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Table of Contents.
MeROLTSBERG, Cari. Notes on-a visit to Easter Island .....-...-.:..
. HacerMan, T. H. Beitrige zur Geologie der Juan Fernandez-Inseln
. QuENsEL, P. Additional Comments on the Geology of the Juan Fernandez
RM cab cet rans. x, ie |x) Co, Sarg AE. oP vo a ements ea ot al
. SkoTrsBERG, C. A Geographical Sketch of the Juan Fernandez Islands . . .
5. —— Derivation of the Flora and Fauna of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island
¢; ¢ anes
HE NATURAL HISTORY
JUAN FERNANDEZ
EASTER ISLAN D
ee V9 1 q |
GEOGRAPHY; GEOLOGY,
ORIGIN OF ISLAND LIFE | f
PART E> ns ae
‘C. SKOTTSBERG: Notes on a visit to Easter Island.
EASTER ISLAND
pol, afler the map of the Chilean Hydr. Office
1:200 000
Height ur meters above sea level.
x Observation spot
2. ee
1. Notes on a visit to Easter Island.
By
CARL SKOTTSBERG.
With 14 plates, 1 map, and 3 text figures.
While working on the Juan Fernandez Islands, our party obtained per-
mission to accompany the Chilean corvette »General Baquedano» on her cruise
to Easter Island, in 1917. A short and very popular account of our visit
appears in my book »Till Robinson-6n och varldens ande» (1918). Although
the purpose of our survey was purely biological, no scientist visiting the famous
island can help taking a vivid interest in the archaeological remains, and we
occasionally made a few observations. However, I have refrained from writing
anything on the subject, as I had to wait for the publication of the results
obtained by Mr. and Mrs. SCORESBY ROUTLEDGE of the British »Mana» Ex-
pedition. Last year Mrs. ROUTLEDGE published a most interesting account of
their work. on the island (The Mystery of Easter Island), where the ancient
monuments of all kinds are amply described and illustrated. A second volume
will follow, containing the detailed descriptions of the prehistoric remains.
I willingly admit that this little paper will appear rather unnecessary
since the British Expedition has explored the place with such a wonderful
accuracy. But it is Mrs. ROUTLEDGE’s excellent narrative which has induced
me to collect a few notes and to. use them as a basis for a discussion of some
interesting points. I have also found it worth while to add a number of my
photographs, which may be of some value.
The »General Baquedano» sailed from Iquique on May 27th, 1917. She
carried a Government commission presided over by Bishop RAFAEL EDWARDS,
a prominent Chilean ecclesiastic, who went to continue his studies on native
conditions and to distribute a large amount of materials, clothing etc. among
the members of the little island colony. Capitan de fragata J. T. MERINO was
in command of the vessel, and he as well as the bishop and the officers of the
ship did all in their power to assist us in our undertaking.
After a rather uneventful cruise our vessel anchored in La Pérouse Bay
on June 15th, and the same day we made our first excursion along the north
coast. We were bound for Hanga Roa (Cook’s Bay) but were detained in La
Pérouse on account of adverse winds; finally we resoived to cross the island
4 CARL SKOTTSBERG
on horseback, and arrived at Mataveri, the seat of the farm house, on the 19th.
In the meantime we had made some excursions in the northeastern part, where
Mt Katiki was ascended. At Mataveri we were cordially received by Mr.
Percy EDMUNDS, the manager, and were invited to to take up our quarters in
his house. Quite naturally, the natives were in a state of great excitement
over the arrival of the vessel with their much beloved bishop, the missionaries
(two Capuchin Brethren) and the many useful articles reported to be onboard;
and consequently they were rather unwilling to render us any assistance. It
was only through the kind intervention of the bishop that we were able to get
an important part of our scientific baggage, which had been left on the beach
at La Pérouse, transported to Mataveri. From our headquarters the district
round Hanga Roa and Hanga Piko etc. was visited and several trips under-
taken to Rano Kao and Orongo, the famous stone village. Further, our work
was extendend to Rano Aroi and Mt. Terevaka, the highest mountain, and
also to the south coast and to Rano Raraku, the image mountain.
We had expected to remain at least three weeks on the island, and greatly
regretted that we were ordered onboard already after a fortnight’s stay, espe-
cially as my capacity for hard work had become reduced on account of illness.
The »Baquedano» left Easter Island on July Ist.
GENERAL NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHY OF EASTER ISLAND
The topographical features of the island are fairly well illustrated on the
accompanying map, the result of Chilean Navy surveys of later years. The
position of the observation spot in Hanga Roa is given as Lat. 27° 08' 06"S.,
Long. 109° 25’ 54" W. Mrs. ROUTLEDGEs map is based on U. S. Hydro-
graphic Office chart no. 1119, from which it differs in the position of some of
the mountains and in the geographical names. There are certain discrepancies
between this map and the Chilean one, and the difference between the latter
and the U. S. chart are still more considerable, especially in the configuration
of the northwestern part of the island. There has been some confusion in the
placing of the names, but I take it for granted that all the names used by
Mrs. R. are properly spelt and rightly placed.
The island is known to be wholly volcanic. There are no signs of recent
action, save for a couple of tepid springs below high water mark reported to,
but never seen by us. It is rather curious that both THOMSON (Smiths. Inst.
Ann. Rep. 1889, Washington 1891) and AGAssiz (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.
Cambridge 33, 1906) should discuss volcanic eruptions and great earthquakes
as a possible reason for the destruction of the megalithic monuments and for
the disappearance of the greater part of the population, as all signs of recent
catastrophes are entirely absent. On the other hand, not a few craters are
well preserved; sometimes they are arranged on distinct lines suggesting lines
of less resistance in the older, more or less horisontal basaltic beds, which form
the bulk of the island. The tufas and ashes of the numerous cones present a
great variation of colour contributing to lessen the monotony of the scenery.
The attention of the visitor is especially drawn to the three great Kavo. Rano
NOTES ON A VISIT TO EASTER ISLAND 5
is the native name for a mountain which contains water. R. Kao forms the
broad southwestern promontory. The greatest height of the rim was found by
the writer to be 316 m., as the result of three aneroid observations (differences
in temperature duly considered) at different occasions. AGASSIZ has 1 327 feet
or 403 m.; the Chilean map, 400 m. The crater lake measures, according to
COOKE, 2085 feet across (634 m.); this figure may be the result of a careful
observation, but seems too small. Its surface was found by me to be 120 m.
above sea level; THOMSON and COOKE (Smiths. Inst. Ann. Rep. 1897, Wash-
ington 1899), say, respectively, that it is 700 and 600 feet below the crater
rim, thus according to their figures for the latter corresponding to a height of
190 or 160 m.; taking 316 m. as the starting point we get 106 or 134 m. I
am sorry that we were unable to examine the thickness of the peat that
covers the sheet of water save for some irregular pools, which do not appear
to have decreased much in size since the photographs of the Albatross Ex-
pedition were taken. No reliable figure for the depth of the lake has been
obtained; according to COOKE, Mr. SALMON tried to sound, but at a depth
of 300 feet the line broke without having reached the bottom. I need not tell
that according to the belief of the islanders, the pool in Rano Kao belongs to
the category of famous lakes without a bottom.
The lake is partly surrounded by stands of a very robust bullrush, an
endemic variety of the wide-spread Scirpus riparius, called paschalis by Dr.
KUKENTHAL.
The country NE of Rano Kao is hilly, one of the cones being known as
Punapau (Plate 1), the seat of the hat quarry. The northwestern corner of the
island is occupied by the highest mountain, the Terevaka (Plate 2), non seldom
veiled by a bank of clouds. This name is not mentioned in Mrs. ROUTLEDGE'’s
book, where the entire high land in question is called Rano Aroi. But the
latter name only applies to the crater on the southeast slope of the mountain.
On the Chilean map appears Cerro Terevaka, separated from Rano Aroi (or
Roi) by a shallow depression, and both names were recognized by the native
JUAN TEPANO, who accompanied us to this place. The top of Terevaka did
not present any marked signs of being a crater; the height was found to be
530 m., which I believe is nearer to the truth that the figure 770 put down on
the Chilean map. I had expected to find some notable difference in the flora
of the highland, but was rather disappointed. The cryptogams, mosses and
lichens, however, played a much greater part here than in the lowlands, where
they are of a very slight importance. Rano Aroi is a very modest and shallow
rano and cannot at all be compared with the grand R. Kao. The height was
found to be 425 m. The lake is overgrown with vegetation. There is a gap
in the east wall through which, after prolonged rains, the water flows down
to another pool, which empties itself into a long, narrow fissure, crossed by
the track from La Pérouse Bay to Hanga Roa. This fissure does not seem to
have been eroded by water but suggests a volcanic origin.
The land along the north coast, from the hills backing Anakena Cove to
Katiki, is a rather flat basaltic plain, with occasional outcrops of hard rock
and strewn with innumerable sharp-edged stones, partly hidden by the coarse
grass and making walking disagreeable, more so for a person in a state of ill-
6 CARL SKOTTSBERG
health. The slope of Katiki (another name not found on Mrs. ROUTLEDGE’s
map, but frequently used) is comparatively gentle. The top was found to be
412 m. high (300 m. on the Chilean map must be wrong); it presents a rather
striking appearance, forming a shallow circular basin, perfectly dry and with
a flat bottom 5—6 m. below the rim, which is 75—80 m. across. On the north
slope is a succession of three cones, of which the northernmost is gradually
eaten away through the action of the sea. The one nearest Katiki, Vaintu
Rova, is of a light yellowish colour; the hight is 310 m. On the south slope
we came across a deep fissure, containing rain’ water and surrounded by a fine
growth of ferns. The natives, of course, all know this rare watering-place, and
I guess this is the well spoken of by Captain Cook in his second voyage:
»Towards the eastern end of the island they met with a well whose water was
perfectly fresh, being considerably above the level of the sea; but it was dirty,
owing to the filthiness or cleanliness (call it what you will) of the natives, who
never go to drink without washing themselves all over as soon as they have
done . ..» (the edition in Everyman’s Library, p. 163). North of Vaintu Rova
stands the somewhat lower Tea-tea, the »white mountain».
SW of Katiki the famous image mountain, Rano Raraku, is situated, so
ably described and illustrated by Mrs. ROUTLEDGE, who gained an intimate
knowledge of this unique place. It is shown on Plate 5. Between this rano
and the hills east of Hanga Roa there is an extensive plain, only broken by
a few higher eminences.
The visitor, even if he be not a geographer, cannot fail to notice the
absence of every trace of valley or ravine caused by the action of running
water. It is almost with surprise that one learns the figure for rainfall, 1 218
mm., the average of 8 years’ observations. This is, indeed, no small amount,
surpassing that of Juan Fernandez, where erosion has modelled the entire island
into a system of deep valleys and sharp ridges. But in Easter Island there is
no stream, no brook; only in the crater lakes water is always found. The
great scarcity of water makes the high development of the ancient culture
quite astonishing. The climate is warmer in Easter Island than in Juan Fer-
nandez, the evaporation undoubtedly much greater, the winds at least equally
frequent. Anybody will note the rapid disappearance of the water; after a
heavy rain, the ground may become soaking wet; nevertheless, some hours
later, it is perfectly dry, the result of the combined forces of the burning sun,
the strong winds, and the extreme porosity of the soil. Occasionally, water is
encountered by digging deep holes; but to dig through the hard rocks must
have been too difficult a matter for the natives. Subterraneous streams are
reported, and are, of course, to be expected; and running water has played an
important part in the formation of the numerous caves round the coast.
The vegetation is extremely poor; if one comes from Juan Fernandez,
the contrast is very striking. The island is destitute not only of wood, but of
trees, except for a few specimens in the crater of Rano Kao, where the last
stunted dwarfs of the famous toromiro (Sephora toromiro) still linger, in com-
pany with mahute (Sroussonetia papyrifera), hau-hau (or jau-jau, spanish j),
called 7rcumfetta? by FUENTES [I believe that it is 7. semztrzloba\ and ti (Cor-
NOTES ON A VISIT TO EASTER ISLAND 7
dyline terminalis f:a).' From the earliest descriptions is seen that the island
was never wooded; planted Eucalypts, Melia azedarach and other subtropical
trees do pretty well, however.
In his »Informe» (Memorias del Ministerio de Relaciones esteriores, culto
i colonizacion, Santiago 1892), P. P. TORO says: »En otro tiempo formé (i. e.
the toromiro) sin duda bosques pues en diversas partes de la isla se ven todavia
innumerables i tupidos troncos secos de dos a tres metros de alto. Parece in-
dudable que esos bosques naturales han desaparecido, secandose la mayor parte
de los arboles a consecuencia principalmente de la introduccion de animales
vacunos i ovejunos que han quebrado las plantas o les han comido la corteza.»
THOMSON and especially COOKE also speak of the numerous groups of
trees of small dimensions: »In other parts of the island may be seen, in places
in considerable numbers, a hardwood tree, more properly bush or brush, called
by the natives toromiro, all or nearly all dead and decaying by reason of
being stripped of their bark by the flocks of sheep which roam at will all over
the island»,
When Cook visited the place in 1774, he certainly did not come across
anything like a forest, for he expresses himself thus: »the country appeared
quite barren and without wood». Both ROGGEVEEN and FORSTER (A voyage
round the world. London 1777, Vol. I) assert that there was nothing like a
forest on the island. FORSTER gives a good description of the general appear-
ance. of the place; he mentions about ten species of plants, among them paper
mulberry, Hibiscus populneus and Mimosa: whether Hibiscus still occurs, I
cannot tell, but the Mimosa is certainly Sophora; this was the largest tree,
and a very small one: »there was not a tree upon the island, which exceeded
the height of ten feet». In some places, on the hills, Sophora seems to have
formed small shrubberies. FORSTER did not estimate the flora to comprise
more than twenty species, including the cultivated plants. On board the »Ba-
quedano», Bishop EDWARDS showed me a letter from Brother EUGENIO EYRAUD,
the missionary of the island, to his Superior General in Valparaiso, dated
December, 1864. He writes: »la vegetacion toda de yerbas y arbustos, fal-
tando los arboles y plantas elevadas». It is possible that Brother EUGENIO
includes the toromiro within his »arbustos». They cannot have been of any
considerable size, or he would not have pointed out that trees were missing.
A toromiro of 3 m. decidedly has the look of a small tree, not of a shrub,
especially in a place where there are no larger plants to compare it with.
TORO must be mistaken when he believes that there had grown forests on the
island not long before his arrival. Mr. COOKE does not tell if he saw the
numerous trunks himself or if he was only told of their existence.
1 In Anuario Hidrogr. de la Mar. de Chile (30) 1916, p. 55 C. DE LA Maza mentions a
small indigenous tree which he calls »tumahitiv. »La madera del tumahiti es bastante dura y
mas o menos flexible. Lo utilizan los canacas para construir yugos, arados etc. Es el unico
arbol que crece libremente en toda la isla.» The fruit is described as oval-shaped, yellow,
1 cm. long, with a stone within, and of bitter taste. There is, however, no tree growing freely
over the island. The description of the fruit suggests J/e/éa, but this is called szofazji (vide
F. FuEnTEs, Resena botanica de la Isla de Pascua. Inst. Centr. Meteor. y geofis. de Chile.
No. 4. Santiago 1913). Tumahiti sounds like a corruption for te mahute, the paper mulberry,
which certainly cannot supply materials for the implements mentioned.
8 CARL SKOTTSBERG
The dwarf trees now existing are, as has already been stated, almost
wholly confined to the crater of Rano Kao and are on the verge of extinction.
They grow not far from the lake, where the steep slope is covered with very
large blocks, which prevent the sheep from reaching them. Mr. EDMUNDs told
me about some trees which grow along the steep bluff of the eastern headland;
unfortunatly, we were prevented from visiting the place, what I hope some
future naturalist will do.
The greatest part of the island is covered with grass, wide-spread species,
either Polynesian or introduced from the old world via Chile, Tahiti or other
places. Occasionally ferns are found, also outside the rano, W/crolepia strigosa
being the most common. We discovered two species of Ophzoglossum, to which
the natives attribute medicinal qualities. Among the cryptogams are some
endemic species. A detailed account of the Flora will appear in the volume
dedicated to the Botany of the expedition.
The terrestrial Fauna is very poor; no indigenous mammals or land birds
are known. ‘There are two species of lizards, both of wide range. ‘The insect
fauna is remarkably poor; some species have been introduced by man, e. g.
cockroaches and flies, which have increased enormously.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS: THE AHU
These structures, the burial-places — but not the only ones — of the is-
landers, have been called »terraces» by most authors. Such a word tells us
very little, while the word aku is a proper technical term, strongly and justly
recommended by Mrs. ROUTLEDGE for regular use.
There are several kinds of ahu. The most striking is the image-ahu,
which carried the now fallen statues of stone. We know that all the images
were purposely upset as a result of internal warfare, During our staty in La
Pérouse Bay we devoted some time to the inspection of the ahu. One not far
from the landing-place, close to the beach, was said to be one of the best
preserved, although not one of the largest and having supported one statue
only. This ahu was measured and described (see Plates 3—4 and text fig. 1).
The central part is 23,5; m. long and protrudes 4 m. in front of the wings; as
it stands on somewhat higher ground, it rises above the wings, in spite of the
front wall being rather low or, about 1,25 m. The front wall has a foundation
of small stones and flat slabs, followed by large, very well wrought blocks;
one of these was 2,3 m. long, 0,9 high, and 0,45 broad, another 2,45 long and
1m. high. They are closely fitted. The space behind this wall was filled
with boulders, the surface paved with larger, flat stones, making a level
platform.
The wings are larger than the centre, the east 31,2, the west 32 m., giving
as total length of the ahu 86,, m. Their front wall is as high as or even
higher (about 2 m.) than that of the centre and is similar in construction,
without being so neatly finished. The central part of the ahu, behind the plat-
form, had been disturbed, a stone wall of 7,6 m. stretching obliquely along the
fallen image. The ahu slopes gently inwards. This slope, which could be
—
NOTES ON A VISIT TO EASTER ISLAND 9
traced inland about 12 m. (measured from the front wall), is divided by a wall
(not visible above the surface), as described and figured by Mrs. R. The sea-
ward part has a surface of boulders almost free from vegetation, while behind
the dividing-line it looks like an old pavement with grass between the stones.
According to Mrs. R., the vaults for bones are found in this part. In the case
in question an open vault was to be seen in the seaward part of the west
wing; it measured I,9 X 0,7 m. with a depth of 1 m. Two slabs had covered
it. We do not know if the ahu were built with many vaults, or if accomoda-
tions for the bones of the deceased were arranged on each occasion.
eet Eben Peal RUS oc de oh Se Gia { the rage Pete lhld tans
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CLA TATA ae HUD taretny 7
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Fig. 1. Diagrammatic sketch of an ahu west of the landing-place in La Pérouse Bay.
Scale 1:750. s fallen image, # hat, wz stone-wall, g vault.
In the centre of the front platform one large image or moaz had stood
(Plate 4). It had been brought down by undermining the foundation stone.
This moai was the only one carefully measured:
Total length 10,2; m. Width across shoulders 3,2 m.
Length of body 6,55 m. » » head 2,6 m.
» » head 2,52 m. » > neck I.g m.
> » neck I,2 m. Circumference round shoulders 7,9 m.
Width of body ‘at base 2,7 m. » » neck 5,2 m.
Thickness of body at base 1,6 m. Length of ear 2,4 m.
Close by, the hat or crown rested flat upon the ground; its height was
1,85, its circumference 7, the greatest and smallest diameters 2,5; and 1,85 m.,
respectively. It is of the usual red stone from Punapau, but not finished. The
finished hat had a knob on top and an oval depression below; this one showed
neither on the exposed side. According to Mrs. R. the hats were finished after
having arrived at the ahu; I suppose this one never adorned the image. Could
it not be possible that the stone wall spoken of above was part of a construc-
tion on which the hat was to be rolled up to the top of the image?
Naturally, I have tried to identify the ahu described here with one of
those mentioned by Mrs. R. Its position at once suggested the Paro, of which
a sketch is communicated by Mrs. R. As far as I can see, this must be the
same (if so, it will undoubtedly be recognized by Mrs. R. from my photographs),
but there are some differences that I am unable to account for. In the sketch,
there is no trace of the stone wall alongside the image, the two parts of this
latter are far too much apart, and the hat seems to rest on its cylindrical
side. Then, there is the size of the image: Mrs. R. gives 32 feet, adding
10 CARL SKOTTSBERG
that it is the largest one ever found on an ahu and the last one to be upset.
Are there two exactly similar ahu close to each other, each with an unusually
large image? I think not. The measurements were taken by my wife and
myself with a tape 25 m. long and the figures committed to paper on the spot.
It could possibly also be the same ahu as no. 34 Punahoa of THOMSON
l. c., p. 505. He also gives the total length of the single moai as 32 feet.
However, the entire structure is said to have a length of 175 feet and a width
of 8 feet, which figures must be entirely incorrect if ahu Paro is meant.
By what kind of apparatus or devices the statues were transported from
Rano Raraku to the coast, in some cases to rather inaccessible places, remains
a mystery. The natives possessed strong cordage, and Mrs. R. has made out
that long lines were used occasionally, but veritable hawsers would have been
needed to drag the statues along over the ground in the manner imagined by
THOMSON. We have seen that there is evidence against the island ever having
produced good-sized timber suitable for rollers. THOMSON thinks that, after a
smooth road had been constructed, »the images were dragged by means of
ropes made of indigenous hemp»; »seaweed and grass made excellent lubri-
cants», He could »clearly see how it was accomplished with a large force of
able-bodied men» (p. 498). I must confess that I find it less easy to understand
how the work was done, for the least obstacle would become a serious one;
and the roads must have been made as smooth as a floor in order to serve
the purpose, the images being rather fragile. Mrs. R. has traced the few high-
ways leading from Rano Raraku to the coast; but if really the images were
dragged up to the numerous ahu all round the island, these roads cannot have
sufficed, but an elaborate network of very smooth paths was required, of which
all traces would have disappeared. It is true that seaweeds are plentiful, but
there is no species of any considerable size and I fail-to see how the quantities
required could have been brought together. It is astonishing that no tradition
on the means of transport survives. According to Mrs. R. the natives in-
variably offered one explanation: that the images were transported by the aid
of supernatural forces.
On p. 486 THOMSON discusses the possibility of a transport by sea. Near
a group of ahu he discovered a fine landing-place made by art, »admirably
adapted to the landing of heavy weights». From old drawings we know what
the aboriginal canoes were like — not a single one, as far as I know, has been
preserved to our days — but they were not strong enough to support any very
heavy weight. One might suggest that large rafts were built but, on the ether
hand, there are several ahu which are unaccessible from the shore.
Still, there is another metod to be reckoned with, although further specu-
lation on this matter may appear pretty useless. Some sort of a sledge-like
apparatus could have been constructed without the need of timber of any con-
siderable size. A sledge would slide quite well over the grass, provided that
the road was cleared from stones. A great number of people could be simul-
taneously engaged in pulling, while, if rollers were used, the image must have
been more difficult to handle. Once arrived at the ahu, a sloping causeway
could have. been built, from which the image was lowered down in position,
or, the same method could have been used that was applied when raising the
SE ee eee ee
NOTES ON A VISIT TO EASTER ISLAND Bh
images on Rano Raraku. Still, this was easier, as the statue was steadied by
the hole in the ground. For details, see Mrs. R., p. 189. Also compare what
is said above on ahu Paro: if a slope was built for the image, the same one
might have been used for bringing the crown to the top, and perhaps the wall
mentioned above will have to be explained in another and more natural manner
than the one indicated. Anyhow, to erect the statues on the platform in the
precise position required, turning their backs to the sea, must have demanded
not only great skill but also perseverance, a quality not very characteristic of
the present native population.
It is the merit of Mr. and Mrs. R. to have made out the various types of
-ahu and to have pointed out that not a few have been rebuilt. Some structures
of this kind were noted by us. A »poe-poe», not far from the western slope
of Mt. Katiki, was even sketched (another by Mrs. R., fig. 95); a stone pillar
stands on the surface, which is covered by grass.
*
THE IMAGE MOUNTAIN
Rano Raraku has been called the most interesting spot in the island.
Truly, the sight of this wonderful mountain with its quarries and statues is one
not likely te be forgotten. The place has been admirably well surveyed by
Mr. and Mrs. R., making. it quite unnecessary for the present writer to say
anything on the subject, but he thinks that the reproduction of some of his
photographs will be found pardonable. Plate 5 gives a total view of the
mountain from the SW, plate 6 is a familiar sight from the outer slope. On
plate 7 is shown one of the very largest statues in the quarries, no. 41 in Mrs.
R.’s diagram, also figured by her, Fig. 49; and by AGassiZ, Plate 39. Neither
of these shows more than the left part of the image. It must be about 16 m.
long, while the largest statue is just over 20. Mrs. R. finds it difficult to
believe that the latter was ever made to be launched; the same, then, can be
said of no. 41. It is hard to see where the limit for the capacity of the an-
cient islanders should be drawn. Surely there are images in the quarries that
are’ little more than rock-carvings, but I am not prepared to include the two
just mentioned under such a heading.
The two prostrate statues on Plate 8 are nos. 64—65 in Mrs. R.’s dia-
gram; they show the narrowed base. Plate g is also from the inside of the
crater, a quarry high up in the gap. It represents the heads of two images
(possibly nos. 15—-16 of the diagram), one but roughly modelled, one finished.
The first has a large »wart» on its cheek; perhaps this applies to the case
mentioned by Mrs. R. on p. 181, where it is stated that the unexpected occur-
rence of large and hard nodules in the rock could cause the whole work to
be abandoned.
It is the great triumph of Mrs. R. to have unveiled the mystery of the
scattered statues outside the mountain, which were formerly believed to have
been dropped on their way to the coast and left lying. We know now that
1 GEISELER (resp. WEISSER) describes a statue of 23 m. length (Die Oster-Insel. Berlin
1883, p. 9). ;
12 CARL SKOTTSBERG
neither the images standing on the mountain nor those found scattered over
the island were ever intended for the ahu, but that the latter lined the roads
leading from the mountain to the coast. I cannot add anything to the ex-
planation of the standing statues. If they were put up to celebrate »bird-
men», it seems quaint that not the names of these heroes but those of the
workers should have become attached to them, but such is the tradition, as
told by Mrs. R.
The rude stone implements (toki) used by the sculptors are often found.
In Hanga Roa we came across a large and very well wrought stone adze ofa
rather international type, but not found in any of the accounts on the island.
It had been picked up on the seashore at low water and is quite incrustated
with the shells of animals. It measures 20 cm. (Plate 14, fig. 1). A few stone
chisels were also obtained; two are figured on Plate 14, fig. 2, 3.
REMAINS OF HOUSES AND PLANTATIONS
Foundations of old houses are seen in many places, and several were
noted on our excursion to Mt. Katiki. Of one a sketch was made, also showing
the paved area in front, but without foundation-stones for a porch. None of
these dwelling-houses are left. Between Mataveri and Hanga Roa are a couple
of grass huts (Plate 10) which give us a faint idea of what the old houses
were like. They are small, lack the stone foundation, and have the entrance
at one end.
There is another kind of structure in the shape of low, very strongly
built towers of stone which cannot fail to arouse the curiosity of the visitor.
The present people do not seem to be sure as to their former use. A fine
tower at the landing-place in Hanga Ho Orno (La Pérouse) is shown on Plate
II, another is figured and described by Mrs. R. (p. 218, fig 87), a third one,
in a ruined state, by THOMSON (p. 484). The first-mentioned has a height of
3,4 m. and is 6,5;—7 m. across at the base. The only entrance is 0,65 m. high
and 0,9 wide. The roof is vaulted inside; outside, the wall ends in a girdle of
stones. The size of the stones bears witness of the prehistoric era and of the
makers of the great ahu. Mrs. R., on the authority of some resident, explains
these structures as »look-out towers whence watchers on land communicated the
whereabouts of the fish to those at sea; these contained a small chamber
below which was used as a sleeping apartment» (p. 218).
It sounds strange that these solid towers should have had no other pur-
pose than to serve as look-out stations for fishermen. In order to keep a good
look-out, presumably to follow the movements of shoals — it has not been
proved that there is any fish here of the social type, and Mrs. R. states that
»fish are not plentifulo — an observer must seek an eminence dominating a
considerable space of water. THOMSON tells us that from the towers the move-
ments of the turtles were watched. The observer must keep outside the
tower, or on the top of it, not a very comfortable place. Really, the tower
itself would have been little more than a refuge in bad weather and during
the night, but for such a purpose a much simpler structure would indeed
NOTES ON A VISIT TO EASTER ISLAND 13
suffice. Thus the importance of the tower with its lower apartment appears
to stand in no reasonable proportion to the vast amount of labour required to
build it. We should perhaps remember that the permanent dwelling-houses
were much more fragile. The tower suggests some kind of fortress, with a
chamber for stores or treasures: it would be easy to defend the entrance.
Speaking of the narrow entrances to the Orongo houses, THOMSON remarks
(p. 483): »The low contracted entrances were used here as well as elsewhere
for defence. Factional fights were common, and it was necessary that every
house should be guarded against surprise and easily defended». He adds:
»Another reason might be found for making the openings as small as possible,
in the absence of doors to shut out the storms». But, at least at Orongo,
there were plenty of slabs suitable for doors if wanted.
ST LF
.@ a: Rina
ie WN
- NI f J, Oo
ANA
cont M3 oe) ro
Sotelfess si re
2 wo ®2 y %
fy MY) /1/ Ye Wij WAY ny’ VF
, Ay
77 .
Fig. 2. Diagrams of old plantations; @ seen from above; 4 three types of shelter, in section.
1 = bananas, 2 = Melia azedarach, 3 = Andropogon halepensis. Scale 1: 250.
On the other hand, an enemy could pull down the roof over the occupants.
Also, we should expect to find a communication between the tower and the
underground chamber, which we have not found. So, after all, this theory may
not hold good. Perhaps prisoners were locked up in the towers, where they
could be easily guarded till the hour arrived to put them to death. But it is
also necessary to consider whether these buildings may not have had some
relation to unkown rites. Did they have a ritual purpose, we do not need to
wonder about their elaborate structure, as natives may invest any amount of
labour in connection with religious or other ritual buildings.
There is a description and figure of a similar building in La PEROUSE’s
Voyage, reproduced by STOLPE in Ymer, 1883. He states that they are only
found on the top of Rano Raraku, which is, of course, a mistake. They were
oval in shape; close by was the underground chamber with its separate en-
trance. In several respects, especially concerning the ahu, there are great dis-
14 CARL SKOTTSBERG
crepancies between the statements and illustrations of the old navigators and
the results obtained by modern explorers. A critical examination of the old
stories would be welcome, and it is to be expected that Mrs. ROUTLEDGE will
undertake to scrutinize the entire literature. There are, e. g., in La PEROUSE’s
and PINART’s narratives designs of ahu which do not at all correspond to
modern descriptions or photographs.
In the vicinity of Hanga Ho Orno we saw many remains of native planta-
tions: ‘They are of ‘several types. One, seen “in fig. 2 a, is probablggyones
later date, as the material has been taken from an ahu, the front wall of
Sais
Li Hhty A
a
Fig. 3. a. Two »bird-men» on rock at Orongo (height of the rock 1,6—1,7 m.) &. Incised marks
on door-poost at Orongo.
which forms the back wall of the garden. Circular miniature gardens are
represented in fig. 26. The need of shelter and moisture is well unterstood.
Melia was said to be grown for the sake of the timber. Probably it is of recent
introduction.
ORONGO AND THE BIRD CULT
Mrs. ROUTLEDGE devoted much time to the survey of the Orongo village,
and as a detailed plan was made and every house measured and described, I
shall content myself with a few short remarks.
The last house (if I remember right) towards the gap of the crater rim,
close to the sculptured rocks, had one door-post with incised carvings left,
NOTES ON A VISIT TO EASTER ISLAND 15
vide fig. 3 6. This house was’ pointed out to us ‘as the house of Ariki. The
ariki was the chief of the Miru clan, the authority on the script (i. e. the
variki-mau», vede R. p. 241; all Miru were also called ariki). Now, the same
design was found on a skull in the possession of the schoolmaster, Mr. I. Vives,
and this skull was attributed to an ariki. Unfortunately, the owner did not
want to part with his treasure. The design is unlike the one figured by Mrs.
