the ‘¢ barking and fnarling of dogs.” M. du Loir compares the found they utter, when nearly {pent by fatigue, to the howling or bellowing of an expiring beaft which has been knocked down”. This order of Sheihs is defcribed under different names by different authors. They are called Santons by Du Loir; but by Porter and others, Kadrie 79. The dance of the dervifes affords a much more amufing fpectacle than this ftrange mixture of fanatacifm and indecency; for of thofe who compofe the circle, there are always fome who appear, from their demeanour, to have joined merely in fport.
Thefe fanaticks, as well as the itinerant Sheihs, are equally reprobated by moft of the fenfible Turks, who affert that the Koran does not countenance fuch extra- vagancies. But while they give this fuffrage in favour of common fenfe, they exhibit an inftance of fuperftition
* Chithul’s Travels, p. 2. Du Loir, p. 158. * Note LX.
not
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. OT1
not lefs abfurd, in the veneration paid to idiots, and ¢ HAP. harmlefs madmen °°. KH
The power of invifible fpirits over the human frame, a notion of fuch ancient date in the Eaft, is {till uni- verfally received ; and, in various difeafes, recourfe is had to exorcifm, as often as to medicine. Infane perfons are not however all treated alike. The furious madman is kept in chains, and configned to the care of doors, or exorcifts; mere drivellers are kept within doors, or, become the fport of idle boys in the ftreet; whilft thofe who are but flightly difordered in mind, and who are guilty of no alarming excefles, are always ufed with the moft compaffionate tendernefs; and if, happening to take a religious turn, they are capable of prayer, or can occafi- onally repeat fome fentences of the Koran, they are then confidered as perfons divinely infpired, and fometimes admitted, in tattered garments, with their limbs naked, to fit down familiarly with people of the firft rank, and even allowed to kifs their cheek.
The infpired Sheihs are fometimes alfo confulted as phyficians, and return advice truely oracular. It is di- verting to obferve men, in other refpects of ftrong plain fenfe, make ferious exertions to unravel the incoherent wanderings of a madman.
*° Maginoon (ysis, is the term applied to perfons infane, by which is underftood a madman, or one poffefled whether by a good or evil fpirit. See Herbelot, p. 432.
Ee2 Of
212 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK Of this, the following inftance may ferve as an ex- “—~—~ ample. While I fat one morning with an eminent merchant, who had long fuffered from a rheumatic com- plaint of the fhoulder, and had unfuccefsfully applied a variety of remedies, he was told by a friend who came to vifit him, that meeting in the ftreet with a famous holy madman, he took the opportunity of afking the Sheih’s advice in this fingular cafe, which had baffled the doctors; and received for anfwer that ‘ the beft re- ‘“medy was oil from the grocers.’ ‘The company pre- fent immediately approved of applying the oil, but a doubt arifing what particular oil was meant, amid the variety to be found at the grocer’s fhop, a difcuflion moft ridiculoufly ferious enfued, whether the experiment might not fafely be made with feveral forts. A page, in the mean while, was defpatched to obtain a clearer revelation, and foon returned. ‘The Sheih at firft feem- ed to liften to the meflenger with much attention, look- ed him fteadfaftly in the face, but remained filent, and then, turning away from him, began to mutter to the wall with which he had been converfing when the page came up with him. Upon the meffenger preffing for an anfwer to carry back to his mafter, the Sheih fell into a violent paflion, gave him abufive language, and continu- ed to curfe the page as long as he remained in fight. An- other fervant was then fent to the grocer’s fhop, to afk fimply for oil, in the precife words of the Sheih, and to take the firft that fhould be offered. The oil was im- mediately
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 213
mediately applied, but the pain, as ufual, becoming CHAP. worfe at night, the failure in the cure was afcribed to--~—~ not having properly underftood the oracle.
Whatever may be the fpeculative opinions entertained by the Turks, they do not appear, at leaft in Syria, much folicitous about making profelytes **; and fhow little re- {pect for thofe who abandon the faith in which they were brought up. Indeed the adult converts, are, for the moft part, wretched Chriftians or Jews, whom crimes, or the preffure of fome urgent diftrefs, have forced to apoftacy for refuge. The wife of a convert, and fuch of the children as have arrived at the years of difcretion, remain in the houfe, and are permitted to profefs their primitive religion, without moleftation: and when a Turk marries a Chriftian, or jewifh woman, fhe is under no obligation to adopt the faith of her hufband. I have known feveral inftances where the Chriftian wives of Turks, have not only continued regularly to attend church, but their priefts alfo had liberty to vifit them at home.
In converfation on religious fubje¢éts, the Mohamme- dans are very apt to charge chriftianity with idolatry, and a tendency towards polytheifm *; and, though they
* Tt is faid that the Mohammedans are enjoined to prefs, at leaft three times, all thofe of any other perfuafion to embrace Mohammedanifm. See Note LXI.
* This charge is frequently repeated in the Koran. Note LXII.
readily
214 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
300k readily grant many things to be poflible with God, far
“above the comprehenfion of finite intelligence, it would be difficult for. the moft fubtile Miffionary on earth, to give them fuch a notion of the hypoftatical union, as would gain their affent to its being a facred myftery. They, on feveral accounts, hold the Jews in great con- tempt ; but at the fame time hold the Jewifh notion of the fupreme Being, to be more pure than that enter- tained by the Chriftians %.
Notwithftanding the contemptuous light in which the Turks view all other religions, they permit liberty of confcience in their dominions, and tolerate the public exercife of the Chriftian and Jewifh religions, with their refpective rites and ceremonies. The different Monks drefs in their refpective habits, go freely about their functions, and, at funeral proceffions, elevate the crofs, the moment they get without the city gate. It is af ferted by De la Motray, who had been fourteen years in Turkey, and refided long at Conftantinople, that the exercife of all religions is no where more free, or lefs difturbed, than in Turkey *+. The fame remark has been made by M. de la Croix %.
The haughty fuperiority, which Mohammedanifm leads its profeffors to affume over all who are of another
*> Note LXIII. * ‘Travels, Volt. pavoe, * Memoires, Letter ili. p. 176. religion,
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
215
religion, is obferved to increafe among the people, in c HAP. proportion to the vicinity of their fituation to Mecca; —~~
thofe of Conftantinople and Smyrna, fhow it in a lefs degree, than thofe of Aleppo: yet even there, it has of late years fo much declined, that feveral Bafhaws and other great men, have conferred publick honours on the Franks, and treated them with fuch diftinguifhed regard and familiarity, as would in former times have occafion- ed much popular difcontent *°. But ftill a contempt for Infidels, of every denomination, actually fubfifts, and is not likely to ceafe among the vulgar; though many of the Ullama, of the merchants who have travelled, and of the inferior clafs of Ofmanli, have in fome degree got the better of fuch narrow prejudices.
The recollection of times long paft, may probably join with fuperftition and other caufes, in keeping up that hereditary rancour, which the Turks are faid to bear towards the Franks. ‘The barbarous cruelties ex- ercifed by both fides during the Crufades, recorded in hiftory, handed down by tradition, and preferved in the mouldering monuments of ancient hoftilities which yet remain, may be allowed to have fome influence. Pre-
*° The author himfelf was an inftance of what is afferted above. The manne in which he was diftinguifhed by Ifmael Bafhaw, who refided feve- ral years at Aleppo, raifed him to a degree of eminence in the city, that re- quired no uncommon fhare of prudence to fupport with fuch dignity and temperance, as to avoid the envy naturally excited among a bigotted people, when they fee honours conferred on ftrangers fuppofed to be enemies of their faith.
judices
216 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
Bo 0X judices of a fimilar kind ftill fubfift in fome inland towns “-~— of Europe, which have been long at peace with the Turks, and have no caufe to complain of frefh provoca- tion. But with refpect to Syria, the maritime depreda- tions of the Maltefe, Sardinian, and other Chriftian cruif- ers, have a greater fhare in fupporting the popular aver- fion to the Franks, than the later wars with Germany and Ruffia, which have little efteét on the £yrian Pro- vinces, further than diftrefling them by the depredations of their own diforderly troops, on their march to camp. An averfion to the Franks, as enemies of the true believers, is certainly not imaginary. I have remarked it not only among perfons unconcerned in commerce, but alfo among the women and children of fuch as de- pend on it, who, in my prefence, would unwarily drop expreflions, which fufhiciently indicated the notion they entertained of the Franks. It is true they always on recollection made an apology, and would check the children, who knew not that they were talking before one of thofe who had been painted to them in fuch terrible colours. The commercial Turks, and others depend- ent on, or connected with the Europeans, conceal this difpofition, and many of them, in the courfe of familiar acquaintance, and interchange of good offices, get the better of it. In the mean time the Franks at Aleppo, enjoy full protection. They are treated with complaifance by the Grandees, and the number of Turks, whether civilized
by
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 217
by commerce, or induced by motives of intereft to affect c HAP. civility, is confiderable. —e
The condition of flaves3” in Turkey, is different from what is commonly imagined in Europe. Moft of them are purchafed when young, are brought up along with the children of the family, and, if they difcover a natural capacity, they receive nearly the fame education. Re- fpect and obedience to parents, are among the principal points aimed at in the inftitution of youth. A man’s own fon, from a certain age till the time of puberty, obferves almoft the fame diftance, and performs many of the fame little offices about the father, that the flaves do. Thus the young flaves are hardly fenfible of the fervile ftate; no more is required of them than of a page, or a valet, or, at worft, they are condemned to the fame fervice with hired, menial domeftics. But if they happen to diftinguifh themfelves by their talents and application, they are almoft certain of being one time or other emancipated. In the mean time they find themfelves nearly in the condition of adopted child- ren, and it often happens that they are married to a daughter of the family. ‘The flaves of the Ofmanli are fometimes promoted to the firft offices in the ftate.
The white flaves, who are moft efteemed, are
377 Memluk Salas is the term conftantly ufed at Aleppo for white flaves; that of Abd Que is vulgarly applied to black flaves.
Vou. Ff chiefly
218 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
Book chiefly brought from Georgia and Circaffia. They are
“—~—~'the children of Chriftians, but being early feparated from their parents and country, they of courfe do as they fee others do, and gradually adopt the religion of their mafters. This change happens {pontaneoully, at leaft, violence is not known to be ufed, at Aleppo; and the adult flaves who are taken in war, are not com- pelled to change their religion. ‘The Turks, fo far as I had occafion to obferve, are rather negligent about the religion of their flaves, at leaft I have known many of them, who having pafled through the hands of feveral matters, were altogether uninftructed, and were in fact neither Chriftians nor Mohammedans. I never met with an inftance of compulfion being employed.
The white flaves are purchafed on the frontiers of Georgia, by certain merchants who make a trade of it, and by whom they are tranfported to different parts of the Empire, but chiefly to Conftantinople: fome are brought every year to Aleppo, directly from Erzeroon. The merchants, for their own fake take great care of them as long as they remain on hand, and, from a like motive of intereft, the perfons of both fexes are in gene- ral protected from that violation, to which they other- wife might be liable. The boys are in this refpeét the moft to be pitied, when it is their lot to be fold to a brutal mafter ; for they chiefly are the victims of that unnatural luft imputed to the Turks, and of which candour cannot acquit them. It fhould however be re-
marked,
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 219
marked, that the crime is profcribed by law, and, except © #4 ?- by profefled Debauchees, held infamous. To what—~—~ extent it is practifed in private cannot be known®.
The number of flaves brought from Georgia, has been much lefs confiderable within thefe thirty years than formerly ; in confequence of which their price is in- creafed, efpecially in the Provinces. But the Turks not without reafon, are fond of purchafing them at any rate. In the poffeflion of a good flave they often find a trufty and ufeful fervant, they fecure a friend to their old age, and, at their death, leave a faithful monitor to their children.
Turkey had fo long enjoyed peace, that there were few of the flaves remaining at Aleppo, who had been taken during the preceding German, or Perfian wars. The imperial conful has a general order to re-purchafe fuch German flaves as may be found in Syria. The female white flaves are brought from Georgia; but of them we fhall have occafion to fpeak in the following chapter.
The difficulty of procuring Georgians, lays the Turks under the neceflity of having recourfe to black flaves. Thefe are brought every year in great numbers from fEthiopia, by way of Egypt. They are of a dull, indocile difpofition, few turning out fit for any thing but inferior offices. When they firft arrive, it is with difficulty they
* Note XLIV. F fe are
220 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
Bo ok are prevailed on to fpeak; their language feems to be a
‘“~— harfh jargon, and few ever attain a tolerable pronuncia- tion of the Arabic. They are moftly females, and are employed in the kitchens of the Harem. The males alfo feldom rife above the rank of lower fervants; but other blacks who come from different parts of the world to Conftantinople, make a better figure, and appear in the Provinces in high offices. The number of male black flaves is much fmaller, at Aleppo, than that of the fe. males.
All the Eunuchs, at Aleppo, are black, and are em- ployed only in the fervice of the Harem; but the num- ber is very inconfiderable. “The Bafhaws have generally one or two, the others are found chiefly in the houfehold of opulent merchants, who have purchafed them in their travels: few being brought to the city for fale. Thofe in the fervice of the ladies, have an apartment clofe to the Harem, and enter freely, as occafion requires. They are for the moft part remarkably ugly, but, in their manner to ftrangers, have a certain effeminate foftnefs.
The Eunuchs are often given to the vice of drinking, and I have known inftances of their being immoderately fond of women. The fuperintendant of the Harem of Ragab Bafha, ufed to go out of the Seraglio in the night, after his mafter retir2d to reft, and pafs his time till morning, in company with two or three proftitutes,
at a houfe in the neighbourhood. A fire occafioned, through
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 228
through his negligence, one night in the Harem, made c HAP. the firft difcovery of his irregularities to the Bafhaw, ——~ who was fo enraged that he gave orders to put him im- mediately to death; but after the firft alarm had fub-
fided, during which the Eunuch took care to remain concealed, the Bafhaw was prevailed on to change the fentence into perpetual banifhment.
It was remarked before, that the life of the Turks, was fedentary. To this however there are fome ex- ceptions in refpect to the Grandees of a certain age, and their retinue: though their exercife would, in a colder climate, be confidered as bearing no_propor- tion to their indolent lounging on the Divan. The Ofmanli are taught to ride, and practife the Girrid 39, which is rather a violent exercife. The weapon ufed in it is a round ftick, about two feet and a half in length, fomewhat grofler than a walking cane, and blunt at both ends. ‘Turning the palm of the right hand upwards, they grafp the Girrid near the middle, and with much force dart it horizontally to a great dif- tance. ‘The exercife is performed on horfeback. One perfon flying is purfued full fpeed by another, who at a proper diftance throws the Girrid, while the firft horfe- man, in order to avoid the blow, lays himfelf clofe to the horfe’s neck. The purfuer, as foon as he has de- livered his Girrid, turning fhort round, rides off at full
39 i gallop,
222
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK gallop, and may be chaced by any one who choofes to
u~— attack. ‘They have a dexterous manner of recovering
their Girrid without difmounting, by means of a {witch, or cane, crooked at one end. This mock engagement is a very common diverfion, and it is furprizing to fee with what adroitnefs they manage their horfes fo as to avoid joftling, when numbers are galloping full fpeed, in all directions, and feemingly in the greateft diforder*.
The Agas ufed formerly to ride out, with a grand retinue, once a week, and exercife the Girrid under a hill to the Weftward of the city ; but the cuftom is now almoft laid afide. When a Grandee rides out an air- ing, it is ufual for the pages to exercife the Girrid, for his amufement, and he himfelf fometimes joins in the diverfion.
The fports of the field, though not entirely relin- quifhed by the Turks, are not purfued fo generally as in former times; very few keep hawks and greyhounds; and ftill fewer of the Grandees fhoot well; indeed few Turks of whatever rank are remarkable for fhooting, thofe excepted who get a livelihood by it: and fifhing, as an amufement, is hardly known.
There was atime when the privilege of riding on horfeback, within the city, was reftri¢ted to the Turks. When Rauwolff arrived at Aleppo (Anno 1573) he dif- mounted at the gate, ‘‘ becaufe in Turkey no outlandifh
*© See Voyage dans la Paleftine, p. 62. ** man
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 224
‘man hath liberty to ride through a city #.” At pre- CHAP. fent the liberty of riding is enjoyed not only by the ~~ Franks, but by many alfo of the native Chriftians and
Jews. The indulgence however may be reckoned of modern date, at leaft in the degree to which it now prevails; and, in pafling fome of the lefs frequented diftri¢ts, the Chriftians on horfeback, ftill meet with abufive language from the vulgar, and are reproached
with infolence in daring to ride.
The Ofmanli, though rather folemn in their ordinary deportment, may juftly be reckoned courteous and polite. In converfation with inferiors, even with Chrif- tians and Jews, they can affume an eafy, affable man- ner; but when irritated by contradiction, they are im- petuous in their gefture, they elevate their voice, and in- decently defcend to the moft {currilous language. In the prefence of fuperiors, they are attentive, filent, and fub- miffive; no provocation almoft whatever, can make them forget the refpect they owe, or difconcert the feeming fteadinefs of their temper: they feel, but conceal their emotion. It is an habitual power of controlling the paffions, to be acquired only by pra¢tice, and confe- quently is poffeffed in different degrees, proportionate to the occafions which individuals, in the progrefs of life, may have had for exercifing it. The Ofmanli
* Ray’s Collection, p. 64. of
224 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
sooK of middle age, who have rifen flowly from obfcurity, “—— to eminent ftations, poffefs this talent in a high degree.
The other Turks of condition, not reckoned Ofman- li, efpecially fome of the zealous Shereefs, are haughty, referved, cold, or rather rough in their addrefs ; though all of them can occafionally aflume a certain ungracious complaifance. The merchants are formal, but fome- what more fociable; they affect a plainnefs in their drefs and manners, and make littie outward fhow; at the fame time they are magnificent in their Harems, and in their houfes. A few, connected in bufinefs with per- fons in power, imitate more the manners of the court, and live in fplendour.
The common people, when unawed by the prefence of fuperiors, are apt on the flighteft provocation to grow obftreperous and abufive; fo that one can hardly walk the ftreet without feeing fome noify broil. The con- tending parties approach each other, they appear every moment ready to come to blows, terms of bitter re- proach and execration are reciprocally lavifhed, accom- panied with the utmoft vehemence of voice and gef- ture. But the fray refts there, they are lefs difpofed to fight than to fcold; and the fpectators, who have nothing to apprehend from verbal altercation, have an intereft to prevent a combat, which feldom fails to pro- duce an appeal to the Mahkamy, or the Seraglio, when all who happened to be prefent, are in hazard of being eventually involved, as well as the principals. But,
though
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 225
though thus prone to unfeemly fits of rage, the common ¢ HA P. people ftill retain fome portion of felf command, and, —-—~ when their intereft requires it, can aflume the femblance of moft perfect refignation. ‘Their ordinary character is an affected gravity, with fome fhare of diffimulation.
The moral virtues of the Turks, have perhaps been extolled with no lefs partiality by fome, than injurioufly depreciated by others. It is more difficult, on many accounts, to form an eftimate on this fubject in Turkey, than in Europe. Sir James Porter, whofe fituation was more favorable for procuring exact information, than that of moft tranfient travellers, exprefles the difficulty he met with, and afferts that the accounts of the Turk- ifh government and manners, are hitherto very im- perfect *.
The fimpler virtues are in no climate reckoned the na- tural growth either of great cities, or of maritime towns. Yet the Turks, who are fcarcely known to the Europeans in any other fituation, have been branded with vices and crimes, as if fuch were the genuine offspring of their re- ligious conftitution, though, under fimilar circumftances, thofe are uniformly found in every part of the globe. Whether political character differs effentially in different countries, is beft known to thofe who have been prac- tifed in courts, and are verfed in negotiations; but the commercial character of different nations, probably ad-
« Note LXIII.
Vou. I. G gS mits
226
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
Boox mits of lefs variety. Where ever the principal purfuit .——~ in life is that of gain, under the mere reftraint of pru-
dential honefty, the human mind is apt to acquire nar- row habits, and in,a perpetual attention to profit and lofs, can feldom find leifure for the cultivation of its more liberal and exalted faculties.
The Turks, in their commercial dealings, are féldom charged with difhonefty ; but are often taxed, by the Europeans, with conducting all their tranfaCtions on the narrow principles of felf-intereft. In an intercourfe merely commercial, the charge may poflibly, to a cer- tain degree, be with juftice applicable to each party. Did the eftablifhed cuftom of the country admit of fa- miliar communication with the Turks, it 1s probable, that both parties would come, in time, to think of one another in a more liberal manner. Dziftruft would infenfibly be banifhed, and the Turks would, in convi. vial hours, lay afide that air of formality and referve, which they commonly affume when in company with the Franks. But the mutual diftance unfociably main- tained by both, has hitherto prevented this, nor is it ever likely to be otherwife.
The native Chriftians and Jews, are not lefs expert in the management of Trade, than the Aleppeen Turks; and are commonly thought to excel them, in the low arts of cunning, and adulation. It is ufual for many of thofe of the better clafs, fometimes with a view to pro- tection, fometimes to increafe their perfonal confequence
with
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 229
with their own nation, to court the patronage of fome © 4A”. powerful Turk; but as this is at firft obtained, fo it ~~ afterwards is preferved, by a courfe of fervile attendance, which contributes effectually to heighten the arrogance
of the patron whom fecretly they affect to defpife. Others of lefs ambition, and of lower rank, are taught
by prudence, not only to avoid offending, but to endea-
vour to ingratiate themfelves with their Turkifh neigh- bours, who, inconfiderable as they may feem, have it occafionally in their power to render ill offices. Abject fawning, and humility on one part, encourages infolence
on the other; aud thus the people, without any impu- tation on their refpective religious fyftems, may be faid
to co-operate reciprocally in preventing a melioration of manners.
The Europeans in Turkey, chiefly depend for infor- mation, on the Chriftians or Jews; few taking the trou- ble of learning the Arabic language, which is not confi- dered as neceffary in tranfacting bufinefs. Thefe inter- preters therefore, find it more eafy to reprefent matters, as may beft happen to fuit the purpofe of the moment. They regard the ‘Turks as wretches deftined to perdi- tion in the next world, they think it almoft impious to {peak well of devoted Infidels, whom they have been taught hereditarily to execrate; and, too often juftly pro- voked by infult or oppreffion, they draw the Turkith character from feelings of inveterate and invincible dif- like. They do not however paint wholly from fancy;
G g 2 the
228 CF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK the features may be exaggerated, but the picture ftill
“~~ bears a refemblance. An eager thirft of gain, confum- mate art, a readinefs to feize every legal advantage, to- gether with a large fhare of diflimulation, are among the qualities liberally afcribed to the Turks. ‘Thefe it muft be allowed, when conjoined, prefent a confederacy fo formidable, that much merit is by implication due to the negotiator who encounters them with fuccefs: and it is very feldom that either the interpreters, or the brokers, confefs themfelves outwitted in their tranf actions.
Some allowance therefore fhould be made for the fecret influence of religious prejudices, as well as for other exaggerations that fometimes proceed from lefs juftifiable caufes; and with this reftriction, the imputa- tions above mentioned may be admitted as juft. It may be added, that, in politics, the Turks are affiduous, in- triguing, venal, and vindictive ; in private life, indolent, not averfe, but indifferent to literature ; temperate in diet, but addicted to women; and habitually, if not naturally, grave; or, at leaft, little given to intemperate mirth.
Peculiar circumftances in the political ftate of Turkey may be produced by way of explanation, if not apology, of the cenfurable parts of the Turkifh character. The erection of fo great a number of petty tyrannies in the kingdom, (for fuch the Bafhawliks may be deemed) and the irequent change of Governors, not only expofe
the
INHABITANTS (OF) ALEPPO.
229
the provinces to vexatious oppreflion, but {pread widely cu ar. a {pirit of intrigue, together with the whole train of thofe —-~—~
courtly vices, which, in other countries, are ufually more confined to the capital. The fervile fubmiffion exacied by fuperiors, and which defcends in a feries from the Monarch, to the meaneft officer of the Seraglio, propa- gates diffimulation, and infpires, even the cringing flave with pride. The Page, who with eyes fixed on the ground, receives the commands of his mafter, in the moft fubmiffive filence, the moment he retires to his own chamber, fquats down in ftate, and is dignified with the title of Aga, by fome pitiful wretch who ferves him, and who is daily expofed to ufage more infolently imperious, than what this contemptible Aga meets with himfelf. The corrupt adminiftration of juftice, which has long been matter of complaint, too often enables the rich, to evade the laws, or to injure innocence, under the fanction of legal forms. ‘The increafe of luxury, which (if their own account may be trufted) has been very rapid in the pre- fent century, neceffarily renders them more covetoully rapacious. Money not only being indifpenfably necef- fary for the fupport of expenfive pleafures, but alfo for the purchafe of protection and quiet, when in poffeffion of wealth. For, among the Ofmanli, thofe who are fuf- pected of being rich, fooner or later attract the attention of the Porte, and then have no other means left, than to fhare their fpoil with the favorite minifters, in order to
preferve
230 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK preferve the remnant of their fortunes for a few years = longer Thefe are fome, felected from many local circum- ftances, which may be conceived to operate either im- mediately, or remotely, on the national manners: yet not with fuch irrefiftable influence, or fo univerfally, as to preclude all exceptions. There are perhaps few of the European merchants, who have refided long in Syria, who may not, within the fmall circle of their ac- quaintance, be able to recollect fome refpectable charac- ters, among the natives; and as to ourfelves juftice, as well as gratitude call upon us to declare, that we have, in the courfe of a very extended intercourfe, known many of all denominations, whom we had cogent reafon to regard as perfons of the utmoft honour, and integrity #.
Hofpitality has always been enumerated among the Eaftern virtues. It ftill fubfifts in Syria, but prevails moft in villages and fmall towns; among the Bidoween Arabs, and the inhabitants of the Caftravan mountains*. The hofpitable reception that European travellers expe- rience on the road, the officioufnefs of perfons who offer their houfes, and fervices, becaufe ufually acknowledged by a {mall prefent in return, have been unjuftly fufpe@- ed of being always mercenary. The traveller would
* Note LXV. «¢ On this head M. d’Arvieux may be confulted. Voyage dans la Paleftin. Biddulph in Purch. p. 1335. oftener
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 231
oftener find himfelf at a lofs, was his fole dependence © #3 * for lodging, placed in the covetoufnefs of his hoft, the “~~ value of the prefent, or Bakhfheefh “5, would hardly in- duce a perfon at his eafe, to derange the ceconomy of his family, and incur a certain expenfe, were not the notion fuperadded of his doing an action in itfelf deem- ed honorable, and which, if neglected, would fubject him to the contempt of his fellow viilagers.
In the city, where Khanes are provided for the ac- commodation of travellers, claims on hofpitality are lefs frequent; but many of the Turkifh ftrangers are en- tertained at private houfes, to which they have recom- mendation ; and thefe accidental connections often give rife to friendfhips, which defcend in fucceffion to the children of the refpective families *,
Publick officers of rank, who come from Conftanti- nople, or other places, on bufinefs, are quartered at the houfes of the principal Agas, the town defraying a cer- tain fhare of the expenfe of their entertainment; but the Aga, to whom the charge is committed, acts as hoft, and is confidered as refponfible for the proper treat- ment of his gueft. An engagement with a ftranger, is fometimes accepted as an excufe for not obeying the
45
“ On the fubject of ancient hofpitality, the reader may find an entertaining note by the Rev. Mr. Beloe, in his tranflation of Herodotus. Vol. IIT.
page 18. fummons
232
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
so ox fummons of a great man, when no other apology, hardly Us even that of indifpofition, would be admitted.
The relation of hoft and gueft is held facred, and always mentioned with reverence. A league of mutual amity, founded on former acquaintance, living together in the fame houfe, but efpecially on an interchange of hofpitable offices, is exprefled by ‘‘ having eat bread and ‘« falt together” Akulna khubz wa milh. Where enmity fubfifts, the fiercer Arabs will not eat at the fame table with their adverfary: fitting down together betokens reconcilation. The Turks are more polite, and lefs fincere, in this refpect.
The laws of hofpitality, give a title not only to com- mon civility, but to protection. “The Arabs and Kurds will rifk their lives in defence of their gueft, or in re- venging an injury offered him within their precincts. In the city, the houfes of the Grandees are not confider- ed as afylums, in cafes where law has been violated, but, in flighter offences, a great man thinks himfelf under a certain degree of obligation, to exert his intereft in be- half of a perfon in diftrefs, who may have fled to his porch, and claimed the rights of hofpitality. A common mode of fupplication, whether for pity, or protection, is ‘¢ Tam in your ground!” Ana fi Ardak *.
The Turks are certainly a domeftic people. Their chief pleafures are found within the precin¢ts of their own family ; and there are few temptations in the way of
“ Note XLI. public
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.
233
public diverfions, or diffipation, to draw them from c HA P. home. The parental and filial duties are highly rever- ~~~
ed. Kindnefs towards kindred, is manifefted by an at- tention to them when fick, or in adverfity, and is ex- tended to their widows, and orphans. Contefts refpect- ing property, are very often terminated by arbitration: other differences, are accommodated in the fame man- ner, and it is feldom difficult to procure perfons willing to undertake the office of arbiter. Gaming is abfolutely unknown; drunkennefs is a rare vice ; and inftances of infidelity to the marriage-bed are feldom heard of. Up- on the whole, whether it be afcribed to the influence of their political conftitution, or to the abfence of various temptations, which in Europe often leads to the violation of better laws; there are perhaps few great cities, where many of the private and domeftic virtues are, in general, more prevalent than at Aleppo.
Refignation under the calamities common to humanity, as well as under the moft unexpected political reverfes of fortune, is remarkable to a great degree in the Turks, but is not to be imputed to natural infenfibility, nor is it always, though it may be fometimes, merely affected. Their notion of predeftination infpires them with forti- tude in adverfity, and, fo far as it conduces to reconcile mankind to the difpenfations of divine providence, it may perhaps be regarded as ufeful. But, though the {peculative principle be univerfally received, it appears, in the ordinary conduct of life, to have little influence
Vo. I. Hh on
234
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN
BOOK on their determinations. While. matters yet remain in “———~ doubt, no fteps are omitted which prudence may fuggeft
for attaining the end propofed, and no means of defence againft impending dangers, are indolently neglected. That every thing is predetermined by Almighty God, though a fubject of endlefs controverfy among the learn- ed, is an article of faith feldom contefted, in common life: but it is praCtically called in as an auxiliary, ther only when it can be of real fervice, that is, after the event has irrevocably taken place **.
It is with refpect to the plague, that the Turks feem, more particularly, to have carried predeftination, to a dangerous length. ‘Their fupinenefs, in conformity with their creed, in oppofition to common experience, is pro- ductive of extenfive mifchief: though it may be doubted whether their neglect of the means of defence againft that dreadful calamity, be more influenced by an ortho- dox tenet, than by an opinion that the diftemper is lefs contagious than it is commonly reputed to be, by the Europeans. It is at leaft evident from later experience, that in proportion as the fenfe of apprehenfion was
alarmed, from a conviction of the phyfical properties of
infection, the fpeculative tenet actually loft ground. Many
” Note LXVI.
** Many examples of thts occurred during the plague in the years 1760, 1761, and 1762. I knew fome inftances wherein the Turks very nearly followed the Frank mode of fhutting up. The dread of the plague enter-
tained
INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. oa.
Many ufe certain defenfive precautions againft the c ee plague, on nearly the fame principle that all, when fick, i a have recourfe to medicine. They admit every event to
be pre-ordained, but affert that the Almighty who creat-
ed difeafes, created likewife remedies for the cure of them °°.
Of the Aleppeen Turks, the merchants are almoft the only travellers who fet out with an intention of re- turning ; and the number of thofe who go far from home is inconfiderable. Such as travel with a view to feek their fortune in the fervice of the Ofmanli, moft commonly become citizens of the Empire at large, and very often relinquifh their native place for ever. It may be owing to this, that the Aleppo matrons always reluc- tantly confent to let their fons go far from home. The youth are commonly bred up to the trade or profeffion of their father, and it is the favorite obje&t of the mo- ther’s care to fecure their ftay, by getting them early fettled in marriage.
tained by the Turks, and the cuftom of many of them flying from it, will be mentioned hereafter.
The belief of difeafes being fpread by contagion was condemned by Mo- hammed as impious. Note LXVII.
*° God created the malady and it’s remedy. Ullah hullak al daa wa al Dowa, is a common faying among the Turks. ‘They allow that it is the duty of a phyfician to exert his fkill, but add proverbially. <«‘ The phyfic *« from the doctor, the cure from God,” il Dowa min al Hakeem, al thiffa rain Ullah !
Hohe CHAP.
Cri a ss ie OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.
ENTRANCE OF THE HAREM.—SUPERINTENDANT, OR HAREM KEHIA- SY.—MORNING VISITS, OF THE TADIES.—GRANDEES ATTENDED BY FEMALES, IN THE HAREM.—THEIR AMUSEMENTS,—FEMALE PEDLERS,—AUSTERE BEHAVIOUR OF THE MEN, IN PRESENCE OF THE WOMEN.—THE TURKS WHEN INDISPOSED, RETIRE INTO THE HAREM.—RECEPTION OF PHYSICIANS, AND MODE OF THEIR VISIT, DESCRIBED.—ORDINARY EMPLOYMENT AND AMUSEMENTS, OF THE LADIES.—DIVERSIONS OUT OF THE HAREM.—FEMALE INTRIGUES.— FEMALE EDUCATION.—PERSONS AND DRESS OF THE LADIES.— FEMALE SLAVES.—REMARKS ON THE PASSION OF LOVE IN TUR- me Y.
ee nas However defirous a traveller in Turkey, may “—-~— be to learn the charaéter and domeftic manners of the Turkifh ladies, he muft expect to meet with various ob- ftacles to his refearches. The regulations of the Harem oppofe a ftrong barrier to curiofity ; inveterate cuftom excludes females from min, ling in affemblies of the other fex, and, even with their neareft male relations, they
appear to be under reftraint, from which perhaps they are
OF THEY ZURKIGN HAREM, &c.
are never emancipated, except in familiar fociety among themfelves.
In converfation, the Turks feldom talk of their wo- men, and a ftranger has very few opportunities of in- troducing a fubject which they feem ftudious to avoid. Some information indeed may be obtained from the Chriftian and Jewifh women who occafionally have ac- cefs to the Harems; but their accounts muft be received with caution, and due allowance made for religious pre- judices, as well as for the Eaftern propenfity to fable.
Ali travellers who have vifited the Levant, have more or lefs experienced thefe and other obftacles to inquiry ; and hence it is the lefs remarkable, that the relations concerning Mohammedan women, met with in fome of the beft books of travels, fhould often be found contra- dictory or defective, without impeachment either of the writer’s diligence or veracity. Senfible, from experi- ence, that neither a tolerable knowledge of the language, nor familiar intercourfe with the natives, in the courfe of a long refidence in the country, can wholly furmount difficulties, which others have encountered with fewer advantages, it may be proper to befpeak indulgence for incidental errors, in the following reprefentation of Mohammedan manners: in which are introduced.a few domeftic circumftances, that profeffional privilege afford- ed opportunities of obferving, in the interior of the Harem.
A defcrip-
237 CSHeAre Vv. ee amma
238 BOOK II. ew)
OF |THE) TURKISH
A defcription of the quarter in the Turkifh palaces appropriated to the women', has been given in the firft chapter of the preceding book +. It may be added here, that, clofe to the outer door, there is an aperture in the wall about two feet from the ground, two feet and a half in height, and nearly two feet in breadth; to
which is fitted a narrow wooden frame, and the middle
{pace filled up by a hollow wooden cylinder, placed vertically on pivots, fo as to be eafily turned round. This wheel, being divided by one or more horizontal partitions, and open on one fide, from top to bottom, ferves to deliver difhes from the kitchen, or to receive {mall parcels, without opening the outer door, or the perfons on either fide being feen. The partitions are moveable, and may be taken out occafionally, for the reception of larger parcels. Females who have bufinefs at the Harem, fummon the attendants within, by rapping gently on the wheel, but, if not anfwered readily, they exercife the knocker of the outer door with great vio- lence. It may be remarked, that the doors of the great Harems, from morning to fun fet, are feldom locked, on account of the conftant fucceflion of people coming and going: but the cafe is different in inferior Harems, and
" It is often erroneoufly called the Seraglio, but is properly the Harem. P25 4 wife is called Hurmy Cee and the women of the family, including wives, daughters, and flaves, Hareem ao
+ Page 29.
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 239
in ordinary houfes, where there is no feparate quarter c HAP. for the women, the mafter of the houfe, when he goes--~—~ abroad, not only fhuts the ftreet door, but carries the
key along with him.
To the Harems of the great belongs an officer named Harem Kehiafy who fuperintends all affairs, without doors, relating to the Harem, and commonly has one or two boys under him, who have accefs to the apartments, and are employed by the ladies in carrying meflages, or in other petty fervices. Thefe boys generally are black flaves, but not Eunuchs. ‘Their mafter, fometimes, is an eunuch, but, except in the fervice of Bafhaws, the office is more commonly beftowed on a trufty white flave, or on a fervant of advanced age.
None of the ordinary menial male fervants ever ap- proach the door of the Harem, unlefs the Harem Kehiafy, or one of his attendants, is prefent; and all fe- males who have bufinefs with the ladies, as well as phy- ficians and other medical attendants, muft apply to him for admittance. Even the Grandee himfelf, when there are female vifitants in his Harem, does not prefume to enter, till he has been announced, in order to give thofe time to prepare for his reception, who, according to cuftom, ought not to appear before him unveiled ; and on certain occafions, as when the Harem entertains a large company, he, being apprized before hand, does not go near the Harem till the guefts have left it.
When
240 OF THE TURKISH
BOOK When the ladies vifit one another in a forenoon, they
‘“—-—~ do not immediately unveil on coming into the Harem, left fome of the men fhould happen to be ftill at home, and might fee them as they pafs; but, as foon as they enter the apartment of the lady to whom the vifit is in- tended, either one of the young ladies, or a flave, affifts in taking off the veil, which, being carefully folded up, is laid afide. It is a fign that the vifitant intends only a fhort ftay, when inftead of refigning the veil, fhe only uncovers her head, permitting the veil to hang carelefly down on the fhoulders. ‘This generally produces a friendly conteft between the parties ; one infifting upon taking the veil away, the other refufing to furrender it. A like conteft takes place at the clofe of the vifit. When entreaty cannot prevail on the vifitant to ftay longer, the veil is hidden, the flaves, inftructed before hand, pretend to fearch for it every where in vain, and when fhe urges the abfolute neceflity of her going, fhe is affured that the Aga, or mafter of the houfe, is not yet gone abroad, and is then jocofely dared to depart without it.
In their manner of receiving one another, the ladies, are lefs formal than the men; their complimental {peeches, though in a high ftrain, are more rapidly and familiarly expreffed.
The common falutation is performed by laying the right hand on the left breaft, and gently inclining the
head.
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 241
head. ‘They fometimes falute by kiffing the cheek ; CHAP. and the young ladies kifs the hands of their fenior rela-e —~—~ tions. ‘They entertain with coffee and tobacco, but the Sherbet and perfume are only produced on particular occafions.
The great men are attended in the Harem, by the female flaves, in the fame manner as, in the outer apart- ments, by the pages. They remain ftanding in the humble attitude of attendance, their hands croffed before them on their cin¢ture, and their eyes fixed on the ground. The other ladies, as well as the daughters of the family, occafionally bring the pipe and coffee, but do not remain ftanding; they either are defired to fit down, or they retire. ‘This however is to be under- ftood of the Grandees ; for in ordinary life, both wives and daughters minifter fervilely to the men: The two fexes never fitting at table together.
It is feldom that all the ladies of a Harem are, by the great man, feen affembled, unlefs they happen, in the fummer, to be furprized fitting in the Divan*, where they meet to enjoy the cool air. At his approach, they all rife up, but, if defired, refume their places, (fome of the flaves excepted) and return to their work. How- ever loquacious they may have been before he entered a refpectful filence enfues the moment he appears : i reftraint which they feel the lefs, from their being ac- cuftomed to it almoft from infancy. It is furprizing how fuddenly the clamour of children is hufhed on the ap-
* Page 30.
VoL. I. hi proach
242 OF THE TURKISH
BOOK proach of the father; but the women often lament their “——~ want of power, in his abfence, of quieting the children elther by threats, or foothing.
Though the prefence of the great man may impofe filence on the younger ladies, he always finds fome of the elderly matrons, ready enough to entertain him, fhould he be difpofed for converfation. In this manner he learns the domeftic news of the town, which, though rarely a topic of difcourfe among the men, being in great requeft at the public baths, is circulated by the female pedlers, and the Bidoween women attached to the Harem. The former, who are chiefly Jewith or Chriftian women of a certain age, fupply the ladies with gauzes, muflin, embroidery, and trinkets, and moreover have the art of collecting and embellifhing all kinds of private hiftory ; the latter are not lefs talkative, nor more fecret, but poffefs alfo a licenfed privilege of fpeak- ing freely to the men, which they perfectly know how to exercife. “Fheir licence is derived from being often retained as nurfes, by which they gain a permanent efta- blifhment in the family ; the fofter fifter remaining at- tached to the Harem, and in time fucceeding her mother. The Grandees, in thefe indolent hours converfe alfo on their own domeftic affairs, and amufe themfelves with their children. When they wifh to be more retired, they withdraw to another apartment, into which no per- fon, except the lady to whom it belongs, prefumes to enter uncalled. |
The
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 243
The Turks, in prefence of their women, appear to ¢ 4 P. affect a more haughty, referved air, than ufual, and ins-~—~ their manner of fpeaking to them, are lefs courteous, and more abrupt, than they are to one another, or even to men who are much their inferiors. As this was fre- quently obferved in perfons remarkable for an affable deportment to men, it may be confidered rather as their ufual manner, than afcribed to the accidental prefence of an European ; and is further confirmed by the ordi nary behaviour of the boys, who talk to the women in an imperious manner, which they could only have learn- ed from example. The men perhaps judge it politic to afflume this demeanour, in a fituation where dominion may be fuppofed to be maintained with more difficulty, than among their male dependants; and therefore venture only in hours of retirement, to avow that gentlenefs, which, as if derogatory from their dignity, they think prudent, in their general conduct, to conceal, from per- fons whofe obedience they believe can alone be fecured, by an air of ftern authority.
The ladies, efpecially thofe of rank, appear referved in regard to their hufbands, while they fhow an engag- ing, affectionate fondnefs for their brothers, though it is often returned with little more than frigid complaifance: as if their tender endearments were a tribute due to male fuperiority. There are times however when na. tural affection gets the better of this cold indifference of the young men. ‘The fight of a fifter in diftrefs, or lan-
lie guifhing
244
OF THE ' TURKISH
BOOK guifhing ina fit of fevere illnefs, often produces emo- “—~— tion, of which, judging from general appearances, they
would feem to be unfufceptible. The affectation of apathy, is a remarkable trait in the character of the Turks. They are led by it, under misfortunes, to af- fume an appearance of tranquillity, more than they pof- fefs in reality ; and, on other occafions, they ftrive to hide that fenfibility which other nations think it honorable to indulge. ‘Their exterior manners are univerfally marked by this affetation: their real feelings, influenced by the common fprings of humanity, are more remote from the eye of obfervation.
Perfons of diftinétton, who are in office, leave the Harem early in the morning, and, two hours after noon excepted, pafs moft of their time in the outer apart- ments. But others, who have little bufinefs, and the luxurious young men of all denominations, lounge many hours in their Harem. Some allowance, in this refpect, is made to youth, for fome weeks after marriage ; but an effeminate chara¢ter, which is by no means refpe¢ta-
le among the men, is far from being acceptable to the women. ‘The prefence of the men, at unufual hours in the day time, lays the whole Harem under reftraint, and however fome particular favorite may be gratified by the particular attention of her Lord, the reft of the women are apt to lament the liberty they are deprived of, by his remaining too much at home.
The
HAREM.) AT! ALEPPO. 245
The Grandees, if flightly indifpofed, continue to fee c HAP. company in the outer apartments; but when the dif-—-—~ order becomes ferious they retreat into the Harem, to be nurfed by their women: and in this fituation, befides their medical attendants, and very near relations, no perfon whatever can have accefs, except on very urgent bufinefs. “They make choice of the females they with to have more immediately about their perfon, and one in particular is appointed to give an account to the phy- fician, of what happens in the intervals of his vifits, to receive his directions, and to fee them duly obeyed.
Medical people, whether Europeans or natives, have accefs to the Harem, at all times when their attendance is requifite. The phyfician, after being announced, is obliged to wait at the door till the way be cleared’; that is, till his patient, when a female, her company, and at- tendants, and others who might happen to be in the courts through which he muft pafs, have either veiled, or retired out of fight. He is then conducted to the cham- ber of the fick lady by a flave, who continues, in a loud voice, to give warning of his approach, by exclaiming Dirb, Dirb, al Hakeem Gia-y. Way! Way! the door is coming: a precaution which does not always prevent the unveiled ladies, who have not been apprized, from ac-
2 When it is known that the phyfician is about to enter, the flave, who undertakes to clear the way, gives notice by calling Amel Dirb! Amel Dirb! make way, make way ; and, returning after fometime, fays fi Dirb, the way is clear.
cidentally
246
OF THE! TURKGH
BOOK cidentally croffing the court, in which cafe, it becomes “—— the well bred phyfician to turn his-eyes another way.
Upon entering the chamber, he finds his patient co- vered with a loofe veil, and, it being a vulgar notion that the malady may be difcovered from the pulfe3, he is no fooner feated, than the naked wrift is prefented for his examination*. She then defcribes her complaints and, if it be neceffary to look at the tongue, the veil is for that purpofe removed, while the affiftants keep the reft of the face, and efpecially the crown of the head, care- fully covered. The women do not hefitate to expofe the neck, the bofom, or the ftomach, when the cafe re- quires thofe parts to be infpected, but, never without extreme reluctance confent to uncover the head. Ladies whom I had known very young, and who, from long acquaintance, were carelefs in concealing their faces from me, never appeared without a handkerchief or fome other flight covering thrown over the head. So far as I could judge, from general practice, it feemed to be con- fidered, in point of decorum, of more confequence to veil the head, than the face.
> The native practitioners give a fandction to this foolifh notion. I fol- lowed, in that refpeét, the example of my brother, who, except in fevers, always infifted on the fick giving an account of their complaints, before he would feel the pulfe.
* T have been offered fometimes, the wrift covered with thin muflin, but the Aleppo ladies in general ridicule that punctilio, and I always refufed compliance with a piece of prudery not fanctioned by cuftom.
Tournefort found the prattife different in the Harems he vifited. Voy-
age, Tom il. p. 17. pr The
HAREM, AT ALEPPO, 247
The phyfician is ufually entertained with tobacco and c HAP. coffee, which, being intended as a mark of refpect, can. —~— not in civility be declined, though the compliance leads to an intemperate ufe of both. After he has examined, and given directions concerning his patient, he requefts leave to retire, but is feldom allowed to efcape without hearing the incurable complaints of as many valetudinary vifitants, as happen to be prefent, who either fit ready veiled, or talk from behind a curtain occafionally fuf- pended in the chamber. ‘Thefe ladies always confider themfelves entitled to verbal advice, or at leaft to an opinion of fuch remedies, as have been recommended by others; and a principal part of the medical art, among the native practitioners, confifts in being able to acquit themfelves dexteroufly in fuch incidental conful- tations.
In families which the European phyfician has been accuftomed to attend, and when his patient is on the recovery, he is fometimes induced to protraét the vifit, and to gratify the curiofity of the ladies, who afk num. berlefs queftions concerning his country. ‘They are par- ticularly inquifitive about the Frank women, their drefs, employments, marriages, treatment of children, and amufements. In return they are ingenuoufly communi- cative, and difplay talents, which, being little indebted to artificial cultivation, appear, as it were, to expand naturally, under a clear fky, and the influence of a deli- cious climate. ‘Their queftians, are generally pertinent,
and.
248 OF THE TURKISH
Bo oxk and the remarks they occafionally make on manners -.— differing fo widely from their own, are often fprightly, and judicious.
When the vifit is at length concluded, notice being given to clear the way, the phyfician fets out, preceded as before by the flave. But it rarely happens that he is not more than once ftopped, to give advice to fome of the domeftics, who wait his return; for however flichtly they may be indifpofed, the temptation of telling their complaints to a do¢tor is irrefiftible. Thefe dam- fels feldom have any other veil, than a handkerchief thrown over the head, one corner of which is held in the mouth; but, in order to avoid even that trouble, they frequently place themfelves behind a door, or a window fhutter, half open, in which fituation, thrufting out one arm, they infift on having the pulfe examined. It fometimes happens, in the great Harems, that another obftacle muft be encountered before regaining the gate, This arifes from fome of the younger ladies, or flaves, who are at work in the court, refufing peremptorily either to veil, or retire; which is done merely in fport, to vex the condudtrefs, who is obliged of courfe to make a halt. In vain fhe bawls Dirb! and makes ufe by turns of entreaty, threat, and reproach; till, finding all in vain, fhe gives fair warning, and has recourfe to a never failing ftratagem. She marches on, and bids the doétor follow.—A complete rout enfues; the damfels {camper different ways, catch hold of whatever offers
firft
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 249
firft by way of veil, or attempt to conceal themfelves be- ¢ HAP. hind one another. It is only when none of the men are —~—~ in the Harem, that this f{cene of romping can take place.
When the phyfician is conducted by the Aga himfelf,
every thing paffes in orderly filence, and, in the chamber
of the fick, none befides the elderly or married relations
offer to join in the converfation : but it is feldom that the
Aga himfelf takes the trouble, after the few firft vifits,
except the doctor be a ftranger to the family.
Women of diftinétion pafs much of their time at home. They have a bath for ordinary occafions, within the Harem; the purchafe of houfehold neceffaries does not lye within their Province; and mercery, drapery, and trinkets, are either fent from the fhops to be chofen, or are brought in by the female pedlers formerly men- tioned. ‘They are not however idle within doors; the fuperintendence of domeftic affairs, the care of their children, with their needle and embroidery, furnifh ample employment.
They are taught, when young, to read, and, fome- times, to write, the Arabic, but are very apt when taken from fchool to neglect both; fo that reading ought not to be reckoned a common female amufement, and is never a ftudy. I have known however fome exceptions to this. A daughter of the late grand Vizir, Ragab Bafhaw, had made (as he affured me) a furprifing pro- grefs in Arabic literature, and he fhowed me a manu-
Wis 1. I. Kk {cript
250 OF THE TURKISH
<_
BOOK fcript very beautifully written with her ownhand. De-
\“—’votion docs not appear to take up much of their time ; they never goto Mofque; and, except the elderly ladies, and thofe who have been at Mecca, they are not fo punctual in their prayers at home, as the men,
This is aflerted only as it appeared to me. On the public days, the women may often be feen praying in the gardens, but it is only a {mall number out of a crowd. In the Harem, there is not the fame opportunity of fee- ing them at prayer, as there is in refpect to the men. My opinion was formed from being fo feldom obliged, on vifit- ing at noon, or fun fet, to wait till prayers were over; and on going into the Harem immediately before the times of prayer, from finding fo few prepared by ablution; for when they have once performed the Wodou*,they cannot permit a Chriftian to touch their pulfe, without being obliged to wafh over again. Indeed allowance fhould be made for a circumftance peculiar to the fex, which difqualifies them periodically from a¢ts of devotion. Sun fet feem- ed to be the time when the women chiefly prayed.
It does not feem neceffary to enter upon the argument concerning the exclufion of the Mohammedan women from paradife, with other innumerable errors and mif. reprefentations relating to them, which are to be found in the works of travellers, in other refpects, of good credit 5.
* Page 194. * Note LX VIF. Their
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 251
Their ufual games are Mankala, Tabuduk, draughts, ¢ HAP. and fometimes Chefs *; but, as before remarked of the -—~—~ men, they play merely for amufement. In the winter évenings, while the men are engaged in the outer apart- ment, the ladies often pafs the time in attending to Arabian tales, which are recited, but more com- monly read, by a perfon who has a clear diftinct voice, and occafionally fings the ftanzas interwoven with the ftory.—It has been already mentioned }, that the Arabian Nights Entertainments known in England, were hardly to be found at Aleppo. A manufcript con- taining two hundred and eight nights, was the only one I met with, and, as a particular favour, procured liberty to have acopy taken from it. This copy was circulated fucceffively to more than a {core of Harems, and I was affured by fome of the Ullama, whom the women had fometimes induced to be of the audience, that till then they were ignorant that fuch a book exifted.
The Toilet confifts of a Divan cufhion reverfed, upon which a fmall mirror is placed. ‘They do not employ much time at it; for the attire of the head may be taken off, and preferved entire, and the braiding of the hair, which is rather a tedious operation, is always performed in the Hummam. They drefs neatly for the day, early in the morning, except on days when they go abroad in
* Page 142. + Page 149. Kk 2 ceremony,
252
OF THE ‘TURKISH
BO OK ceremony, or to the public bath, and then the alteration -—~——_ made in drefs does not require much time.
They are fond of flowers and odoriferous plants, which are fometimes cultivated under their own care, but for the moft part purchafed of thofe who raife them for fale. They preferve them in china or glafs flower pots, arranged on wooden pyramids placed in the mid- dle of the Divan; and form them when required into elegant nofegays. When the ladies fend a congratula- tory meflage, or a ceremonious invitation, it is ufually accompanied with a nofegay, wrapt up in an embroider- ed handkerchief. ‘The meffage is verbal, and often delivered in the firft perfon. ‘‘ Thus fays my miftrefs ‘< T will have no excufe—and do not tell me—did you ‘‘ not promife me, &c.” ‘This however is not the con- ftant practice, but it is always delivered precifely in the words in which it is given. ‘The perfon receiving the meflage takes out the flower with her own hand, and, carefully folding up the handkerchief, returns it by the meflenger. ‘They preferve deciduous flowers in the fummer, by wrapping them in a muflin handkerchief fprinkled with water, which is laid ina metal bafon, and placed in a cool cellar. ‘The flowers of the orange, the Arabian jafmine, and the mufk rofe, are in this manner kept frefh for many hours.
The young ladies amufe themfelves by tying their nofegays with filk threads of certain colours, which, in
the
HAREM, AT ALEPPO.
253
the fame manner as the affortment of particular flowers, © "4 * are fuppofed to convey fome emblematical allufion. But ~~
thefe are by the women fo generally underftood, that the artifice feems to be unfit for the purpofe of fecret correfpondence ; and a proof that the colours are for the moft part regarded as indifferent, is the practice of the men, who, receiving nofegays from their ladies, either of their own making, or fuch as have been fent to them from other Harems, give them away, or interchange them with their vifiters. It may be remarked however that, for the moft part, the men interchange fingle flow- ers, or two or three ftalks untied, and that the ladies fometimes make an alteration in the binding of a nofe- gay, before prefenting it, as if the rejected threads were improper.
Lady Mary Wortley Montague, in her 40th. Letter, has given a fpecimen of this mode of gallantry. ‘“‘ There ‘¢ is no colour, no weed, no flower, no fruit, herb, peb- * ble, or feather, that has not a verfe belonging to it; ‘‘and you may quarrel, reproach, or fend letters of *¢ paflion, friendfhip, or civility, or even of news, with- ** out ever inking your fingers.”
The ladies at Aleppo are not fuch proficients, as her Ladyfhip defcribes thofe at Conftantinople ; but the verfes and allufions are much the fame, expreft only in the Arabic inftead of the Turkifh language. The colour of the filk thread denotes fear, doubt, jealoufy, impati- ence, or defpair.
Amid
254 OF THE TURKISH
BooK Amid domeftic occupations, ferious or amufing, the “——~ ladies find themfelves fully employed, and feldom com- plain of time hanging heavy. But various occafions call them abroad. They vifit near relations feveral times in the year, as alfo when in childbed, or in ficknefs; they affift at nuptial, and funeral ceremonies; and, at eftablifhed hours, go to confult their phyfician at his houfe, when the cafe does not require his attendance at the Harem. ‘Thus, women above a certain rank, are, in proportion to the extent of their conne¢tions, more or lefs engaged, while thofe of the lower clafs are often obliged to go out to market, and conftantly to the Bag- nio: the laft indeed brings all the women abroad ; for even thofe who have baths at home, are in cafes of ce- remonial invitation, obliged to repair to the public bath*.
Mondays and Thurfdays are the women’s licenfed days, for vifiting the tombs, and, with their children and flaves, for taking the air in the fields or gardens. The flaves carry carpets, pipes, coffee equipage, and pro- vifions: the garden fupplies lettuces, cucumbers, or fuch fruits as are in feafon. Some take poffeffion of the garden fummer-houfes, others place themfelves under the fhade of trees, and all pafs the day in high feftivity. In the fpring feafon, the gardens in the vicinity of the town, are crowded with women, and, towards evening, the feveral avenues of the town are filled with them, returning home. Some parties of the better clafs are
preceded + Page 133.
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 256
preceded by a band of finging women, the ladies them-¢ # Ages felves walking behind with a flow and ftately ftep ; but ——~ the lower people are lefs formal, they advance in groups, finging as they walk along, and with the tympanum and
the zilareet make the air refound on all hands. Ladies
of diftinction, on thefe occafions, drefs in the plaineft manner, and wear the ordinary ftriped veil, inftead
of the white Furragi; but moft of the others drefs in
their gayeft apparel, and, when at a little diftance from town, being more carelefs of their veil, they give accl- dental opportunity of feeing more of their faces, than at
any other time.
As men on thefe public days, are not excluded from the gardens, numbers are of courfe found {trolling in the walks, which obliges the women to be more on their guard, and to remain muffled up. But there are felect, parties, on other days, exempt from that difagreeable reftraint, and in all refpects more elegant. Thefe are compofed of the ladies belonging to two or three Harems, who hire the garden for the day. The Divans in the fummer houfes of the gardens are furnifhed from the city; cooks are fent to prepare the entertainment ; the Harem-Kehiafi, with fome pages, attend at the gate to prevent the intrufion of ftrangers, and, the gardeners being obliged to keep out of the way, the ladies are at liberty to, walk about more negligently veiled. The company fet out from town by dawn of day, and return
at funfet. A numerous train of flaves or fervants avail them-
256 OF THE TURKISH
Book themfelves of the opportunity to make merry, and the
\.—— day is confidered as one of licenfed frolic. Muficians, dancers, and buffoons, are among the female attendants, and their mufic and zilareet may be heard at the diftance of a mile. The gardener, in the mean while, has little reafon to wifh for parties of this kind, being by no means adequately recompenfed for the mifchief done his fruit trees, the branches in bloffom being broken without mercy, and the fruit gathered before it is half ripe.
On thefe occafions, the ladies ufually walk to the garden, unlefs when it happens to be too diftant, in which cafe the principal ladies go in a covered litter, carried by two mules; while fuch of their retinue as do not choofe to walk, ride on affes, or mules.
The litter is called a Tahtruan, and is fometimes ufed by old or infirm men. It is the moft fafhionable vehicle for the ladies, but, in long journies it is carried by two camels inftead of mules, efpecially on the pilgrimage to Mecca. ‘There are always a certain number of Tahtru- ans in the fuite of a Bafhaw.
There is another vehicle for women and children of ordinary rank, two of which are fufpended on the oppo- fite fides of a camel, fo as to be always in equilibrium. They are wooden cradles half covered with thin hoops of wood, over which an awning is occafionally fpread. They are furnifhed with a mattrefs and cufhions, upon which a perfon can fit eafily enough in the Eaftern
fafhion,
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 257
fafhion, but cannot ftretch out at full length. They are cH 4? called Muhaffi ®. hence!
Befides the two public days in the week, feveral others are folemnized by the women, in commemoration of certain Sheihs, or holy men, whofe tombs they an- nually vifit, from devotion: the convent of Sheih Abu Bekre, is vifited by vaft crowds of women, two or three times in the year.
It is a cruel difappointment when the women, by an ordinance of the Governor or the Cady, are prohibited from going abroad on their ordinary privileged days, which is the cafe when troops are to march near the city, or at other times of expected tumult. A Bafhaw rarely acts capricioufly in this point, but the ordinance is always regarded as tyrannical, and, though pun¢tually obeyed, occafions great murmuring.
From what has been faid, it would appear that the Turkifh ladies are not in fact fo rigoroufly confined as is generally imagined: it may be added, that habit, and the idea of decorum annexed to their reftraints, render them lefs irkfome. ‘Their ignorance of the female pri- vileges enjoyed in many parts of Europe, precludes any mortifying comparifon, and, when told of thofe privi- leges, they do not appear very defirous of a liberty which, in many inftances, they regard as inconfiftent with their notion of female honour and delicacy. When
* See Harmer, v. i. p. 445. Vou. I L1 it
258
OF THE TURKISH
BOOK it was faid, in the former edition, ‘‘ that the Turks of —~—~ ‘ Aleppo being very jealous, keep their wives as much
‘* at home as they can, fo that it 1s but feldom they are “¢ allowed to vifit each other,” it was to be underftood comparatively with the liberty enjoyed by the European ladies. But the cuftom of keeping the women clofe fhut up, is of high antiquity in the Eaft, and was by the Turks rather adopted, than introduced into Syria.
‘¢ The barbarous nations, (fays Plutarch) and amongft ‘them the Perfians efpecially, are naturally jealous, ‘© clownifh, and morofe, toward their women; fo that ‘¢ not only their wives, but alfo their female flaves and ‘¢ concubines, are kept with fuch ftriCinefs, and fo con- ‘< ftantly confined at home, that they are never feen by ‘‘ any but their own family; and when they take a ‘‘ journey they are put into a carriage fhut clofe on all “fides In fuch a travelling carriage they put Themif- ‘“‘ tocles, and told thofe whom they met or difcourfed ‘‘ with upon the road, that they were carrying a young ‘¢ Grecian lady out of Ionia to a nobleman at court’.”
This circumftance is dated in the firft year of Artax- erxes, that is about 462 years before the birth of our Saviour. It may further be remarked that it was a capital offence in Perfia to crofs the way when a carriage containing women was pafling*®. But the Greeks them-
7 Life of Themiftocles. * Life of Artaxerxes—and Strabo, lib. xv. felves
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 259
feves had their wards for the reception of the women, c HAP. which feem to have been much the fame with the —~ women’s quarter in the Syrian Seraglios. ‘The women lived immured there under great reftraint; they were fometimes attended by Eunuchs; and never went abroad without a veil, or without fome old female attendants. The Roman manners in this refpect were very differ- ent"°; but it is not probable that their conquefts in Syria produced much change in the ceeconomy of the Greek
Harem.
Women of condition in Syria always walk abroad attended by a numerous fuite; no modeft woman is ever feen in the ftreet without a fervant or companion, unlefs perhaps elderly women of an inferior clafs. Of the attendants on the great, one is generally a Bidoween woman belonging to the Harem, who is eafily diftin- guifhed, notwithftanding her veil. Indeed the veil worn in ordinary by the ladies themfelves, is not fufficient to hide them from their acquaintance, and when they wear the black crape over the face, which conceals them more effectually, the flaves in their train, who are often em- ployed to carry meflages, or to go to the Bazars, being known to the fhop-keepers, difcover the Harem to which
they belong.
9 \ , , yrvainav, yuvarmwpyiticn OF YuvainwwTns.
© Cornelius Nepos. Pref. See Euripides Phenifs. v. 89. Andromach.
v. 876.—Jphigen. v. 738. Lis Thefe
260 OF THE TURKISH
Book ‘Thefe circumftances, together with the want of pre-
“—~— per places of rendezvous, may be confidered as material obftacles to criminal intrigue; which various circum- {tances render fo liable to detection. Befides, as in- trigues are rarely heard of, it may reafonably be con- cluded they do not often happen. I hardly remember a public inftance of adultery, at Aleppo, in the courfe of twenty years; and, in the private walks of fcandal, thofe I heard of were among the lower clafs, and did not in number exceed a dozen. As to the illicit admiffion of {trangers into the great Harems, confidering the number that muft be trufted with the fecret, it would, appear to be impoffible. Nor does Aleppo, in this refpeét pro- bably differ much from other Turkifh cities: though there may perhaps, in the capital, be third places more commodious for affignation, than are to be found in the Provinces. In refpecét to the Franks, the undertaking is attended not only with fuch rifk to the individual, but may, in its confequences, fo ferioufly involve the whole fettlement, that it is either never attempted, or is con- cealed with a fecrecy unexampled in other matters. I have reafon to believe that European travellers have fometimes had a Greek courtezan impofed on them for a Sultana, and, after being heartily frightened, have been. induced to pay {martly, in order to preferve a fecret, which, the day after, was known to half the fifterhood in town".
The ftate of gallantry at Conftantinople, feems to be different from what is reprefented above. Note LXIX. But
HAREM,’ ‘ATILALEPPO. 261
But it would be rather harfh to afcribe the chaftity of c HAP. the women folely to thefe exterior reftraints. Innate —~—~ modefty, cherifhed from its firft dawnings with maternal care, and, in riper years, fheltered from the contagion of infidious gallantry, ought in candour to be allowed fome fhare in the protection of the fex from irregularities, to which the climate, as well as the natural conftitution, may be reckoned favourable: and fkill in the arts of feduction, or a character for illicit amours, being neither deemed requifite nor venial, in the compofition of a Turkifh fine gentleman, tuition, finding fewer ob- ftacles to encounter, may perhaps on that account be lefs liable, than in fome other countries, to fail of fuccefs 7”.
The wives and concubines, of relations who live familiarly together, are reftrained by the ties of con- fanguinity, from a criminal intercourfe, which would be deemed fcandalous, if not inceftuous; and clandeftine intrigues between the boys and maid fervants, to what ever caufe it may be owing, are in fact lefs frequent than might be expected. It is indeed hardly poffible that an amour fhould remain long concealed in the Harem; and the mothers ufually take care to haften the marriage of their fons, before the paffions become too fierce for the control of parental authority.
I have been told by Turkifh ladies, that a principal
* Note LXX. view
262 OF THE TURKISH
B0oxK View in their preference of flaves to free women, as —~ menial fervants, was to prevent domeftic intrigues. When a free girl is feduced, her parents make ufe of the accident to lay the family under contribution, by threatening a public profecution, which is not only pro- ductive of expenfe, but, what to the women is more vexatious, expofes the honour of the Harem. The girls fometimes flyly give encouragement, not only from the hope of fome pecuniary indemnification, but alfo perhaps, of obtaining a hufband. This laft is no uncommon mode of compounding the matter, it not being difficult to find fome one willing, for money, to take the girl, but who is at the fame time, careful] to retain, as an additional dow- ery, the power of harafling the family, as often as he be- comes neceflitous. Families are fometimes plagued with thefe vexations, at the diftance of feveral years, and that even where the complaint is groundlefs. I have had occafion accidentally to hear fuch caufes tried at the Mahkamy, but believe they are not common; for the miftrefs of the Harem, generally choofes to prevent public {candal, by fubmitting to private extortion. The flaves on the contrary, having no kindred to fupport them, can derive few fimilar advantages, from criminal intrigue. . The youth of diftinction, without the precincts of the Harem, have little or no opportunity of indulging in illicit pleafures, for they are not only never permitted to go abroad unattended, but there are no private places
of refort where the fexes can meet. “The common pro- {titute
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 263
ftitutes (who are chiefly attached to the foldiery) are ofc x AP. the loweft order, and lodge in fuch obfcure places of the ——~ town, that no perfon of character can have any decent pretence to approach them. Thhefe proftitutes are licenfed by the Bafhaw’s Tufinkgi Bafhee, whom they
pay for his protection. Some are natives of Aleppo,
but many come from other places. They parade in the ftreets, and the outfkirts of the town, dreffed in a flaunt-
ing manner, their veil flying loofely from the face, their cheeks painted, bunches of flowers ftuck gaudily on the temples, and their bofom expofed; their gait is mafcu-
line, and full of affeCiation, and they are in the higheft degree impudent and profligate. There are perhaps a
few courtezans of a fome what higher clafs, who entertain vifiters in more fuitable lodgings ; but the rifk which people of property run, when detected, of being forced
to fubmit to arbitrary extortion, or to be expofed to public ridicule, confines this mode of gallantry to the inferior clafs of Ofmanli, and the Janizaries.
The ladies of the Harem are either free born natives of Turkey, or flaves originally Chriftian, who have been brought from Georgia: the number of the latter at Aleppo is comparatively {mall.
The ‘Turkifh girls of condition are carefully educated : and thofe of every denomination are taught filence, and a modeft referved demeanour, in the prefence of men. From infancy, they are feldom carried abroad without a
gauze
264 OF THE’ TURKEBE
Bo ox gauze handkerchief thrown over the head, and from the -—-—~ age of fix or feven, they wear the veil. When about feven years old, they are fent to fchool to learn to few and embroider: but their work in embroidery is greatly inferior to that of the Conftantinople ladies. “The hand- kerchiefs of the men are embroidered with filk of various colours, as well as with gold and filver; and are com- mon prefents made by the women, in the fame manner as worked watch cafes, purfes, and tobacco bags. Some of the girls, as remarked before, are taught to read and write the Arabic; but all are inftructed in their prayers, their duty to parents, and in the exterior forms of behaviour. Perfons of condition, feldom fend their children to the public fchool, after the ninth year, either engaging profefled teachers to come into the Harem, or, making an interchange, become tutoreffes to each others children. By this laft mode the petu- lance, fo often the confequence of indulgence at home, is in fome meafure corrected ; for the voluntary tutorefs maintains ftrict authority, keeps the young pupil under her eye, makes her fit in the apartment where fhe her- felf and her flaves are at work, and, when fhe goes from home, fhe leaves the girl under the care of fome one who is to make a report of her conduct. A laudable difcretion in converfation is preferved in the prefence of thefe girls, and an indireét leffon is occafionally given, by reprimanding the flaves in their hearing. Indeed the whole of their education appears not to confift fo much
HAREM, AT SAVEPPO.
much in a formal courfe of precepts, as in artfully fupplying the pupil with examples in domeftic life, from which fhe may draw rules for her own conduct: and which, being as it were the refult of her own re- flection, acquire perhaps more lafting influence.
The early feparation of the boys and girls, (for they are fent to different reading fchools,) foon leads each fex to the purfuit of its peculiar amufements, preparing them gradually for the disjoined ftate of their future lives. The boys grow impatient of confinement in the Harem, and love to pafs their time among the pages and the horfes; they affume a grave, fedate air, and imitate the manners of thofe whom they obferve to be refpected among the men. The girl forms different ideas of her own dignity, grows attentive to the punc- tilios of her fex, is proudly fond of her veil, and ftrives to imitate the gait, the tone of voice, and the peculiar phrafes of thofe ladies whom fhe has heard chiefly com- mended.
‘« The boys (according to M. D’Arvieux) are not *“* permitted to enter the apartments of the women, after ‘‘ their feventh year: fuch is the jealoufy of the men.” Others have faid the fame: but if the circumftance was true at the time he wrote, it is not at prefent the cafe at Aleppo. The boys have free accefs to the Harem till fixteen or feventeen. They are not indeed carried to the Bagnio with the women, later than fix years old’,
* Note LXXI. 7 O21. I. M m The
265
© Hy AP: Ve
(errs ped
266 BOOK ee nee,
OF! THE TTURKisia
The women in their perfons are rather engaging than handfome. It was remarked before, that they were pretty in infancy, but changed for the worfe as they grew up: yet they retain for ever the fine piercing eye, and many to the laft poffefs their exquifite features, though not their complexion. They do not wear ftays, and are at little pains to preferve their fhape. In gene- ral they are low in ftature, and fuch as are tall, for the moft part ftoop. The women of condition affe@& a ftately gait, but walk inelegantly, and the carriage of their body is devoid of that eafe, and air, to which an European eye has been accuftomed. The drefs in which they appear abroad, is not calculated to fet off the perfon; the veil fhows their fhape to difadvantage, the legs are awkwardly concealed by the boots, and even without them, their movement is not fo elegantly eafy as that of their arms: which may be the reafon that they appear to moft advantage when fitting on the Divan.
The tranfient manner in which the Turkifh wo- men can only be feen by a ftranger, renders it difficult, if not impoffible, to fpeak decidedly of their beauty, in comparifon with that of the women of other countries, who are feen with more familiarity. Their drefs and veil, which are fo difadvantageous to their fhape, may perhaps (the latter particularly) be of advantage to their looks. Ihave had occafion to fee great numbers, and thought them in general handfomer than the Chriftian, and Jewith ladics; but I was fometimes inclined to
doubt
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 267
doubt whether that opinion might not in fome degree be c # AP afcribed to feeing them partially, or when are nme fuch a manner, as to give relief to their beauty: it is certain that many whofe faces I had at firft thought exquifitely fine, from under a loofe veil, loft confiderably
when more expofed.
When the female flaves are purchafed very young, which feldom happens, they are brought up much in the fame manner with the daughters of the family; but if they have reached the age of fifteen, or more, being then confidered as too far advanced for regular fchool- ing, they owe their future improvement to accidental opportunities, and for that reafon are feldom fo accom- plifhed as the Turkifh girls of condition. This however is only to be underftood of fuch as are brought for fale to Aleppo; for many of thofe who are carried young to Conftantinople, are carefully kept by the merchant, till they have acquired fuch improvements, as ferve to en- hance their price. They are inftructed in muiic, danc- ing, drefs, and all the arts of allurement; and they gene- rally poflefs the advantage of perfonal charms. Thefe high bred ladies very feldom appear at Aleppo; the ex- travagance of their price 1s one objection, and they are confidered alfo as capable, by their example, of corrupting the lefs refined manners of the Syrian Harem. I knew an inftance of a Bafhaw, who procured, two of thofe ladies, at a very confiderable expenfe, from Conftantino-
M m 2 ple;
268 OF THE TRURKISH
BOOK ple; but he difmiffed them in lefs than three months:
—~— declaring they had in that time turned the heads of half the women in the Harem, and, befides ruining him in fine clothes, he believed they would, in two months more, have transformed his daughters into dancing girls.
The flaves of a certain age are either purchafed merely as menial domeftics, or as future partners of the bed. Of the former, there are many who turn out moft excellent, and faithful fervants; they have no kindred nor connections to allure them abroad, and they become fincerely attached to the family, into which, accident has introduced them. Though the menial flaves are in the power of their mafter, they are protected in a great meafure from violation, by eftablifhed cuftom, as well as by other confiderations. Should they happen to prove pregnant, they do not ceafe to be flaves, but their mafter has no longer the right of felling them, and the offspring enjoy nearly the fame rights of inheritance with legitimate children. If the flave be the property of one of the ladies of the Harem, whether purchafed, or received as a prefent, her perfon is regarded, in de- cency, as almoft equally facred with that of a daughter of the family, and an injury done her, would be deemed a high affront to her miftrefs.
The flaves deftined for the bed, are recommended more by their beauty and perfonal attractions, than their domeftic qualifications; and their future fortune depends on various accidents. When brought into the Harem
of
HAREM, ATO VALEPPO. 269
a Nt
of a young voluptuary, the new favorite, after triumph- ¢ # a te ing in a pleafing dream of envied pre-eminence, foon ee finds herfelf reduced to the fame ftate with the neglected females fhe had fupplanted ; and, if fhe brings no child, muft fometimes fubmit to the humiliating employment of attendance on happier rivals: or try her fortune, at the option of her mafter, in fome other family. When the young flave falls at firft to the lot of a bachelor, or of a man of fuitable age, who, having never had children, obtains his wife’s confent to take a concubine, fhe at once is well received, and not unfrequently forms a happy eftablifhment for life. But it too often is the fate of thofe orphan beauties, to fall the helplefs victims of wealthy age, caprice, and impotency ! They are doomed to bloom unfeen, and to wafte their prime in taftelefs luxury. The death of their jord releafes them at length from bondage; but their fhare of his fortune being in- adequate to the fupport of their accuftomed ftate, they find themfelves reduced to the neceflity of pafling the remainder of their days, in parfimonious folitude ; or, if they feek a connection by marriage in fome inferior rank, they become entangled in duties, for which their former idle way of life has but ill qualified them.
The girls belonging to the women, who are purchafed young, are brought up with care, and are fometimes honorably eftablifhed in the Harem; or, with confent of their miftrefs, perhaps are married to fome domeftic without doors: they, receive their freedom, and con-
tinue
270 OF THE TURKISH
Be ON tinue ufeful adherents to the family. But a large propor-
rae’ toil of thefe flaves remain for ever fingle; they follow the fortunes of their miftrefs, and though generally emancipated at her death, they retain a grateful attach- ment to her children.
When a perfon dies, his flaves (fuch as have born children excepted) become the property of his heirs : there are however certain degrees of confanguinity which exclude them from the bed of the fucceffor. The Grandees fometimes beftow flaves, who have had no child, on their favorite dependants, as a mark of regard; but it is ufually with confent of the woman, who, together with her freedom, receives a marriage portion. On the other hand, they are fometimes prefented with a virgin flave, by the rich merchants, or others who have occafion to cultivate court intereft; and when fuch ladies luckily become favorites, they often give proof of their gratitude, in the fervices rendered to the family of their firft patron.
The great men alfo make prefents of flaves to each other, but the cuftom is lefs common, and confidered as more dangerous. It has been made fubfervient to in- famous policy, by carrying murder into the moft facred recefles of domeftic fecurity ; and the lovelieft forms of female beauty, have fometimes, though perhaps often unjuftly, been fufpected of being made the cruel inftru- ments of the blackeft treachery.
A Bafhaw whom I had occafion to know at Aleppo,
in
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 271
in the year 1762, and who, within a few months after, c HAP. died Bafhaw of Cairo, was ftrongly fufpected of having —~—~ been poifoned by a beautiful flave, of whom he was extremely fond, and who had been prefented to him,
after he left Conftantinople, by the grand Vizir. I had
an opportunity afterwards of converfing with feveral of
his domeftic officers, and, from circumftances, was in- clined to believe, (what they did not) that his death, though fudden, was merely accidental. He had con- fulted me, before going to Cairo, on account of Vertigoes
to which he had been fubject for feveral years. He
was a young man of a plethoric habit, a fhort neck, in- temperate in his pleafures, and, having loft his mother
in an apoplexy, was ftrongly apprehenfive of dying of
that diftemper. A fit unfortunately feized him when
no other perfon but the flave was prefent.
Among people of rank, as well as the rich merchants, there are many who marry a flave in preference toa free woman; choofing to forego the pecuniary, and indeed all advantages of alliance, rather than fubmit to the conditions on which fuch females are obtained. A woman of birth, confcious of family confequence, is apt to be haughty and petulant, and her relations fometimes make it one of the marriage articles, that the hufband fhall not take another to his bed. At any rate, the apprehenfion of family refentment, lays him under a reftraint, not ex- perienced with a partner, whofe intereft it is anxioufly
to
272
OF (THE! TURKISH
BOOK to endeavour to cunciliate the affections of the man on ‘—+—~ whom is her fole dependence, and who poffeffes the
power of arbitrarily deferting her. ‘This fpirit of liberty, or rather of licentioufnefs, is faid to be more general at prefent than formerly, while the gratification of it is be- come more difficult, from the decreafe in the number of Georgian flaves brought into the Provinces. At the fame time it may be remarked, that the reftri¢tion to one woman, being only matter of private contract, not a religious precept, the article is often infringed, and, in confequence is productive of much domeftic uneafi- nefs.
It may be fufpected, where courtfhip can have no place till after poffeffion, or at leaft till after the obje& is within the power of the lover, that there can be little room for delicacy of fentiment ; and that, while the man led only by the coarfer paflion, neglects the arts of refined addrefs, the woman will regard with carelefs indifference, the infidelities which cuftom has fanétified, and which fhe can neither prevent, nor refent. The fufpicion may perhaps, in general be juft, with refped to the theory of love, in Turkey. The men pretend to defpife gallantry as frivolous, nor is the imagination of either fex perverted by the fictions of Romance. Neverthelefs, in the courfe of a more intimate acquaint- ance with individuals, I was juftified in the belief, that nature herfelf dictates a namelefs refinement of paffion,
which
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 273
which often renders them reftlefs, or difcontented, and c H AP. fhows that fomething more is wanting to the perfection —~—~ of luxury, than the mere power over paflive beauty.
On the other hand, though defertion on the man’s part, does not reflect much difhonor on the woman, yet a certain fenfibility makes her often feel feverely the unprovoked injury; and fhe laments, in fecret, a neg- leét which though fafhion may vindicate, it cannot fup- prefs the feelings of the human heart. The unufual attention beftowed on drefs, and the improved polith in manners, obfervable foon after marriage, in many of the Turkifh youth, is a tacit indication of a greater re- fpeét to the fex, than the profeffed principle of the men would feem to admit: while the faded cheek of forfaken beauty, with a long train of chronic ailments, confequent to indulged melancholy, are proofs, too frequently met with, of that female fenfibility, which flowly confumes the fpirits, and expofes the bloom of youth to the canker of hidden grief.
The inftances now alluded to, though not uncommon, are to be confidered as exceptions to the regular in- fluence of cuftom, which renders the fex patiently re- figned to the inconftancy of their hufband; or fubjects them only to tranfient fits of refentment. The flaves who have intruded on others, have little pretence to murmur at the man’s divided affection, and appear con- tented in fharing it in common with the reft. The wives find it their intereft to be filent, and when not
WoL. I. Nn deprived
27 4
OF THE TYURKIS
BOOK deprived of their legal claim on the hufband, truft “—~— rather to acquiefcence than remonftrance. It is fortu-
nate for both when they happen to have children to en- gage the mother’s attention ; fhe to them, transfers her love, and anxious tendernefs, and, for their fakes, con- tinues officioufly to cultivate the good will of the father, though without hope of his returning paflion.
For fome time after marriage, the young man of family, is confined folely to his wife ; it is not till further advanced in life, or till he comes into pofleffion of the father’s eftate, that he avails himfelf of the right of polygamy. A prevailing notion that pleafure can only be found in variety, naturally prevents his beftowing much pains on the cultivation of a paflion, which is likely to attach him to a fingle object. It however, fometimes happens, that he is entangled unawares ; and it is far from uncommon, in the great Harems, to find the man’s affections engrofled by one lady, while the vifits he is under an obligation of paying to the others, ferve only to convince him of the difference between mere defire and fond affection. Ihave been told, by the men them- felves, inftances of what they called extravagant paffion, which they had experienced at different times of life, and which they ingenuoufly confeffed, had rendered them fo foolifhly fubmifhive to the woman, that they were heartily afhamed of their weaknefs. It is curious alfo to obferve, in a fituation where pecuniary or other
motives can have no influence, how little beauty feems to
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. a715
to be regarded, in determining the man’s choice. It is cH». often remarked that ladies who have pretenfions but to-—~—~ few perfonal charms, are preferred to the moft graceful
and engaging forms ; and the examples are numerous of lafting connexions, formed with the plaineft women in
the Harem.
Nn 2 CITA P,
CoA. Po NE
OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.
POLYGAMY. — DIVORCE, —INTERIOR GECONOMY OF THE HAREM.— MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.--COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE OF CONNU- BIAL HAPPINESS IN TURKEY.—WOMEN SELDOM INTERFERE IN POLITICS.—RESPECT PAID THEM IN PUBLIC.—POLYGAMY, AS IT RE- SPECTS POPULATION.—CHILDBED CEREMONIES.—FUNERAL CERE- MONIES. — THE WULWALY, OR DIRGE.—VISITATION OF THE SE- PULCHRES.
i ee ‘Tue Mohammedan limitation of Polygamy, has
“~— been ftrangely mifreprefented by many European writers; and, though clearly expreffed in the Koran, is mifunderftood even by many of the natives in Turkey: it being a vulgar notion that the law grants permiffion to marry four wives, and to keepas great a number of con- cubines, or female flaves, as the individual can afford to maintain. But however the practice of fome men may feem to juftify this opinion, it is a fact well known to the more informed Turks, that the number fhould not exceed four women, whether wives or concubines’.
* Note LXXII. Not-
OF THE TURKISH HAREM, an9
Notwithftanding the legal fanction of Polygamy, a° #4 ?. great majority of the people have only one wife. A‘~~~ very fmall number of the lower clafs have more than one, and though many may be found in the middle rank, who have two, or perhaps one wife and a concubine, ftill the number is comparatively fmall. It is in the upper ranks of life, where luxury of every kind abounds, that people chiefly indulge in thefe privileges; and there, while few have more than two, or at moft three wives at once, many retain five or fix flaves, befides their wives: fome are even found, who, availing themfelves of an affluent fortune, and a toleration hardly deemed {candalous, have from ten to twenty ladies, in their Harem, deftined to their pleafures ”.
The Harems confifting of fo great a number of wo- men, are never, or at leaft feldom, the property of very young men, but have been gradually increafed in the courfe of many years, and confequently the ladies who have been introduced at different periods, are of very different ages. Some have paffed the time of further pretenfions ; fome have long been deferted from dif- guft, others neglected from caprice; and, in general,
2 «« T have known fome of great opulence who have kept forty women, ** exclufive of thofe employed in the menial offices of the family.”
This paffage in the former edition, I have transferred from the text, and in its ftead inferted a number lefs extraordinary, at Aleppo. One of the inftances alluded to by my brother was (I believe) a certain Bafhaw, named Koor Vizir, but I never heard of another inftance after my brother left the country.
there
278
OF THE! TURKISH
Bo ox there are few only who continue to be regularly vifited. “——~ They are all properly maintained, though not in the
fame degree of fplendor as the temporary favorite, but fuch as have borne children claim particular refpect. The Grandees who once give into this luxury, ufually perfift in it throughout life, and continue to the laft to purchafe young victims, when, befides oftentation, no motives can be fuppofed to remain, except fuch only as actuate dotage.
The expenfe of thefe great Harems is confiderable- The female apparel and jewels are material articles ; it being requifite for the fake of domeftic peace, to pre- ferve a certain equality in the prefents of that kind, cuftomarily made at the Byram. ‘Their table is more frugal than that of the men, but, including the articles of coffee, tobacco, and the maintenance of a numerous train of fervants, is certainly expenfive. This confider- ation reftrains many of the people of condition from keeping very large Harems; and, in the inferior ranks, a great proportion are deterred from Polygamy, by the inability of fupporting the expentfe.
It may in part alfo be afcribed to frugal confideratiuns, that divorces, which are fo eafily obtained, are not more common among the middling people. For, not to mention other inconveniences, the woman when divorced (particular cafes excepted) reclaims her dowery; and if
the hufband fhould choofe to marry another, it is at- tended
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 279
tended with new expenfes. In the fuperior ranks of life, c HAP, divorces are likewife rare; the mediation of relations, —-~—~ and the reciprocal intereft of the parties, unite to pre-
vent a feparation, from which the hufband is likely to derive no advantage that he might not obtain on eafier terms: he can take another wife, or purchafe a new
flave.
Though the man, on very flight pretences, can legally get rid of his wife, fhe on her part, except in a few par- ticular cafes, cannot obtain a divorce without rifk of lofing her dowery.
The parties feparated in this manner, may legally come together again, within a ftated period. Should the man repent of what he has done, any time before the expiration of three months, the power of taking the woman back, refts with him; but fhould he permit that period. to elapfe, without declaring his intention, the woman may then refufe her confent, and is free to marry whom and when fhe pleafes. The power however of the man is limited to two divorces; for if he divorce her a third time, he cannot again take her back till fhe fhall have confummated a marriage with another man, by whom, after the term prefcribed by the Koran, fhe muft be legally divorced. This form of divorce, is termed Tilak b’al tlata; and a man may at once, by one fentence, fubject himfelf to the condition attached to it; that is, render the woman unlawful to him, till fhe has been married to another man. None of the Mohammedan
cuftoms
280 OF THE TURKISH
BOOK cuftoms have been more grofsly mifreprefented than this
‘———~ triplicate divorce. All divorces go through certain forms at the Mahkamy, or at leaft muft be confirmed by witnefles.
The hufband’s power of divorce, and of felling, or arbitrarily quitting his flaves, may partly account for the maintenance of authority, amid the jealoufies, and rival interefts in a great Harem. Other circumftances con- tribute alfo to the prefervation of domeftic quiet +.
The wives, and the principal flaves, have each their ref{pective apartments and attendants; their kitchen is in common, but they keep feparate tables ; they vifit each other, and cultivate intimacy as fancy leads them. They receive their relations in their own apartments, and feparately return the vifits: it is on particular occafions only that all the ladies of the fame Harem affemble, or are invited abroad together.
If the Harem be the fole property of one perfon, the firft wife is ufually called Sit il kebeery*, the great lady,
> Note LXXiIT.
* «Tt may appear {trange how fuch a number (of women) fhould agree ‘© tolerably well together ; and in fact the mafter of the family hath very «« frequently enough to do to keep the peace among them.” Former edition p. I10.
The difficulty here hinted was (fo far as I could obferve) found lefs in the very large Harems, than in the fmaller, where the women lived more together.
; ona ew
and
HAREM) ATS ALEPPO. 281
and claims a certain degree of refpect from all the reft. c HAP. But it fometimes happens (efpecially among the riche~—~ merchants) that the Harem, being fpacious, is inhabited at the fame time by a father, and feveral married fons 3 or by the brothers, with their families, after the father’s death. In the firft cafe, the right of Sit is conceded to the wife of the father; in the fecond, it continues with the widow, or elfe is affumed by the wife of the elder brother. By this regulation, though not invariably ob- ferved, many contefts are obviated about precedency ; and deference to her opinion being founded on national cuftom, her power, on a variety of occafions, is ufefully exerted. A Turkifh matron, viewed in this light, when placed at the head of a numerous family, and fuccefsful in her adminiftration, is in truth a moft refpectable per- fonage: and there were many at Aleppo, juftly entitled to this character. Her death is generally followed by a migration of the younger branches of the family ; the increafe of children renders it neceffary alfo to move into feparate houfes: but, in either cafe, a fociable in- tercourfe is maintained among the kindred.
The Turks in general induce their children to marry at an early period. Alliances among the opulent, are fometimes projected by the parents, in the infancy of the parties, and concluded when they come of age. The young people may, in that cafe, have had an opportunity
WoL. Oo of
282
OF THE! TURKISE
BOOK of feeing each other in childhood, but it more ufually
oman happens that they are mutually ftrangers.
It is one of the cuftomary compliments paid a lady in childbed, to wifh fhe may live to rejoice at the wed- ding of her infant. As foon as the boy approaches the age of puberty, the mother becomes anxioully defirous to fee him marry; and if no arrangement has already been made, fhe engages the affiftance of her female ac- quaintance to find a fuitable bride. The Bagnios, the gardens, and other ceremonious occafions which affem- ble the women, afford the girls opportunities of being feen by their own fex. ‘The female pedlers are excel- lent fpies, and the mother and her friends; are feldom at a lofs for ftratagems to gain admittance to Harems, with which they are not acquainted, if the young woman they have heard of, is not to be feen at other places. The men truft the whole of this matter to their female relations, and rely on the fidelity of the report ; for it rarely happens that they are deceived: at leaft it is never attempted to conceal from the man any vifible defect of the woman.
When a young lady, with the requifite qualifications, is found, and there is a probability of effecting a match, the propofal is intimated to the mcther, and, if not at once rejected, the friends on both fides take fome time to make more particular inquiries. Should the refult
of thefe prove fatisfactory, the lady is then formally de-
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 283
demanded of her parents, by the father of the young cHar. man. Matters being brought thus far, each of the —~—~ parties, in the prefence of witnefles, appoints a fubfti-
tute to give affent to conditions; for though the man fometimes appears for himfelf, the woman’s confent is ufually given by proxy.
The proxies, at a meeting with feveral of the male relations, adjuft the fum to be paid to the bride’s father, with other articles of the marriage contract; and an Imam, or Sheih, who attends and draws up the con- tract, demands of the one proxy if he be willing to take the woman for wife, and to pay fuch a certain fum by way of portion; of the other, whether he alfo be con- tented. An anfwer in the affirmative being returned by both, the Sheih takes a hand of each, joins them together, and pronounces a fhort benediction, as cuftomary on the confirmation of a bargain. A purfe containing, or fup- pofed to contain, the ftipulated money, is then delivered to the bride’s father ; the contract is regularly figned and fealed, and the ceremony concludes with the Sheih’s reading fome verfes from the Koran. Upon the contract thus legally executed, the Cady grants his licence for the marriage, which is written either on the back of the contract, or on a feparaie paper, and fealed at the top
by the Cady. If either of the parties be Shereefs, the Nakeeb alfo affixes his feal °.
* A copy of a marriage contra& with the Cady’s licence, may be feen in
Note LXXIY. Oo 2 It
284 OF THE TURKISH
BOOXk It now remains with the bridegroom to fix a day for
——~— the reception of his bride ; and, in the mean while, pre- parations are made for the approaching feftival. Invita- tions are fent to the male relations and acquaintance, from the bridegroom. Bafhaws, Cadys, and others in high ftations, fend invitations to every perfon of diftinc- tion, even to the European confuls; for all who are in- vited, whether they go or not to the feaft, accompany their congratulations with a prefent. Thofe made by the Europeans confift of vefts of cloth, brocades, or other rich ftuffs, for female apparel, and of fweetmeats. In- vitations are fent from the Harem to the women, and the nofegays employed on that occafion, are decorated with tinfel.
The female relations of the bride begin ten days be- fore the wedding to invite her to the Bagnio, and take it in turn to entertain her there almoft every day’, till the one immediately preceding the nuptials, when they defift, in order to have time for applying the henna *. It is a neceflary part of ornament that the ladies of both families, the children and fervants, as well as all the female guefts invited, fhould have the henna applied frefh
for the occafion. During this time, rejoicings are made
’ This, from the frequent ablution, is termed Hummam Ghumra ax sé, and the Depilatory (page 132) is applied for the firft time on one of thofe days.
* Page 108.
at
HAREM) lA TVALEPPO,
at the bridegroom’s houfe, from whence fweetmeats, or © #.
285
A P.
other delicacies are fent as prefents to the houfe of the “~~
bride. On the evening of the laft day, a fupper is fent, which, in allufion to the application of the henna, is called Afhy Nukfhy.
To the money paid by the bridegroom, it is cuftomary for the bride’s father to add a fum proportionate to his own circumftances, the whole of which is laid out in apparel and jewels for the bride, and in furniture for her apartment. Thefe conftitute the wife’s paraphernalia, and, three days before that of the wedding, are fent, oftentatioufly difplayed on feveral mules, to the houfe of the bridegroom.
Though it is always cuftomary, at Aleppo, for the father to make an addition to what is paid by the bride- groom, and to lay it out for the benefit of his daughter, the cafe is different among the Bidoween inhabitants, and in the villages; for there, the father ufually retains a part of what he received for his daughter. In this fenfe they may with more propriety than in the other, be faid to fell their daughters’.
On the nuptial day, the women go in proceffion from the bridegroom’s houfe, to fetch the bride, who is brought home amid the acclamation of the women, ac- companied by her mother, and feveral other female
* Note LXXIV. relations.
286
OF THE \TURKASH
spook relations. The proceflion is always in the day time JOC C u+—~ and ufually about three in the afternoon; but, at
Aleppo, they do not carry tapers, as defcribed by fome travellers. Certain appropriate ftanzas, by way of ept- thalamium, are chanted by women hired on purpofe, or by flaves, and the ziraleet ferves as a general chorus. On their arrival at the houfe, the women, in exultation, take poffeflion of the Harem, and fpend the remainder of the day in feafting. A hired band of mufick con- tinues playing inceffantly, and fuch of the women as have good voices frequently join in the concert. In a ftill evening, in the beginning of fummer, which is a fafhion- able feafon for marriage, rejoicings may be heard in every quarter of the city.
A wedding is one of the principal opportunities the women have of difplaying their wardrobe; for which reafon they bring varieties of apparel along with them, and change their drefs perhaps two or three times in the courfe of four and twenty hours. ‘The matrons, who are not familiarly acquainted, treat one another with much formal ceremony ; but the younger part of the affembly indulge in various innocent gambols. The bride ° remains all the while placed at the upper end of
» The bride in Arabic is called Aroofe , 5S The bridegroom Areefe On yo Thefe words, in common difcourfe at Aleppo, are never ufed in- differently, though in the Lexicons made of the common gender. A wed- ing is called Urfe rye
a large
HAREM UAT S ALEPPO.
287
a large apartment, veiled in red gauze, and, with her CHAP. eyes modeftly fixed on the ground, preferves frit ——~
filence.
The men feaft in the outer apartments, and have alfo bands of mufic; but their mirth is lefs clamorous than that of the women, it being only among the ordinary clafs that the men join their voices in chorus.
When bed time approaches, the bridegroom being drefled in frefh apparel, goes in proceflion through the court-yard, attended by all the company. He is pre- ceded by mufic, and the attendants at intervals make loud fhouts of exultation as they march'®. ‘They leave him at the door of the Harem, where he is. received by his female relations, who conduét him towards the ftair leading to the bride’s chamber; which is ufually above ftairs, and is termed Marubba al Aroofe, the women now redouble the ziraleet, and fome of them dance and fing before him.
The bride covered with her gauze veil, and fupported by fome of her own relations, appears at the top of the ftairs, by the time he arrives at the bottom. She is. dreffed in her wedding garment, her hair braided with flowers and tinfel, and, if very young, flips of leaf gold are fome times ftuck on her face. The refpective at-
*° The fhout at a diftance refembles the Englifh Huzza though not the fame. Note LXXIV, tendants,.
288
OF (‘THE TTURKISH
BOOK tendants, for fome minutes, pretend to hinder either of If: . . ° “—~— the parties advancing, thofe of the bridegroom infifting,
as it were, that the bride ought to come down to receive her hufband, while the others, on her fide, contend that he ought to come up to her: but, matters being at laft compromifed, they meet half way on the ftairs, and the bridegroom recondu¢ting her to the nuptial chamber, the relations bid the young couple farewel, and leave them together.
The mufic, which had ceafed during this time, re- commences, and the women, refuming their places on the Divan, remain finging and feafting till morning. Some of the men retire to fleep at their own houfes,
others, of the family, make the beft fhift they can, in the
outer apartments; for the female guefts entirely poffefs the Harem.
If the marriage is confummated the firft night, the Urfe properly finifhes the next day, and the bride’s relations, who had attended her, return to their homes ; the reft of the guefts of courfe do the fame: but other- wife the relations, and fome of the other ladies, re- main".
The nuptial rejoicings laft feveral days; open houfe is kept, and the men entertain a fucceflion of company. The women alfo are bufily employed, and receive con- gratulatory vifits from many who were not invited to
* Note LXXIV. the
a
HAREM, AT ALEPPO.
io] hk
89
the wedding. It is a fortnight or three weeks, about ©# A P.
which period the bride is ufually conducted in ceremo- “~~
ny to the bath, before the Harem refumes its ordinary tranquillity.
There is no other occafion on which the people of the Eaft difplay fo feftive a fpirit, and fuch prodigal ex- penfe, as on the marriage of their children, efpecially of the eldeft fon. The cuftom claims the fanétion of high antiquity, and is obferved not only in cities, but alfo in the villages, and in the camps of the wandering tribes of Syria; but this is to be underftood of the firft mar- riage of the man with a free woman; the fubfequent marriages are celebrated in a manner lefs coftly, and thofe with flaves, with little or no fplendor.
It may be doubted whether the opulent Turks, in proportion to their wealth, are not lefs profufe in this refpect than the Jews and Chriftians; but, in regard to the middling people of every denomination, it is certain that the expenfe lavifhed on their marriage feafts, is ex- travagant, beyond all proportion to their condition. The female apparel and jewels are likewife fumptuous, much above the fortunes of the perfons who wear them. They confift of ftrings of zechins, or other gold coins; gold bracelets and necklaces, of plain workimanfhip, and rings; and in the higher ranks, of diamonds, pearls, and trinkets of confiderable value *.
* Page 107. Vou. I. P P It
290
BiO10 K II.
OF THE TURKISH
It fhould however be remarked, that as fafhions fel-
“~— dom change, the fine clothes laft for many years, and
the jewels retain almoft for ever their firft value. They are the abfolute property of the wife, not legally aliena- ble but with her formal confent, and often prove the fole provifion for the widow and her children. ‘They are aNo a refource in times of neceflity, which is frequently productive of much domeftic unhappinefs: for if the wife fhould prudently refufe to pledge her trinkets, the hufband, when entreaty cannot prevail, has recourfe to harfh ufage. Nor is this mode of tyranny confined. to. the middle ranks, the Grandees are alfo guilty of it on emergencies, but have lefs difficulty in obtaining the woman’s confent. Their wives, being poffeffed of a fuperfluity of jewels, feel lefs from parting for a time with fuch as lie unufed in their cafket; whereas the woman of inferior rank, who is accuftomed to drefs every day in all her trinkets, cannot fhow herfelf, with- out betraying the neceflity which obliged her to refign them: a circumftance which obliges her either to re- main at home, or, if under the obligation of going to the Bagnio, to borrow the trinkets of a neighbour. By this means, female vanity has been brought to co-operate with difcretion, in the prefervation of what is fo neceffary to the fupport of the woman, after the death of her huf- band.
HARE, JA TAALEERBO.
29
It is difficult for a mere fpectator, even in countries © 11 4 P. where ftrangers are admitted to familiar intercourfe, to ‘~~
form a juft eftimate of conjugal happinefs. The married ftate, in Turkey, would, at firft, feem to be divefted of fome of it’s moft elegant and endearing attributes. The ftately hufband fits down to his folitary meal, furrounded by females, condemned by cuftom to fervile attendance at his board, though the chofen partners of his bed, and entitled to his tendereft attentions. He is treated with reverential ceremony, and maintains an aufterity in his own demeanour, difcouraging to the lively fallies of eafy cheerfulnefs. The moft intimate acquaintance carries no privilege of admiflion to thofe focial, domeftic hours, where the wife, graceing the feaft, adds dignity to her hufband, by her attention to his friends; while thofe female powers which confpire to polifh the manners, and enliven fociety, languifh from want of exercife, and are little cultivated. But thefe, and many other cir- cumftances, which European imaginations will readily fuggeft, make little impreffion on perfons, who, having never been taught to confider them as requifites to hap- pinefs, can hardly be fuppofed to repine at not pofleffing them. More refined pleafures, enjoyed in freer coun- tries, have their correfpondent pains, and the indolent Turk is content in his ignorance of both.
If fome allowance of this kind be made, the conjugal ftate may perhaps in general be deemed not lefs happy in Turkey, than im other countries. The women,
P pe ftrangers
292 OF THE TURKISH
BOOK ftrangers to the courtefy of European manners, are ac-
‘“—~— cording to their own notions, treated with a civility, from which tendernefs is not wholly abfent'*. Circum- ftances infeparable from humanity, give them import® ance in the Harem. As the family increafes, the mother’s care becomes of more and more confequence; and the Turks, who are by no means deficient in parental affection, efteem and cherifh the domeftic vir- tues, on which fo much of their own quiet, as well as the welfare of their children, neceffarily depends. Where affection fails on the man’s part, habit ftill retains its power ; appearances are preferved, and the rifk, efpeci- ally in fmall Harems, of difturbing domeftic peace, is a bar to the introduction of a rival. In age, the women are refpected by the hufband, or find confolation and fupport in their children; and as the majority of the people have but one wife, few, in proportion, fuffer the mortification of total neglect.
That the parties before marriage are ftrangers to each other, a circumftance of all others the moft irreconcilable to European prejudices, unpropitious as it may feem in fpeculation, is fhown by experience to be of lefs confe- quence, than can well be conceived by an European. The effentials requifite to connubial happinefs are every where, though under different modifications, nearly the
* A paflage in the former edition which may appear not confonant, if not contradictory, to what is afferted above, requires fome explanation. Note LXXV.
fame ;
HAREM,) (AT! + ALEPPO. 293
fame ; and in number perhaps fewer than over weening c HAP. delicacy would make them. It muft be granted, that a-~~ couple till then unacquainted, find eres at the
firft interview, in a fituation which fanctifies the moft unbounded intimacy ; and no doubt the punctilio of the
fex fuffers more violence, than where a feries of name:
lefs attentions have long preceded: but it foon becomes
the endeavour of both, under the impulfe of nature, and
of national cuftom, to realize their refpective precon- ceptions ; and, moderate in expectation, they do not in- duftrioufly, render their condition unhappy, by ideal refinements which lead to. inconftancy and difcontent.
The matrimonial conjunction of oppofite tempers, is not eonfined to Turkey; nor does there feem to be in fa&
a greater proportion of domeftic unhappinefs, fairly im- putable to that caufe, than what may be found in coun-
tries where both fexes enjoy the ineftimable privilege of
free choice, grounded on a previous intimacy.
The women do not appear to interfere much in mat- ters belonging to the man’s province, whether of a private or public nature. They have for the moft part little am- bition to become confidants, and know very litile of their hufband’s affairs. The Grandees are fometimes, but not often, folicited through the Harem, and it is then confined either to domeftic promotions, or to interceffion for offenders: it does not extend to the ordinary courfe of political intrigue. This however is to be underftood
of
204. OF THE TURKISH
BLOLOLK of Aleppo, where the exceptions are rare. In fome of Somes diftant Provinces, where the Bafhaws remain fixed for feveral years, the cafe is different. The daughter of Ahmet Bafhaw of Bagdat, was married to his fucceffor Solyman Bafhaw, and her power chiefly fupported him. She tranfacted public bufinefs through a female Kehia, and gave audiences. ‘The Franks at Bagdat, on certain occafions, made application to the Harem, and I have feen letters on bufinefs from her, addrefled to the conful of Aleppo. The condition of the women, in Syria, is at prefent very different from what it was under the Mamaluke government, if what is related by fome of the early travellers be true ¥ Without doors, they are now treated with diftant re- fpect; a well bred Turk never gazes on them as they pafs in the ftreet, but turns his head another way, or cafts his eyes on the ground. No provocatiun juttifies laying hands on them; and, being liable only to verbal reproof, they walk about in times of popular infurre¢tion, without apprehenfion of infult: fome indeed, of the inferior clafs, occafionally exercife their tongue in lan- guage fo intemperately abufive, that it is wonderful to fee even the boifterous Janizaries fubmit to it. It was a ftory recent at Aleppo in the year 1750, that, during the war with Nader Shah, certain troops, who in their way to the frontiers halted fome days in
"> Note LXXVI. the
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 295
the city, refufing to quit their quarters at the appointed c HAP. time, were fairly driven out by a mob of women, armed —~—~ with diftaffs and ftones.
Soon after the beginning of the Ruffian war, in (1769) the Greenheads, taking advantage of the abfence of the Bafhaw and the Janizaries, who were gone to the camp, ufurped the government of the city, took poffef- fion of the gates, and obliged their whole order to take up arms. It was remarkable, at this time, with what intrepidity the old women ventured to revile the rebels, who were day and night parading in arms, through the public ftreets. The women feemed to have nothing ta fear, except when the infurgents were intoxicated with liquor. Amid this anarchy and confufion, which con- tinued many weeks, nothing raifed fuch univerfal horror, as a few inftances of the rebels breaking forcibly into the Harems, in order to fearch for the mafter of the houfe, who had declined joining them.
Criminals implore mercy in the name of the Harem, as the moft powerful mode of fupplication; and the bittereft contumely to a man, is that thrown. out againft his women. ‘The officers of juftice do not prefume to enter the door of a Harem, but in the prefence of the Sheih of the diftri€t, and even then they muft allow time for the women to veil. ‘Thefe privileges, not reftricted to the Turkifh women, are equally enjoyed by the Chrif- tians and Jews.
Whether,
296
BOOK It:
OF THE TURKISH
Whether, in Syria, polygamy is found by experience
“——’ favourable to population, is a queftion of intricate dif
cuffion. In a country where fo little attention is paid to political arithmetic, it becomes next to impoflible to ebtain the fats neceflary for forming a juft eftimate: al] therefore that, in fuch circumftances, can be collected from cafual obfervation, will do little more than juftify mere conjecture.
In the great Harems, the number of children, com- pared with that in families of inferior rank, appeared to be fmall, in proportion to the number of women im- mured. ‘The people of condition marry at an earlier period than others, and, in circumftances to indulge intemperatély, are often enervated by the time they are thirty: an event perhaps precipitated by the ufe of hot, ftimulating remedies, to which on the firft fymptoms of debility, they imprudently have recourfe. The women, when married extremely young, that is about twelve or thirteen, are fubject to frequent abortions, in confequence of which their conftitutions are fo much impaired, that they either ceafe breeding altogether, about the age of twenty one, or they remain barren for an interval of feveral years. Even thofe who marry at the more ufual age, between fourteen and feventeen, though lefs fubject to abortion, are apt in like manner, where they happen to have brought two or three children, before their twenty third year, to ceafe child-bearing’ for a long fucceeding interval.