R. (fig. 96) of another Miru skull.
The Bird Cult is described, with full details, by Mrs. R. Special attention
is paid to the rock carvings. I sketched a couple of the »bird-men» (fig. 3 a).
Their meaning is not known with certainty. Mrs. R. believes them either to
represent one of the egg-gods (they were spoken of as »Make-make») or made
to immortalize the bird-men, the winners of the egg-race; she finds the latter
explanation more probable. I have not been able to form an independent
opinion, The same carvings are seen on a flat stone opposite Orongo, marking
the place where the path descends into the crater of Rano Kao.
All that is left of prehistoric remains, at least of the large ones, will
remain on the island. Shortly befgre our visit a law was passed prohibiting the
removal of statues etc,, so that we had to abandon our idea of bringing home
a small image presented to us by one of the residents. The »Mana» was just
in time to rescue the small but unique statue from Motu Nui.
WOOD CARVINGS
The famous wooden statues as well as other pieces of carving are gone
from the island for ever. What is offered to passing visitors is not worth
mentioning. The art is gone. One old moai-miro, in a very much decayed
state, had been discovered in a cave after the departure of the »Mana». It was
presented to Bishop Epwarps. In 1908, while staying at Valparaiso, a Swedish
captain, Mr. G. KARSTROM, who had been shipwrecked on Easter Island many
years before, presented me with two beautiful wooden images, one of which
is in the Etnographical Museum in Stockholm; the other is owned by a private
person.
HOUSEHOLD GOODS, WEAPONS, ETC.
Very little of this kind is now to be encountered. Sticks used for net-
knitting are available, and so are baskets or rather bags made of bullrushes
(figured by THOMSON on Plate 51). There are still some people skilled in the
preparation of tapa cloth from the mahute and of strings from the hau-hau,
and we had samples made for the collection. Curiously enough, GEISELER
does not mention the latter plant, but states that all the cordage, fishing-nets
etc. were made from the bullrushes.
It is generally stated that the islanders never possessed any earthen-ware.
Contrary to this, RUTLAND (Transactions New Zeal. Inst. 29, 1896) says that
16 CARL SKOTTISBERG
the earliest discoverers had seen »rude earthen-ware» on the island, a statement
due to some misinterpretation. Of stone implements, besides the toki, and the
stone adze and chisels, we got one fish-hook, very neatly wrought but unfor-
‘tunately not complete, as the point is missing (Plate 14, fig. 4). There is a
drawing of one of these hooks in THOMSON’s report (Plate 58). Another curious
article is the spherical stone ball, Fig. 5 on Plate 14. It shows two holes
which communicate so that a string can be passed through, and may have
been worn as an ornament. No explanation was offered. Perhaps it is a
»fetish-stone». THOMSON has described and figured many such stones, but
none of them present any likeness to this one.
The object on Plate 14, Fig. 6 is not, as might be suspected, a broken
spear-head or szafaa, but has been given its present shape on purpose. It fits
well into the hand and may have been used as a knife or scrape. But if it was
used with a handle, my explanation may not be satisfactory. Spear-heads are
commonly found in the soil and also manufactured to satisfy the demand of
visitors. Two, of an ordinary type and apparently old, are seen on Plate 14,
Figs. 7, 8. According to THOMSON there were at least nine kinds, all with
different names, a statement well needing the corroboration of Mrs. R.
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE
The history of Easter Island is full of mystery, but I think that Mrs. R.
has come pretty near the solution of some of the problems. She has drawn
some important conclusions from the legendary traditions still alive. ».
Im iibrigen besteht die Grundmasse aus kleinen, idiomorphen Magnetitkornern,
Ilmenit und Glasbasis. Der ganze Gebirgskamm soll aus diesem ausgesprochen
basischen Gestein bestehen.
Bereits mikroskopisch zeigt ein anderes Handstiick, das vom Strandabhange
nahe des Casatales abgeschlagen ist, eine auffallende Abnlichkeit mit dem Ino-
BEITRAGE ZUR GEOLOGIE DER JUAN FERNANDEZ-INSELN 35
centesgestein. (Laut Angabe von SKOTTSBERG soll das ganze Ostliche Ufer aus
diesem Gesteinstypus bestehen, abwechselnd mit den obenerwahnten Feldspat-
basalten.)
Auch hier treten magnetitfiihrende Olivine auf, wenn auch sparlicher. Die
Feldspate sind dieselben und besteht der einzige Unterschied darin, dass das
Gestein glasreicher ist, weshalb der in dem letztgenannten Gestein vorkommende
Pyroxen nicht mit Bestimmtheit hat wahrgenommen werden konnen. Nimmt man
an, dass dieses Gestein einer rascheren Abkihlung ausgesetzt gewesen ist als
das vorgenannte, kann man dasselbe diesem gleichstellen und mdglicherweise
eine Andeutung iiber eine nicht unbedeutende Ausbreitung der fraglichen stark
basischen Gesteinsart finden.
Fig. 10. Magnetitiibersattigte Olivinsprenglinge im Basalt von Inocentes. Verf. phot.
Umstehende Tabelle ist eine Zusammenstellung uber die Veranderlichkeit
der effusiven Masafuera-Gesteine im Verhaltnis zum Niveau der Fundstatten. Die
Gesteine sind nach abnehmender Basisitat geordnet und dabei das Material SKOTTS-
BERG’s wie auch dasjenige QUENSEL’s beriicksichtigt.
Zwar fallen die Lavabetten etwas nach NNO ab, doch dirfte mit Riicksicht
auf den geringen Umfang der Insel die umstehende Tabelle ein gutes Bild der
Eruptionsfolge gewahren, wobei die altesten Gesteine beim Meeresniveau, also
links beginnen.
Vor allem verstdésst der stark basische Basalt aus der Hohe von 1500 m U.
d. M. gegen die unter Zugrundlegung der Eruptionsfolge vorgebrachte Theorie,
dass die Gesteine hier gravitativ differentiert sein sollen. Die Gesetzmassigkeit,
die QUENSEL bei diesen Gesteinen gefunden zu haben glaubte — mit den sauren
und alkalireichen als den jiingsten — scheint mir schwerlich mit diesen Beob-
achtungen in Ubereinstimmung gebracht werden zu k6nnen.
36 TOR H. HAGERMAN
| |
Natrontrachyte ... | O | | x | |
| |
5 | | | |
WWAMNGESILGis = osts-sp. ers | x O fon ire)
| | |
| |
Basaniteerst.., tei | fe
| Feldspat- | |
Basalte siti ae va ”© ; r | | | |
[owe Olvin, [oolo |_| _| ae
| Erziubersattigte Ba- | |
lie) Seer ares | Chisel | | fo)
! | | | | |
° I 2 3 4 500 6 7 8 9 1000 =II 12 13 14 1500
m ii. d. M.
Die Verteilung der Effusivgesteine der Insel Masafuera.
© bezeichnet Das Material SKOTTSBERG’s.
x » » > QUENSEL’s.
Es ist selbstverstandlich denkbar, dass die in den tieferen Teilen des Zufluss-
kanales versunkenen schweren Magmas zuletzt herausgestossen wurden, doch spricht
gegen diese Annahme das bereits in einer Hohe von 400 m i. d. M. auftretende
alkalische Gestein. .
Schliesslich ist aus der Tabelle zu ersehen, dass aus einer Ho6hbe von 500—
1000 m tberhaupt kein Material untersucht ist. Die Masafuera Gesteine sind
jedenfalls in Hinblick auf den Mineralbestand so verschiedenartig, dass eine nahere
Untersuchung der noch unbekannten Hohenlagen wichtige Aufschliisse ergeben
diirfte.
First printed February 25th, 1024.
Reprinted without change April 13th, 1054.
Additional Comments on the Geology of the
Juan Fernandez Islands.
>
B y
PERCY QUENSEL.
Contents.
Page
Introduction .. . ene e Mee Ses ge Pe ot Toot Ton ok sree ee ee GT
Main Geological menares ars ete GOR S Gia ty Se Pe ee eee tree
Petrology of the Volcanic Roeeeiane Pas tees ere ere ATT Sk Pk
MEE EL ee or) oe cyst ee MOO ase fy ce tees. Sey AE et ee es coe ae
ACE rm eg Mg 52 oy Pus es Bos! USL A os Te ee
Regional Relations.
Tectonic Connections 74
Petrographic Connections 17
General Conclusions Be oh en ete eae Gaim, Nee ee cee oe eee ee
MME SEIMeNtS: 050i os Gets hc elit Tee ee ee eee
MEME TEALYSOS es Loic) Fl hed | ayy se ay ens eae (oe | Goins Hele ae ERE ee eee
DEEPA CAPN ye A ce wi ee 8d to A. Ee A A cee ec
Introduction.
The Juan Fernandez Islands consist of Masatierra, Masafuera and Santa
Clara. In many publications the name Juan Fernandez has been used to denote
Masatierra only, the other islands then being indicated by the names as above.
The largest island, Masatierra, situated 660 km from and nearly due west
of Valparaiso, measures 95 square km. Masafuera, 170 km further westward, is
64 square km. The small island Santa Clara, close to Masatierra, is only
square km in area.
During more or less casual visits to Juan Fernandez stray observations have
been recorded on geological features of the islands. In all cases they refer to
Masatierra. It may be of interest in this connection to give a summary recount
thereof.
The first samples of volcanic rocks of Masatierra were, as far as known,
collected by Lord COCHCRANE in January 1823. He was returning to Europe
after 5 years service as admiral in Chilean service during the war of independ-
ence. The ship at his disposal, ‘Colonel Allen’, touched at Masatierra for two
days. Mrs MARIA GRAHAM, a passenger on board, has in her diary given the
following details, recorded by THOMAS SUTCLIFFE in his book Crusoniana: “Lord
3 — 516795 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I.
38 PERCY QUENSEL
Cochcrane brought from the summit (1.500 feet) a piece of black porous lava;
and under it he found some dark hardened clay full of cells, the inside of which
appear slightly vitrified. The island seems chiefly composed of this porous lava;
the strata of which, being crossed at right angles by a very compact black lava,
dip on the eastern side of the island about 22° and on the west side 16°, pointing
to the centre of the island as an apex” (1, p. 198).
In 1830 C. BERTERO published some observations under the title “Notice
sur l'Histoire naturelle de l’ile Juan Fernandez’. With regard to geological ques-
tions he says: “Je pense qu'un géologue n’y trouverait que du basalte dans les
états, méme dans celui de la plus parfaite décomposition; plusieurs blocs sont
parsemeés d'une cristallisation particuliere, a laquelle on donne, je croix, le nom
dolivine ... Il n’y a pas de trace de volcan; les pierres qu'on prend pour
de la lave, et dont quelques-unes ressemblent assez aux scories ou de la pierre
ponce, ne sont, a mon avis, que du basalte décomposeé; on trouve aussi cette
roche sous forme spherique, et composée de couches concentriquesmmsa
p. 345; compare in the latter respect Fig. 10 on page 52 of this paper).
A. CALDCLEUGH, who accompanied Captain P. PARKER KING on the sur-
veying voyages of H. M.S. Adventure and Beagle on their first expedition
1826—1830, read before the Geological Society of London on Jan. 5th, 1831, a
statement on “The geology of the island of Juan Fernandez’. In the Proceedings
of that year the following account of Caldcleugh’s discourse is given: “‘The
author could discover no trace of a volcano, said to exist here by former visitors;
all the rocks, according to him, consist of basaltic greenstone and trap of various
mineralogical structure, both amorphous and vesicular, together with trappean
concretions, no other contained minerals being observable except olivine and
chaux carbonatée métastatique. It is further mentioned that the basalt in parts
is almost columnar, and in others has a peaked and serrated outline, the mass
being, here and there, traversed by dykes. Owing to the peculiar character of
this basalt, and especially from the great quantity of olivine, the author compares
its age with that of the basalt of Bohemia, the Rhine, the Vivarrais and Beaulieu
in Provence” (3, p. 256, also published in the Phil. Mag. and Annals of Philosophy,
Vole rs3i. sp.5220):
Captain King recapitulates Caldcleugh’s narrative, as given above, with the
addition: “In captain HALUL’s interesting journal, there is a list of geological and
mineralogical specimens, of which one from Masafuera is named vesicular lava’
(4, p. 304). The ultimate destiny of these specimens is unknown.
Members of the Dumont d’Urville expedition, when visiting Masatierra in
1838, collected and specified several different samples of the lavas from the island
(5 jor 114). The material for the new analyses of basalts from Masatierra, which
LACROIX recently caused to be made and which will be referred to later on, are
evidently from this collection, as Lacroix says they were made from specimens
collected by the Dumont d’Urville expedition. G. GRANGE records some observa-
tions as follows: “Toutes les roches appartiennent a diverses variétés de trapp
et de diorite basaltique amorphes et vésiculaires, on ne trouve dans ces roches
volcaniques aucun autres minéraux que de lolivine et de la chaux metastatique.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 39
La roche basaltique s'y présente le plus souvent en couches superposées, quel-
quefois en escarpements interrompus et fractionnés et sont traversés par des dikes
d’éjections plus modernes. Le basalt forme des pics élevés dans l’ile et sur quelques
points prend une disposition prismatique fort remarquable’’ (6, p. 39).
In 1896 L. H. PLATE published a paper ‘Zur Kenntnis der Insel Juan Fernan-
dez’. Plate was a zoologist and the paper deals with the zoology of Masatierra,
but some introductory remarks refer to geological observations from which the
following instances may be quoted: “Das Gestein der Insel ist ausschliesslich
vulkanischer Natur und besteht aus schwarzer, basaltischer Lava, der an einzelnen
Stellen weissliche oder rothliche Tuffe eingelagert sind ... Die Insel fallt fast iber-
all mit senkrechten Wanden, deren Hohe zwischen 100 und 300 m schwankt, gegen
das Meer zu ab und nur in den Hafen der Ansiedelung (Bahia Cumberland), dem
Puerto Ingles, dem Puerto Frances und der Bahia de la Vaqueria erstrecken sich
die Thaler bis an die Kite, so dass man in diesen Stellen ohne Mihe vom
Meer in das Innere der Insel vordringen kann... Die Lavawande sind deutlich
geschichtet ... Betrachtet man nun vom Meer aus eine (solche) Lavawand, so
erkennt man sofort dass sie geschichtet ist; denn sie wird in ganzer Ausdehnung
von zahlreichen horizontalen Linien durchsetzt ... Diese horizontalen Linien sind
wohl der Ausdruck des successiven Aufbaues der Insel. Aus einem submarinen
Krater ergossen sich Lavastrome und breiteten sich auf dem Grund der Oceans
aus. Die Eruptionen wiederholten sich haufig, und so floss eine Lavaschicht uber
die andere, um spater zum Teil tiber die Oberflache des Meeres gehoben zu
werden... Ohne Zweifel war die Insel in friiheren Erdperioden sehr viel grosser.
Eine Untersuchung des Meeresbodens zwischen Masatierra und Masafuera wird viel-
leicht spater den Beweis bringen, dass die beiden Inseln, welche jetzt 92 Seemeilen
von einander liegen, urspriinglich nur eine einzige bildeten oder doch wenigstens
die héchsten Punkte desselben submarinen Plateaus darstellen und daher gleich-
zeitig entstanden sein miissen” (7, p. 221).
The observations, hitherto recorded, have hardly more than historical interest.
As little attention had been paid to the geology of the Juan Fernandez Islands
before the last decade of the past century, these casual comments have, however,
here been included to evade oblivion.
The first observations of any importance regarding the rocks of Masatierra
are based on specimens, collected by members of the Challenger Expedition in
1876. A. RENARD has given a description thereof in a paper titled “Rocks of
the Island of Juan Fernandez’. (This name here signifies Masatierra.) He says
that “the rocks which have been submitted to examination all belong to the
basalt type, and it seems probable that the whole island is made up of those
rocks that we are about to describe. The rocks, which form the central mass of
the island, appear in the specimens as dolerites or as common basalts ... Among
the specimens collected on the coast of Juan Fernandez it is necessary to mention
a greyish very scoriaceous rock from which stand out large crystals of plagioclase
of a waxy and milky appearance. This rock is a dolerite with large vesicules. Under
40 PERCY QUENSEL
the microscope the fundamental mass, in which the plagioclase crystals are embedded,
has a dolerite structure. The felspar crystals show large extinction angles (38°—41 )
which may be compared with those of bytownite. The sections of the mineral
are cracked and pervaded with zeolite matter, which forms an irregular network.
This matter which looks slightly grey, when seen by ordinary light, remains
obscured between crossed nicols... The olivine, of which large sections are seen,
is uniformly changed into a red hematite; these sections, however, still show
extinctions like those of the unaltered olivine’ (8, p. 176). The characteristic
change of olivine to iddingsite in the basalts, which will be treated below in
some detail, is here evidently noted by Renard, though by him named hematite.
For the rest his description mostly refers to the colour and texture of differ-
ent samples of dolerite and basalt.
In 1886 L. DARAPSKY published a short report on detached rounded lumps
of magnesite from Bahia del Padre in Masatierra, locally known as “‘piedras de
campana’”’ but named “‘Glockenstein’”’ by the author (9). R. POHLMANN later (1893)
described this singular formation in rather more detail and discussed its origin (10).
An account of some geological and petrographical observations by J]. SCHULZE
and R. POHLMANN, participants in FEDERICO JOHOW’s expedition to the islands
in 1891, has been published by the latter as an introduction to Johow’s monograph:
‘Estudios sobre la Flora de las islas de Juan Fernandez’ (11, p. 1).
As a member of the Swedish Magellanian Expedition of 1907—1909 I had
the opportunity, together with Professor SKOTTSBERG, of visiting the islands in
1908 and later described the rock specimens then collected in a paper: ‘Die
Geologie der Juan Fernandezinseln’ (12). In 1916—17 Skottsberg again visited the
islands and collected specimens from some new localities. These were subsequently
described by T. HAGERMAN under the title ‘Beitrage zur Geologie der Juan
Fernandez-Inseln’ (13).
Since Skottsberg’s visit in 1917, no further exploration in the field has been
published concerning the geology of the islands in question. And, with the exception
of four recent analyses of lavas from Masatierra from collections made by members
of Dumont d’Urville’s ‘Voyage au Pole Sud et dans l'Océanie’ in 1838, commented
on by LACROIX (14, p. 64), no further observations have, as far as known, been
published on the geology or petrography of the Juan Fernandez Islands. On the
other hand questions relating to their lithological connection with other intra-
pacific islands and their geophysical position in relation to eastern-pacific volcanic
centres has been the subject of repeated discussions during later years.
Main Geological Features.
The two islands Masatierra and Masafuera present very different aspects with
regard to their bulk configuration. Masatierra exhibits a rugged appearance of
isolated jagged cliffs (Fig. 2). The highest peak, El] Yunque, is 927 m. On the
clear-cut shore-bounded escarpments one can distinguish many hundred lava
beds overlying one another. In thickness they can vary from some few metres
up to 20m or more.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 4I
Fig. 1. Perspective view of Masafuera from the East. ‘Reproduced from F. Johow, Estudios sobre
la flora de las Islas de Juan Fernandez. Santiago de Chile 1896.
Masafuera presents notable dissimilarities to Masatierra. Its dome-shaped,
sharpiy bounded outline with an approximately oval circumference and its impos-
ing height give an impression of a volcanic configuration deviating from that
of Masatierra. On the west side of the island the cliffs fall all but perpendicularly
for over 1000m. The shore line below is a stony and sandy reach, in part
named Loberia vieja on account of the number of fur seals found there at certain
seasons. The eastern coastline has a very different appearance. As the highest
ridge lies towards the west, the fall on this side is not so precipitous. Instead
it is traversed by numerous narrow and steep sub-parallel erosion valleys (que-
bradas). Attempts to ascend the higher parts of the island can only be made from
the eastern side by means of these quebradas, a climb which is anything but
easy going (Fig. 3). The highest peak is 1 500 m.
The sketch in Fig. 1 gives an excellent conception of the singular configura-
tion of Masafuera’s eastern escarpments.
The Juan Fernandez Islands are exclusively formed of volcanic material, in
many respects of much the same nature as in other volcanic islands of the
eastern Pacific. All indications tend to show that they are of late origin. Both
VON WOLF (15, 1929, p. 771) and J. BRUGGEN (16, p. 59) consider them to be
late tertiary or pleistocene in age. Lacroix says regarding all the non-coral-
line islands of the southern central Pacific: “leur age précis est indetermine,
mais il est certainement tertiaire, pléistocene ou meme, dans certains cas, récent”
(14, .p. 55).
No signs of recent activity have been found on the Juan Fernandez Islands.
That the immediate environs have recently been subjected to sub-marine volcanic
activity is, however, evident from a narrative, published in the Report of the
Challenger Expedition as follows: “In 1835 Masatierra appears to have been
governed by a Mr SUTCLIFFE, an Englishman in Chilean service. He was present
when the earth-quake took piace on the 20th of February of that year, of which
he gives the following account: At 11.30 a.m. the sea rose over the mole and
afterwards retired, leaving the greater part of Cumberland Bay dry, so much so
that old anchors on the bottom became clearly visible. The earth then began to
shake violently, and a tremendous explosion was heard, the sea still receding
in immense rollers, which afterwards returned, violently rising to such a height
that the settlement was literally covered and washed away, when the sea again
receded. The phenomenon occurred four times, causing much destruction, uproot-
ing trees and drowning cattle. Shortly after the explosion, a large column, some-
42 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 2. The south slope of the high ridge along the western half of Masatierra as seen from
Portozuelo. Photo C. Skottsberg.
what resembling a water-spout, was seen ascending from the sea off point Bacalao,
which proved to be smoke, but at 7 p.m. volcanic flames were visible through
the smoke, which lasted till 2 a.m. on the 21st. The depth of the water on the
spot, where the eruption took place, was from 50 to 80 fathoms; no alteration
in the depth was detected after the eruption had subsided” (17, p. 818). Sutcliffe
has published an account of the ‘earthquake’ in a separate publication (18) and
reproduced a sketch of the sub-marine eruption (19, p. 387).
It is obvious that these narratives must refer to a sub-marine volcanic explo-
sion. CHARLES DARWIN also mentions the phenomenon in his ‘Geological Observa-
tions on the Volcanic Islands’ (20, p. 149). Renard gives the position of the
explosion as 1 English mile from the island and remarks “‘that the close prox-
imity of a volcanic centre seems therefore to be implied” (8, p. 176).
The sub-marine eruption must be taken as conclusive evidence that the
immediate neighbourhood of the Juan Fernandez Islands has been the seat of
volcanic action within the last 115 years. A point of further interest is that the
explosion was simultaneous with violent earthquakes on the Chilean coast, as
Darwin already observed (see p. 75).
Briggen refers to some further observations of sub-marine eruptions in
the vicinity of the Juan Fernandez Islands, recorded by FR. GOLL in his paper
‘Die Erdbeben Chiles’ (Miinchener Geogr. Studien 1904, Nr. 14). The following
denotements by GOLL are taken from Briiggen (16, p. 332):
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 43
Bi itil.
Fig. 3. Quebrada del Varadero on the east coast of Masafuera. Photo C. Skottsberg.
44 PERCY QUENSEL
“Segun Goll se produjo, el 12 de febrero de 1839 una erupcion submarina
y maremoto a unas 120 km al este de la Isla de Mas a Tierra. El mismo autor
cita la observacion siguiente hecha en un punto un poco mas austral: “En octubre
de 1867, se sinti6 un temblor submarino en 34°55 Siy 77 38° W (umasmnae
millas SE de Juan Fernandez); después el buque navego durante dos horas por
agua de color blanco lechoso, habiendo mucho pescado muerto en la superficie.’
Se trata probablemente del mismo fendmeno que describe JOSE M. POMAR en
la forma siguiente, aunque dice que el punto se halla a 100 millas al SW en
vez de SE de Juan Fernandez: ‘En 1867, el capitan SIMPSON de la barca britanica
Coronella navegaba en el Pacifico con mucha calma y vientos contrarios, con
excepcion de un fuerte viento acompafiado de siete temblores que se produjeron
como a 100 millas al SW de la Isla de Juan Fernandez; durante dos horas navego
por agua tan blanca como leche; sondeé, pero no tocd fondo en 100 pies de
profundad, vid muchos pescados muertos y una gran cantidad de pajaros por
todas partes. Agregaba el capitan Simpson que si hubiera estado 10 millas mas
adelante, el choque hubiera sido peor y hubiera causado averias al buque.’”’
Concerning the earthquake of Vallenar in the province of Atacama on the
1oth of Nov. 1922 Briiggen cites BAILEY WILLIS’ observations on the contem-
poraneous volcanic activity on San Felix.
Briiggen concludes his opinion on the submarine explosions, given above,
as follows: ‘A la teoria del origin de los tsunamis por erupciones submarinas podria
objetarse que serian erupciones muy excepcionales, ya que consisterian en una sola
o muy pocas explosiones que causan las pocas olas sismicas, apagandose luego
la actividad. En realidad se tratara solamente de las primeras explosiones que
abren la chimenea para la salida de la lava o de los gases y que tienen la fuerza
suficiente para causar el tsunami. También en otro sentido, las erupciones sub-
marinas se distinguen de las de los volcanes de los Andes, que solo excepcional-
mente entran en actividad durante los terremotos. Los volcanos submarinos
parecen estar en relacién mas estrecha con los focos sismicos de los grandes
terremotos chilenos’ (16, p. 332).
Petrology of the Volcanic Formations,
The following description of the rocks of Masatierra and Masafuera is based
on specimens collected by myself in 1908 and by SKOTTSBERG in 1917. In many
cases the two collections supplement one another and help to elucidate to a
certain degree the distribution of the somewhat varying types of the lava flows.
The specimens from Masatierra in both collections give conclusive evidence
that this island in the main is formed of a rather uniform series of basaltic lava
beds, only diverging in respect of coarser or finer grain or of a higher or lower
content of olivine. The specimens from Masafuera on the other hand indicate
more obvious dissimilarities in the composition of the rocks at different levels.
In the following the principal petrological features of the two islands will
first be treated. Under a later heading references will be made to resemblances
in various respects to other volcanic islands of the eastern Pacific.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 45
Masatierra.
Lat..-33° 374° S., Long... 78° 50° W,,
The two collections of specimens from Masatierra by Skottsberg and my-
self have partly been taken from different localities. The central parts of the
island are however sparsely represented. Somewhat more complete series of rock
samples originate from the heights around Bahia Cumberland (Ensenada de San
Juan Bautista), Puerto Frances and Portezuelo as well as from Bahia del Padre.
From the adjacent small island Santa Clara there is only one specimen. It is
not easy to single out the local distribution of the different lava beds on account
of the inconnected localities from which specimens have been collected. Some
characteristic features may however be found which indicate that certain types
of lavas are restricted to localised areas. To some extent one may then draw
conclusions regarding the sequence of the volcanic eruptions.
The predominating rocks of Masatierra are olivine basalts, differing only in
their content of olivine. Lava beds from around Puerto Frances are exceptionally
rich in this mineral, the content of which can reach 40 vol.% of the rock (Fig. 6). Such
rocks, with an extreme content of olivine, I named picrite basalts in my earlier
paper (12, p. 265). Lacroix originally named such basalts ‘picrite feldspatique’
but later discarded this name, substituting for it the name oceanite‘, under which
name he includes the basalts of the Juan Fernandez Islands with an exceptionally
high content of olivine (14, p. 65). Since the name picrite basalt, as originally
defined in my former paper, has later been adopted’, I will retain this name for
the rocks in question, with the name oceanite as synonym.
From the extremely olivine-rich basalts around Puerto Frances there is every
transition over intermediate types to feldspar basalts without any olivine at all
or with only a very insignificant amount thereof. Such rocks, however, have a
relatively limited distribution on Masatierra. In general one may say that types
with a very high content of olivine are restricted to lower elevations, whereas
higher up more normal olivine basalts predominate.
A second feature of dissimilarity in the basalts is found in their texture.
Many of the lava beds show a coarse-grained ophitic texture and may be classed
as dolerites, and have been so named by Hagerman and myself in our previous
papers. Such rocks are usual around Puerto Frances and Bahia Cumberland as
well as at Vaqueria and Tres Puntas. Specimens from all these localities are
in outward appearance very much alike. In general these rocks, in contrast to
other lavas, are singularly fresh. Only the olivine often shows a dark brown
rim, indicating an incipient alteration to iddingsite (cf. 12, p. 260).
The doleritic basalts seem only to occur at lower horizons, where the lava
beds generally attain their greatest thickness. All the specimens thereof at hand
are from between sea level and 200 m. A sample in Skottsberg’s collection from
Bahia Cumberland (Fig. 7) and another from Vaqueria are both from 150 m above sea
* The name océanite was first proposed by Lacroix in 1923 (in Minéralogie de Madagascar,
Vol. Ill, p.49). The name is given ‘‘A cause de leur abondance dans les iles du Pacifique”.
? Holmes, Q. J. Geol. Soc. 172, 1916, p. 231; Washington, Am. J. of Sc. V, 1923, p. 471.
UENSEL
Q
PERCY
‘oL6 £O1 : I afeoG “1Z6I JO JAVYD “AO ULITIYDO oY) WIOIJ SUOLIITIOD ILA C6Z1 jo vAvWLY op Jopruly Opuvuoy Aq dey ‘vitonseq Psy
( PUATMIPSOND df /
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 47
Basaltic lava beds. Western head of Bahia Cumberland, Masatierra. Photo C. Skottsberg.
Fig.
utr
level. The two specimens are in texture and mineral composition identical. A
third sample from Tres Puntas is from 200 m. Specimens in my earlier collection
were taken from the lower lava beds in the quebradas around Puerto Frances.
As no scoriaceous or slaggy development is to be seen in the upper or lower
parts of the doleritic beds, which have a very coarse-grained texture, they may
well represent intrusions between previously consolidated lava flows, in accordance
with what DALY has assumed to be the case with similar doleritic rocks in Hawaii
{R. Daly, Differentiation in Hawaii. Journ. of Geology, Vol. 9, 1911, p. 291).
The doleritic basalts and the picrite basalts have much the same mineralogical
composition. The only essential difference is the higher content of olivine in the
picrite basalts. The other rock-forming constituents in both rocks are labradorite,
a pleochroic Ti-augite and magnetite.
In the picrite basalts (oceanites) from around Puerto Frances as well as in
the olivine basalts in general the phenocrysts of olivine are often more or less
altered to iddingsite. In some cases only insignificant rests of olivine are left;
the iddingsite pseudomorphs, however, still retain the crystal habit of the olivine.
To the petrogenetic problem of iddingsite as representing a deuteric mineral I
will return later in connection with equivalent alterations in certain lava beds of
Masafuera, where the ‘iddingsitisation’ has gone further and there gives the rocks
a very characteristic aspect (see p. 60).
In the picrite basalts from Puerto Frances inclusions of dunite occur. The
large olivine crystals of this rock are singularly fresh, without any signs of even
48 PERCY QUENSEL
oO <
Fig. 6. Picrite basalt (oceanite). x g. Puerto Frances, Masatierra.
Fig. 7. Doleritic basalt. x 37. Bahia Cumberland, Masatierra.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 49
a periferic alteration to iddingsite which is otherwise usual in the olivine of the
surrounding basaltic lavas.
At higher levels the basalts have a more normal character. Large phenocrysts
of olivine, or olivine and feldspar, lie in a more or less glassy groundmass of
augite, olivine and labradorite with abundant small grains of magnetite. Ilmenite
in tabular form or in skeleton crystals is now often present. Most of these lavas
are vesicular, scoriaceous or slaggy. The cavities are in many cases rimmed or
filled with opal.
The occurrence of basalts of this type is widespread up to the highest parts
of the island, and they are without doubt the dominant lavas of Masatierra.