With
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 297
With refpect therefore to the great Harems, it was c HAP. in general remarked, that few of the women brought--~—~ more than two or three children; fome had frequent abortions, others remained for ever barren, and none of them (fpeaking in general) bore fo great a number as the married women in the inferior ranks of life. It may further be remarked, that after a flave has borne one or two children, fhe often is deferted in the prime of life, to make room for a new favorite; while the men, in confequence of this licentious indulgence, become early in life incapable of propagation: or at leaft one only, out of feveral women, is found pregnant. The conjugal duty prefcribed by the Koran, is evaded under various elufive pretexts ; and rambling fenfuality is unpropitious to the increafe of mankind.
The above obfervations, fo far as they go, may aflift in forming an opinion of polygamy, as it regards the higher ranks of life: with refpect to the others, its effects are perhaps more doubtful. ‘The firft wife may either be fuppofed abfolutely barren, or to ceafe child bearing after two or three births. “he man, in that cafe, may take a fecond, or, fhe failing, a third wife, and thus increafe his family, beyond what could be ex- pected from the firft: the fame may be faid of flaves, where one or two prove barren. Here it may plaufibly be fuppofed, that polygamy is favorable to propagation; and, in fact, the families under the circumftances fup- pofed, are found to have more children, than thofe where
Vou. I. Qgq there
298
OF THE TURKISH
BOOK there is no more than one fruitful woman. But families —~— of fuch a defcription are proportionally rare ; for where
the man’s paffion leads to variety, and his circumftances enable him to gratify it, the love of pleafure ufually pre- vails over the defire of progeny, and he is reduced by excefs to the fame condition with the voluptuaries in high life.
The impotence of the men is often afcribed to forcery; in which unfortunate fituation, beng deemed Murboot't, or tyed, they have recourfe to various fuperftitious modes of loofening the charm. ‘This notion, however abfurd, is univerfally received, and ferves greatly to ageravate the diftrefs of fuch as happen, from other caufes, to be enervated: it has fometimes fo great influ- ence on the imagination of even young men, when firft married, as to render them effectually impotent for many days °°.
That the number of children, in the great Harems, is fmall in proportion to the number of women, is a fact fo notorious, that the Chriftians and Jews pretend it is owing to certain means, ufed either to prevent conception, or to procure abortion’. The imputation is certainly not altogether groundlefs; though moft of the medicines employed for that purpofe are of little
efficacy. Nor is it probable that they fhould be applied,
44 Logins *s Note LXXVIL. ** Note LAXVIII.
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 299
by married women, till after the birth of feveral children, HAP. when the apprehenfion of too numerous a progeny, may —~—~ be fuppofed to infpire the abominable defire of defeat-
ing the purpofe of nature. It may alfo be remarked
that abortions are moft frequent in the beginning of marriage, when, the means of preventing them are anxioufly fought after; and that the practice, intimated above, is chiefly imputed to thofe who cannot plead poverty in alleviation of the crime.
It is the univerfal wifh of the women to have children. Through them they are endeared to the hufband, and in them find fupport in the decline of life. But this wifh has certain bounds; repeated births fo much im- pair their conftitution, and fo large a fhare, in the trou- ble of rearing children, devolves on them, that after they have brought two or three boys, they are naturally in- duced to wifh for a refpite, and under fuch circum- ftances, might perhaps be impelled to take any fafe medicine to hinder conception. But it is fortunate that none fuch are boafted; all, (as well as the violent means of procuring abortion, practifed by the midwives), being fufpected of producing perpetual fterility, and therefore are feldom ufed.
The women have eafier labours than in the Northern regions ; owing perhaps to the frequent ufe of the bath, as well as to the mild climate ; for in the latter months of pregnancy, they go very oiten to the Bagnio.
2 q 2 They
300
BOOK II
OF THE TURKISH
They are ufually delivered in the prefence of their own
“~— mother, fome near relations, and feveral females of the
family. The bed is made in one of the large apart- ments, and the Nifsa, (for fo the woman is called as foon as delivered) being placed in it, is conftantly fur- rounded by attendants and vifitants, who talk loud, drink coffee, and fmoke tobacco, without the leaft confidera- tion of her condition. “The window curtains are never let down, except to prevent the fun darting directly on the bed; for they have as little idea of the propriety of darkening the room, as they have of preferving filence and quiet.
The Nifsa fits up in bed fupported with cufhions. Her head is dreffed, and a large printed muflin handker- chief is fpread over her neck and bofom, two corners being faftened behind the ears. In this ftate fhe receives her vifitants, each making a fet compliment, and pre- fenting a flower; and it being expected from her to re- turn an anfwer to each feparately, fhe is often under the neceflity of talking a great deal more than fhe would choofe.
If the child be a male (efpecially the firft born) the crowd of vifitants is intolerable ; mu‘icians alfo are in- troduced, and the women indulge their noify merriment as ufual. This abfurd practice is fometimes attended by bad confequences ; but 10 rhetoric can prevail againtt it, unlefs the Nifsa happens to be dangeroulfly ill; flight child bed diforders not being regarded. When the
child
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 301
child is a female they are more moderate in their re-C HAP. joicings, there is no. mufic, and fewer meflages of con--—~—~ gratulation.
The pagan Arabs had an inhuman cuftom of deftroy- ing their female children; to which the following paf- fage from the Koran makes allufion. ‘* And when any *¢ of them is told the news of the birth of a female, his *s face becometh black, (clouded with confufion and for- ‘“‘ row) and he is deeply afflicted: he hideth himfelf ‘“‘ from the people becaufe of the ill tidings that have ‘been told him; confidering within himfelf, whether “he fhall keep it with difgrace, or whether he fhall “ bury it in the duft*’.”. The cuftom was abolifhed by Mohammed; but the birth of a female, ftill feems to blacken the faces of the family.
It is a common notion among the natives, that more girls are born than boys; and to judge from the number of girls vifible in the ordinary houfes, a ftranger might be led at once to think the notion juft. The fact how- ever is doubtful, at leaft as far as I was able to learn. It fhould be obferved that a number of the boys, from the age of fix or feven years, are employed in the filk and cotton manufactures, by which means they are lefs feen than the girls of the fame age, except at the hours of their going and returning from work. I was inclined to
*7 Koran, chap. xvi. p. 218. Sale Prel. Dif. p. 131. think
302 OF THE TURKISH
80 think that the difference in the proportion of males and
“—-—~ females born in Syria, is not fo confiderable as to be of material confequence in the queftion of the natural ex- pedience of polygamy *’.
The women of condition keep their bed fix days; but on the feventh it is cuftomary to remove it, and they then receive company fitting on the Divan. Between the fifteenth and twentieth day, they go in ceremony to the Bagnio. ‘The women of inferior rank quit their bed the fourth or fifth, thofe of the villages ftill fooner, and it is afirmed of the hardy Bidoweens, that they do not keep their bed at all. “The Arabs however, at Aleppo, are not fo robuft as M. D’Arvieux defcribes thofe of Paleftine to be, who are delivered on the road, or wherever they happen to be taken in labour, and taking up the child, after a fhort reft, they march on and wafh the infant at the firft fountain '9,
The mother for the moft part fuckles her child, unlefs prevented by ficknefs, want of milk, or fore nipples, to which diforder the women are very fubject. Among people of condition, an affiftant wet nurfe is fometimes called in; for during the firft year, the child is allowed little other nourifhment than milk; afterwards it has a little fpoon meat, and is permitted to gnaw a cruilt of
* Note LXXIX. "* Voyage dans la Paleft. p. 276. Note LXXX.
bread,
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 303
bread, a bit of cucumber, or the like. When there is c HAP. a neceility for configning the child entirely to a eer nurfe, fhe is kept conftantly in the Harem, under the mothez’s eye. ‘Che nurfes are either the wives of fome
of the domeftic fervants, or Bidoween women. ‘The child ts feldom kept lefs than two years at the breaft,
and fometimes three or four.
Two years is the term for nurfing, appointed by the Koran, in cafe of divorce. ‘‘ Mothers after they are ** divorced fhall give fuck unto their children two full ‘* years, to him who defireth the time of giving fuck *‘ fhould be completed, and the father fhall be obliged *¢ to maintain them and cloath them in the mean while. *« And the heir of the father fhall be obliged to do in “like manner. But if they chufe to wean the child ‘¢ before the end of two years, by common confent, and ‘6 on mutual confideration, it fhall be no crime in them. «¢ And if ye have a mind to provide a nurfe for your ‘¢ children it fhall be no crime in you, in cafe you fully ‘‘ pay what you offer her, according to that which is %jiath 7°.
One reafon given by the women for fuckling fo long, is their being lefs liable when nurfes to become preg- nant; but they are often difappointed in this expeéia- tion. They do not wean the child immediately on finding themfelves pregnant, but perfift to the fixth or
* Koran, chap. ii. p. 27.
feventh
304. OF THE TURKISH
BOOK feventh month before they refign it to a nurfe, and “—.—~ fometimes keep the child at the breaft during the whole time of pregnancy.
I have known inftances of women giving fuck not enly moft of the time, but during the whole of preg- nancy; and fometimes continuing to fuckle the former child, along with the new born infant. It was in women of the lower clafs, and where they had become pregnant very foon after delivery. Such extraordinary exertions however, foon deftroy the woman’s conftitution. The children alfo fuffer who are fuckled by a woman far gone in pregnancy; though, in the firft months, dif- orders in children are often afcribed to the pregnancy of the mother, which are rather owing to giving them crude fruit, or to the wregularitics of the nurfe in her own diet.
The child during the firft weeks is fwaddled, but afterwards is drefled in clothes which fit eafy, and are faftened at the fides with narrow tape. It is put into the cradle after the firft fortnight, and rocked by means of a ftring made faft at the upper part; but they have another kind of cradle fufpended in a frame, which, once put into motion, continues of itfelf to fwing for feme- time, like a hammock. ‘The Lullaby of the women is, of all things termed mufical, the moft unmelodious.
» Sireer is the word vulgarly ufed at Aleppo. li
AREM, HAREM, AT ALEPPO 305
It is not the cuftom to carry infants about, fo much as c HAP. in Europe. They are laid down on the Divan, or placed ~~ leaning on a cufhion, and left at liberty to crawl on the carpet, as foon as they are able. In this manner they are rather tardy in learning to walk, becaufe they foon acquire another mode of progreffion which an{wers all their purpofes. It confifts in fliding on their rump by the affiftance of their heels, which they do with aftonith- ing dexterity, and, as if protected by an intuitive fpirit, they feldom go fo near the edge of the Divan as to tumble down. The children when more grown up, are not carried abroad in the women’s arms, but placed aftride on the fhoulder**.. They are carried at an early period to the Bagnio, and in general are kept very clean. The manner of keeping them dry when infants is fingular *.
I fhall conclude this chapter with an account of the funeral ceremonies of the Turks, as pra¢tifed at Aleppo, in which the women perform a confpicuous part.
It is ufual when a perfon is deemed dangeroulfly ill, to have one or two Sheths to read portions of the Koran, and to pray by the bed fide. At the approach of death, the attendants turn the face of the fick perfon (who lies extended on his back) towards the Keblah, that is, to- wards Mecca*. ‘The inftant he expires, the women
* Note LXXXI.
7s Note LXXXII.
* Page 195.
mo. I. Rr who
306
OF THE TURKISH
BO 9K who are in the chamber, give the alarm, by fhrieking as
—Sq\y ee
if diftracted ; and are foon joined by all the other females in the Harem. This conclamation is termed the Wul-. waly *4; it is fo fhrill as to be heard, efpecially in the night, at a prodigious diftance ; and in the time of the plague is dreadfully alarming to the fick, as well as to thofe in health whom it aroufes from fleep. The men difapprove of and take no fhare in it; but know it is vain to interpofe: they drop a few tears, affume a refigned filence, and retire in private. Some of the near female relations when apprized of what has happen- ed, repair to the houfe, and the Wulwaly, which had paufed for fome time, is renewed upon the entrance of each vifitant, into the Harem.
The corpfe is kept no longer than is neceffary to complete the preparations for its interment, which fel- dom require more than a few hours. The firft cere- mony is the ablution of the body, performed by perfons whofe profeffion it is, and who repair to the houfe on the firft notice; bringing along with them a long wooden table, which is the public property of the diftrict. The corpfe, being laid upon this table, 1s wafhed feveral times with plain water, and afterwards with water in which camphor has been mixed, in {maller or greater propor-
* Wulwal Sigg or Say For fome remarks of the learned Schultens on this word, and a compari- fon of it with the ’oavavfew and "«raaalew of the Greeks, fee Note LX XXIII.
tion
HAREM, AT’ ALEPPO.
Boy
tion according to the condition of the deceafed. The ©# A? natural paffages are ftopped with cotton, to prevent the “~~
oozing of any moifture that might defile the body after ablution, and fome parts are fprinkled with a powder compofed of fpikenard and other Aromatic herbs. The ablution of females is performed by women. ‘The body, after purification, is wrapped up in a clean, white cotton, winding fheet, and laid in a bier of the ordinary fhape, the lid of which rifing a little on the fides forms a ridge in the middie. At the head of the bier is fixed a batoon, on which the man’s Turban, or the attire of the female head, is placed; the former the one worn in ordinary by the deceafed, the other a head drefs of obfolete fafhion, or fometimes only, ufed by very old women. It is round and flat like a trencher, and on this occafion, is covered with a white gauze handker- chief. Over the bier is thrown a black pall embroider- ed in the middle, and, fometimes enriched with a f{mal] remnant of the cover of the holy houfe of Mecca. Some of the deceafed’s beft wearing apparel is laid over all, and at the funerals of the youth of either fex, flow- ers are ftrewed on the bier.
The acquaintance, as well as kindred, of the deceaf- ed, attend the funeral proceflion, which proceeds in the following order. A number of old Sheihs with tattered banners, and repeating inceffantly Ullah, Ullah, in a humming tone, walk firft; mext comes the bier fur- rounded by other Sheihs, fome of whom, in a loud
Erez voice,
308
OF THE TURKISH
Boox Voice, chant certain verfes of the Koran: the bier is
II. . W4— carried by porters employed on purpofe, who are oc-
cafionally relieved by fuch perfons as think it meritori- ous to lend their affiftance. Immediately behind the bier, the male relations and acquaintance, waik in ranks, and after them, the women and female flaves, led by the chief mourner, who is by far the moft interefting figure. She advances fupported by two attendants, her hair difhevelled, and her veil flying loofely. She is bathed in tears, and by ftarts fends forth the moft difmal fhrieks, or in an agony of unutterable grief, fobs bitterly: then, as if frantic, fhe tears her hair, and beats her naked bo- fom; or with arms ftretched to their full length, clafping her hands together, and raifing them aloft, fhe feems filently to tax heaven with unkindnefs. Thefe a¢ts of extravagance are fometimes, but not always feigned. The tranfports of a mother following her only child to the grave, or of the widowed matron of a young family, carry expreffion that plainly fhows them te be not merely the feemings of forrow. Some of the other near rela- tions, like the profefled mourners hired to increafe the pomp, think it decent to exhibit tokens of exceffive erief, but the reft of the women walk calmly along, only joining at intervals in a general Wulwaly. In this order, the proceffion advances in a quick pace to the court yard of fome neighbouring Mofque, where, the bier being fet down, a funeral fervice is performed by the
Imam ;
HAREM?! ATITALEP?O. 309
Imam; after which, it proceeds, in the fame order as ¢ HAP. before, to the burial ground. + The corpfe, when taken out of the bier, is depofited in the grave in a reclining pofture, with the head to the Weft, and the face turned towards Mecca: the body being propped by fome earth laid behind. Flag ftones are then laid acrofs, to prevent the earth’s falling directly upon the body. ‘This done, the Imam, or Sheih, after a funeral fervice, takes up a handful of earth, and throws it into the grave; all who ftand near do the fame, pronouncing at the fame time a fhort benediction: after which the grave is filled up, and either covered with a flat ftone, or left bare *5. The graves are dug in an Eaft and Weft direction, and the fides are lined with ftone to the height of about two feet and a half, from the bottom. The flag ftones, fupported by the fides, reach acrofs, and cover the
* The fervice recited by the Imam, at the grave, is as follows. “ O «¢ man! from earth thou waft at firft created, and to the earth thou doft “‘ now return: this tranfitory abode being the firft ftep of thy progrefs “to the manfions of eternity. If in thy actions in life, thou haft been “ beneficent, God will pardon thy tranfgreffions; and if thou haft not, {till « the mercy of God has no bounds. But remember what thou didft profefs ‘< in this world, that God is thy Lord, and Mohammed thy Prophet—And «« thy belief in all the Prophets and Apoftles, and that God’s forgivenefs is «amply extended.”
The funeral fervice in ufe among the Kurdeen’s, is more laconic.
“* If thou haft taken away, thou fhalt reftore ; If thou haft given, it fhall <¢ be reftored to thee; And if thou doubteft this, Thou fhalt now be con- ‘* vinced.”
corpfe
310
OF \THEr TURKISH
BOOK corpfe before the earth is thrown in. A ftone is erected —~— at each end of the grave, on the top of one of which, a
Turban of rude fculpture is carved for the men, or the ancient female attire, for the women: ‘The other ftone terminates in a point. An Arabic infcription, contain- ing the name of the deceafed, and fome verfes from the Koran, is carved in relief, the letters being either gilt, or painted white, on an azure ground. This is the comnion form of the graves, which are fomewhat raifed, in the ufual way, from the furface, but not, as in Europe, covered with turf.
The fepulchres of founders of Mofques, of great men, or of holy Sheihs, are fometimes covered with a ftone Muftaby, over which is erected a cupola on four columns. Several fuch fepulchres may be feen beyond Damafcus gate, on the rifing grounds to the South Eaft of the town; and, interfperfed among the orchards on the fame fide, there are fome ancient Maufoleums of a ftructure more venerable, erected to the memory of eminent men. They are maffive buildings, enclofed on all fides, and have long infcriptions over the door, or on the front wall *°. Thefe make a tolerably handfome appear- ance, but in general the graves are diftinguifhed only by the vertical ftones, and, it being contrary to cuftom to break the ground again, in lefs than feven or eight years, the burial grounds occupy a large extent all round the
«¢ Note LX XXIV. town.
HAREM, AT ALEPPO. git
town. ‘They are interfected by the great roads, and not ¢ HA Ps walled round, fo that they ferve as fauntering places ——~ where people walk in the evenings.
The near relations (the men firft, and afterwards the women) vifit the fepulchre on the third, the feventh, and the fortieth day after the interment; they ccle- brate alfo the anniverfary : folemn prayers are offered up at the tomb for the repofe of the deceafed, and victuals and money are diftributed to the poor. But the women likewife vifit the graves on their ordinary garden days. ‘They fet out, attended by a fmall train of females, early in the morning, carrying flowers and aromatic herbs to beftrew the tomb. ‘The moment they arrive at the place, they give loofe afrefh to their forrows, in loud fcreams, interrupted at intervals by the chief mourner, who, in a lower tone of voice recalls the en- dearing circumftances of paft times, or, in a tender apoftrophe to the deceafed, appeals to the pains fhe in- ceflantly employed to render his life happy: fhe de- {cribes the forlorn condition of his family, now he is gone, and mingles fond reproach with profeffions of unalterable affection. The {ftillnefs of the morning is favorable to the Wulwaly. The furrounding tombs, the attitudes and action of the mourners, all confpire to intereft a fpectator, who, at the time, does not confider that the whole fcene is often little more, than a mere external fhow.
The men (as already remarked) ftrongly exprefs their
dif-
312 OF THE TURKISH
Bo OX difapprobation of thefe wild demonftrations of forrow, “—— regarding them, in fome degree, as impious; for on the death of relations, as under all other misfortunes, they themfelves affume the appearance of humble refignation to the decrees of providence. ‘They rarely vifit the tombs on extraordinary days, and then do no more than fit penfively filent, or breathe a fhort ejaculation. Yet fometimes, in crofling the burial grounds about fun fet, a difconfolate father is feen fitting folitarily by the recent grave of an only fon; where bending under years and affliction, his eyes raifed in filent adoration, while tears fall faft on his blanched and neglected beard, he gives way to the forbidden emotions of grief, and fits an affea- ing object to the eye of fympathy. | The men make no alteration in their drefs as a mode of mourning *”7.. ‘The women, laying afide their jewels, drefs in their plaineft garments, and wear on the head an embroidered handkerchief of a dufky brick duft colour. They mourn twelve months for a hufband, and fix for a father; but thefe terms are not conftantly ob- ferved. Decency requires of a widow, before fhe marries again, that fhe fhould perform a ftrict mourning of forty days, during which fhe keeps at home, and fel- dom or never {peaks, even to her neareft relations. But this ceremony, 1s commonly deferred till fome months after the funeral.
» Note LXXXV, CTIA P-
CHUAN PV BWIl
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEPPO.
EXTENT OF THE BASHAWLICK.—THE REVENUE OF THE GOVERN. ORS.—THE BASHAW PERAMBULATES THE CITY, IN DISGUISE.—THE CADY, AND COURTS OF JUSTICE.—THE MUFTI.—THE NAKEEB, OR CHIEF OF THE GREENHEADS.—THE DIVAN OF THE CIT Y.—SOLDIERY. —BASHAW NOT ABSOLUTELY DESPOTIC.—INTRIGUESIN THE DIVAN —INSURRECTIONS OCCASIONED BY SCARCITY OF GRAIN.—PUNISH- MENTS.—DECLINE OF THE ANCIENT POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE OTTOMAN GOVERNMENT.—PROPHECY OF THE RUIN OF THE EM- PIRE.—THE FREQUENT CHANGE OF BASHAWS, PRODUCTIVE OF NUMEROUS EVILS, IN THE PROVINCES.—MOUNTAINOUS DISTRICTS LESS SUBJECT TO OPPRESSION, AND BETTER CULTIVATED.—THE ‘DEPRESSED STATE OF THE PEASANTS.—HAMLETS DESERTED ON ACCOUNT OF THE DEPREDATIONS OF THE DISBANDED CAVALRY, &c.
Tue Governor of Aleppo is ufually a Vizir Bafhaw, though it happens fometimes, that the Province is con- ferred on an inferior Bafhaw of two tails'. He holds
* By Vizir Bafhaw is meant a Bafhaw of three tails. The Arabs pro- nounce it Bafhaw, but the word is Turkith and properly Pafhaw Lil or
Wazeer Pafha Lely py Vou. I. Ss his
314 OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK his place during pleafure, and is feldom allowed to re-
main in the government more than twelve months at a time; but the fame perfon may be repeatedly Bafhaw of Aleppo, and there are inftances of his being continued feveral fucceflive years.
The nominal Province, or Bafhawlick’, is of great extent, reaching Eaftward from the bay of Scanderoon to the banks of the Euphrates, and from forty miles North of the city, extending about fifty miles to the South Eaft. But it is not near fo extenfive as it was in former times. Khillis, which formerly was dependent on Aleppo, has been erected into a diftin@ Province, on account of the frequent depredations of the Kurdeens who inhabit the neighbouring mountains ; and fince the year 1752, an alteration has taken place with refpect to Bylan, which, together with Caramoot, Scanderoon, Byas, and the adjacent mountains, has been put under the government of a native of Bylan, who for that pur- pofe was created a Bafhaw of two tails. At prefent, the Bafhawlick on the North, is bounded by the village Bailik, fituated in the road to Aintab; Eaftward, it is bounded by the Defert: Bab, at the diftafice of ten hours Eaft North Eaft, and Haglah, about the fame di- ftance to the South South Eaft, being among the laft inhabited villages. On the South, it is foon bounded by the great Defert, between the f{kirts of which and the
” Pathawlick UeJLals Weft,
OF ALEPPO. 315 Weft, or Weft North Weft, are fituated the moft fertile c HAP.
and populous parts of the Province. Sirmeen is the laft--—~ town Southward; and Antioch, with its dependencies,
may be reckoned the Weftern boundary, which till of
late years, reached to the fea: Scanderoon and Byafs
being then the two frontier maritime towns. Shogle is
under the government of an Aga whofe jurifdiction ex-
tends alfo to Edlib, and he is named by the Porte inde- pendent of any Bafhaw. Above one half of the villages,
which ftood formerly on the books of the Province, are
faid to be totally deferted.
Many of the inhabitants of the mountainous parts of this tract, fcarcely acknowledge any authority but that of their own chieftains; and the champaign in many places is either Defert, or only occupied tranfiently by the wandering tribes of Turkmans, Begdelees, and Rufhwans, from the North; or by the Bidoweens, and Chingana: who, though they pay an annual tribute, can hardly in other refpects, be reckoned fubjects of the province.
It is commonly believed, that the regular revenue of the Bafhaw is barely fufficient to defray two thirds of his annual expenfe, including the fums he is obliged to remit to Conftantinople, in order to fecure the intereft of friends at the Porte 3. Hence the nefarious practice
* Note LXXXVI. Ssa@ of
316
OF THE GOVERNMENT
c aky Muaniags + . F eee of making Avanias * upon the people, or raifing money “—— under falfe pretences, to make up the deficiency: a dif-
graceful mode of tyranny, which though unconftitu- tional, pleads cuftom and neceflity in its defence. The Tufinkgi-bafhee’, or captain of the Bafhaw’s foot guard, is the perfon chiefly employed in the management of {maller Avanias, and he and his emiilaries being perpe- tually on the watch, they have good intelligence, and are the conftant terror of the city, more efpecially of the Chriftians and the Jews. Delinquency of fome kind or other, is at leaft alleged as a ground of the Avania, but though the fhow of juftice may be fometimes preferved, the ufurped defpotifm of the judge is often too plainly difcernable °.
It is a practice of fome Bafhaws to walk the ftreets in difguife, attended only by the Tufinkgi-bafhee and a few foldiers, who keep at a little diftance behind. On
“cd |4! The word is Italian, meaning literally an undeferved injury. It is
univerfally ufed in the Levant, and applied to all oppreffive, or unjuft ex- actions under falfe pretences.
5 Coals a
« It was remarked in the former edition, “ the veil is too thin to conceal “ that, fic volo fic jubeo, is the only plea for feizing a man’s whole fortune, “‘ and fometimes depriving him of his life.””. Tyrannical exceffes of this kind however, are not common. The Bafhaw’s power is reftrained by the dread. of being called upon afterwards by ti.e Porte, to account for more than he has. in reality extorted ; and the death warrants, for perfons of any confequence,, always come from the Porte.
fuch
OF ALEPPO. 317
fuch occafions, offenders caught in the commiffion of CHAP. crimes, are taken up, or inftantly baftinadoed on the —~—~ fpot: and there have been inftances of conveying a con- vit fecretly from prifon, who pafling for a notorious ruffian detected by accident in the ftreet, was beheaded without further ceremony. ‘The effect produced by this patrol is wonderful. The populace, contrary to their cuftom at other times, avoid noify broils, or fquabbles, and the moft turbulent fpirits are kept in awe. It is feldom however that the Bafhaw himfelf goes upon this fervice, the reputation of doing it being fufficient to fpread terror: it is more ufual for fome officer of the Seraglio to perfonate the Governor, and go the rounds
in his ftead.
A Cady’, or judge, appointed by the Porte for one year, comes annually from Conftantinople; he brings his principal officers along with him, and refides in an old palace called the great Mahkamy*. A fubftitute of his own nomination, called the Naib9%, fits in the outer court, to hear inferior caufes, while affairs of higher moment are decided by the Cady in perfon. There are, befides the great Mahkamy, three or four fubordinate tribunals, in different parts of the town, which are farmed
1 cee's In Terkith he is commonly called Mulla ce. guilt ~
2 Cul
of
318
OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOR of the Cady by certain Effendees, who, acting under his
“—— authority, determine petty fuits, or tranfact other judi-
cial bufinefs, for the convenience of perfons living in remote diftri¢ts: yet an appeal lies from them all to the great Mahkamy.
The Cady has no eftablifhed falary; but he finds means to raife a handfome revenue, though not merely from the legal perquifites of office. Thefe however are very confiderable. He claims a right, as executor general to all fubjects of the grand Signor, who die in the city in the time of his refidence, to afhx his feal upon their houfes and effects, immediately after their death; and the heirs are obliged to compound with him, at a certain rate, on an eftimate of the eftate of the deceafed. In all caufes brought before him, he claims ten per cent on the fum contefted, which is paid by the perfon who gains the fuit. This laft regulation is pro- ductive of the moft wicked oppreflion; for the private intereft of the judge being thus connected with the number of caufes brought to the Mahkamy, encourage- ment is of courfe given to vexatious litigation. There are wretches who get a miferable livelihood by ftirring up contention among the lower people, which they take care fhall terminate in a law fuit, in hopes of a {mall gratification from the Mahkamy, as jackals of the law. It is alfo not uncommon for malicious men, with no other view than revenge, to make groundlefs claims on per-
fons with whom they happen to be at enmity, which can be
OF ALEPPO. 319
be done without rifking lofs or expenfe; for the defend- c HAP. ant, though clearly acquitted, is obliged to pay cofts of-~—~ fuit, and that too in proportion to the injury intended
him. Some Cadies, in cafes where the injuftice is flagrant, will accept of a {mailer fum, than they are en-
titled to by cuftom, but the plaintiff, in the mean while
is never punifhed.
The determination of contefted facts depending chiefly upon viva voce evidence, is the caufe of great remiffnefs in the execution of the laws againft perjury ; fo that witneffes, ready to be hired, may generally be procured at the Mahkamy. Bribes, though not openly, are ac- cepted fecretly by the Cady and his officers'*, by which means, either delays are obtained, when circumftances are fuch as cannot admit of decifion abfolutely againft juftice, or elfe the decifion is accelerated, where juftice happens to be on the fide of the briber: but in this laft cafe fome degree of confcience is fhown in the accept. ance of a {maller bribe. In general, caufes are fum- marily decided in one or two hearings.
Againft abufes which difgrace the Turkifh courts of juftice, the law has denounced fevere punifhment; but in order to obtain redrefs, it is in moft cafes not only neceflary to make a journey to Conftantinople, but to be fupported alfo by intereft at the Porte. For this rea-
* This was the cafe a century ago as well as at prefent. Memoires dArvicux, v. Vi. p. 447.
fon
320 OF ‘THE (GOVERNMENT
BOOX fon it is more ufual to have recourfe to the mediation of
“—— fome Grandee of Aleppo, whofe influence may, at leaft, procure fome mitigation of the injuftice it cannot pre- vent.
The Cady takes care to leave the town, a few days before the expiration of his authority, and the arrival of his fucceffor, in order to avoid demands of reftitution which might ctherwife be made upon him; but fome- times he is obliged, on his return to Conftantinople, to reftore part of the booty he had carried off. I have known inftances where perfons who had refolution to carry their complaints to the Sheih al aflaam '’ have ob- tained ample fatisfaction.
The Mufti" is nominated annually by the Porte; but the fame perfon is often continued in office for many years together. He is ufually a native of the city, one of the opulent Effendees, who affects ftate, and who has perfonal influence in the Divan. When the office hap- pens to be beftowed on a man of fmall fortune, and of a more religious character, it then affumes a greater appearance of its primitive fimplicity. Such a man leads the life of a Dervis, proportioning his expenfes to his flender revenue; he engages little in politics; and derives refpect only from his fuppofed fan¢tity, and in- corrupt exertion of his knowledge of the law.
a Cw Nani 12 a The
OF ALEPPO.
q21
The Mufti gives a Fitwa'*, or law opinion, upon alj° #4. cafes laid before him. The cafe being ftated briefly on ~~
a fmall flip of paper, the Fitwa, comprized in a few words, is written under it. His fee amounts to little more than a fhilling, and fcrupuloufly exact, he will accept no higher prefent. The Cady fometimes fupports his own decifion by the Mufti’s Fitwa; and a Fitwa is often ad- duced in plea at the Mahkamy, which is received with deference if agreeable to the Cady, but otherwife, it is eafily eluded by fhowing that, in the detail, circum- ftances, or facts had been unfairly ftated.
Counfel are not employed at the Mahkamy, every perfon pleading his own caufe; but the parties may take the private advice of Effendees verfed in the law, which is ufually beftowed gratis, unlefs where extraordinary trouble in fearching for precedents, entitles them to fome prefent in return. For drawing legal deeds, contradts, letters, and other writing bufinefs, there are profeffed Katibs, or Scribes *, who are paid at a certain rate,
eftablifhed by cuftom. The Nakeeb, or chief of the Greenheads, is nomi-
nated at Conftantinople, and either annually confirmed, or changed. He fits as a judge in fome particular cafes,
i fr. Tt but
322 OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK but appeals lie from him to the Mahkamy, before which. “-~— tribunal, the Shereefs, as well as others, muft make their appearance when cited.
The Mohaffil, formerly called Difter-dar "5, is reckon- ed the fecond perfon of the city in the civil line, and on the demife of the Bafhaw, is by the Divan ufually appointed Mutfillem, or temporary Governor, till orders come from the Porte. He is Farmer General of the land tax '°, the cuftoms '’, and the capitation tax ** on which account he is obliged to retain a number of fubordinate officers difperfed in the Province, and to go through a oreat detail of bufinefs. He exercifes a limited judicial power in revenue matters, and has a prifon in his own palace. ‘The Mohaffil’s influence is confiderable, he lives fplendidly, and is much courted by the Agas or land renters, as well as by the merchants '%.
The Bafhaw, Mohafil, Cady, Mufti, Nakeeb, and Sardar, or Aga of the Janizaries *°, are members, from their office, of the Divan, or council; which is compofed
befides, of the principal Effendees and Agas, together
'S Muhaffil Utes 6 Meery <4 > rhe
» Al Kumrak So Ss # Kharage cl
» Note LXXXVII.
29 15 e) : sg with
OF {. ABEP PO! 229
with the Shahbinder”!, or head of the merchants. ‘The c HAP. merchants themfelves are not fummoned, except fuch as“~—~ happen to be particularly connected with the Bafhaw,
or with fome of the great officers at the Porte. The Divan is affembled as often as emergencies require, a fummons being carried to each member by the Bafhaw’s Chaufes *; but it regularly meets every Friday fore-
noon, at the Seraglio. The Effendees rendezvous firft
at the Mahkamy, whence they ride in proceffion with
the Cady, the junior Effendee marching firft, and the
Cady laft. Bufinefs relating to the city and all parts of
the Province, is tranfacted in the Divan, the Bafhaw always affecting to be defirous of exact information. He inquires with much formality, concerning the city markets, the difpofition of the people, the ftate of trade,
and the condition of the villages; to all which, anfwers
are of courfe returned, doubtlefs with ftrict regard to political truth. After the Friday’s Divan breaks up, the Bafhaw ufually goes in ftate to Mofque, attended by moft
of the members.
Befides the foot guard, already mentioned, the Bafhaw, according to the exigency of the times, keeps in pay a certain number of cavalry, confifting of Delis”
ue ie md PA Ala — -?
. faa .1 57. * Deliler pad Their captain is Called Cel Jo Delibathee.
tts * and
324,
OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK and Levands ”3. They are cantoned chiefly in the vil-
Ka lages, a few troops only being quartered in the Seraglio,
and the Suburbs.
The Janizaries** of Aleppo, as in other provincial cities, are moftly perfons who live in a domeftic man- ner in the exercife of their refpective trades. They receiveno pay, but, by being enrolled in one of the Odas, or chambers, at Conftantinople, they enjoy in times of peace, feveral privileges and exemptions. In war time they are liable to be called out, and are obliged not only to provide themfelves with arms, but to find their way to the camp at their own expenfe: not entering into regular pay before they arrive there. Out of thefe, is formed a city guard, confifting of feveral hundred men, under the command of the Sardar, who holds his ap- pointment from the Janizary Aga of Conftantinople. They drefs in a particular fafhion, though not in uniform, and, on ceremonial occafions, wear the high felt cap; but they are not trained to any regular exercife of arms. The Sardar is always attended, when he appears abroad, and both himfelf and his attendants are diftinguifhed by particular Turbans. On certain occafions, he is pre- ceded by an officer on horfeback who carries a bundle of rods, fomewhat refembling, the Fafces carried before the confuls in ancient Rome, but without the ax. The
*: Inkigiary Seis ** Lwaind O34)”
fuper-
OF - ALEPPO:
ao
fuperintendence of the markets, and other branches of © #4 ?- the police, belong to his department ; he patroles the —~—~
ftreets, and the keys of the city gates are brought to him every night. It is only in certain cafes that he is fubject to the command of the Bafhaw.
Notwithftanding the great power with which the Bafhaw is invefted, he is not, ftri¢tly fpeaking, abfolutely defpotic in the Province. In the ordinary courfe of affairs, he poffeffes no right to infliG capital punifhment, without a formal trial at the Mahkamy, or, at leaft, without having previoufly procured the Mufti’s fanction by a Fitwa: neither has he a right to feize any one’s property. It istrue, legal forms are too often difregarded, and the barriers of law perhaps wantonly tranferefled ; but the power of doing this, is an unconftitutional ufurpation, and in reality lefs frequently exercifed than is commonly imagined. The Bafhaw is under fome control, both from the Divan, and the dread of future confequences ; it being in the power of the Cady to give fuch legal authenticity to remonftrances fent to
Conftantinople, as may excite the refentment of govern-.
ment. And though the Porte, in its vengeance is not always actuated by pure motives, it is always willing to aflume an appearance of juftice: more efpecially where the private intere{t of minifters (which is often the cafe) happens to coincide with the chaftifement of the fuppofed offender.
It
326 OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK It is reckoned unfortunate for the country, when the
—~— Mahkamy and Seraglio are on too friendly terms ; fuch an union ferving only to encourage bolder modes of oppreflion. In this conjuncture, the only power which dares to interpofe in favour of the people, is that of the Effendees and Agas ; who being poffeffed of fome fhare of landed property, are naturally led to oppofe a tyranny, which, by immediately injuring their Vaflals, muft in the confequence affet themfelves. This is ftill the more neceflary, becaufe aéts of extortion are too often produced as precedents, by fucceeding Governors, when they happen to be at a lofs for other expedients to raife money.
The power of the Agas is much declined of late years; that of the Effendees, moft of whom are Shereefs, is ftill confiderable : their coalition forms what may be called the city party. It is generally conducted by one principal leader, who, befides property, is poflefled of talents for intrigue; who, by conftant refidence on the fpot, has had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with provincial affairs, and knows how to avail himfelf, in the race of ambition, of family intereft, as well as political art. When he happens, at the fame time, to be Nakecb, his influence is of courfe increafed, although that office of itfelf, without abilities, confers but a fmall fhare of political importance. ‘The exiftence of fuch a leader as now defcribed, is allowed to be of material ufe to the city; but as he himfelf too often acts tyran-
nically,
OFfY AEBSEO:
327
nically, and, in the crowd which courts his patronage, c 1 4 P. VII.
numbers muft be difappointed in their expectation of —~—~
favours, his popularity is feldom of any long duration. His power is dreaded, flattered, and execrated; and his confequence as a check upon the other members of the. Divan, is forgotten amid the effe¢ts more immediately felt of his neglect, or oppreffion. In the mean while, his friendfhip is ufually fought both by the Bafhaw and the Cady; it being the intereft of neither to provoke unneceflary oppofition ; and, this giving him frequent accefs as a mediator in their occafional difputes, a large field prefents itfelf for the exertions of an artful nego
tiator, to turn the conteft either to his own, or to the.
public advantage.
Thus, the different imterefts operating in the Divan, in fome meafure counterbalance one another, and, not- withftanding the frequent violation of the people’s rights, the ordinary courfe of affairs proceeds more equitably, than. might be expected, in a government, where the people are commonly fuppofed to be the mere flaves of defpotic power. A coalition of the feveral parties in favour of any meafure univerfally oppreflive, ts feldom known, except perhaps in times of dearth, when the Agas, who have hoarded corn, can prevail with the Divan to connive at the moft wicked of all monopolies. The devoted populace, for fome time, though not with- out murmuring, fuffer the fevereft hardfhips ; till at length, urged by defpair, they rife tumultuoufly in their
own
328 OF THE GOVERNMENT
B00 OWN defence, and are furious in their refentment. The
“——~ power of the Divan is too feeble to ftem the torrent ; all is foon thrown into confufion, and fome of the moft fufpected Grandees, perhaps the Governor himfelf, are obliged to feek fafety in flight. But an event of this kind is difcreetly avoided by the Divan, as it never fails to make a noife at the capital; and the Grandees, fufficiently know from experience, that the vengeance of the Porte is ever ready to fall heavieft upon the wealthy : for this reafon, matters are feldom permitted to proceed fo far, as to excite an open infurreétion.
I remember an inftance of a dearth where a mob of women took poffeffion of feveral of the minarets, and, preventing the cryers from calling the people to prayers at noon, afcended themfelves, and in a loud voice, from the gallery, exhorted all true Mosflems to efpoufe the caufe of their wives and children. Several granaries were broken open; the Mutfillem (the Bafhaw was ab- fent) found it prudent to fly, and it was feveral days before the tumult fubfided. The Bafhaw fometimes interpofes in favour of the people againft the hoarders of corn; of which the following inftance is faid to have happened at Aleppo.
A. Bafhaw, on his firft public entry into the city, was aflailed on all hands by the clamour of the populace, demanding juftice, and imploring bread. After his ar- rival at the Seraglio, as foon as the firft compliments
were
OF ALEPPO. 329
were over, he inquired, of the Grandees affembled to cu apr. congratulate him, the caufe of the popular difcontent. ~~~ An anfwer was unanimoufly returned. ‘“ A failure of “‘ fucceffive crops in the diftrict of Aleppo, and the ‘“‘ neighbouring Provinces, had produced a general fcar- ‘““ city, and that it was neceffary to deal out the little ‘¢ which remained, in fuch a manner as to prevent abfo- *« Jute famine, before the new crop could be got in. If ‘¢ fuch precaution was not ufed, it would be impoffible ““ to perfuade the populace, after all was exhaufted, that ‘‘ more was not ftill concealed in the granaries, and “¢ infallibly expofe all thofe now pofleffed of grain, to the «mad rage of a rabble.” ‘To the truth of a real fcarcity, they folemnly fwore by the head of the Sultan. The Bafhaw heard them with attention, and after exprefling his readinefs to co-operate in any meafures for the pub- lic good, he commanded an exatt ftate of the quantity of grain remaining at the feveral villages, to be laid before him. An account was accordingly delivered ; but little more than half the real quantity reported. The day following, he mounted in ftate from the Seraglio, early in the morning, and while all wondered whither he intended to go, he proceeded directly to one of the fpecified villages ; where he foon difcovered, in the pits, double the quantity of corn entered in the ac- count. This he ordered to be carried to market; and that whatever fhould exceed the quantity reported, might be fold for his proper account. He met with equal fuccefs VoL. I. Uu re
Boe
OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK in one ox two other villages, and then returned to town. coi, The markets were next day full, and the price of grain
fell one half. The Agas juftly alarmed, were glad to receive their quota according to their own ftatement ; the Bafhaw feized the reft: and in the final adjuftment of accounts, the heinous crime of {wearing falfely by the Sultan’s head, was not forgotten.
The merchants are confidered as more immediately under the prote¢tion of the Mohaflil, and therefore not fo fubje&t to the Avanias made by the Bafhaw. Never- thelefs, they have fometimes, when the city was afflicted with famine, been obliged to contribute to a fund for the {pecious purpofe of purchafing corn; the impofition however was loudly complained of as unufual. But mercantile ftrangers have too often reafon to complain of the Mohaffil himfelf, who, by vexatious exactions, turns away the trade to Damafcus, and, for the fake of a temporary trifling advantage, does lafting injury to the
town.
On the demife of a Bafhaw, the Mohaffil, as princi- pal officer of the revenue, takes poffeffion of his effects, till a Capugi-bafhee ** from Conftantinople comes to receive them, in the name of the Sultan. It fhould however be remarked, that it is only the perfonal eftate of the Grandees actually in the fervice of the Porte,
25
which
OFSALEP PO:
33%
which is fubject to fequeftration; their Mofques, Bazars, c HAP. palaces, and other property, having for the moft part ea
been previoufly fettled in fuch a manner, that while a portion is appropriated to charitable purpofes, the reft is fecured for the ufe of the family.
The eftates of merchants, as well as of other private ranks, defcends to the heirs, agreeably to eftablifhed laws, which allow a certain portion only to be devifed by will, and the Cady is fuppofed to fee ftrict juftice done to the heirs. In regard to merchant ftrangers, who happen to die in the public Khanes, the Mohaffil has a right to interpofe, and taking the goods under his own care, after accommodating matters with the Cady, he detains them till reclaimed by the jegal heir.
Crimes of a capital kind are very rare at Aleppo. In the courfe of twenty years there were not more than half a dozen examples of public executions. It is true, a commutation of punifhment, with confent of the neareft of kin, is admitted, even in cafes of murder; but the right of demanding the blood of the criminal is held facred, and the confent to commutation is feldom or never obtained. In cafes where powerful influence interpofed to fave a murderer, I have known the Bafhaw obliged to execute the criminal, by the female reiations of the deceafed, who, expofing the bloody garments, and clamoroufly calling for juftice in the name of God
Lituro2 and
332 OF THE GOVERNMENT
BooK and their prophet, daily befet the Seraglio, till their ett demand was complied with.
The ufual capital punifhments are hanging, behead- ing, ftrangling, and empaling. In this laft punifhment, the wretched criminal, when led to execution, is fome- times made to carry the ftake himfelf. It is chiefly confined to the Kurds, or other atrocious offenders, and is often practifed by the Bafhaws, in their progrefs through the Provinces, who pretend a right as military officers, to execute in a fummary manner, and, by way of ftriking exemplary terror, they leave the body ftuck up by the fide of the high road. It is feldom feen at Aleppo; though a certain Huffein Bafhaw is well remembered there, who fome years before, empaled twenty Kurds at one time, clofe to the city. Several of them remained many hours alive on the ftake; nor is it known how long they might have furvived, liberty having been obtained to put an end to their torture by fhoot- ing them. The bodies however were not permitted to be taken down, and remained a horrid and offenfive fpectacle. It was the cuftom of that Bafhaw, when he travelled, to carry malefactors, already condemned, along with him, and to empale one at every ftage, leaving them to be devoured by the birds of prey, as the ftake was too high for wild beafts to reach the body. His frequent exercife of this p .nifhment, procured him the title of Hafookgee, or Empaler.
Hanging
OF ALEPPO. 333
Hanging is the ordinary punifhment for murder, as c HAP. alfo for offenders of low rank, taken in rebellion. "Thereo——_~ is no ftanding gibbet, nor is one always erected for the occafion ; the criminal being carried into the Bazar, and hung on the firft convenient poft. The executioner is generally an Armenian Chriftian, but it is not uncom. mon for the foldiery, as they march to the place of exe- cution, if a Jew or a Chriftian happens to fall in their way, to extort money from him, under pretence of ob- liging him to perform the office of hangman.
Beheading, though fo common a Turkifh mode of execution, is at Aleppo, performed in a very bungling manner, from the executioner’s want of practice. The heads of certain criminals are carefully flayed, and the {kins, after being ftuffed fo as to preferve fome likenefs of the perfon, are carried to Conftantinople. The heads of the Arab banditti, or of others, killed in arms near the city, are fometimes brought in as trophies, ftuck upon the fpears of the conquerors.
The Janizaries are ftrangled, not with a bow ftring, but by a cord put round the neck, and then twifted with a ftick in the manner of a tourniquet. The execution of a Janizary is announced by firing a gun from the caftle. The bodies of all who are executed, remain for fome days expofed to public view.
Theft is rather an uncommon crime, at Aleppo. De la Motray made a like remark at Conftantinople, where, during a refidence of almoft fourteen years, he did not
hear
334
OF THE GOVERNMENT
Book hear of twenty perfons who fuffered for it: he adds, —— “ And as for pickpockets, they are unknown there, it is
269?
“© not known what the crime means ”’.
Theft is fometimes punifhed by amputation of the hand, but more commonly with the baftinado, which is alfo the ufual punifhment for offences of an inferior kind. The rods ufed in drubbing, are about the fize of a {mall walking ftick. The criminal is laid upon his back, with his ancles clofely confined by a wooden machine. The legs are then raifed, while two men, one placed on each fide, alternately beat the bare foles of the feet. In cer- tain cafes, the Janizaries, as likewife women, are drub- bed on the back, or on the buttocks.
The baftinado, fometimes, is only a flight chaftife- ment; at other times, it is inflicted with horrid feverity. The number of ftrokes are {pecified in the fentence, but it is ufual for fome perfon prefent to intercede in favour of the offender, before he has received the full number ; for the punifhment, if not in the Judge’s prefence, is commonly inflicted within his hearing.
Other corporal punifhments, known in Turkey, as not being common at Aleppo, have been omitted here. I have known inftances of Ganching, but they are rare.
Banifhment is chiefly employed to remove turbulent members from the Divan, or from the city. The com- mand from the Porte is generally procured privately,
-° Travels, v. i. p. 188. and
OF) ALEPPO.
335
and put in execution when leaft expected. The perfon ¢ #4” at once is torn from his family, is efcorted fome miles “~~
on his way by the Bafhaw’s officer, and then left to pur- fue hisjourney. The Ifland of Cyprus, and the maritime towns, of Syrra are the ufual places of banifhment.
Among other inftances wherein the Turkifh Govern- ment is faid to have deviated from thofe conftitutional principles, fuppofed effential to its duration, is that of conniving at the growth of powerful families. ‘The great officers of the empire were formerly chofen from the tributary flaves, who had been educated in the Sera- glio. ‘They came abroad into the world, ftrangers to the benevolent bonds of confanguinity ; they knew no parent but the Porte, which at their death, refuming the wealth they were fuppofed to have acquired through its favour, their progeny being excluded from hopes of fucceflion, either to honours or eftate, foon fell back into obfcurity. At prefent it is not uncommon to fee the Children of Bafhaws fucceflively employed in high offi- ces; and there are inftances of feveral Brothers in the fame family being Bafhaws at the fame time. The late Afad Bafhaw of Damafcus had two Brothers ; the one a Vizir, the other a Bafhaw of two tails. Both were encamped in the neighbourhood of Aleppo in the year 1757, at the time that Afad was actually Bafhaw of the city.
The moft honourable offices, which ufed formerly to
be
336
OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOX be conferred on merit, or as marks of royal favour, are “—— now fold to the higheft bidder; and the Minifters of a
venal court, fee, without proper jealoufy, the aggran- difement of families, whofe opulence is made to admi- nifter to their private avarice. But, what is ftill worfe, the deftructive oppreffion of the Provinces, being the principal fource of that opulence, is not only fuffered to pafs with impunity, but a neceflity of tyrannifing comes to be impofed on the governors, as an infeparable per- quifite of office.
Nearly int his ftrain, the Turks themfelves lament the decline of the Empire, which, according to them, tends rapidly towards that period, deftined by Omnipotence for its extinction’. ‘They remark that the rougher vir- tues of their anceftors are loft in an exceffive refinement of manners ; and that Religion, not reverenced as for- merly, retains little more than its outward form: not having influence fufficient to reftrain the numerous vices, which modern luxury, and the frivolous fpirit of the age, have univerfally introduced. ‘The Mufti, with whom I happened to live on a footing of intimacy, told me once in converfation, that he muft requeft the favour of me to be aware, on my return to England, of doing injuftice to the Mohammedan Religion, by forming my repre-
*7 The exiftence of a Prophecy, foretelling the deftruction of the Otto- man Empire, by a neighbouring Potentate, is often mentioned by them, and
they appear to believe ferioufly in the preuiction. Note LXXXViII.
fentation
OF ALEPPO. 337
fentation of it on what I had obferved in the practice of c HAP. the Moflemeen. ‘If you take, continued he, the reverfe a ‘ of what you have feen daily practifed by us, to be
¢ the actual law, you will be nearer the truth and in lefs
‘ danger of mifleading your countrymen.’
This venerable old-man, Trablos Effendee, had been educated at the college of Grand Cairo, and was for many years Mufti of Aleppo. He was reckoned pro- foundly {killed in the law, and had a talent for poetry. Ragab Bafhaw, when at Aleppo, told me that he con- fidered the Mufti as the only perfon he had met with in the city, who might juftly pretend to Arabic learning. He was liberal in his way of thinking, affable in his man- ners, and retained a cheerful, {portive fpirit, in a very ad- vancedage. His friendfhip to my brother was continued in his conftant attention to myfelf, which on feveral accounts rendered my réfidence abroad more agreeable. He introduced me to the acquaintance of the Grandees, and through his means, I was enabled to procure manu- fcripts for feveral friends in Europe.—In the year 1771, he happened to be Nakeeb, at a time when the Shereefs raifed an alarming infurrection. He then lay confined by a dangerous ficknefs, which foon after brought him to the grave. He was unable to ftem the torrent of rebellion; but told me, a few hours before he expired, that he forefaw his utmoft efforts againft meafures he had all along condemned, would not fave his family from
VoL. X x ruin:
338 OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK ruin: a prediction, which in the fequel I had the mor- ‘+’ tification to fee fulfilled.
The policy of the Porte in removing the Bafhaws fo often from one government to another, however wifely calculated for preventing the erection of danger- ous independencies, proves highly detrimental to the provinces. In the frequent journies of the Bafhaws, the intermediate towns are fubjected to great expenfe, and the fields and villages are expofed to the depreda- tion of ill difciplined troops. The governors them- felves are alfo induced to exa¢t every temporary advan- tage which their fituation affords, without regard to the future intereft of the Bafhawlick. Uncertain how long they may remain in place, every lucrative project is eagerly adopted; while the fuffering people look forward to a change, which experience might have taught them, very feldom betters their condition”.
To this may be afcribed the difregard to public intereft, in the regulation of the police; as alfo the deplorable ftate of many of the villages, which, though populous and flourifhing fo late as the beginning of the prefent century, are now on the decline, and fome of them in ruins. Neereb and Tedif, are much declined. The Olive Tree Village and others are totally deferted. It is afferted, that of three hundred villages, formerly comprehended in the Bafhawlick, lefs than
** Note LXXXIX. one
OF ALEPPO.
339
one third are now ( 1772 ) inhabited; agriculture declines c HAP.
in proportion.
The Agas, who chiefly farm the lands, live in a more expenfive manner though with lefs hofpitality than formerly. They exert themfelves to make a figure for fome years, till at length, unable to pay the land tax, they become bankrupts. It is fometimes long before a tenant is found for the lands they have been difpoflefled of, and in that interval, the peafants migrating to other parts, are loft irrecoverably to the glebe. Hence vaft traéts of the beautiful plains in the Aleppo Bafhawlick lie fhamefully overrun with thiftles; forming a ftriking contraft in comparifon with many parts of the mountainous country, which better fecured by natural fituation, from tyrannical oppref_lion, are finely cultivated, full of people, and prefent thriving hamlets on all hands.
The Champaign lies not only expofed to the diforder- ly retinue of the Grandees, in their march through the Province, but alfo to the vagrant tribes of Turkmans, Rufhwans, and Arabs: and worfe than all, to the rufian troops of Levands out of pay”, who are per- petually roving from place to place, and under pain of military execution, raife contributions from the defence- lefs villages. An alliance, or treaty, generally fubfifts
*® Cap-fiz. X x 2 between
34.0 OF THE GOVERNMENT
3oox between the Bafhaw, and the Emeer of the defert Arabs I.
in the vicinity, by which the Emeer obliges himfelf to affift in the protection of the country, as well as of the villages. But a mifunderftanding fometimes happens between the Bafhaw and him, or civil wars arife among the Arabs themfelves: in either cafe, they ufually fall] upon the Caravans, and pillage the herds.
It is the duty, though not always in the power, of the Bafhaw, to prevent thofe diforders; but he is for the moft part more profitably employed in town. Heknows that an expedition with his ‘Troops is neceflarily attend- ed with expenfe as well as hazard, and uncertain how foon he may be fent to another government, he is lefs folicitous about the profperity of the Bafhawlick, of which a fucceffor is likely to reap the advantage. It may at the fame time be remarked, that when a Bafhaw, excited by ambition, or provoked by repeated infult, determines to exert himfelf, a part of the expenfe of a military expedition falls at laft fo heavy on the villages, as to render it doubtful whether it is not better for them to fubmit to occafional pillage, than to purchafe prote¢tion at fo high a rate.
The cafe is different where a Bafhaw finds means to prolong his ftay, for a courfe of years, in the fame Province. He by degrees find himfelf interefted in the welfare of the people; he becomes a farmer of the lands, a joint adventurer in their cultivation; he has lefs
inducement
AT ALEPPO. 341
mducement to adopt the ufual modes of oppreflion, ¢ #4 ?. which he knows would endanger popular favour, his‘—~— beft fecurity againft the machinations of the Porte: and he will naturally exert all his power to repel depredations, from which he muft himfelf be a principal fufferer. A Bafhaw, in fuch a fituation, alarms the jealoufy of the Porte, if he happens to be a man of enterprize; and at any rate, tempts its avarice, by the treafure he is fuppofed to accumulate: but, marked by the Porte as a future victim, he fometimes is allowed to purchafe quiet for a long while. Excluding all petty tyrants, he reigns in a manner abfolute in his Province; but fo artfully tempers defpotifm with occafional acts of juftice and liberality, as to prevent the people wifhing a ‘or change, which might poffibly bring them under the yoke of a harder mafter. At length, the fatal period approaching, he is flattered with deceitful pro- fefions and promifes; he is removed under fome plaufible pretence, to a diftant government, and falls a facrifice before he has had time to form defenfive con- nexions: of which Afad Bafhaw of Damafcus was a ftrong example. He had amaffed vaft riches, but his country was in a profperous ftate of cultivation®.
Examples of thefe powerful, and almoft independent Bafhaws, are found only in the frontier or diftant Provin-
70 See Note LIV.
Ces;
342 OF THE GOVERNMENT
BOOK ces; the vigilance of the Porte being fufficiently a¢tive
“——~to render them rare. In the ordinary courfe of admi- niftration, the Provinces are left to be pillaged, by thofe whofe duty it is to protect them. The Bafhaw himfelf, anxious and indigent in the midft of pomp and adulation, fubjeét to the inceffant demands of the Porte, and haraffed by long and expenfive journies, is continually in purfuit of that wealth which he is feldom permitted to enjoy: and which often muft be procured by means as incompatible with juftice, as ruinous to the Province. Under fuch circumftances, it cannot be wondered that the country, though bleft with fo many natural advan- tages of foil and climate, fhould be found thinly peopled, and poorly cultivated.
The Peafants are intitled to one third of the pro- duce of the land. From this portion (which however, varies by particular agreement) is annually deduéted a part of what may have been advanced by the Aga, to ftock the farm; as alfo a certain proportion of the Avanias, from time to time made on the villages. For though the Aga, out of his two thirds, is bound to pay the Meery or land tax, as well as a part of occafional Avanias, he retains always the power, in ftating the account, to charge more on that laft article than was really paid; by which, together with accumulating in- tereft on money advanced, the Peafants are kept for ever in debt.
Of
OF “ALREP? ©!
Of the villages, fome are built of ftone, but many are compofed' of miferable mud huts with conical roofs, which at a diftance appear like an aflemblage of {mall Glafs-houfes. They are fupplied with water from deep wells, or with rain water preferved in cifterns. If fituated near a rivulet there is ufually a garden planted on its banks, in which the Aga, when he has no houfe in the village encamps in his fummer excurfions. But in the larger villages, the Aga, as well as the Sheih, have ftone houfes tolerably commodious, ferving occafionally for the reception of travellers, and of the officers fent to fuperintend the harveft. Each village has a Mofque or chapel, and the more confiderable have a Bazar, a Bagnio, a coffeehoufe, and a public Khane.
The Peafanis are fimply clothed, indifferently lodged, and live chiefly on courfe bread, Lebban, pulfe, barley, and melons. ‘They rarely tafte mutton, or lamb, except at feftivals; and agreat part of their poultry and eggs is fent alfo to the town market. ‘They, in reality, enjoy but a fcanty pittance of the fruits of their labour, yet on occafion they fhow a fpirit of hofpitality which would grace better fortune. They freely offer a portion of their homely fare to the ftranger, and the women eagerly prefs forward to prefent him with water, frefh drawn from their deepeft well. Habit and ignorance mitigate the rigour of their condition. Such hardfhips as would enrage to frenzy the ungrateful fubjects of better governments, to them feem light,
com.
343 CHAP. VII Ve ee
344 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEPPO.
Boox compared with other wrongs to which they are expofed. vn. 4 yn i ——.— When their Patron’s intereft at the Seraglio, fucceeds
in protecting their cottage from diforderly vifits of the foldiery, they think themfelves happy; but his intereft is not always duly exerted, while the indolence, or
inability of the Bafhaw, too often leaves them at the mercy of the vagabond, perhaps incenfed, Cap-fiz.
It is then that the inhabitants of the hamlets fuffer accumulated diftrefs. Trembling and defpondent, they bury fuch effects as they cannot haftily tranfport, and abandoning their cots, they either feek fafety in an union with a ftronger village, or fly for refuge to fome folitude, out of the traét which the banditti are likely to traverfe. Collected together, with their infants and cattle, wherefoever the fhade invites to halt, prepared to fly further on the firft alarm, and ftarting at every diftant tread of horfe, thefe innocent Fugitives offer a picture of fevere diftrefs, which the European traveller cannot look on, as he pafles, and fupprefs the rifing emotions of wonder, compaffon, and indignation.
NOTES.
ee
ye ESE —_
,
m= @ I° E. S
AND
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Vor. I. Y y
‘upprefi the
und a er ~
OS gel aS peed RAS
AND
Pe OUST RATT ON S.
Note I. page 1.
Tue Arabian writers, zealous to fupport the antiquity of Aleppo, reter its origin to the early era of the Patriarch Abraham; who, as they pretend, in his migration to the Land of Canaan, remained for fometime on the hill, on which the caftle of Aleppo is now fituated. A manufcript in my poffeffion, entitled Tareeh Haleb, (Hiftory of Aleppo) adopts this tradition ; adding that the prefent Mofque in the caftle, is ftill devoutly vifited, on account of the place having been fanétified by the refidence of the Patri- arch ; and that a ftone trough is preferved there, in which his cattle ufed to be milked. The Patriarch, it feems, ufed dayly to diftribute milk to the poor of a neighbouring village, who at certain hours, in expectation of his bounty, affembled at the bottom of the hill, and by frequently re- peating “‘ Ibraheem haleb,” “‘ Ibraheem haleb’”” (Abraham has milked) gave occafion to the name Haleb, being conferred on the town, which in the fequel was built on the fpot. To an objection ‘ that the Arabic wags ‘not the vulgar language at that period, nor before the era of Ifmael and ¢ Kahtan ;’ it is anfwered that many Arabic words bear a ftrong affinity to the Hebrew and Syriac. (M.S. Chap. i. 2.)
A {mall addition to this fabulous hiftory readily accounts for the epithet Shahba given to the city ; and it would be an infult to the popular belief, to queftion its authenticity. ‘In the herd of the Patriarch was a fingular ‘ cow, remarkable for its low, and its variegated colour. When fhe was
Y¥2 ‘ milked,
348
NOTES AND ILLUSTEATIONs.
* milked, her low being diftinguifhed by the populace waiting below, they ‘‘ remarked to one another, Ibraheem haleb al Shahba! Abraham has * milked the pied cow !
It is obferved by the learned Reifk, that the word Shahba, which is not to be found in Lexicons, denotes a variegated grey and white colour; and he agrees in opinion with Golius and others, that the epithet muft have been derived from the colour of the foil, and of the buildings ; which is remarked alfo by an Arab writer cited in the M. S. Hiftory, (p. 25.) who «eprefents the houfes as chiefly built of a kind of Howara, or chalk-ftone. But on this laft circumftance, it is obferved by Eben Shahny, that if this was the cafe in early times, it was different when he wrote: the public edifices, and moft of the houfes, being compofed (as they are at prefent) of free-ftone. See Reifk (Tabula Syriz p. 188.) Golius (Note in A]fergan. page 270.)
In whatever way the city originally obtained the appellation Shahba, it is ftill retained in formal writings, as well as in the addrefs of letters 5 and the gliftering, variegated, white and grey appearance of the town, from a diftance, feems to give a fanétion to the propriety of its application.
The M. S. now referred to, is the work of Eben Shahny a Native of Aleppo, but pofterior to Eben Shahny the celebrated lawyer and hif- torian who died in the 883 of the Hegira, (A. C. 1476.) It 1s a well ar- ranged abftract from the works of preceding writers, particularly Eben Adim, Eben Shedad, and Eben Al Khatib. The account of the revolu- tions of the city is fhort; but it enumerates minutely the diftriéts, Mofques, Palaces, Khanes, &c.
Note II. p. 1.
That Aleppo was the Zobah of {cripture feems very doubtful. The queftion has been much agitated, and the reader who is defirous of further information may confult Golius (Note in Alfergan. p. 274.) Bochart Geographia Sacra Col. 79.) Regni Davidici & Salomonzi Defcript. Geo- graphica. Norimberg. 1739.
Of its being the Berroea of the Greeks, there can be little doubt. * Beroea media Antiochiam inter & Hierapolin, erat bidui ab utraque
“ itinere, tefte Procopio (Bell. Perfic. Lib. ii. Chap. 7.) Ubi & re€te Bégosar
“ yocat ; eft enim Begosawy in Wildianis aliorumque nummis. Ceterum
*¢ Beroeam
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
“‘ Beroeam nunc Aleppo vocitant unde in Jure Graco-romana (p. 292.) © EusabiG@: emoxomGs tg meyadns Béggolas qtos Te yadrer. Ex Cedreno, ** Zonara, & Niceta, paria conduxit Cl. Cellarius.” (Vetera Romanorum Jtineraria, &c. cum notis J. Simeleri. curante J. Weffelingio. Amftelod- 1735. p- 193.) Golius (Note in Alfergan. pa76)
The Arabian writers concur in the opinion of the Greek name of the city being Birruia (Lig ) Baru, or Beiru. (M.S. Chap. 3.) The name igs i is found in two ettins over Damafcus Gate, (Bab al Makam) one on each fide, and both exa@tly the fame. Under Birruia “ Abul Nafr *¢ Al Moulianna, Al Sultan Al Millek Al Afhraf aaz Nafroo.” (praifed be his victory ') On the wall adjoining to the gate, on the right hand, is a longer infcription, importing that this holy place, (in allufion to the Makam, or {tation of the Patriarch) was rebuilt in the time of the Millek Al Afhraf, Abu’l Nafr. Another infcription on the oppofite fide of the gate contains a prayer for the Sultan’s prefervation. There are infcriptions on two other ftones, but fo defaced by time, as to be illegible.
The want of a date renders it difficult to determine to which of thé Princes, who bore the title Al Afhraf, the above infcriptions refer; but he probably was one of thofe of the Circaffian Line.
Note III. p. 2.
‘By former times, are not meant thofe prior to the Portuguefe eftablith- ments in the Eaft Indies, when Aleppo enjoyed {fo large a fhare of the Indian and Perfian commerce; nor even that period preceding the year 1681, during which the Levant Company exported confiderable quantitie of woolen manufa¢tures, and other Englifh wares, to the value, in fome years, of five hundred thoufand pounds ; importing in return filks, galls, 8c. great part of which merchandize paffed through Aleppo: but the times alluded to are thofe fo far down as the beginning of the prefent century.
An abftraé& account of the eftablifhment of the Englifh in the Levant, is inferted in the Appendix.
Note IV. p. 5.
The deftruétion of the Chriftian camp in the year 1123, by the fudden. rife of the river Kowick, is recorded by Al Makin, and found in an un- publithed.
3439
35°
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
publifhed tranfcript and tranflation of that Author’s Hiftory, by Gagnier, at Oxford. (Hunt, M.S. No. 16).
‘ After the fiege had continued eight days, and the place was upon the ‘ point of furrendering, the river Kowick rofe unexpectedly, and overflow- ‘ ing its banks, carried away the tents, deftroyed a great number of men, ‘ together with baggage and effects to an immenfe value. This difafter ‘ happened about three in the afternoon.’
The Univerfal Hiftory, though it refers to this paflage in Al Makin, places the inundation of the Kowick prior to the death of Balak Ebn Bahram al Maubege, whereas Al Makin exprefsly fays it happened after ; for the word Maleck is no doubt an error in the M. S. where EU, is put for See and Al Makin adds that Ikfankar took poffeffion of Aleppo, the day (or foon) after the inundation. Abu’l Furrage places the death of Balak in the year of the Hegira 518. (A. C. 1125.) and fays that Ikfan- kar then took poffeffion of the city.
The critici{m in the Univerfal Hiftory relating to Al Gazi Ebn Artak is certainly juft. It may be remarked, moreover, that Pocock in his tranfla- tion of Abu’l Furrage, conftantly writes Al Gazi, though the Arabic text: has Al Bilgazi C¢ jlaw! or Bigazi C¢jlatJ! (Modern Univerfal Hiftory
vol, 11. p. 392.)
Note V. p. 6.
M. D’Arvieux was Conful of France at Aleppo, from November 1 679 ta the beginning of the year 1686. In his former refidence of twelve years, in different parts of the Levant, he had acquired fuch knowledge of the Arabic, Perfian, Turkifh and Greek, as enabled him to {peak fluently in the refpective languages, and to tranfa¢ct public bufinefs, without the aid of an interpreter. With thefe advantages, he had an opportunity of becoming more intimately acquainted with the manners and tempers of the Turks, (with whom he lived familiarly) than moft Europeans have in thefe later times. Before coming to Aleppo, he had been employed as an Envoy to Tunis, and Conftantinople; and refided, for fome time, as Conful at Algiers. (See Preface to Voyage dans la Paleftine.)
D’Arvieux’s journey to the camp of the Emeer in 1664, with his re- marks on the cuftoms and manner of the Arabs ; was publifhed by M. de la Roque, in. 1717, under the title (Voyage, &c.. &c. dans la Paleftine.).
Tt
NOTES: AND; ILLUSTRATIONS,
It afterwards was publifhed, together with the Chevalier’s other Travels, by Le Pere Labat, in 1735, in fix volumes ; containing various obferva- tions by the Editor.
Though D’ Arvieux often defcends to details not interefting at this time, his Memoirs contain much curious information ; and fo far as regards the {pirit of the Turks in their political conduét, as well as their general cha- racter, his remarks are more acute, and his accounts more impartial, than almoft any to be found in the works of travellers who have colleéted infor- mation through the medium of interpreters.
The fixth volume of his Memoirs contains a defcription of the city of Aleppo, in which, among many things exa¢tly juft, are found a few inac- curacies that feem imputable only to the Editor. ‘The epithet Shahaba, is written Schella, “‘ En effet, Haleb al Schella, fignifie en Arabe, le lait “de la Vache Schella.’’ Bal is conftantly put inftead of Bab. “ Bal “ Tamacarin, inftead of Bab Kinnafreen.”’ Bal al Makam, is tranflated Porte des Dames. Kullart for Kullah. Sonakat for Sahat, &c. A perfon fo converfant in the language, as M. D’Arvieux, could not have com- mitted blunders of this kind: it muft therefore be fuppofed either that his papers were carelefsly tranfcribed, or that the Editor filled up chafms he might have met with in the manufcript, from other writers ignorant in the Eaftern languages. I have thought proper to fay thus much, before pro- ducing fuch extraéts from the Memoirs as feem unqueftionably to belong to the Author, and whofe authority I confider as very refpeétable.
Soon after the publication of D’Arvieux’s Memoirs, a {mall book was publifhed at Paris in 1735, entitled “‘ Lettres critiques de Hadgi Mehemed “ Effendi, au fuject des Memoires, &c. &c. traduites de Turc par Ahmed “‘ Frengiu, renegat Flamand.”
The writer treats both D’Arvieux and his Editor with great afperity ; but enters fo warmly into the defence of the conduét of the Jefuits in Turkey, (p. 36.) and fo keenlv refents the fuppofed preference given to the Conful’s Secretary, that the work is evidently that of an offended party, not of a Renegado.
It muft be owned that as an Editor, Labat has taken great liberty with his Author ; but many of the circumftances juftly animadverted on in the Lettres Critiques, are certainly not imputable to D’Arvieux, to whom it is abfurd to afcribe ignorance of the Oriental language, (p. 48.) merely on
account
351
354
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
account of blunders in orthography committed in tranfcribing, or printing, or perhaps by the Editor.
Upon the whole, the criticifms are far from leffening the credit of M. D’ Arvieux, with refpect to fuch matters as I may have occafion to cite his authority. I find no reafon in the Letters to alter my opinion of his vera~ city ; and in fome inftances, where the petulance of the fictitious Effendy betrays the inveteracy of an offended Jefuit, I have fubftantial reafon for thinking that D’Arvieux {poke ftri@ truth.
In his defcription of the city, he gives a lift of the ftreets and diftrits, making thofe within the walls amount to twenty-two, and thofe without to fifty, containing in all 13360 houfes; to which being joined 272 Mofques. and Chapels, 35 Palaces, 68 Khanes, 187 Kaifarias, 64 Baths, &c. &c. the whole number of houfes and public buildings amount to fourteen thoufand. one hundred and odd. (Memoires du Chevalier D’Arvieux, Tom. vi. p.. 434. Paris 1735).
Among my Brother’s papers I found a lift, written in Arabic, of the. {treets and diftrnicts, with the number of houfes in each. It is dated in the Turkifh year 1166 (1752), and from the hand writing I fhould fufpeét he had it from the office of the Mohaffil, but there being no explanatory me-. morandum joined to it, I cannot vouch for its authority... This obferves a. different diftribution from the Chevalier D’Arvieux’s account, making the ftreets, or diftricts, amount to 136; but though the fuburbs are, clearly comprehended in the account, the number of houfes amount only to 10742- The Khanes, Kaifarias, Mofques, &c. are not mentioned, and therefore moft probably were not included ; but even on that fuppofition, if D’Ar-. yieux’s account be exaét, there will be found a decreafe of 2628 houfes,.
fince the year 1683..
Note VI. p. 7.
Some account of the ancient Chalcis, or Kinnafreen, now called Old Aleppo, may be found in the following Authors, Abu'lfeda (Tabulz. Syriz, p. 277.) Golius (Note in Alfergan. pe 276.) Weflelingius (Itinera-. ria Veter. Roman. p. 193).
It furrendered, on capitulation, to the Saracens, in the 17th year of
the Hegira, (A. C. 630.) foon after their invafion of Syria. Its:
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Its prefent ftate is well defcribed by Mr. Drummond, who was at great pains in examining the ancient ruins in that part of the world. “‘ We re- “ turned by the way of Rhia, and thence through a charming plain to Old “ Aleppo, as it is vulgarly called, or the ancient city of Chalcis, which “« gave its name to the adjacent country. For the convenience of water “ we pitched our tents near the river Singas, now Kowaig, at fome dif- “‘ tance from the place where that city {tood, and in the morning furveyed “‘ its veftiges, for I cannot call them ruins, as nothing like a houfe is feen “‘ ftanding; though we found many great fquared {tones and foundations, ** particularly thofe of the walls, which are nine feet thick, and occupy a “* great extent of ground. ‘The caftle, or citadel, has covered a very large “* hill adjoining to the city, and was furrounded by a double wall. From “¢ this caftle hill we enjoyed a delightful view of the champain country, ex- ** tending to a prodigious diftance all round; but not one fiftieth part of it ** is cultivated.”
Mr. Drummond has given a Greek in{cription which he took from a
{tone of the city wall. (Travels, p. 236. Lond. 1754.) Pocock (Defcri p tion of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 148.)
Note VII. p. 43.
Rabbi Benjamin of Toledo, afferts that they had neither wells nor river at Aleppo; and that the inhabitants drank nothing but rain water, pre- ferved in cifterns, to which they gave the name of Algob. (Voyages de Rabbi Benjamin, par Baratier, vol. i. p. 126. Amfterdam 1734).
The tranflator of Benjamin (Baratier) confiders this affertion as a proof of the traveller having never been at Aleppo. But he himfelf is miftaken when he affirms there are no le{fs than two rivers, the Singa and the Coic, the one pafling the city, the other watering the gardens ; for thefe are only different names for the fame river, which in faét, contributes little towards the fupply of the city.
Benjamin was at Aleppo in the time of Nouraldeen, and it is probable the aqueduct was then much out of repair; for Milek al Daher, fome years after, found it in fo ruinous a condition, that vaft expenfe was required to put itinto order. The Sahreege, or cifterns, are fometimes called Giub, but that name at prefent is ufually given to draw wells. As it is impotlible every houfe could have a Sahreege, {fo it is probable moft of them muft have
Vor. I. Lz had
85
tw)
354
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
had draw wells. It is {till a cuftom to preferve the rain-water for inferior ufes, but it muft have required large refervoirs indeed to hold a fufficient quantity, in a country where for fix months.of the year little or no rain falls.
Baratier alfo confiders the account given of Nouraldeen’s palace, as an- other proof of his Author’s {peaking merely from report. Suppofing the Author to mean. the caftle, it was certainly giving a very inadequate de- fcription ; but if the prefent Seraglio then exifted, (and it appears to be ancient) the defcription would be juft. Whether the Princes of thofe times conftantly refided in the caftle, is a matter belonging to. another place.
In the meanwhile, Baratier’s differtation, in the fecond volume, renders it very probable that Benjamin was rather a compiler than a real travel- ler. The fuppofed travels of this Jew were between the year 1160 and. £173)
Golius has fallen into an unaccountable error, in which he has been followed by many fubfequent writers. ‘“ Tum et rigandis, qui longe ‘¢ lateque circumjacent, hortis, ipfe infervit Euphrates, cujus inde a bidui «‘ intervallo per w 14S Subterraneos Canales, huc derivantur aque.” Golius (Note in Alfergan, p. 273. Amftelod 1669).
The want of water in the fummer for the gardens, might, it is faid, be eafily remedied by a junétion. of the river Sedjour with the Kowick. This {cheme has been more than once in agitation ; devout individuals have left money for the purpofe, and about twelve or fourteen years ago, perfong were fent from Conftantinople to furvey the ground. Many years before, the work was a¢tually begun, and fome progrefs.made in cutting the eanal; but it is commonly fufpected. that the work, though of public utility, is dif- couraged at Aleppo, by certain perfons-of influence, whofe intereft would fuffer from the garden grounds near the town decreafing in value, were the water in fuch plenty as to encourage new plantations.
Pocock in his tour to the Euphrates, obferves that ‘“ Zelchif is com- “puted to be eight hours:from Aleppo, ten from Antab, and three from «“ Killis; four: hours:more-entered the plain of Sejour through which there «‘ runs a river of the fame name to the Eaft of the village ; Sejour is be- *¢ yond this ftream at the foot ofa little hill. We paffed over three chan- ‘‘ nels cut from this ftream in order to carry the water into the river of «© Aleppo, over which we paffed about a mile further. It is here a larger
“river
NOTES! AND J/TLLUSTRA TIONS.
*¢ river than it is at Aleppo, many ftreams being carried out of it bclow to “‘ water the country. As I was informed it rifes about two hours South “ Eaft of Antab: fome Englifh gentlemen went to the place which is “‘ called Hajar Yadereen or Gadjeia, where they faw the rife of it from “< about forty {prings near one another. Another rivulet runs about it which “ they fuppofed was the Sejour. There was an opinion in Golius’s time “« that thefe {prings came from the Euphrates.” (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. page 154).
Refpecting the fource of the Kowick. See Drummond (Travels, p. 204, and 243.) .
Note V HT. p. “4.6.
It was on this meadow, (then called Meidan al Ahder, or Green Meidan) that Saladin encamped, while the treaty was carrying on which put him in poffeffion of Aleppo, after the death of Milek al Saleh. (Ann. Heg. 579. A. C. 1183) there alfo the great men of the city, and the army, came to pay him homage; and thence he proceeded to the caftle, where a fumptuous entertainment was prepared for him. (Vita Saladini Vers. Schultens, Lugd. Bat. 1732).
Another paffage, from the fame Author, fhows the high eftimation in which Aleppo was held by Saladin. Upon fending his fon Al Milek al Daher to that city, with the title of Sultan, he gave him to underftand that he confidered it 1s the bafe and foundation of his kingdom, and of which having fecured the pofleffion, he fhould relinquifh all future con- quefts of other Oriental Provinces, and confine his exertions folely to the Holy War. Milek al Daher, was met by the Grandees of the city, at Ain al embaraky, or Bleffed Fountain, and in the forenoon, made his public entry into the caftle, amid the acclamations of the populace. (ut Supra, page 65).
It may be remarked on both the above paflages, that the Princes at that time, feem to have refided, or to have had a palace, in the caftle; and from what D’Arvieux fays, it would appear that the Bafhaws occafionally refided there in his time, (Memoires, Tom. vi. p. 411. and 443). Yet it is evident from Cotovicus, that in 1599, the Bafhaw’s refidence was in the old Seraglio, where they ftill refide. (Itinerarium Hieroiol. et Syriacum, Antwerp. 1619).
ye Note IX.
355.
356
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note’ TX. p. 57.
The funk village appears to have been rarely vifited by travellers. Po- cock inferts in his book the following defcription, which he had from a gentleman he met with, after his return to England. “It is a round oval « pit about one hundred yards in diameter and forty deep, it being a falid ‘“‘ rock all round, which for the firft twenty feet is perpendicular, below ‘‘ which there is a fteep defcent to the bottom, where it terminates in a “‘ point. There is only one way down to it, which is not paflable for beafts: ‘“‘ half way down there is a grotto worked into the rock about four feet ‘“‘ hich and thirty long.’ (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 169).
Note’ X." pe 5g:
M. Otter, when at Bylan in 1737, was told of a mountain called Arfiz Dagui, about nine hours diftant from Scanderoon, from which, for fome years paft, fire had iffued. Otter (Voyage en Turquie, Tom. i. page 79, Paris 1748).
Pocock, in his way to Seleucia, mentions having heard of this Volcano from an Englifh gentleman: but he did not fee it himfelf. (ut Supra, page 182).
Note XI. p. 60.
In Auguft 1755, fome water put up at the fountain at Khillis in a bot- tle, and well corked, was on the fourth day brought to Aleppo. It ap- peared of a diluted milky colour, and had the fetid {mell of a gun newly difcharged. It’s tafte was that of a tainted egg, to which was joined a bit- terifh faltnefs refembling a weak folution of Epfom falt. The fulphure- ous tafte and {mell went off entirely, on the water being expofed about eight hours in an open veflel.
Two pound and a half of the water evaporated over a {low fire to four ounces and then left to cool, depofited a thick whitith fediment which weighed, when dried, fifty-five grains, and appeared to confift of calcarious earth with a {mall proportion of falt.
The remaining four ounces evaporated to drynefs, yielded ninety-five crains of falt, mixed with fome of the lefs grofs calcareous earth.
The
———e Le eT
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The fifty-five grains of refiduum with the ninety-five of falt being dif- folved in {pring water and filtered, there remained in the filter forty-fix grains of a whitifh infipid earth. The veffel, in which the filtered {olution was fet to evaporate, being accidentally broken, the quantity of falt could not be exactly determined.
Note XII. p. 60.
P. Teixeira gives a beautiful defcription of part of the Syrian moun- tains, which, though highly coloured, is very juft. (Viage de Ped. Teix- eira de la India, p. 190. en Amberes 1610). |
Moryfon, on the third day of his journey from Tripoly to Aleppo, de- fcribes another part of the Syrian mountains and plains. “ We fet out “ early in the morning and {pent eight hours in afcending the mountain ‘‘ which was very high, but the way eafy, with many turnings about the “ mountain, which of itfelf without manuring yieldeth many wild but ‘‘ pleafant fruits, feeming to pafs in pleafantnefs the beft manured or- “« chards.”” When we had paffed the mountain, “ we came into a very “‘ Jarge and fruitful plain of corn, which was yet (June 22nd) uncut down. ** After dinner we went forward in this plain, and did fee fome villages “ which in this vaft Empire are very rare. Next morning, we took our * journey and for fix hours paffed in the fame plain having not fo much “‘as the fhadow of one tree, and came to the city Aman (Hama). «« Abounding with orchards of palms and fruitful trees, and near the fame “¢ were fix villages in fight. On Wednefday (the fifth day from Tripoly) *< we fet forward (from Hama) in the afternoon and journied all night in * this plain, wherein there was not the fhadow of one tree. Thurfday at «« three in the afternoon fet forward, and about midnight we came to the “city Maara. Next morning before day we fet forward and pafling a “ ftrong barren way, but full of walnut trees, upon which many birds did “ fit and fing, we came in four hours {pace to a Khane.” Moryfon (Tra- vels, p. 244, Lond. 1617).
Perry in his journey ta Aleppo, obferves. ‘ Our fourth day was from “« Edlib to Aleppo. This day’s jourmey was truly charming, the whole “ road or way being one continued plain, {welling in various parts in fucl: ‘a manner as if calculated to entertain the eye the more agreeably. The
“ town
SZ
358
NOTES AND /DLIDUSP RAAT ONG.
“ town of Edlib is pleafantly fituated and is encompafied with a fine grove *< of olive trees to a good extent.” (View of the Levant, p. 141. Lond:
1743).
Note ATI." p. 61;
‘Teixeira gives the following account of Scanderoon in the year 1605. *¢ We croffed over the plain which is for the moft part fenny, and there- “ fore very unhealthy. At length we came to the fhore, where are fome “‘ houfes belonging to Franks, living there for the convenience of trade, ‘* which formerly was conveyed to Aleppo, (80 miles diflant) from Tri- ‘* polyin Syria, whence upon fome differences with the Batfias, the Chriftians ‘* retired to this place, about fifteen years fince, yet like it not very well ** becaufe of the inconvenience of carrying their goods fo far by land.” P. Teixeira (Travels p. 79).
Moryfon who traveiled about ten years earlier than Teixeira, that is about the year 1595, reprefents Scanderoon as “a poor village built all of ‘* ftraw and durt, excepting the houtes of fome Chriftian faétors, built of ‘ timber and clay, in fome convenient fort, and it lies along the fea fhore. “« For the famous city of Aleppo having no other Haven, the merchants *¢ do here unload their goods, but themfelves make hafte to Aleppo, ftaying “« as little here as poffibly they can, and commiting the care of carrying “‘ their goods upon camels, to the factors of their nation continually abid- “ing there. The peftilent air of this place is the caufe that they dare not «« make any ftay there ; for this village, is compafled on three fides with “a fenny plain, and the fourth fide lies upon the fea. On the Eaft fide «‘ beyond the fen is a moft high mountain, which keeps the fight of the ‘¢ fun from Scanderoon, and being full of bogs infeéts the fenny plain with ‘ill vapours. On the other fide towards the North (as I remember) in *¢ the way leading to Conftantinople the like fenny plain lies, and the “ mountains though more remote, do bare the fight of the fun and the “‘ boggie earth yielding ill vapours, makes Scanderoon infamous for the *¢ death of Chriftians.”” Moryfon (Travels, p. 250).
Scanderoon, has all along uniformly maintained its reputation of un- heaithinefs, to the prefent times.
Note XIY.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note XIV. p. 61.
Pietro della Valle defcribes the Defert he paffed between Aleppo and Baffora, as being moftly a plain with very few rifings interfperfed. The foil dry ; in fome places impregnated with falt or other minerals; feldom {tony ; and very rarely marfhy, or covered with reeds. In the months of June, July, and Auguft, moft parts prefented herbage, but the plants were cheifly of the {fpinous kind, and only fit food for camels. A conftant, {trong wind was troublefome, by raifing the duft, but contributed to render the heats very tolerable. The nights were conftantly ferene, and it was ne- ceffary to guard again{ft cold, by warm clothing. (Viaggii di Pietro della. Valle, Parte iii. p. 415):.
Buffon’s picture of the Arabian Deferts, is drawn with a mafterly hand (Hitt. Nat. xi. 221.) “ Qu’on fe figure un pays fans verdure et fans eau, un folert brulant, un ciel toujours-fec, des plaines fublaneufe, des Montagnes encore plus arides, fur les quelles l’ceil s’etend & le regard fe perd fans pouvoir s’arreter fur aucum objeét vivant, &c.”
Gibbon in his general defcription of the Defert, (decline of the. Roman. Empire, V. 172.) has with great propriety introduced fome circumftances which Buffon had omitted, while others, perhaps, rather belong to the African Deferts than the Arabian. ‘ Even the wilds of Tartary are « decked, by the hand of nature, with lofty. trees, and luxuriant herbage ; “‘ and the lonefome traveller derives a fort of comfort and fociety from the “ prefence of vegetable life.. But in the dreary wafte of Arabia, a bound- “ lefs level of fand is interfected by fharp and naked mountains ; and the “ face of the Defert, without fhade or thelter, is fcorched'by the direét and “ intenfe rays of a tropical fun. Inftead of refreihing breezes, the winds, “‘ particularly from the South Weft, diffufe a noxious and even deadly
vapour; the hillocks of fand which they alternately raife and {catter,.
“‘ are compared to. the billows of the ocean, and whole caravans, whole ‘armies, have been loft and buried in the whirlwind. The common “benefits of water are an object of defire and conteft; and {uch is the “ fearcity of wood, that fome art is requifite to preferve and propagate the
« element of fire. Arabia is deftitute of navigable rivers, which fertilize: *‘ the foil, and convey its produce to the adjacent regions: the torrents.
‘¢ that fall from the hills are imbibed by the thirfty earth: the rare and ‘‘ haidy plants, the Tamarind or the Acacia, that ftrike their roots inta
6c“ the
359
360
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
“¢ the clifts of the rocks, are nourifhed by the dews of the night: a fcanty “< fupply of rain is colleéted in cifterns and aqueduéts: the wells and {prings “‘ are the fecret treafure of the Defert ; and the Pilgrim of Mecca,, after ‘‘ many a dry and fultry march, is difgufted by the tafte of the waters» ‘‘ which have rolled over a bed of fulphur or falt.”
Note XV. p. 63.
“Lair de la ville & des environs eft fain, mais fi fubtil, que les gens “‘ qui y arrivent, & qui ne font pas entierement fains, doivent extréme- “* ment craindre de voir leur maladies cachées fe produire au de hors & les “‘ emporter bien-tét, s’ils ne gardent un regime exaét. Chofe difficile aux “« Francois, & impoffible aux Anglois & aux Nations feptentrionales, que “‘ les vins excellens qu’on y boit attirent a faire des débauches dont ils font *‘ bien-tdt les dupes, & l’eté fur tout plus que ’hyver. D’Arvieux (Me- “ moires Tom.vi. page 428).
Moryfon, in the year 1596, obferves that the air was fo hot (in the end of June) “ as methought I {upped hot broth, when I drew it in; but it is “< very fubtile, fo as the Chriftians coming hither from Scanderoon (a moft “ unhealthful place, having the air choaked with fens) continually fall “‘ fick and often die. And this is the caufe that the Englifh fa€tors em- “‘ ployed here (there) feldom return into England, the twentieth man “‘ {carcely living till his prentifhip being out, he may trade here for himéelf, «¢ The Chriftians here, and the Turks at the Chriftians coft, drink excellent “wines.” Moryfon (Travels, p. 246).
Perhaps the excefs in wine, hinted by D’Arvieux, was at that time, as it appears to have been in the fucceeding century, more common among the Franks than it has been in later times.
Note XVL. 1p. 67,
This phenomenon is produced by the evaporation, On the fame prin- ciple wine is cooled by wrapping a wet cloth round the bottle and then hanging it up at the tent door in the fummer. Providing the cloth be
* In the thirty days, or ftations, between Cairo and Mecca, there are fifteen defti- tute of good water. See the route of the Hadjees, in Shaw’s Travels, p. 477. kept
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
kept conftantly wet, the operation will be more fpeedily completed by fuf- pending the bottle in the fun. The Natives by way of cooling their water-melons, cut them open and expofe them on the houfe top an hour before fun fet.
M. Michaelis obferves “ au Rapport du Ruffel, le Vent d’Eft, dans les “mois d’Eté malgre fa chaleur extérieur, conferve un froide interne.’ (Recueil des Queftions par M. Michaelis, q. 24.) It may however be re- marked that Rufflell fimply mentioned the faét as fingular, without at- tempting to account for it. It is not the intention of the Editor to en- gage in a difcuffion of the conjeétures formed by the learned M. Michaelis on this fubjet, but it may not be impertinent to fubjoin a few circum- ftances, founded on fubfequent obfervation, relative to what has been al- ready faid concerning the hot winds.
1f{t. Their rarenefs at Aleppo was confirmed; for I did not obferve them more than in four or five fummers out of nineteen.
2nd. There appears to be an effential difference between thofe winds and the more common light breezes from the fame points of the compafs.
3rd. Eaft, or South Eaft winds when ftrong, though conftantly ardent and haraffing in the f{ummer, do not conftantly produce that fenfe of fuf- focation and inquietude, fo remarkable in the true hot winds; as if that was a property peculiar to certain years. Strong Eafterly winds are much more common than the true hot winds, but their oppreffive quality is not in proportion to the force with which they blow, as their other effects, fuch as cooling water, &c. ufually are.
4th. In this latent property, diftinét from their degree of heat and ftrength, they would feem to refemble the Simooly winds. But there is much room for future inquiry into the fubje¢t.
Note XVII. p. 68.
I have had feveral opportunities of converfing with perfons who. have been witnefles of the mortal effeéts of this fingular wind, but in their ac- counts, they fo often difagreed in material circumftances, that I never was able to colleét any fatisfactory ftate of faéts. It may be remarked, that in order to procure exaét information from the Arabs, caution is requifite in the mode of ftating the queftion; for it is not difficult, on certain fubjects, to induce them to fay whatever one pleafes.
¥ ox. I. Aaa The
&
362
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The Simooly winds are much more dreaded on the Baffora fide of the Defert than at Aleppo. Mr. Ives was particularly cautioned about them at Bagdat; and has inferted in his book, a letter from an officer on the fubjeét of the Simooly wind, extraéted from the Annual Regifter of the year 1766. Ives (Journey, p. 276).
See on this fubjeét Thevenot (Travels into the Levant. Part. ii. p. 54. 116. 135. 157. Lond. 1687). Tavernier (Voyages through Turkey into Perfia, &c. p. 256. Lond. 1678). Mr. Bruce, in his Abyffinian Travels, has mentioned feveral curious circumftances relating to the Simooly winds,
never remarked before. (Vol. iv. p. 557. 583)-
Note XVIII. p. 5.
The M.S. in the Efcurial Library on the fubje& of agriculture, is entitled Kitab al Felahah ax Me! WU the Author’s name Abu Zacharia Jahia Ebn Mohammed Ebn Ahmad, vulgo Ebn Aluam, Hifpalenfi.
“‘ Hujus autem Codicis pars prior extat in Regia Bib. Paris. inter Codices “« Arabicos M. S. Num. g12, ficut in Biblioth. Lugd. Bat.
Cafiri hints an intention of tranflating this M. S.; inthe meanwhile he prefents a Catalogue of the writers mentioned by the Author, with a pro- fpectus of the 34 Chapters into which the work is divided. The number of Arab writers amounts to feventeen. (Biblioth. Arabico-hifpan. Efcur.
vol. } p. 323)-
Note XIX. p. 98.
In the year 1754, I tranfmitted to my Brother the copy of an Arabie paper, containing an account of the number of inhabitants of Aleppo, which makes that of the Turks amount to 300,000. The Author was an old Maronite Prieft. His computation was principally formed on the an- nual confumption of grain, and the mortality in the plague year 1742; but he was alfo affifted (he fays) in his calculations, by an European friend, an expert geometrician.
‘In the year 1742, according to this paper it was found that the pro- “‘ portion of Chriftians who died of the plague, was about five in the “ hundred; and, allowing the Turks to have {uffered in the fame propor-
‘‘ tion, their number fhould then have been 300,000.” But
NOTES AND JUILLUSTRATIONS.
But it is probable that the Turks fuffered in a much greater proportion, from not having it in their power to avoid the infection, like the Chriftians, who cautioufly keep out of the way, or where circumftances admit, re- main fhut up in their houfes. The inference, therefore, drawn from the mortality of the Turks, feems to be fallacious. But allowing the Turks to have loft between feven or eight in the hundred, their number would then be only 200,000, holding a medium between the Chriftians, and Jews; for the latter, according to the above account of the mortality, are fuppofed to have loft about ten in the hundred.
In a city where no Regifter is kept of births and burials, it mutt be al- moft impoffible to afcertain the number of inhabitants. There is a tax upon houfes, from which the number of thefe might perhaps be determined; but as the Turks, in the way of {peculation pay no attention to political arithmetic, an European finds infurmountable difficulty in procuring fuch reports as would warrant an. eftimate of the number of inhabitants in each houfe. The cafe is different in refpeét to the Chriftians and Jews, who pay a capitation tax; while better information of the interior of their families may be obtained from their Priefts.
M. D’Arvieux feems to have adopted the Oriental ftyle, when he brings it as a proof of the great population of the place, that in the plague of 1669, there died about 100,000 perfons, and that in a week after it had ceafed, the ftreets and Bazars feemed no lefs crowded than before.
This reprefentation was in all probability highly exaggerated, even al- lowing the city to have contained 300,000, inhabitants. But that the mortality could not have been fo confiderable, will appear from the ac- count given by a gentleman of the Englith factory, who, made the pilgrim- age that very year to Jerufalem. “ May 3rd, 1669, (fays the Journal) “‘ fourteen Englifhmen of the factory fet fail from Scanderoon, for the “ Holy Land. They returned to Tripoly about the roth of June, but were ‘< detained there by the Conful, on account of the plague’s flill raging at “« Aleppo. They returned to Scanderoon the 26th of June, when fome “« were dead, and others dying, and one flying from another. We tarred «upon the mount, and aboard the fhip, for fometime; and, July 2nd, we ‘< arrived at Aleppo, where there died daily at that time feventy or eighty, “‘ of the plague.”” (A Journey to Jerufalem in 1669. p. 86. Lond.)
M. D’Arvieux’s account of the confumption of provifions is probably founded on better information. “ The daily confumption of gra‘n in the
Ava a2 ery
364
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
‘‘ city and fuburbs is about one hundred Makooks of wheat, each weigh- “‘ ing two Kentals and a half. The Kental confifts of one hundred Rota- ‘‘ loes, and the Rotalo of five pounds three quarters, Marfeille’s weight. “‘ When a Bafhaw is refident in the city, about fifty Makooks of barley ** are confumed, and in his abfence thirty-five. Of Legumes, which are “ much ufed by the poor, the daily confumption is about fixty Makooks, “ including the {mall grains for the black cattle and camels.”
‘¢ Six hundred fheep are killed daily ; but it was impoffible to learn the “ number of Lambs, Kids, Fowls, Pigeons, &c.’” (Memoires Tom. vi. page 456).
The account I received at Aleppo made the number of fheep flaughtered daily, only four hundred, which, if exaét, would feem to denote a confider- able decreafe of population. Beeves are only killed two days in the week» from feven to ten a week. In the winter a few Buffaloes are killed alfo; and in the fame manner as part of the beef, is prepared by drying, or made into hams, and faufages; little of the meat being eaten frefh. Of wheat, according to my account, the confumption agrees nearly with D’Arvieux’s calculation.
~ Note XX. p. 108.
« According to Cantacufcino, ‘ Luxury in drefs began to be introduced ‘among the Turks in the time of Bajazet, and increafed under Selim, * whofe reign commenced in the year 1512. The latter imported great
-* quantities of gold and jewels, from Perfia and Egypt, and the women par-
‘ ticularly, from that period, dreffed in a much more expenfive manner than ‘before. The men however were in fome meafure reftrained by the ex- ‘ample of the Emperor, who, being a foldier himfelf, was inclined to dif- ‘ courage the increafing fpirit of effeminacy among his officers, and to re- ‘ {tore the rigid and fimple manners prevalent in the reign of Mahomet II; ‘in whofe time neither military nor other officers, could, without offence, ‘have appeared at court, in velvets, rich ftuffs, and coftly pellices, of ‘late years fo common. I have myfelf, (fays the Author, in 1545) feen ‘ the wife of a fimple attendant of the court, whofe drefs, including pearls ‘ and jewels, coft from one to four thoufand ducats. Whence it may eafily “be conceived, how expenfive muft be the drefs of the ladies of the
* Grandees.’
See
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
‘Grandees.’ ‘Theod. Spanducino Cantacufcino. (Commentari, lib. ii. p. 168. Fiorenza 1751).
It would appear, therefore, that this extravagance in drefs, is not of mo- derndate. Neverthelefs it‘is a prevalent opinion in Turkey, that effemi- nacy has greatly increafed in the prefent century. The Turks themfelves complain of it; and I have heard it afferted by perfons of rank, that er- mine and other coftly furs, are now worn by thofe who, in their remem- brance, were never accuftomed to wear furs of any kind.
The Turks delight in garments of gaudy colours. Their Kaooks are chiefly red, or green, and on all public occafions, the white fhafh is newly wafhed ; fo that a Turkith crowd, makes a fplendid and fingular appear- alice, viewed from an elevated place.
A celebrated Arabian writer of the 14th century giving an account of the people of Granada, reprefents them as dreffed in the richeft, flowered Perfian ftuffs, the fineft lawns, linen, and muflins; and compares their appearance when affembled at Mofque, to the ‘ variegated flowers, which, ‘ in the {pring, expand in fome delicious meadow, under the genial influ- * ence of a happy clime.’
He defcribes the rich jewels and other ornaments of the ladies, but re- marks that they carried the rage for expenfive drefs, to an excefs bordering on infanity. ‘ They are handfome in their perfons, (continues he) gene- ‘ rally of middle ftature, rarely tall; amorous; beftow care on their long ‘ flowing hair; their teeth are remarkably white, and they breathe the ‘ richeft perfumes. They move witha {fprightly ftep; are endued with an ‘ ingenious difpofition, and in converfation are lively and witty.’ Eben al Khathib. (Bibliotheca Arabo-hifpan. Efcurialenfis, vol. ii. p. 257. 259.)
The above defcription might very well fuit the modern Aleppo ladies, in all other refpeéts than the alertnefs, or vivacity of their gait.
The reader may find fome curious remarks on the ancient Oriental fe- male drefs, in Harmer (Obfervations, vol. ii. p. 379) as alfo in the learned Bifhop Lowth’s notes on the third chapter of Ifaiah, p. 32.
Note XXI. p. 108.
Peter Belon defcribes the Babooge, or flippers of the Turks, as always fhod with iron. There is no diftinétion (he fays) in this refpect, between thofe of the Sultan, as well as of other great men, and thofe of the pea-
fant :
355
Cs
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
fant: nay that the flippers of the women, and even of children, are fhod in like manner. Belon (Obfervat. lib. i. chap. 43).
Rauwolff and Moryfon defcribe the flippers as being of a white or blue colour. The former fays, ‘‘ Their fhoes are like unto thofe our lackies “‘ufe to wear, and like {flippers eafy to be put on and off. They com- ‘* monly are of a white or blue colour, painted before, underneath defended ‘¢ with nails before, aud with horfe fhoes behind; thefe are worn by “« young and old, men and women, rich and poor.” Ray (Colleétion of curious Travels, &c. vol. i. p. 23. Lond. 1738).
At prefent, the boots and flippers of a few only of the common people are fhod with iron; and are either of a yellow or red colour; but never white. The flippers of the Jews, and the boots of the Effendees are of a dark blue.
The mode of dreffing in different ages, ferving in fome degree to fhow the progre(fs of arts and civilization, I judged it proper to give a more par- ticular defcription of the prefent drefs of Aleppo, which differs but little from that of Conftantinople. In a comparifon with the defcription given by D’Arvieux (Tom. vi. p. 425). The drefs will be found to have un- dergone fome change fince the year 1681, though not near fo much as from the fafhion of the century immediately preceding.
For curious information on this head, fee the valuable work of M. Niebuhr (Voyage en Arabie, Tom. i, p. 127. Amfterdam 1776).
Note XXII. p. 111.
Kohol, ks 5 is a general term for a medicine applied to the eye ball, or the infide of the eyelids, in the form of a powder finely levigated. That which is employed for ornament, 1s called fimply al Kohol, or If{phahany ; when other ingredients, as flowers of Olibanum, Amber, or the like are added, on account of particular diforders, the Kohol is diftinguifhed by fome appropriate epithet.
The fubftance ufed at Aleppo for the ordinary Kohol, is a kind of lead ore brought from Perfia, and is prepared by roafting it in a quince, an apple, or a Trufle, then adding a few drops of oil of Almonds, it is ground to a fubtile powder, on a marble. But of late years the lead ore brought from England, under the name of Arcifoglio, has been ufed inftead of the
Hphahany. The
NODES (AND VILLUS TRA TIONS.
The quantity of Kohol confumed in the Eaft is incredibly great. It has been faid by one of their Poets, in allufion to the probe ufed for ap- plying the powder, and the mountains where the mineral is found, ¢ That ‘ the mountains of I{phahan have been worn away by a bodkin.
The probe or bodkin for the Kohol is called Meel, and is of different fizes, from that of an ordinary quill downwards. It is ftraight, but tapers a little, and is blunt at the point. If I am not miftaken, I have feen fome of ivory, found at Herculaneum, which very nearly refembled thofe now ufed in Syria.
The mineral ufed for the Kohol is, by the Arabs, called Ithmed Kgl or I{phahany, and is no doubt the ftibium of the Greeks: but it may be doubted whether by Ersmus was always underftood what is now called antimony.
Pure, or crude antimony, is not at prefent ufed at Aleppo for the Kohol, and probably never was. The fub{ftance moft in requeft was formerly the Ifphahany Calgrol evidently a lead, not an antimonial ore; and it has already been remarked that large quantities of common Englifh lead ore have been imported to Aleppo, as a fubftitute; I{phahany having be- come fearce and dear. I have examined many fpecimens of the anti- monial and lead ores in the Englifh colleétions, but never faw any thing refembling the antimonial ore in Syria.
The Englith antimony, in its native ftate, on account of particles of lead ore being fometimes mixed with it, is thought to be lefs fit for medi- cinal ufe. But this, with refpeét to the Kohol, would be no objeétion ; for both Diofcorides and Pliny affert that Stibium expofed in the prepa- ration, to too {trong a heat, turns into lead. (Mathiolus in Difcorid. Com- ment. p. 596). In the fubftance ufed at prefent for the Kohol there is no mixture of antimony. ‘The ufe of the Kohol is of very ancient date. Paflages relative to it, in Sacred Hiftory, may be feen in Shaw (Travels, p- 229). Harmer (Obfervations, vol. ii. p. 405). and Bifhop Lowth’s notes on Ifaiah.
The following paflage from Naumachius records the early practice among the Greek ladies.
** Delight not, O Virgin! in empty ornament,
“« Nor view your form too ftudioufly in the mirror,
“ Scrupuloufly adjufting the many-cleft braids of your hair; “© Nor blacken your eyes, under your eyelids.”
Shaw
368
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Shaw obferves that among other curiofities taken out of the Catacombs at Sahara, relating to the Egyptian women, he faw a joint of the common reed, or Donax, which contained one of the bodkins, and an ounce or more of the powder of the Kohol, agreeably to the fafhion and praétices of thofe times. On the paflage in Xenophon, referred to by Shaw, it may be remarked that blackening the eyes, though a cuftom among the Medes, was not at that time in ufe among the Perfians; for Cyrus, among other things, feems to have been furprifed at the painted eyes of his grand- father Aftyages. (Cyropeed. lib. 1. p. 8).
Galen mentions blackening the eyelids as a daily praétice among the women. (Tom. iv. p. 285. Gr. Ed. Bafil 1539. De Sanit. tuend. Lib. vi. chap. 12. Venet. 1625.) See alfo Caufaban’s note on the paflage cited from Juvenal. (Caufabon. Juven. p. 40).
Note XXIII. p. 112.
The compofition employed for tinging the eye brows, is thus prepared. Sixty drams of oil in an earthen vefflel, being placed over a gentle fire, an equal quantity of galls in powder is added by degrees, as foon as the oil begins to boil. The veffel, being covered with a {mooth ftone, is per- mitted to ftand on the fire, till the galls become of a black burnt like colour, when it is removed, and what is found {ticking on the cover, be- ing carefully taken off, is mixed with the finer part of the contents in the veffel. To this mixture are added the following ingredients, (previoufly reduced to powder) crude fal armoniac, calcined copper, of each twenty drams, leaves of Henna, one hundred and twenty drams. The whole being knead into a pafte is formed into {mall tablets. It is applied with a bit of ftick.
Another manner of preparing this dye may be feen in Belon (Obferv, liv. iii, chap. 35. p- 354. Bruxelles 1555).
Note XXIV. p. 112.