Somewhat divergent lava beds seem, however, to predominate at intermediate
horizons. All the specimens at hand of this type are holocrystalline rocks of an
ash-grey colour, aphanitic and aphyric in texture (Fig. 8). They generally show a
characteristic light zone of weathering and a tendency to develope a columnar struc-
ture (Fig. 9). The fine-grained mineral assemblage consists of augite, labradorite and
very abundant magnetite in small euhedral crystals, evenly dispersed throughout
the rock. Ilmenite is also generally present in skeleton crystals. Stray small
grains of olivine may in some cases be observed; in other specimens olivine is
completely absent. In vesicular lavas of this type the cavities are again more or
less filled with opal (Fig. 8 b).
These lava beds, which represent the only specific feldspar basalts of Masa-
tierra, are found at heights between 400 and 500 m (Cordon Chifladores 400 m,
Portezuelo 500m). At an elevation below 100 m at Punta Larga in the more
western part of the island the same type has been found, but then in the form of
a dike, which may signify a channel for the analogous lavas at higher levels.
The very characteristic aspect of these rocks seems to indicate that they
represent a definite epoch of intrusion, intermediate between the doleritic basalts
and picrite basalts of the lower parts and the scoriaceous olivine basalts of the
higher horizons. An analysis has been made of a very similar rock from Masafuera,
which confirms its classification there as a feldspar basalt (see p. 66).
Lacroix’s four new analyses of basaltic lavas from Masatierra indicate that
the analysed rocks are similar in composition. It is regrettable that the specimens
all originate from Bahia Cumberland. Probably the members of the d’Urville
expedition only brought back samples from that locality and these were there-
fore the only specimens available in Paris for Lacroix’s analyses. On the other
hand the insignificant dip of the lava flows on Masatierra (15—20°) may infer
that the analysed rocks can be taken as representative in chemical composition
for the basal basalts of the island. Microscopic determinations of corresponding
specimens from the other localities point in the same direction.
With the exception of the ultra-femic picrite basalts from Puerto Frances
and the inclusions therein of dunitic rocks, and the light grey feldspar basalts
of intermediate horizons, we may conclude that the dominant rocks of Masatierra
consist of rather normal olivine basalts deviating principally in texture and ina
varying content of olivine.
ae) PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 8a. Vesicular aphyric feldspar basalt (columnar structure). » 30. Portezuelo, Masatierra
see Fig. 9).
Fig. 8 b. Same specimen as Fig. 8a, magnified x 65. Vesicle in upper right corner filled with
z 5 5 bp) : 5
opal. Portezuelo, Masatierra.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS SI
te x
» % ; ete
A ¥ . eck
gi ? 2 “ ee ow
is s \, i eae oie ee Fas ee a ed i Sa Ri:
<<
Fig. 9. Northern wall of the Portezuelo Pass, showing columnar structure of feldspar basalt
Fig. 8 a). Photo C. Skottsberg.
5
52 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 10. Spheroidal weathering of basalt. Bahia Cumberland, Masatierra. Photo C. Skottsberg.
Quantities of pyroclastic material are found interbedded between the lava
flows all over the island. Pohlmann has described such products from Bahia
del Padre as follows: ‘‘Uberall sieht man Decken von basaltischem, meist sdulen-
formig abgesondertem Eruptivgestein mit Schichten von vulkanischem Auswurfs-
material wie Asche, Lapilli, Bomben u.s. w. wechsellagernd.
Eine solche aus Lapilli und Bomben zusammengesetzte Schicht von mehreren
Metern Machtigkeit an der rechten Seite der Bucht in der Nahe der sog. Kapelle
gelegen, liefert das Material der sog. ‘Glockensteine’. Der Vorgang ihrer Bildung
ist, kurz gesagt, folgender: zunachst entstehen traubige und nierformige Con-
cretionen zwischen den losen zusammengefiigten vulkanischen Massen; diese weissen
Knollen (Fig. 12) gelangen beim Abstiirzen der Schichten an den Strand und erhalten
als Rollsteine durch die Thatigkeit des Wassers ihre gerundete Form” (10, p. 321).
I have previously noted that the lava beds of the eastern parts of the island
are also often interbedded with agglomeratic layers (12, p. 257).
Some stray occurrences of superficial tuffs seem still to have evaded destruction
by erosion. When Renard says that “amongst the specimens collected at Juan
Fernandez (Masatierra) by the Challenger Expedition in 1875, we have not found
any specimen which might belong to any recent eruption, no tuffs, no volcanic
ash are to be found and everything seems to prove that they have been washed
away by the waves and the atmospheric agencies” (8, p. 176), this last conclusion
seems questionable. Hagerman refers to two specimens in Skottsberg’s collections
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 53
as representing recent tuffacious material. The one he describes as “ein pordses,
dichtes Gestein von El Puente, dem Istmus zwischen der Padrebucht und Carbajal
und ist ein Palagonittuff mit einigen sporadischen Augit- und Magnetitkérnern.
Der andere Tuff stammt von dem nordlichen Ufer der Padrebucht, von wo einige
umgewandelte Olivinbasalte herriihren’” (13, p. 26). As these specimens have
been collected without any observations regarding their petrological position, one
cannot draw any conclusive evidence as to their age, but the specimens from both
the localities have every appearance of being recent pyroclastic sediments.
I have previously described rocks from Bahia Cumberland, filling out the
greater part of the bay, which I assumed to be of recent tuffaceous origin. The
description was given as follows: “In den zentralen Teilen von Cumberland Bay
liegen noch ziemlich machtige, meist lebhaft rot gefarbte Tufflager, die sehr stark
umgewandelt sind. Bruchstiicke von Olivinkristallen, lapilliartige Lavabruchstiicke,
Erzk6rner und Glas liegen in einer Grundmasse, die aus einer weichen, mit Messer
schneidbaren, roten lateritahnlichen Lehmsubstanz besteht, die durch Verwitterung
aus dem urspriinglichen Tuffmaterial hervorgegangen sein diirfte. Uberall in den
Tuffsedimenten ist eine deutliche Lagerung sichtbar’ (12, p. 266). It is over 40
years since I visited the locality and naturally I cannot now rely on any personal
recollection. The inundation in connection with the volcanic disturbance of 1835,
referred to above (p. 41), may have wrought such havoc, that superficial deposits
could have been re-formed. But the composition of the formation, as well as my
notes from the field, offer indications that the tuffaceous material of Bahia Cumber-
land also represents pyroclastic sediments of recent volcanic origin.
Even if only trivial remains of tuffaceous formations, indicative of late volcanic
activity on the island, are left, the submarine explosion of 1835 confirms without
doubt that the area in the immediate vicinity has at that time been subjected
to disturbances of volcanic nature.
Some rocks from around Bahia del Padre deserve special notice. Schulze
and Pohlmann have observed the deviating nature of the rock assemblage and
the latter has commented thereon as follows: ‘‘De suma importancia para esplicar
la formacion jeoldjica de Masatierra es la entrada a Bahia del Padre, situada en
la parte suroeste de la isla. Aqui se observa debajo de las capas basalticas ya
descritas un grand macizo de roca compacta verdosa, que es andesitica. Segun
la opinion de Schulze’ que, a me parecer, es correcta, esta roca verdosa es la
mas antigua de la isla. En ningun otro punto, ni en Masatierra, ni en Masafuera
se ha observado una configuracién jeoldéjica analoga a la mencionada”™ (rasp).
The rocks referred to by Péhlmann certainly show a divergent aspect. But
I do not think they can be taken as representing rocks belonging to a more
ancient formation than the lavas around, nor that they should be classified as
andesites, as Pohlmann has assumed. I have as the result of microscopical
examination of the rocks come to the conclusion that the deviating character is
the result of post-volcanic alterations through thermal processes. In my earlier
paper I have given in some detail the reasons for this conclusion (12, p. 266), and
* Dr. Schulze died before publishing his observations.
4 — 516795 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I.
54 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 11. Volcanic ‘1 merate. Bahia Cumberland, Masatierra. Photo C. Skottsberg.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS
wal
On
Fig. 12. Lumps of magnesite (the so-called Glockenstein). Nat. size. Bahia del Padre, Masatierra.
to) c
Reproduced from P. Quensel, 12, p. 269.
Fig. 13. Scoriaceous lava with newtonite and bole. Nat. size. Behia del Padre, Masatierra.
Reproduced from P. Quensel, 12, p. 269.
will in this connection only summarize the facts. The
fine-grained and of a greenish colour. The abundant cle
with epidote and calcite. Pyrite is finely dispersed thru”:
the microscope one can see that original phenocrysts of
s in question are very
age plains are coated
out the rock. Under
th olivine and augite
are more or less completely changed to serpentine and c_ orite. The matrix con-
sists of olivine, augite, plagioclase, magnetite and ilmenite — 1e., the usual
mineral assemblage of the basaltic lavas. The greater part of the silicates are,
56 PERCY QUENSEL
however, very much altered to serpentine, chlorite and prehnite. Secondary albite
and some scapolite is also present together with abundant pyrite. Small cavities
are filled with epidote and calcite. In the slaggy lavas in the immediate vicinity
larger cavities are filled with a purely white clay-like substance which was found
to be newtonite. In intimate association with this mineral is nearly always found
a yellowish waxy substance which shows every resemblance to what mineralogi-
cally may be signified as bole (Fig. 13). It is very brittle with a conchoidal
fracture. In water it readily disintegrates into small angular fragments. This bole
mineral is also found filling cracks, or occurs in smaller masses in the cavities
of the basalts around the bay.
In the agglomeritic lavas of the vicinity large cavities are filled with hard
compact magnesite. As early as 1886 Darapsky described this mineral by the
name ‘“‘Glockenstein’ and gave an analysis thereof, which shows it to be an
exceptionally pure magnesite (9, p. 113). Without doubt the magnesite is primarily
derived from olivine, the decomposition being caused by the same processes as
have changed the basaltic lavas nearby.
The whole aspect of the rocks from Bahia del] Padre, with magnesite, calcite,
serpentine, chlorite, scapolite and pyrite as secondary minerals, seems without
doubt to indicate that the lava beds in quéstion have been subjected to alterations
in connection with thermal processes during some intermediate phase of volcanic
activity on the island. There seems no reason to classify them as andesites of
an older formation, as is done by Schulze and Poéhlmann.
In a specimen collected by Skottsberg from the shore south of El Yunque,
Hagerman also found evidence of a far-reaching decomposition. Under the heading
“Hydrothermale Bildungen” he gives the following description: “Das Handstuck
ist ein von weissen Streifen durchzogenes scharfgriines Gestein, das u. d. M.
grosse Augitkristalle in einer vollig zerflossenen Serpentinmasse zeigt. Das Pra-
parat ist von Aragonitbandern durchzogen. Dieses Gestein muss als ein stark
umgebildetes Olivinfels bezeichnet werden” (13, p. 27). The large olivine crystals of
the dunite, found as inclusions in the picrite basalt at Puerto Frances, show, on the
contrary, no signs of secondary alteration (see p. 47). There is therefore no doubt
that the highly decomposed “Olivinfels’ described by Hagerman has succumbed
to a later decomposition of much the same nature as has been active around
Bahia del Padre.
Masafuera.
Mate 33 526 S.. Lone.So. 541. WwW:
The lavas of Masafuera present a more varying aspect than those of Masa-
tierra and contain several types of petrographic interest. They have, however,
hitherto only been summarily described in the papers by myself (12, p. 274) and
by Hagerman (13, p. 28).
The rocks which predominate at lower levels are mostly vesicular to slaggy
basalts. They are well represented around the Quebrada de las Casas. At higher
levels the basalts consist of more compact lava beds. In contrast to the basalts
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 5
—I
ii, Pa Ps
" “bl
ZINA) hie
SOMA
Loberia Nueva)
: GH
. mm of OLLIE )
Hip 4
"2 (le ta . Inocentes
go en —< a,”
2 ft immer SON
a yy
(MOS hf
UU) Wy
MY yy y
ao WY, OMA thi Y ; : Z Q. Angosta
LUA
les 10 5 fo) il 2 3 Sea Miles
(6065 tt) re a Err TTT
Fig. 14. Masafuera. From the Chilean Gov. chart of 1921. Scale 1 : 70000,
PERCY QUENSEL
ut
Co
Fig. 15. View of the interior of Quebrada de la Loberia vieja towards the shore.
Photo C. Skottsberg.
of Masatierra, olivine is more scarce in the dominant basalts of Masafuera, but
is singularly rich in the basaltic dikes which in hundredfold vertically traverse
the island.
The rocks prevailing at heights up to c. 1000 m may for the greater part
be classified as dark vesicular feldspar basalts, with large phenocrysts of labradorite
(Ab 45, An 55). Olivine is scarce as phenocrysts but occurs in varying amount
in the groundmass together with augite, labradorite and magnetite in a dark,
glassy matrix (Fig. 16).
In many specimens of the vesicular lavas the vesicles are filled or lined with
zeolite minerals. In some samples the vesicles present, from the outward rim,
first a coating of glass, followed by chalcedon and chabasite and a central
replenishment of well developed natrolite spherolites.
At an elevation of about 1000 m a lava bed of a very different aspect is
met with. In contrast to the dark basalts of lower horizons, the rock now in
question is light grey in colour. Large phenocrysts of olivine (up to 5 mm in
diameter) and labradorite are uniformly distributed in a very fine-grained ground-
mass, consisting of augite, slender laths of labradorite, abundant small grains of
magnetite and a small amount of a nearly colourless glass (Fig. 17).
In outward appearance this lava has a very singular aspect. The surface
feels rough and grainy which, together with the light grey colour, at first gives
the impression that the rock would have a trachytic or trachy-andesitic compo-
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 59
|
—e
i
Fig. 16. Vesicular feldspar basalt. x 8. Normal development under 1 ooo m elevation. Masafuera.
sition. The analysis (Table I, No. 7), however, shows that the lava must be
assigned to the basaltic group, though in many respects it obviously differs from
all the dark basaltic rocks of lower elevations on the island. With some hesitation,
in my former publication I referred the rock to the basanite group, assuming
that a content of virtual nepheline might be concealed in the groundmass, which
was readily affected when treated with HCl. This circumstance Lacroix assumes
to be characteristic for the basanitoid lavas of the Pacific, where he says the
nepheline often ‘‘n’est pas exprimée; elle est restée a l'état potential dans la verre.
La poudre des ces roches, traitée par HCl s’attaque plus au moins facilement”
(C. R. 169, 1919, p. 402). BARTH has, in his paper Pacificite, an anemousite
basalt’, suggested that the virtual nepheline may be concealed in the plagioclase
in the form of carnegieite. For such basalts he proposes the name pacificite, or
if olivine is present, olivine pacificite and on account of my former description,
refers the lava in question from Masafuera to the pacificite group (21, p. 60;
B24 p. 380,510).
In publishing the description of the rocks from the Juan Fernandez Islands
in my earlier publication the analyses were not recalculated according to modern
methods. This has been done now and the results recorded in the appendixed
table of analyses. With regard to the rock, then tentatively named basanite, the
calculated norm shows no nepheline and an excess of 1.99 % of aluminium. This,
together with a content of 3.36% H,O, gives the impression that the rock is de-
composed. On this account Lacroix, in reproducing my analyses of the Juan
Fernandez rocks, omitted this analysis, ‘‘car les résultats ne correspondent pas
60 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 17. Olivine basalt. Nat. size. Elevation c. 1000 m. Masafuera. The olivine phenocrysts more
or less completely altered to deuteric iddingsite.
a la composition minéralogique décrite; le calcul fait voir qu/il s'agit d’une roche
alterée’’ (14, p. 65).
A renewed scrutiny of the rock has offered new aspects regarding its petro-
logic and petrographic position. The essential point has been that the large olivine
phenocrysts are altered to such a great extent to iddingsite. We have every inter-
mediate phase from a more or less broad rim of iddingsite around a kernel of per-
fectly fresh olivine to complete pseudomorphs of iddingsite, retaining the crystal
habit of the olivine. The circumstance that the kernels of olivine are absolutely un-
altered, leads to the conclusion that the iddingsite is not a product of normal
weathering but a deuteric mineral, derived during a final stage of cooling of the
lava in which it occurs.
During later years several papers have been published, in which the origin
of iddingsite has been discussed in detail. The conceptions, there put forth, to
all intent conform with the characteristic features of the lava from Masafuera.
As the petrogenesis of the rock in question is of a certain interest, some signi-
ficant quotations may be given, relating to the formation of iddingsite from
different localities.
Ross and SHANNON summarize their conclusions as follows: “‘Iddingsite is
not confined to weathered surfaces; its development shows no proximity to joint
cracks and evidences of weathering in associated minerals is entirely absent. Thus
it is concluded that iddingsite is not a product of ordinary weathering but
a deuteric mineral, that is to say the result of metasomatic processes associated
with the later stages of a cooling magma.’ They also emphasize that the
magma must have come to rest before iddingsite formed, for though it is a
very brittle mineral, it is never fractured or distorted by flow (U. S. National
Museum, Proc. 67, 1925, Art. 7, p. 18).
AUROUSSEAU comes to the conclusion that “iddingsite is the result of oxida-
tion processes that acted rapidly on the olivine during the liberation of copious
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 61
active volatile phases at the time of eruption” (Linnean Soc. of N.S. W., Proc. 51,
1926, p. 617).
Finally EbWARDs in his paper “The formation of iddingsite’ says: “‘It is
concluded, therefore, that iddingsite forms during or after extrusion, according
to the temperature of the magma at the time of extrusion, and that, if the magma
has cooled sufficiently before extrusion, not enough iron oxides are left in the
residual volatiles for iddingsite to be formed’ (Am. Min. 23, 1938, p. 281).
The formula for iddingsite is given by Ross and Shannon as MgO- Fe,O3-
3 SiOg-4 H,O with magnesia replaced in part by CaO, approximately in the ratio
1:4. The calculated composition according to this formula includes 7.g0 % H,O*
and 7.90 % H,.O7 (ibid. p. 17).
All the authors, now quoted, come to the same conclusion that the forma-
tion of iddingsite cannot be regarded as the result of normal weathering processes
but that the mineral must be of deuteric origin, formed during the later stages
of a cooling magma. The development of abundant iddingsite in the lava flow
from Masafuera leads to the same conclusion. I may also remark that most of
the photomicrographs, representing different stages of alteration from olivine to
iddingsite, published in Pl. I—II in Ross and Shannon's paper, correspond in
nearly every detail with equivalent alterations in the lava from Masafuera (Fig.
18). As iddingsite according to the formula of Ross and Shannon contains
15.80 % HO, we may conclude that an appreciable amount of the 3.46 % H,O,
according to the analysis of the lava in question (Table I, No. 7), enters the
iddingsite molecule.
Another singular alteration in the iddingsite basalt in question is also worthy
of notice. The slender labradorite laths in the groundmass as well as some
phenocrysts of the same mineral are found to be more or less completely
altered to an isotropic substance, though retaining their crystal habit perfectly
intact. I had observed this circumstance in my former publication on the Geology
of the Juan Fernandez Islands (12, p. 278) and then came to the conclusion that
the invading material was glass, formed through fusion of the feldspars in the
volcanic vent (Fig. 19).
Dr OrTo MELLIs has kindly undertaken a renewed investigation of this
isotropic alteration product. At first he also came to the conclusion that it con-
sisted of glass, formed by fusion of the feldspars during a period of high-temperature
autometamorphism. A more detailed study, however, led to different conclusions.
Dr Mellis gives the result as follows: “Repeated determinations showed that the
refractive index of the isotropic material lies between 1.49 and 1.50. These values
must exclude the presence of glass, formed by fusion of a labradoritic feldspar.
The index of refraction should according to Franco and Schairer in such a case
lie between 1.53 and 1.54 (Journ. of Geology, Vol. 59, 1951, p. 266). A further
evidence in this respect is that, when treated with HCl, the isotropic matter
readily gelatinized, which is not in accordance with what one can assume to be
the case with glass, formed by fusion of a basic plagioclase. Opal must for the
same reason be excluded as a possible component. Continued investigations
resulted in the conclusion that the alteration of the feldspars in the iddingsite
62 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 18. Iddingsite forming sharp outer borders around unaltered olivine. 100. From specimen
Fig. 17. Elevation 1000 m. Masafuera.
Fig. 19. Phenocryst of labradorite, traversed by a zeolitic matter. x 170. From specimen
Fig. 17. Masafuera.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 63
basalt must be attributed to an invasion of zeolitic matter. As there seems to
be a slight difference in refractive indices in the alteration product, this is prob-
ably a mixture of different zeolites or related material. It has, however, not
been possible to determine the definite nature of the zeolites. The fact that they
show no sign of birefringence indicates that they must belong to the isotropic
group or to those of very near zero birefringence.’
It is of interest to note that Renard evidently has observed a very similar
circumstance in a lava flow from Masatierra, when he says that sections of a
basic feldspar from a greyish very scoriaceous lava under the microscope are
seen to be “cracked and pervaded with zeolitic matter, which forms an irregular
network. This matter, which looks slightly grey, when seen in ordinary light,
remains obscured between crossed nicols.’’ This description might as well refer
to the zeolitisation of the lava bed from Masafuera, especially as Renard in the
same lava mentions olivine, uniformly changed to iddingsite (Renard says hematite,
8, p. 176).
It therefore seems probable that lava beds, in which the content of olivine has
been more or less changed to deuteric iddingsite, also have succumbed to a high
degree of zeolitisation. The fact that the large phenocrysts of olivine, only
rimmed with iddingsite, show no signs of alteration, whereas the feldspars in the
same section may be completely altered to an isotropic substance of zeolitic
composition, must indicate that also the zeolitisation of the rock has taken place
at an early stage and cannot be attributed to periods of normal weathering or
later thermal activity.
In consequence of the changes in chemical composition which must have
taken place in connection with the formation of iddingsite and the zeolitisation
of the lava, it is no longer possible to establish the primary composition of the
rock in question. Though the whole aspect of the lava bed so obviously differs
from the normal olivine basalts on Masafuera, there is evidently not reason enough
with any degree of certitude to classify the rock as an olivine basanitoid. The
presence of alkaline rocks on Masafuera must for the present, therefore, be
restricted to the occurrence of the soda-trachytic lava flows, now to be described.
At an elevation between I 000 and 1 100 m there occur rocks of quite another
type. In outward appearance they are dense, aphanitic and aphyric in texture
and of a light yellowish green colour. The dominant minerals are an acid plagio-
clase and, subordinate, orthoclase. Olivine, a light green diopsidic pyroxene, and
ore minerals are sparingly found in small individuals between the feldspar laths,
which have a well-defined trachytoid orientation (Fig. 20). An analysis of this
rock was made for my former description and is reproduced in the annexed table
of the analyses of the Juan Fernandez rocks (Table I, No. 8). I named the rock
soda-trachyte.
On my survey I had assumed that rocks of this composition only existed
on and formed the highest parts of the island, as at that time no higher elevations
‘were reached. New specimens in Skottsberg’s later collection disprove my earlier
‘supposition in two essential respects. In the first place, rocks of much the same
04 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 20. Soda trachyte. x 50. Elevation c. 1050 m. Masafuera.
Fig. 21. Soda trachyte (boulder). x 30. Nic. +. Elevation about 400 m.
Tierras Blancas, Masafuera.
character as the soda-trachyte have now been found at lower levels. Secondly,
Skottsberg reached the summit of the island and was there able to establish that
basaltic lavas occupy the whole highest part of the island.
The new find of a rock, closely related to the soda-trachyte from higher
levels, was a loose boulder at the foot of Tierras Blancas. According to Skotts-
6
ISLANDS
FERNANDEZ
AN
THE JU
Or
GEOLOGY
THI
COMMENTS ON
ADDITIONAL
iy phenocrysts of olivine.
20 m elevation.
c
basalt with strz
ar
sp
ar phyric feld
. Vesicul
Masafuera.
14
cimen from
150m.
ration C.
ley
4
x 50. I
structure.
Masafuera.
ar
Aphyric feldspar basalt. Column
2B.
Fig.
EI! Ovalo,
66 PERCY QUENSEL
berg’s information, boulders of this character were very numerous in the talus
under a steep escarpment and can here hardly have originated from higher eleva-
tions than about 400 m.
In outward appearance this rock shows an aspect different to the compact
soda-trachyte between 1000 and 1 100 m, which on account of its dense texture
at first sight gives the impression of a quartzitic rock. The new specimen has
on the other hand a rough, loose-grained structure. Minute intergranular cavities
in the rock are seen under the microscope to be filled with limonitic matter. But
allowing for this structural dissimilarity the rocks from the talus below Tierras
Blancas seem to be closely related to the soda-trachyte as described above (Fig. 21).
Taking into consideration the seemingly horizontal position of the lava beds of
Masafuera, the conclusion must be that lavas of soda-trachytic composition have
been emitted at different times and that they have alternated with lavas of more
normal basaltic composition (see p. 71).
Specimens of the rocks from between I 100 and I 400m present again a
different aspect. Five samples from 1100, I 200, I 300 and 1420m all have
very much the same appearance. They are all pbyric lavas of an ash-grey colour.
Feldspar and, more rarely, olivine occur as phenocrysts in a groundmass of
basic plagioclase, augite and abundant magnetite. In a somewhat vesicular specimen
from I 100 m olivine is also present as sporadic grains in the groundmass.
The groundmass has in most of the specimens a trachytic texture; the narrow
laths of feldspar circuiting the phenocrysts in a more or less well-defined
manner (Pie. 22).
In my previous paper I named the rocks of this nature trachyandesite.
Hagerman says, referring to much the same specimens in Skottsberg’s collection:
“Die Klassifizierung hiehergehGriger Gesteine ist etwas unsicher. Geniigende
Griinde sie als Trachyandesite zu bezeichnen, liegen jedoch nicht vor” (13, p. 30).
Hagerman names the rock andesite in his paper.
These rocks evidently have a rather wide distribution on Masafuera, probably
forming the whole complex of lava beds between 1 100 and 1420 m. To certify
their petrographic position an analysis has now been made of a typical specimen
(Table I, No. 5). The calculated norm and Niggli values definitely classify the
rock as a feldspar basalt, in many respects of similar composition as some of
the analysed basalts from Masatierra (Table I, No. 1—4). A difference of interest
is the still lower content of K,O; the Niggli value £ is now 0.08 against 0.15—-0.20
in the basalts from Masatierra.
These phyric feldspar basalts from Masafuera in general aspect also very
much resemble the aphyric feldspar basalts from between 400—600 m elevation
on Masatierra. Occasionally at lower levels they also on Masafuera may be aphyric
in texture (Fig. 23). They seem also in several respects to correspond to certain
phyric and aphyric basalts from the Hawaiian Islands, as described by WASHINGTON
(Petrology of the Hawaiian Islands. I. Kohala and Mauna Kea. Am. J. of Sc. V,
1923, p. 487). To this question I will return under a concluding heading dealing
with the chemical and petrological connections between the rock of the Juan
Fernandez Islands and other volcanic islands of the eastern Pacific.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLO¢
THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 07
Fig. 24. Olivine basalt, supersaturated with iron oxide. 35. Vesicular flow-breccia. Los Inocentes
§ : 35
elevation c. I 50om), Masafuera.
Fig. 25. Olivine phenocryst from specimen Fig. 24. 110. Specks and streaks of unaltered
olivine as rests in a pseudomorph after olivine. Los Inocentes, Masafuera.
68 PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 26. Disintegrated phenocryst of olivine, caused by high temperature oxidation. The rim
around the olivine crystal is hematite. Within the olivine the hight grains are mineral components,
formed by exsolution. 150. Los Inocentes, Masafuera. Photo P. Ramdohr.
Fig. 27. Part of disintegrated olivine phenocryst, enlarged 600. Against the dark background
of olivine the exsolution product is seen in the form of small composite grains consisting of
hematite (light) and a darker undefined component. Larger light grains see PI. Il, Fig. 1.
Photo P. Ramdohr.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLO O! LHI UAN FERNANDEZ SLANDS O ¢
Fig. 28. High-temperature exsolution of spinel, enclosed in olivine phenocryst ‘Pl. IJ, Fig. 2). Light
lamellae, according to Ramdohr probably magnetite in groundmass of excess spinel. 600.
Photo P. Ramdohr.
Fig. 29. Magnetite in groundmass of the lava bed as seen in PI.], Fig. 1 partially changed to
hematite (martite 300. Photo P. Ramdohr.
5 516795 I Nat. H Juan Fernandez and Ea
TO PERCY QUENSEL
An observation of importance with regard to the distribution of different
lava beds on Masafuera is the find of a deviating type of olivine basalt from Los
Inocentes. According to Skottsberg’s observations such lavas probably occupy
the highest part of the island, representing elevations above 1420 m. The few
samples brought back are highly scoriaceous flow breccias containing a high
content of iron oxides (Fig. 24). Hagerman has in the preceding publication
of this series given a description of these lavas which he characterizes as slaggy
olivine basalts with large olivine phenocrysts, supersaturated with magnetite
(Geshe DP 2115)
The phenocrysts of olivine are under the microscope found to be almost
opaque, due to the precipitation of new-formed ore minerals. A varying amount
of residual olivine is, however, nearly always to be observed in the form of specks
or streaks (Fig. 25). No signs of alteration are to be observed in this olivine.
Optical determinations indicate that only a low content of about 8 % FeO is
present in the molecule.
The groundmass consists of slender laths of labradorite, small grains of augite,
magnetite, ilmenite and pseudobrookite in a dark brown glass matrix.
To determine the mineral composition of the pseudomorphs after olivine
Professor S. GAVELIN and Dr UYTENBOGAARDT kindly undertook to examine some
polished sections of the rock. Professor P. RAMDOHR (Heidelberg) contempora-
neously supervised a section for the same reason. It thereby became apparent
that the seemingly opaque constituent was not magnetite and that the mineral
assemblage of the pseudomorphs was of a complicated nature. Professor Kamdohr
has taken four photomicrographs thereof and kindly put them at my disposal.
They are reproduced in Fig. 26——29 with Ramdohr’'s explanatory notes. In Fig. 26
the essential components can be observed. A rim of hematite is seen to encircle
an idiomorphic crystal of olivine with specks of disintegrated minerals. In the
enlarged microphotograph Fig. 27 these minerals are seen in the form of small
lighter grains uniformly distributed against the dark background of olivine. One
can now observe that the grains consist of two constituents. The one component
is hematite. Kk peated attempts have been made to determine the second com-
ponent both 1: + lished sections and with X-ray powder photographs. No con-
clusive evidei regarding the true nature of this mineral has, however, been
attained.
The singular alteration of the olivine phenocrysts must in all probability be
connected with the same processes as have controlled the formation of the deuteric
iddingsite, though in the samples at hand this mineral is not extant. Edwards
seems to have described a very similar formation in the iddingsite-bearing basalts
from two Victorian localities in Australia. After concluding that the iddingsite
must have been formed before the ultimate consolidation of the lava flow, Edwards
says: “In some instances, however, the action has gone further, and a rim of iron
oxid is formed on the outer margin of the iddingsite. Eventually all the original
olivine vanishes, and the iddingsite, which had formed a rim about it, is completely
replaced by magnetite ... It is essential for the formation of iddingsite that the
magma should not only be rich in water vapour, but that it should have differentiated
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS ex
in such a manner as to give rise to an iron-rich final fluid’ (Am. Min. 23, 1938,
p. 280). A photomicrograph in the text shows, according to Edwards, ‘‘a pseudo-
morph of iron ore after iddingsite, itself a pseudomorph after olivine’.
These suppositions seem also referable to the very similar formation on
Masafuera. The lava bed in question contains 33.86 % FeO according to deter-
mination by LANDERGREN (13, p. 33). This is more than double the content of
FeO in any other basalts of the Juan Fernandez Islands. There seems little doubt
that the pseudomorphs in question have formed under much the same conditions
as advanced by Edwards. This is furthermore supported by the nearly identical
appearance of the photomicrographs of the pseudomorphs from the Australian
localities and from Masafuera, in both cases in connection with lavas containing
iddingsite. Edwards assumes that, via an intermediate stage of iddingsite, the ulti-
mately formed component is magnetite. As narrated above, this is not the case
in the lava from Masafuera, where the pseudomorphs are found to be of a more
complicated composition, formed without iddingsite as an intermediate phase.
All the observations given above seem to indicate that the iddingsite-bearing
basalt from elevations about I 000 m as well as the flow breccias from the highest
elevations on Masafuera have been subjected to an automorphic re-mineralisation,
prior to the final consolidation of the magma. This would suggest that the volcanic
eruptions have been interposed by periods, during which the lava in a molten
state has temporally stagnated in the volcanic vent under conditions which in
connection with active volatile phases have led to the formation of such deuteric
minerals as iddingsite and to the partial high temperature exsolution of the oli-
vine phenocrysts.
The conclusions which may be drawn regarding the distribution of the
different lavas of Masafuera would be now that rocks of more normal basaltic
composition, principally feldspar basalts, occupy the lower and intermediate eleva-
tions of the island, whereas the highest parts consist of an olivine basalt, super-
saturated with iron oxides. At some intermediate elevations lavas of a more
alkaline character are found in the form of at least two beds of soda-trachyte,
interposed between dominant flows of basaltic lavas.
Horizontal distribution of different types of lava on Masafuera.
in m X100 Ol Hh Be Be I GP OE Ho wie Ta NS TA Goo
| Olivine basalt supersaturated |
with marnetite 3) 30's. 2
Light grey phyric feldspar |
Beers lie Pins ee meee tec eae | x
| et trachyte: | 20 fe SLs x |
Iddingsite-bearing phyric oli-
mmnenbasalt!.<. i) its)
Dark phyric and aphyric
feldspar- and olivine basalt) x
eee SLO705
~I
N
PERCY QUENSEL
Fig. 30. Picrite basalt (masafuerite). Dike rock. Nat. size. Loberia vieja, Masafuera.
Hagerman has recorded in his paper in tabular form his conception of the
horizontal distribution of the different lavas of Masafuera. This is reproduced on p.
71 with some slight corrections on the base of renewed examination.
My former supposition that the basaltic lavas only occur up to an elevation
of about 1000 m, from there on being succeeded by more alkaline rocks of
soda-trachytic composition, is no longer in agreement with more recent observations,
based on Skottsberg’s new collections. Any thought of gravitative differentiation
to explain the sequence of the volcanic rocks, which I tentatively proposed in
my former publication, must in the light of later observations be discarded now.
The numerous basaltic dikes, traversing the whole island in a West-East
direction, are worth special notice as representing rocks exceptionally rich in
olivine. In this respect they exceed the most olivine-rich picrite basalts from
Puerto Frances on Masatierra. BOWEN has commented on these rocks as follows:
“One other rock may be mentioned in this connection. It is a picrite basalt from
Juan Fernandez, a dike, not a lava, but quenched so as to reveal the fact of its
origin. In it is shown the highest amount of normative olivine (53 %) of any rock
termed basalt by the author describing it. Great crystals of olivine lie in
an aphanitic ground composed mainly of plagioclase and augite (Fig. 30—32).
Some of the olivine basalts of this island group are, locally at least, about
as rich in olivine as this dike, but they have not been analyzed. Their high
olivine content is invariably due to an increased amount of phenocrysts of
olivine about I cm in diameter. Plainly these crystals were not in solution
in the dike or flow material at the time of its intrusion or extrusion. This
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS g [ee
A. a , - , < Que :
‘ eo
pf
Vw a
a
MS,
Fig. 31. Masafuerite dike. x 9. Loberia vieja, Masafuera.
gs ce et) 8
RTE ee a
Be ‘
Fig. 32. Masafuerite dike. x 9. Analogous to sample Fig. 31 but with rims of iddingsite around
all phenocrysts of olivine. Loberia vieja, Masafuera.
74 PERCY QUENSEL
fact does not prove that they were not in solution in that material at an earlier
time. But if one finds the condition shown by these basalts to be invariably
true of all rocks rich in olivine, which have suffered quenching, one must
conclude that large amounts of olivine occur in solution in magmatic liquids.
A survey of igneous provinces leaves no question that such rocks do have this
character, that is, they always contain either all of their olivine or all in excess
of a quite small amount (apparently some 12—15 %) as relatively large pheno-
crysts. They, therefore, force acceptance of the stated conclusion” (23, p. 163).
The quotation above refers to purely theoretical questions but indicates the extreme
position these rocks held in petrographic classification with regard to the abnor-
mally high content of olivine in basaltic lavas. JOHANNSEN has named these rocks
masafuerite, with the following argument: ‘‘The picrite basalt from Masafuera of
the islands of the Juan Fernandez group is a most extraordinary rock ... While
this particular rock occurs as a dike, on the adjacent island of Masatierra, for example
at Puerto Frances, there is a similar rock in the form of a lava flow with large
olivine crystals in a groundmass containing more or less the same mineral. I am
placing the rock among the hypabyssals on the basis of the occurrence on Masa-
fuera. To all olivine-melabasalt dikes which contain more olivine than any other
mineral and in addition carry basic plagioclase and augite, I should like to apply
the name masafuerite” (24, p. 334).
We already have the name picrite basalt for the lava flows of much the same
composition on Masatierra, with Lacroix’s name oceanite as synonym, given with
the following definition: “les roches basaltiques porphyriques a olivine sont parfois
extraordinairement riches en péridot; dans l’échantillon analyse, tous les grains
de ce minéral se touchent, ils sont réunis par une petite quantite de plagues de
labrador, englobant des microlites d’augite et des lames d’ilmenite’ (14, p. 44).
Johannsen has restricted the name masafuerite to aschistic dike rocks of a
picrite basaltic magma.
These dikes may represent, at least in part, transmission channels for the
upper basalt beds, supersaturated with iron oxides. A significant feature in this
respect is that they contain numerous ‘schlieren’ of darker colour, due to abundant
minute grains of magnetite. These streaks may indicate relics from a magmatic
flow, subsequently consolidated in the shape of the olivine basalt, supersaturated
in iron oxides, which now forms the highest parts of the island. At a later period
the channels may then have been filled with the melanocratic magma, which now
characterizes them as such singular rocks. Sequent intrusions of this nature might
lead to phases of crystallisation in accordance with Bowen’s conception of these
dikes as quenched rocks, referred to above.
Regional Relations.
Tectonic Connections.
In the introductory lines I already noted that during recent years as well as
in older reports speculations have been offered regarding connections in one or
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I
On
other respect between the Juan Fernandez Islands and the volcanic islands of the
eastern Pacific. Some quotations may be given.
CHARLES DARWIN already expressed views regarding geotectonic connections
between the Juan Fernandez Islands and, on the one side, the South American
continent, on the other, the Galapagos Islands. In his “Observations on the
volcanic islands and parts of South America’ he says: “Some authors have
remarked that volcanic islands occur scattered, though at very unequal distances,
along the shores of the great continents, as if in some measure connected with
them. In the case of Juan Fernandez, situated 330 miles from the coast of Chile,
there was undoubtedly a connection between the volcanic forces acting under
this island and under the continent as was shown during the earthquake of 1835.
The islands, moreover, of some of the small volcanic groups, which border the
continents, are placed in lines, related to those along which the adjoining shores
of the continent trend; I may instance the lines of intersection at the Gala-
pasos) (20, p. 144).
In his paper ‘Constitution lithologique des iles volcaniques de la Polynésie
Australe’ LACROIX gives expression to much the same trend of thought when
he writes: ““Particulierement intéressantes sont les iles volcaniques qui se trouvent
aA une plus ou moins distance de l’Amérique du Sud, les iles Juan Fernandez,
San Felix et San Ambrosio, et enfin Galapagos, puis au large de l’Amerique
centrale, l’ile Clipperton. Bien que la connaissance de la lithologie de ces iles
soit loin d’étre complétement éclaircie, on peut a présent assurer que leur laves
différent de celles des Cordilléres des Andes, c’est-a-dire de la série circumpacifique
et montrer qu’elles se rattachent a la série intrapacifique’ (14, p. 64).
In ‘La Face de la Terre’ EMMANUEL DE MARGERIE refers to the same
subject as follows: “Le Relay de la marine des Etats-Unis a signalé, au large
de Valparaiso 5.651 métres. A l’ouest de ces fosses sont situées les deux iles
volcaniques anciennes de San Felix et San Ambrosio; au Sud de ces iles le
croiseur Chilien Présidente Pinto a trouvé, sur une étendue de 760 km, des
profondeurs si faibles qu'il est probable qu'une créte sous-marine, orientée a
peu pres N—S, s’allonge dans la direction de l'ile Juan Fernandez’ (ei slilh
p. 1359).
In his ‘Description and Geology’ of San Felix and San Ambrosio, BAILEY
WILLIS writes: “San Felix and San Ambrosio are volcanic islands in the South
Pacific Ocean, San Felix being situated in latitude 26°15’ south and longitude 80°7’
west of Greenwich and San Ambrosio lying about 16 km to the east-south-east.
They are about 500 miles west of Chafiaral on the east coast of Chile, and the
same distance due north of the group of Juan Fernandez and Mas-a-fuera. The
South Pacific charts show several rocks or islets and some whose existence is
recorded as doubtful, which, with the above-named islands, form an archipelago
strewn on a narrow submarine ridge that extends along the meridian of 80
degrees west from about 36 degrees south to 26 degrees south, the ridge being
defined by the 2.000-meter contour line. Knowing that all these islands and
islets are peaks of volcanoes, we may suspect that there are more of them than
we can see; but this must remain an unverified guess until detailed soundings
76 PERCY QUENSEL
can be made. The depth of the ocean in this region, which lies west of the
Richards Deep, varies from 4.000 to 5.000 meters. The islands, therefore, repre-
sent the summits of volcanoes probably sixteen to eighteen thousand feet or
more in height — that is to say, they compare with the volcanoes of the Andes,
which are situated on the other side of the deep” (26, p. 365).
In an interesting paper on the geology of Galapagos, Cocos and Easter
Island, L. J. CHUBB has published some noteworthy remarks on the regional
relations of the volcanic islands of the eastern central Pacific. He: writes as
follows: “‘Under the east central Pacific there lies a vast area, the Albatross
Plateau, under depths of less than 2.000 fathoms, though on all sides the depths
exceed this figure. No islands rise from the central part of this plateau, but at
each end is an archipelago that appears to have been built up on a set of
intersecting fissures, the Marquesas at the western end, and the Galapagos at
the eastern. On or near its southern margin too there are several volcanic islands,
including the Mangareva (Gambier) Archipelago, Pitcairn, Easter, Sala-y-Gomez
and the Juan Fernandez Islands.
“It is suggested that the plateau constitutes a resistant block which has
withstood lateral pressure that has been brought to bear on it from all sides,
that around its margin it has become cracked and fissured, and that on the
fissures volcanic islands have been erected. That these islands owe their origin toa
common cause is suggesed by the similarity of their structure and geological
history, so far it is known. ... Petrographically, too, these islands resemble each
other and differ from most of the other Pacific islands. The most striking charac-
teristics of their rocks are the almost complete absence of nepheline-bearing
types and the presence of virtual free silicia in many.
“Cocos, St. Felix and St. Ambrose islands are constituted in part of nephe-
line rocks, and for this reason they are regarded as lying, not on the resistant
block, but beyond its eastern margin. Petrographically they resemble the Society
Islands and Austral Islands which lie to the west of the plateau.
“It is thought that beyond the margins of the block the crust is more
pliable and has yielded to pressure, with the formation of anticlines and synclines.
Volcanoes that have produced nepheline-bearing rocks have been erected on the
anticlines. The folds have tended in the western area to migrate from southwest
to northeast with a wave-like motion proved by the history of their coral reefs.
There is not sufficient evidence, however, to determine whether the folds which
probably underlie Cocos, St. Felix and St. Ambrose islands have suffered a
similar movement” (27, p. 43).
JUAN BRUGGEN has recently in his book ‘Fundamentos de la Geologia de
Chile’ discussed the geotectonic position of the Juan Fernandez Islands. He
writes: ‘Esta zona (la region situada al este de Llico, en Arauco) de dislocaciones
tan extrafias a la structura de la Cordillera de los Andes, coincide con la region
donde una ancha loma submarina se desprende del continente. Encima de la
loma se levantan las islas Juan Fernandez y mas al norte las de San Ambrosio
Vesa belize
Parece que se trata de una antigua cordillera que se separo del actual conti-
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 7
~—I
nente entre Magellanes y Arauco y que se hundio posteriormente. A este cordillera
o simplemente zona continental, que llamaremos ‘Tierra de Juan Fernandez’, se
debera el término de las capas de la Quiriquina en el sur de Arauco y también
el hecho que sedimentos marinos de Koceno no se conozcan mas a sur.
Pero en el Oligoceno, cuando la costa del piso de Navidad se extendio
hasta la region de Yptin (45° L.S.), se habia hundido una gran parte de la
Tierra de Juan Fernandez, conservandose probablemente cierta extencion en la
vecindad de las islas volcanicas, cuyas rocas se formaron solo mas tarde en
erupciones posteriores. A juzgar por el grado de denudacion y en vista de las
actividades volcanicas recientes en Mas a Tierra y San Felix, la parte volcanica
de estas islas se habra formado en el Terciario superior, probablemente en el
Plioceno, cuando existia todavia un resto de la antigua Tierra de Juan Fernandez,
de la cual immigr6é la flora del Eoceno. Cuando mas tarde se hundio también
este resto, sobresalian solamente las partes volcanicas, constituyendo las islas de
Juan Fernandez, que servian de refugio para la flora’ (16, p. 59).
The references now given suffice to show how the position of the Juan
Fernandez Islands has from different points of view been geotectonically connected
with other volcanic islands or groups of islands of the eastern Pacific.
Petrographic Connections.
In many papers of recent years, petrological and petrographical connections
between the rocks of the Juan Fernandez Islands and those of other volcanic
islands of the Pacific Ocean have also been the subject of discussion. The types
of lava which in this respect have been of special interest are the extremely
melanocratic picrite basalts (oceanites of Lacroix) and their occasional combi-
nations with more alkaline rocks. A short summary of the literature on this
subject may be given first.
We may conveniently begin with the islands of San Felix and San Ambro-
sio, which geographically lie nearest. The distance is 760 km due north of Juan
Fernandez. H.S. WASHINGTON has given a petrographical description of the
rocks. I may quote some lines from his general conclusions: “It would appear
from the specimens brought back by Willis that the lavas of San Felix volcano
are, so far as known, only of two kinds — a decidedly sodic trachyte and a
somewhat variable nepheline basanite, which seems to be highly vitreous. There
is little doubt that the yellow tuff is derived from a nephelite basanite magma
closely similar to that of the flows. The prominent characteristic of these two
types of lava is their high content in alkalies, especially in soda, while high
titanium and phosphorus appear to be other constant characters of minor but
still considerable interest. This conclusion as to the generally highly sodic
character of the San Felix lavas is subject to the limitations imposed by the
absence of specimens from the lower flows and from various parts of the island.
Such basaltic lavas, especially if highly vitreous, may appear megascopically to
be very uniform and yet modally and chemically very diverse. It is, therefore,
78 PERCY QUENSEL
possible that earlier, lowermost flows are less sodic and more typically basaltic
than the upper, which were the ones examined.’’ Washington continues: “In
this predominantly highly sodic character of the lavas San Felix appears to
differ widely from other Pacific islands. At Masafuera, it is true, both soda
trachyte (and nepheline basanite)', closely like those of San Felix, occur, but
these are accompanied by basalt and picrite basalt, whereas at the neighbouring
Juan Fernandez (Masatierra) the lavas appear to be, to judge from Quensel’s
description, only olivine basalt with neither trachyte nor basanite. Trachyte, also
highly sodic, occurs at several other Pacific volcanic islands, as do also nephelite
basanite and similar rocks high in soda; but at all of them the predominant
lavas are more or less normal basalts or andesites; so that the general magmatic
character is basaltic — that is to say, sodi-calcic, somewhat modified by distinctly
sodic facies” (26, p. 382).
Referring to the trachyte of San Felix Washington says that “‘in thin section
the rock shows a somewhat peculiar texture, which resembles that of the trachyte
of Masafuera described by Quensel, that of Puu Anahulu on the island of Hawaii
and of the trachyte of Lahaina on Maui. The texture seems to be rather usual
in the trachytes of the Intra-Pacific volcanic islands. Ill-defined laths of alkali
feldspar make up most of the rock. Most of these are arranged irregularly, but
here and there flow texture is evident’ (26, p. 375).
In several places in his paper ‘La constitution lithologique des iles vol-
caniques de la Polynésie Australe’ Lacroix compares the petrographic character
of the lavas of the Juan Fernandez Islands with those of other volcanic islands
of the Pacific. Concerning the basalts of the Galapagos Islands he observes that
they “offrent l’analogie la plus grande avec les basaltes de Masatierra et avec
ceux des iles Gambier, c’est-a-dire avec les plus calciques des basaltes du
Pacifique et les plus pauvres en potasse’”’ (14, p. 68). And further on in the same
paper: “Les iles Juan Fernandez se groupent au voisinage des iles Marquises et
l'on a vu quil faut comparer ce que l'on sait des roches des iles Galapagos aux
données concernant ceux des iles Gambier” (14, p. 77).
These conclusions of Lacroix refer to the normal basalts of Masatierra and
are founded on the four new analyses of such basalts. The similarity in respect
of the Gambier Islands, however, goes a step further, as Lacroix describes from
there, associated with more normal basalts, typical oceanites (picrite basalts),
which, as we have seen, also occur on Masatierra.
A third author who has brought the Juan Fernandez rocks under discussion
with reference to chemical similarities with other volcanic islands of the Pacific is
CONRAD BurRRI. Under the title ‘Chemismus und provinziale Verhaltnisse der
jungeruptiven Gesteine des pazifischen Oceans und seine Umrandung’ he coor-
dinates under the heading “Typus Hawaii” (in contrast to ““Typus Tahiti’’), the
rocks of Hawaii, the Leeward group, Juan Fernandez and Samoa, remarking that
the Juan Fernandez, San Felix and San Ambrosio lavas are good representatives
of the group, the basanite from Masafuera, however, showing a small deficiency
* This name now discarded (see p. 63).
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 79
in al — alk (28, p.177). — This deficiency is now explained by the fact that
the analysed specimen has attained an abnormal chemical composition through
the formation of deuteric minerals (see p. 60).
A second part of Chubb’s paper on the geology of Galapagos, Cocos and
Easter islands contains the ‘Petrology of the Galapagos Islands” by C. RICHARD-
SON. Under a concluding heading he says: “The Juan Fernandez Islands are the
only islands on which both types of basalt (porphyric with dominant phenocrysts
of olivine or with basic plagioclase) are found in addition to soda trachyte similar
to that occurring in the Galapagos Archipelago. Although oceanites (and basanitic
lavas) are also present, the Juan Fernandez Islands are petrologically closer to
the Galapagos than any other islands” (27, p. 64).
General Conclusions.
A characteristic feature of the volcanic rocks of the Pacific is the universal
predominance of sodium over potassium. LACROIX says that in this respect
“toutes les roches étudiées présentent la commune caractéristique d’étre plus riche
en soude qu’en potasse”’ (14, p. 55). BURRI comes to the same conclusion, based
on recalculations of all available analyses. He states that the Niggli value & is
always under o.4 and for the most typical regions of volcanic rocks of the intra-
Pacific Ocean under 0.25 (28, p. 173).
The value & in the four new analyses from Masatierra in no case exceeds
0.20 (average 0.17). And the light grey basalt from Masafuera has a still lower
content of K,O (Niggli value £& 0.08). Therefore, with regard to low percentage
of potassium the basaltic lavas of both Masatierra and Masafuera must be con-
sidered in this respect as representative for the basalts of the volcanic islands
of the Pacific.
In other respects the petrographic relationship between Juan Fernandez
and other intra-pacific islands has been interpreted somewhat differently. The
reason is, however, easy to explain. In some cases only the basaltic rocks
of Masatierra have been taken into consideration, in other cases special notice
has been given to the soda-trachytic lavas of Masafuera as indicating a casual
presence of more alkaline rocks. Since no rocks of alkaline character occur on
Masatierra, this island has petrographically been connected most closely with the
Gambier and Marquesas Islands as, according to Lacroix, representing “les plus
calciques des basaltes du Pacifique et les plus pauvres en potasse”’ (14, p. 68 and 77).
In chemical composition the basaltic lavas of the Juan Fernandez Islands also
show similarities with some of the basalts from the Hawaiian Islands. Several
analyses of phyric and aphyric feldspar basalts from Kohala and Maunakea as
well as from Kilauea, published by Washington are very similar to those of
the basalts from Juan Fernandez (Am. J. of Sc. 5, 1923, p. 482—87 and 6,
p. 341). It can be suggestive that together with both ancient and recent lavas
of Kilauea, Washington also describes chrysophyric picrite basalts of much the
same character as those from Masatierra and Masafuera. Another similarity can
be given. WHITMAN Cross has described, together with the normal basalts,
80 PERCY QUENSEL
soda-trachyte from Maui and Anahulu, on the first island in connection with a
‘picritic basalt’ (U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 88, 1915, p. 26—28). This corre-
sponds exactly to the rock assemblage of Masafuera.
Petrographic description of the Hawaiian basalts from the mentioned localities
is, also in other respects, found to agree with both megascopic and microscopic
features of the basalts of Juan Fernandez. Washington describes an aphyric basalt
from Kohala as follows: “The type is a light grey, almost aphanitic lava, except
that some rare, very small feldspar phenocrysts may be present, and a few pheno-
crysts of olivine are seen in most specimens ... The texture is rough and trachytic,
so that the rock would probably be considered an andesite or trachyte in the
field. Most specimens are dense and very fine-grained or aphanitic, but vesicular
forms may occur” (I. c., p. 485). This description might as well refer to the light
grey basalts of Masafuera at elevations between I 100 and 1 400 m, which I also,
before an analysis was made, tentatively denoted as a trachy-andesite (12, p. 282).
Although certain lavas of Hawaii evidently present similarities with the basalts
from Juan Fernandez, the general assemblage has, however, a different character.
According to Washington “‘olivine-free labradorite basalts constitutes the most
abundant type, followed in abundance by andesine basalt and then by oligoclase
andesite’ (Am. J. of Sc. 6, 1923, p. 355). The high percentage of andesine basalt
and andesite denote a magmatic sequence differing from that of the non-alkaline
lavas of more southern latitudes of the Pacific. It may, therefore, be advisible for
the present to comply with Lacroix when he says: “Les roches de cette ile
(Hawaii) constitueraient une division spéciale, ayant une originalité propre”
zp 27/0).
If we take into consideration the assemblage of olivine and feldspar basalts
and soda-trachytic lavas on Masafuera as a characteristic feature for this island
it seems evident that, as Richardson already has assumed, the rocks of the
Galapagos Archipelago display the closest similarities. According to the analyses,
published by Richardson, both the basalts and the soda-trachyte are in chemical
composition very similar to equivalent rocks of Masafuera. Also soda-trachyte is
of the same scarce occurrence in the Galapagos Islands as on Masafuera, the
only sample being collected by Darwin on the Beagle voyage of 1835. Richardson
says: “Juan Fernandez are the only islands on which both types of basalt are
found in addition to soda trachyte similar to that occurring in the Galapagos
archipelago” (27, p. 64). The low content of potassium is in common for the
basalts from both island groups.
On the other hand we must evidently exclude any petrographical relationship
between Juan Fernandez and San Felix—San Ambrosio where the lavas have, as
far as is known, a more pronounced alkaline composition, classified by Washington
as soda-trachytes and nepheline basanites (l.c., p. 382). Richardson says: ‘The
Juan Fernandez are petrologically closer to the Galapagos than are any other
islands ... Both are situated comparatively near the American coast of the Pacific,
but their similarity is not shared by San Felix and San Ambrosio islands, or
any other islands on that side of the Pacific’ (27, p.64). Lacroix comes to the
same conclusion. He finds the closest connection with San Felix—-San Ambrosio
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 81
to be the highly alkaline rocks of Tahiti in the mid-Pacific (14, p. 77). Though
lying geographically nearest Juan Fernandez, the rocks of San Felix—San Ambrosio
evidently represent lavas of a more alkaline composition, with the exception of
Cocos Island, not otherwise met with among the volcanic islands of the eastern
Pacific.
We may conclude, therefore, that the lavas of the Juan Fernandez Islands
in chemical composition, and to a certain degree also with regard to their general
aspect and fluctuations in petrographic character, must be regarded as most closely
associated with the rocks of Galapagos and in some respects also with some
rock assemblages of the Hawaiian Islands, and in the more central parts of the
Pacific Ocean, with the Gambier and Marquesas island groups.
These connections are purely based on petrographical and chemical similari-
ties. It is of interest to find how these connections coincide with Chubb’s more
theoretical ideas regarding the regional distribution of the volcanic islands of the
Pacific. I refer to the quotation above (p. 76) and will here only recapitulate the
following: “No islands rise from the central part of this plateau (the Albatross
plateau), but at each end is an archipelago that appears to have been built up
on a set of intersecting fissures, the Marquesas at the western end, and the Gala-
pagos at the eastern. On or near its southern margin too there are several vol-
canic islands, including the Mangareva (Gambier) archipelago, Pitcairn, Easter,
Sala y Gomez and the Juan Fernandez islands.”
An approximately symmetrical distribution of alkaline and non-alkaline rocks
of the volcanic islands in the Pacific, which are situated between Lat. o° and
35. S. may, therefore, be assumed to encircle the Albatross plateau, itself so
obviously unendowed with any islands. The outward lying connections would
then include San Felix-Ambrosio and Cocos on an eastern marginal zone and
the Austral and Society Islands on the western margin. The rocks of these
islands all have a pronounced alkaline character and have been referred by Lacroix
to “la série néphélinique”’ of the Pacific islands. Inward zones of connection would
include Juan Fernandez—Galapagos and the Gambier (Mangareva) and Marquesas
island groups, characterized by absence of nepheline-bearing types and the presence
of virtual free silica in many. Lacroix unites them as belonging to “la série
sans néphéline” (14, p. 59).
A plausible explanation of these circumstances might be that tectonic dis-
turbances at different intervals have located cracks and fissures around a resistant
block, represented by the Albatross plateau. Volcanic eruptions of different
magmatic composition have then been localised to different areas, the alkaline
lavas being restricted to peripherical dislocations in contrast to the non-alkaline
lavas, located along inner lines of connection. Easter Island and Sala y Gomez,
composed of lavas of a deviating type and composition, may have been orientated
by intersecting fissures along other trends.
The climax of volcanic activity on all these islands belongs to past periods
of probably late tertiary or pleistocene age. However, several of the islands
bordering the American continent still manifest obvious indications of volcanic
nature. On San Felix volcanic gases were issuing from a crevice on the southern
82 PERCY QUENSEL
rim in May 1923. Bailey Willis says: “In this sense and to this extent we
may consider San Felix an active volcano” (26, p. 370). The Galapagos Islands
are still the seat of volcanic eruptions. As late as 1925 lava flows reached the
sea, pouring over the 100-foot cliffs (27, p. 9). The Juan Fernandez Islands
on the other hand show no signs of recent volcanic activity but, as recorded
above, one, and possibly, several sub-marine explosions have taken place in their
immediate vicinity during the past century.
The formation of fissures in locating the position of the volcanic islands
bordering the South American continent may be conceived to be connected with
dislocations of the oceanic sub-stratum as an after-sway of displacements during
the formation of the continental mountain ranges. Time connections between
violent earthquakes on the continent and volcanic activity on some of the adjacent
islands are significant in this respect.
However, much of what has been said regarding connections of the volcanic
islands of the Pacific, whether founded on petrological or petrographical similarities
or on geotectonic orientation, must still be considered as conjectural. For the
present, we must agree with Daly that “‘a glance at the larger aspects of Pacific
petrology shows how pitifully slight is our knowledge of the island petrography.
Now is not the time for settled convictions. Now is the time for concerted,
persistant effort, leading to a thorough exploration of the Pacific archipelagos,
under the auspices of a single institution with a staff of cooperating observers”
(R. Daly, Petrography of the Pacific Islands. Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, 27, 1916,
P2331):
Acknowledgements.
The writer is indebted to Professor P. RAMDOHR, Heidelberg, and to Pro-
fessor S. GAVELIN and Dr W. UYTENBOGAARDT for friendly cooperation in deter-
mining the ore minerals. Professor Ramdohr has taken some photomicrographs
of the same and kindly put them at my disposal for reproduction.
Dr O. MELLIS has helpfully co-operated in taking most of the other photo-
micrographs. The landscape photographs have kindly been put at my disposal by
Professor C. SKOTTSBERG. They are taken by him on his visits to the Juan
Fernandez Islands in 1908 and 1917.
A grant from the foundation LARS HIERTAS MINNE 1s gratefully acknowledged.
Mineralogical Department, University of Stockholm,
March 1952.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 83
Table J.
Analyses of the rocks from the Juan Fernandez Islands.
Masatierra (I—IV) Masafuera (V—VIII)
I Il Ne ave V VI VII VIII
SiO}, ‘eeeidieu, sarees 46.08 46.10 46.50 47.62 AG OL 43237 43.47 63.43
LOE See ee 3.48 3.80 3.04 3.42 3.25 1.03 2.68 0.28
[OK cee aera ee eer 15.98 16.54 13.34 16.24 | 16.68 8.48 17.30 18.64
1? (0), Biaeeneeereree DGG 5.48 5.34 4.74 4.30 2.91 6.87 2.78
ISOM SA gin ks oe 8.83 725 6.71 made | Siz. ||, aaeS 7.09 1.02
INilia\(O) gate roererrneeeee 0.2 0.2 O.11 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.07 0.09
Cal) “Sisiadeia Geers 10.54 10.64 10.04 10.60 8.85 5.03 6.09 1.68
ISAO) oi a ots RCneE eee = = = = 0.01 = — —
IM (©) ts Gianna aaa 6.53 4.58 8.89 4.41 6.40 25.93 8.60 1.38
Nig OO} Seer eee 3.61 2.94 232 2.60 2.80 1.33 253 6.77
REO Matic fs ok ae 1.36 0.88 0.63 0.68 0.36 0.58 0.74 3.82
IP-(O}S ty oscectere ac roms 0.32 0.30 0.2 0.30 0.46 0.19 0.2 0.18
Or OR ae sisi 5's = = = == — = 0.13 —
1D RG eROo cna = = == = 0.15 — — =
CQMhodé och Renee = = = = 0.08 0.08 0.18 0.04
S\ o Bole Coe ope = = = == = trace 0.12 0.01
HeOm > socom 0.34 0.96 1.63 1.24 1.09 — = =
Cr ee 0.05 0.37 1.39 1.61 1.06 0.19 3.36 0.24 |
| 100.10 | 100.08 | 100.23 99.84 | 100.35 | 100.25 | 99.48 | 100.35
I. Olivine basalt (dolerite), Masatierra, Bahia Cumberland. Raoult anal.
II. Olivine basalt. Masatierra, Bahia Cumberland. Raoult anal.
III. Olivine basalt. Masatierra, Bahia Cumberland. Raoult anal.
IV. Aphyric basalt. Masatierra, Bahia Cumberland. Raoult anal.
V. Feldspar phyric basalt. Elevation 1 420 m. Masafuera. A.-M. Bystrom anal.
VI. Picrite basalt (Masafuerite, Oceanite) dike rock. Masafuera. N.Sahlbom anal.
VU. Iddingsite-basalt. Elevation 1000 m. Masafuera. N. Sahlbom anal.
VIII. Soda trachyte. Elevation 1200 m. Masafuera. N. Sahlbom anal.
Analyses I—IV have been made for A. Lacroix from specimens collec ed at Bahia Cumberland
by members of Dumont d’Urville’s expedition in 1854. These analyses were first published in
Lacroix’ paper: Constitution lithologique des iles volcaniques de la Polynésie Australe in 1927.
Analysis No. V is new, representing a sample of the abundant light grey feldspar basalts at
higher elevations on Masafuera.