They have feveral compofitions for tinging the beard; the following is commonly ufed. Fifteen ounces of Sumach are boiled in two pints and a half of water, to the confumption of two thirds of the liquor. The fol- lowing ingredients, galls, alum, green vitriol, and frefh walnut twigs of
each
—— ee eee eee
NOFES! AND! TLLUSTRA TONS.
each five drams, are then added to the ftrained decoétion, and left to ftand in infufion for five days. The beard is carefully wafhed and dried, to pre- pare it for the dye, which takes effect in about an hours time; when the hair, being wafhed with warm water, is found of a clear black colour.
The Prophet himfelf tinged his beard; and the cuftom was followed not only by his immediate fucceflors, but by feveral of the early Khalifs, Abu’! Feda (Vit. Mohammed. per Gagnier, chap. Ixv).
Al Makin, defcribing the perfon of Abubecker, the immediate fucceffor
of Mohammed, fays that he alfo died his beard. (Al Makin. Erpen. p. 18).
The fame hiftorian takes no further notice of this praétice till the time
of Moawiyah; but it had probably been continued by the Khalifs. It was adopted by Omar; and the Univerfal Hiftory, {peaking of Moawiyah, fays exprefsly “‘ that he tinged his beard, after the example of his predeceffors.” (vol. ii. p. 84). _ It would appear alfo that the Prophet wore his hair, and tinged it as well as his beard. ‘‘ He was well furnifhed with hair which partly fell << in buckles or ringlets about his ears, and partly hung down {ftraight be- << tween his fhoulders. To this by the application of Al Henna, or Cyprus “‘ Indigo, and the herb al Catam, he gave a reddith fhining colour, in “‘ which he is imitated by the Scenite Arabs at this day. (Mod. Univ. <¢ Hift. vol. i. p. 232.)
It may be remarked here that if the colour given to the hair was a fhin- ing red, it was very different from the modern dye, which ftrikes a pure black, and is employed with a view to conceal grey hairs.
I have feen feveral of the Bidoween women whofe hair has been ftained red, but do not recollect to have feen the hair of the itinerant Sheihs tinged. The men (fome itinerant Sheihs excepted) univerfally fhave the head, leaving only a {mall tuft on the crown.
The Turkifh girls commonly ufe henna for their hair, not to give the deep red colour, but a kind of auburn, in imitation of nature.
Woe AAV. BETZ.
The precepts contained in the Koran relative to‘veils are explicit, and in general obeyed, ‘¢ O Prophet {peak unto thy wives and thy daughters, *‘ and the wives of the true believers, that they caft their outer garments “¢ over them when they walk abroad; this will be more proper, that they
VoL. I. Bbb “ may
369
370
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
*“‘ may be known to be matrons of reputation, and may not be affronted by “¢ unfeemly words or aétions.” (Sale’s Koran, chap. 33. p. 350) (Marracct page 556. 59). :
“And fpeak unto the believing women that they reftrain their eyes and preferve their modefty, and difcover not their ornaments, except ‘“¢ what neceffarily appeareth thereof: and let them throw their veils over “ their bofoms, and not fhow their ornaments unlefs to their hufbands, or “ their fathers, or their hufbands fathers, or their fons, or their hufbands ‘ fons, or their brothers, or their brothers fons, or their fifters fons or their “women, or the captives which their right hands fhall poffefs, or unto “‘ fuch men as attend them and have no need of women (old men, &c. ‘¢ but it is a queftion whether Eunuchs are comprehended) or unto chil- «‘ dren who diftinguifh not the nakednefs of women. And let them not “« make a noife with their feet, that their ornaments which they hide may *¢ thereby be difcovered.” (Koran chap. xxi. p. 291). Marracci, p. 482. 32).
(74
Note XXVI. p. 108.
Kaimak, in Turkifh is the name commonly ufed for this cream, but the proper Arabic name is Zubdy 0OU J. The original Arabic receipt for making it is as follows; agreeably to which it has been made with
fuccefs in England. “ Into a copper pan twenty-three inches in diameter,
“¢ and two inches and a half deep, put nineteen pints of frefh fheeps milk, “ (in weight three Rotolos Turkith or fifteen pounds Englifh) and place it “‘ over a moderate charcoal fire, made on a ftone hearth. The pan mutt ‘ be raifed above the hearth about fix inches, by means of three ftones, or ‘ a trivet, the fire is then to be blown gently for the {pace of two minutes, “and for that time only. A thin {cum will foon appear on. the milk, «‘ and in about half an hour cover the whole furface. You will then per- ‘6 ceive it fimmer, or a {mall motion in the middle of the pan will fhow ‘that it is juft beginning to boil.
“
wn
nw
«“ You muft now, having provided a pint mug, or the like veffel with. ‘6 a handle, ladle the milk till you bring it into an entire froth, which wil} s¢ require about two minutes; and as the froth and blubbers fubfide, the Kaimak will rife on the furface, covering it in the form of a honey «« comb.
av. e
66 it
NOTES /AND LLLUSTRA TIONS.
*« It is requifite at this time to be attentive to the fire. Should the ** Kaimak appear {welling in any part, immediately remove fome of the “ fire, which if {till too fierce, damp it with afhes. The remaining fire is “¢ then to be fpread equally under the pan, and if no fwellings appear on the <¢ furface of the milk, it may be left to thicken, and cool.
“« The Kaimak, when cold, is to be carefully {tripped off with the fin- “¢ gers, in the form of a rolled pancake, only thicker; but in this opera- “ tion it is hardly poffible to prevent the cake breaking into pieces.
“ ‘The Kaimak produced will be found to weigh one pound two thirds “ Englith ; (two hundred and forty drams or four ounces Turkifh) and “ the remaining milk will meafure eleven pints. The milk is rich and “ fweet, but will have acquired a burnt tatfte.
«« The remaining milk fubmitted again to the fame operation, will pro- ** duce a fecond cake of Kaimak, weighing one pound and a quarter Englith, “< but inferior in quality and colour to the firft.
“Though goat’s milk be plenty at Aleppo, fheep’s milk is preferred “‘ for making Kaimak. Some experience is required for regulating the “< fire properly, and judging of the boiling, the honey comb fcurf, &c. If “ the fire be made of rather large pieces of charcoal, and a little brifk at “« firft, one or two minutes blowing will be fufficient ; but it muft not be «< hurried fo as to make the milk boil within the half hour. The veffel 4¢ muft not be moved nor the milk ftirred, when left to cool.
“The whole of the operation from the time of making the fire till the «< {tripping off the Kaimak, was finifhed in about three hours.”
Note XXVII. p. 118.
The Leban is a coagulated four milk, ufually prepared by boiling the milk, and, while hot, adding to it a {mall proportion of Leban, which coagulates the whole before next morning. I never could learn of the Arabs how this was made originally, they do not think it poffible to make it without Leban, and will not believe that there is any place on earth where Leban may not be found.
I have been told that by letting milk ftand till it turn four, then with a little of it, inftead of Leban, turning fome frefh milk, and repeating the operation with a little of the laft coagulum, for feveral fucceflive days, the true Leban was at length obtained.
Bbb2 A lady
371
372
NOTES! AND: 'I.LLUS®EA TIONS.
A lady from India, fhowed me lately fome excellent Leban (Tyre) which fhe had prepared with four coagulated milk. But fhe firft boiled the {weet milk over a flow fire, to the confumption of one half, and added the coa- gulum when the milk was no more than luke warm.
Note XXVIII. p. 120.
M. Galland, towards the lattér end of the laft century, publifhed an hif- torical account of coffee chiefly taken from an Arabian M. S. in the French King’s Library, in which the Author difcuffes a queftion, formerly much agitated among the Mohammedans, concerning the lawfulnefs of the ufe of coffee.
According to Galland, it was introduced into Arabia about the middle of the 15th century, from which period, the hiftory of it’s progrefs is re- gularly continued. It did not reach Conftantinople till about the middle of the following century, but was known fooner by feveral years, both at Damafcus and Aleppo.
It is remarkable that Poftel, who travelled about the year 1540, and particularly defcribes the Turkifh mode of entertaining ftrangers, fhould make no mention of coffee ; neither is it mentioned by Belon, who tra- velled from 1546 to 1549, and vifited both Cairo and Aleppo. Bufbequius followed foon after, that is about 1553, and was very obfervant, but he {ays nothing of coffee, though he defcribes the Sherbet. (Epiit.i. p. gr).
Rauwolff, in the year 1573, found it in common ufe at Aleppo, and fays they called it Chaube ; an error he might eafily fall into, from hearing the word which (in Arabic) means hot, frequently repeated, and which is {till applied to coffee by way of recommendation. He gives a defcription of the Berry, called Banru and fuppofes it to be the buncho of Avicenna and Rhazis. In this laft circumftance however he was miftaken, for the bunk of Avicenna is a root, and the Ban of that Author, is commonly taken to be the Glans Unguentaria, or Baaavog Mugerlsx'n of Diofcorides.
It was about the year 1578 that Profper Alpinus went into Egypt, where he had an opportunity of feeing a coffee plant, brought thither from Arabia. If therefore he was the firft European who defcribed the plant, Rauwolff appears to have been the firft who gave an account of the berry, and its infufion. Alpinus imagined the coffee to be the Ban (.,L not the Bunk Ue of Avicenna, as is evident from the fimilitude he found in the
virtues
—————'828— i. = |
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
virtues of the coffee, and thofe afcribed to the Ban. Rauwolff (Rays Col- le€tion of Voyages, vol. i. p. 68. Lond. 1738.) Profper Alpinus (Plant. fEgypt. cap. xvi. et Medecina AXgypt. p. 264.) Avicenna (Lib. ii. Ban, et Bunk.) Mathiolus (in Diofcorid, p. 534.) Geoffroy (Traité de la Mati- ere Medicale, Tom. i11. p. 248. Paris 1743.)
Prior to the introduction of coffee, the Arabians were accuftomed to drink the decoétion of the leaves of a certain plant called Cat. This is afferted by Galland, on the authority of the Arabian Author ; but Herbe- lot, reckoning it a third {pecies of coffee, fays it was prepared from an unknown berry, or feed, and called Cahaat al Catiat, or Caftah.
See more on this fubjeét, La Rocque (A Voyage to Arabia the Happy, p- 232. Lond. 1726.) Ellis, (Account of Coffee, Lond. 1774.) J. Douglas (Hitt. of coffee, Lond. 1727.)
Note XXIX. p. 125.
Tobacco was not known to the Europeans before the difcovery of America. The Spaniards are faid to have found it firft in the Iacatan, about the year 1520, where it was called Petun or Petum. Thence it was tranfported to the Weft India Iflands ; to Maryland, Virginia, &c. It was called alfo Tabac by the Spaniards, from the name of an inftru- ment ufed by the Natives in the preparation of the herb. It was brought into France about the year 1560, by Jean Nicot, Embaffador from Francis II. to Sebaftian King of Portugal, from whom it got the name of Nico- tiana ; it was named likewife Herbe de la Reine, on account of having been prefented to Catherine of Medicis; and in France, received a third name, Herbe du grand Prieure, from a dignified Ecclefiaftic of the Houfe of Lorrain. Geoffroy (Suite de la Mat. Med. Tom. 1. p. 172. Paris 1750.) (Johan. Neander Tabacalogia, 1622.)
Sir Francis Drake touching at New Albion, in the year 1579, received among other prefents, fome bags of Tobacco. (Harris Voyages, vol. i. p- 21.) But the introduction of Tobacco into England is commonly placed later than this, that is in 1586, when Drake returned from his fecond voyage (vide Rapin and Echard.) Cambden gives a more pointed account. A colony which had been fent to Virginia, a fhort while before, by Sir Walter Raleigh, were by Drake found in great diftrefs, for want of provifions, and together with their Captain Ralph Lane, returned with
the
374
.
NO'TEST AND JTLLUSWRATTONS.
the Admiral to England. ‘ Thefe men, who were thus brought back, ‘“¢ were the firft, that I know of, who brought into England that Indian ‘ Plant which they call Tabacca and Nicotia, or Tobacco, which they “‘ ufed again{t Crudities, being taught it by the Indians. Certainly from “‘ that time forward it began to grow into great requeft, and to be fold at “an high rate.” (Hift. of Q. Elizabeth, p. 324. Lond. 1675.)
At what period the ufe of Tobacco was introduced into Turkey, is not certainly known; but there is no mention made of it by any of the travel- lers whofe works I have met with, earlier than the beginning of the 17th century. From the year.1540 to 1563 William Poftel, Peter Belon, and Bubequius vifited in fucceffion moft parts of Turkey, yet, accurate as they are in their remarks on national manners, none of them take notice of tobacco.
John Newberrie (1580) made more than one voyage to Ormus by way of Aleppo: he travelled alfo in Perfia and Armenia, pafling through Con- {tantinople, in his return to England. He is particular in his account of mercantile articles, and makes various remarks on the manners, drefs, &c. of different countries, but he fays nothing of tobacco. Ralph Fitch, a merchant, who accompanied Newberrie to Ormus, and defcribes the voyage down the Euphrates, as well as the drefs and cuftoms of the Arabs, is equally filent on the fubjed.
John Sanderfon travelled, or was refident, in the Eaft, from the year 1584 to the year 1602. He refided at Conftantinople from 1592 to 1598; and had vifited Syria and Egypt. Sanderfon appears to have been an ob- fervant and very intelligent traveller. He gives a circumftantial account
of Conftantinople, tranflated from the narrative of a Jew Doétor, and de-
{cribes particularly his own pilgrimage to Jerufalem: but no mention of tobacco is to be among found his remarks.
It fhould in juftice, however, be obferved, that thefe three Englifh tra- vellers, are equally filent refpeCting coffee, which was undoubtedly in ufe in Syria, in their time; it ought therefore not to be concluded from their filence, that tobacco was not then known.
The filence of Rauwolff and Profper Alpinus, both of whom mention coffee, will be confidered of more weight in this matter, as from the nature of their purfuits, it was lefs likely they fhould have omitted Tobacco, had they met with it in the Levant.
But
NOTES) AND ILEUSTRATIONS
But that Tobacco was unknown at Aleppo, as late as the year 1603, is put almoft beyond doubt by the Teftimony of William Biddulph, at that time Chaplain to the Englifh Faétory, who gives a journal of his Pilgrim- age to Jerufalem, in the year 1600. This writer, after defcribing the diet of the Turks, makes the following remark. ‘ Their Coffee houfes ‘“‘ (at Aleppo) are more common than Ale houfes in England, but they “ ufe not fo much to fit in the houfes, as on benches on both fides the “¢ ftreet, near unto a Coffee houfe every man with his Finjon (cup) full; ‘“‘ which being fmoaking hot, they ufe to put it to their nofes and earss ‘“‘ and then fup it off by leifure, being full of idle and Ale houfe talk.” This is an exaét defcription of what is done at Aleppo at this day; and had {moking Tobacco been at that time a pra¢tife, it is hardly probable that Biddulph would have omitted it on this occafion, or where he de- {cribes their drinking Sherbets, eating Opium, &c.
Vide Purchas, (Pilgrims Part i. p. 1410. 1643. 1730. and 1340. Lond. 1625.) See alfo the Voyages of Newberrie’s Companions, and others. Hakluyt (Part i. p. 217.)
The firft Englith traveller (fo far as I know) who fpeaks of fmoking Tobacco, as a practice in Turkey, is Sandys. He was at Conftantinople in 1610; and after remarking that the Turks take Opium to make them giddy headed, &c. He adds “ perhaps for the felf fame caufe they alfo « delight in Tobacco, which they take through reeds that have joined “ unto them great heads of wood to contain it; I doubt not as lately. “ taught them, as brought them by the Englifh: and were it not fome “¢ times looked into (for Morat Baffa not long fince commanded a pipe to “¢ be thruft through the nofe of a Turk, and fo to be led in-derifion through “ the city) no queftion but it would prove a principal commodity. Never- “ thelefs they will take it in corners and are {fo ignorant therein that that «¢ which in. England is not faleable, doth pafs here amongft them as moft “excellent.” (Travels, p. 52. fixth Edition, Lond. 1670.)
The foregoing pafflage leaves little room for doubt that {moking was only a recent cuftom at Conftantinople; and that Tobacco was not at that time cultivated in the country. The following circumftance renders it probable, that the cuftom of {moking the pipe was tranfmitted from the Capital to the Syrian Provinces, while the peculiar mode of {moking the Nargeeli, or through water, was brought from Perfia. The name for Tobacco in Syria and Egypt, is Tutton, cpg a word not of Arabic ori-
gin,
375
376
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
gin, but Turkifh, Cp gd OF Ey gi gd and fignifies fmoke. They have no other word for Tobacco in Arabic; for Dukhan, ;.,(S0 which by the way is feldom ufed, is no other than a tranflation of the Turkifh word; whereas the particular kind of Tobacco ufed in the Nargeeli retains its Perfic name Tunbak eik It may further be remarked that the Arabs tranflate the Turkith expreffion for {moking Tobacco ett Cys 50 Dutun eechmek, to drink Tobacco; for they invariably fay Shireb Tuton os igi Wy which means the fame thing.
After faying fo much on this fubjeét, it would be digreffing too far to ex- tend the inquiry to the introduction of {fo fingular a cuftom into Perfia, and India: I fhall therefore only fubjoin a few curfory remarks on fome of the early voyages, which were more particularly confulted with a view to Turkey.
In the year 1561, Czefar Frederic went to India by way of Aleppo, and - after travelling many years, he returnedin the year 1581. His account, of the produétions of various countries, their cuftoms, manners, &c. is full and diftiné&t: he takes notice of Betle, but fays nothing of fmoking To- bacco; which, confidering the period when he left England, muft have been as great a novelty to him as the chewing Betle. Newberrie, with others already mentioned, though particularly exaét in many articles rela- tive to India and Perfia, 1s filent on Tobacco; notwithftanding that in the voyage down the Euphrates, as well as in the Caravans by land, they all travelledin company of various people, from the different Eaftern countries.
This laft circumftance is in a peculiar manner applicable to J. Eldred, one of Newberrie’s fellow travellers, not hitherto mentioned. He indeed went no further than Baffora, but he croffed no lefs than three times from Aleppo to that city and Bagdat, and is very exaét in his account of the drefs of the Arabs, the march of the Caravans, and other matters. In his firft journey from Bagdat to Aleppo, the Caravan confifted of forty thou- fand Camels, laden with fpices and other rich merchandize. Hakluyt (Part, i. p. 231.) Purchas (Pilgrims, p. 1707.) Harris (Voyages, vol. i. page 274.)
In the year 1562. Anthony Jenkinfon, an Agent for the Ruffia Com- pany, (which had been eftablifhed about the year 1554) was fent into Perfia, by way of Mufcovy, and carried a letter from Elizabeth for the Sophi. From 1562 to 1581 feveral other expeditions into the Eaft were fet on foot by the Ruffia Company, and the reports made by their Agents,
more
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
more efpecially by Edwards and Burrough, contain much curious infor-. mation, relative to the manners of the Perfians, and the ftate of their commerce: but though their accounts are in fome places minute in the defcription of feafts, and entertainments, nothing is faid concerning To- bacco. Hakluyt (p. 359. 454.)
The firft voyages of the Eaft India Company (eftablifhed Anno 1600.) often make mention of Betle, as well as of Opium, without taking notice of Tobacco. In 1607, however, Keeling, Commander in Chief of the Third Voyage, fays “ that the Arabs at Zocatara are mighty lovers of “* Tobacco, and they love as well to fponge it where they may be per- “ mitted,” he adds, that they drink Coffee, which they have from Mocha. Harris (Voyages, vol. 1. p. 80.)
This obfervation of Keeling’s is the more remarkable, becaufe four or five years after, (1612) Captain Saris, defcribing his ceremonial reception at Mocha, with the dinner, and the perfume of Aloes Wood at the con- clufion of the vifit, remarks that the “ drink was only pure element, or “ elfe for variety a kind of decoétion of a certain bitter herb, which made “ it an abfolute dofe, and was ten times worfe than the water.”’ He fays nothing of the pipe. (ut fupra p. 118.)
In the abridged account of Linfchotten’s Obfervations on the Eaft Indies, (Anno 1584.) as well as in that of Pirard de la Val. (Anno 1601.) no mention is made of Tobacco; though from various other minute circum- {tances contained in their defcriptions. of the manners of the people, it might be excepted that Tobacco would not have been omitted, had the ufe of it been: known in the Portuguefe fettlements in India, or in the Maldive Iflands, of which De la Val’s account is very circumftantial. Harris (p. 282. 256.) Purchas (p. 1750.)
Sir Anthony Shirley, with his Brother Robert,. refided fix weeks at Aleppo, in their way to Perfia, (Anno 1599.) His remarks are chiefly political, and he profeffedly leaves to others to recount ‘¢ wonders of things “ ftrange to us that are born in thefe parts.” But John Cartwright who was at Ifpahan nearly about that time, and travelled much through Perfia, Armenia, and Mefopotamia, is alfo filent on Tobacco, notwithftanding that he appears to have been a man of obfervation, and better inftruéted
in Hiftory than the commercial travellers of thofe times ufually were..
Purchas (Pilgr. p. 1383. 1422.) Vor. I. Cec In
cr |
378
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
In 1614, Sir Thomas Roe went Embaflador to the great Mogul; and it appears from extra¢ts of accounts given by fome of his fuite, that the Indians fowed Tobacco in vaft abundance, and {moked it much, “ the “¢ Tobacco is thought to be as good as any in the world, but not fo well “« dreffed as in the Weft Indies.’”” The mode of fmoking through water is defcribed, though not accurately, and it may be remarked that a ftraight reed was ufed, like the figures contained in Neander’s Tabacalogia, which was publifhed Anno 1622. Perhaps the long {nake pipe now adapted to the Hooker, was not then invented. Harris (Voyages, vol. i. p. 169.)
In 1626, Sir Thomas Herbert fet out on his voyage to India, and tra- velled over a great part of that country, as well as of Perfia. ‘Tobacco is mentioned as then “ growing plentifully at Mahilia, and of good account, ** though weak and leafy: they take it in long pipes of Canes.” In treat- ing of mifcellaneous cuftoms, it is remarked, that befides Wine, Arack, Opium and Coffee, the Perfians take much Tobacco, which they fuck through water. Harris (ut Supra, p. 408. 436. and 454.)
Note XXX. p. 126.
The paffage in Galen relating to hemp, alluded to in the text, mentions the feeds being an ingredient in cakes which were ferved up after fupper to encourage drinking, but that they were apt, when eaten too freely, to affect the head. (De Aliment. Facult. lib. 1. chap. xxxiv. Tom. ii. p. 16. Venet 1625. Ed. Gr. Tom. iv. p. 318. Bafil. 1538.) .
The appellation Teriaki (page 129) given to thofe who ufe Opium in- temperately, or other intoxicating drugs, was borrowed by the Arabs from the Greeks, and, in like manner, they ufe the word Teriak as a fynoni- mous term for antidote: whence it comes that feveral Arab literary works are fo entitled.
The medicinal compofition Theriac, is faid to have been invented by Feridoun, one of the Perfian Kings of the firft Dynafty. Herbelot (Bib. p. 200. 876.) See An. Univ. Hift. v. p. 105. 8vo. Lond. 1747.
Note XXXI. p. 134.
The Dowa Hummam is the fame that in other parts of the Levant is
called Rufma. But according to Villamont the Rufma is a diftinét mine- ral
NOTES SAND -ALLUSFRA TIONS.
ral poffefling the peculiar property of not burning the fkin. He defcribes it as differing from Orpiment, which he obferves is in Europe ufed as a depilatory. (Voyages, liv. ii. p. 207.. Paris 1595.)
Thevenot (Travels, Part i. p. 32.) gives nearly the fame account of the
Rufma, obferving that at Malta, Orpiment is ufed in its ftead. See alfo.
Philof. Tranf. xx. p. 295.
Note XXXII. p. 137.
The Fouta, or wrapper round the waift, worn by the ladies, differs only from that of the men in being of a finer quality, and more orna- mented. It covers them entirely, from the breafts downwards; but the head, neck, and arms, are quite expofed, while they remain in the Juani. When they have finifhed wafhing, they quit this wet garment, and in it’s ftead receive a large towel of flowered cotton, with a white ground and a coloured border. This is named Mahzam = and they cover them- felves with it, in the fame manner as before with the Fouta. They then wrap their hair in a piece of fine muflin with a worked border, and, em- broidered in the middle with gold flowers, which is called Maafar Shiar Ph pare. The head is attired in the manner of a Turban, with a kind of fine towel, made at Conftantinople named Minfhiafi Kholie, aascin oJ J gas and a handkerchief richly embroidered with filk and gold, which they call Yafir eee is tyed round the neck; laft of all, they are in- vetted with the Caba LS, which is made of cotton ftuff, in the fhape of a very large fhirt, with long wide fleeves, and round the border, where it opens a little at the breaft, is richly embroidered. In this difhabille, be- ing furnifhed with a carpet and a {mall cufhion, the ladies reft themfelves for fome time before they drefs.
The Bagnio linen now defcribed is neatly wrapt up ina {quare piece of filk, or embroidered ftuff, forming a parcel called a Bokdgi ax, which one of the attendants carries under her arm, while another carries a brafs cup for laving the water, (the ladies not choofing to make ufe of the com- mon cups furnifhed by the Bagnio) called Tafi Gian la anwlb. It may be remarked that the Kees Tifreek Sy 35 co), or bag ufed for rubbing the body, is made of red Camelot, which is lefs harfh than that ufed by
the men. Cor 7 The
379
380
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The men feldom ufe any other covering in the Bagnio than the Fouta, and towels wrapt round the head, which, as well as the reft of the appa- ratus, are furnifhed by the Bagnio; but they never appear abfolutely naked.
How cautious the Arabs are on all occafions of remaining decently co- vered, may be feen in D’Arvieux, (Memoires, Tom. iil. p. 258. Voyage dans La Paleftine, p. 216.)
Note XXXIII. p. 138.
Grelot, after remarking that boys are not admitted to the bath with the women, after the age of feven or eight years, fays he was acquainted with fome who remembered very well what ufed to pafs there. “‘ Mais comme *¢ une partie de ce qu’ils m’en ont raconté ne tourne pas tout 4 fait a l’hon- «¢ neur des Dames d’Orient, j’aimne meux le taire pour leur pudeur, & dire “icy que ce font des contes des petits Enfans, &c.” {tantinople, p. 235.)
This infinuation will appear to be flightly founded, when it is confidered that in the ordinary bath, the company aflembled are moftly ftrangers to each other, and that the young girls are not only under the eye of parents, or miftreffes, but think themfelves more particularly obliged to preferve
decorum at the Bagnio, it being often from thence that they are felected by the matrons, as brides for their fons.
(Voyage de Con-
Note XXXIV. p. 139.
What is afferted of the Bagnio at Aleppo, is equally applicable (fo far as I have been able to learn) to thofe in other parts of Turkey, particularly Conftantinople, and Smyrna.
A Turkith lady of diftin@tion from Conftantinople, in the Cady’s Harem at Aleppo, who was long my patient, and to whom I took an opportunity of mentioning certain paflages relative to the Bagnio, frem letters written from Turkey which had been publifhed a few years before, affured me ‘¢ that as foon as the ladies undreffed in the outer room, they immediately *« put on the Bagnio habit, and never quitted it till they dreffed again. «6 She faid that fome of the girls might poffibly by accident have dropped ‘‘ the Fouta, but that fhe had never feen or even heard of a proceffion in #6 which the women walked naked, through the rooms of the Bagnio.
She
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
«© She remarked further, that the letter muft have been written in {port, “¢ for if the lady was fuchas I had defcribed her, it was impoffible fhe «© fhould not have diftinguifhed the accidental frolic of fome giddy headed *¢ cirls, from an eftablifhed cuftom, approved of by decency, and good * breeding.”
It is not without reluctance I produce an authority fo contradictory to what is found on this fubjeét, in the lively letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montague, and which (as I have remarked fince my return to Europe) has conduced not only to bring the veracity of that agreeable writer into queftion in this point, but to caft fufpicion on fome other of her defcrip- tions, which I am inclined to think areinthe main true. Letters 33 and 39, furnifh inftances of the kind now alluded to. There perhaps may be found a few trifling inaccuracies, but allowance being made for a fine imagination in the glow of youth, revelling amid fcenes pofleft of all the advantages of novelty, I fee no reafon to fufpe& wilful mifreprefentation. The remarks contained in moft of her other letters from Turkey, (fo far as I am able to judge) are not only entertaining, but in general juft. Of fome local peculiarities, I do not prefume to judge; they may not be the lefs true, that they happen, in fome refpeéts, to differ from the cuftoms of Syria.
Having in juftice faid thus much of a Book concerning which I have often been interrogated in England, I muft own myfelf wholly at a lofs to account for her defcription of the Bagnio, fo inconfiftent with the teftimony of all the females I ever converfed with in the Eaft. The baths at Sophia, being of a mineral nature, the gold or filver embroidery of the Bagnio habit, might be liable to injury from the fteam, and render plain linen more proper for the purpofe. But that two hundred females (of courfe inhabitants of different Harems) fhould al] appear ftark naked, converfing, walking, working, drinking Coffee, or Sherbet, or lying negligently on their cufhions, (Letter 26) was fuch a deviation from Mohammedan delicacy, that my furprife on reading the defcription, was full as great as that of her Ladyfhip on finding the ladies not fubject to catch cold, by coming out at once from the hot into the cold room, in a ftate of nature.
But, however one might be difpofed to make allowance for peculiar cuftoms at a mineral bath, the reception of a Turkifh bride in a Bagnio at Conftantinople, (defcribed in Letter 42,) can neither be reconciled to
the
382
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
the prefent practice in Turkey, nor to the defcriptions given by writers in the laft century, all which uniformly exclude a fuppofition of the cuftoms in that refpeét, having undergone any material change. It is true, that the ladies were not, as at Sophia, all naked; the married ladies, placed on the marble Sophas, were clothed: ‘ but the bride, attended by a train of ‘ thirty virgins, all without other ornaments or covering than their own ‘ long hair, braided with pearl, or ribband, marched in proceffion round ‘ the three large rooms of the Bagnio.’---Had the bride prefented herfelf thus in a ftate of nature, there was not (if credit may be given to the Turkifh Lady already mentioned) a matron in the rooms, who would have permitted the bride to falute her.
To what has been faid may be added the authority of M. D’Ohffon. ‘*¢ Au refte, tout s’y paffe dans la plus grande décence, chaque femme “« carde foigneufement le tablier dont elle eft enveloppée, &c. (Tableau “ General, de L’Empire Othoman,” Tom. I. p. 160, Paris 1787. Fol.) There is a very good print of the interior of a public bath, 1n the fame volume, page 162.
Note XXXV. p. 140.
The Ziraleet, or Zilroota abu}, (as written by a native of Aleppo) is the common manner of a company of women expreffing joy, or any fud- den exultation. The words expreffed are Lillé, Lille, Lille, repeated as often as the perfon can do at one breath, and, being rapidly uttered in a very fhrill tone, they are heard at a great diftance. It is preceded, on certain occafions, by a ftanza of four lines, recited by a fingle voice, expreffive of thanks to the Deity for benefits received, or of fupplications, and good wifhes; at other times, they take a lighter turn, and’ being compofed ex- tempore, make pleafant allufions to perfons prefent in the company. The Ziraleet in this manner becomes as it were the chorus, but it is often alfo heard without any previous ftanza, in the intervals of their mufical performances, and at feftive proceffions, by way of exultation.
When a Mohammedan {ets out on a long journey, or returns home in {afety, it is the cuftom among the women to employ the Maazeen (thofe who call the people to prayers) to chant from the gallery of the neareft Minaret, which on that occafion is illuminated, and the women aflembled at the houfe, refpond at intervals with a Ziraleet.
A paflage
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
A paffage in Xenophon’s Retreat, (Anabas, iv. p. 276. Edit. Hutchinfon, Oxon. 1745) firft fuggefted tome a refemblance between the fhout of the Greek women and the Ziraleet of the women of Syria. The foldiers, upon beholding in a moment of great danger, the favourable appearance of the victims, after finging the ufual hymn, raifed a fhout of exultation avyaaaratov. “The numerous band of women attending the army, fhouted at the fame time in their manner cuvwaAo'AuCo'v.
In a note on the paffage here referred to, the following remark is made by the Editor, “ deeft in plerifque Lexicis cworeavfs ; fimplex autem “ oAorvgw eft facrorum in primis vox, & clamorem mulierum facrifican- “‘ tium indicat. Reéte vero monuit, quod et exemplis adlatis probavit «¢ Spanh ad Callim. Hymn, in Del. ’oroavZew, folenniter, in publica etiam “‘ letitia, quz fauftas letafque flagitaret acclamationes adhiberi.”’
Of the facred or folemn fenfe of “odowfew, there can be no doubt; but a number of authorities are produced for its being ufed in a fenfe nearer to that of the Syrian Ziraleet.
I am obliged to a friend for the following remark, ‘ Callimachus in ‘ Lavacrum Palladis v. 139, et in Delum, v. 258, ufes odcdvyy. In the ‘ firit mentioned paflage it 1s joined with evayopen et evypacs, congratula- ‘ tions and vows. In the fecond it is qualified by an epithet which ftrongly * exprefles the fhrill piercing voices of women
AUT bee O axsOno arntos avtnyyore Svcereporiyv oAoAUYyy !
“« And fpeedily the brazen firmament re-echoed the far penetrating, or “ fhrill. piercing odAcAvy7 !
See alfo Efchylus (Sept. Theb. v. 272), Euripides (Eleét. v. 691,) Homer (Odys. 22. v. 408, 411). Another paffage in the Odyffey, to- gether with Barne’s Note, (Od. iv. Barnes Ed.) may be confulted.
Penelope, after the firft tranfports of grief on the difcovery of her fon’s departure, prepares a facrifice to Minerva, and having finifhed her fup- plication,
She ceafed; fhrill extafies of Joy declare
The fav’ring Goddefs prefent to the prayer:
The Suitors heard, and deemed the mirthful voice A fignal of her Hymeneal choice.
Pope Odyff. B. iv. vy. 1013. The
384.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The Hallelujah of the Scripture is confidered as an acclamation fub-
joined to hymns addreffed to God. Hallelula, in the Lexicon is rendered
nuptial rejoicings. Schindler. (Lexic. p. 437.) See Bifhop Lowth (Ifaiah page IgI.)
The Arabic verb, to exclaim for joy, is nearly the fame with the Hebrew,. Te Hill, exultavit; pree letitia exclamavit. Laudavit feu veneratus eft Deus, dicendo La Ulah-ila Ullah W/(MlJ1Y. From [e comes hillili ale laus Dei & veneratio, and hilleleeny ss, exultantis ludentifque populi, aut talium puerorum voces. Golius.
The La Ulah ila Ullah, (There is no God, but God) in the rapid, fhrill, pronunciation of the women, might eafily enough be converted into Lille, Lillé, Lillé of the Ziraleet, retaining fome fimilitude in found, while the fenfe was forgotten. .
Pocock gives an inftance from Herodotus, where, it is ‘extremely pro- bable that the fupreme God | Jlxs a!!! Ulla Taala of the Arabs, was, by a mifcomprehenfion of the Greeks, converted into “ougor@a or ‘oparaA Oura- tal, Oratal, or Olotal, and fuppofed to be the Arabian appellation of Bac- chus. (Specimen. Hift. Arab. p. 107. Oxon. 1650.)
The learned Schultens, in his commentary upon Job (chap. 10. v. 15.) confiders the Greek ‘odoavgew as correfponding to the Wulwaly (_) )4J J 4) of the Arabs, which is the conclamation of the women when in affliction . but he admits that the word is fometimes ufed to exprefs joy, and produces. two inftances from AZfchylus. This, as well as what he fays concerning the verb adwaage, will come more properly under confideration hereafter .
Note XXXVI. p. 141.
M. du Loir gives the following defcription of the Turkifh dance. «¢ Deux de meux faites de la Compagnie fe levent pour danfer une forte de “« Sarabande, qui reprefent fi bien les Affe¢tions & les Mouvemens «« d’Amour, par les Oeillades, & par les actions qu’elles addreffent tantoft «“} Pun & tantoft 4 l’autre des Affiftans, que certes il faut eftre bien “ ferme, ou plutoft infenfible pour n’en eftre pas efmeu. (Voyage de
Levant, p. 174. Paris 1654.) See
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
See alfo Kempfer (Amenit. Exotica, p. 739.) and Niebuhr (Voyage
en Arabie, Tom. 1. p. 147.) Motus doceri gaudet Jonicos Matura Virga. Hor.
The defcription given by Lady Mary Wortley, in her 33rd Letter, is well known; but, on that occafion, it is not to be doubted that the flaves preferved a certain decorum, difregarded by the profeffional dancers.
The Greek dance, fays her Ladyfhip, ‘ is certainly the fame that Diana ‘is faid to have danced on the banks.of Eurotas. The great J.ady ftill <¢ leads the dance, and is followed by a troop of young girls, who imitate “ her fteps, and, if fhe fings, make up the chorus.” (Letter xxx.)
A very good figure of the Greek dance is given by M. d’Ohffon. (Tab- leau General de L’Empire Othoman, Tom. 11. p. 93.)
Note XXXVII. p. 143.
Games of hazard are prohibited by the Koran for the fame reafon as Wine.
“< O true believers furely Wine and Lots (1. e. all kinds of inebriating ‘¢ liquors and games of chance) and images, ({fuppofed to be the carved *¢ Chefs men) and divining arrows, are an abomination of the work of « Satan; therefore avoid them that you may profper. Satan feeketh to “ fow diffention and hatred among you by means of Wine and Lots, and «to divert you from remembering God and prayer.” (Koran, chap. v. p- 94. and chap. ii. p. 25.) Marracci(p. 235. 99. p. 82. 219.)
See on this fubjeét Sale, and Pocock. It is remarked by the latter, from an Arab Commentator, that under the term Lots are comprehended, Dice, Cards, Chefs, and all games fubjeét to hazard. Pocock (Specimen, p. 323. and 327.) D’Ohfion (Tableau Gen. Tom. ii. p. 187. and p. 225.)
As to images, comprehending drawings of human figures, &c. there are various opinions among the Ullama, and the prohibition is far from being regarded with rigour equal to that of gaming. See D’Ohffon (Tom. ii. page 235-)
Note XX XVIII. p. 149. The Arabic title of our Arabian Nights is ‘ Hakaiat Elf Leily wa * Leily’, Stories, a thoufand and One Nights. It is a fcarce book at
Aleppo. After much inguiry, I found only two Volumes, containing two ¥ ox. I. Ddd hundred
385
386
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS:
hundred and eighty nights, and with difficulty obtained liberty to have a copy taken. i was fhown more than one complete ccpy in the Vatican Library; and one at Paris in the King’s Library, faid alfo to be complete. I have heard lately that Mr. ProfeTor White of Oxford has got a copy which formerly belonged to the lat- Mr. Wortley Montague, but I do not know what number of Nights it contains.
Betfides the two volumes mentioned above, I colle€ted a number of fe- parate tales, fome of which may poiflibly belong to the Elf Leily ; at leaft, of the continuation of the Arabian Nights, publifhed at Edinburgh in 1792, almoft the whole of the Tales contained in the firft and third volumes, are found in my colleétion. I own that before I made this difcovery, or had read more than the Tranflator’s Preface, I was inclined to think the continuation, from the fufpicious manner of its introduction, was {purious.
Note XXXIX. ‘p. 150.
«¢ Entendre la Mufique, c’eft pécher contre la loi: faire de la Mufique “ c’eft pécher contre la religion; y prendre plaifir, c’eft pécher contre la “ foy, et fe rendre coupable du crime d’infidelité.”” D’Ohffon (Tableau Gener,,"Loms il.gpiy i 8B.)
Notwithftanding this declaration of the Prophet there are in reality few of his precepts tefs obfequioufly obeyed. It is true that very few of the Turks are themfelves performers; but there are few indeed who make any fcruple of liftening to mufic. See D’Ohffon (ut Supra, p. 231.)
Several treatifes on mufic are mentioned by Cafiriin the Efcurial Arabic Catalogue, among which are the three following.
The Elements of mufic, by Mohammed, &c. Aboo Nafer al Pharabi. His work is divided into three parts: of which the firft treats of the origin of the art; the fecond of compofition, refpecting vocal as well as inftru- mental mufic; the third of the various forts of compofition. Above thirty figures of inftruments are given, together with mufical notes, &c.
Great Colleétion of airs, vol. i. by Aboo’l Furrage Ali, Eben al Huffani Eben Mohammed, a Spaniard. His bock was written in the 315th, year- of the Hegira (A. C. 927.) in two volumes. The one now under confi- deration, contains one hundred and fifty. Arabic Airs; with the lives of four celebrated vocal performers, who had been in high favour at the court
ef the Khalifs. The
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The Cenfure of Mufic and its Apology, Ann. Hegir. 612. (A. C. 1215.) By Mohammed al Schalany. A Spaniard.
The names of thirty one mufical inftruments, in ufe at that time among the Weftern Arabs, are mentioned in this work; but it fhould be remarked, that the names of the inftruments are moftly Perfian.
Note XL. p. 162.
The Arabs have been ranged under two principal divifions, namely thofe who live in cities and villages, and thofe wiio ve conftantly in tents. Both are diftinguifhed by feveral appellations. The firft are called al Arab, Jl. Abl al hudar (pes ijl Or Abl al madar rol jel. Which laft is fuppofed to be derived from Madar, Clay, the material of which the houfes are built.
The Arabs of the fecond divifion are called Al Aarab Wl,c). Ahl al
Bidow sJS! JS! or Bidoweeoon ©) 434 People of the Defert. They
are called alfo Ah] al Wibar, s4J!\#!, from their tents being made of
Camel’s hair. Abu’l Furrage. (De Origine &c. Arabum p. 2.) Pocock (Specimen. p. 86. and p. 39.) See alfo Cafiri, (Biblioth. Arabico-hifpan. Efcurialens. Tom. i.)
‘The Arabs who at prefent are found in Paleftine, Syria, the two * Arabias, and Africa, are the defcendants of Ifmael. ‘They are divided ‘into many families, which particular interefts, or ancient quarrels have ‘rendered inveterate enemies. ‘There are other Arabs who are dif- “tinguifhed by the name of Moors; not on account of being originally ‘from Mauritania, but becaufe the true Arabs hold them in contempt, ‘confidering them as a difhonorable people. who by dwelling in towns, ‘ exercifing trades, or applying to agriculture, (employments altogether ‘unworthy the nobility of the pure Arabs) have degenerated from the ‘ virtues of their anceftors.” D?Arvieux (ifemoires Tom. 3. p. 14.4.)
The appellation of Moors was frequently given to the Arabs, by European travellers in the laft century. I never heard it in the Eaft; and, at Aleppo, the Bidoweens, and Arabs living in the city, are indif- criminately called Arabs.
Dddz Note
387
388
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note XLI. p. 164.
In the year 1664, D’Arvieux refided feveral months in an Arab camp, and had at that time, acquired a knowledge of the Arabic and Turkifh languages, fufficient to enable him to aét as an occafional Secretary to the Emeer. His account of the domeftic manners of thofe people is mi- nute, and exact.
He defcribes the Arab women of ordinary rank, as dreffed in a fhirt of blue cloth, with a cinéture of rope or linen, and an Abai, or cloak. They wear a veil over the head, which covers the neck, and the lower part of the face to the nofe; but the girls veil in fuch a manner that the eyes only are vifible. In the Summer, they go barefooted; in the Winter, they wear Babooge nearly of the fame fafhion with thofe worn by the men. Thofe who cannot afford long and complete veftments, wear under waiftcoats quilted with cotton. La Roque (Voyage dans La Paleftine, page 259.)
M. Volney refided fome days in an Arab camp near Gaza, and has. given a fuccinét account of the Bidoweens, as. well as of the Turkmans,. Kurds, and other inhabitants of Syria. Of the hofpitality of the Arabs, as alfo of the Druzes, he gives two remarkable inftances. (Travels through Syria and Egypt, vol. 1. p. 76. Lond. 1787.)
Note XLII. p. 165.
D’Arvieux, on his way to Aleppo in November 1679, met feveral: Caravans of Turkmans, on their march Southward, to avoid the Winter.. * The men were well mounted, and armed with lances and other weapons.. ‘ Their baggage, young women, girls, and children, were upon Camels, ‘ while the other women marched on foot, finging and {pinning as they * walked along, or were employed in fuch other workas their march admitted. ‘of. The Oxen, Cows, Camels, Hortes, Foals, Sheep, and Goats, marched. ‘in little herds, conduéted by the women finging and fpinning. We ‘ faluted each other with much civility ; and indeed they are a good kind « of people, who love good living, and are fond of liberty. The men, « leaving houfehold affairs to the women, are conftantly on horfeback, but s the women take care of the horfes, and are all day employed in one kind. ‘ of labour or other, which renders them vigorous and indefatigable. The
« Turkmans
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
* Turkmans are lefs jealous of their women, than the other Eaftern peo- ‘ple. The women converfed with us freely, and did not conceal their ‘faces. They were much tanned by the Sun, but their features were ‘ regular, their teeth fine, their eyes full of fire, and they difplayed {pright- * linefs in their converfation.”. (Memoires, Tom. v. p. 503.)
The above defcription agrees exaétly with my own obfervations on a large Troop of Turkmans which I met with on the plains of Antioch. They were encamped at a. little diftance from our tents, and behaved with the utmoft civility. As we fat at table in the open air, we were furrounded after fupper, by a number of their women young and old, who highly en- ‘tertained us with their queftions and remarks.
Their tents are made of white linen, and according to D’Arvieux, they
are much neater in their camps, and more fober and frugal in their diet,. than the Bidoweens. They live always in the field, acknowledge the.
Grand Signor, and trade largely in cattle. They do not plunder travel- lers, but treat them with great hofpitality. It is a faying among the Eaftern people, that you fhould eat with the Arabs, and fleep with the Turkmans, whofe tents are better provided with beds and other accommo- dations. (Voyage dans La Paleftine, p. 121.)
Peter Teixeira, in his journey from Bagdat to Aleppo (January 1605).
makes mention feveral times of the Turkmans. ‘ We entered upon “¢ fpacious plains, and in the middle of them found about forty houfes of “¢ Turkymans, with their families and cattle, Sheep, Camels, and Mules “grazing about. The houfes are all round, the roofs convex, the frame “ within of poles or canes, and the covering without of felts. They are
74
“curious, hung within, particularly the Xeque’s which was large and.
“handfome. Thefe Turkymans are true Turks of the firft that came out
“ of Turkiftan. They are brave either on foot or horfeback, well limbed,.
“ ftrong, patient of labour, and refolute in any undertaking, living on their ““ breed of cattel; but if they meet with any opportunity of robbing will * not let it flip. Their women do not conceal themfelves, but are of a “ very fturdy difpofition ; they generally look after the cattel. They are *¢ clad almoft after the manner of the Galicians in Spain, all of them wear “* Neat’s-{kin boots, fhort pettycoats, clofe doublets, and very long cloths
6 wrapped
all moveable, and fo contrived as to be rolled up together, and carried on Camels from place to place. Some of them were very cleanly and
389
39°
NOTES AND ILLUSTRA TIOWS:
“ wrapped about their heads, in the fhapeeof a Pyramid.” Stevens (Coi- leétion of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 58.)
Pocock remarks that the tents of the Turkman are commonly round, and made of reeds, having only a flight covering in the Summer, and, in Winter, a thick fort of felt fitced to them, fo as to keep out the rain, They employ themfelves chiefly in making feveral forts of coarfe carpets. (Detcription ef the Eaft, vol. 1. p. 207.)
The Rev. Mr. Chifhull, in 1699, defcribes the Turkmans in Afia Minor. ‘In his return from Ephefus to Smyrna, they faw a large ex- “* tended pafture overfpread with flocks, herds and huts of Turcmen who ‘‘ had here pitched their {tation to the number of fourteen hundred, rec- “ koning about two hundred tents and feven perfons more or lefs apper- ‘* taining to each. As the whole race of the Turcs were nothing elfe but “a numerous colony that {warmed from Scythia, fo thefe Turcmen feem ** to be the peculiar defcendants of the Nomades Scythe or the Shepherd « Scythians, and like them make it their employment to breed and nur- “ture cattle. To this end they never affemble in towns or betake them- “‘ {elves to houfes, but fleet from place to place as the feafon of the year ‘* directs, and feize without controul the vaft neglected paftures of this « Defert Empire.” (Chifhull’s Travels.)
There is a tribe of Turkmans, called Begdelies, very different in their character from thote juft mentioned. Teixeira reprefents them as living in tents remote from each other, and the only one of the wandering tribes, ‘“‘ that does not acknowledge the Emeer; becaufe it makes eight thoufand “‘ horfe moft arcliers, with fome fire arms, fo that they are above any “‘ vallalage.”” Stephens, (Collection of Voyages, vol. i. p. 60.)
‘* ‘The other fort of Turkmen (fays Vocock) are called egdeizes; they <* mount on horfeback, live in the tents, and neither till the land or graze ‘ cattle, and tho’ they have fome fort of alliances, yet they are profciled “‘ robbers. Sometimes they are above athoufand cf them together, and “they raife contributions on villages under pretence of prote¢ting them, ‘ but where they receive their dues they do not rob openly.” (Deicription of the Eaft. vol.i. p. 207.) See Niebuhr. (Voyage en Arabie, Tom. ii. p- 336-)
La
e
Note
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note XLIII. p. 165.
“The Rufhwans (fays Pocock) are another fort of people, who in the “‘ winter begin to move with their cattle from Erzeroon towards the rife “‘ of the Euphrates in the ancient Capedocia, and go fouthward as far as “ Damatcus, and in the Summer return at their conveniency with the “* Caravan to Aleppo. I travelled with fome of them, and they feemed to “be a good fort of people.” (Defcription of the Eaft. Vol. i. p. 207.)
The Rufhwans are a tribe of wandering Kurdeens. The others known at Aleppo are thofe who inhabit the mountains of Bylan and Khillis. They make frequent predatory incurfions into the plain country, and appear fometimes in confiderable bodies.
The Reader may confult Golius and Schultens concerning the origin of the Kurds; and will find an entertaining account of their manner of defending their mountains, in Xenophon ; from whoie defcription it would
appear, that the Kurdeens of thofe times were much the fame people:
with thefe of Syria. Golius, (in Alfergan p. 17. and 227.) Schultens (Ind. Geograph. in Vita Saladin.) Xenophon (Anabas. lib. ui. p. 247. et lib. iy. p- 252. Edit. Hutchinfon.)
Note XLIV. p. 166.
A race of Bidoweens is mentioned by D’ Arvieux who live at Alexandria, much in the fame manner with the Gipfies in France, They encamp between the fea beach and the walls of the city under tents, where men, women, children, and cattle are all lodged promifcuoufly. The only
apparel of the women is a large blue fhift; the men, and young boys,.
cover themfelves with a long piece of white Bouracan; but the children go ftark naked in all feafons. La Roque (Voyage dans La Paleftine p-
119.)
“¢ ‘The-Chingani, who are {pread almoft over all the world, are in great:
“ abundance in the north of Syria, and pafs for Mahometans. They live “‘ under tents, and fometimes in grots under ground. They make a coarfe “ fort of carpet work for houfings of faddles and. other ufes, and. when “ they are not far from town, deal much in milch cattle, and have a
“ much better chara¢ter than their relations in Hungary, or the Gypfies os tige,
Le)
Ne;
392
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
«in England, who are thought by fome to have been originally of the “‘ fame tribe.” Pocock (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 207.)
Note XLV, p. 175.
M. du Loir reprefents the Turks drinking healths at table, and fays that the perfon drank to, prefentsin return a bit of fruit or cheefe. (Voyages, p- 168. Paris, 1654.)
Something of this kind is praéticed by the Chriftians, but the Turks, at leaft at Aleppo, do not drink healths. When one drinks, whether at table or after meals, the perfon next him, or the mafter of the houfe, if he obferves it, laying the right hand on the heart, (the ordinary mode of falutation) wifhes it may do him good’? Afiat ola! in Turkifh: “ Sahha ! or Sahha wa Afie!’ in Arabic. This compliment is paid immediately after the perfon has drank, and is returned by touching the right temple flightly, and faying ‘“* M’ammer O]! in Turkifh, or in Arabic Ullah yetowe] Amrak! May God prolong your life,” or fome fuch expreffion of good withes.
In his defcription of ceremonial vifits, he fays the perfume is firft brought in, then the Sherbet, and laftly the coffee. Which I conceive to be one among other flight inaccuracies, rather than a local difference of cuftom. (Voyages p. 169.)
If the following account of the Mohammedan table by Symon Simion, be juft, the Mohammedans mutt be allowed to have improved much in civilization fince the year 1322. “‘ The Sultan of Egypt (according to ‘* him) fits down to his meals on the ground in a filthy manner like all the “« followers of the diabolical law of Mohammed. In his palace no dining ** table is feen, nor chairs, nor table napkin; inftead of tables, round ‘¢ plates of gold or filver, are raifed a little from the ground, and upon “‘ thefe the victuals are ferved up in large, wide, earthen difhes. The * cuefts fit round, and, all courtefy being fet afide, or like a timid hare ‘“‘ chafed away, they feed from the difhes like dogs or vile {wine, licking *« their fingers, daubing their own beards, and committing many other *‘ namelefs indecencies, till they have filled their bellies. They then rife “Cup, greafy and daubed as they are, and are fucceeded by others who “« devour the victuals that were left, in the fame beaftly manner.” (Iti- nerarium Symon Simeonis, p. 47. Cantab. 1778.)
It
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
It may be remarked here, that the zeal of the pious Pilgrim denies the Infidels even a napkin to wipe their fingers. But the paffage has princi- pally been produced as.an inftance of mifreprefentation from confounding the modes of diferent ranks: ia one general defcription. It is more thaw probable that the Pilgrim never had an opportunity of. feeing the Sultan dine: for the manners he defcribes could never belong to tables of perfons
of condition; nor are the lower rank of Mohammedans ever accufed of
fuch a total neglect of cleanlinefs.
A different account. is given by Poftel, who thought that his defcription ef the Turkifh table, and their manner of entertaining, would fhow the politenefs of the people in the higher and middling ranks:. as to the lower people, (continues he) ‘‘ they have their rice and mutton, with a round “ piece of leather, called their Soffra, (table) and which ferves at once for “« bafket, cheft, table, napkin, and bag, fhutting like a purfe witha leather
“ ftring, and commonly opening on an iron ring.” (Republique des.