Analyses VI—VIII are produced from my earlier paper on the geology of the Juan Fernandez
Islands (No. 12).
ee ee eee EEE
I II Ill 1V V VI Vil Vill |
SiON eens Aaa 46.21 46.68 47.83 48.60 47.36 43.34 45.27 63.36
iO eae a c 3.49 3.85 212 3.49 3.31 1.03 2.79 0.28
ATEO) tere, & aerate 16.03 16.75 1372 16.57 16.99 8.48 18.02 18.62
Hesse Severe 2.76 5.55 5-49 4.84 4.38 2.91 705 2.78
PEO ecw ate 8.86 7.34 6.90 7.29 8.32 10.99 7.38 1.02
Min@ie kero oe 0.23 O 24 O.11 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.07 0.09
CaO tee erect 10.53 10.78 10.33 10.82 g.OI 5.03 6.34 1.68
BaQOs x 2digasse = = = — 0.01 = — —
WigOm hi pe ere e 6.55 4.64 9.15 4.50 6.62 25.91 8.96 1.38
NiatOR es: Sac. Sac & 3.62 2.98 2.39 2.65 2.85 1633 2.64 6.76
KEO We ecersneycle 1.36 0.89 0.65 0.69 0:37 0.58 0.77 3.81
PLO eas ae aan oc 0.32 0.30 0.30 0.37 0.47 0.19 0.28 0.18
Cr On ecient = = = = = = 0.14 =
| Eons Cece Ben ER RES = = = = 0.15 — = ==
(CIE ees Oca ore = = = = 0.08 0.08 0.19 0.04
100.00 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00
Analyses calculated as water free.
PERCY
QUENSEL
Molecular proportions (* 100).
————
I | II Ill 1V Vv VI VAL eevee |
| ‘S(O RS an oo oaaaoeT 76.94 FT TD 79.64 80.92 78.85 72.16 75-37 105.49
IO cospacn Gs obe 4.36 4.81 3.91 4.36 4.13 1.29 3.48 0.35
AUG Prana eeaaco wee W572 16.43 13572 16.25 16.67 8.32 17.68 18.27
Hes Ore circ chess 7s 3.47 3.44 BIOs 2.74 1.82 4.48 1.74
| © \arcrc cratic SOE 12.33 10.22 9.60 10.15 11.58 15.30 10.27 1.42 |
MiO™ .tieoe eee: 0.32 0.34 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.18 0.10 0.13 |
CaO Pe aanmuye eels 18.84 19.22 18.42 19.29 16.06 8.97 11.30 2.99
BAG) Bite e cre sie oness 6 = = = = 0.01 = = = |
IVI @) We wets ayene crenccens 16.24 11.51 22.69 11.16 16.17 64.26 2222 3:42)
Nias O Prac ota oie 5.84 4.81 3.85 4.27 4.60 2.14 4.26 10.90 |
aS Oe Saino aera 1.44 0.94 0.69 0.73 0.39 0.62 0.82 4.04
12 Oe pate cackencericnicka 0.22 0.21 ZI 0.26 0.33 0.13 0.28 (Ls) 4|
GH OSs Se ea ncanare = = — = — == 0.09 —_ |
Hitt AS eggs craves, «!s/2 — = = a 0.79 = z= — |
CNP ek oe cess sa = = == = 22 0.23 0.54 onan ||
ADDITIONAL
COMMENTS ON
THE
GEOLOGY OF
THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS
85
Norms.
| | Il IT] LV V VI VII VIII
0) -«/teclernineerer oleae eee 0.14 0.40 4.25 0.66 | — — 4.49
C8 eC One — = | — | aon le 0.70
ONG. C’QpoctO TIC eee | 8.08 5.23 | 3.84 4.06 Ze 3.45 4.56 22.48
Di Oe eee | 18.14 25.22 | 20.19 22.39 24.12 Tie 52,33 vee)
Dil. one eee eae | 23.48 | 29.71 | 24.81 31.29 32.49 [547° | zoe Ife
NS oh Oe Oe | 6.76 — — = | = ==
ali notte Wo Gear 21.78 W7A39 19.32 16.00 7.43 6.65 siek |
IDS oils B HO ae rea ceER — 6.28 16.84 7.50 19.20 Buel 2OAOW Ne Seas
GS ee 10.46 ns == = == 53-07 | 1.55 | —
Dio) Soo ep CROre 0.74 0.71 0.71 0.87 I0r |= "0:44 7 /S.o:67, 0.45
‘l (2 ere 6.62 30 5.93 6.62 627 | 1.96) | =e oer lmmorca
Th) 2 re 4.01 8.03 7.97 7.02 634 N) A2T \etees7 | 2.78
OT tool eee } — _ —- — ey We Mes = 0.86
LN. ae ae ly bea Ave (hes hE -- Sa ei | 0.20 —
Gallo ctctecn ieee 56.39 | 60.30 | 49.24 | 61.99 59.44 | 30.14 | 58.50 91.93
WEINs. “oS eee AZ.On. || 30571 50.77 38.01 40.35 69.84 41.50 8.05
Quantitative system.
PUesse= 3): 4. -Camptonose OL Aabiane lO nARE ONG SirA 7-31
Pie G24 2 A dosodic or:ab:an 8.69: 41.92: 49.39
UTS 4 4 dosodic or:ab:an 7.86: 41.34: 50.80
HWA. ANTS ne Del dosodic Orsab any 7.03)2 38.78 2 54519
We MUGS O(a. persodic OG ab) san 3160) 7AT.03)455-28
Wile er 2 Al doferrous OR Mabiaanwy eA Aes37-2 302 5 e338
Wi 54) 4 dosodic OLA b any oO 7s Or5 La 52242
Wie leis: 2:4 Laurvikose OE Jabeanwe25-ORsO52o9 5 o-21
I II Ill IV V Vie Nant Vil
103.7 LIO/4,) || eTOuot lidices7/ |) ICL 69.8 99.7 236.3
—35.5 |—22.4 [=a18!o8 l=te5, |=17:3, ||—4toses gen ie
2.2 DI” Mimwetze8 DEG 23.4 8.0 23.4 40.9
43.6 41.2 | 51.9 40.5 47.0 80.6 55.0 18.9
25.4 Dg a | 24.3 28.3 22.6 8.7 14.9 6.7
9.8 8.2, | 6.0 WB 7.0 2 Gu i) Bie
0.58 0.66 0.47 0.70 0.48 O.11 0.2 0.35
5.88 6.83 5.16 6.40 | 5.80 12s 4.60 0.78
0.30 0.30 | 0.28 0.38 0.66 0.13 0.26 0.2
0.20 e316, |) o.15 0.15 0.08 0.22 0.16 0.27
0.50 0.40 0.58 0.40 0.48 0.77 0.53 0.40
O.1I 0.24 0.17 0.22 0.16 0.04 0.22 0.41
0.21 0.40 0.41 0.37 0.32 0.19 0.46 0.69
86
ios)
Io.
II.
22.
22
PERCY QUENSEL
Bibliography.
Tu. SuTcLiFFE. Crusoniana. Manchester 1843.
C. Bertero. Notice sur |’Histoire naturelle de l’ile Juan Fernandez. Annales des
Sciences Naturelles, Paris 1830, Tome XXI, p. 345.
A. CaLpcLEuGH. On the Geology of the Island of Juan Fernandez. Geol. Soc. of
London, Proceedings, Vol. 1, 1826—1833, p. 256. (Also published in Phil.
Mag. and Annals of Philosophy, Vol. IX, 1831, p. 220.)
P. PARKER Kinc. Narrative of the surveying voyages of H. M.S. Adventure and
Beagle. Vol. 1. Proceedings of the first expedition 1826—1430, p. 304.
J. Dumont p’URvILLE. Voyage au Pole Sud et dans 1’Océanie. Histoire du Voyage,
MS S412, 0p. 1rd).
J. Grance. Géologie, Minéralogie et Géographie physique du Voyage. Dumont
d’Urville, Voyage au Pole Sud et dans l’Océanie, 2° Partie, 1854, p.39.
L. Prater. Zur Kenntnis der Insel Juan Fernandez. Verh. der Gesellschaft ftir
Erdkunde zu Berlin. Band XXIII, 1896, p. 221.
A. Renarp. Report on the rock specimens collected on the Oceanic Islands
during the voyage of H. M.S. Challenger. Rocks of Juan Fernandez. Report
of the Challenger Expedition, Vol. II, 1889, No. 15. (Also published in
French under the title ‘Notice sur les roches de l’ile de Juan Fernandez’.
Bull. Acad. Belgique, tome 10, 1885, p. 569.)
L. Darapsky. Uber den Glockenstein von Juan Fernandez. Verh. des deutschen
wissenschaftlichen Vereins zu Santiago, 1886, Heft 3, p. 113.
R. Poutmann. Das Vorkommen und Bildung des sog. Glockensteins (Magnesit).
ibid: BandelL 13935 Heft 56.
—— Noticias preliminares sobre las condiciones jeogrdficas 1 jeoldjicas del Archi-
piélago. Publ. in F. Johow: Estudios sobre la Flora de las islas de Juan
Fernandez. Santiago de Chile 1896, p.1.
P. QuenseLt. Die Geologie der Juan Fernandezinseln. Bull. Geol. Inst. of Upsala,
Volaex, 1ron2(p..-2'52:.
T. HaGerMAN. Beitrige zur Geologie der Juan Fernandezinseln. The Natural
History of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island. Vol. I, 1924.
A. Lacrorx. La constitution lithologique des iles volcaniques de la Polynésie
Australe. Mém. Acad. des Sciences. Paris. Tome 59, 1927.
F. von Wo tr. Vulkanismus. Stuttgart. Teil I, 1913, p.290; Teil II, 1929, p.771, 805.
J. Brtccen. Fundamentos de la Geologia de Chile. Santiago de Chile 1950, p. 59,
B20. 382.
T. H. Tizarp, H. N. Mosetey, J..G. BucHANAN and J. Murray. Narrative of the
eruise ol HiaM: Ss. «Challenger: Vol; J, 1885, p. 818:
T. Surcuirre. The earthquake of Juan Fernandez as it occurred in the year
1835. London 18309.
—w— Sixteen years in Chile and Peru from 1822 to 1839. London 1841, p. 387
(with a sketch of the sub-marine explosion).
Cu. Darwin. Geological observations on the volcanic islands of South America,
visited during the voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. London 1876, p. 144.
T. Barru. Pacificite, an anemousite basalt. Journ. Washington Acad. of Sc. Vol.
ROS 1103.0, aps OO:
—— Mineralogical Petrography of the Pacific lavas. Am. J. of Sc. Vol. XXI,
NOS OO. LO:
L. Bowen. The evolution of igneous rocks. Princeton 1928, p. 163.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 87
A. JOHANNSEN. Petrography, III, p. 334.
E. DE MarGerig. La face de la Terre. III, p. 1359.
Battey Wittis and H.S. Wasuincron. San Felix and San Ambrosio, their geo-
logy and petrography. Bull. Geol. Soc. of America. Vol. 35, 1924, p. 365.
L. CuHuse and C. RicHarpson. Geology of Galapagos, Cocos and Faster Islands.
Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Bull. 100, 1933, p. 43, 47, 64.
C. Burret. Chemismus und provinciale Verhiiltnisse der jungeruptiven Gesteine
des pacifischen Oceans und seiner Umrandung. Schw. Min.-petrogr. Mitt.
Band 6," 10926, -p. 17-7.
Unfortunately an interesting paper by GorpEN A. Macponatp on the ‘Hawaiian
Petrographic Province’, published in the Bull. Geol. Soc. of America (60:2, 1949,
p-
1588), in which comparisons with Juan Fernandez and other Central Pacific Islands
are discussed, has evaded my attention until this paper was already in print.
4. A Geographical Sketch of the Juan Fernandez Islands.
By
GXSKOTISBERG:
The Juan Fernandez Islands were discovered on the 22nd November, 1574,
by the Spanish navigator JUAN FERNANDEZ who called them Las Islas de Santa
Cecilia. They consist of two islands, distant from each other, Masatierra with its
satellite Santa Clara, and Masafuera. Masatierra lies 360 miles W of Valparaiso,
Masafuera 92 miles W of Masatierra. According to the charts the position of the
light in Cumberland Bay on Masatierra is 33°37'15” S. and 78°49'50” W., and
of the summit of Masafuera, 33°46’ S. and 80°46’ W.
The islands are of volcanic origin and considered to be late Tertiary. They
show no signs of recent activity, but a submarine eruption near Pta Bacalao in
Masatierra is reported by Sutcliffe to have occurred in 1835, and another E of
this island by Goll in 1839 (BRUGGEN pp. 326, 332). Sutcliffe (1, Plate p. 387)
published a drawing of the eruption; the landscape is a pure flight of fancy.
Some visitors have wanted to recognize a number of extinct craters. To this ques-
tion I shall return later. When Ulloa thought that he saw flames bursting from
the summit of Mt. Yunque, he certainly made a mistake.
No geographer has, as far as I know, visited the islands, but many notes on
their configuration and topography are found in the narratives of early naviga-
tors as well as in the official reports to the Oficina Hidrografica in Valparaiso
by the Commanders of surveying ships. Certain observations on the former dis-
tribution of the forests were referred to in an earlier paper (Skottsberg 3). Many
popular descriptions of the nature and life on Masatierra have appeared (see Bib-
liography), some also paying attention to Masafuera. The latest, by JORGE GUZ-
MAN PARADA, contains much useful material and will often be referred to here.
Comments on some earlier descriptions and maps of Masatierra.
The most interesting account of this island from the 18th century is found
in WALTER’s narrative of Captain (later Lord) ANSON’s voyage. The illustrations
are, even if not quite so accurate as the author thinks, vastly superior to the
contemporaneous ones in Ulloa’s work. Plate XIV is a prospect from E, including
Santa Clara (called Goat I.), the rock El Verdugo (Monkey Key) and part of
the north coast of Masatierra, seen under almost right angle and with the con-
spicuous mountains in correct position. Plate XV is a map, not bad in its main
6 — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. 1.
go C. SKOTTSBERG
features; of the mountains only Mt. Yunque appears. The names on the map are
Monkey Key, East Bay (Pto’ Frances), the Spout (a cascade not far from Pta
Bacalao), West Bay (Pto Ingles) and Sugarloaf Bay (Vaqueria). Woods cover the
east half; the treeless west half erroneously includes the still well wooded Villa-
gra valleys. Plate XVI is a Special of Cumberland Bay, of which Pl. XVII gives
a good view, and Pl. XVIII shows the Commodore's camp in the valley later
named in commemoration of his visit. Masatierra was the rendez-vous of Anson's
squadron and brought salvation to the remnants of the crews, of which the greater
part had fallen a victim to scorbut. The winter months of 1741 were spent here
and the ships refitted.
ANTONIO DE ULLOA’s narrative 1s accompanied by a panorama of the south
side of Masatierra showing Mt. Yunque, Mt. Piramide, Co Negro and Damajuana,
but other details cannot be identified. The map (Plate IV) is a rough sketch.
Three bays have names, Puerto del Ingles, Englishman’s harbour, very likely
named to commemorate Selkirk as the cave called ‘‘Robinson’s grotto” is found
here, Puerto Grande de Juan Fernandez (Cumberland Bay) and Puerto de Juan
Fernandez (Pto Frances). Some other (nameless) coves are indicated, e.g. Pangal.
Three rivers empty in the harbours.
I do not know the circumstances under which the survey by FRANCISCO
AMADOR DE AMAYA was made. It resulted in a map published in 1795 which
has formed the basis of the charts still in use, but it may not have been known
to THOMAS SUTCLIFFE, whose book “Crusoniana’”’ (1843) is accompanied by a
map with more details than the older ones; with regard to the coast line it
is inferior to Anson’s. Sutcliffe was Governor of the islands in the 1830's. There
are many names, but as I have not seen Amaya’s original map I do not know
which are new. Cumberland Bay is called Port of Juan Fernandez; West Bay,
Ulloa’s Puerto del Ingles, Selkirk Bay, and East Bay French Bay. Sugar-loaf Bay
(Vaquerfa) is called Sandal Bay, an interesting name; perhaps most of the sandal-
wood was obtained here in Sutcliffe’s time. West of this place we find Desola-
tion Bay, a well chosen name; now called Bahia Juanango. Herradura, undoubt-
edly an old Spanish name, is known now as Bahia del Padre; La Punta is Pta
de la Isla. The east cape, now Pta or Cabo Hueso de Ballena, is called Pta de
Juanango. On the south coast we find Caravajal (Carvajal), Loberia, Villagra,
Chamelo and Monkey I. These names are, however, misplaced. Sutcliffe’s Carva-
jal is Bahia Tierra Blanca, a name placed by him inland at the foot of the hills
(where it belongs), the two bights on both sides of “Loberia’’, B. Chupones and
B. Villagra, are nameless; the former is also called Tierras Amarillas on some
charts, a name used by Sutcliffe for a tract of land back of his Tierras Blancas.
Villagra is located east instead of west of Mt. Yunque, and Chamelo used for
the coast now called Playa Larga. The interior shows some topographical features,
a mountain range can be followed from east cape to beyond the misplaced Yunque,
and north of this is a short row of hills, corresponding to Cordon Central, which
* Abbreviations. B.=Bahia (bay), C.=Cordén (range, ridge), Co=Cerro (mountain), L.=
Loberia (sealing grounds), M.=Morro (small islet, rock), Pta= Punta (point, cape), Pto= Puerto
(port, harbour), Q. =Quebrada (narrow valley, gorge), V.= Valle (valley).
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS gI
separates “Anson's vale’ from “Lonsdale’’ (now Valle Colonial). A name not
found on any other map is “Kay's town’, the settlement in Cumberland Bay.
This name was given by Sutcliffe in commemoration of one JOHN Kay who,
through his technical skill, greatly furthered the textile industry in England and
whose biography appears in “Crusoniana’’. The Salsipuedes ridge and the ridge
between Pto Ingles and Vaqueria are marked, while the conspicuous crest unit-
ing Yunque and Salsipuedes has disappeared altogether. The topography of the
western section is poor, only Tres Puntas placed in correct position. The name
‘Puente’ is misplaced, but certainly refers to the elevated isthmus between Car-
vajal and Herradura.
Some later surveys and maps.
From time to time the Chilean Hydrographic Office despatched a vessel to
the islands as part of the work on a “‘derrotero’” for the entire coast of the Re-
public. The reports were published in the Anuario Hidrografico de la Marina de
Chile. Lopez (1876) mainly repeats older statements with regard to distances,
size of the islands, altitudes etc., VIEL (1878) concentrated his attention on
the possibilities of making Masatierra productive, VIDAL GORMAZ (1881) little
more than copied Lopez. The chart was not much improved. More information
on the nature of the coast, the serviceableness of the harbours and anchorages,
landmarks etc. are found in the compiled “‘Instrucciones nauticas of 1896. For
Cumberland Bay the original Spanish name Bahia San Juan Bautista is used,
and some other early names are preferred, Bahia del Este, B. del Oeste, Pan
de Azucar (Sugar-loaf, also Cerro Alto) and B. Pan de Azucar (Vaqueria), etc.
GUNTHER’s report of 1920 has little to add to the Instrucciones. A new chart
had now been published and is reproduced in a very small scale. The distances
between certain points indicated by Gunther agree rather well, with regard to
the east section of Masatierra, with those on my map, while considerable dif-
ference is noted in the length of the long, narrow western section, 12.96 km ac-
cording to Ginther, 10.25 on my map, so that the total length between Pta de
la Isla and Pta Hueso Ballena becomes 22.2 and 18.5 km, respectively.
From American, French and English sources the well-known editor of geo-
graphical and nautical works L. FRIEDERICHSEN of Hamburg compiled a new map
to accompany Ermel’s popular account of his visit to Masatierra (1889). The
central portion is much disfigured, but the general trend of the mountain ranges
more or less correct, the details, however, erroneous in many cases. Most of the
names used are Spanish. Some are still in use on the British and Chilean charts,
where, however, Punta is used for Cabo: C. del Padre, C. Tunguillar (Tinquillar),
C. Lemos, Morro Juanango, C. de los Negros (now also called Pta Suroeste),
B. de la Vaqueria, C. Salinas, Sal si puedes, C. San Carlos, C. Loberia, C. Bac-
alao, C. Pescadores, C. Frances, Corrales de Molina (a series of hanging gorges
E of Mt. Yunque), Morro Vifillo, Bahia Chupones, C. O'Higgins. Some of the
names on Friederichsen’s map are now forgotten: Bahia de la Fé (=B. Juanango),
El Palillo (west head of Pangal), C. Madurgo (W of the east cape, here called
g2 C. SKOTTSBERG
C. Guasabullena, a corruption of Hueso de Ballena), Morro Caletas (= El
Verdugo), C. Chupones (now Pta Larga), Bahia Aguabuena [now Tierra Blanca,
but modern charts have Pta Aguabuena between T. Blanca and Carvajal (Coq-
bajal of Friederichsen)|. The topography is much clearer and more correct than
in any of the earlier maps. With the exception of Cerro Alto and Yunque no
names of mountains have been put in.
R. POEHLMANN’s short description of the islands, with special reference to the
geology, serves as an introduction to Johow’s well-known work on the natural
history. Johow’s map of Masatierra, based on “recientes trabajos recopilados por
la Oficina Hidrografica en 1895”, gives a very unsatisfactory idea of the topo-
graphy.
Amador de Amaya’s map of 1795, with additions and corrections by the
British (no. 1383) and Chilean navies, remained the basis of all charts until 1917,
when I handed over my notes and sketches to the Oficina Hidrografica. From
1918 on several editions have appeared. Pta Suroeste replaces Friederichsen’s
Pta de los Negros, but the latter should be preferred because not this point but
Pta de la Isla is the south-west point of Masatierra. For Monkey Key El] Verdugo
is sanctioned, Cabo Chamelo is replaced by Los Chamelos, referring to the rocks
outside, Cabo Viudo by C. Norte, with the rock in front called Morro Viudo.
E of Co Tres Puntas Co Chumacera appears. More important is that, for the
first time, the valleys between Pto Frances and Pta Pescadores have been ind-
icated and named. On the Special of Cumberland Bay is the new name Cordon
de las Cabras for the ridge generally called C. Central. The British chart “with
corrections from the Chilean Gov. chart of 1921” reproduced by Quensel (2 p. 46)
shows the topography more distinctly than the former except of the east sec-
tion, where all the improvements have been omitted. A new name is Pta Mere-
daxia for Pta del Padre. The latest edition, revised up to March 1953, is iden-
tical, but for the topography a different technique has been used.
The names used by Guzman in his text do not always agree with those on
the map. He has taken up Herradura for Bahia del Padre, which is all right, but
when he called Bahia Juanango “Ensenada Pan de Azucar, cuyo nombre lo debe
a su islote Juanango’’ — the conical Morro — he made a mistake, because the
name Pan de Azucar belongs to Vaqueria and refers to Co Alto.
During our expedition I tried to sketch the distribution of the forest, using
the chart as a basis. The position of the boundaries was determined with help
of simultaneous aneroid and temperature readings; the same observations were
made at sea level before and after every excursion and the elevations calculated
from tables I had received from the late Professor AXEL HAMBERG. This method
does not, of course, give exact results, but it gives more reliable figures than
the altimeter. Our large series of photographs has been a great help. Neverthe-
less the need of a map, based on a real survey, was deeply felt, and when, in
1951, I was going to put my notes in shape for publication, I approached the
Chilean government through the Swedish Legation in Santiago and asked for
assistance from the Chilean Air Force. This was most generously granted. During
a flight on April 8, 1952, Masatierra was photographed; unfortunately it was rather
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 93
late in the season and much of the island was hidden by clouds." Though some
corrections could be made along the south coast and around Cumberland Bay,
the result was not what I had hoped for. A second attempt was planned, but had
to be given up, and the work was discontinued. Fortunately the Swedish engineer
Mr. BERTIL FRODIN, then a resident of Santiago and a most helpful channel during
my negotiations with the authorities, had been invited to join the first flight,
and his series of Kodachrome pictures, most of them taken from the plane, was
graciously put at my disposal. They have proved to be of very great help; the
reproductions here will, I dare say, testify to their high value. A comparison
with our photographs allowed me to identify practically every single forest patch
shown, and their size and shape was almost the same in 1952 as in 1917. With the
aid of all this material a new sketch map, reproduced here in reduced size, was drawn
(fig. 1). I want to emphasize that this map is a sketch only.
Main geographical features.
Masatierra can be inscribed in an obtuse-angled, isosceles triangle with the
hypotenuse (the distance from Pta Isla to Pta Hueso Ballena) 12.5 nautical miles
(23 km) long on the sea chart and the greatest width (from Pta Salinas to Los
Chamelos) 4.2 miles (7.8 km); circumference 34 miles (=53 km), area 93 sq. km.
These are the figures generally quoted, but others are also found: length 15.5,
width 3.75 miles (Lopez), 22 and 8 km (Ermel), 25 and 9 km (Branchi), etc. The
figures obtained from my map are: length (=hypotenuse) 18.5 km, width 7 km,
deed 5.2> sq: km.
Masatierra is a deeply eroded and very rugged mountain range (fig. 2) rising
abruptly from a submarine ridge running S—N and bordered by deep water; the
bathymetrical conditions will not be discussed here. There is hardly any level
land on the island worth speaking of. Where the soil is not covered by forest,
as on the barren seaward slopes of the valleys, on the coast escarpments and
on the precipitous ridges rising high above the continuous forest cover, hundreds
of lava beds overlying one another can be distinguished, varying in thickness
from a few m (in cases less than one) up to 20 or more (Quensel 2 p. 40). The
location of the main summit ridge and, as a consequence, the trend of the val-
leys, depends on the dip of the lava beds. From the east highland to Mt. Yunque
and from Pta San Carlos to Co Alto, the tilt is N to NE, above Pto Frances
14—18° (fig. 13), at Centinela and Pangal about 20°, between San Carlos and Pto
Ingles 12—13° (fig. 3), at Co Alto 20° or a little more. From the east end to in-
* One of Mr. Frédin’s photographs of Masatierra seen from the air in 2000 m altitude
was reproduced in the daily paper ‘Dagens Nyheter’. The explanation says: “. . . covered with
white clouds that later lifted, enabling us to map the islands accurately’. And in the text we
read: “We flew to and fro over Masatierra and took series of photographs which will be put
together to form maps in scale 1:15 000. We had the good luck to get the summits quite free
from clouds ...’’ This story is confirmed by Mr. Frédin’s kodachromes which show the central
and northern parts of Masatierra very clear. On the aerial map in 1: 28 500, submitted to
me by the Chilean Air Force, the island is, however, more or less covered with clouds, and
not one of the conspicuous mountains could be identified with certainty.
C. SKOTTSBERG
94
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A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 95
NO
Fig. 2. Eastern half of Masatierra, seen from the air. — Photo B. Frédin 8/4, 195
Fig. 3. End of Cordén Salsipuedes close to Pta San Carlos, showing the dip of the lava beds.
At the foot of the ridge the Cemetery. — Photo C. Skottsberg 3/, 1917.
96 C. SKOTTSBERG
cluding the Yunque massif, the crest follows the south coast, an imposing bar-
ranca several hundred m high, with almost vertical gorges. As a rule the saddles
are impassable (figs. 11, 14, 31). From the saddle between Yunque and Piramide
(figs. 21, 22) the ridge turns NNW and in a shallow curve runs right across the
widest part of the island. The reason is that the beds, at least the middle and
upper ones, are horizontal; at the foot of Mt. Yunque a very insignificant tilt of
s—g° was observed in one place (fig. 7). The central part of the island receives
the greatest precipitation, and erosion has worked inland from two opposite direc-
tions, but the Cumberland valley system has been considerably more deepened
than the Villagra system. The ridge is 600 to 700m high in this section. A
narrow pass, Portezuelo de Villagra, often spoken of as “Selkirk’s lookout’’, forms
the only practicable passage between the two sides of the island. West of Vaqueria
the ridge reaches the north side of the island, turns SW and follows the coast,
rising to at least 500 m in the highest peaks, then getting lower and lower and
disappearing as we approach El Puente, flat and sandy and only 50 m above
sea level. The small peninsula forming the extreme west of Masatierra is crowned
by a hill at least twice as high. At Carvajal the beds appear to be horizontal
(fig. 47), but E of the isthmus they are tilted SE, and consequently all the valleys
trend toward the south coast. The dip is slight.
The change in position of the backbone, combined with its decreasing eleva-
tion, has a profound influence not only on the morphology, but, as a consequence
of the direction of the prevailing winds, also on the local climate and thereby on the
vegetation. Climatic dates will be found in my paper on the vegetation (3 pp. 812—
818); the common wind direction is SE to SW (together 78 %). Along the east
and central section the air currents are suddenly forced up over crests 500—
goo m high, cooled and condensed, and rain drenches the ridges (fig. 4). This is the
forest country, where the deep valleys are covered with verdure. The region
around Mt. Yunque may be shrouded in mist while all the country west enjoys
sunshine. Very often the lower cloud limit is knife-sharp (Skottsb. 3 fig. 2 on
p. 808). Fig. 4 shows clouds also over the West and on Santa Clara. But W of
Cerro Chumacera, where the main ridge forms the upper edge of the long north-
ern escarpment, the air does not hit a high, precipitous wall but rises gradually,
and the elevation is too modest to allow the rain-bringing clouds to gather ex-
cept now and then during the winter months. This is the barren, treeless, grass-
covered land.
Geology and morphology.
No extensive geological survey has been made in these islands. Our know-
ledge is mainly based on QUENSEL’s short visit in 1908, when he studied the
stratigraphy at a limited number of places and later gave an account of the
geology, petrography and mineralogical composition of the rocks, but his mater-
ial was too small to allow us to trace the different kinds of strata from one end
of the island to the other. For my own part I had no geological training, but
during our 1916—17 campaign I collected rock specimens in many places. They
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 97
Fig. 4. Masatierra and Santa Clara (right, behind the promontory) seen in SW from 3000 m alt.
— Photo B. Frodin §/, 1952.
were described by HAGERMAN. The joint material served Quensel for a renewed
study, enlarged to a discussion of the geotectonic connection between Juan Fer-
nandez and other volcanic islands of the East Pacific.
Even a casual visitor cannot fail to observe the difference in appearance
and colour between the lower brownish, yellowish and reddish slopes and profiles
and the higher, light to dark gray ridges; see the water colour sketch in Skottsb.
2, opposite p. 52. These two horizons can be followed from the east end to Tres
Puntas, possibly to Cerro Enrique, but no samples were brought from the ex-
treme western section with the exception of a few from Bahia del Padre. The
island is “in the main formed by a rather uniform series of basaltic lava beds,
only diverging in respect of coarser and finer grain or of a higher or lower
content of olivine’ (Quensel 2 p. 44). Rocks with a very high content of olivine
(picrite basalts) seem to be restricted to lower elevations; higher up more nor-
mal basalts, less rich in olivine, predominate, but between the two extremes there
is every transition. Of the lower lava beds, up to 200 m above sea level, “many
show a coarse-grained ophitic texture and may be classed as dolerites” (I.c. p. 45);
these lavas have been traced from Pto Frances to Tres Puntas. The dolerites are
very resistant and show, at least where observed by me, a columnar structure.
They form thresholds in some of the valleys. The most conspicuous ones were
met with in Vaqueria (fig. 5) — a piece of a column was figured by Hagerman
p. 28 — and on the south side of the island below Chumacera and Tres Puntas.
At Chumacera the bed is about 3 m thick. The pillars appear as long and narrow,
98 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 5. Vaquerfa valley, Masatierra, showing bed of doleritic basalt. — After a photograph
bought in Valparaiso.
Fig. 6. Spheroidal weathering of basalt, Valle Colonial, Cumberland Bay. — Photo C. Skotts-
bere), 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 99
Hard basalt
TTT Less hard basalt
20 Agglomerate beds
Dikes black
pout
2 ee ee oe
\
TITRE
WYYTIIABUDLLLD Y THTiTiy tee)
TEU n SD us
NULL °
ae x
s—i Til ——saen
TOR a ES, 3 Z :
BELL DEELEY OPAL EL GLI
Fig. 7. Diagrammatic sketch of a profile of the seaward base of Mt. Yunque. Height c. 350—400 m.
3-sided prisms. The dolerites have a very fresh appearance and are supposed to
represent intrusions between previously consolidated flows (Quensel 2 pp. 45, 47).
The lava beds at lower elevations in east and central Masatierra are inter-
bedded with agglomerate layers, formed by tuffaceous material as explained by
Quensel and illustrated by his fig. 11 (2 p. 54). The photograph was taken near
the entrance to Anson’s valley at approximately 50 m above sea level. In a
clayey ground mass of a deep brick-red colour hard blocks of various shapes
and sizes are embedded, showing spheroidal weathering; l.c. fig. 10 is a fine
example from the same bed. Another, from the floor of Valle Colonial near the
trail to Portezuelo, is seen in my fig. 6. The entire exposed surface weathers in
this fashion; the soft ground mass is washed out and carried into the sea and
the hard blocks left lying. The same kind of agglomerate is found also in other
valleys. Stratification is quite distinct in the profile illustrated by Quensel. His
opinion is that these beds are pyroclastic sediments of recent volcanic origin.
According to my notes the volcanic agglomerate was observed overlayered by hard,
gray basalt in Pto Frances and at the seaward base of Mt. Yunque (fig. 7). In
the profoundly eroded Cumberland valleys all the upper strata have been removed.
All through the island the lower horizons are traversed by vertical dikes of
hard lava striking approximately N—S. Nowhere are they better observed than
on the imposing perpendicular escarpment between Vaqueria and Juanango
bay, where the wall is ribbed with innumerable dikes which, thanks to their greater
hardness, project above the rim to form a serrated edge (figs. 8, Q).
The geology of Bahia del Padre was considered by POEHLMANN to be of
particular interest and importance. The lowermost bed at the entrance to the bay
was identified by him as an andesite representing a much older formation than
the overlaying basalts and tuffs and exposed only in this place, but Quensel came
to the conclusion that we have no reason to classify these beds as andesites of
an older formation (1 p. 266, 2 p. 56); they “have been subjected to alterations
in connection with thermal processes during some intermediate phase of volcanic
activity’.
SKOTTSBERG
Ce.
Ioo
, showing the numerous.
a and Juanango, Masatierra
Fig. 8. The escarpment between Vaquert
Photo C. Skottsberg 26/, 1908.
vertical dikes.
COT
A |
NISRERUMERIeSw en
and Juanango; comp.
arly.
a
gul
aqueri
do not run quite so re
arpment between V
; In nature they
8. Dikes black
oo
5:
Fig. 9. Diagrammatic sketch of part of the esc
fi
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS IOI
Fig. 10. El Puente seen from the shore in Bahfa del Padre, Masatierra. — Photo C. Skottsberg
*9/, 1917.
Fig. 10 shows the profile of the Puente. The foot of the cliff is more or
less hidden under talus material. A tuff bed overlayers a sequence of basalt
and agglomerate beds; one of these, rather distorted, can be followed righ across
the slope on Pl. 102: 1, Skottsb. 3. The tuff was described by Hagerman p. 26.
It resembles a coarse-grained sandstone and disintegrates easily. The Puente
(figs. 45, 46) and the adjacent slopes on both sides are covered with white, mob-
ile sand where small dunes and ripplemarks announce wind action, and the wind
carries the sand out into the bay. On the sand, standing more or less upright,
are numerous peculiar more or less tube-shaped concretions (see fig. 7 in Hager-
man’s paper). Hagerman p. 29 calls them sinter concretions formed by a number
of minerals in a cement of CaCO,: “Die wahrscheinliche Deutung dieser Phano-
mene ist wohl, dass mit Calciumkarbonat gesattigte thermale Gewasser uber eine
Vegetationsdecke geflossen sind, wobei Wurzeln etc. mit einer Kruste von oben
angegebener Zusammensetzung tiberzogen wurden.” This should bear witness of
late volcanic activity contemporaneous with the existence of a more humid cli-
mate than the present one, permitting a vegetation cover to thrive. Now there
are neither any hot springs saturated with lime nor is this region covered with
native plants; the Puente is a field of pure sand with large patches of weeds
along the edge (fig. 46). There are indications that the west part subsided in
geologically recent time, when Masatierra and Santa Clara hung together. With
greater elevation rains were more frequent and where the land is now barren, it
bore shrubs and trees.
102 C. SKOTTSBERG
More normal olivine basalts, less rich in olivine than the rocks character-
istic of the lower horizons, are “widespread up to the highest part of the island”
(Quensel 2 p. 49). They are dark gray and as a rule vesicular, scoriaceous or
slaggy, but they are hard, more resistant to denudation, and form the elevated
crests and crags all along the ridges. At intermediate horizons, approximately
between 400 and 500 m (Cordén Chifladores 400 m, Portezuelo 500 m), feldspar
basalts seem to predominate (Quensel |.c.). These lavas are ash gray, aphanitic and
aphyric in texture and have a tendency to develop a columnar structure. Rocks
of the same type were found near Pta Larga at less than 100 m in the form of
a dike, “which may signify a channel for the analogous lavas at higher levels’.
These beds are supposed to “represent a definite epoch of intrusion, intermediate
between the doleritic basalts and picrite basalts of the lower parts and the sco-
riaceous olivine basalts of the higher horizons’. Very likely the thick bed seen
on Pl. 97:2 in Skottsb. 3, about 450m above sea level, belongs to this type.
I admit that the photograph selected by Quensel to illustrate this formation (fig.
9, p. 51) has the same outward appearance, but the altitude is approximately
625 m, and as this place is out of reach — the climber cannot depend on the
shallow-rooted shrubs and ferns — no specimens were taken there; the samples I
brought came from 500 to 575 m, and whether or not the beds are intermediate
is impossible to tell, as no rocks from a higher elevation than 575 m have been
examined. The samples from this level are vesicular aphyric feldspar basalts. We
know nothing about the mineralogical composition of the rocks forming the
highest summit. Mt. Yunque rises about 350 m above Portezuelo de Villagra.
A geographical reconnaissance of Masatierra.
Pta Hueso de Ballena, where we shall start our circuit of the island, plunges
abruptly into the sea, forming an escarpment of perhaps 300 m. A dominant
feature of the coast is that talus deposits are insignificant or lacking, so that
the surf is able to undermine the wall and to excavate caves. Only in the coves
where a valley has been eroded down to sea level, a beach is found which leaves
a passage along the foot of the escarpment.
Between the east cape and the Frances valley the land rises to 500 m or
more. Some shallow quebradas, filled with forest, descend north toward the sea
but do not reach very far down (fig. 11).
Pto Frances does not deserve to be called a harbour; it offers no protection
even as an occasional anchorage (Instrucc. ndut. p. 226). It is a small, open cove
facing N and E, but with winds from other quarters landing is easy. The beach
consists of rounded stones and coarse shingles; here as elsewhere the surf re-
moves all minor particles. The lower slopes of the valley are very barren, the soil
is exposed or covered with patches of weeds, and the marks of running water
and the tracks of cattle are everywhere to be seen (fig. 12). Some little distance
from the shore and about 50m above sea level is a small shack. The streambed
occupies the entire narrow bottom of the broadly V-shaped valley to which sev-
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 103
Fig. 11. Most easterly part of Masatierra, seen from the air, looking east. The detached, coni-
cal rock is El Verdugo. Ridges a (centre) and 6. — Photo B. Frédin §/, 1952.
Fig. 12. Pto Frances seen from a spur about 350 m above the sea. — Photo C. Skottsberg
5S Fee OLO:
12
104 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 13. Ridge a overlooking the E branch of Frances valley. — Photo C. Skottsberg ™*/, 1917.
Fig. 14. Pto Frances, W valley-branch. Left, c; right, ¢@ — Photo C. Skottsberg 17/4 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I05
Fig. 15. Prospect of the E part of Masatierra, seen toward SE from an airplane at low eleva-
tion, showing the land from Pto Frances to Quebr. Pesca de los Viejos; between them, the
small and steep Q. Lapiz. The dotted line follows the crest of Cordén Chifladores. From left to
right ridges a, 6 and c. — Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
Fig. 16. Continues fig. 15, to Pta Pescadores. From left to right Quebr. Lapiz, Pesca de los
Viejos, Laura and Piedra Agujereada; ridges a, 4, c, ad. — Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
7 — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. Tf.
106 C. SKOTTSBERG
eral quebradas belong, filled with maqui-infested, grazed luma forest* lower down
but higher up with fine primeval stands. Some gullies cut deep into the ridge
and end in an impassable saddle; on the south side is a precipice. Figs. 13 and
14 show two of these gorges. Fig. 15 is a general view of the Frances system;
the letters a, 2 and c denote three conspicuous crests, easy to identify also on
figs. 11, 13, 14 and 16. The stream has some water also during the drier sum-
mer half year.
From Pto Frances the coast runs in an almost straight line to Pra Pescadores
(Fishermen’s point). The trail crosses three valleys, Pesca de los Viejos, Laura and
Piedra Agujereada, none of which has been eroded down to the sea (fig. 16), but
all have been cut back deep and widened to form a basin furrowed by numerous
small tributaries. To call these valleys “apenas unas grietas’’, as Guzman does
(p. 26), is not to do them justice.
Cordon de los Chifladores (Whistlers’ ridge, fig. 16) is, as most of the ridges
extending N—S, wide near the sea and narrows inland, in the steeper rise up
toward the crest approaching the knife-edge type. As everywhere along the north
side of the island the country near the coast is treeless. Possibly the forest never
went clear down to the cliff. This question was raised by Johow and commented
on by me (3 p. 800). I forgot then to mention Ermel’s theory that, as the islands
are so much younger than the mainland, a vegetation cover has not yet had time
to spread to the coast! There is no need for a discussion. On C. Chifladores the
first forest is met with about 300 m above the sea, covering the ridge another
50 m and then passing into the usual low scrub.
Near the seaward slope of the ridge is a dry crevice where a few stunted lumas
linger. We named it Q. del Lapiz (because I lost a pencil there).
O. de la Pesca de los Viejos (Old folks’ fishing place, fig. 17) had very
little water in the stream in December and not much more in April. Along the
outer slopes the inclination is gentle; the middle section is steeper, up to ae
Scattered trees are remnants of the once closed forest. The interior is well wooded
up to the main ridge. Not much maqui was seen in this valley.
O. de Laura (fig. 18). Near the sea the valley sides slope 23—24°, a little
farther inland about 30°. None of these valleys is deeply eroded. There was some
water in the stream in December, but nothing in April when the picture published
in Skottsb. 3 fig. 32 on p. 889 was taken.” Fig. 18 shows the valley in August
The outer section is desert-like, the soil naked or covered with weeds, but a few
solitary trees may be seen. The slope facing E is more barren than the opposite
slope. The interior is filled with good, thick-stemmed forest.
A high, well wooded crest, rising to at least 650 m, forms the background
of QO. de la Piedra Agujereada (fig. 19) which got its name from a rock pierced
* For some of the leading species the local names are used. Canelo, Drimys conferti-
folia, Chonta, Juania australis; Luma, Nothomyrcia fernandeztana (Masatierra) and A/yrceuge-
nia Schulzei (Masafuera); Maqui, Ardstote/ia magui (chilensis; a macal is a maqui grove); Naran-
jillo, Fagara mayu (Masatierra) and /. externa (Masafuera); Pangue, Gunnera peltata (Masatierra)
and G. Masafiuerae (Masafuera).
2 The text is incorrect. The photograph was taken by the author 17.4. 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 107
_
\O
“NI
Fig. 17. Quebr. Pesca de los Viejos, looking S; ridge d. — Photo C. Skottsberg 17/,
Fig. 18. Quebr. Laura, looking N. — Photo K. Backstrém Aug. 1917.
108 C. SKOTTSBERG
+ py
td Lr Fe 4 ‘{ a e 4
Fig. 19. The interior of Quebr. Piedra Agujereada. — Photo K. Backstr6m Aug. 1917.
by a hole (aguja, needle). The exterior section (see Skottsb. 3 fig. 33 on p. 890)
has the same character as in the valleys mentioned, while the interior is filled with
fine forest covering the ridges on both sides and above 400 m very damp and rich
in tree-ferns. The vegetation cover acts as a sponge and only a minor part of
the precipitation will feed the stream, its lower course being dry during the summer;
in winter the water rushes down to the sea as a cascade, mentioned by Anson
(“The Spout’) and referred to in Instrucc. naut. p. 227, where it is said to run quite
dry at the end of the winter.
El Rabanal (rabano = Raphanus sativus, formerly abundant here) is very unlike
the other valleys with its wide, almost level floor; in Johow’s time it was densely
wooded, but in 1905 it was ravaged by fire, and the forest never came back. In
March 1917 the dry soil was covered with the dead stalks and innumerable young
rosettes of Silydum marianum (see Skottsb. 3 fig. 34 on p. 891). Pl. 86 (l.c.) shows
the same spot in August, when a vigorous new growth had sprung up. The shadow
across the S7/ydetum indicates the streambed. There are a few dying lumas, maqui
is plentiful in the quebradas, succeeded toward the interior by degraded luma-canelo
forest. Higher up are better stands (l.c. Pl. 94: 1).
Rising at an angle of about 85° Pta Bacalao forms the end of the Centinela
ridge. It got its name because the bacalao (‘‘stock-fish’’), the commonest and most
valuable fish in these waters (fig. 100), is very abundant here.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS
‘2161 "Jy, Saaqsnoys ‘9 oY — "[esurg 0} ddUVIVUD GYSRY “asp ayy jo
do} UO UONY]s ssafatIM ay, “AUO[OD 94} Wor Udas ‘vJaUNUID UOpIOD pur ovRorg VIq ‘OZ
“BI
A
TIO C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 21. View W from the summit of Centinela ridge, c. 780 m, toward Mt. Yunque and Mt.
Piramide (right), in front of Yunque Mt. Damajuana; below Piramide the crest between Quebr.
Minero and Pangal. — Photo C. Skottsberg ™/, 1917.
Cordon Centinela (Sentinel ridge). The broad northernmost part of this ridge
forms a small meseta, upon which, 320 m above the sea, stands the wireless station *
(fig. 20). The ridge, which is steep on both sides (45—55°), is very barren and shows
the stratification on the yellowish-gray lava beds very plainly. A zigzag trail, cut
in the rock, leads from Pangal to the station, where one has a splendid view of
Cumberland bay and the mountains behind (fig. 27). Following the ridge, which
gradually gets very narrow, we have the rare opportunity to walk right across the
island to the top of the main ridge and to look down on the south coast, almost 800 m
below our feet (fig. 21). The gradient is gentle all the way up, from 5° a little south
of the station to about 20° farther up. From about 300 m there is forest on both
sides, closing over the ridge a little higher up. A very dense scrub covers the crest
(Reameisoo22);
Pta Loberta (lobo, seal; place where sealing was practised in old times) and
Pta San Carlos (fig. 27) are the headlands of Cumberland bay. The distance
between them is about 2 km.
Bahia Cumberland or San Fuan Bautista is the only harbour in the islands
where large ships find good anchorage; see the charts and descriptions by Walter,
Sutcliffe, Lopez, Vidal Gormaz, Giinther etc. The bay is open toward N and NE;
* Acc. to Guzman p. 16 not used now.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS Tere
Fig. 22. Cumberland Bay from Pta Loberfa to Cordén Central, seen from the air in 1000 m
elevation. From left to right, Pangal, Cordén Escarpado, Quebr. Minero-Damajuana, La Dama-
juana, Valle Anson with El Yunque. — Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
but winds from these quarters are uncommon also during the winter. The sudden
squalls coming down through the valleys with great force should be looked out for.
Four valleys end in the bay, from E to W Pangal, Minero-Damajuana, Anson
and Colonial. The scenery round the bay is very impressive, a semicircle of bold
mountains, green gorges and gray precipices (figs. 22, 27). Many of the names quoted
by Guzman are unknown to me, for inst. Cord6n de la Falda Larga (‘‘falda’’ in the
sense of “long skirt’), perhaps = the back wall of Q. del Minero, Picacho con la
Piedra con Letras (?Cerro Pirdmide), Cerro de los Mufioces, Picacho de la Mona
(= she-monkey) and Cerro el Tope (“‘top’’). Pico Central, a long established name,
is not mentioned by Guzman.
El Pangal. The entrance to this picturesque gorge is crossed by the trail to
Centinela, but it is also easy to land on the stony beach. The main branch is a
blind alley and the only true canyon on Masatierra, recalling on a small scale the
magnificent gorges of Masafuera. The U-shaped gorge ends in a high wall, luxuriant
with verdure, through which a small waterfall leaps down. The altitude of the val-
ley bottom at the foot of the fall is only about 200 m. Pls. 78, 87 and 98 (Skottsb. 3)
give a good idea of the vegetation with its stately tree-ferns and giant pangues
(Gunnera peltata) which gave its name to this valley. No wonder that WALPOLE
found that the “rhubarb” grew so luxuriantly on Masatierra, that it was too coarse
to be good! Above the waterfall the valley widens and is filled with primeval forest
(lc. Pl. 89:1). A branch with a patch of forest comes down from the Centinela
ridge (fig. 23).
I12 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 23. Centinela ridge and Pangal, seen from the slope of Salsipuedes above the Cemetery. —
Photo B. Frédin 29/, 1952.
Cordon Escarpado (= steep ridge) with its Picacho, 365 m high (fig. 22), sepa-
rates Pangal from the next valley.
Q. del Minero (Miner’s v.) comes down to the water rather steeply (figs.
22, 24). We did not survey this valley, but to judge from the colours on the
Kodachrome film only the higher slopes have native luma forest, the lower being
covered by maqui. There were no plantations here in 1916—17. A steep spur
separates Q. Minero from
Q. de la Damajuana (figs. 25, 26). The lower slopes have been cleared, but
between 150 and 200 m elevation a dense macal fills the bottom, followed by a
mixed luma-maqui forest and finally a belt of native wood.
La Damajuana (The Demijohn, figs. 25, 26) is a very characteristic landmark.
The cone crowns a short, high and narrow spur, continued toward the sea by a
long ridge, which is barren on the west side. This ridge can be followed up to
the base of the cone, alt. c. 430 m, and from there round the bend into the valley
and up to c. 530 m. The gradient is steep, nowhere under 35°. There are ledges
of harder rock, on both sides with a small waterfall, the first at 230 m when going
up the valley. The sides of the cone are precipitous, the height 2338 ft (739 m)
according to the English chart, 712 m on the latest Chilean map, but only 570 m
according to Branchi; this figure is too small. As far as I know this mountain has
not been ascended. An attempt should be made from the south.
Valle de Anson drains the loftiest part of Masatierra and is watered by two
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 113
Fig. 24. Quebr. del Minero. — Photo C. Skottsberg *5/,. 1916.
permanent streams. Bounded by Damajuana on the east and by Cordon Central on
the west it is dominated by the square Yunque massif (figs. 22, 31). Due to the
scant water supply in the side gullies near the sea, the distal part of the valley floor
inclines steeply, whereas the middle section has been levelled, being almost hori-
zontal at the small clearing known as Plazoleta (or Plazuela) del Yunque (‘small
square’), situated about 220 m above the sea (Skottsb. 3 Pl. 89: 2), but from here
the gradient gets very steep. It is evident from the pictures in Walter's narrative
that quite some clearing was done by Anson's party, very likely as far up as to
Plazoleta, and there is little native forest below this point. In 1916—17 the trail
went through an extensive macal, and the lower slopes near the sea were barren.
Very few people lived in this valley (fig. 27).* The forests of the interior were in
good condition and the upper montane type luxuriated below the saddle between
Damajuana and Yunque from 400 to 600 m.
El Yunque (The Anvil) presents, from all directions, the same venerable
appearance (figs. 21, 22, 25, 31, 51). The walls are everywhere steep with gradients
« Plazoleta is where, in 1930, HUGO WEBER went to live all alone asa modern Robinson,
as told in his interesting book. He built a hut, cleared the ground, made a garden and raised
chickens. He married in 1932, built a more substantial home and extended his cultivations. In
1942 he left the island and settled on the mainland. The little farm is still his property but without
a tenant, and I am told by Dr. GUILLERMO KUSCHEL that the place was overgrown with Aubus
ulmifolius when he visited the island a few years ago.
mie? C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 25. Damajuana and Yunque from the trail to Pangal, looking SW. — Photo C. Skottsberg
/4 1917.
from 55 to 70, in places almost perpendicular. The exact height is not known;
the figures vary from 1700 ft (§37 m, Walpole) to 983 m (Viel); Branchi has 805 m,
the English chart 3005 ft (913 m), the new Chilean 915 m, Instrucc. ndut. 927 m.
The first ascent was made in 1795, a second shortly after, the third in 1923, after
which the attempt has been repeated with success a few times (Guzman p. 30).
Only the route from the Damajuana-Yunque saddle seems to lead to the summit.
The figure 838 m (doubtless too high) on Friederichsen’s map corresponds to a small
pinnacle set on the saddle, the ‘““Camote’’ (= sweet potato, bulb). The ascent, which
is difficult and dangerous, was described by TENZ, who was the first to give us
any information on the topography and plant life of the summit; see Skottsb. 3
pp. 897—898.
Cordon Central (figs. 22, 27, 31, 99). From the broad gable of Mt. Piramide,
E of its centre, this sharp-edged ridge runs down to the coast, separating the Anson
and Colonial valleys and widening to a fan-shaped, barren and sandy front, slop-
ing down to the stony beach. Prco Central, c. 570 m, marks the end of the harder
basalts belonging to the upper horizons; l.c. Pl. 89: 2, Johow Pl. IV.
Valle Colonial (V. del Polvorin of Guzman; p. = powder-house), the seat of
the village, is the only valley on Masatierra that approaches maturity. The floor
rises gently to the foot of Mt. Piramide, a distance of about 2 km, and is watered
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERN
JEZ ISLANDS Il5
Fig. 26. Mt. Damajuana seen from Anson’s valley. In the foreground a section through an
agglomerate bed. — Photo C. Skottsberg 75/12 1916.
116 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 27. Valle Colonial seen from the Centinela ridge, c. 350 m above sea level. Left, Cordén
Central; above, Portezuelo de Villagra and Cordon Salsipuedes, ending in the vertical escarpment
of Pta San Carlos, behind which, on the west side of Pto Ingles, towers Cerro Alto. — Photo
Cz Skottsberg 24),21917.
by two permanent streams, which receive several small tributaries from the
surrounding gullies. The valley bottom was cleared of its native forest centuries
ago; already 80 years ago practically nothing was left below 250 m. Macales and
maqui-luma stands fill the interior, and only farther up the gullies we find better
forest. Material washed down from the sides have contributed to build the wide,
stony and sandy beach, the largest piece of level ground on this island (figs. 3,
20, 27). I cannot remember having heard of any names for the streams. Guzman
mentions 3 streams emptying in Cumberland Bay, Arroyo del Hospital, A. de la
Turbia (turbio = turbid) and A. de la Reina; the first is, I suppose, where Anson
had his hospital.
El Piramide (figs. 21, 29, 31), separated from Mt. Yunque by a narrow saddle
(W Portezuelo del Yunque), towers above the colony. Johow’s Pl. V dates from von
Rodt's reign and shows the scenery when no village existed. The figure 809 m
on Friederichsen’s map stands for the summit of Mt. Piramide. From both N and
S the ascent is rather steep, 40—50 the first stretch, but gets more gentle higher
up, 25—20°; toward the valleys on both sides the slopes are precipitous (Skottsb.
Bc Resor
Portesuelo de Villagra (fig. 28). No visitor, even if he only has a single day
at his disposal, fails to visit this famous spot with the Selkirk memorial tablet. The
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS Pry
ce tg
Fig. 28. Portezuelo de Villagra, seen from above the settlement in Valle Colonial. — Photo
C. Skottsberg *°/,, 1916.
altitude of the pass is generally stated to be 550 m; an average of 20 aneroid read-
ings gave 593 m, which I believe is too much; about 575 ought to be approximately
correct. The north “door-post’ rises with an angle of 80° (Quensel 2 fig. 9 on
p. 51), the south is formed by the slope of Mt. Piramide; see fig. 29, a transverse
profile with a gradient on either side of about 70°. The trail across has, in some
places, been worn down in the red forest soil and has been deeply eroded by
running water. From the saddle one has a grand view of the south side of Masa-
tierra from Mt. Yunque to Pta O'Higgins and Santa Clara (figs. 49, 50).
*
A volcanic island, especially if considered to be of late Tertiary origin, often
has craters or shows other signs of recent activity, and it is not surprising that
visitors to Masatierra have tried to locate old centres of eruption. Walpole writes
p. 93: “We skirted up the western side, which shows three semicircular craters,
whose sides toward the sea are broken down, thus forming bays within their basins.
Of these, Cumberland Bay is the central...’ The other two were, I presume, Pto
Frances and Pto Ingles (if not Bahia del Padre). And Quensel (1 p. 256), referring
to Cumberland Bay, speaks of “die lockeren Tuffmassen, die noch einen alten
Kraterboden bedecken ...” and p. 257: ‘‘“Machtige, oft rot gefarbte Tuffablagerun-
gen fillen den Talboden, was darauf hindeutet, dass es sich nicht um ein Erosionstal,
118 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 29. South side of Portezuelo with the Selkirk memorial tablet, seen from the pass. —
Photo C. Skottsberg #5/,. 1916.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 119
sondern um eine teilweise erhaltene Kraterbildung handelt.’’ Finally, “Ob das west-
lich von dem Portezuelo sich 6ffnende cirkusformige Tal auch eine Kraterbildung
darstellt, lasst sich nicht entscheiden. In einer vorlaufigen Mitteilung habe ich diese
MOglichkeit angedeutet, und vieles scheint mir darauf hinzudeuten, dass urspriinglich
ein Doppelkrater hier gestanden hat, wobei gerade der enge Riicken des Portezuelo
die Scheidemauer bildet.’’ This was written after our visit in August 1908, and at
that time I shared my companion’s opinion (1 p. 136). During my later expedition,
when I came to know most of the island better, I arrived at a different conclusion
(see e.g. 2 p. 57). The geological structure is the same all the way from Pto Frances
to Bahia Juanango, we find the same agglomerate beds more or less well exposed
in the valley bottoms, but nobody would be inclined to deny that they are typical
erosion valleys where denudation, thanks to the scant supply of running water, is
very slow; in many cases abrasion has worked faster than erosion. In Pto Frances
the stream has barely managed to lower its bed down to sea level near the coast.
In Pto Ingles, where the surrounding ridges are very high, the distal part of the
valley has been widened and levelled, and quite some alluvial soil has been formed.
The same procedure is, I think, responsible for the formation of the Cumberland
valley system; there is nothing that speaks in favour of a crater theory or against
its origin as the result of erosion. The streams drain the wettest part of the island,
where erosion is greater and faster and accumulation a factor of some consequence.
As I said, my first impression was that the Colonial valley was the old crater and
its wall formed by Cordon Central, Mt. Piramide and the Salsipuedes ridge, and
I think this also was what glimmered in Quensel’s mind. However, the thick, strati-
fied deposits of brick-red, deeply weathered tuff with “‘Bruchstiicke von Olivin-
krystallen, Lapilli-artige Lavabruchsticke, Erzkorner und Glas’ also occur in
Anson's valley, separated from Valle Colonial, the supposed crater, by the over
500 m high Cordon Central which runs down to the shore of the bay. I mentioned
above that my photograph of the section through an agglomerate bed published
by Quensel was taken in Anson's valley. Either this is another broken-down crater,
or the deposits are ejections from the “Colonial” volcano. This would make us
postulate that the Anson valley had been excavated even to a lower level than the
present one when the volcano was active, and this seems questionable. In his
second paper Quensel quotes his earlier discussion (p. 53) and adds: “‘It is over
40 years since I visited the locality and naturally I cannot now rely on any personal
recollection”, and “But the composition of the formation, as well as my notes from
the field, offer indications that the tuffaceous material of Bahia Cumberland also
represents pyroclastic sediments of recent volcanic origin”. He refers to the sub-
marine eruption 1835 off Pta Bacalao. I willingly admit that I lack the necessary
training to get to the bottom with a geological problem, but my observation near the
foot of Mt. Yunque (see above p. 99) suggests that the agglomerate bed underlying
the basalt is of the same nature as the formation in Cumberland Bay. With regard
to Villagra, there is no semicircular valley corresponding to the opposite one, for
only on the north and east sides are ridges resembling a crater wall. Until a geo-
logist-vulcanologist has had an occasion to study the island it is better to leave the
question of the nature of Cumberland Bay open.
120 C. SKOTTSBERG
patente amen
Fig. 30. Cordon Salsipuedes from Cumberland Bay, with the still wooded quebradas nos. 3 to
5 (counted from Pta San Carlos); beyond, the deep Quebr. Gutierrez. — Photo B. Frédin 29/, 1952.
Fig. 31. Cumberland Bay in SSE, seen from the air. From left to right Quebr. Minero-Dama-
juana, Damajuana, Portezuelo del Yunque, Valle Anson, El Yunque, El Piramide with Cord6én
and Pico Central, Salsipuedes with Pta San Carlos. — Photo B. Frodin 8/, 1952.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 121]
Fig. 32. From the trail across the Salsipuedes highland, looking SE. Photo C. Skottsberg 24/, 1917.
Cordon Salsipuedes forms the western boundary of Cumberland Bay and runs
from the main range to Pra San Carlos (figs. 3, 27, 31), along the east side of the
Salsipuedes highland between the bay and Pto Ingles. Whether the name, which
means “get out, if you can’’, was originally applied to the coastal escarpment, 380 m
high on Friederichsen’s map, I cannot tell. A well-worn zigzag trail, also used
as a bridle-path, unites the colony with Pto Ingles and crosses the ridge at about
410 m. From here it is not difficult to follow the ridge up to over 700 m; who
attempts to continue until the rib abuts on the backbone takes his life in his hands,
for the ridge is a knife-edge, studded with crags. Already at about 600 m it is only
I—2 m wide, and the rise, quite gentle farther down, increases to 2 —30. As
we climb, scrub, brushwood and forest succeed each other on the slopes.
The declivity facing the Colony is sculptured by a series of shallow gullies, of
which the two nearest to the coast are treeless, whereas the others are wooded.
A comparison between fig. 30 from 1952 and Skottsb. 3 Pl. 90: 1 from 1916 makes
it clear that the forest patches have undergone no perceptible change in size. The
floor of the fourth quebrada (counted from Pta San Carlos) slopes 30°; the forest
is of an open, degraded luma-canelo type with much maqui. There is no water in
these gullies. The gullies of the main ridge, Q. Gutierrez and Q. del Monte
Maderugo, were thickly wooded in 1917 (monte maderugo = forest full of timber).
The trail to Pto Ingles ascends the buttress between the gullies no. 2 and 3,
descends on an undulating slope (fig. 32), crosses Loma de los Muiioces and descends
8 — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I.
122 C. SKOTTSBERG
rather abruptly into V. Ingles. The quebradas coming down from the main ridge
are filled with a remarkable Dicksonza forest near the range — note Q. Helechos (“Fern
gully’) — followed by luma groves and macal; I refer to my description, 3 p. 909.
Fog is a very important climatic factor here.
Pto Ingles offers no protection and is not used as a harbour (fig. 33). As a rule
there is a heavy swell and the boulders on the beach are shifted to and fro making
landing uncomfortable, perhaps dangerous. Close to the east headland a rock pro-
jects, separating a miniature cove from the main bay. The beach is a steep wall
of boulders, but with a tolerably calm sea landing is easy at the foot of the rock,
which is pierced by a tunnel, “una roca agujereada sobre una playa de piedras
grandes’, as this place is described in Instrucc. naut. p. 229; referring to Selkirk,
Guzman calls the tunnel “la portada del Solitario” (p. 23). Through the tunnel or,
at high tide, across the rock, we gain the bay, and immediately to the left, about
5 m above sea level (Branchi), is the famous “Robinson’s cave’, a favourite goal
for visiting tourists (fig. 34). It is hardly probable that the cave, described in some
detail by Guzman l.c., served the recluse as his permanent abode.