Turcs,. &c. p..21, 25. Poitiers, 1560.)
This laft circumftance of the leathern table, in which all is carried away as in # bag, is mentioned alfo by Rauwolff; but he adds “ that the rich “ have fine cotton linen about their necks, hanging downwards, or elfe “ hanging at their filk girdles, which they ufe inftead cf napkins.” Ray (Collection. of curious Travels, &c.. p. 73.. Lond. 1738.)
It is to be regretted that Poftel’s precifion. in diftinguifhing the feveral: ranks. whofe manners he defcribes, and his diffidence in matters where he had not himfelf opportunities of obferving, was not oftener imitated by modern travellers. I believe (fays he) ‘* that the tables of the ladies are “ feryed in the fame manner with thofe of the men, but we cannot fee “ them.—Whether they dance or not, I do not pretend. to know ; but I “© have heard that. they do. (La. Republique des. Turcs, p. 16.),
More on the fubject of the Turkith table may be found in. Cantacufcino:
(Lib.. ii. p.. 166.)
Note XLVI. p. 187..
«Tt has.been the fortune of all religions now exifting or which ever did. «“ exift in the world, to fuffer under unreafonable flander, either from the “‘ mifcomprehenfion, or the malice of adverfaries.. But none of them has Vot. I.. Eee © been.
393
394
NOTESS AND JLLLUSARATICN 5.
‘‘ beon more unfairly reprefented, treated with greater contempt, or held ‘* lefs worthy of refutation, than the Mohammedan religion has been, by ‘“‘ the zeal of many of its enemies.” This remark of Hadrian Reland, in a preface written with much candor and liberality, has been illuftrated in his work, by feveral {trong and pertinent examples. (De Religione Mo- hammedica. Trajec. ad Rhenum. 1717.)
Some proofs of mitreprefentation, from intemperate zeal, particularly in the articles of Purification and Prayer, will prefent themi{elves in the fubfequent notes.
Note XLVII. p. 193.
It is remarked by Reland, that the feaft immediately following the Ra- madan is called the Great Feaft, in diftinétion from the Little Feaft, cele- brated in memory of Abraham offering up his Son. Sale (Koran Ch. 37. p- 369.) But that according to Herbelot, the names fhould be reverted, the feaft of Sacrifice being properly the Great Byram; the other, by the vulgar only, being fo called, from the extraordinary rejoicings made at the termination of the Ramadan. ‘The authority of Erpenius and others are oppofed to Herbelot by Reland, who adds that many more authorities might be produced from writers on Turkith affairs. Reland, (ut fupra, lib. 1. chap. ii.)
It is lefs {urprifing that the names of the two Byrams fhould fo often be confounded by writers, when Golius and Herbelot interpret them in a manner dire¢tly oppofite to Hyde, Scaliger and Erpenius: and even Me- ninfki calls Aid al Korban, the Little Featt.
Note XLVIII. p. 193.
The fafts enjoined in the Sonna, as well as voluntary fafts, are taken notice of by Pocock (Specimen, p. 308.) and Reland, (p. 111.) They alfo mention the peculiar merit, (according to Tradition) of fafting on particu- lar days in certain months.
I do not know how far fuch particular feafons are actually obferved by the Turks, but I have often remarked them faft on account of deliverance from danger, or in confequence of vows they had made. They however more frequently faft to make up for days they may have loft in the Rama-
dan,
MOTESA ZN D VLALUESTR ATION S.
dan, but whether for the obfervance of voluntary fafts they prefer the months deemed facred, was a circumftance I did not attend to.
For an account of the Arab months, and thofe named facred, fee Golius (Note in Alfergan. p. 3.): Pocock (Specimen, p. 175.) Sale (Prelimen. Ditc. Seét. vii.)
They not only keep voluntary fafts, but likewife perform facrifices, in confequence of vows made in times of. danger or diftrefs ;. and for this laft purpofe, they repair to. the convent of Sheih Abubecker, or other holy men’s tombs in the neighbourhood. But the diftribution of the different parts of the victim, mentioned in Domenichi, is a fact I am not acquainted with from my own obfervation..
“¢ They facrifice victims alfo, but generally in confequence of a vow, “made in. ficknefs or when in. danger, to offer up, as-they can afford it, ‘“¢ a fheep or cow, at fuch a particular time or place. The victim when *< flain, is not burnt, after the manner of the Jews, but the fkin, with the “« head, feet, and fourth part of the careafe, are given to the Priefts, they “ referve a fourth, and the remainder is divided between the neighbours «‘ and the poor,’”’ Ludovico Domenichi (Cofe Turchefche.)
A more particular account of the manner of facrificing may be feen in D’Ohffon (Tableau. General, Tom..i. p. 279.) but though the obliga- tion to facrifice at the great feaft appears by the inftitutes, to extend uni-+ verfally, the practice is certainly far from being general at Aleppo. Vo- luntary facrifices at other times are not uncommon.
Note XLIX. p. 194:
The Wodou, or-ordinary ablution before prayer. is. deicribed by Reland (p. 67.) The other called Gafle ee! is explained in the fucceeding pages of the 8th Chapter. With reipeét tothe Gafle. three points which render it neceflary, belong to the fexes. in common. viz: “ Concubitus fine
?
** emiffione Seminis, Fluxus Seminis, Mors; and three are peculiar to the women, viz, ‘¢ Fluxus Menftruorum, Fluxus Sanguinis in puerpera. poft * partum, Partus ipfe.”” But the Sonnaadds feveral precepts to thofe con- tained in the Koran, concerning both kinds of'luftration. Reland (p..77.)
The luftration of the Mohammedans is one of their religious rites which has been {trangely mifreprefented by many Chriftian writers. A proteftant Divine, who about a century ago refided fome time as chaplain
BE €.6.2 at
395
496
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
at Conitantinople, and has written on the manners of the Turks, giving
an account of their frequent ablutions, expreffes himfelf to the following purpofe. “ Behold their folly and madnefs! This ablution by water, “‘ which they term Taharit (purification) they ftupidly imagine fufficient
‘“ to cleanfe the filth from their fouls, and wafh away the horrible fins of
“¢ which they have been guilty: whence it is not to be wondered, that yi guuty ’
“< they fhould rufh into the moft deteftable crimes and wickednefs, under
“an opinion that a few {prinklings of water will reftore their original
* purity.” Smith (de Moribus ac Inftit. Turcar, p. 32. Oxon; 1672.)
A catholic Prelate, within thefe forty years, {peaking on the fame fub- jest, talks much in the fame ftrain: adding only that the Turks pay a greater ref{pect to this external rite than to all the other precepts of their Jaw. Affemani (Bibliothec. Medice Laurentiane et Palatine Codic, M. 5. 5. Orient. Catalog. p. 309. Florent. 1742.)
How different the doétrine of ablution is in reality from the above reprefentation of it, will appear from the learned Pocock’s notes on Abu’l Furrage ; (Specimen, p. 302.) a book which it may be fuppofed both the writers juft cited might have feen. But of the two the Bithop of Apamea feems the leaft excufable. The courfe of his ftudies muft have led him often to perufe the Mohammedan writers, and he was well ac- quainted with their language: circumftances fufficient to have prevented a fpecies of polemical mifreprefentation, which, however the intemperate zeal of earlier times might juftify, would hardly in a more liberal age find quarter, except among fome of the Chriftians in Syria, or the ignorant catholic Miffionaries who are fent to inftruét them. (See Reland p. 177+)
The Bifhop in another place, giving an account of a M.S. on the Mohammedan precepts, fays. ‘* But fhould any one violate thofe precepts ‘“‘ of the law, the crime may be expiated by external ablution; by a faft “‘ of three days; by giving alms; or liberating a prifoner. The remiffion “ of fins being thus eafily obtained, they pay little regard to the other “‘ precepts, and like animals not endued with reafon, abandon themfelves “‘ to brutal luft and pleafures, and perpetrate every kind of wickednefs.” Affemani (ut fupra, p. 308.)
A Mohammedan of common abilities would poffibly reply in his own vindication, that in relieving the poor, or reftoring a prifoner confined for debt, to liberty and his family; there might at leaft be as much real
expiatory
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
expiatory merit, as in offering a wax candle at the fhrine of a Saint, or bequeathing money, for the benefit of the Souls in Purgatory: and if re- quired to explain his notion of external rites, he might do it in a manner not lefs fatisfattory, than many rites of the Romifh Church are juftified from the afperfions of fuperficial obfervers.
In the mean while, however widely the Chriftian Divines may differ in their notion of penance, and the different modes of expiation, they both concur in afcribing the fuppofed wickednefs of the Turks, in a great mea- fure, to the fpirit of the Mohammedan Religion. The Englifh Divine “< {ubjoins, it is peculiar to the Turks, (and a vice which fuperftition has ‘“« converted into the nature of the people) to hold all who profefs a differs “ent religion in the utmoft hatred and contempt: not Chriitians and «< Jews only, but even the Perfians, who believe in the Prophet, and only ‘< differ from them in certain rites.” Smith (ut Supra, p. 3.)
The remark refpecting the Perfians is juft. But the reader who has heard of controverfies between Chriftian Churches, or between feétaries of the fame nominal Church, will hardly confider fuperftitious zeal as pe- culiar to the Mahommedans, and will be cautious of afcribing-the vices of a people to the fpirit of their religion.
The charaé¢ter of the Turks contained in the above extraéts, has been partially and haftily drawn. The Bifhop feems to have written under the bias of prejudices imbibed in his native country; the Englifh Divine feems to have fet out ftrongly prepofleffed with a notion of Turkifh barbarity, and then found a wecek’s refidence in the country fufficient to confirm the opinion. ‘ Every man (fays he) who has lived a week at Conftantinople, “« will acknowledge that the Turks are juftly faid to be a barbarous peo- $¢ shes
In Europe, where cuftom has rendered accefs to the natives of a certain rank, lefs difficult than it is in Turkey, a traveller, even poffeffed of the language, mutt be affiduous to qualify himfelf in many months, to decide jaftly on the national character: but were his opinion to be formed from what he may have obferved in the public ftreets, or among the inhabitants of an inferior clafs, it is probable that feveral European cities would get credit for lefs politenefs than they in reality deferve.
An attempt to exculpate the Mohammedans entirely from the charges of immorality fo often brought again{ft them, would be fond partiality in the extreme. They no doubt have their fhare of vices as in other parts
of
397
NOTES: AND J/TLLUGER ATO S.
of the world, but thefe are produced by caufes not connected with the na- tional creed. ‘The profligate Turk does not look up to religion for coun- tenance to his debaucheries ; and it is not in. Turkey only, that perfons ftriétly obfervant of outward rites, are fometimes found guilty of vicious: excelfes, or deteftable crimes.
Note L.. p. rg5..
A fuccinét account of the Mohammedan manner of praying has been given by Reland, and figures explanatory of the feveral attitudes and proftrations, are found both in. him and Grelot. But the fubject has been treated much more fully, and illuftrated by fuperior prints, by M. D’Ohifon (Tableau general de L’Empire Othoman, Tom. 1. p. 165.)
From all thefe drawings it appears that the- Turks, when they pray, do not lay afide their Turbans, even. thofe of the moft inconvenient fize: and in general they do not, but I have fometimes obferved them, in their own houfes, change a large Turban, for one of a more convenient fize.
It is afflerted by Dominichi and Affemani, that the Mohammedans when about to pray, do not take off their Turban, making only a movement with the hand as. if going to-do it... This.circumftance. muft have efcaped' mv notice; though if I rmghtly remember, I have feen fome, in the fummer, at prayer, with no. other covering on the head than the red. Tunis fkull cap, commonly worn under the Turban..
It is remarked by- D’Ohffon.as a fingular inftance, inconfiftent with the manners: of the: Turks, particularly thofe of rank, who never bare their head in.adoration, that Selim I. after his:conqueft of Egypt, in.a tranfport of piety took off his Turban, when he returned folemn thanks in the great Motque at Cairvo.. (Tom. i. p..198.):
The Rofary in-the hand of Grelot’s fig. 8; is univerfally in Syria carried by all fects. But the Turks do not ufe it in their cannonical prayers; it being only employed’ when they repeat in devotion the names of the fupreme being, and for that reafon it is compofed of one hundred Beads. The Rofaries of the Chriftians are diftinguifhed from thofe of the Turks and Jews by a {mall crofs. Reland (p. 87.) Grelot (p. 259.) D’Ohifon (Torn. i. pl. 14, 15.)
The punctual performance of prayer by perfons who fhow little regard to other precepts of the law, has fubjected the Turks to an imputation of
hypocrify.
NODE SA AN DUMLIE US WR A a OWN:S.
hypocrify. Dr. Smith obferves, ‘ that fome who boaft of their fanétity, ‘ confider the omiflion of prayer as the greateft crime, and will therefore, ‘when the hour of prayer arrives, {top in the ftreets, in the {quares, in “the woods, fields, on the fea fhore, and even difmount from their hoz‘e ‘on a journey, to acquit themfelves of fo important a duty.’ As a proof of the fhare hypocrify muft have in ‘fuch oftentation of piety, an inftance is given of certain Turks at the Englith Embaflador’s palace, who, after drinking freely, and ridiculing the prophet’s prohibition of wine, arote from table, on hearing the fignal for prayer from the Minaret, and per- formed their devotion, in prefence of the very affociates in the debauch. ‘ Nor is this oftentatiom (continues he) at all uncommon, more efpecially ‘in fuch places of refort, where they are moft likely to be obferved by * the Turks or Chriftians, with a view, by this falfe hypocritical worthip, ‘ to gain the reputation of zeal and piety.’ Smith (ut fupra p. 41.) A very different account is given by D’Ohffon (Tom. i. p. 194.)
That in general the Turks pray regularly at the appointed times, in their fhops, at a Coffee houfe, and even on a journey, is true; though this ftri€tnefs of obfervance does not extend to all places, and they are often, by bufinefs, obliged to defer praying till a more convenient time. But the inference that they pray thus publicly merely to give their neigh- bours, or the Chriftians, a high opinion of their fanétity, is by no means juit. The frequent exercife of prayer, which the law fo ftridtly enjoins, becomes in time habitual. Convenience is confulted when the Turks pray in the market place; and the praétice is fo common, that a man does not in faét become fo remarkable by feeming devout in public, as he would be in fome other countries. Were a dozen of fhop-keepers in Cheapfide, re- gularly as St. Paul’s clock {truck twelve at noon, to kneel on their own counters, and devoutly fay their prayers, the cuftomers who happened to be prefent would no doubt ftare, the novelty of the fight would draw a crowd about the door, and it is eafy to gueis what opinion would be formed of them. Yet the fame perfons may walk to church every Sunday, without incurring any imputation of hypocrify. The external fhow of devotion in Turkey, is likely, ina peculiar manner, to ftrike a perfon coming dire@ly from Britain ; and fome Englifh travellers who have early in life been in Italy, may poflibly recolleét the firft impreffion, on obferving the conduét of the young and diffolute Italians in refpeét to public worfhip: but en- larged experience corrects the immature judgment, and fhows that infer-
ences
399
400
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
encés in one country perfe¢tly juft, may in another, from the difference of national cuftoms, be rafh and illiberal.
The foregoing extra€ts from Dr. Smith and the learned Affemani, have not been produced with a petulant intention of eriticifing writers whofe authority in other points is. refpectable ; but were felected, in preference to innumerable paflages of fimilar tendency in the works of the early tra- vellers, to fhow the difficulty of obtaining information on religious fub- jects in. the Eaft. Travellers. in. thofe countries,. unacquainted with the language, muft chiefly depend on the Native Chriftians, the Jews, or the Romifh miffionaries; and it may eafily be conceived in what light Mo- hammedanifm is likely to be reprefented by them, when prejudice is: found to operate fo powerfully on Perfons of learning, in fituations bleffed with opportunities of cultivating a more liberal knowledge of mankind. From M. D’Ohffon’s account, who: has entered minutely into the fubjeét of Mo- hammedan luftration, it will indeed appear what {tri@t attention is required toa variety of circumftances in themfelves frivolous, and concerning which even the orthodox Imams.are themfelves at variance. But he juftly re- marks “les luftrations cependant n’ont aucun rapport aux fouillures d’l’ame.. Les Péchés ne s’effacent que par le repentir, des Jarmes de compon¢tion, des aétes de pénitence, &c. (Tom..1. p. 157.)
I fhall conclude this. note on. the fubje¢t of prayer, with remarking a curious miftake arifing from ignorance of the Arabic language, and. adopted in fucceflion by many writers of great name. The Arab verb: Sully carsies.two fenfes, viz. to. blefs, and to pray.. Applied to God it means the former, to forgive, to be merciful; applied to angels, it implies to pray for men; and applied to ren it means fimply to.pray. Yefully Ullah Allei ants al ( icy. May God be propitious to him! is a form. commonly ufed after naming any of the Patriarchs, or holy men, It is of courfe always applied after naming the Prophet, Ullah yefully ala al Nibby ( JI (ts. May God be propitious to the Prophet! which by a {trange perverfion. of tranflation, as well as. of common fenfe, has been. rendered ‘* may God pray for Mohammed,” and has thus been produced in triumph, as an inftance of grofs blafphemy imputable to the Moham- medans.
The reader will find the matter fully explained by Pocock, Reland, and Gagnier (Specim. p. 56. and 304.) (De Relig. p. 467. 171.) (in Vita Saladin, p. 1. Note b.)
Note
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note Ick p. 195.
Refpecting the Keblah, aus, the following paffage from the Koran fhows that Mohammed had at firft left it indeterminate, or rather indif- ferent. ‘ To God belongeth the Eaft and the Weft, therefore whither ** fo ever ye turn yourfelves to pray, there is the face of God; for God is “ omniprefent and omnifcient.”’ Sale (Ch. ii. p. 15.) Marracci (p. 46. 116.) Sale, in a note (p. 17.) remarks that Mohammed and his followers, obferv- ed at firft, no particular rite in turning their faces towards any certain place, or quarter of the world, when they prayed. But afterwards, when the Prophet fled to Medina he dire¢ted them “ to turn towards the temple “of Jerufalem, (probably to ingratiate himfelf with the Jews) which ** continued to be their Keblah for fix or feven months; but either finding ** the Jews too intra¢table, or defpairing otherwife to gain the Pagan Arabs, ““ who could not forget their refpeét to the temple of Mecca, he ordered “that prayers for the future fhould be towards the laft. This change “< was made in the fecond year of the Hejra, and occafioned many to fall “ from him, taking offence at his inconftancy.”’
Pocock feems to think that Jerufalem had been the Keblah before the Prophet’s flight (Specimen, p.175.) But however that may be, the mat- ter was clearly determined in the fecond year of the Hegira. “* We have ‘< feen thee turn about thy face towards heaven with uncertainty, but we ** will caufe thee to turn thyfelf towards a Keblah that will pleafe thee. ‘“‘’Turn therefore thy face towards the holy temple of Mecca; and “< wherever ye be turn your faces towards that place.’ (Koran Ch. ui. p. 18.) Marracci, (p. 60. 146.)
The Koran affigns a reafon for the change of the Keblah. “ We ap- “ pointed the Keblah towards which thou didft formerly pray, only that “ we might know him who followed the Apoftle, from him who turneth “‘ back, on his heels; (i. e. returneth to Judaifm) though this change ““feem a great matter unlefs unto thofe whom God hath direéted.”’ (Ch. li. p. 17.) Marracci (p. 60. 145.) Concerning the Keblah See D’Ohffon, {Tableau Gener. Tom. i. p. 164.)
It may be remarked further that the Prophet has guarded againft placing too much confequence in mere external rites, in prejudiceto more important duties. “It is not righteoufnefs that you turn your faces in prayer to- “* wards the Eaft and the Weft, but righteoufnefs is of him who believeth
Vor. I Fit in
AOI
402
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
** in God, and the laft day, and the angels, and the fcriptures, and the Pro- “¢ phets. Who giveth money for God’s fake unto his kindred, and unto ‘* Orphans, and the needy, and the ftranger, and thofe who afk, and for “< redemption of captives; who is conftant at prayers, and giveth alms; and «© of thofe who perform their covenant when they have covenanted, and “who behave themfelves patiently in adverfity, and hardfhips, and in ““ times of violence: thefe are they who are true, and thefe are they who “fear God.” Koran. (Chap. i. p. 20.) Marracci (p. 66. 178.)
To the above paflage, which contains a compend of Mohammedan morality, I fhall adjoin another paffage of the Koran expreflive of their notion of God. ‘* God! there is no God but he; the living, the felf fub- ‘« fifting: neither flumber nor fleep feizeth him: to him belongeth what- ‘“‘ ever is in heaven, or on the earth. Who is he that can intercede “with him but through his good pleafure? He knoweth that which is ‘«* paft, and that which is to come unto them, and they {hall not com- “« prehend any thing of his knowledge, but fo far as he pleafeth. His “ throne is extended over Heaven and Earth, and the prefervation of both ‘is no burthen to him. He is the high, the mighty.” Koran (Ch. ii. p. 30.) Marracci. p. 95. 256.
The Mohammedans have by the later Greek writers been accufed of idolatry. Cedrenus remarks that as the people were formerly led by fuper- {tition to pay divine honours to Venus of the Grecks, (that is Pleafure) fo the Mohammedans {till worfhip Venus, or the Morning Star, (Lucifer,) under the name Kubar.
The miftake refpecting Kubar, (as Pocock has clearly fhown) arofe from ignorance of the Arabic language. ‘The words produced by the Grecks in proof of the fuppofed idolatry, are thofe fo often pronounced by Mohammedans in hours of devotion. Ullah Ullah hu kubar Ullah Sl 54d a! all. God! God! He the Great God! The Greeks in their characters expreffed them “Adda “AdAw & xuBap “Adda, but, by a ftrange miftake, they rendered the 2 4%, by Greater.
Cedrenus citing the above words, which he terms deteftable and pro- fane, explains their myftical meaning thus, Ulla Ulla, God, God, hu (#) Greater, Kubar, Great God. That is God! God! God! Greater and great ; by which laft is underftood Venus. Cedrenus, (Tom. i. p. 425) Pocock, (Specimen, p. 112.)
Note
NOTES AND. ILLUSTRATIONS,
Note LII. p. 195.
M. D’Ohffon, in his introduétion to the Tableau General, has given an account of the Sonna and other canonical Mohammedan books. Prayers which are not of divine inftitution are termed Sonna ain, in diftinGtion to obligatory obfervances termed Firad.
Under the term Firad, is comprehended what, if performed, is entitled to reward, but is liable to punifhment if negleéted.
What is entitled to reward, if done, but if not done, is not liable to punifhment, comes under Sonna.
What it is meritorious to abftain from, but if committed not punifh- able, is termed Mukrua.
Hilal comprehends things which if done, or omitted, do not deferve punifhment.
Matters, which he who avoids is entitled to reward, but of which the commiffion is fubject to punifhment, comes under Haram. Reland, (De Relig. Mohamed. p. 69.)
Note LIII. p. 197.
Symon Simeon in his Itinerary, gives the following ftrange account of the Maazeen calling from the Minarets, ‘* Velut {peculatores, ad pro- “‘ pbhetam fuum certis horis videlicet Machometum porcum viliffimum ** Jaudandum; et ad populum in ejus laudibus excitandum ; ubi eum inter “alia laudant clamorofis vocibus et magnificant, quod una nocte cum “ mulieribus novem nonaginta vicibus turpiter operatus eft, quod fa@tum “¢ inter alia ejus miracula excellentiflimum & gloriofum reputant. (p. 23.)
A number of abfurdities of this kind might be produced from the jour- nals of pious travellers, in early times. They imagined that the intereft of Chriftianity was promoted by reprefenting the Mohammedans in the blackeft colours, and their zeal rendered them credulous to every idle tale. The words pronounced by the Maazeen, are now univerfally. known; and an account of that office, as well as that of the Imam, has been given by D’Ohffon ; from which it appears that females are abfolutely excluded officiating in either. (Tableau Gener. Tom. 1. p. 176. pl. 17. 18.)
Eof fi] Note
403
4.04
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, Note LIV. p. 200.
Afad Bafhaw, defcended from an opulent family, was a Native o Hemfe, or of Hama. Of his two brothers one was.a Vizir Bafhaw, and. the other a Bafhaw of two Tails: an unufual circumftance in one family.. Afad enjoyed the government of Damafcus for many years, and in chas. racter of Emeer Hadge, he had conduéted the Mecca. Caravan ten or twelve pilgrimages fucceflively. He had prudently. cultivated the friend-. fhip of the Defert Arabs, and by a mild adminiftration, rendered himfelf popular in his Bafhawlick.
In the year. 1757, being removed from Damafcus to Aleppo, he was fucceeded as Emeer Hadge by a new created Bafhaw, unknown to the Arabs, and by them confidered as the enemy of their favorite Afad..
It happened that year, that the Caravan on its return from Mecca, was attacked and plundered in the: Defert: an event which caufed univerfal confternation in the Empire, but efpecially in the capital. At Aleppo, it was a prevalent opinion that the outrage of the Arabs was principally owing to refentment ; they had not been duly prepared for the change of the Emeer Hadge, and the young Bafhaw negle¢ted the proper means of. conciliating their good will.
When intelligence of this difafter was firft brought to Afad Bafhaw, he is faid to have received it with little apparent furprife, as if an event na- turally to be expected. Bred ina remote Province, he was a man of plain, underftanding, but unpra¢ticed in the arts and manners of a.Court; and injudicioufly converfed on the fubjeét of the robbery, with fo little caution, that he either gave real caufe for fufpicion of his being no ftranger to the defigns of the Arabs, or furnifhed the Porte with a pretence for haftening the ftroke it had for fome time meditated. .
Ragab Bafhaw (afterwards Grand Vizir) came from Egypt to Aleppo, in the year 1756, In the following year, upon Afad Bafhaw’s nomination to Aleppo, Ragab was.appointed to fucceed to Damafcus; and in expeéta- tion of being alfo appointed Emeer Hadge, he propofed to purchafe of Afad the fupernumerary camels, tents, and other camp utenfils requifite for the pilgrimage, which Afad not having further occafion for, might have conveniently fpared. This propofal was unfortunately rejected in
an
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
an ungracious manner; Afad either doubting his fucceffor's ability to make: fo confiderable a purchafe, or not being politician enough to forefee the. confequence of the refufal. When Ragab received the anfwer. from Damafcus, he was-enraged at the difappointment, and difgufted with the manner in which his-propofal had been rejeGted; but affecting to treat it with contempt, he only exclaimed, Fillah eben Fillah! a clown, the fon ef aclown! An expreffion I afterwards had occafion to hear him repeat, when Afad was accidentally mentioned. Ragab had a motive for thinks ing himfelf ufed with indignity, which Afad had not forefeen.
Within the filk cover of the letter, which brought the advice to Ragab.
Bafhaw of his. new appointment, was a flip of paper from the Kizler-Aga, giving him 2 hint of foon receiving more important news. The contents of this. paper were kept profoundly fecret from his fuite, and while all were employed at the Seraglio in preparing for Damafcus, advices were. received of: Ragab being appointed Grand Vizir. The Selihdar of the. Grand Signor, with the Imperial command, arrived a few days after, and the new Vizir, attended by a {mall retinue, immediately fet out with him: for Conftantinople.
_ A fhort time after the Vizir’s denahiaene! Afad came to Aleppo; and by lowering the price of grain, and fupplying the city from -his.own grana~ ries, he foon became.a favorite of the people. .
The whole of his adminiftration was indeed mild, in a degree to which the Aleppeens had not been accuftomed. But within a few months, the unwelcome news arrived of his being appointed to. another Bafhawlick ; on which occafion the populace aflembling in-a tumultuous manner, threat- ened to oppofe his departure, and prevailed on the Divan, as well as on the European Confuls, to ufe their influence at Conftantinople that he. might be permitted to remain. Advice of the requeft being complied with by the Porte, was received at Aleppo with unufual demonftrations of joy: even the Europeans found it prudent to make public illuminations and feftivals.. The intention of the Porte, however, was only fufpended; for before the expiration of the year, Afad was a fecond. time. appointed. Bafhaw of Siwas.
Upon this, he immediately removed from the Seraglio:to the ‘King’s, or Green Meidan, where he remained encamped {everal weeks; in which in- terval his friends were not idle. They forefaw the infidious defign of drawing him to fuch a diftance from his native Province, and reprefented
the.
405
406
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
the neceffity of his making provifion againft the impending ftorm. They advifed him either to tran{mit large fums to Conftantinople, in order to procure his old government, or to make a confiderable augmentation of his Troops: or at leaft to purchafe permiffion, under pretence of infirmity and age, to retire to his own eftates, where he would have little to fear for his life. Avarice, and ill grounded confidence, rendered their advice ineffcGtual. He was immoderately fond of money, and flattered himfelf that after having fo many times conducted the Mecca Caravan, he ran no hazard of being cut off. ;
After a long delay at the Green Meidan, he at length proceeded to his new government; where he had been fettled only a fhort time, when he was called up to Conftantinople, under pretence of his prefence being re- quifite for explaining certain circumftances relating to the late difafter of the Mecca Caravan: but he was affured at the fame time, that he had nothing to fear, there being no accufation againft him. ‘The command was brought to Siwas by two Boftangees, with whom, and a {mall fuite of his domeftics, after a few days preparation, he fet out for Conftanti- nople.
The Boftangees behaved with the utmoft refpeét to him, on the journey, but artfully found means to get rid of moft of the Bafhaws own attendants without caufing alarm.
On their arrival at a village near Brufa, the Boftangees propofed refting, and that His Excellency fhould refrefh himfelf in a Bagnio. The old man, not diftrufting his companions, readily confented to the propofal. The Boftangees took care to be of the party, and, while the devoted victim fat defencelefs in the inner room of the Bagnio, one of them, by a {troke with a mace, laid him fenfelefs on the ground: the murder was completed by fevering the head from the body.
At the fame time the Boftang ees left Conftantinople, a Capugee* was defpatched to Damafcus, to confifcate the treafure of the unfortunate Afad; but the alarm had reached that place, before his arrival, and though he met with confiderable booty, it was lets than the avidity of the Porte expected. Indeed part of the treafure had been buried; and a favorite flave of Afad’s, who had by his mafter been left in truft at Damafcus, found means to carry off another part to the mountains, where he put
* A meffenger of fuperior rank.
himfelf
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
himfelf under the protection of the Emeer of the Drufes. This flave made his peace with the Porte, in the following year; was created a Bafhaw; and in the fequel made a confpicuous figure, as Bafhaw of Damafcus, during the late invafion of Syria by Aly Bey of Egypt.
Note LV. p. 203.
The proper term for circumcifion is Khitan, or Al Titheer b’Ikhitan wis? Ly age. Mundatio que fit per circumcifionem. But the term vulgarly ufed at Aleppo is Titheer fimply, from Tahr gb or d(b, which though it means properly any kind of purification, is ufually under{tood of circumcifion in particular. See Reland (p. 268.) Pocock (Specimen, p. 319.)
The tradition recorded concerning circumcifion, makes the Prophet declare it to be Sonna aux, which Pocock renders a neceffary rite, though Sonna, according to the explanation of Reland, does not comprehend things abfolutely neceffary, but fuch as though the obfervance of them be meritorious, the negleét is not liable to punifhment.
The Prophet himfelf is faid to have been born without a Prepuces,
with which circumftance Grelot feems to have been unacquainted, when he afcribes the adoption of that rite tothe motive of private convenience in the law-giver; betides as the practice was in ufe among the Arabs long before that period, the Prophet muft have been circumcifed many years prior to his pretended miffion. Grelot. (Relation nouvelle d’un Voyage de Conftantinople p. 213. Paris 1680.) Pocock (Specim. p. 319.) Affemani aiferts that the Turkifh children receive their name at the inftant of circumcifion, as the children of Chriftians do in baptifm; and, with refpeét to the circumcifion of Chriftian Profelytes, that they are previoufly obliged to trample and {pit three times on a Crofs prefented to them for that purpofe, and then, three arrows being fhot off into the air, by three of the attendants, the name of the new convert is pronounced before the arrows fall to the ground. (Biblioth. Med. Cod. MSS. Arab 168.) The two laft circumftances are unknown at Aleppo, and the firft is certainly a miftake; for the child is named almoft as foon as it comes into the world. Grelot fays.exprefsly, that at Conftantinople, naming the. children is not deferred till the time of circumcifion; and he probably is in
the right alfo about the ceremony ufed with infants (p. 2195) but cuftoms. of
407
408
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
of that kind may vary at different places. The Perfon’s carrying a dart or arrow in his hand, if practifed at Aleppo, muft have efcaped my notice.
The circumcifion of Females is not known at Aleppo. It is termed Bitre fay “ Confiftit in incifione nymphz puellaris, Arabice ( C43.” Reland, (p. 75-) On this head, as well as the phyfical.advantages of the opera- tion, the following Authors may be confulted. Michaelis, (Queft. 52.) Niebuhr. (Difcript. d’Arabie, p. 67.)
It did not appear to me, that the Natives of Syria had either the pre- puce, or the eyelids remarkably longer than the Europeans; nor were in- {tances more frequent of children born without a prepuce. Buffon, (Hitt. Nat. Tom. ii. .p. 480.)
The matter fecreted from the neck of the glans, from behind the ears, and fome other parts, is apt to become more acrimonious than in colder climates; the urine alfo (which in the Summer is rendered in {mall quan- tity) is fharp, high coloured, and very quickly grows putrid. Hence per- haps it is that the Chriftians are more fubje¢t to prurient efflorefcencies on the glans, than the circumcifed; but I never obferved ulcers of any cone fequence on thofe parts, totally free from fufpicion of a Venereal taint.
‘The glans of the circumcifed is certainly more callous. The Chrif- tians feemed more fubjeét to flight Venereal infection than the Turks, who feldom had a Gonorrhcea unattended with more formidable fymptoms.
Upon the whole, that.circumcifion is not of abfolute neceffity in that climate, on a-phyfical account, is evident from the Chriftian inhabitants of Syria. It appears to prevent no inconveniences which might not be obviated by means Jefs violent, and though I had occafion to fee feveral inftances of a Natural Phymofis, fuch cafes, comparatively, were not more common than they are found to be in Europe. Boerhaave. (de Lue Venerea. p. 16. Lugd. Batav. 1762.)
Refpe¢cting the antiquity of the pra¢tice of circumcifion. See Beloe’s Herodotus, vol. 1. p. 258. (Ancient Univerfal Hift. vol. ii. p. 367.)
Note LXVI. p. 203.
‘Obligatory alms are called Zacat, 345) and voluntary alms Sedkat, XsOuo; the latter word is ufed in general for charity. The diftinétion of
obligatory and voluntary alms, is not, I believe ftri€tly obferved at Aleppo. See
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
See on the fubjeét of alms. Reland, (p. 99.) Pocock, (Specimen, p. 306.) and (Tableau General, Tom. i. p. 269, with D’Ohffon’s Obfervations,
page 274.)
Note LVII. p. 207.
In placing the origin of Mohammedan Monattic Inftitutions in the 4th century, I have followed the authority of Herbelot, who afcribes it to the piety of the third Prince of the Sammanian Dynafty, who died Anno Heg. 331. (Biblioth. p. 292. and 664.) But the Author of the Efcurial Ca- talogue, on the authority of Macrizi, places it a century earlier.
Rycaut, who was at pains to inform himfelf, reckons eight different Orders of Monks, under the general title of Dervife, including however the Itinerant Monks. Of thofe four only are mentioned by Sir James Porter, the Begtafhi, the Mevelevi, the Kadri, and the Seyah, or Itinerant Monks. Cantacuzene mentions four principal Orders of Monks. I Calen- dieri, Divani, Ifaachi, and Torlachi! Du Loir {peaking of the Barking Sheihs, fays, “‘ that immediately after prayer, and before beginning the exercife defcribed in the text, they turn for fome time round, after the manner of the Dervifes. Du Loir (Voyages, p. 148.) Rycaut (State of the Ottoman Empire255, Lond. 1675.) Porter, (Obfervations, p. 42.)
But by much the moft diftinét account of the Mohammedan Monattic Orders, is found in the fecond Volume of the Tableau General, where D’Ohffon alfo (p. 295.) gives a chronological lift of their Founders, amounting in number to thirty-two. He mentions a remarkable Moflem Anchorite, of the 37th year of the Hegira; (A. C. 659.) but Sheih CEul- wann, who died in 149. (A.C. 766.) ftands the firft founder of an Order, in the lift. ©
It may be remarked from this lift, that only one new Order was founded in the gth century; and one in the roth; two in the 12th; five in the 13th; four in the 14th; five in the 15th; fix in the 16th; three in the 17th; and three in the prefent century.
By aM. S. treatife on the Monattic life, in the Efcurial Catalogue, the term Suphi would appear to be a general name rather than that of a par- ticular Order; and is fuppofed to be derived from the white woolen gar- ment worn by the Monks. But Herbelot is of opinion that it rather
Vor. I. Geg comes
4.09
410
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
comes from Logos than __$4.0, remarking at the fame time that the title having been aflumed by Shah I{mael, is the reafon why the Kings of Perfia have, from that time, been called Sophi. Herbelot. (Biblioth. Orient, p- 816.) Cafiri, (Bibliot. Arabo-hifp. Efcur. Tom. i. p. 220.)
The Monks of both Convents at Aleppo, wear the white garment with wide fleeves, and the high white Kaook, fometimes with, at other times without a Shafh. Thofe of the Convent of Abu Becker, are of the Beckry Order, and their founder, who died in 1496, lies buried there. The Convent of the Mowlewys is near to Kitab’s Bridge.
It is remarked by Poftel that all the Turks marry, or if the religious Sheihs remain in celibacy, that it is their own choice, not matter of obli- gation. (Republiq. des Turcs, p. 4.)
This is confonant to the prefent practice at Aleppo, where moft of the Dervifes and Sheihs are married; fuch as are not, either abftain by choice, or are ref{trained by poverty.
Agreeably to a ‘ precept of the Koran, (fays Affemani) all the Moham- ‘medans marry, even the Ecclefiaftics; Dervifes only being excepted, ‘who indulge with impunity in the moft deteftable vices.’ ‘ Quibus “« (Dervifis) Connubia licet vetita fint, Adulteria tamen, & -{tupra, ac ne- “‘ fanda contra naturam peccata, impune committant.” (Buiblioth. Palat. Med. Cod. 171.)
Baumgarten (in 1505) defcribes a Saint, whom he faw fitting on the fand in Egypt ftark naked. He was told that madmen and idiots were refpected as Saints by the Mohammedans, and that tombs were ere¢ted its honour of them when they died. “ Audivimus hec diéta & dicenda per ‘“‘ Interpretem a Mucrelo Noftro: infuper fanétum illum quem eo loci ‘‘ vidimus, publicitus apprime commendari: eum effe hominem fan@um, *‘ divinum, ac integritate precipuum, eo quod nec feminarum unquam ‘“‘ effet, nec puerorum, fed tantummodo Afellarum Concubitor atque Mu- “lorum.” (Peregrinat, in Aigypt. Arab. Paleftin. &c. p. 73.) Biddulph, (in Purchas’s Pilgrims, p. 1339.)
Symon Simion, {peaking of the people of Egypt, fays “ Qui omnes “ ficut Czeteri legis diabolicee Confeffores, a minore ufque ad maximum, “ab Admiraldo ufque ad Soldanum inclufive, funt fodomitz peffimi et ‘‘ viliffimi, et eorum Multi cum Afinis et Beftiis operantur iniquitatem.”
(Itinerar. p. 44.) Goeo2 Thefe
o 5
NOTESPANDULLELUSPR ATIONS.
Thefe are only fpecimens of numberlefs paflages to the fame purpofe, to be found in the works not only of the earlier travellers, but in fome of later times, when prejudice and credulity might be expeéted to have ope- rated lefs powerfully. To the pious Simion allowance fhould be made for the recent hoftilities which in his time exafperated the enmity of Chrif- tians to the Saracens; and Baumgarten’s interpreter may be fuppofed as ufual to have exaggerated: but the hafty aflertion of the learned Bifhop of Apamea is the more to be regretted, as it ferves to propagate undue prejudices among thofe, already difpofed to receive them on lefs refpecta- ble authority. He might poffibly, while in Turkey, have feen no inftance of public punifhment of the crimes alluded to, but what proof could he have had of the aétual commiflion of fuch, fufficient to juftify fo genera] a charge againft a numerous body of people, with whom he cannot be fuppofed to have been familiarly acquainted! If he knew many of them, he muft furely have known fome who led decent lives. Were a Turk who travelled in Europe to bring a fimilar charge againft the Legions of Monks he meets with in various habits, his prejudice and credulity, would be objects of pity or contempt ; and fome Catholic Prelate might poffibly lament the Mohammedan’s misfortune, in not having been born heir to a religion, which breathing a more benevolent {pirit, enjoins its profeffors to judge of their neighbours with caution and charity.
Poittel makes it a requeft to his reader, that divefted of prejudice and affection, he would judge like a neutral perfon not acquainted with the parties. ‘ Among Chriftians, notwithftanding the purity of their Law, “ are found men who live diffolutely ; but what credit would be due to a “‘ {tranger, who having met in a country with fome bad individuals, fhould ““ report the whole of the inhabitants to be wicked! Il me femble qu’il “‘feroit fort inique Juge, qui ainfi condamneroit Je tout pour partic.” (La Republique des Turcs, p. 3.)
The Dervifes ‘ are reprefented by fome as rude and infociable in their “manner of living, which for any thing I know might be true formerly, ‘but at prefent, they are of all Turks the moft polite in converfation. * They have alfo been charged with a deteftable vice, from which I fhall * not pretend to acquit all; though they affe& to hold it in abhorrence ; ‘ nor, notwith{tanding fome appearances, do I believe all culpable.” Du Loir, (Voyage du Levant, p. 149. 150. Paris 1654.)
The
41
412
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The Monks of the two Convents at Aleppo, bear a good charaéter; as do alfo many of the refident Sheihs; but the Itinerant Sheihs, who infeft the country, have a bad reputation, and are often deteéted in crimes. It fhould be remarked however that there are among them real, as well as pretended madmen, and that indecencies are over-looked, on account of fuppoftd infanity, which would be punifhed in the ordinary courfe of juttice. By what I have heard, thefe fanatics and knaves meet with more indulgence in Egypt, than in Syria..
Note LVIII. p. 207::
The dancing Dervifes have been defcribed by almoft every traveller who has vifited Conftantinople. In the (Recueil de cent Eftampes,. qui reprefentent differentes Nations du Levant, Paris 1715.) there is a defcrip- tive drawing, with the mufic of the dance. Tournefort gives.a tolerable. drawing (Voyage into the Levant, vol. i. p. 88. Lond. 1718.). But the beft I had feen before that of D’Ohffon, was a print from a painting of. Smith’s done for the late Lord Baltimore. The mufician, however, is. erroneoufly reprefented there, blowing the flute in the manner of a Ger- man flute. See the figure of the Dervife in the Turkith Concert, (p. 152.. Plate IV.)
Tavernier mentions two of thofe Dervifes who (when Sultan Amurat made his entry into Aleppo, in his way to the fiege of Babylon) “ went ‘* juft before the Grand Signor’s horfe, for half an hour’s march: together,, “¢ turning round continually with all their might, till they foamed again at
the mouth, and dazzled the eyes of thofe that beheld them.” (Voyages,
page 60.)
The dancing Dervifes are of the Mowlewy Order inftitutedin the year 1273; but though more generally known under that appellation, it is not the only Order that admits dancing in their rites. Seven other Orders are mentioned by D’Ohffon (Tom. ii. p. 301.)- who in their devotional ex- ercifes have adopted dancing, or extravagant gefticulation ; and of thofe, two are anterior to the Mowlewys, by more than a century: but the dance of the Dervifes differs from that of all the others.
A praétice fo inconfiftent with the fpirit of Mohanimetiaiitias and- the manners of the Moflems, feems however to have been introduced fometime
after
———_—
—_e ~~
NOTES AND ILILUSTRATIONS.
after the inftitution of the earlier Monaftic Orders, and met with muclx oppofition from the more rational Mohammedans. In the reign of Mo- hammed IV. fome rigid Moflems made an attempt to abolifh at once the whole of the Monaftic Orders, but were overpowered by a majority of the ignorant and fuperftitious. D’Ohffon, (Tom. i. p. 311.):
Note LIX. p. 209.
The Itinerant Monks are mentioned by travellers under various names. Herbelot calls them Calenders, &c. Du Loir calls them Sheih or Abdal,. which is the name they have at Aleppo. He fays they have no Convents, but remain wherever they find moft encouragement. (p. 159.) This laft circumftance is certainly true of many of them, but others belong to Mo- nafteries; for the Monks of every order may occafionally become Der- vifes, or undertake pilgrimages. Some, (among whom are the Becktafhys) travel as mendicants by command of their fuperiors; but many of the Itinerant Sheihs are rafcals who have, for ill behaviour, been expelled from their Convent, and retaining the habit, impofe on the populace. The Calenderys take their name from Calender Youfouph, a difciple of Hagy Becktafh, who being expelled from that fociety, and refufed admittance. among the Mowlewy, vowed perpetual enmity to both, and inftituted a
diftinét Order of his own. D’Ohffon (Tableau General, Tom. ii. p. 315.)
Among the Itinerant Sheihs in Syria, there were very probably fome of the Becktafhys, of whom Rycaut (State of the Ottoman Empire, chap. xx.)
gives a very bad character. But D’Ohbffon {peaks more favorably of
them.
Their founder (A. C. 1363.) Hagy Becktath, firft advifed the inftitu- tion of the Janizaries, giving the fleeve of his felt gown as a model for their caps; whence the form of the ceremonial cap: worn at prefent by the Janizaries, was originally taken. Herbelot (p. 176.) The Ottoman armies are accompanied by Sheihs-or Dervifes of all Orders, but the Jani-. zaries are more particularly attached to the Becktafhys,.
Note LX. p. 210..
Whether the Barking Sheihs.at Aleppo be of the order of Cadrys, I do not know; there is a refemblance in the rites: but the exclamation Hu is not
413
414
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
not peculiar to one Monaftic Order. They are compofed partly of Natives of the city, and partly of ftrangers, who, if Monks, may belong to differ- ent Orders: and no Moflem (duely prepared as if for prayer) is excluded from joining. They are at Aleppo, called Sheih, or Abdal, not Cadrys ; nor did I remark there any diftinétion of religious Orders, befides that of Dervife and Sheih: under the firft being comprehended the Monks of the two Convents mentioned in the text, and under the latter all the others, whether refident or itinerant.
A remarkable Fanatic named Baba Bazarlu, is mentioned by Herbelot (p. 195. 460.) “ He was one of thofe half mad Enthufiafts refpected by «« the Mohammedans, and called Abdal. A Native Turk, who quitting “all worldly concerns, fhut himfelf up in a fmall cell, and dedicated his ‘¢ whole time to contemplation. The wall of the cell was his only book, “‘ having caufed to be infcribed on it, in chara¢ters fo large as to occupy “‘ the whole furface, the fingle word Hu. He whois, viz. God. This «¢ word, Hu, which is pronounced Hou, being fometimes the Subftantive “‘ verb, exprefles, he is, and becomes one of the hundred names of the “ Deity. It is put at the beginning of all Mohammedan works, and “¢ fuperfcribed on Refcripts, Paffports, &c.
Note EXT Sp: 202.
«© They (Mohammedans) are enjoined by their religion to extend it by «¢ making converts; and to prefs at leaft three times, all thofe of any “ other perfuafion to embrace it. Some affect a forcible and unbecoming ‘¢ zeal, others more moderate content themfelves with a mere formal re- ‘ quifition; but either of them will change their tone according as they “‘ conceive the perfon they addrefs may be ufeful tothem or not.’ Porter (Obfervations p. 14.)
The injunction fuppofed above, I conceive to be a miftake. The re- ligious code permits praying for the converfion of an unbeliever; though it forbids praying for the foul of one deceafed. There are no public prayers for converfion ; and though fome zealous individuals may confider it as meritorious to make’an attempt to convert an acquaintance, it is by no means regarded as a matter of univerfal obligation: nor is it in fact
practifed. D’Ohffon (Tableau General. Tom. ii. p. 186. 219.) Note
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note LXII. p. 213.
The Koran in feveral places reproaches the Chriftians with Polytheifm. “They are certainly infidels who fay God is the third of three; for « there is no God befides one God—or that God is Chrift the fon of “© man—Chrift the fon of Mary is no more than an Apoftle.”” Koran (Ch. v. p. 92. and 85.) Marracci (p. 194. 19. p. 228. 81.)
“ Say not there are three Gods; forbear this; it will be better for you “ —far be it from God that he fhould have a fon.’’ (Chap. iv. p. 81.) Marracci, (p. 177. 169.)
“© The Chriftians fay Chrift is the fon of God. This is the faying in «their mouths: they imitate the faying of thofe who were unbelievers “in former times. May God refift them. How are they infatuated? “‘ they take their Priefts and Monks for their Lords, befides God and “© Chrift the fon of Mary, although they are commanded to worfhip one “God only—far be that from him, which they affociate with him.” (Chap. ix. p. 153-) Marracci, (p. 301. 35.) (Chap. cxii. p. 507.) Marracci, (p. 831.)
Note LXIII. p. 214.
It is remarked by Cafiri, (Bibliot. Arabo-hifp. Efcur. Tom. ii. p. 348.) that the Mohammedan authors write their own Hiftory with care and ac- curacy, but that in the hiftorical parts of the Old and the New Teftament, they mingle a number of fables and falfities taken from the Koran, and the Mohammedan Legends. It may be added that the errors into which the Moflems are thus betrayed, are not likely to be correéted by the Native Chriftians, who are apt to temporife abominably. Should a grave Effendee condefcend in converfation to appeal to a Chriftian for the truth of what may have been afferted refpeCting his Creed, the Chriftian thinks it more prudent to affent equivocally, than to rifk a contradiétion which would hurt the pride of his opponent: and indeed the Eaftern Chriftians are themfelves but fuperficially inftructed.
The learned Turks feldom converfe with Europeans on religious topics; but when the. fubjeét is accidentally introduced, they reafon with exem- plary moderation. Among fome pertinent, they afk a multitude of frivolous queftions; but they liften as if defirous of information; and
admit
415
416
NOTES ,\AND | TLLUS TRATIONS.
admit that matters may have been mifreprefented through ignorance of languages, as well as from defign. This was true fo far as I had occafion to obferve, among perfons from whom I had no right to expect deference, nor any other refpect than what was dictated by common civility. It fhould be remarked however, that the Turks confider the Englith as different from all the Chriftians in their Dominions. The Englifh do not attend the fame places of worfhip; they have no Monks; and they obferve few of the feftivals kept by the other Chriftians. As this opinion might be one reafon for their converfing before me with more freedom, fo on the other hand, it left me at liberty to difclaim, as not be- longing to the Englifh Church, feveral fuperftitious articles alleged to be inconfiftent with the belief of one God. A paffage in the memoirs of the Miffionaries fhows in what manner they reprefented the ftate of Englith and Dutch Chriftianity in Syria ‘* vous me demanderez maintenant com- «‘ ment font les Anglois & les Hollandois; ici, comme en Holland & en An- «¢ oleterre, ils n’obfervent ni jeune ni Abftinence, mais on en eft f{candalifé: ‘les gens du pays difent qu’ils ne font pas Chrétiens, & les Turcs eux- «« mémes les regardent comme des gens fans religion.’” (Memoires des Miffions, Tom. viii. p. 298.)
In this laft circumftance the Reverend Father went rather too far. The Turks do not believe us to be without religion; though they acquit us of being affociates in feveral of the fuperftitious praCtices which they afcribe (however impioufly) to the Chriftians of the country: we lofe no credit among the Mohammedans by not paying adoration to the Mother of God.
I have heard them in converfation, remark it as one of thofe my- {teries of providence which puzzles the human underftanding to ac- count for, how almighty wifdom fhould permit fo great a proportion of his creatures to bewilder themfelves in the mazes of falfe religion. But from the faé (confidered as incontrovertible) they would draw an in- ference in favour of mutual charity and toleration. This is by no means uncommon, and fhould perhaps be ranked among opinions imputed to fome of the Ullama, which renders them fufpeéted as free-thinkers, who admit the poffibility of falvation under every religion: but it may juftly be doubted whether fuch moderation in fentiment, is juftified by the
Koran. The
NOTES “AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The following paflages are explicitly againft it, “‘ whoever followeth any * other religion than Iflam, it fhall not be accepted of him, and in the “next life he fhall be of thofe who perifh.” (Ch. iii. p. 47.) Marracci, (p. 121. 84.)
“‘ They are furely infidels who fay verily God is Chrift, &c. Whoever * fhall give a companion unto God, God fhall exclude him from Paradife, «* and his habitation fhall be hell fire; and the ungodly fhall have none to ** help them.” (Ch. v. p. 92.) Marracci, (p. 227. 78. p. 228. 81.)
Another paffage. has been the fource of various opinions among com- mentators, “ furely thofe who believe, and thofe who judaize, and Chrif- *¢ tians, and Sabians, whofoever believeth in God, and the laft day, and “¢ doth that which is right, they fhall have their reward with their Lord, “¢ there fhall come no fear on them, neither fhall they be grieved.” Koran» (Ch. ii. p. 8.) Marracci (p. 32. 62.)
But Sale, Reland, and others, confider it as wrongfully produced in favour of an opinion, that every man (agreeably to the doétrine of Mo- hammed) may be faved in his own religion, provided he be fincere, and lead a good life.
The reader defirous of further information on this point may confult _Reland (De Relig. Moham. p. 128.) Sale (Note on Koran, Ch. 11. p. 8.) Chardin, (Voyages en Perfe, &c. Tom. iv. p..23. Amfterd. 1735.)
Sir James Porter remarks “ that the Turks hold all who are not of * their belief and embrace not the doétrines of their Prophet, to be objects “< of divine vengeance, and confequently of their deteftation, and againft «* whom they are to exercife violence, fraud, and rapine.
“The force and efficacy (continues he) of this principle operates fo “ effetually, that Mahometans are ever ready to demonftrate their zeal * by fpurning and ill treating the perfons, plundering the property, and “‘ even deftroying the very exiftence of thofe who profefs a different re- “ ligion. If they are candid they will frankly confefs, upon an inquiry, * that fuch is their duty, fo they are commanded, and that they are con- ** vinced it is moft meritorious in the fight of God and his Prophet.” (Obfervations, p. 11.)
Were the above reprefentation correét, what has been faid of Moham- medan toleration in the text (p. 214.) muft be erroneous; for at Aleppo, where fuperftition was fuppofed to have more power than at Conftanti- nople, the Turks, upon inquiry, would not make the candid confeflion
Vor. I. Hhh | hinted
417
418
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
hinted at, nor in fact is their practice agreeable to fuch a tenet. What- ever notion the Mohammedans may entertain concerning the future con- dition of Chriftians and Jews, in another world, they do. not appear to be of opinion that the certainty of their damnation there, is a reafon for mal- treating them on earth. Both nations being in a wretched dependance under the Ottoman government, are too often treated tyrannically; but it is not, as commonly reprefented by themfelves, out of abhorrence to their religion; for, to do their governors juttice, they deal oppreflion with an equal hand to the Turks themfelves, when it can be done with equal. fafety.
Sir James Porter juftly remarks the difficulty of coming at information in Turkey (p. 2.) His fituation at the Porte, which put it in his power to attain a practical knowledge in a diplomatic line, precluded that fami- liar intercourfe with the Moflems, which is neceffary for learning the domettic life and manners of a people, whom he reprefents as naturally referved, efpecially on fubjeéts of religion. His remarks.therefore on fome of thofe heads plainly fhow by what channel he received his information, and are lefs correét than in matters within the reach of his own obferva- tion. The account of a Secretary of State (p. 9.) found employed in dif- puting “ to what exact height the hands or arms, feet or legs, of a Moflem “‘ fhould be wafhed, to render him truly acceptable to God,” is. exaétly in the {pirit of a Greek Chriftian, who confidered making the fign of the crofs with a finger dipped in holy water; or the afperfion of houfes at the Epiphany ; or the Bifhop’s blefiing the fountains and the Sea; as matters of ferious confequence. Several of the circum{tances mentioned in page 12, 13 and r4, are of the fame kind, as is alfo the following affertion.
“© The belief of every article of the Koran; repeating it fo many times
“a year; obferving the Ramadan; ablutions made with critical preci-
“ fion; the pilgrimage ; drinking a portion of water in which their Pro- « phets old robe has been dipt; and repeating fome, or the whole ninety- “ nine names of the Deity,’”—*“‘ are all devotional duties, io effentially “ neceflary to a true believer, that without them the pureft heart and the “ fincereft faith (he muft mean Mohaminedan faith) is infufficient to re- “ commend him to divine favour; thefe practices he likewife holds to be ‘‘ the efficacious and the indifpenfable means, to atone for all his crimes « and immoralities.” (Obfervations, p. 10.) Some of the mitreprefen- tations in the laft quotation, have been animadyerted on in a former note.
The
NOTES «AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
The information clearly could neither have been derived from the Turks themfelves, nor from their books; yet I have no doubt that the Auther confidered it as exactly true. It is only to be regretted on this, as on fome other occafions, that he did not recolleé his own jutt remark. ‘“¢ Strangers “who do not, and cannot perfectly underftand the language, muft con- “< verfe by interpreters; but thefe dare nct enter into inquiries they think << will give offence: on fuch fubjects, therefore, they never do nor will “« enterpret; if they arc preffed, evafion is their refuge, and both the quef- «tion they make, and the anfwer they return, will be entirely of their «¢ own invention.” (Obfervations on the Religion, Law, &c. of the
Turks, p. 3. Lond. 1771.)
INUIS A VY. p. 290.
In this Note, I have tranfcribed the opinions of feveral travellers, on the general chara¢ter of the Turks, fele¢ting fuch as had refided for fome- time in the country. Should the reader, upon a comparifon, find that my Brother and I have differed from them in fome circumftances, he will re- mark at the fame time, that they fometimes differ from each other.
M. du Loir, who was at Conftantinople about the year 1640, and poffeft the Turkith language, fays “‘ that the Turks are naturally a good ‘ people; which 1s not to be afcribed to the climate, for the Greeks born ‘in the fame climate, have very different difpofitions, and retain only the ‘ bad qualities of their anceftors, viz. roguery, treachery, and vanity. The * Turks, on the contrary, priding themfelves on their integrity and modefty, ‘ are diftinguifhed univerfally by an open, ingenuous, fimplicity of man- ‘ners: courtiers excepted, who in Turkey, as every where elfe, are the ‘ flaves of ambition and avarice. The Turks are always decently dretled; ‘and their garments, however changed by fafhion in their cut or colour, ‘ are never inconvenient nor unbecoming.’ (Voyage de Jevant, p. 166. Paris, 1654.)
I have already had occafion to mention the Rev. Mr. Smith, who was at Conftantinople more than twenty years later than Du Loir. In 1678 he publifhed a tranflation of his Latin Letter with additions, and in his Preface to the reader, hopes that it will be no prejudice to the Book fhould the ‘ thread of a Church-man be perceived to run through the whole re- ** lation.”
Hhhz2 In
419
420
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
In the charaéter he draws of the Turks, though fome of his remarks are very juft, the thread is fufficiently perceptible. “ The Turks are “¢ juftly branded with the character of a barbarous nation ; which cenfure “¢ does not relate either to the cruelty and feverity of their punifhments, “‘ which their natural fiercenefs, not otherwife to be reftrained, renders “ neceffary and effential to their government; or to want of difcipline, “‘ for that in moft things is very exaét, and agreeable to the Laws and “* Rules of Polity, which cuftom and experience hath eftablifhed as the “‘ grand fupport of their Empire; or to want of civil behaviour among “‘ themfelves, for none can outwardly be more refpeétful and fubmiffive, “ efpecially to their fuperiors, in whofe power it is to do them a mifchief, *« the fear of which makes them guilty of moft bafe compliances: but to “‘ the intolerable pride and {corn wherewith they treat all the world be- se fides.*
It may be remarked, that what was faid of the Turkifh barbarity in the Latin Letter, is here modified *. He afterwards take§ notice of their contempt of learning, their hatred of other religions, &c. (Remarks on the Manners, &c. of the Turks, Lond. 1678.)
‘ The Native Turks and Moors, (according to D’Arvieux) are a good ‘fort of people of themfelves, and will not injure their neighbour, unlefs ‘ provoked; but their refentment is eafily excited. They love ftrangers ‘ efpecially the Franks. In commerce, they are fhrewd but honeft. In ‘outward appearance they are zealous obfervers of the Law; but in ‘ reality licentious and diffolute, efpecially as to women.
‘It is faid that the Chriftian Natives are lefs wicked than the Turks. ‘ Charity would oblige me to believe this, did not experience. convince me ‘of the contrary. In general they are vain and proud, roguifh, given to ‘lying and drinking.’
‘The Jews are the moft mifchievous race on earth. They bear a ‘ mortal hatred to Chriftians, and without reaping hardly other advantage ‘ than fatiating their malice, are the principal Authors of the Avaniasmade ‘on the Chriftians.’ D’Arvieux (Memoires, Tom. v. p. 441.)
The Rev. Mr. Maundrel, who refided for fome time at Aleppo, as Chaplain to the Factory, and publifhed a journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem in 1697, which is defervedly much efteemed ; has {ketched the character of the Turks, in a letter to a friend fubjoined to his journal.
* See before p. 397. “T think
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
T think they are far from agreeing with that character which is given of thém in Chriftendom, efpecially for their exa¢t juftice, veracity, and other moral virtues: upon account of which I have fometimes heard them mentioned with very extravagant commendations, as though they “‘ far exceed Chriftian nations. But I muft profefs myfelf of another opinion: for the Chriftian religion, how much foever we live below *¢ the true {pirit and excellency of it, muft ftill be allowed to difcover fo ““ much power upon the minds of its profeffors, as to raife them far above “« the level of a Turkifh virtue. It is a maxim I have often heard from “‘ our merchants, that a Turk will always cheat when he can find an op- portunity. Friendfhip, generofity, and wit, (in the Englifh notion) and delightful converfe, and all the qualities of a refined and ingenuous {pirit, are perfect {trangers to their minds, though in traffic and worldly nego- “‘ ciations they are acute enough.
“< Their religion is framed to keep up great outward gravity and folem- “nity, without begetting the leaft good tinéture of wifdom or virtue in “the mind. You fhall have them at their hours of prayer (which are “four a day always) addrefling themfelves to their devotions, with the “ moft folemn and critical wafhings, always in the moft public places, “‘ where moft people are pafling, with moft lowly and moft regular pro- “ ftrations, and a hollow tone, which are among{ft them the great excel- ‘€ lencies of prayer. I have feen them in an affected charity, give money “ to bird catchers, (who make a trade of it) to reftore the poor captives to ‘‘ their natural liberty, and at the fame time hold their own flaves in the “‘ heavieft bondage. At other times they will buy flefh to relieve indigent ‘“‘ dogs, and yet curfe you with famine and peftilence, and all the moft “« hideous imprecations, in which way the Eaftern nations have certainly “« the moft exquifite rhetoric of any people upon earth. They are incre- “< dibly conceited of their own religion, and contemptuous of that of others, “« which I take to be the great artifice of the Devil in order to keep them ““hisown. ‘They are a perfeé vifible comment upon our Bleffed Lord’s. “« defcriptions of the Jewifh Pharafees. Ina word lutt, arrogance, co- ** vetoufnefs, and the moft exquifite hypocrify, compleat their character. “« The only thing I could ever obferve to commend in them, is the out- ‘* ward decency of their carriage, the profound refpect they pay to religion, *“‘ and to every thing relating to it, and their great temperance and fru-
“« ality.”
A421
NOTES /AN DU TVEUST BEIGEONS.
“* gality.”” Maundrel (Journey, 2nd Ed. from Aleppo, &c. Oxford, 1707.)
I fhall only add further the chara@ter drawn by Sir James Porter. “ To trace the correét outline of any national charaéter, is I am fenfible, “a difficult tafk ; of the Turks I have premifed it is particularly fo: I “« fhall neverthelefs make the attempt.
“The Turks are in general a fagacious people; in the purfuit of theif “‘ own intereft or fortune, their attention is fixt on one objeét, and they <‘ perfevere with great fteadinefs until they attain their purpofe. They ap- <* pear in the common intercourfe of life to be courteous and humane, and ‘‘ by no means void of fentiments of gratitude: perhaps fome, or all thefe “‘ virtues, when extended towards Chriftians, are praétifed with a view to “their own emolument. Intereft regulates their conduét throughout ; «¢ where that becomes an object of competition, all attachment and friend- “< fhip, all ties of confanguinity are dillolved ; they become defperate, no ‘* barrier can ftop their purfuit, or abate their rancour towards their com- “‘ petitors. In their tempers they are rather hypochondriac, grave, fedate, ‘“‘ and paffive ; but when agitated by paffion, furious, raging, ungoverna- “ble; deep difflemblers ; jealous, fufpicious, and vindictive beyond con- “‘ ception; perpetuating revenge through fucceflive generations. In mat~- “ ters of religion, they are tenacious, fupercilious, and morofe.” (Obfer- vations on the Religion, Law, &c. of the Turks, p. 4. London 1771. 2ud Ed.)
Note LXVI. p. 234.
Al Kada Lag! and Al Kadar (es are words nearly of the fame im- port, both meaning the decree of God: but by the firft is underftood the decree exifting in the divine mind from all eternity; by the latter is un- derftood the execution and declaration of the decree, at the appointed time.
The doétrine of predeftination is univerfally reeeived in Turkey; but as it early became a fubjeét of controverfy among {peculative men, {fo it ever fince has proved a copious fource of fcholaftic difputation.
In order to reconcile it with man’s free agency, many of the Ullama (according to D’Ohffon) reftriét predeftination to the {piritual ftate of a
certain number of mortals, doomed before their birth to falvation or per- dition;
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
dition; but affert that it does not extend to the moral, civil, or political ftate of man, who in his aétions is left to his free will. Denying man to be a free agent, and afcribing human actions folely to the will of God, are doftrines inconfiftent with the Mohammedan religion, and, if obftinately pertifted in, are punifhable by death. But notwithftanding the decifions of the learned to this purpofe, a popular prejudice in Turkey extends the influence of predeftination to the civil as well as moral actions of man- kind. (Tableau General, Tom. 1. p. 56.)
The reader defirous of forming an idea of the Arabian talent for {cho- laftic divinity, may confult the writers here referred to, who will either fatisfy his curiofity, or direét him to the original authors who have treated the fubjeét at large. Pocock (Specim. Hitt. Arab, p. 207.) Reland (De Relig. Mohammed. p. 61. 150.) Sale (Prel. Difc. p. 153.) D’Ohffon (ut
fupra.)
Note LXVIAE..p., 235.
Ain opinion that certain difeafes were propagated by contagion, was held by the Arabs before the time of Mohammed, but was condemned by the Prophet, who afcribed all to God. ‘This, joined to the belief of a. predetermined feries of events, or an inevitable neceflity, renders the Turks in refpeét to the Plague, more indolently negligent of precaution than moft other nations.
““ No foul can die unlefs by the permiffion of God, according to what “ is written in the book containing the determination of things.” ‘ Nor
“is any thing added to the age of him whofe life is prolonged, neither is.
“ any thing diminifhed from his age, but the fame is written in the book “of God's decrees. Verily this is eafy with God.” (Koran Chap. iil. p..
52.)- Marracci (p. 133. 145.) (Koran. Chap. xxxv. p. 358.) Marracci (p..
573- 11.) Reland (De Relig. Mohammed. p. 64.) Pocock (Specim. p. 322.)
Neverthelefs, precaution againft the Plague is juftified by legal deci- fions, as well by refpectable precedents.
D’Ohffon (Tom. ii. p. 265.) gives the Fitwa of a celebrated Mufti, which declares “ that a Muflem commits no fin againft religion, who “ leaves a country where the Plague rages, to feek fhelter in another “ place; provided he implores the mercy of the Almighty.”
. Omar
423
424
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Omar in the 8th year of the Hegira, is faid to have deferred his expe- dition into Syria, on account of the Plague then 1aging in that country; and upon his return to Medina, in aniwer to a friend who exprefled fur- prife at a retreat fo inconfiftent with the dogma of predeftination, is re- ported to have cited a faying of the Prophet (as tranflated by D’Ohffon) ‘que celui qui fe trouvoit déja en feu devoit fe refigner 4 Dieu, mais ‘ que celui qui étoit hors du feu, ne devoit pas s’y expofer.’
The immediate fucceflors of Omar aéted on the fame principle, and the example has been followed by feveral of the Ottoman Emperors. In the year 1491, Bajazet II. being informed, on his way to Adrianople, that the Plague raged in that city, abftained from entering it; and in 1493, the Plague being at Conftantinople, he deferred his return to the capital. The fame Emperor, in 1509, quitting his apartments on account of a violent Earthquake, encamped in the middle of one of the courts of the Seraglio, but the fhocks continuing, he removed to a villa in the country. M. D’Ohffon, from whom I have borrowed the above inftances, is of opinion that a fpirited adminiftration, aided by the true principles of Mo- hamedanifm, might get the better of prejudices, which, though widely diffufed, are founded in ignorance. (Tableau General. Tom. i. p. 58.)
Note LXVIII. p. 250.
Rycaut, (who was fecretary to Lord Winchelfea, Embaffador to the Porte from Charles IJ., and afterwards Conful at Smyrna) affigns as one of the caufes why the Turkifh women are ‘the moft lafcivious and im- ‘ modeft of their {ex, and excel in the moft refined and ingenious fubtilties ‘to fteal their pleafures, that they are educated with no principles of ‘virtue, of moral honefty or religion, as to a future ftate relating to the ‘ rewards or punifhments of their good or bad actions.’ (Prefent State of the Ottoman Empire. p. 271. London, 1675.)
Belcn, after remarking that the Turkith women go only abroad to the © Bagnio and to vifit the Tombs, adds ‘ and as according to Mohammed, ‘ they do not enter Paradife, neither does he permit them to go to Mofque, ‘on account of their not being circumcifed. It has been an opinion that ‘ there is a particular place in the Mofque allotted to the women; but I ‘can venture to aflert the contrary, and upon enquiring particularly, have
‘ been
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
‘been affured they do not enter the Mofque.’ (Lib. iii. C. xvi.) fee alfo Grelot (p. 275.) 7
M. D’Arvieux has juftly been reprehended for afferting that the Koran has deftined a place for all animals, except women; who have nothing good to expe¢t in a future ftate. (Lettres Critiques d’Hadgi. Mehemd. p. 6. Paris. 1735.)
A much later traveller, M. Volney, has adopted the vulgar error. ** Mahomet (fays he) paffionately fond as he was of women, has not ** however done them the honour of treating them in his Koran as ap- ** pertaining to the human {fpecies; he does not fo much as make mention “‘ of them either with refpect to the ceremonies of religion, or the re- “‘ wards of another life; and it is even a fort of problem with the Ma- « hometans, whether women have fouls.” (Vol. ii. p. 482. Lond. Tom. i, p- 442. Paris, 1787.) Thisaifertion of Volney is the more remarkable as from the cavalier manner in which he fpeaks of the Koran “ as being «‘ merely a Chaos of unmeaning phrafes, &c.”’ (Vol. ii. p. 394. Lond, Tom. ii. p. 362. Paris, 1787.) it might have been fuppofed he fhould have read the book.
The following paflages from the Koran, will prove the beft refutation of a vulgar error refpecting the future ftate of Mohammedan women.
“ Who fo worketh righteoufnefs, whether he be male or female, and is ** a true believer, we will furely raife him to a happy life; and we will “ give them their reward according to the utmoft merit of their ations, “ (Ch. xvi. p. 222. Marracci p. 398. 97.) whoever worketh evil, fhall “* only be rewarded in equal proportion to the fame: but whoever worketh <‘ good, whether male or female, and is a true believer, they fhall enter *¢ Paradife. (Ch. xl. Marracci. p. 386. p. 615. 41.) that he (God) may lead “‘ the true believers of both fexes into gardens beneath which rivers flow “< to dwell therein for ever; and may expiate their evil deeds from them: “ (this will be great felicity with God) and that he may punifh the hypo- ‘¢ critical men and the hypocritical women, &c.(Ch. xlviil. p. 413. Marrac- “ci p. 64. 5.) Ona certain day thou fhalt fee the true believers of both *¢ fexes: their light fhall run before them, and on their right hands; and * it fhall be faid unto them good tidings unto you this day: gardens though *‘ which rivers flow; ye fhall remain therein for ever. Koran. (Ch. lvu. “p. 438 ) (Marracci p. 703. 12.) (Koran Ch. xiii. p. 202.) (Marracci p, “¢ 368. 25.) But whofoever doth good works, whether he be male or
Vor. I. Tii “ female,
425
426
NOTES’ AND ILLUSTRATIONS:
“« female, and is a true believer, they fhall be admitted into Paradife, (Ch. “iv. 70. Marracei, ps 163, 123.7)
See on this fubjeét Sale (Prel. Difc. p. 102.) Reland, (De Relig. Mo- ham. p. 205.)
Belon is in the right when he afferts that the women do not go to Mofque. They certainly do not at Aleppo, though I have heard it faid that they fometimes went to a particular Mofque in the fuburbs. Af- femani fays that women of higher rank fometimes, though rarely, go to Mofque, and that a place is allotted to them where they cannot be feen by the men. (Biblioth. Palat. Medic. p. 318.) Though this is not the cafe at Aleppo, there are places for the reception of women in feveral of the Mofques at Conftantinople; but even there, they are little frequented.
Women only of a certain age, are allowed to attend public worfhip, and muft then never mingle with the men. But the dire¢tions refpeCting their preparation for prayer, variation from the men in the mode of proftration, raifing the hands &c. are given with the utmoft precifion, (D’Ohffon, Tom. i. p. 166. pl. 15.) and fhow that their fpiritual welfare has not been lefs attended to than that of the men.
As to the other religious duties, the women appear to be under equal obligation with the men. I have known many among the elderly ladies, who had made the Pilgrimage, and were perfeét devotees; but the younger women, though all keep’ the faft of Ramadan, and may ftriétly be under the fame obligation to the obfervance of other pofitive precepts, are in practice feemingly lefs punétual in prayer, and having no places of public worfhip, they beftow lefs time on the performance of external rites of religion, than the women in Chriftendom.
A fingular piece of fuperftition which I never hear of in Turkey, and believe to be a fiction, is mentioned by Ludovico Domenichi. ‘ The “women (he fays) never go to Mofque at the fame time with the men, “and very feldom go at all, except at the Byram, and fometimes of a Friday, ‘ between nine o’clock at night and midnight. That they perform their ‘ prayers accompanied with fuch violent fhrieks, and diftortions of the ‘body, as exhaufts their ftrength, and makes them fink down on the ‘ground. If at fuch times they fhould find themfelves pregnant, they ‘ afcribe it to the influence of the Divinity, and the infant when born is ‘termed a child of the Holy Spirit.’ This, adds the author, I have been
told
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
told by their fervants; I never faw them myfelf, nor are men at thofe times ever admitted, Lodovico Domenichi (Cofe Turchefche.)
Note LXIX. p. 260.
M. Du Loir treats fully of the fubject of Turkith gallantry at Conftanti- nople. ‘ No public ftews (according to him) are permitted, except a few in the fuburb of Galata, for certain ladies whom he compares to the nymphs of the Pont Neuf at Paris. But the women are much difpofed to intrigue, and, inftead of honor and confcience, having no other reftraint than the danger and difficulty attending it, they lofe no opportunity of indulging their paffion: not however that they abandon themifelves in- difcriminately ; they are gallant, not brutal.’ (p. 177.)
‘He reprefents them as finely made, beautiful, and delicate. The diftaf and the needle being their only employment, and from their mode of education, having few refources of amufement, they naturally become more fubjeét to the tender paffions to which idlenefs is peculiarly favor- able. They are not deterred by the rifk of dreadful punifhments ; their paffions are inflamed by difficulties, which at the fame time renders them more ingenious in devifing means of gratification, fo that an inftance of deteétion hardly occurs in five or fix years. The Jewefles who have ac- cefs to the Harems, and fome confidential flaves are the ordinary agents in thefe intrigues, which, though always hazardous, are fo practicable, that a man, be his religion what it will, may always pafs his time agree- ably, and at a {mall expence.’ (Voyage de Levant, p. 178 and 179.)
‘ The darknefs of the evening and morning hours of prayer are well ‘ fuited for intrigue. The woman has nothing to do but difguife herfelf ‘ with a Turban and fictitious beard, and if fhe can flip out of doors un- ‘ obferved, fhe may go fafely where the pleafes. There are certain by- ‘ {treets, called the {treet of Kifles, where the women refort to make af- ‘ fignations, addrefling paifengers under pretence of afking a bridal favour ‘for the bride. It often happens alfo that handfome young men are pri- ‘vately carried off, when they cannot be induced by other means.’ (p- 179. 180.)
In the above paflages from Du Loir, there are circumftances which his own experience might have brought him acquainted with; of others he might have been infermed: but fome appear merely conje¢tural, and im-
bat probable.
427
4.28
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
probable. Without however pretending to contradié pofitive affertion, it may be remarked as wonderful, that crimes fo frequently committed fhould fo feldom be deteéted. As to the obfcurity of night favoring in- trigues, whatever may be the cafe at Conftantinople, the Turks of con- dition at Aleppo do feldom, or never refort to Mofque at morning prayer, nor in the Winter, to evening prayer; moft people of every clafs per- forming their devotions at home, fo that there is no great concourfe at the Mofques, at thofe hours.
D’Arvieux, {peaking of the Aleppo ladies, ‘ fays they are, by thofe * who have accefs to fee them, reported to be ingenious, and extremely gay; ‘and, notwithftanding their confinement and the ftrit care of the huf- ‘band, that they contrive to have intrigues, ufually by the mediation of ‘ Jewefles : but woe to the parties if difcovered.’ (Memoires, Tom. vi. page 422.)
It may be remarked that both Du Loir and D’Arvieux agree in afcrib-
ing the honorable office of bawds to the Jewefles. At Conftantinople, |
the fhops of the Jews are faid to be the ordinary places of rendezvous ; which they certainly-are not at Aleppo, being all fituated in the public Bazar, and in fize very incommodious. The following is the {prightly account given by Lady Mary Wortley. Montague. “« As to their morality or good conduét I can fay, like Harlequin, that ** °tis juft as ’tis with you; and the Turkifh ladies don’t commit one fin, “ the lefs for not being Chriftians.- Now that I am a little acquainted. with their ways, I cannot forbear admiring, either the exemplary dif- cretion, or extreme {tupidity of ail the writers that have given accounts of them. The moft ufual method of intrigue is to fend an appointment “* to the Lover to meet the Lady at a Jew’s fhop, which are as notorioufly: “‘ convenient as our India houfes. The great ladies feldom let their gal- “jants know who they are. You may eafily imagine the number of « faithful wives very {mall where they have nothing to fear from a lov- “ er’s indifcretion, fince we fee fo many have the courage to expofe them- felves to. that in this world, and all the threatened punifhment of the “ next, which is never preached to the Turkith damfels.” (Letter xxix.) How far Lady Mary's information was exact in this matter, it were difficult to determine. But fhe certainly was miftaken, or incorreét, in her defcription of the women’s veil. The Ferigee does by no means-con- ceal
nw La
a,
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
ceal the fhape, nor is the face fo hid by the two murlins, that one may not recognize an acquaintance: far lefs, is it impoflible “* for the moft jealous “‘ hufband to know his wife, or of any one elfe to diftinguifh the great “ Jady from her flave.” This will appear evidently on looking into the prints of Levant dreffes (Recueil. de Cent Eftampes, Paris, 1715.) Her Ladyfhip’s inference therefore cannot be admitted, ‘“ that this perpetual “* Mafquerade gives them entire liberty of following their inclinations ** without danger of difcovery.”
Du Loir’s defcription of the veil worn by the women at Conftanti- nople is more correét: but he afferts (p. 185.) that when they meet any young gallant, they take an opportunity, under pretence of adjufting their veil, to fhow their face, and, fometimes, of making more indecent dif-
coveries. The women are certainly often under the neceffity of adjufting their
veil, but, on fuch occafions, they always ftand with their faces to the wall. The indecencies hinted by Du Loir, belong to the loweft order of impures.
Note LXX. p. 261.
I have thought proper to tranfcribe fome paffages from the former Edition (p. 114.) which would feem at firft to imply an opinion different from what is given in the text, (p. 261.)
«© The women are ufually in large companies (when they go to the gar- “‘ dens)and have always either an old woman, or a young lad for their guard. “‘ The Harem is guarded by a black Eunuch, or young boy, and though “ neceflity obliges many of the inferior people to truft their wives out of “‘ doors, yet fome are locked up till the hufband’s return, fo that the utmoft ** care in that way is taken among them to prevent a breach of the mar- “‘ riage vow. But where there are no ties of love or virtue, one may “ eafily conceive that others prove ineffeétual.”
The want of affection is inferred from the parties being brought together without previous knowledge of each other, and from the want of tender refpect on the part of the men; circumftances which will recur for confi- deration in another place: but while inftances of infidelity are not more common, it is reafonable to conclude that their prevention, in fome degree muft be ewing to a principle fuperior to external reftraint.
Note
429
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
Note LXXE™p. 205-
M. D’Arvieux, having remarked that the jealoufy of the men prohibits boys above fix years old, from accefs to the Harems, adds, that the neareft kindred, and moft intimate friends are in like manner excluded, except on rare occafions, and under various reftri¢tions ; the women (efpecially thofe of rank or opulence) being ftri€tly confined and watched as in Con- vents: whence it happens that women of the lower clafs only are to be feen in the ftreets.
‘ That the occupation of the ladies in their prifon confifts in fewing and embroidering ; their amufements in the bath; or in the application to mufic and dancing, which they exercife for the entertainment of their hufbands. ‘They do not go to Mofque.
‘ But if accefs to the Harem be rendered difficult to the Turks, it is abfolutely denied to the Franks. It is however true ({ays the Author) that when our merchants, on commercial! bufinefs, go to the -houfes of Turk merchants, their women, who are exceffively curious to fee the Franks, find means of gratifying their curiofity, and at the fame time, not only fhow themfelves, but, when not in danger of being perceived by the hufband, make a thoufand indecent geftures. (Memoires, Tom. vi. p. 422.)
Things either muft have changed at Aleppo fince M. D’Arvieux’s time, or he muft have been mifinformed in fome of the circumftances cited above. It is not ufual for the free-women, in the Harems of the opulent, to fing and dance for the entertainment of the hufband; nor are they fo confined as not to be feen walking in the ftreet: neither are they fo re- ftricted in receiving or making vifits. As to the ftory of the French mer- chants, I am inclined to confider it as an invention of juvenile levity; it being inconfiftent with every idea of decorum in that country, that the wives or daughters of a merchant, (fuch as the French gentlemen were likely to vifit,) fhould betray them{felves indecently, out of mere wanton- nefs, within the precinéts of their own houfe.
Note LXXII. p. 276.
The precept of the Koran refpeéting marriage, is as follows, “ take in “ marriage of {uch women as pleafe you, two, or three, or four. But if ‘< you fear that you cannot act equitably towards fo many, marry one only,
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
* or the flaves which you fhall have acquired.” Koran, (ch. iv. p. 60.) Marracci, (p. 144. 3-)
Sale confiders the above paffage as clearly expreflive of the number of women permitted by Law—which ought not to exceed four, whether wives or concubines. And if a man cannot be contented with one wife, he may then take up with his fhe flaves, not exceeding however the limited number. <“ And this is certainly the utmoft Mohammed allowed “‘ his followers: nor can we urge 4s an argument againft fo plain a pre- “‘ cept, the corrupt manners of his followers, many of whom, efpecially “‘men of quality and fortune, indulge themfelves in criminal exceffes.”’ Sale (Prel. Difc. p. 133. where a variety of Authors, in fupport of this opinion, are referred to.)
Gagnier, in his Notes on Abulfeda, p. 150, has in a fatisfaétory manner refuted the erroneous reprefentations of Marracci and others, on this fub-
je.
Note LXXIII. p. 280.
According to Rycaut “ there are among the Turks three degrees of “Divorce. The firft only feparates the man and wife from the fame “‘ houfe and bed, the maintenance of a wife being {till continued; the fe- ‘‘ cond not only divides them in that manner, but the hufband is com- “ pelled to make good her Kabin, which is a jointure, or Dowry promifed ‘“‘ at her marriage, fo as to have no intereft either in him or his eftate, “‘ and to remain in a free condition to marry another. The third fort of “‘ divorce (which is called (Ouch Talac) is made in a folemn, and more ‘¢ ferious manner, with more rigorous terms of feparation, and in this cafes. “the hufband repenting of his divorce, and defirous to retake his wife, “‘ cannot by the law be admitted to her without firft confenting and con- “ tenting himfelf to fee another man enjoy her before his face, which con- “ dition the law requires as a punifhment of the hufband’s lightnefs and ** inconftancy.”” Rycaut, (State of the Ottoman Empire. ch. xxi. p. 277.)
The laft prepofterous circumftance is mentioned alfo by Cantacuzene (p. 199.) ‘* ne manco fe puo con lei congiungere fe un altro Turco da- *‘ vanti a lui non ufa con effo lei, fecondo 1 Commandimenti della lor leggi.”
M. D’Arvieux in the fixth volume of his Memoirs, fpeaking of Aleppo, fays “a man may divorce his wife, the Cady being judge of the legality
of
43%
43
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
the caufe afligned. Should the hufband afterward repent of what he had done, he may, with permiffion of the Cady, take the woman back, if not already married to another man. He is permitted to do this twice, but if he divorce her a third time, he is obliged, as a preliminary article before taking her back, to make her pafs a night with one of his friends; fhould the women prefer the friend, it is in her option to remain with him, if not, fhe returns to her firft hufband, who can never again divorce her. (Tom. vi. p. 447.)
The condition attached to a third divorce, is alfo, according to D’Arvieux, incurred by a man who accufes his wife of adultery, but failing in the proof, 1s obliged to divorce her and return her portion, as well as to pay cofts of fuit. Though the hufband fhould repent his precipitancy, and the woman confent to remarry him, juftice interpofes to prevent it: the man has {worn falfly, a crime has been committed, and muft be pu- nifhed. I fhall give the fequel in the author’s own words.
Le mari plaignant & la femme accufée etant devant le Cadi, il fait venir quelque bon gros garcon, qu’on a eu la precaution d’inftruire de ce qu'il aa faire. On lui demande s’il connoit cette femme quoiqu’elle foit voilgée & qu'il ne lait peutetre jamais vie. I] ne manque pas de repondre qu’il la connoit pour une femme d’honneur; le juge lui demand s'il la veut époufer, & il répond qu’il le fouhaite & qu'il eft prét de la prendre pour femme. Sur cette réponfe, & fans attendre le confentement de la femme, on les conduit dans une chambre, & le pauvre mari eft obligé d’étre prefent a une fcene qui le couvre de honte & deconfufion, & qui le fait réellement ce qu'il imaginoit étre, & peutétre fans raifon. I] faut qu’il y foit prefent dans la méme chambre, ou par grace dans une qui foit fi proche qu’il ne puiffe pas douter de fa honte. Cette fatisfaction achevée, l’hon- neur de la Femme eft réparé, & le faux ferment du mari eft retifiér par ce qui vient d’arriver, le nouveau mari par honnétete cede fon droit a ancien mari, & le femme fe trouve en droit de choifir celui qui lui plait. Elle reprend I’ancien, elle enfait fa declaration au Cadi, & elle returne en fa maifon, comme fi cette {cene honteufe ne fe fat pas paffée.
M. D’Arvieux owns that he was a long while in doubt whether he
fhould venture to relate fo improbable a ftory; nor would have done it |
merely on report af perfons, even of unfufpetted veracity; had he not himfelf met with an inftance, when at Sidon, which removed all further hefitation. One of his fervants after rafhly divorcing his wife, being defirous of re- marrying her, prevailed on his mafter to intercede in his favour with the
Cady,
—— ee
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Cady, with whom M. D’Arvieux happened to be intimate. But he was affured by the magiftrate that the law placed an invincible obftacle in the way: and in confequence, the fervant was obliged to comply with the {trange condition mentioned above (Memoires Tom. i. p. 451.)
Stories to the fame purpofe may be found in Rycaut (Book ii. Ch. 21.) (Grelot. Voyage de Conftant. p. 297. or of the tranflation p. 236.) and in other authors; to one of whom Marracci makes reference, as to an eye witnefs of the fact related. (Koran, p. 89.) But from the following abftraét account of divorce as praétifed by the Mohammedans, it will fufficiently appear that all fuch inconfiftent ftories are either pure inventions, or that ignorance of the Turkih inftitutes has expofed travellers to credulity and impofition.
The Koran determines with precifion a variety of circumftances rela- tive to divorce. ‘* Ye may divorce your wives twice, and then either “* retain them with humanity, or difmifs them with kindnefs. But if the ‘< hufband divorce her a third time, fhe fhall not be lawful for him again, ** untill fhe marry another hufband; but if he alfo divorce her, it fhall “ be no crime in them if they return to each other, and if they think *¢ they can obferve the ordinances of God. ‘The women who are divorced “ fhall wait concerning themfelves untill they have their courfes thrice, “and it fhall not be lawful for them to conceal that which God hath ‘‘ created in their wombs, if they believe in God and the laft day;—Such “< of your wives as fhall defpair having their courfes, by reafon of their “‘ age; if ye be in doubt thereof, let their term be three months: and let “the fame be the term of thofe who have not yet had their courfes. << But as to thofe who are pregnant, their term fhall be, untill they be de- “ livered of their burthen and compute the term exaétly:—and when “ they fhall have fulfilled their term, either retain them with kindnefs, “ or part from them honourably; and take witneffes from among you, “men of integrity,—when you marry women who are believers, and “‘ afterwards put them away, before you have touched them, there is no “‘ term prefcribed you to fulfil towards them after their divorce: but make “them a prefent, and difmifs them freely with an honourable difmiffion. “« Sale (Koran Ch. il. p. 27. 26. Ch. Ixv. p. 454. Ch. xxx. p. 348.’’) Marracci (p. 82. 229. 230. 231. 232. &c. p. 729. p. 559.)
Divorce (regularly) fhould be pronounced in that interval of the woman's courfes, during which the hufband has had no conne¢tion with
Von. I. Kkk her;
433
434
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
her: fhe is then left to fulfill the term of three months; at the expiratior of which, if not pregnant, or if the hufband in the interim has not ap- proached her, nor declared his intention of being reconciled, fhe becomes wholly difengaged from the matrimonial tie, and it is by her own free confent, if fhe return: fuppofing the hufband willing to take her back.
If the man at the expiration of the firft month, gives a fecond fentences and a third, at the end of the fecond month. The Tilak b’al tlata takes place, and the divorce is complete. The parties however willing, cannot come together again till the woman has been married to another, and in due form been divorced by him.
Buta man may divorce his wife at once by three, (b’al tlata) or repeat the fentence thrice feparately in the firft month: in either cafe he is in- volved in the condition of the Tilak b’al tlata. ‘There is great variety in the mode of announcing divorce, and a multitude of fubtile diftinéhons have been devifed by the lawyers, which the reader may find in the Hedaya lately publifhed, vol. i.—Thefe diftintions often depend on grammatical niceties of the Arabic language, and are incapable of tranflation; but many of them are clear, and of much confequence in determining the woman’s right of inheritance.
There are reverfible and irreverfibie divorces.
Where a man pronounces one or two reverfible divorces, he may take back the woman, whether fhe be defirous or not, any time before the expi- ration of the prefcribed term; but if he permit that term to elapfe, he relin- quifhes his right, and cannot recover the woman, but by obtaining her confent to marry him again. In the firft cafe it is proper (though not of legal neceffity) that the return fhould be declared before witnefies: in the other, a legal nuptial ceremony is requifite.
Where irreverfible divorces are pronounced, the hufhand obtaining the woman’s confent, may marry her a fecond time, during her term of pro- bation; but fhe cannot marry any other man till after its expiration.
The divorce of a woman before confummation, is held irreverfible, no term is prefcribed to her, and the may marry whom, and when fhe choofes.
But if a man pronounce three divorces, Tilak b’al tlata, the marriage is diffolved completely; the woman (however defirous) is no longer a
legal fubje& to him, till fhe has confummated a marriage with another man
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
man, and, after being divorced, or after the death of the fecond hufband, has accomplifhed the legal term.
The neceffity of confummation (expreffed rather ambiguoufly in the Koran) is confirmed by a traditional faying of the prophet. (Hedaya Vol. ds 73:6302.)
A marriage contraéted merely with a view of legalizing the woman for her firft hufband, is held in abomination. The Prophet, (by tradition) is faid to have execrated fuch an expedient. (Hedaya. p. 303.) It is pro- bably from this fource, that the abfurd ftories alluded to above, muft have arifen. But though collufion of fuch a kind may be fuppofed fome- times to take place, it is evident that the circumftances in the ftories of Rycaut, D’Arvieux, and Grelot, cannot be ftriétly correct. The con- fummation of the fecond Marriage in the prefence of the firft hufband, and the immediate return of thé wife, before the completion of the legal term of probation, are circumftances utterly inconfiftent with the Turkith Inftitutes, and manners.
Note LXX]IV. p. 283.
Belon, in other matters generally exaét, was mifinformed in many cir- cumftances relative to the Harem. ‘ The wives, as well as flaves, (fays ‘ he) are purchafed with money ; fo that a Turk who has a marriageable ‘ daughter, reckons -her as fo much money in his purfe. The girls bring ‘ no money as a portion, nor moveables from the paternal houfe. A man ‘ therefore who wifhes to marry, muft buy and clothe his bride: the father ‘fells his daughter to the beft bidder, and having delivered her, gives * himfelf little concern whether he ever fees her more.’ (Obfervat. liv. iii. chap. xvil. p. 328. Bruxelles, 1555.)
- In the above circum{ftances he was miftaken, as well as in feveral others that follow, (p. 329.) refpecting the interior of the Harem; for that fo material a difference in the prefent ftate of the Turkifh women cannot be afcribed to the changes of time, is evident from writers nearly contempo- rary with Belon.
The cuftom of purchafing wives is faid to be.not peculiar to the Turks» but practifed likewife by all the Oriental Chriftians; and appears, from the facred writings, to have been the ancient pra@tice. (De Urbib. et Moribus Orient. p. 166.)
Kkk 2 The
435
436
NOTES AND. ILLUSTRATIONS.
The fathers, among the Arabs, are never (according to D’Arvieux) fo. happy as when they have a good many daughters. They conftitute the principal riches of the houfe. The propofal made to the father, by the young men intending to marry, is ufually, Will you give me your daugh- ter for fifty fheep? fix camels? or twelve cows, &c.?
The ceremony of marriage as pra¢tifed by the Arabs, is defcribed mi- nutely; (Voyage dans Paleftine, p. 276.) and there, as among the peafants near Aleppo, the wife is really purchafed; the father receiving a ftipulated price. The cuftom mentioned (p. 276.) of the battle between the bride- groom’s party and the women, is remembered at Aleppo, though not now practifed.
The account given by Cantacuzene of the marriage contra¢t is in moft refpects agreeable to the praétice at Aleppo. As foon as the relations have ‘ fettled the fum to be paid by the bridegroom as the bride’s dowery, the ‘money is paid down. ‘This dower is two, three, or four thoufand -du- ‘ cats, according to the circumftances of the hufband. People of the lower orders pay fifty ducats, or what they can afford. The fum, whatever it may be, when received by the father, by fome near relation, or the guardian of an orphan, is laid out in bedding or other houfehold furniture, and apparel for the bride: the father, if opulent, adding fomething for the purchafe of ornamental furniture. This is always done by people of condition ; for though there be no legal obligation on the father to give
Lal
La
“~
a“
Lal
nw
‘a portion with the bride, he is led by affection, and fometimes by vanity, ‘to contribute to increafe the pomp of the wedding.’ (Lib. ii. p. 195.) The bridegroom alfo makes a prefent to the bride, before the confum- mation of the marriage, which is called (p. 198.) the Contra Dote. It may be remarked here that the tokens of virginity are fhown by the bride’s mother to any of the females who choofe to. fee them, but to none of the men, the bridegroom excepted.
The Arabic word for the marriage portion, according to the fubjoined copy of a contract, is Mehr eo but in common difcourfe Dgihaz ke is alfo ufed for portion, though more commonly for the Paraphernalia
‘which the woman brings along with her at the marriage. Kabin Crawl,
fo often met with in books, is Perfic, and feldom ufed at Aleppo.
The marriage contract is executed in the prefence of the Sheih who writes it; and the Cady’s licence for the completion of the marriage 1S ufually written on the other fide of the fame paper.
core
i ae
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
COPY OF A MARRIAGE CONTRACT.
Seid Mohammed the fon of Seid Yabeia, conftituted Wakeel for the Bride, in the prefence of Hadge Beckry the fon of Mohammed, and Taha the fon of Ibrahim ; two men acquainted with her, by the teftimony of Setd Abdalkader the fon of Seid Omar, and Saleh the fon of Hadge Araby. The bridegroom frands Wakeel for himfelf. The whole of the Dower ( ee ) one hundred dollars, of which fifty has been paid, and fifty remains in truft to be paid in
time.
Witneffes Al Hadge Yafeen Eben Fathy Seid Mohammed Eben Seid Muftafa Hadge AbdalrachmanEben al Jmam.
Sheih Mohammed Eben Hadge Morad Ye hia Eben Abdy Bafhaw.
THE CADY’S LICENCE. (A) (B}
Our Lord, and legal judge Seid Huffeyn, grants permiffion to Aifhy, the daughter of Hadge Abdalkadar, dwelling in the diftritt named al Sheib Araby, at Aleppo, having been betrothed in the prefence of legal witneffes, to marry Seid Abdalkadar the fon of Seid Yaheia. Suppofing always that there be no lawful impediment to their union. This 10th day of une in the year 1178.
The Cady affixes his Seal at (A); and if either of the parties be a Shereef (or Green-head) the Nakeeb fixes his Seal at (B).
Note LXXV. p. 292.
In the former edition (p. 144.) It was remarked that “it is a kind “of reproach among them (the Turks) to be thought fond of their
“ women, or to fhow them much tendernefs or refpeét; the beft of them
“ being only treated as upper fervants, and often abufed and drove about “‘ by the very Eunuchs or boys bought or hired to look after them.” I have transferred the above paflage from the text, as, from being in-
corre¢tly expreffed, it conveys a meaning not intended, and I can have no.
doubt my brother upon revifal would have himfelf altered it. By abufe no more is meant than pert language, which the boys or Eunuchs are
very
77
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
very apt toindulgein. But they feldom venture it to the fuperior ladies, without rifk of fevere punifhment. When the women are faid to be driven about, it is not to be underitood that the boys or Eunuchs prefume to {trike them; they dare not lift a hand cveu to a menial flave: but being employed in the Harem to clear the way, and to attend the ladies when they go abroad to the gardens; in the exercife of their office, they call out with an imperious tone or voice, c: remind the women of the hour being late, and urge their return home, in cn abrupt manner, as if ‘“‘they had a right to command. It was tis only that was meant by “* and drove about.”’
The wife’s not fitting dow:: to table with the hufband, and miniftering to him in other refpeéts, plac~s her indeed in the light of an upper
fervant.
Note LXXVI. p. 294.
Lewes Vertomannus of Rome (Barthema of Bolognia according to Ramufius) travelled about the year 1503, and found means in difguife to vifit Medina and Mecca. At Damaicus, he g:ves the following remark- able account of the indecent liberty taken with the women. ‘ The « Mamalukes (he fays) feldom appeared abroad, but in company of at leaft “two or three together, and if they chanced to fall in with an equal ‘number of women, they had a right, or, if not, they ufurped the right ‘of feizing them. For this purpofe they waylaid the women near. *to fome great Inn, (Khane), and as they paffed the gate, each lay- ‘ing hold of one, they forced the women to enter the Inn along with ‘them. When the woman was urged to remove her veil, fhe replied ‘alas brother I am in your power, you may difpofe of me as you pleafe, ‘ but permit me to retain my veil; a requeft which was fometimes com- ‘ plied with. In this way, (continues the author) it happens that inftead ‘ of poffefling, as they conceive, an unknown girl of diftinétion, they are ‘ deceived into the arms of their own wives: an inftance of which hap- ‘ pened while I was at Damafcus.’ Ludoy. Barthema Bolognefi (Ramus.
v.i.p. 149-) Richard Willes (Hiftory of Travayle, p. 359. Lond. 1577.) Note LXXVII. p- 298.
Inftances of impotency merely from the power of imagination are not uncommon. One or two unfuccefsful attempts feldom fails to convince
the
NGEPES TAN DAILLIUSIFPRA TDONS:
the bridegroom that he is under the influence of fome fupernatural power, and turns him defperate. ‘The ill timed reproaches of fome near female Relation, helps very little to mend matters; till at length nature of herfelf gets the better of fuperftition. I have fometimes advifed the parties to deccive their Relations, in order to get rid of their importunity.—the {pell was diffolved the fooner for it.
It fometimes happens in a Harem, that the man finds himfelf Murboot with regard only to one or two objeéts; a circumftance which of all others ferves to confirm the notion of incantation.
On this fubject, fee fome very fenfible remarks in Mr. John Hunter’s. Treatife on the Venereal Difeafe. (Part, iii. chap. xi. p. 200. Lond. 1788.)
Note LXXVIII. p. 298.
I have had frequent applications for remedies to prevent conception, but feldom or never from women of condition. The pretence made was frequent pregnancy, and having more children than they could main- tain. The anfwer ufually returned was that fuch remedies were unlaw- ful, and always attended with rifk of life; or at leaft of difeafe, and perpe- tual barrennefs. One of the moft beautiful women I ever faw in the country, aged about twenty-one, and the mother of four or five children, came under my care on account of a cruel diftemper produced originally by the ufe of White-lead, which her brutal hufband had obliged her to {wallow in fmall dofes, with a view to prevent conception. This expedi- ent was however extraordinary; I never met with another inftance of the kind, and the Colica Pi¢tonum, with which the woman was afflicted, is a very rare difeafe at Aleppo.
They are acquainted with more effectual means of procuring abortion, and are lefs {crupulous in the application of them to unmarried women, in order to evade the confequences of a difcovery, in illicit amours. It is the midwives who are employed on thefe occafions, and fome of them have confefled to me that they thought themfelves juftified in the practices when it was to fave a family from being perhaps ruined, or at leaft much diftreffed by the magiftrate: they are more confcicntious with refpeé to married women. Upon the whole, there can be no doubt that the in- famous practice is in ufe, but, I do not think, to fuch an extent as materi-
ally
4
2
9
440
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
ally to affect the {tate of population; becaufe in the firft place, the drugs commonly ufed are not of fufficient efficacy ; and in the fecond, the ope- rations of the midwife are fo violent, that only the moft determined wo- men would fubmit to them when urged by the fear of infamy, which is not the cafe with women who have hufbands. Phyficians are much oft- ener confulted in cafes of barrennefs.
Note LXXIX. p. 302.
My friend Mr. Bruce appears to have beftowed more pains, than I did, on inveftigating the proportion of males and females born in Syria, and carried his enquiries to a much wider extent, than I had an opportunity of doing. ‘ From a diligent enquiry into the South and Scripture part of ‘¢ Mefopotamia, Armenia, and Syria, from Mouful (Nineveh) to Aleppo “‘ and Antioch, I find the proportion to be fully two women born to one “man. There is indeed a fraction over, but not a confiderable one.”
In his progrefs Southward he found the proportion of females increafe. «¢ But ffom Suez to the Straits of Babelmandeb, which contains the three «¢ Arabias, the portion is fully four women to one man, which I have rea- “¢ fon to believe; holds as far as the line, and 30° beyond it.” (Travels to difcover the Source of the Nile, vol. i. p. 284. Edinburgh, 1790.)
According to the report of a Maronite Prieft employed in 1740, to num- ber that Nation in Aleppo, the number was found to be 3033 Souls of which 1500 were males and 1533 females. Though I do not rely entirely on the accuracy of this report, I am inclined to think the difproportion of males to females, at Aleppo, is not fo confiderable as it appeared to be, to Mr. Bruce.
Note LXXX. p. 302.
D'Arvieux talking of the Arab women, fays “ On prend quelque foin « des Princeffes quand elles accouchent; les autres femmes n’y font pas
“<beau-coup de facon; je ne fcai fi elles fentent moins de mal que les
“‘ autres, ou fi elles le fupportent plus courageufement, mais elles accou- «‘ chent en chemin & par tout ot elles fe trouvent come fous leurs tentes. “ Quelques momens apres qu’elles font délivrees, elles prennent l’enfant,
“hu
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
“ Jui lient le nombril, & le vont laver 4 la prémiere fontaine.” La Ro- que (Voyage dans La Paleitine, p. 276. Paris, 1717.)
Note LXXXI. p. 305.
Children able to fupport themfelves, are ufually carried aftride on the fhoulder; but in infancy they are carried in the common way in the arms, and fometimes tranfported from one place to another, when the diftance is not great, fupported awkwardly upon one haunch.
Bifhop Lowth gives the following paffage from Sir John Chardin’s M.S. Notes. ‘ It is the cuftom in the Eaft to carry the children on the ‘ fide, a-{traddle on the haunch: a general praétife in India. ‘The children ‘it is true hold faft, while the woman who carries them clafps them with ‘one arm round the body; they neither being fwathed, nor dreffed in ‘ fuch manner as to confine their limbs.
* Cotovicus remarks that the Eaftern children, inftead of being carried ‘in the arms, are mounted aftride on the fhoulder.’ (Notes on Haiah, page 258.)
The former cuftom is general in India, but the latter is that of Syria, and the expreffion in Ifaiah 473 Sy, upon which the learned Bifhop com- ments, is precifely the words now ufed by the Arab women Cand cH Ala al Kitph. .
Harmer upon the following paffage of Ifaiah, (xlix. 22.)
And they fhall bring thy Sons in their bofom,
And thy Daughters fhall be borne on their fhoulder. cites a remark of Pitt’s in Barbary that “ if the child be a boy, it ‘rides ‘“¢ on the flaves fhoulder.”” In Syria however the children are carried in- difcriminately in that manner, male and female; agreeably to Sandy’s obfervation when talking of the Turkifh children. ‘ As we bear ours in “‘ our arms, fo they do theirs aftride on their fhoulders.” (Travels, p. 54.) The difference of carrying the child in the bofom, or’on the fhoulder, may be owing to their different age, without regard to fex. The Eaftern wo- men ride always aftride whether on Affes, Mules, or Horfes. See Har- mer (Obfervations on divers Paflages of Scripture, vol. ii. p. 366. Lond. 1776.)
Vou. I. oe Note
44%
44.2
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
Note LXXXII. p. 305.
The Syrian nurfes do not ufe clouts for keeping the infant dry in the cradle, but having a place formed on purpofe in the middle of the mat- trefs, they fill it with parched earth, and taking up the child’s clothes be- hind, lay him upon it.
Another method is mentioned by Villamont as pra¢tifed at Jerufalem. “ T]s laiffent (’Enfant) luy le derriere tout difcouvert, a fin que l’enfant ** jette dehors plus commodement. Et quant aux berceaux des Enfans, “ils font enfoncez de cuir bien tendu ot y a un pertuis rond, fur lequel “‘ font mifes a nud les feffes de l'enfant. Deffous le pertuis du berceau y “a un pot large par le haut, dans lequel les excremens tombent, & parce “ qu'il y auroit auffi danger que les linges ne s’ufaffent 4 la longue par “ Purine de l’enfant, les Turcs y ont donnent order, appofant au membres “« des enfans de petites canelles de buys faictes expres, & qu’on trouve la ‘“‘ chez le merciers.”” (Voiages du Seig. de Villamont, liv. 11. chap. xxx. Lyon, 1611.)
Thevenot fays nearly the fame. (Travels, p. 47.) but I never heard of the practice in Turkey.
Note LXXXIII. p. 306.
Schultens in his commentary upon Job, confiders the Wulwal JI.J Jq or Wulwl (J.J, as correfponding to the Hebrew 55° ejulare and the “ororvpu of the Greeks; but he produces feveral authorities to fhow that “oacavfa was alfo applied in a joyful fenfe. (Comment. Job x. v. 15.)