Fig. 35 is a general view of the valley seen from an airplane, but this picture
does not show the extent of the beach flat and of the wide, gently sloping valley
floor. The stream has water at all seasons. A ridge extending halfway down the
valley divides it in two; the east branch comes from a crescent-shaped saddle, equally
conspicuous from both sides of the island (figs. 35, 36) and reported to be impassable.
The dividing cordén can be followed along the crest up to about 550 m, where it
gets so narrow that further advance becomes too hazardous (see Skottsb. 3 PI.
go: 2). All the low land in the valley (fig. 36) has been cleared by fire and the forest
replaced by extensive weed fields, but in the branch valleys and side gullies is some
good forest, where a few chonta palms have been spared (Skottsb. 3 Pl. 88). There
is much naranjillo, but little maqui. The continuous cover of herbs and grasses
testifies that erosion is slight, and so is the inclination of the cleared valley floor.
It would perhaps be possible to reforest this valley with luma and other native trees.
At present (or at least in 1917) it is grazed; a tropilla is seen in fig. 36.
Cerro Alto boldly terminates the dividing ridge between Pto Ingles and Vaqueria
(figs. 37, 38). Possibly this ridge gives access to the summit which is about 600 m
high; an older figure says 627 (Friederichsen, Johow). All other sides are almost
or quite perpendicular. Patches of forest are seen on the flanks of the cone.
Bahia de la Vaqueria serves, as the name suggests, as a cattle ranch. The
cove is useless as an anchorage, but landing is easy enough with a calm sea. There
is no level beach; the stream, which is permanent, gropes its way between a wall
of boulders of all sizes. Fig. 39 is a general view of the valley seen from the air.
The outer part is grass-land with scattered trees on the slopes, closing to form groves
higher up, the interior is densely wooded (Skottsb. 3 fig. 35 on p. 894). The ani-
mals in Vaqueria have been left to run wild, and the visitor should look out for
the bulls.
As far as I could see, the geological structure is the same as in Cumberland
Bay, with the same red volcanic agglomerate, and it was during our visit to Vaqueria
that I began to doubt the crater character of the former. Halfway up the valley
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I
oA
<
-
3
Fig. 33. Pto Ingles with the foot of Cerro Alto (note tilt of the strata). Mrs. S. seated on an
old Spanish gun. — Photo C. Skottsberg ?°/, 1917.
Fig. 34. The cave (‘‘Robinson’s grotto”) in Pto Ingles. — Photo P. Quensel *5/, 1908.
124 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 35. The surroundings of Pto Ingles, seen from the air; note the crescent-shaped saddle
overlooking the south coast of the island. — Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
Fig. 36. The gently sloping floor of Valle Ingles with the main range in the background; right,
the dividing ridge where, in 1908, the last living Saztalwm grew. — Photo K. Backstr6m 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I2
wn
Fig. 37. Cerro Alto, seen from Cordon Salsipuedes. The small eminence above the escarpment
is the same shown at the extreme right in fig. 38. — Photo C. Skottsberg */12 1916.
Fig. 38. Cerro Alto seen from a point on the crest of the central ridge in Valle Ingles, c. 400 m
above sea level, looking N. — Photo C. Skottsberg 19/, 1917.
126 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 39. The Vaquerfa cove and valley, seen from the air. Left, Cerro Alto, nght, ridge
between Vaqueria and Juanango; the top of Cerro Chumacera visible behind. —
Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
6 7 8 9
1 Co Agudo; 2 El Piramide; 3 El Yunque; 4 Co Chumacera; 5 Co Tres Puntas; 6 V. Villagra;
7 Villa Alemana; 8 M. Juanango; 9 V. Juanango.
Fig. 40. Bahfa Juanango with Pta Negros and Morro Juanango, seen from the air looking SE.
— Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 127
we meet the conspicuous dolerite bed mentioned above (p. 97 and fig. 5). A pas-
sage across the steep rocky and scrub-covered ridge leads us down into the
Juanango valley.
The spectacular escarpment between Vaqueria and Pta Negros was described
and illustrated above (p. 99 and fig. 8). Near the entrance to Vaqueria is a low rock
and a little farther west, off Pta Norte, another called Morro del Viudo (Widower's
rock). These rocks rest on a submarine abrasion terrace, clearly distinguishable at
low tide. The coast wall projects west in a long, narrow and curved spur, not unlike
a saw-blade, Pra de los Negros, and SE of this lies Morro Fuanango (fig. 40).
Bahia del Fuanango is a wide bight, protected against winds from N and E,
but otherwise open. Seen from some distance out to sea it looks forbidding, and
the name “Desolation Bay” seems well chosen, but on a closer view two green
quebradas come in sight, V2//a Alemana (Germantown), accessible with difficulty,
and Q. Juanango.
QO. del Fuanango. The beach in the little cove is of the same kind as in
Vaqueria, a low escarpment and large, angular stone-blocks, but with a suitable
wind landing is easy. My diary calls these blocks ‘‘conglomerate’’, without much
doubt identical with the agglomerate found in Vaqueria. The valley is full of weeds
near the sea, but as it isn’t grazed native grasses are abundant farther in. At about
200 m above the sea are the first forest patches, and a little higher up, at the small
waterfall, is good forest. The threshold is, I suppose, formed by the same dolerite
bed as in Vaqueria, but I did not bring any specimens.
From Fuanango to Bahia del Padre the coast escarpment trends SW in wide,
slightly concave curves to Pra Lemos and Pta Tunquillar and thence to Pra
Meredaxia, the east head of B. del Padre. Figs. 41 and 42 make further descrip-
tions superfluous. Two conspicuous mountains tower high above the coast-line,
Chumacera and Tres Puntas, overlooking both sides of the island; the latter with its
three peaks ought to be a fitting goal for expert climbers (fig. 43). On the slope
of Chumacera are found the most westerly forest patches on Masatierra; from here
the country is treeless.
Bahia del Padre (Parson’s Bay) got its name from the configuration of the
rock W of the entrance. The old Spanish name B. Herradura (Horseshoe B.) is still
used by some authors. The diameter is about 250 m. It is a convenient harbour
for small boats, but the entrance, guarded by rocks, is narrow (fig. 44). Landing
on the beach of sand and shingles (Skottsb. 3 Pl. 102: 1) is comfortable with a
moderate swell, but may be difficult. The cove is a natural amphitheatre, but we
do not find very much of the “risuefias representantes del mundo vegetal’ praised
by Guzman (p. 24), except a patch of salt-meadow (Sa/scornia) along the beach,
because the flora is poor and mainly consists of weeds, among which the gilly-
flowers are conspicuous. Nowhere is the climate drier. // Puente was described and
illustrated above (p. 101, fig. 10); the flat, sandy surface is seen on figs. 45 and 46,
the former showing the wind-polished tuff beds.
Looking at the maps and photographs one is struck by the peculiar appearance
of B. Padre. It is evident that it is no valley, no result of erosion. Branchi wrote
(p. 168): ‘‘Un crater muy pronunciado puede suponerse en la Bahia del Padre’, and
128 C. SKOTTSBERG
Figs. 41—42. North coast of western Masatierra from B. Juanango to Pta Lemos, seen from
Quebr. Juanango. Cerros Chumacera (note patches of luma), Tres Puntas and Enrique. — Photo
C. Skottsberg °/, 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 129
ipseAeeeGerromlres Puntas.—— Photo Hans Frey.
130 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 44. The entrance to Bahia del Padre. — Photo C. Skottsberg 15/, 1917.
I am tempted to endorse his opinion. Both Quensel and Hagerman came to the
conclusion that the rocks have been subject to post-volcanic thermal processes, and
Hagerman, after a description of the palagonite tuff from Puente, writes: “Stellt
man diese verschiedenen Bildungen aus der Nahe der Padrebucht zusammen, so
gelangt man zu der Auffassung, dass dieses Gebiet frische Spuren vulkanischer
Tatigkeit aufweist’’ (p. 26).
On the naked sand we found many living beetles (no reference is made to them
in vol. II) and empty shells of four species of landshells, /ernzandesta tryoni Pils-
bry, Succinea fernandi Reeve (also in sand at Tierra Blanca), S. ¢er¢a Odhner and
S. semiglobosa Pfeiff. (also in sand on Santa Clara). These delicate creatures of the
humid forests are entirely unfamiliar to these dry and barren surroundings, and it
is difficult to account for the presence of these shells here as well as at Tierra
Blanca and on Santa Clara. Are they a testimony of a more humid climate per-
mitting some kind of brushwood to exist, a period during which the concretions
mentioned above (p. 101) were formed? Or did dwarf trees such as Dendroserts
litoralis, Rea pruinata and Chenopodium Sanctae Clarae, on which landshells lived,
grow here in historical time but before goats were introduced? Certain facts do speak
in favour of this theory. A few specimens of Rea and Dexdroserzs still occur on the
south coast of Masatierra, particularly on M. Vinillo and on M. Juanango, where the
goats cannot get them. What did this now barren country look like when the islands
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 131
Fig. 45. View from Puente, looking S. Wind-eroded tuff beds and sand. Behind, Pta O’ Higgins
with its morro, in the background Santa Clara. — Photo K. Backstrém }/, 1917.
ees
itn
Fig. 46. Mobile sand on Puente, in the foreground a dense growth of weeds, mainly Chenofo-
dium multifidum. C. S. as measure. — Photo K. Backstr6ém 15/, 1917.
132 Cc. SKOTTSBERG
were discovered? Not as to-day I am sure, but more or less like Morro del Spartan
at Santa Clara, as already suggested by Johow p. 261. I would think that 80, in
some valleys 90 per cent of the soil is now occupied by introduced weeds. We
have no reason to believe that there was a desert when the immigration of aliens
began.
It is to be regretted that we did not study how the shells found did occur,
if only on the surface or also deeper down embedded in the sand. And we have
to find out if landshells live on the plants mentioned above.
With Pra de la Isla we reach the end of the north coast. Time did not
permit us to visit the small peninsula W of El Puente, and we shall now pro-
ceed along the south side of Masatierra.
Pta O Higgins, watched by a nameless morro (small skerry), and the inhosp-
itable coast cliffs of Bahia Carvajal are seen in fig. 47. With a NW wind
boats engaged in langost fishing at Santa Clara find shelter here. From P%a
Aguabuena to Co Negro the coast shows several well-marked bights.
Bahia Tierra Blanca or Tierras Blancas has its name from the white sand
above the bay. Just as the other bays on this coast it is bordered by cliffs and
beaten by a never-resting surf. To land anywhere on this side of the island is
possible only under very exceptional conditions (fig. 48).
Pta Larga (Long Pt.) separates Tierra Blanca from the next bay; in the
background rises a rounded hill which I take to be identical with Guzman’s Co Ezrv-
gue. From a distance it seems to be formed by basalts of the higher horizons, but
no specimens were brought.
Bahia Chupones derives its name from “chupon’, in Chile a vernacular name
for Greigia sphacelata Reg. (Bromeliaceae), which has edible fruits (chupar = suck),
and applied by the fishermen of Masatierra to the extremely rare Hesperogreigia
as well as to Ochagavia; in this case the former, an inhabitant of the wettest
and loftiest ridges, is not to be thought of, whereas the latter, a typical xerophyte,
very likely occurs here, even if we did not observe it W of Tres Puntas, where
it covers rock faces (see Skottsb. 3 Pl. 97). The slopes round the bay are grass-
land, in the western half almost pure Avena barbata, otherwise with extensive
patches of the native Si#petum. All streambeds in this western section are dry
most of the year.
Loma Escarpada’, 385 m high where we crossed it near the main range,
separates B. Chupones from Villagra Bay, this taken in a wide sense. Off the
point lies Morro Vinillo (vifilla means “small hill planted with vines’, but the
name must refer to something quite different in this case); the gradient of the
surface shows the tilt of the lava beds (fig. 49).
Bahia de Villagra and its valleys, the bay taken in a wide sense and
‘In my field notes I called this ridge ‘Cordon Escarpado’’, and this name also appears
on the Chilean chart, and on my map I had used the same name for the ridge between Pangal
and Q. Minero, and as it was published in this sense (Skottsb. 3 pp. 890, 915), 1 have renamed
the other ridge Loma Escarpada.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 133
Fig. 47. View from Puente toward Bahfa Carvajal and Pta O'Higgins. Behind, Santa Clara. —
Photo K. Backstr6ém }/, 1917.
Fig. 48. Bahia Tierra Blanca seen from Pta Larga. — Photo C. Skottsberg °/, 1917.
134 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 49. View from Portezuelo de Villagra looking SW, with Santa Clara in the background.
Morro Vinillo in the middle, right the south coast of Masatierra from Bahia Villagra to Pta
O’Higgins. — Photo C. Skottsberg 18/,, 1916.
extending from M. Vinillo to Los Chamelos. The broad slopes E of Loma
Escarpada, locally known as Los bajos de Villagra, are strewn with lava boulders
and furrowed by dry, stony streambeds. In the background two very conspicuous
mountains, already seen on the north coast, Co Tres Puntas and Co Chumacera
(Rowlock Mt., with a deep vertical slit), rise to a height of perhaps 500 m
(Branchi’s figure 650 is certainly too high). In the dry streambed below Tres
Puntas we found a patch of pangue, which reaches its farthest west here. Chu-
macera looks like an enormous rock slab standing on end. At the foot water
was found also during the dry season, and here is the westernmost luma forest
on this side, and below a threshold (see above p. 97 and Skottsb. 3 fig. 36 on
p. 896) with a small waterfall a grove of Boehmerza. The next gully has forest
down to about 300 m above the sea. Fig. 50 gives a good idea of the nature
of this country.
On all the earlier charts and maps the bay is presented as forming a regular
curve, but the aerial survey proved that this is not the case; see fig. 2. The
coast cliffs are lower here than farther west, but there are very few places where
it is possible to get down to the water. It can be done not far from Cerro
Negro, where we found access to the beach.
Villagra is watered by three permanent streams and densely wooded. The
scenery is even more grand than on the Cumberland side, with the sequence of
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I
Ww
Nn
Fig. 50. View from Portezuelo de Villagra looking W. From W to E Cerros Enrique, Tres
Puntas and Chumacera. — Photo C. Skottsberg 1°/, 1917.
summits from Co Agudo (sharp) to Mt. Yunque, more imposing perhaps from this
side than from any other (fig. 51). A peak between Agudo and Chumacera is
called Oreja del Conejo (Rabbit’s ear) by Guzman. The higher slopes are pre-
cipitous, with gradients of 60—v7o0° and sculptured with numerous hanging
gullies, carrying water after every rain, when many little cascades tumble down
from the summit of Mt. Yunque (fig. 2) between the carpets of ferns and pangue.
The Villagra valleys have not been levelled by erosion as much as Valle Colo-
nial, V. Ingles or V. Anson; the inclination in the middle and lower sections is
20—30. The forest in Q. de la Choza (responsible for this name is a small
shack below the lower timber-line, l.c. Pl. 85: 1) and on the slope of Mt. Piramide
(l.c. Pl. gt) is primeval; it extends up to the level of the Villagra pass and is
very wet and rich in species. Some maqui is seen here and there at lower eleva-
tions. The forest comes to a sudden stop 200—250, in cases 300 m above the
sea. On a former occasion (3 p. 895, Pl. 85:1) I have discussed the nature of
this timber-line. Below the forest degraded grass-land with foreign grasses and
herbs dominates over the natural S7zpetwm. Along the streams a fringe of pangue
runs down toward the sea (l.c. Pl. 85:2). Nobody lives in Villagra, but it is
grazed over by cattle on the lower slopes.
Mt. Yunque has already been described; I shall add here what Tenz l.c.
has to say about the summit. ‘Se ve arriba una altiplanicie muy extensa y suave-
mente inclinada hacia oeste a poca profundidad, de forma rectangular, rodeada
136 C. SKOTTSBERG
ae
Sey
Seep, oe
Fig. 51. El Yunque seen from the Villagra slope c. 175 m above sea level. — Photo C. Skotts-
bergse Feroz.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I
~I
ww
Fig. 52. South coast of Masatierra from Cerro Negro to beyond Corrales de Molina. After a
water-colour sketch by the author.
de cordones en los cuales sobresalen varias cimas. Desde ellas nacen, en distintas
direcciones, quebradas en que corren cristalinas vertientes.’’ The buttress project-
ing S is prolonged to a ridge ending in a low cone, Co Negro, 190 m high (one
reading only; lc. Pl. 92: 1).
From £/ Vungue to El Verdugo the main ridge of the island presents the
picture of a sky-high rock wall (figs. 2, 11, 52). E of Mt Yunque several nearly
vertical, trough-shaped gorges have been dug out, each with a cascade and a
patch of forest and known as Corrales de Molina (corral = enclosure; probably
named for Padre IGNacio Mo.iNa, an Italian-Chilean naturalist of the 18th
century and author of a Compendio in which 3 plant species from Masatierra
were mentioned). Goat-hunters cross the ridge here and descend into the gullies,
which have been described with much detail by Weber who went there several
times. Fig. 52 shows that it is no easy going. Hence follows a naked vertical
wall, exposing the regularly stratified lava (fig. 52, right). Along the shore Playa
Larga extends, marked ‘‘Low beach” on the English chart, presumably a low
abrasion ledge. The country farther E is a succession of cliff walls and gorges;
see figs. 2 and 11. The sinister name £/ Verdugo (executioner, hangman, fig. I1)
reminds of the dangers on this coast, where no light warns the sailor.
9 — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I.
138 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 53. Santa Clara from the air, looking SE. — Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
Santa Clara.
Santa Clara or Goat Island is a barren, desolate islet separated from Masa-
tierra by a shallow, about 1500 m wide strait, dreaded for its strong currents
and turbulent waters. The depth is 19—20 fathoms according to Anson’s map;
I sounded 20—45 m.
The older literature gives little information about this island, but it was
described in some detail by Guzman pp. 48—53, to whom the reader is referred.
Various bays and morros are mentioned, with names probably given by the
fishermen. The circumference of the island is said to be 9 km, the area 500
hectares. Measurements on the new map gave a length of 3.5 km, a maximum
width of 1.25 km and an area of 2.5 sq.km. This map is based on the aerial
survey of 1952 and on Mr. Frédin’s photographs (fig. 53). The length profile is
seen in its full extension on fig. 48. A comparison shows that all the older maps
are very defective.
The island is everywhere bordered by steep cliff walls (fig. 53). Above is
a sandy table-land, studded with hills, of which the easternmost, incorrectly
placed on other maps, is about 375 m high (366, Lopez). Guzman calls it Co
Negros, but as we have one Co Negro on the south coast of Masatierra, I
named it Cerro Fohow in commemoration of the author of the well-known work
on the flora of Juan Fernandez. Close to the coast are several morros. The west
side of the island is beaten by a heavy surf and inaccessible, but on the inner
side, behind M. del Spartan, landing is — but not always — possible.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 139
On Anson’s map of 1741 Santa Clara is shown as covered with some kind
of arboreous vegetation. Walter does not tell if a landing was made, but the
name Goat I. shows that there were goats on the island, and Ulloa’s map of
1742 leaves it treeless. Just as Johow we found the place very barren and the
vegetation mostly formed by weeds with dAvenxa in dominance, all very dry
during the summer. When Giinther says that there were “algunos drboles en la
pendiente del este’ he either did see some specimens of Dendroseris on the cliffs
above the water or refers to Morro Spartan (also called M. de los Alelies;
fishermen are said to have collected seeds of Ja/thzola in B. del Padre and to
have scattered them on Santa Clara). Relics of the original flora found a refuge
on the morro, which is separated from the island by a channel less than 10 m
wide and blocked by huge boulders which are exposed at low tide. The current
rushes through the narrow channel, and to judge from the vegetation the goats
are unable to cross. I believe that Johow (p. 261) was right in assuming that,
before the introduction of this pest, Santa Clara must have looked much like
M. Spartan. The altitude of the island is sufficient to catch the trade clouds, as
shown on fig. 4, and we are told that rains are not unfrequent during the winter
months (Johow p. 261), giving origin to an abundant vernal flora of annuals.
During our brief visit in January we did not see any trace of water; but we
read in Instrucc. naut. p. 230 that a stream leaps over the cliff at the NW point,
a statement repeated by Guzman who calls it Chorro de Dona Maria |p. 50).
To judge from our passing observations, the geology is the same as of
western Masatierra, uncounted, light yellowish or brownish volcanic beds tra-
versed by numerous vertical dikes of a hard gray basalt. I regret having neglected
to bring samples of the lava beds for comparison with the rocks from Puente.
The dike rock was described by Hagerman p. 28 and found to be identical with
the basalt from the top of Co Negro. The sample came from a dike on M. Spartan.
We landed at the foot of this dike which forms a flight of steps leading to the
table-land of the morro; see Skottsb. 3 p. 924 and Pl. 103. The dikes project
as flat slabs above the softer beds.
Masafuera, former surveys and maps.
Until our visit in 1917 Masafuera was much less known than her sister island.
It had been inhabited more permanently only during the period of the penal
settlement I909—1I91I3, a misfortune that befell this ocean castle a second time
in 1927—1930. Only few scientists have visited Masafuera.
Of the early navigators few paid a visit to this island. One of Commodore
Anson’s captains, on his way to Cumberland Bay, happened to come up under
Masafuera and reported that the island was not, as former navigators had imagined,
a barren rock, but “‘almost every where covered with trees and verdure, and
was near four miles in length’. He had not been able to land, but added that
“it appeared to him far from impossible, but some small bay might be found
on it, which might offer sufficient shelter for any ship desirous of refreshing
ashore” (Walter p. 134). As four ships of the squadron were missing the Com-
I40 C. SKOTTSBERG
MASAFU ERA Ens. Toltén 20° Norte
P. ve
% Q. Sanchez
¢
Q. Negra
+Q. Sandalito
, Wee,
Loberia = SQ one
Nueva
} V { le Q Seca
.
Loberia
Ventana
Loberia Vieja =
oo, = Chorro
—— 2” Dona Maria
Scale 1:100000
GENERALSTABENS LITOGRAFISKA ANSTALT
STOCKHOLM 1953
Fig. 54. Map of Masafuera. After Skottsberg.
modore sent a sloop to Masafuera to look for them there, and when she returned
after a fruitless search, during which the island was circumnavigated, a report
was drawn up with the first real description of the island. Anchorage had been
found on the north side close to the shore but protected from S only (l.c. p. 156).
Pl. XXI is a view of the NE side of “Masa-Fuero’, as the name is spelled. It
shows the table-land up to the highest hills well forested, and we have little
reason to doubt that such was the situation 200 years ago. Four places along
the coast are marked with the letters a, 6, 6, and c; a seems to indicate a reef,
6 and @ are the entrances to two of the canyons. | believe that a also indicates
©. Casas and that 6 are Q. Ovalo and Q. Sanchez; c is the waterfall coming
down from Q. Larga. Pl. XXII, pretending to show the west side, is less easy
to read. I think that it represents the north-west section of the coast from Cabo
Norte south toward Loberia Vieja, but nothing like the perfectly cylindric tower
on the extreme right in the picture exists — the only thing I can think of is
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I4I
a very irregular rock close to the beach in Loberia. The promontory in the
middle is Buque Varado. Groups of trees are seen only above this place and
above Loberia Nueva.
Ulloa found the island very inhospitable: ‘La Isla de afuera de Fuan Fer-
nandez es toda muy alta, y tan escarpada, y escabrosa que no tiene parage
conmodo para desembarcar’’ (p. 287). On a former occasion (3 p. 796) I quoted
the narratives of Byron and Carteret. The island was well wooded in 1765.
The hydrographic expeditions despatched by the Oficina in Valparaiso paid
little attention to Masafuera. When Lopez reports that the island was “‘cubierta
de arbolado” in 1875 (p. 67) he must have included the Decksonia jungle on
the slopes of Mt. Inocentes. Johow (p. 96) asserts that the luma was common
all over the island except near the coast and in the highland, but this does not
necessarily mean that it formed extensive woods. We find the same statement
in Instrucc. naut. of 1896. It is not known when the destruction of the forest
started in earnest, but it is probable that the exploitation of the sandal-wood,
which led to its complete extermination, had serious consequences for the forest
as such. The names of two valleys and a place on the south coast testify that
a species of Sazfalum grew on the island. The possibility that forest fires have
ravaged the woods must not be forgotten. Foreign grasses spread into the cleared
spaces and prevented the germination of the seeds of the native trees. The
direct influence of the goats, introduced, I believe, during the 17th century,
remains to be found out. They greedily devour the arboreous Compositae and
the endemic herbs, but I cannot tell if they eat the leaves of the luma, naranjillo
and canelo. I can testify from my own experience that there was better forest
in 1908 than in 1917, an undisputable consequence of the activity of the con-
victs during the intermediate period. Nevertheless Giinther (1920) repeats the
old statement that Masafuera was covered with trees.
In 1895 the Oficina Hidrogrdfica published the first map showing the prin-
cipal topographical features. New dates had been provided by Johow. During
our visit in 1917 we soon discovered that this map was too defective to be used
as a basis for a map of the vegetation, and we did what we could to correct
it. The result was a sketch put at the disposal of the Oficina, which used it
for a new chart. When the flight over the islands was undertaken in 1952, Masa-
fuera was covered by clouds. A new map is urgently needed.
Main geographical features.
In shape and general appearance Masafuera differs profoundly from her
sister island. The island (fig. 54) is a solid rectangular block with slightly rounded
corners, tilted NE so that the escarpment along the west side is very much
higher than on the east side, where it is quite respectable (figs. 55—57). The
table-land is traversed by numerous parallel deep valleys running NE—E (figs.
57, 58), the high west wall by a number of precipitous gorges; this side has
much the same appearance as the south side of Masatierra E of Mt. Yunque
(fig. 52).
142 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 55. North half of Masafuera looking W. Quebr. de las Casas at the extreme left. — Photo
K. Backstr6m Feb. 1917.
The question may be raised if not the eroding forces have been more active
in bygone times than they appear to be at present when so many of the streams
are dry or carry very little water during the summer half year. If it is true, and
this is believed by many, that the Ice Age was characterized by high precipita-
tion values, the climate of Juan Fernandez, otherwise not much influenced by the
glaciation in the southern Andes, must have been more rainy than now and, as
a consequence, the eroding forces stronger. The end of the Pleistocene left the
islands much as we see them now.
The coast lacks bays, there is no harbour, not even a sheltered cove to
accomodate small craft. The landing places from where the interior can be reached
are the entrances to ©. Sanchez and Q. Casas, but only under favorable con-
ditions with regard to wind and sea. It happens that an expedition has to return
with its errand unaccomplished. Abrasion has created a terrace along the west
side, continued by a reef studded with rocks (fig. 59). At the foot of the coast
cliffs a talus has accumulated, sloping down to a beach where the surf washes
out the finer material leaving the boulders. It is possible to scramble along the
shore from ©. Sanchez south round the island and from there north along the
west side to the north extremity of the Loberia Vieja plain, separated from the
Loberia Ventana beach by an impassable obstacle. Figs. 60 and 61 show that
it is no easy going, and with a heavy swell it may not be possible to pass the
southeast corner of the island. The opportunity to make this circuit round 3/,
of the shore and to proceed .from one canyon entrance to the next greatly
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 143
simplifies matters for the surveyor where, in contradistinction to Masatierra,
boats cannot be used to move from one place to another.
The longitudinal axis is directed N by W—S by E. The statements regarding
the size of the island vary a great deal: 9 miles (14.4 km) by 4 miles (6.4 km) with
a circumference of about 46 km and an area of 85 sq. km, all according to Lopez;
11.7 by 7.4 km (Johow’s map); Branchi, 10 by 6 km, area 84 sq.km; Giinther,
9.25 by 6 km, and Guzman, 17(!) by 7 km, a circumference of 55 km and an
area of 85 sq.km. The figures taken from my map are 10.3 by 6.2 km and the
area 57.6 sq.km.
Geology and morphology.
In 1908 Quensel, the only geologist who ever visited Masafuera, made a
hasty survey of the rocks along the coast from Q. Casas to Loberia Vieja and
north of Casas from the shore to perhaps 1300 m altitude. His field notes and
specimens served him for a description of the principal geological features. In
structure the two islands differ considerably. Both are built up of innumerable
volcanic beds of varying thickness and tilted about 20°, both exhibit two more
or less distinct horizons, both are traversed by vertical dikes, but here the
resemblance ends. On Masatierra the lower strata consist of lavas very rich in
olivine, interbedded with tuffaceous deposits, deeply weathered and denuded,
resulting in the formation of V-shaped valleys. The lower horizon of Masafuera
consists of hard, dark gray to black vesicular feldspar basalts (Quensel 2 p. 58), less
rich in olivine and very resistant to the denuding forces. These rocks prevail
up to approximately 1000 m. My notes from 1917 contain a statement that W
of Vicente Porras, where Playa Larga begins, a bed of “‘conglomerate’’ was
observed, traversed by harder dikes, but unfortunately no specimen was pre-
served. In a paper not quoted by Quensel, who did not mention the occurrence
of agglomerate beds on Masafuera, R. A. PHILIPPI described 14 rock samples col-
lected by Germain, most of them “‘losen, von der Hohe heruntergerollten Blécken
entnommen’’. I doubt that anybody will be able to identify these rocks from
Philippi’s unscientific description, but two of the samples suggest the occurrence
of tuffaceous deposits: they consist of ‘‘Rapilli’’ cemented together.
At about 1000 m a lava bed of a different aspect was met with, a light gray,
“iddingsite-bearing phyric olivine basalt’? (Quensel 2 pp. 58—63). Between 1000
and 1100 m a rock of quite another type occurred, described as a light yellow-
ish green soda trachyte. Apparently a closely related type is found also at
lower levels; boulders of this rock are so common in the talus along the
south shore that the place was called Tierras Blancas. Quensel arrived at the
conclusion that “‘lavas of soda-trachytic composition have been emitted at different
times and that they have alternated with lavas of more normal basaltic com-
position” (2 p. 66).
The upper horizon, from about 1100 to 1400 m, is formed by dense, ash
gray feldspar basalts, which probably form the whole upper complex of lava
beds with exception of the summit of Mt. Inocentes; these rocks very much
144 C. SKOTTSBERG
we Wg
Fig. 56. East coast of Masafuera between Pta Negra and Playa Ancha, with entrance to Q. del
Varadero. — Photo C. Skottsberg #4/. 1917.
Fig. 57. Part of the east side of Masafuera seen from the air. The highland is covered with
thick fog. — Photo B. Frédin §/, 1952.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 145
Fig. 58. View from the high land above Las Chozas looking toward the Ovalo, Pasto and
2
Sandalo valleys. — Photo C. Skottsberg 3/, 1917.
Fig. 59. The shore at Loberfa Vieja with a crag on the reef- — Photo K. Backstrém 17/, 1917.
146 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 60. At the landing-place in Las Casas. Our party is about to embark, assisted by the crew
of the schooner. — Photo K. Backstrom 4/3 1917.
Fig. 61. As fig. 60, showing beach of large boulders. — Photo kK. Backstrom 9/3; 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 147
Fig. 62. Slope of Mt. Inocentes seen from Cordon Atravesado, c. 1350 m above sea level. —
Photo C. Skottsberg 15/, 1917.
resemble the hard basalts between 400 and 600 m on Masatierra (I.c.). The sum-
mit of Mt. Inocentes consists of a still different rock, a slaggy olivine basalt
supersaturated with iron oxides (l.c. p. 70). The extension and thickness of this
bed is unknown.
As on Masatierra numerous vertical dikes traverse Masafuera, in this case
in W—E direction. The rock is extraordinarily rich in olivine and the dikes
may represent, at least in part, channels for the beds forming the summit of
the island (l.c. p. 74).
The difference in geological structure between the two islands helps, I think,
to explain the profound difference in morphology. The streams, eroding deeper
and deeper into the land, have excavated valleys which, in their distal parts,
are V-shaped, with steep sides, which rapidly become steeper inland, where the
perfect U-shape is retained in the canyon, with the entire narrow width of the
gently sloping bottom occupied by the streambed. In the innermost part, where
the land reaches its greatest elevation and the precipitation its highest figures,
lateral erosion has widened the valley and a fan-shaped series of hanging gorges
has been formed. The canyon ends in a high, almost vertical wall with a water-
fall. Figs. 63—65, 68—71, 73, 75 and 77 serve to illustrate the valley formation.