The word ‘ororvgw is ufually rendered Ululo Ejulo, Ploro; “Areaalu, Tinnio, ejula: and in the derivation of the word Ululo from the Greek and Hebrew, Schultens has the concurrence of feveral Lexicons. But however the two words may in thefe languages have been converted to oppofite fenfes, it is certain that the Wulwaly of the Arabs is applicable only to diftrefs and affliction, and would appear to have a greater affinity to the Greek "Aawaaew, than to the cdodvZew which, from the authorities produced in a former note, (xxxv.) would feem to have been moft com- monly ufed by the Greeks on facred, or on joyful occafions,
The
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
The paffages produced by Schultens fhow the dawrad%s, and ovecharel or, ufed precifely on thofe occafions that the correfponding word Wulwal would have been ufed in Arabic. In the paffage from the Evange- lift, our Saviour upon entering the houfe of Jairus “faw the tumult “and them that wept and wailed greatly” for they believed that the girl had juft before expired Kal Sewper Jopuboy, uroctovices roel a hocdor *ovJorg morrkad. Mark v. 38. which in the Arabic Teftament is rendered thus, Wwizocyadalgrg ey legs 4 Ui bol Lai Mark xvii. 38.
The inftance brought from Plutarch is alfo clearly to the point. On the day of Czefar’s death, while Portia anxioufly expected news from the Ca- pitol, fuch was the agitation of her mind that fhe at length fell into a fainting fit. Her maids aftonifhed, and from her palenefs conceiving fhe was dead, behaved juft as the Arab women would have done, they raifed the Wulwaly ai de bepcimeaves wpos trv Ol avnradaazay. Plutarch, (Brutus, Tom. i. p. 991. Folio, Francofurt. 1520.)
The extravagant conclamation of the women at funerals, is mentioned by Cicero as prohibited by the twelve tables. ‘“ Tollit etiam Lamenta- “‘tionem. Mulieres genas ne radunto, neve Leflum funeris ergo ha- “bento. Hoc veteres Interpretes Sex. Alius, J. Acillius non fatis fe in- “« telligere dixerunt, fed fufpicari Veftimenti aliquod genus funebris: L. « Alius Leffum quafi Lugubrem Ejulationem, ut Vox ipfa fignificat. “ Quod eo magis judico verum effe quia Lex Solonis id ipfum vetat.” Cicero (de Legibus, lib. ii. p. 23. Opera Omnia 4to. Amftelad. Verburg. 1724. Tom. iv. p. 1225.)
Again, “ Ingemifcere nonnunquam Viro conceffum eft idque raro: “¢ Ejulatus ne mulieri quidem. Et hic nimirum eft fletus (Leffus M. S.) “guem Duodecim Tabule in funeribus adhiberi vetuerunt.” (Tute. Difput. lib. ii. p. 23. ut fupra, p. 174.) Vide Plutarch (Solon, Tom. i. page 90.)
The Wulwaly of the Turkith and other women of the Eaft, (for it is common to the Chriftians and Jews) is fometimes no more than an inarti- culate {cream or howl, but the interje¢tion Weil Wy, or the words ya Weily! Coy rg are commonly interfperfed. ‘The chief mourner, or elfe the women employed on purpofe, the Nouaha, doa! 45 (Gonvav EZapyos or Tievbr}pos of the Greeks, the Praeficee of the Romans) repeats fome plaintive words, interrupted with fobs and tears, then, ftriking her breaft, fhe {creams wildly, and the other women join in the Wulwaly, as if it were
Llig the
443
444
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
the chorus to the Nouaha, but they do not keep time fo exaétly as in the Ziraleet.
The common acceptation of #AwAwéw in a military fenfe, the “Adrwaq or "Ardara the CeUaTMT KOS GoouGG@e, xa ArAnrayuGu, belong not to this place. It may be fufficient to remark that the Turks in the onfet in battle, run on
repeating the word Ullah, Ullah.
Note LXXXIV. p. 310.
Pocock obferves that ‘‘ On the South fide of the town are feveral mag- nificent fepulchres of the Mamaluke times; they are indeed Mofques which the great perfons while they were alive built to depofite their bodies in: the buildings generally confift of a portico built on three fides of a court with pillars in a very coftly and magnificent manner, with a “‘ grand gateway in front. Oppofite to this is the Mofque which is gene- ‘* rally covered with a dome, and the Mirab or Nich that direéts them to pray is very often made of the fineft marbles, {omething in the manner * of the Mofaic work.’ Pocock (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 152.)
The fepulchres {till remaining are magnificent, but I do not recollect any with porticos on the three fides of the Court. The Turks do not bury within the Mofques; and the prefent buildings I always confidered not as Motques, but merely as Maufoleums.
‘The Emperors, Bafhaws, and great men,’ as Cantacuzene juftly re- marks ¢ are buried in {mall Chapels near their Mofques. The Turban, ‘and the veftments laid on the tomb, being changed daily, and the tomb ‘ ftrewed with the flowers in feafon.” (p. 201.)
“~ wn
Note LXXXV. ps 312..
Cantacuzene, defcribing the Turkith funeral ceremonies, fays that their mourning contifts only in changing the fhafh of their Turban to one black {triped, refembling that worn by the Armenians. This they wear only eight days, at the expiration of which, in.a meeting of the relations, after mutual confolations, they refume their ufual Turban. The Ullama wear their mourning three days only. (p. 201.)
Nothing of this kind is pra¢tifed by the men, at Aleppo.
Note
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Note LXXXVI. p. 315.
M. D’Arvieux, whofe ftation at Aleppo was favorable for procuring in- formation, fays, “‘ The Bafhaw’s regular falary was eighty thoufand Dol- “jars (above £8,300) of which thirty five thoufand is allotted for the *‘ maintenance of his troops, confifting of four or five hundred men. Be- “ fides this he muft get alfo fufficient to pay the coft of his commiftion, ‘“* and purchafe the prote¢tion of friends at the Porte, in order to fecure a “new appointment, when removed from Aleppo. But by extortions, “‘ prefents, and other accidental means, they raife their Revenue to two “hundred thoufand Dollars (about £25,000.) (Memoires, Tom. vi. page 444.)
The Bafhaw’s revenue at prefent (1769) falls far fhort of two hundred thoufand Dollars, notwithftanding that Avanias are perhaps as common as ever. Some inftances of this manner of raifing moncy, may be found in the above Memoirs, where the Turkith addre(s in negotiating them is well defcribed.
M. Volney, in 1783, gives nearly the fame account of the Bafhaw’s revenue with M. D’Arvieux; but mentions an inftance of a certain Abd; Bafhaw, who within theie twenty years, by extraordinary extortions, raifed, in fifteen months, the enormous fum of £160,000. (Vol. il. p. 140 Lond. p. 130. Tom. il. Paris.)
ote EX KV IT p: 9227.
In D’Arvieux’s time, the Mohafiil paid four hundred thoufand Dollars to the Grand Signor’s Treafury for his Farm. ‘ In cafe of a brifk trade, ‘ he wasa confiderable gainer; but ctherwife he was a great lofer, and had © no abatement or mercy to expe¢t from the Porte. His Furniture, Horfes, “and Slaves, were feized by the Treafury, and he himfelf thrown into ‘ Prifon, till the whole debt fhould be difcharged.’ (Memoires, Tom. vi. page 450.)
The Mohaffilick is now farmed at a much lower rate, yet often proves the ruin of the perfon, who engages in it: of which I have known more
than one inftance, fince the year 1760. M.. Volney
A445
440
NOTES) AND ILLUSTRATIONS:
M. Volney ftates the Mohaffil’s annual farm at £40,000, befides £4 or 5000, which he is obliged to pay to the officers at the Porte. (Vol. ii.
page 140.)
Note LXXXVII. p. 336.
A Turkifh prophecy of the deftruétion of the Ottoman Empire by the Chriftians, is given by Ludovico Domenichi, together with a tranflation and commentary. He adds “E da fapere che quefta prophetia non fi “‘ legge nel Alchorana, ma in altri libri, ai quali portano grand autorita ed “ reverenza.” Ludov. Domenichi, (Prophet. de Maometani, &c. Fiorenza, 1548.)
It is mentioned by Rolamb, a Swedifh Envoy at Conftantinople, in 1657, that, “ The Turks have a particular fufpicion againft the Swedifh *‘ Nation, it being written in their prophecies that their Empire fhall be “‘ deftroyed by a Northern nation, (p. 684.) It is faid that the Turks “* fhall take Rome; the Pope foon after be made Patriarch of Jerufalem, “ andturn Mahometan. ‘That then Chrift fhall come down and confirm “‘ the Alcoran; after which the Turks declining, fhall retire into Arabia, ‘“‘ and the world fhall end, &c. (Relation of a Voyage to Conftantinople by Nicholas Rolamb, 1657.)
It is remarkable that the belief in a prophecy prediéting the conquett of Conftantinople by the Ruilians, was 2 prevalent opinion among the vulgar in that city, as early as the roth century. Gibbon, (Decline of the Roman Empire vol. v. p. 570.)
Note LXXXIX. p. 338.
The Chevalier D’Arvieux’s obfervation, though trite, is very juft. “¢ Ti eft ordinaire de fe laffer de l’état oG.l’on eft, & ill’eft encore plus “ @étre trompé en defirant ce qu’on n’a pas. J'ai vu cela chez les Turcs, “< & je Jai va parmi les Chretiens qui font aux Echelles du Levant; ils “ne font jamais contents de leurs Confuls; ils voudroient en changer tous “les jours, & quand le changement eft fait, ils ne manquent pas de re- “ gretter celui qui eft forti de place.” (Memoires, Tom. vi. p. 281.)
APPENDIX.
Py onP iguP ean dita orf 10K,
SKETCH OF THE FIRST ESTABLISHMENTS OF THE LEVANT COMPANY IN TURKEY.
Ewcianp carried on little or no commerce with the [evant in fhips of her own, earlier than the beginning of the fixteenth century ; ufually employing Genoefe, Venetian, Portuguefe, or other foreign veffels. But between the years 1511 and 1534, an unufual trade, by fhips of London, Southhampton and Briftol, was carried on to Candia, Scio, Cyprus, and even to Tripoly in Syria, and Byroot: yet ftill in that inter- val foreign veffels continued to be employed as carriers. Anderfon (Hiftorical and Chronological Dedu¢tion of the Origin of Commerce: Lond. 1764.)
In the years 1534 and 1535, three Englith fhips, one of which was of 300 Tons burden, with a compliment of one hundred men, went to Candia and Scio, where the Englifh merchants fettled Factors, choofing for fuch, Na- tives of the country; but fome years later (1550 and 1557) Englifh mer- chants, as well as French and Genoefe, were found fettled at Scio.
While Candia remained fubjeé&t to Venice, and Scio to Genoa, a con- ftant trade was carried on thither by Chriftian fhips; but after thofe iflands fell into the hands of the Turks, that trade ceafed, till fuch time as the refpective fovereigns had obtained commercial treaties at the Otto- man Porte. ‘The trade of the Englifh to the Eaftern territories of thofe Italian, States, gradually brought on a direé trade with Turkey.
In 1572, French, Venetian, Genoefe, and Florentine Confuls refided at Conftantinople, but none from England: the trade into the Levant hav- ing (as it fhould feem) been difcontinued from the year 1553, to the year 1575. (Anderfon, p. 329. 414.)
The
it
AP’? RAwD ies
The precife time when the Levant trade was revived does not appear; though it is probable, that Harebrown, whofe negociations at Conftan- tinople laid the foundation for the Turkey Company, was among the firft merchants who repaired to the Levant after the year 1575.
It is remarked by Camden in 1579, “ that, through Elizabeth’s inter- “ ceffion, Amurath Cham, or the Turkifh Sultan, upon treaty between “ William Harebrown an Englifhman, and Muftapha Beg a Turkith “ Baffa, granted that the Englifh merchants might freely traffic through- “ out his whole Empire, in like manner as the French, Venetians, Po- “< lonians,” &c. Camden (Hift. of Elizabeth, p. 235. Lond. 1675).
But this does not appear to have been exactly the cafe; for, by the Grand Signor’s letter to Elizabeth dated the 15th March, 1759, the lm berty then granted fhould feem to have been limited to Harebrown, and his two partners, Sir Edward Ofbourn and Maifter Richard Staper.
“ We give you to underftand, that a certain man hath come unto us, “ in the name of your moft excellent regal Majefty, commending unto “us, from you, all kindnefs; and did humbly require, that our imperial “ Highnefs would vouchfafe to give leave and liberty to him, and unto << two other merchants of your kingdom,” &c. &c. &c.
The liberty was accordingly granted for fuch aforefaid perfons, and orders were iffued accordingly.
Elizabeth returned an anfwer to this letter, Oftober 25th of the fame year; from which it appears, that fhe thought the privileges granted were reftrained within too narrow bounds. She returns thanks for the attention paid to.the “ humble petitions of one Wm. Harebrown, a fub- és ject’ of ours, prefented ‘ for the obtaining accefs far him, and two ‘¢ other merchants more of his company, our fubjeéts alfo, to come with ‘¢ merchandizes, both by fea and land, &c. &c. &c.
‘© But whereas the grant which was given to a few of our fubje@s, ss and at their only requeft, without any intercefion of ours, ftandeth in as “ free a liberty of coming and going, as ever was granted to any of «© your imperial Highnefs’s confederates, French, Polonians, &c., we “ defire of your Highnefs, that the commendation of fuch fingular cour- “ tefie may not be fo narrowly reftrained to two or three men only, but ““ may be enlarged to all our fubjects in general.” See the letters at length (Hakluyte, p. 163.)
In
Aeeaen vp it xX
In confequence of this, in the following vear, that is the beginning of June 1580, the firft charter of privileges, (or Capitulations as they are now termed) was granted to the Englifh, by Sultan Morad “and whereas “She (the Queen) requefted that we would grant to all her fubjeéts in “ general this our favour, which before we had extended only to a few “‘ of her people.... Therefore we give licenfe to all her people and mer- “‘ chants, &c.’? The charter contains twenty-one articles (Hakluyt, p. 163.)
Fifteen months after the date of the capitulations, the firft Turkey Company was incorporated; the Queen’s charter being dated the 11th of September 1581. It was granted, for the term of feven years, to Edward Ofbourn Alderman of London, Richard Staper Merchant, Thomas Smith Efg. and William Garret of London Merchants, their heirs, &c. The preamble of the charter declares, ‘ that the two former had, by great ‘ adventure and induftrie, with their great cofts and charges, by the {pace ‘of fundry late years, travailed, and caufed travail to be taken as well ‘ by fecret and good means, as by dangerous ways and paflages both by ‘land and fea, to find out and fet upon a trade, &c. not heretofore in the ‘ memory of any man living known to be commonly ufe.-—And alfo have ‘ by their like good means and induftrie, and great charges, procured of * the Grand Signior (in our name) amitie, fafety, &c. And in confidera- ‘ tion that the faid Edward Ofbourn hath been the principal fetter forth ‘ and doer in opening the trade, he is appointed Governor, failing whom, ‘ Richard Staper was appointed. See the charter, (Hakluyt, p. 172.)
On the 20th of November 1582, Elizabeth by her commiifion under the Great feal, appointed mafter William Harebrowne to be, her orator meffenger (Nuntium) deputie, and agent, invefting him with power to ratify the Capitulations, and to regulate all commercial matters, and ty appoint Confuls or Governors wherever he fhould fec fit.
With this commiffion, and her Majefty’s letter to the Grand Signor, Harebrowne fet out in the Sufan of London mounting 34 guns. He firft fettled peace with Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and having eftablithed all the Englith factories in Turkey, (maugre the {pite and malice of the French and Venetians) he returned over land to England in the yea, 1589; for the Grand Signor’s letter to the Qveen in September of that year, contains a {trong recommendation of Harebrowne then about leaving Con- ftantinople; and defiring that either he or fome other pr-ncipal Em)atlador
Vor. I. Mmm might
iV
A PPE RV aA Ss
might without delay be {ent to the Porte. Knolles (Hift. of the Turks, p. 1007. Lond. p. 1621.)
In confequence of this, Mr. Edward Barton, who had been left by Harebrowne Chargé des Affaires, was appointed Embaffador; anditappears that he accompanied Sultan Mahomet to the camp in Hungary in 1596; an account of which expedition is given by the Embaflador’s fecretary Sir Thomas Glover. Sanderfon was left agent at Conftantinople during the [mbatfador’s abfence. Purchas, (Pilgrims part fecond, p. 1354. Lond. 1625.)
Mr. Barton died at Conftantinople, and was fucceeded by Mr. Henry Lillo, who according to Biddulph, after governing the Englifh nation in Turkey for ten years, returned with great reputation to his country, and was knighted by His Majefly.
If Lillo refided ten years at Conftantinople, Mr. Barton muft have died in 1597; for Sir Thomas Glover, who continued fecretary to Lillo, was appointed to fucceed him in the year 1606. Yet Sanderfon who left Con- ftantinople in September 1597, fays nothing of the Embaflador’s death, but on his return thither two years after, he mentions vifiting the late Embaffador Barton’s Tomb, on the top of Calcas Ile. Purchas (p. 1338. 12.62%)
On the commencement of the Englith trade to Turkey, the Merchants having occafion to attend the Queen and Privy Council, they had their great thanks and commendations for the fhips they then built of fo great burthen with many encouragements to go forward for the kingdom’s fake. The ordinary returns of the trade, at the beginning, were three for one (Anderfon p. 424.)
The perfons concerned in the eftablifhment of the Company, had pro- ceeded with great fpirit and refolution. John Newberie, fo early as 1578, made a commercial journey into Syria. He travelled from March 1578 till November 1579, and vifited Tripoly, Joppa, Jerufalem, &c. and ’fount Lebanon. He fet out again in September 1580, and after vifiting Syria, Perfia, Armenia, Georgia, Caramania, Natolia, and Conftantinople, he from thence went, by the Black fea, a great way up the Danube &c. &c. In this Voyage, he confumed two years, and was very exact in his commercial obfervations.
Newberie was accompanied from London by William Barret an Englith Merchant, who fettled at Aleppo, and was afterwards made
Contul
AC Et it Ne Dy fe xX
Conful at that Scale. When they arrived at Aleppo, about the end of January 1581, they were entertained at a great Banquet by the French Conful; and it appears that Newberic, fome time after, fent his letters from Bagdat, for Mr. Harebrown and Mr. Barret, to the care of the French Conful at Aleppo, “ the Englifh having no fixed eftablifhment “ there at that time.”
The Capitulations had been obtained (as before mentioned) in June 1580, but the Levant Company was not incorporated till September 1581, and Harebrown’s powers to appoint Confuls, were not given till November 1582. It was therefore two years after Barret’s firft arrival at Aieppo, before a Conful could be eftablifhed there.
Newberie undertook a third Voyage in 1583, and arrived at Tripoly in May. He was now accompanied by Ralph Fitch, John Eldred, and feveral other fa¢tors fent out by the Levant company, to trade to Perfia, as well as to attempt a trade to the Eaft Indies over land. An account of this journey, which contains many inftructive particulars, may be collected from Newberie’s own letters—(Hakluyt, p. 208.) (Purchas, p. 1642.) As alfo from the Narratives of Fitch (Purchas p. 1730.) and of Eldred, (Hakluyt, p. 231.)
They carried (fays Anderfon) the Queen’s letters recommendatory to the Kings of Cambay, and China; that they met with great oppofition in their attempt from the Venetian factories eftablifhed at Bagdat, Ormus, Goa, &c. That they travelled to fundry places in India, to Agra, Lahor, Bengal, Malacca &c. They returned by Ormus and Syria, and arrived at London in 1591, having made very ufeful remarks and difcoveries, “on the nature of the Eaft India Commerce, preparatory to their intend- «ed Voyage by fea to India now aétually going out.” (p. 439.)
On the arival of Newberie with his companions at Tripoly, in May 1583, Eldred particularly remarks that: ‘In this city our Englith “« Merchants have a Conful, and our nation abide together in one houfe “with him, called Fondeghi Ingles, builded of ftone, fquare, in manner “ like a cloifter, and every man his feveral chamber, as it is the ufe of all * other Chriftians (he means Franks) of feveral nations.”
From there being a Conful at Tripoly, it may be concluded that Barret was then Conful at Aleppo, although not mentioned by Eldred; who, however, on his return from Baffora in June the year following, mentions particularly “ being joyfully received twenty miles diftant from the town, | Mmm 2 ** by
v1
A.P FR PINGR @ ee
“ by Mr. William Barret our Conful, accompanied with his people and ‘** Janizaries.” Barret it feems was immediately taken fick, and died. within eight days, having before his death elected Mr. Anthony Bate, Conful of ovr Englifh nation at that place, who remained in office three years. (Hakluyt, p. 231. and 234.)
Barret was undoubtedly the firft Englifh Conful at Aleppo, and muft have been regularly eftabliit.ed after the Embaflador’s Harebrown’s arri- val in Turkey, early in the year 1583.
Although the firft Charter of the Company expired in 1588, it does not appear to have been renewed till 1593; when inftead of twelve, fifty-three perfons (confifting of feveral Knights, Aldermen, and Mer- chants) received the Queen’s Letters Patent, for twelve' years. This fecond temporary Charter recites ‘¢ that Sir Edward Ofbourn (hereby ap- “< pointed the firft Governor for one year) William Harborn Efquire, &c. «« had not only eftablifhed this trade to Turkey, at their great coft and «« hazard, but alfo that to Venice, Zant, Cephalonia, Candia, and other. «¢ Venetian Dominions, to the great increafe of the commerce and manu-. “ faétories of England ; wherefore the Queen now incorporates them by «‘ the name of the Governor and Company of Merchants of the Levant, “ &c. The limits of the Charter to be, 1{t, The faid Venetian Territories. “© and, The Dominions of the Grand Signior by Land and Sea; and 3rd, “ through his countries over Land to Eaft India, a way lately difcovered «« by John Newbery, Fitch, &c.”” The Queen referved a power of revok-. ing the Patent on eighteen months notice, if it fhould appear not to be profitable to her or the realm. (Anderfon, p. 441.)
Under thofe two temporary Charters, the affairs of the Company were conduéted with great zeal and vigour. Their fervants, were indefatiga-. ble in procuring commercial information, in the countries they travelled mto; particularly Saunderfon, who made fundry voyages between the years 1584, and 1602.
It appears that the Embaffadors ufually at that time fent to the Porte,. were perfons who. had been before in the country, and in fome degree verfed in its cuftoms. Barton, the fecond Embaflador, had been Secretary to Harebrown; Glover who was appointed in 1606, had been Secretary both to Barton and Lillo; and to Glover fucceeded Sir Paul Pinder, who is mentioned by Saunderfon as being at Conftantinople in 1599, in a pri-
vate ftation. Upon
Rue MN BP Ef. xX.
Upon the expiration of the fecond temporary charter in 1605, a perpe~ tual one was granted by James; the new Company being ftiled, The Merchants of England trading to the Levant Seas. The exiftence of the prefent Levant Company, is founded on this Charter, which was con- firmed by Charles the Second in 1661.
In confequence of the Charter granted by king James, Sir Thomas Glover iti 1606, was. appointed his Majefty’s Envoy and Agent in Turkey, with liberty to refide in what part of the Turkifh Dominions he fhall think beft, and to appoint Confuls for the good Government of the Englith in the other proper Ports.
Anderfon (p. 470.) obferves that Glover’s Letters Patent is the firft in- {tance to be found in the Foedera, of an Englifh Minifter appointed to re- fide in Turkey. He makes no mention of Pinder, who fucceeded Sir Thomas Glover, nor does it appear how long Sir Thomas remained in office, but it appears from the Foedera, that Sir John Ayre was appointed Embaffador to the Porte in 1619. Sir John was fucceeded by Sir Thomas Roe, who was Embatfador in 1625, when Purchas wrote. In 1627, ac- cording to the Foedera, Sir Peter Wyche was appointed Embaffador to the Grand Signior.
From this period the Hiftory of the Levant Company becomes lefs per- plexed; but it being beyond my province to trace it further, I {hall only add a few extracts from Anderfon, relative to the early {tate of the trade.
In Sir William Monfon’s Naval Tra¢ts written in 1635, the reatons
affigned for England not fooner entering directly on the Turkey Trade,.
but fuffering the Venetians to engrofs it, are, that former times did not afford fhipping fufficient for it; the great danger of falling into the hands of the Barbary Moors; and that the Venetians in thofe times fent their Argofies, or Argofers, yearly to Southampton, laden with Turkey, Perfian; and India merchandize. The laft Argofcr that came thus from Venice was in the year 1587, and was unfortunately loft near the Ifle of. Wight, with a rich cargo and many paffengers. (Anderfon, p. 423.)
A Tra& publifhed in 1615, (The Trade’s Increafe) againft the Eatt India Company, obferves that the Turkey Company complained of their trade being leffened in confzquence of that carried on direétly to India, «That they now fent thirty thips fewer than formerly to the Levant.” Whereas the Dutch now employed above a hundred. Sir Dudiey Diggs
defended
Vv
mc
Vill
A PPE M Bae
defended the Eaft India Company, in a mafterly manner. (Anderfon, P- 493+)
One of the Eaft India fhips of 800 Ton had been purchafed of the Levant Company, and the reafon for fuch large fhips being employed in the ‘Turkey trade was, that the Royal Navy was not yet confiderable enough to prote¢t our trading fhips from the Barbary Rovers.
About the year 1620, the voyages by Sea to the Eaft Indies had fo greatly lowered the prices of Indian merchandize, that the trade between India and Turkey, by the Perfian Gulph and the Red Sea, having much decayed, the Grand Signior’s cuftoms were greatly leffened. Ina treatite written the following year, in favour of the Eaft India Company, Mr. Mun endeavours, on a comparative view, to {how that the wares by the Cape of Good Hope will coft but about half the price which they will coft from Turkey. (Anderfon, vol. ii. p. 3.)
Mun remarks further that of all the nations of Europe, England drove the moft profitable trade to Turkey, by reafon of the vaft quantities of broad cloth, tin, &c. which it exports thither, enough to purchafe all the wares we wanted in Turkey; and in particular three hundred great bales of Perfian raw filk yearly. Whereas there is a balance in money paid by the other nations trading thither. Marfeilles fent yearly to Aleppo and Alexandria, at leaft £500,000, and little or no wares (France had then no Woollen Trade.) Venice fent about £400,000, and a great value in wares befides. Holland about £50,000 but little wares, and Meffina £25,000.
In 1675 a commercial treaty was concluded at Adrianople between king Charles the II. (by his Embaffador Sir John Finch) and Sultan Ma- homet the IV. whereby all former treaties from Queen Elizabeth’s time downwards were confirmed, and certain new articles were inferted in the Capitulations. Among others, that the Dutch merchants of Holland, Zeeland, &c. &c., trading to Turkey, were always to come under the colours of England, paying the dues to the Englifh Embaflador and Con- fuls, in the {ame manner as the Englifh merchants. Thofe of Spain, Por- tugal, Ancona, Florence, and all forts of Dutch, were alfo to come under
the Englith flag. Anderfon, (vol. 11. p. 7. 158.)
METEOROLO-
METEOROLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF THE WEATHER IN 1752 AND 1753, WITH A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE THERMOMETER, &c. FOR TWELVE YEARS *.
Tue Thermometer employed, and referred to in the following ab- ftraét, was the large one of Bird’s which had ftood formerly at the Con- fular houfe, (fee vol. i1. p. 274 and 297.) but in the beginning of 1752, it was removed to the Wooden Kiofk, before mentioned, where it remained
conftantly afterwards, together with the Barometer. The quantity of
rain is denoted thus’. One or two fhowers, or what is termed a rainy day, are expreft by one’; “denotes violent rains; and ” an intermediate quantity.
My. 7 52. J #NUDAR Y.
The firft week of this month, cloudy and rainy ; but all the reft (the three laft days excepted) continually fair, clear weather: a few light clouds now and then intervening.
Rarny Days.
ift and 4th”, at night; sth’”, 6th”, at night with fqualls of wind: ath”
29th”, in the night; 3oth’”’, and 3rft ””.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 56 On the 28th and 2oth at 3 P. M. Leaft - - 40 §On the rothand 11thatg9 A.M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 1 bed the oth Leaft 2 - 28, 5§Onthe 4th
The morning height of the Mercury, the firft ten Days, and from the 18th to the end, was 46, or 48: in the intermediate {pace 42, or 43. The variation in the fame day, was commonly 3, or 4; when perfeétly ferene 6, or 7; in rainy weather, 2, 1 and fometimes o.
* Sce Vol. ii. page 297. FEBRU-
1X
A “P 'P 2 ON 8 ff Ae
FED Kh Us new
In the beginning of the fecond, and about the end of the third week, a good deal of rain fell in violent fhowers in the night. ‘Through the reft of the month the weather was fair, but the Sky was often variegated by light clouds, and fometimes overca(t in the afternoon.
RAINY DAYS.
jth” begun in the evening and continued till the 8th” A. M.; gth” in the night; roth” A. M.; 22nd’, 23rd” in the night; and 24th in the forenoon.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 53 i the 19th at 3 P. M.
Leatt - - 45 JSSeveral days Greateft height of the Barometer 28,9 aie the greateft part of the laft Leatft - - - 28,3$OntherithP.M. [fortnight.
The morning height of the Mercury, in the firft fortnight was 48; in the fubfequent part of the month 45 or 46. The variation in the fame day, ex- cept when it rained, 5, or 6; and, when perfeétly ferene, 7 or 8.
MPA RoCre.
The ferene weather with which the laft month ended, continued to the gth; thence to the 18th, light flying clouds, with fome intervening fhow- ers of rain, which were fometimes accompanied with thunder. The re- mainder of the month ferene, except the 24th, 25th, and 26th, which were cloudy and fhowery.
RAINY DAYS.
8th” In the night; gth’ P. M.; 13th’ in the night; 14th”, 16th’ in the night with thunder; 26’, and 27th’ A. M.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 67 7On the 24th at 3 P. M.
Leatt - - - 44 J$On the 2d and 11th ato A. M. Greateft height of the Barometer 28,9 beashonil between thefe two Leaft - - 28, 5 §throughout the month.
The morning height of the Mercury, till the 6th, was 45; about the 14th it had got to 52, and by the end of the month, reached 59. The variation in the fame day, was 5 or 6, and before the rains in the laft week 8 or 9.
A. Pyle Ty Te
The Sky in the firft week, was for the moft part clear, with light fly- ing clouds in the afternoon. From the 7th to the 12th, variable weather, with
A PP FE We Di &,
with frequent hard fhowers which fell chiefly in the night and mornings, and were fometimes accompanied with lightning and thunder. From*the 12th to the end, except one day, the weather conftantly fair and clear,
light clouds more feldom making their appearance than in the firft part.
of the month. RAINY DAYS. 7’ A. M. and in the night; 8th’ in the night; gth’ A. M. and a ftorm in the night; roth’” 11th’, 22nd’ P. M. and in the night’. Greateft height of the Thermometer 81 ee the 30th at 3 P.M.
Leaft - - - 58 On the 8th at 9 A. M. Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 8 7 On the 8th, and from the 14th to Leaft - - 28, 4$On the 22d. [the 18th.
The morning height of the Mercury in the firft fortnight, 60 or 61, through the latter fortnight, 64,65. The variation in the fame day when it rained, 3 or 43 at other times 6 er 7; and towards the end of the month 9 or 10.
M A Y.
A confiderable quantity of rain fell about the beginning of this month *. From the 18th the weather was clear and pleafant, the Wefterly wind blowing frefh, particularly after the 2oth. Some thunder on the morn- ing of the 22nd, but no rain.
RAINY DAYS. 3d A. M.” in the night ;” 4th’ morning. Greateft height of the Thermometer 26 ]20On the 3oth at 4 P. M.
Leaft - - 67 J§On the 4th and 3 P. M. Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 9 7 From the 26th to the 29th P. M, Leatft . - 28, 6§On the 4th.
The height of the Mercury, at 10 in the forenoon, from the 18th to the 26th,
70, afterwards, 74 and 78. The variation in the fame day was 6 or 8 and fometimes 9 or 10.
JUNE,
Fine, ferene weather through the whole month, a few light clouds only
pafling on the 17th and 27th. ‘The wind frefh at Weft, after the firft week.
* The Regifter defective from the 16th to the 18th.
Vor. I, Non RAINY
xt
xu
A Pw? @ we ee.
RAINY DAYS.
None. Greateft height of the Thermometer 2 nal the 12th at 4 P. M. Leatt - -
Greateft height of the Barometer a 9 7 From the 26th to the zoth. Leaft - - 28, 6 § On the 4th.
The morning height of the Mercury, to the zoth, flu€tuated between 76 and 79; from that to the 28th, 80, about which time, the wind blowing remarkably frefh, it funk to 77 ('). The variation in the fame day was 10, 11, or 12.
Heer le
Though the Sky was conftantly ferene, the weather continued cool till the laft week, when the Weft wind, which from the beginning of the month had blown frefh, giving way to calms and light ee it became exceedingly hot.
RAINY DAYS.
None. Greateft height of the Thermometer 9s 2On the 3oth, and 31ft, at 4 P. M. Leaft - aa ate 3d, 20th, and 21ft,at 7 P.M.
Greatetft height of the Barometer 28, 7) On the rft. | From the sth at 4 P.M. to the
Leaft ~ - Dios 7th at the fame hour; as alfo the J 20th and arft.
To the 26th, the morning height of the Mercury, was only 80; afterwards 82 and 85. The variation in the fame day 10, but when the wind was very
frefh, 8 org. HL) Gad S. Ti
The weather to the a1ft, ferene and frefh, light flying clouds only ap- pearing now and then about mid day, or in the afternoon. On the 21ft, black flying clouds threatened rain, and from that time to the end of the month, clouds of this kind pafled almoft every day. In the nights of the 6th, zoth, and 23rd, many dark gloomy clouds, with flafhes of lightning. The Weft wind blew frefh all the month.
RAINY DAYS.
None.
(3) The fall of the Mercury three or four degrees, upon a frefh wind, was a remarkable
circumftance.
Greateft
Avnm Ee WN-p T &. Greateft height of the Thermometer 93 ee the 12th and 17th at 4 P. M.
Leaft - - 74 J§Onthe24tha7thand 28thatyP.si, Greateft height of the Barometer 28,8 From the 28th to the end. Leaft - - - 28, 5§On the 7th and 8th.
The morning height of the Mercury, after the few firft days, was 80, or Sr- In the fecond fortnight it fell to 75. The variation in the fame day 9 or 10; but when cloudy, 7 or 8.
5, feaB 2-EoM B EeR«.
To the 18th of this month the weather continued much the fame as in Augutt, but a {mall fhower on the forenoon of that day, fomewhat refrefhed the air, and the weather afterwards gradually grew cooler, efpecially in the nights. Flying clouds were frequent and noéturnal dews. The winds were Wefterly but lefs {trong than in the preceding month.
RAINY DAYS.
wth’ A. M.*
Greateft height of the Thermometer 86 20On the 14th at 4 P. M. Leaft - - - 68 J§Onthe z9that 7 A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 9 7 From the 27th to the end. Leatt - - - 28, 7§ From the 15th to the 27th.
The morning height, and daily variation of the Thermometer, were for fome days the fame as in the latter part of Auguft; but after the 17th, the Mercury from 75 in the morning, fell gradually to 70, and the variation, from 6 came to be 4 or 3 degrees.
GO CAITO BE RR.
The weather was rendered cool at the beginning, by a frefh Wefterly wind, and the frequent interpofition of light white clouds. From the 4th to the 15th, a ferene Sky, light variable breezes, and warm. Some large clouds had paffed on the 14th, but others more black and heavy made their appearance two days after and were accompanied with tempcftuous blafts of wind, which raifing volumes of duft from the parched ground
* The reader will pleafe to recollect that in confequence of the new or Gregorian Stile taking place at this time, the 3rd of September came to be reckoned the 14th day of the month.
§ This rain was {mall and drizzly, not like the ufual firft Autumnal fhowers. ‘Ihe change induced on the weather was probably in fome meafure owing to more contiderable rains falling at fome diftance
Nnp2 drove
Xl
xiv
AP EN Gt =
drove them about in a furprifing manner. On the four fucceeding days: the wind blew frefh from the Weft or South Weft. In the afternoon of the 22nd, the Sky overcaft, and at length in the night, the rain, which had fo often threatened before, poured down. as ufual in violent fhowers. The day following was gloomy with drizzling rain; in the night it again: rained hard. ‘The forenoon of the 24th was drizzly like the day before, after which it cleared up for a few hours; but in the afternoon there was a violent thunder ftorm, anda good deal of rain. fell in the evening. The remainder of the month ferene, except the 26th and 27th which were cloudy. RAINY DAYS. 22nd” Evening and night; 23rd’”; 24th”. Greateft height of the Thermometer 80 2On the 4th at 3 P. M..
Leaft : - - 58 J§Onthe z9thand 30th at 8 A.M. Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 9 7 Fluctuated between thatand 28.8: Leaft - . 28, 6§ On the 23d and 24th.
The morning height of the Mercury to the 18th, 72; after the rain, 65, and towards the end of the month, 58. The variation in the fame day 50r6. On the 23d and 24th o, 1, and after the rain, 3, or 4.
NOVEMBE R:
Fine weather m the firft week: light clouds fometimes appeared but except one day, no black clouds. It became cloudy on the afternoon of the 8th, and the two following days were dark and gloomy with fome rain. From the 11th to the 16th, the mornings ferene, the Sky in the afternoons varicgated with light clouds. ‘Three or four days of cloudy, rainy weather intervened, after which it was fair and frofty to the 26th. The laft days of the month rainy.
RAINY DAYS.
8th”, at night; gth’, roth’, and 16 A.M.; 26th’, in the night; 27th”, 28th”, and 29”, in the night.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 65 toe the 1ft, 2d, and 3d, at 3 P. M.
Leaft - - 46 J§Onthe 25th at 8 A.M. Greateft height of the Barometer 29, $ 7Onthe 24th, 25th, and 26th. Leaft - : 28, 8 § Greateft part of the month.
The morning height of the Mercury, to the 10th, was 60, from that to the 23d it fell gradually to 49; in the frofty weather it funk to 46, but afterwards rofe to
5Q-
mh BoP ie WiDr xX
so. The variation in the fame day was at the beginning of the month 5, after wards 3, and in rainy weather, fometimes o.
D © Cck. MB Bor.
For the firft ten days of this month the weather was frequently gloomy, but there were only two rainy days. Fogs were common in the morn- ings. It begun to {now the evening of the 11th and continued fnowing all the following day. From the 12th to the 22nd, the weather frofty °, the Sky fometimes being ferene, but oftener foggy or overcaft. ‘To the froft fucceedcd five days of gloomy, wintry weather, after which it became clear and mild. Moft of the rain in this month, that of the 23rd excepted, fell in the night, or after fun fet. The winds moderate at Eaft or North Eaft, as in laft month.
RAINY DAYS.
sth” With thunder ; oth”, 23rd”, 26th”; 27th”, ftorm in the night from the Weft.
Greateft height of the thermometer 55 Fon the rft at 3 P. M.
Leaft - - - . 42 §On the 13th and r4th at 8 A. M, Greateft height of the barometer 29 (On the r4th. Leaft ~ - - - 28 §On the 27th.
The morning height of the mercury, which at the beginning of the month was 54, had, by the 1oth, fallen to 49, and from that to the 24th it continued fluctuating between 42 and 44; it then rofe to 46, 48. The variation in the fame day 3, in general only 1, and fometimes o.
A, 1)..3 753, e4,DbU A RV
The preceding year had ended with mild pleafant weather, which cotz-- tinued to the 11th of this month, interrupted only by one gloomy day. This was followed by four dark, wet days, after which to the 22nd, the weather was clear and fine, the mornings being froity. The weather from the 22nd was for the moft part gloomy and wet; but the rain fell more frequently in the day time than ufual. It {nowed iu the night of
© The Thermoracter which ftood at 49 before the fall of the Snow, funk on the rath to 42, yet notwithftanding the continuance of the trofty weather for eight days, it appronched not nearer to the freezing point, and even rofe to 44 after the 17th, whence it fhould-appear that the froft was far from being intenfe.
the
xvi
A PP POUEAHe Wii h
the 3oth, and the air felt exceedingly cold. The winds generally Eaft or North Eaft and moderate. RAINY DAYS. 3rd’, r1th’, A. M. in the night”; 12th in the night”; 14th, in the night”; 22nd’ A. M. in the evening”; 23rd’ and 24th’ A. M.; 27th”; aSth \i29'7, andgoth” in théiday tume:
Greateft height of the Thermometer 53 JOnthe 7th and 8that 3 P.M. Leatt = 4 40 me the 31ftat 4 P.M. Greateft height of the Barometer 29 On the 6th. Leaft = - = - 28 ot ton the 3oth and 31ft. The morning height of the Mercury, in the firft fortnight, was commonly 42; the latter fortnight 45. The variation in the day 3, 2, and o.
FES RK UjAt
It begun to fnow again on the evening of the 1{t and continued fnow- ing inceflantly for twenty four hours. The 3rd was overcaft, but clear- ing up next day, the weather to the 12th was conftantly clear and frofty. The 12th was cloudy, and it rained for feveral hours. After which the fro{ty weather returning, continued to the 20th. The remainder of the month was variably clear and cloudy, with many intervening fhort fhow- ers. The winds in general very moderate. In the firft ten days North Eaft, or South Weft; from the 15th to the 20th Eaft, the lait eight days Weitt, and fomewhat frefher.
Notwithftanding the continuance of frofty weather in this month, the Almond trees were in bloffom about the zoth.
RAINY DAYS.
12th”, from noon; 21ft’ P. M.; 22nd’ P. M.; 24th’) Py Wi ae
thunder; 25th, 26th, and 28th fhowery. SNOWY DAYS. ft. and 2nd.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 54 From the 2othtothe end at 3 P. M. Leaft - - - - 36 On the 3d at § A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29,4 JVOnthe sth, 6th, and 7th. Leatt - - - = /:28; ies the 24th, 25th, and 26ch. The morning height of the mercury to the 12th was 38, once only 36; after the rain, to the 20th, 42; in the laft week 50, 52. The variation in the fame day was commonly 4; but about the 17th it increafed to 6 or 7; in rainy weather I OF 2.
MARCH.
evr EN DP xX
MARCH.
Excepting one day (the 9th) which was cloudy, rainy, and tempeftu- ous, the Sky, during the three firft weeks, remained conftantly {ferene till afternoon, when a few light clouds now and then made their appear- ance. The reft of the month was either cloudy, or variable and fhowery, the rain for the moft part defcending in fhort interrupted fhowers. ‘The winds to the roth, variable, South Eait, or Eaft; during the reft of the month, at Weft or South Weft. They were in general moderate, only frefhning fometimes after noon.
RAINY DAYS.
Gum Avdvi.;.2r1ft' evening; 23rd’ P, M.; 24th”; 29th’, 31ft” in the night.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 61 ie s ange pith, and goth at
Leaft 3 2 - - 48 7Onthe rathat 8 A. M.
i I Greateft height of the Barometer 28, ot isand 387. between Leaft - - - - 28,47 On the 22d. P.M.
The morning height of the mercury to the 12th was 52; from that to the 1 8th, 49; and through the reft ofthe month 56. The variation in the fame day gor 5; but in cloudy weather 2: it was always lefs confiderable than in March of the pre~ ceding year.
oP RPL:
Began with cloudy rainy weather; from the 3rd to the rgth ferene, with intervening light clouds. In the fecond week, it was trequently hazy. The 16th and 17th ferene, after which ten days of unufually cold, cloudy weather. On the 2nd and 19th it rained almoft inceffantly the whole day, at other times the rain fell in heavy, fhort fhowers. The predominant winds, efpecially towards the end of the month, were the Weft or South Weft; but they never blew ftrong, and calms were fre - quent.
RAINY DAYS.
rft P. M.; 2nd’”, 13’ night; r4th’ A. M.; 15th’, roth”, 22nd P.M.
with thunder,
Greateft
XVII
xVill
was always ferene, but upon the wind ceafin
wWwRREN Pm HS
Greateft height of the Thermometer 69 2On the 13th at 4 P. M, Leaft - - - - (oe On the 2ndat 7 A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 8) From the 8th to the r1th. Leaft - “ = - 28,4 50On the 2nd.
The morning height of the mercury was 51 at the beginning, and it was not till the end of the week that it regained its ftation of the former month. On the 8th it ftood at 59, and through the reft of the month rofe only 3 or 4 degrees higher. The variation in the fame day was 6 or 7 in clear weather, but when
cloudy no more than 2 or 3.
Mae Yi
‘The firft day gloomy, and it rained inceflantly till four in the afternoon; the three following days fhowery, with thunder; the next three days fair,
with a frefh wind, and flying clouds. In the evening of the 8th, a ftorm
of rain and thunder; the reft of that week, the weather was often hazy, and at other times the Sun was obfcured by large white clouds, From the 16th to the 28th the wind blowing frefh through the day, the Sky g, clouds fometimes arofe in the evenings. The 28th calm and overcaft. The two laft days, feveral dark clouds paffed, the Weft wind blowing frefh. Calms were frequent, or light variable breezes at South Eaft, or Eaft. When it blew frefh, it was generally at Weft. RAINY DAYS.
1ft’”, 2nd’ at noon; 3rd” thunder fhowers; 4th’ P. M.; 7th” P. M.
with thunder; 15th’ evening; 28th’ P. M.
pets EIR - che heimometss pe bas far as the 16th of the month *.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 8 Leaft - - - - 28,7 The morning height of the mercury was 61 at the beginning of the month, and 70 about the middle. The variation in the fame day, 6, 9; when cloudy 3.
JUNE.
The weather throughout the whole of this month was in general cool for the feafon. Dark clouds were frequent in the firft week ; and from the 8th to the 14th, light flying clouds often paffed in the forenoon. The
* The Thermometer was unfortunately broke, and it was the month of September before a new one was received from England. aon
Sky
2 f & EW sD a XK.
Sky in the laft fortnight was always ferene, except fometimes about noon that a few fleecy clouds made their appearance, which became more rare as the month advanced. The Weft wind was conftant, and for the moft part pretty frefh.
In the afternoon of the 2nd, at a quarter paft five o’clock, there was a flicht fhock of an earthquake ; the wind at the time blowing frefh, as it had done all day.
RAINY DAYS.
1ft A {mall fhower.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28 a the rft. Leaft - - - 28, 64 $A few days towards the end.
The common height of the Barometer was 28, 7; the mercury, as ufual in the
fummer months, varying very confiderably.
JH key,
The weather in the firft fortnight cool and pleafant, the Weft wind blowing frefh, and fleecy clouds often pafling before noon. From the 15th to the 22nd, calm, ferene, and hot; the three fucceeding days re- frefhed by cool breezes, but thefe again failing, or veering towards the South or North, the latter part of the month became hot.
RAINY DAYS.
None. Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 6 Leaft - ~ - - 28,5
To the 20th the mercury was ftationary at 28,6; and during the reft of the month at 28, 6.
mots wood.
The weather on the firft day, was refrefhed by a ftrong Weft wind, but from that to the 14th, a ferene Sky, with calms or light breezes rendered it extremely hot, efpecially in the nights after the 4th. Between the 14th and 19th, the heats were mitigated by a morning and evening breeze. On the 23rd and 25th, large white clouds paffed, the Weft wind blowing frefh. The few remaining days of Auguft weve caim and hot. The winds for the moft part Wefterly, but the lighter breezes were variable, veering to the South, or North of Weft, or to the Fatt.
RAINY DAYS.
None. Vor. I. Ooo Greateft
X1X
XX
A PPE AD Ft A
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 6, £
Leaft - - - = 28, 550 From the beginning of the month to the gth, the mercury ftood at 28, 5; and from that time remained invariably at 28, 6; the three latter days excepted, when
it rofe half a degree.
SEPTEMBER.
The firft week ferene and hot, but the mornings and evenings eool, Between the 8th and 16th frequent hard gufts of wind accompanied with clouds of duft, and to this fign of approaching rain were joined flying clouds, noéturnal dews, and flafhes of lightning in the Weft, or North Weft. On the 12th and 13th, efpecially in the night, ftrong Wefterly winds. From the 15th to the 21{t, a number of heavy clouds paffed daily and the Sky was fometimes overcaft, but except a {mall fhower on the 16th, no rain fell. From the 2oth to the 24th, fine clear weather; after which, the Weft wind frefhening, blew fometimes in ftrong fqualls, and brought clouds of duft along with it. Many dark clouds paffed on the 28th, and on the following day, a heavy fhower of rain fell accompanied with thunder*, after which the dark clouds difperfed, and the Sky became ferene. The wind, except in light breezes, was always Wefterly.
RAINY DAYS. 16th’; 29th”, At noon. Greateft height of the Thermometer 92 [On the 3d at 4 P.M. fF
Leatt - - - = 7it On the 18th at 7 A. M. Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 4 On the art. Leaft - - ~ - 28,7 §On the 16th.
‘The morning height of the mercury in the firft fortnight was 82; in the fecond >a. The variation in the fame day 9, or 10, or 8; but in cloudy weather 5.
* This may be reckoned the firft rain: and, making allowance for the late alteration of flyle, will be found to have fallen nearly about the ufual period.
+ The thermometer now employed, was a fmall portable one, inclofed in a glafs tube, and made by Bewes; the fame kind mentioned in a former note. But it may be proper to remark here, that in this, arid the fubfequent months, a very confiderable difference from the corref- pondent months in the preceding year, will be found in the morning height. of the thenmeme- ter, as well as in the variation in the fame day. The inftrument now ufed was more fenfibly affected by changes in the air’s temperature than the thermometer ufed before. In cool wea- ther it funk feveral degrees lower, and rofe, in hot weather, feveral higher than the others were ever known to do. Hence, in regard to the variation in the fame day, in O€tober,; 1752, it was § or 6; in the prefent year g or 7. In November, 1752, the variation at firft 5, was afterwards 3. In the prefent year it was at firft g or 10, afterwards 5 or 6. A like djfference may be remarked in December,
OCTOBER,
Bee Nh sy XXi
OnCe lh OaB-E Rs
The weather in the firft week, was fine and agreeable, the Sky being ferene in the morning, and variegated afterwards with white flying clouds. From the gth to the 18th, much cloudy weather, and it rained on the roth and 15th. The latter fortnight was variably clear and cloudy ; for except four ferene days, white clouds conftantly made their appedrance fometime or other in the twenty-four hours.
It fometimes, at night, blew frefh at Weft; but calms, and light Southerly or Eafterly breezes were more common.
RAINY DAYS. roth”, Evening and night; 15’ A. M.” P. M. and evening. Greateft height of the Thermometer 81 JOn the 1ft at 4 P.M.
Leaft - - - - g0 J$Onthe 25that7 A. M. Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 37 On the 2sth. Leaft - - - - 28,7 f On the 16th.
The morning height of the mercury till the 18th, 70, or 68; after the rain it funk to §9. The variation in the fame day, during the former part of the months 9, 73 afterwards 6, or 5.
NOVEMBER.
The two firft days cloudy, and the evening of the 2nd threatened rain; but from that to the zoth, ferene, mild, pleafant weather. From the 23d to the 27th, gloomy and wet; the latter days of the month frofty: the Sky through the day being ferene, but in the mornings and evenings cloudy. Light variable beezes, South, North, South Eaft, North Eaft.
RAINY DAYS. 23rd”, A. M. and in the night; 25th” in the night; 26th’ morning. Greateft height of the Thermometer 71 2On the 4th at 3 P. M.
Leaft - - : - - 43 4Onthe 26th and 27th. Greateft height of the Barometer 29,4 20On the roth. Leaft - - - - 28,7 §$Onthe 26th and 27th.
The morning height of the mercury decreafed in the firft fortnight from 58 to g1; inthe fecond, it funk to 44. The variation in the fame day till the 18th, was almoft conftantly 10; after the 18th,°6 or 7.
Ooo2 DECEMBER.
XXil
X& FReEN DR Mw
DEM VE M,BME YK...
The weather, in the firft fortnight, two or three ferene days excepted, was generally overcaft or cloudy, and a very confiderable quantity of rain fell. . The 17th was perfe@tly ferene; but from that to the 23rd, the at- mofphere moft remarkably foggy. From the 23rd to the 29th much gloomy wet weather ; the air neverthelefs continuing, as it had been all along, unufually mild. The three laft days of the year ferene and plea- fant.
The winds were ufually at Eaft or North Eaft, in light breezes ; but calms were ftill more frequent than in November. On the sth, during a hail ftorm, it blew frefh at Weft.
RAINY DAYS.
2nd’, P. M.; ard, in the day; 4th’, im the day; §thi’,. Paya hail; 8th’ A. M.; 21! in the night; 12” A. M.; 13th” m4¢thpeegnee night; 25th’ A. M. 28” P. M. and evening.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 51 * 2On the 17th and 2oth at 3 P. M.
Leatt ~ - - - 43 JOn the 23d and 24th at 8 A. M, Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 47 On the 2oth. Leatt - - = - 28,5 §On the 4th.
The morning height of the mercury throughout the month was 44 or 45. The variation in the fame day, when the weather was ferene, 4, 5; at other times 2, and when rainy o +.
* ‘The remarkable difference in the height and variation of the thermometer, from the time that Bewes’s fmall thermometer was employed for obferving, was taken notice of inthe preced- ing note. December 1752 was much colder than the December of the prefent year, yet the thermometer never funk fo low, not even in froft, as its ftationary morning height in the pre- fent December.
+ Though fo much has been already faid on the fubje&t of the thermometer, it may not perhaps be improper to fubjoin a comparative view of the feveral years comprehended in the foregoing hiftory of the weather: that is, a table containing the loweft {tation of the thermo- meter, with the number of rainy and of fnowy days in the three winter months of the refpec- tive years.
The winter is here fuppofed to include the three months December, January, and F ebruary, eommencing with the former ; and it bears the name of that year to which December belongs : thus the Winter of 1742 comprehends December, 1742, with January and February 1743; and in like manner the winter of 1743 comprehends its own December, with January and February 1744.
In the following table the thermometrical obfervations have been all reduced to the feale of
the finall thermometer, as if they had been always made by that initrument, fuipended in the Kio:k ;
AY Pf oN Dt x. XXili
Kiofk; and it may be remarked, that though the reduction was made after a careful compa- tifon, and adjuftment of feveral thermometers with the {mall one, yet the mercury only in three out of ten winters funk fo low as the freezing point.
The number of fnowy, und of rainy days were extracted from the original regifter, but 1 ain inclined to think the latter were lefs accurately noted than the former, that is, in regard to the quantity that fell of either; for which reafon I have attempted no computation of that Kind, mentioning merely the number of days.
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