In the northern, drier and less high half of the island no deep canyons were
formed. The ridges left standing between the valleys are very unlike the ridges
C. SKOTTSBERG
148
2161 ‘qo WoNSy
ove
wo C
{ “NM OjoYd — ‘sesed Se] 9p ‘rqan() 0} aouejUy “fg “SIy
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 149
Fig. 64. In the Casas canyon after a few days of dry weather. The rhubarb-like plant is Gumnera
Masafuerae. — Photo K. Backstrom Feb. 1917.
Fig. 65. Looking down into the interior of Casas canyon from the crest of Cordén del Barril.
— Photo K. Backstrém 4/3 1917.
150 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 66. The grass-covered table-land between the Casas and Vacas valleys, looking N. The
stone-building, an observation post overlooking the ocean, dates from the first convict settlement.
— Photo C..Skottsberg: 19/5. 19107.
in Masatierra, because the hard basalt layers have not been removed by denuda-
tion, but are left as a cover right down to the sea, forming gently sloping, wide
plains. Farther inland the ridge gradually narrows. See figs. 57 and 58. Beds of
greater resistance form ledges along the valley slopes and thresholds across the
streambed.
The south half of Masafuera.
Shrouded in clouds most of the time, Los /uocentes rises above the west
wall, an imposing dome forming the south half of the island. Opinions have
differed very much regarding the altitude: 2000 m on the older charts as well
as on Johow’s map, 1836 (Lopez), 1850 (Viel; 850 is a misprint), 2300 (v. Rodt),
1624 (Branchi) and 1840 (Guzman). My single reading, carefully worked out,
gave only 1500 m, a figure possibly too low. Toward W, N (fig. 62) and NE
the summit falls precipitously; it is connected with the north table-land by a
ridge, C. Atravesado, bordered on both sides by a precipice and so narrow that the
stretch above the Vacas valley, where a pinnacle rises from the knife-edge, is not
passed by the goats. Above Casas the highest point is c. 1370 m. Where Ermel
got the idea from that the summit is covered with eternal snow (p. 113) is hard
to understand.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS ISI
Fig. 67. Cordon del Barril, looking W toward C. Atravesado. Note goat track along the ridge.
— Photo C. Skottsberg 4/, 1917.
Q. de las Casas, once the headquarters of the convict settlement and the
ordinary landing-place, is called O. Baquedano by Guzman, commemorating the
corvette frequently sent to the outlying islands of the Republic. From the
beach, bordered by lofty headlands down to the water, we enter the valley, which
is about 200 m wide here, with slopes receding under an angle of 40—45° (fig,
63). It gradually narrows so that the streambed offers the only access into the
canyon. After a downpour the stream overflows and the valley is closed; a couple
of days with dry, sunny weather and the bed, filled with boulders of all sizes,
resting on the bedrock, lies dry, with pools of crystal clear water in the depres-
sions and back of the thresholds (fig. 64). The most spectacular part of the gorge
begins about 1 km from the entrance, where the width at the bottom may fall
below 10 m, while the walls are many hundred m high (fig. 65). From a botan-
ist's viewpoint Casas is one of Nature’s conservatories; see Skottsb. 3 pp.
639—640 and PI. 110. Johow called this place ‘“E] Pangal’’, and nowhere is the
pangue (Gunnera Masafuerae) more luxuriant (I.c. Pl. 111). About 2 km from the
152 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 68. Entrance to Quebr. de las Vacas. — Photo C. Skottsberg 14/, 1917.
entrance and 210m above the sea the passage is obstructed by a threshold dam-
ming up a deep pool which cannot be passed round, and into this pool the
water comes down in a cascade. 0. Casas drains C. Atravesado. The eroding
power of the current is great, and I suppose that the stream is more or less
permanent during the winter half year, but it must have taken a very long time
to dig a gorge 1000 m deep through the hard basalt.
C. del Barril. Between Casas and Vacas lies a sloping, triangular table-
land, about 1.5 km wide along the top of the coastal escarpment, which is 125 m
high in this place, and extending west c. 2 km, where the cord6n proper begins.
The ruin seen on fig. 66 lies 190 m above the sea; the tilt, corresponding to
the dip of the lava beds, is 20° E. Three small gullies break the monotony of
the grass-land, Q. Chica, Q. Blindado and Q. Cabreros. Q. Chica (=small) is very
shallow and dry, but some luma trees are seen. QO. del Blindado (B. means
ironclad cruiser, but may have a very different significance here) is much larger
and the water comes down over a threshold about 500m upstream and has dug
out a miniature canyon. There is good forest between 400 and 500 m and some
groups of trees a little farther down. There is some forest also in Q. de los
Cabreros (Goat-hunters’ valley). Where the narrowing rocky Barril ridge, which
has its name from a barrel-shaped monolith, begins, the elevation is 730 m. By
and by the crest gets very narrow, but the rise is gentle, and there is a goat
track all the way up to C. Atravesado (fig. 67). The ridge slopes 50—60° on
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 153
both sides, and we look down into the Casas and Vacas canyons (figs. 65, 69).
From C. Atravesado the road N to Plano de la Mona lies open.
QO. de las Vacas (=cow; this place-name is old, but no cattle existed on
the island in 1908. Reintroduced in 1909, they had been killed off before 1917
and were introduced again in 1927). Following the beach south from Casas
past Pra Langlois we reach the entrance to this second large canyon, which
drains the highest part of Mt. Inocentes. It happened that when Casas was dry,
the Vacas stream was still alive. The entrance is quite picturesque thanks to
the deep side-valley separated from the main quebrada by a high spur ending
in a sharp peak (fig. 68). The interior has the same morphology as Casas; fig.
70 shows the drainage basin viewed from the Barril ridge, fig. 71 a typical, low
threshold of harder basalt. Some witches’ cauldrons were observed (fig. 72).
Little Vacas is accessible to a point about 1 km from the sea, where a very
high cliff barrier impedes further progress.
The easiest way to reach the table-land S of Vacas is to climb a low bar-
ranca at Playa Ancha, a \evel stretch of stony beach, from where Q. de los
Lnocentes with its untouched forest and fern-groves is gained without difficulty.
Crossing this valley high up we climbed the Inocentes-Vacas ridge which leads
to the top. To our surprise we were not stopped by the fern forest we had reason
to expect judging from our experience farther south; the stony and rocky ridge
was covered with Alpine heath which continued right to the Inocentes summit.
The ridge can also be gained from Little Vacas. The slope is, as seen on fig. 68,
steep, but it is terraced, and on our return we made a quick descent here.
From the ridge south of QO. Inocentes a good view is obtained across the
interior of the narrow Q. Angosta (fig. 73). The morphology is the same as in
Casas and Vacas, but the valley got its name because it is narrower than any
other, only about 5 m wide at the bottom, a magnificent blind alley where, c. 1 km
from the entrance, we are confronted with a precipice and waterfall once more.
The photograph shows the columnar structure of the threshold. At the foot of the
waterfall the vegetation is, as in all these gorges, luxuriant.
Quebr. del Varadero (varadero = ship-yard, which does not fit here; varar
also = to be stopped, and a strong surf may prevent passing the escarpment
south of the canyon entrance). Our first attempt to ascend Mt. Inocentes was
made from this valley at the place seen in fig. 74, where we gained the ridge
at 400 m above see level. On account of the slippery grass the climb was a little
hazardous. To begin with, the ridge itself was easy until, at c. 740 m, the tree-
ferns, which had begun to appear on the sides, gathered on the very crest, form-
ing an impenetrable thicket. Having crawled through the soaking wet barricades
of decaying trunks under the closed roof of the fronds and made perhaps 500 m
in an hour, we had to give up. The altitude was c. 950 m and Dzcksonia con-
tinued in every direction as far as we could see from a solitary canelo rising
above the fern roof.
A short walk into the Varadero gorge offers a strikingly wild scenery (fig.
75). A picture of the short and narrow side valley was published by Quensel
(2 fig. 3 on p. 43). Gradients of 60—8o0° are the rule in these gorges.
IO — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I.
SKOTTSBERG
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154
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156 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 71. A low threshold in the Vacas canyon. — Photo C. Skottsberg 13/, 1917.
Fig. 72. Two witches’ cauldrons in the Vacas canyon. — Photo C. Skottsber
; 8], 1917.
go
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 157
Fig. 73. A view of the interior of Quebr. Angosta, seen from the ridge N of this valley, 550 m
above sea-level. — Photo C. Skottsberg 9/,; 1917.
The south coast. The strip of beach is narrow S of Varadero, and the escarp-
ment reaches an imposing height at Pra Negra (fig. 56). A short km beyond
this point a gorge with a cascade is passed, Chorro de Dona Maria, whether the
same lady to whom the chorro on Santa Clara was dedicated I cannot tell. The
talus W of this place derives its name, 7zerras Blancas, from the light colour of
the deposits. Along Rodado del Sandalo (rodar, to make a turn) the land rises gently;
the shore is fringed by a reef, on which the sea breaks with a thundering roar
(fig. 76). At Vicente Porras we arrive on the west coast. The long and broad abra-
sion terrace, Playa Larga, was referred to above (p. 142); a level plain like this is a
rare phenomenon on Juan Fernandez. At Loberia Vieja, “the old sealing grounds”,
where some fur-seals were still to be seen, the width is 1 1/, cable (277.5 m) ac-
cording to Ginther, a figure in good accordance with our estimation. Several hang-
ing gorges face the playa, coming down from Inocentes and C. Atravesado, and two
streams find their way across the plain to the sea. One of the gorges, described as
QO. de la Loberia Vieja (Skottsb. 3 p. 941) was surveyed by us. The entrance is
barred by very large boulders, and one has to climb along the wall to get into
the valley. Quensel published a photograph of the entrance (2 fig. 15 on p. 58).
The short canyon ends in the ever-present cliff wall with its waterfall (fig. 78).
The altitude of the valley floor is only c. 190 m.
A short but impassable stretch prevents us from reaching the remaining
158 C. SKOTTSBERG
inte
Pt 2
Fig. 74. Entrance to Quebr. del Varadero, from where, up the south wall (left) an ascent was
made. The -knob on the extreme right is shown in fig. 75. — Photo C. Skottsberg */, 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 159
Fig. 75. Looking into the Varadero canyon. — Photo C. Skottsberg ?4/, 1917.
160 C. SKOTTSBERG
aed
Fig. 76. Coast of Masafuera between Tierras Blancas and Vicente Porras. — Photo K. Back-
Strom, 1%/5: 16017.
“loberias”’, L. Ventana (=window, a hole in the rock), Z. Nueva and L. del Bugue
Varado.
Playa del Buque Varado (“the beach of the stranded ship’) is a wide tongue
formed by the talus deposits; probably one or several landslides have occurred
here, where the barranca is of formidable height and steepness (fig. 78). A stream
coming from the gullies above has cut a winding bed (fig. 82).
Ensenada TLoltén is a shallow open cove W of Cabo Norte. When it is im-
possible to approach the east coast boats anchor here, where landing, as a rule,
meets with little difficulty. Consequently, numerous weeds mix with the native
herbs and grasses covering the slopes at the foot of the barranca. Unfortunately
Toltén is quite unfit as a base camp, as the highland cannot be reached, nor
is there a passage along the shore to ©. Sanchez.
The table-land N of Q. de las Casas.
The Plano de la Mona (“she-monkey’s plain’), a name of unknown origin
(there are no monkeys on Juan Fernandez), and the rim of the coast escarpment
can be reached from several valleys. The usual route takes us up a zigzag trail
from Casas, across a dry gully and through the large, branched and well for-
ested Q. del Mono (another queer name) to the abandoned convict settlement
Las Chozas, situated among the remnants of luma forest 550—650 m above sea
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 161
Fig. 77. Interior of the Loberfa Vieja canyon. — Photo C. Skottsberg 1%/, 1917.
162 C. SKOTTSBERG
SRI
Fig. 78. Pta del Iman and Playa del Buque Varado, seen from the sea looking S. — Photo
C. Skottsberg +°/, 1917.
level; another 50—100 m and the undulating grass-, fern- and pangue-covered
Mona plain, crossed by many little gullies, dry during the summer, lies open in
every direction (fig. 79). At one of the tributaries to Q. Pasto, 1130 m above
the sea, a pool of water in the rocky stream-bed made the place a convenient
camp site (“Campo Correspondencia’’). A short walk brings us to the edge of
the plain and to Las Torres (Towers), c.1370 m, and Co Correspondencia,
c.1420 m. Fig. 80 is a view of one of the Loberia gorges seen from Corres-
pondencia. The Alpine flora is well represented on these hills. Near the top of
the high western barranca some shallow depressions almost lack vegetation (fig. 81).
The soil is clayey and the surface, which shows distinct signs of water erosion,
strewn with stones and cracked in places. Some small boulders rested on short
pillars of clay. The ground is perhaps flooded during the winter. I was told that
patches of snow have been observed here, but this needs corroboration. Wind
erosion might be responsible for the formation of the small “tables”.
Avenida de las Cabras, “Goat Avenue’, is a well-beaten track running along
the very edge of the abyss from C. Atravesado to Co Verde. From about
1100—1250 m alt. one looks down on Buque Varado (fig. 82) and Q. del Iman
(Magnet gorge, fig. 83). One of the former inmates of the convict settlement told
me that he had been employed cutting a trail down the precipice to Buque
Varado, where also huts were built, but we saw no signs of either. There are
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 162
Fig. 79. View across Plano de la Mona toward the Larga and Sanchez valleys, elev. 940 m.
— Photo ©.) Skottsberg 25/, 1917.
Fig. 80. Looking down into one of the upper gorges of Quebr. Loberfa from an altitude of
c. 1400 m. — Photo C. Skottsberg 14/, 1917.
164 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 81. Small depression at the west edge of the Masafuera table-land, c. 1400 m; naked
soil, on the stones mosses and lichens. Left, a patch of Lophosoria. — Photo C, Skottsberg 19/, 1917.
Fig. 82. Looking down on Playa del Buque Varado from c. 1200 m. — Photo C. Skottsberg
7/3 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 165
o
Fig. 83. Quebr. del Iman seen from c. 1100 m. Left, Buque Varado. — Photo C. Skottsberg
He WONG.
3
Fig. 84. Plano de la Mona, looking N, with Cerro Verde in the background. — Photo C. Skotts-
berg 7/, 1917.
166 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 85. Looking S toward Loberfa Nueva from Avenida de las Cabras N of Buque Varado.
— Photo C. Skottsberg 7/, 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THI AN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS
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168 C. SKOTTSBERG
only scattered patches of trees on this side, while ferns, especially Lophosorza,
pangue, grass etc. form a more or less continuous cover. A picture taken from a
point between Buque Varado and Iman gives some idea of the scenery (fig. 85).
At the north extremity of the plain stands a green, rounded hill, Cervo Verde
(fig. 84), mentioned as Pico Norte in Instrucc. ndut. p. 230 and said to be 1340 m
high. This figure is too high, I believe.
From Cabo Norte to Q. de las Casas.
The coast cliffs from Cabo Norte to the Sanchez shore are almost perpen-
dicular and about 300 m high. Half way a cascade tumbles down to the beach
in two leaps, coming from the gap of Q. Larga. Just as the other valleys on the
east side this has a forest belt above c. 300 m and grass-land below. Here the
trees cover also part of the ridge between Larga and Sanchez, apparently the
largest continuous patch of luma forest on Masafuera.
O. de Sanchez is very long, narrow and twice furcate, and there is forest
in all the: branches. None of the other valleys is quite destitute of trees. The
small QO. Negra (also called Q. del Plan Negro) does not reach the shore. Q. del
Sandalito and QO. del Sandalo do not seem to offer anything of particular interest.
The talus slope permits a fairly comfortable passage as far south as to the large
QO. del Pasto. ““Pasto’’ means pasture, and there is better grass-land with abun-
dant native grasses along this part of the coast than anywhere else. Pasto is a
large valley with its sources near the edge of table-land. The main stream runs
over a high threshold. S of Pasto a land-slide is crossed before reaching Q. de/
Ovalo, which derives its name from a conspicuous hill inside the entrance, a good
example of columnar structure. The passage is a little fatiguing until we are op-
posite QO. del Mono, another big valley emptying its waters through a narrow
crevice (fig. 86). From here going is easy to Casas, where we have completed
our circuit of the island.
Human influence on Juan Fernandez.
The discovery of the two virgin and uninhabited islands in 1574 was soon
followed by the first inroad into its living world. If we are to believe the histo-
rians cited e.g. by Guzman, Fernandez returned and settled on Masatierra where he
introduced 60 Indians (Weber), a few goats and pigs and devoted himself to
agriculture, fishing and sealing. His stay is said to have been short, but his goats
remained and multiplied. After Fernandez’ death the island was turned over to
the Order of Jesuits, and, in the beginning of the 17th century, the first fruit-
trees were planted and vegetables introduced (Weber p. 162). During the “era
of the buccaneers’ the islands served as a place of refreshment, but the damage
was, I daresay, confined to the surroundings of the harbours. Their first visit is
said to have taken place in 1680. A change for the worse came when L’Heremite
reported that the precious sandal-wood was abundant. I refer to Johow’s instructive
account of the history of this ill-fated tree, pp. 127131. L’Heremite’s visit took
place in 1624, and already at the middle of the century a lucrative traffic was
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 169
o
Fig. 87. Ruins of the old Spanish fort in Cumberland Bay. — Photo C. Skottsberg *8/, 1917.
in full swing between the islands and Peru. Toward the middle of the 18th century
there cannot have been very much left on either island, or the sandal-wood should
not have escaped Anson and his men who spent months there and must have
known of the former trade.
The hunt for sandal-wood ended in the extermination of this species and
had, I presume, serious effects on the forest in general, with the final result that
all the lower slopes became cleared of trees, leaving the field open for an in-
vasion of weeds; Ulloa for instance was struck by the abundance of Avena.
Having suffered serious losses from the raids of the martial English navi-
gators the Spaniards took possession in 1750 and made up their mind to trans-
form Masatierra into a stronghold. I shall not dwell upon the history, enough said
that in 1779 7 places were fortified. Part of the walls in Cumberland Bay are still
standing (fig. 87), and old guns lie about in other places (fig. 33). Nor have I any
good reason to retale the melancholy history of the time when Masatierra served
as a prison for banished patriots during the years of resurrection and later. Its role
as a depository for undesirable citizens came to a definite close in 1855. Then
came the tenants.
A source of destruction of the forest, not at all negligible, were the fre-
quent visits of American whalers during the 19th century who called to supply
themselves with water, wood and goats’ meat. The large herds of goats had been
Il — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I.
1710 C. SKOTTSBERG
a great asset during the era of the corsairs, and in order to stop this traffic
mastiffs were landed as early as in 1686 or 87 (Burney IV p. 210). The result
was that the goats had become very shy at the time of Anson's visit; he estim-
ated them to be about 200 only, but the dogs were plentiful, savage and dan-
gerous. His men saw no dogs on Masafuera, whereas goats abounded, but later
dogs were introduced also to this island which was spoken of as ‘‘Isla de Perros’’.
There were some dogs left when Johow went to Masafuera in 1892, but none
in 1908. In 1830 they were exterminated on Masatierra. Freed from their worst
enemies, the goats increased in number; in 1877 Viel estimated them at 3000.
The new lessee von Rodt persecuted them for the sake of their hide, and in
1892 the number had sunk to about 1000, while there were 200 on Santa Clara
and 4000 on Masafuera; if these figures are reliable is hard to tell. We came
across a small herd on the south side of Masatierra in 1917, and once in a while
a daring hunter brought down a buck from the inaccessible crags where they liked
to hide themselves. At that time they enjoyed the protection of the Government —
the descendants from Robinson Crusoe’s goats were regarded as sacred. They
were abundant on Masafuera, and even if their number was reduced during the
time of the convict station, they soon recovered. To judge from what Weber tells
us the island swarmed with goats after the departure of the convicts in 1930,
and they went right down to the beach. Their damage to the indigenous vegeta-
tion (and thereby to the fauna) cannot be estimated nor disputed. Their ravages
had left their marks everywhere, and several peculiar endemic plant species
were on the verge of extinction in 1917.
Beside goats Juan Fernandez brought pigs which ran wild; but they were
killed off long ago, nor are there any wild asses left, while cattle and horses
came to stay. I suppose that ever since the first Spanish colony 200 years ago
domestic animals have existed on Masatierra. In 1813 there were 1000 sheep, 100
goats, 500 cows, 200 horses, 10 mules and 40 pigs (Guzman p. 178), but a decade
later very few seem to have been left. Again the Government stocked the island
(Sutcliffe 2 p. 206), and in 1833 there were 350 sheep, 120 tame goats, 70 cows,
15 horses, 8 mules and 30 pigs (Guzman l.c.), but the tenants took no interest
in farming, and in 1860 Mackenna registered 15 sheep, 98 cows, 15 horses and
15 mules only. In 1878 and 1892, only horses remained.
It is easy to understand that the early visitors got a very favourable impres-
sion of Masatierra, its agreeable climate, volcanic soil, evergreen forests, luxuriant
verdure and good water, and concluded that the island was fertile if only its
natural resources were utilized. Certainly they did not fail to observe that there
was very little level and moderately sloping land, but the valleys of Cumberland
Bay and Pto Ingles must have looked inviting. We can also understand that in
those times it did not occur to anybody that the living world was unique, but
it is strange that educated people like Governor Sutcliffe or Mrs. GRAHAM could
dream of Masatierra as fit not only to feed a considerable population but to be
able to export its products. Mrs. Graham, cited by Sutcliffe (2), wrote in 1824:
“The island might maintain easily 2000 persons, exchanging the surplus of beef,
wines, brandy, for bread and clothing; and its wood and water would render it
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS i fB
invaluable as a port.’’ And Sutcliffe (1 pp. 442—443) cites a letter written to him
by one MANUEL DE SALAS, Sept. 1, 1835, when Sutcliffe had been appointed
governor:
“The clays and soils of various colours brought to my memory the minerals of
Golconda and Brazil... their (the islands’) geographical position places them in a like
situation and renders probable the same effects and equal productions . . . One occurs
to me which might be of great importance; such is the making of bricks, of which
immense quantities are brought from England and the United States, and for which
you have all the elements in abundance; there are, the firewood, the clays, and, above
all, the idle hands.”’
Still the tenants, who succeeded each other, did not coin money. Guzman
made an estimation of the arable land, 110 hectares on level ground, 70 on the
lower slopes; in addition there were 20 on Santa Clara and 100 on Masafuera,
and, if the forest was cleared, grazing land of much greater size would be obtained.
The colonists took no interest in cattle. Lopez argued (1878) that if the tenant
were more enterprising, he would go in for cattle and sheep, of which the island
could maintain 10000 — the expectations had grown! Viel’s report (pp. 19—22),
founded on his observations in 1877 — a few days I presume — reflects the
ideas of his time regarding the future of Masatierra. He admits that its fertility
was more apparent than real although chonta and sandal-wood grew in the for-
ests, both highly appreciated for their valuable wood and a possible source of a
small trade — it was 50 years since anybody saw a sandal tree! A road around
the island would become a great asset, because various industries could be started
in different places... Timber was plentiful, but the contract forbade the lessee
to use it, because the disappearance of the forest would endanger the water
supply. Viel’s personal opinion was that this danger did not exist, “the island,
situated in mid-ocean, accumulates the clouds and condensation produces the
rains which feed the streams and irrigate the land; thus there is no reason why
the lack of trees would have a contrary effect’. He forgot all about erosion. He
recommended to His Excellency to authorize the lessee to utilize the forest; be-
sides, he wrote, ‘‘if dead trees are left lying, the fresh growth will be poor and
raquitic (!)’’; one cannot help wondering why, after thousands of years, when the
fallen logs were left to decay, there was still dense, healthy forest. Unfortunately,
“the quality of the native timber was not good, for which reason it should be better
gradually to replace the indigenous trees by better ones, which later would become
a source of income to the Republic. Pines should be planted at once on a large
scale; it would be wise to take advantage of the present tenant who would be
glad to look after the plantations, provided that some minor behalves which
wouldn't in any way harm the State or render his contract more favourable were
conceded him.’’! It was necessary to supply good timber; if not, the whalers would
cease to come. Fruit-growing ought to be improved, wheat grew well, potatoes
could be exported to northern Chile with great gain. In this connection Viel says
that zarzaparilla — here = Acaena argentea, a noxious weed — was common and
1 Translated from Spanish.
172 C. SKOTTSBERG
maqui not less abundant; it is not clear whether or not he regarded them as a
source of wealth.
As a more promising industry than forestry Viel recommends raising cattle.
The island could easily maintain 1000, during the Spanish time there had been
800, and now the number of domesticated animals was 98 cows and 50 horses,
but many had run wild. The 3000 wild goats ought to be protected by a closed
season; 800 skins had been exported recently. Apparently the fur seals did not,
in his opinion, need protection: “the output was mediocre, a consequence of the
settlers not being sufficiently intelligent and industrious’! — he forgot that the
poor result of sealing was a consequence of ruthless persecution during a cent-
ury. The average number of seals killed per annum was 700 — one would call
this a fair number considering the small size of the islands. Fishing was neg-
lected, only very little salted or dried fish had been exported. There was plenty
‘“langosta’, and it ought to be made into preserves. Viel concludes his report
with the following words: “‘El] estado actual es bien lamentable.’’ Had the Govern-
ment listened to his recommendations the situation would have become much
more lamentable.
Of this official report to the Minister of Finance and to the Governor of
Valparaiso FELLENBERG published a translation, but he protests against Viel’s belief
that the disappearance of the forest would not harm the water supply. As an appen-
dix he published 3 letters from the new tenant, addressed to his relatives in Bern.
ALFRED VON RODT, of Swiss descent, an ex-officer in the Austrian army
and a well-educated gentleman, settled on contract on Masatierra as tenant of
the islands. Encouraged by the many favorable reports on their resources, he ex-
pected to make his fortune, and he had some money to invest in the enterprise.
His first letter, written shortly after his arrival and dated June 5, 1877, contains
dates on the size and position of the place; he tells that there were 7000 wild
goats and pasture for 1000 head of cattle and that he intended to start “‘verschie-
dene Industrien’”’. Evidently he went to work without delay; on March 13, 1878,
he writes that he had timber worth 3000 Dollars ready to be shipped to the coast.
He reported from Masafuera 17.6. 1878 that this island was considerably larger
than Masatierra (!) and that there were large forests and the most beautiful grass-
lands where it would be easy to feed 20000 sheep. He had killed more than
700 fur seals.
The castle in the air vanished, von Rodt never founded any new industries
on Masatierra, there never was a sheep-farm on Masafuera. He lost his money,
but he remained true to his beloved Masatierra, where it is easy enough to make
a living, but perhaps not a fortune. The von Rodt dynasty was still going strong
when we visited the islands; the sons of Alfred made their living as lobster? fish-
1 Translated from Spanish.
2 Professor KARL LANG, head of the Dept. of Evertebrates in the Nat. Hist. Museum, Stock-
holm, on my request kindly made a diligent search for an English equivalent to the Spanish
word langosta as name of the large Decapod /asus Lalandei (formerly known as Palinurus
Jrontalis), which from a scientific viewpoint is no real lobster. He reports that Palimurus vul-
garis and related forms are called “‘rock-lobster’’; “spiny lobster’ is another name. For the sake
of brevity “lobster’’ or “‘langosta” will be used here.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS LTS
ers, cultivated their corn-fields and gardens and reared a new crop of sturdy
fishermen.
The damaging influence of von Rodt’s reign on the native flora and fauna
must not be overrated. It is true that the maqui spread, but also that the goats
decreased in number. The population remained very small, and the cultivated
soil did not extend much. In comparison with recent disasters the encroach during
the last decades of the 19th century was of little significance, except, perhaps, with
regard to the chonta palm, one of Nature’s great treasures. And BURGER tells
us (p. 111) that when von Rodt failed to “develop” the islands, he became a
protector of their nature.
In 1877 the population of Masatierra counted 64 persons, 29 of whom were
male, children not included (demographic figures taken from Guzman p. 37), in
1878 74 (22), in 1879 141 (51), and in 1880 147 (55) — the rise probably due to the
arrival of labourers contracted by the tenant. Then it began to sink: 82 (24) in
1885, 61 (23) in 1886. In 1885 the German merchant ALEXANDER ERMEL visited
Masatierra as partaker in a tourist excursion. As many before and after him he
fell for the beauty. of the scenery and he returned with fantastic ideas of the value
of the natural resources, which nobody had understood to utilize properly.1 Con-
sequently he did not hold a very high opinion of von Rodt. Even barren Santa
Clara became fertile in Ermel’s eyes. For Masafuera only no great future was in
store; it was too inaccessible. ““Daher wird Masafuera ftir die Zukunft allein die
traurige Bestimmung haben, als ein in Wolken eingehiillter, schauriger Felsen
dazustehen, dessen Nahe die Seefahrer soviel als moglich vermeiden werden”
(p. 115).
In spite of the very short duration of his visit (3 days), Ermel judged him-
self competent to discuss the economic importance of the islands for Chile. Masa-
tierra might well serve as a health-resort. Its principal industry would be fishing.
Here he was, as the future showed, right, and the same is true when he argues that
the seals needed protection. In former days the seals had been extremely abund-
ant, not only the fur seal, but also the sea elephant. L’Heremite saw thousands
of sea lions and seals (Burney III p. 18). Walter reports on the “sea lions’, which
occurred in large herds, but Pl. XIX shows that his “sea lions’ were sea elephants.
Ulloa tells us (p. 287) that “the beaches and rocks were everywhere crowded
with seals in such abundance that no free space was left where one could walk;
they did not leave a passage between them’.2 Captain ROGERS (1709) says
that a compact string of seals lined the beach of Cumberland Bay (Guzman
p. 215). The main slaughter of the fur seal commenced in 1797; it is reported that
in 1801 a single ship carried one million skins to the London market. If this be
1 These illusions have been very tough. In an American newspaper (Meridian Star, Miss.)
the following paragraph appeared on March 1, 1928: “Crusoe island fruitful. — Juan Fernandez
Island, on which Alexander Selkirk, the reputed original of Robinson Crusoe, lived for four
years, is one of the most fruitful spots in South America, according to a recent survey. Every
known plant seems to grow there. One Frenchman who was shipwrecked there 40 years ago
refuses to leave.’ No comments needed, but the climax is priceless.
2 Translated from Spanish.
174 C. SKOTTSBERG
true, it is a wonder that sealing could be practised with a profit over a period of
40 years. The seals have disappeared from Masatierra, the sea elephant is extinct
in the waters of Juan Fernandez. As I told above, we found a small herd of
fur seals at Loberia Vieja. Since 1891 it is protected by law, to what effect I shall
not say.
But let us return to Ermel. Even if fishing ranked first, the wealth of the
land was by no means contemptible: timber and fuel, chonta, sandalo, charcoal,
“womit Herr von Rodt in den ersten Jahren seiner Pachtzeit einen lohnenden
Anfang gemacht hatte’; all kinds of fruit, probably also grain and wine, and
breeding cattle, llamas and vicunas should be tried. He also underlined Masatierra’s
strategic position.
However, nothing happened except that the population continued to dwindle,
reaching its lowest figure, 35 (12), in 1893. When Johow revisited the islands in
1895 it had grown to 54. In 1891—g92 Johow headed an official commission and
he outlined a program for the future management of the islands. This document
was published in his book, pp. 267—274. It is not without interest, and a sum-
mary will be given here. It begins by stating that the utilization must be based
on the principal marine products, the langosta (Yasus Lalandez), confined to
Juan Fernandez and the Desventuradas Islands (San Ambrosio and San Felix), and
the bacalao (Polyprion prognatus), also absent from the coast of the mainland. Even
the latter would become a valuable article of export, the more so because it is
one of the worst enemies of Yasus. The waters abound in many other kinds of
savoury fishes. When, however, the commission recommends to repeal the law of
1891, prohibiting the destruction of the fur seals, with the motive that seals are
the most dreaded enemies of the fishes, no responsible authority in our days
would agree. Poachers can be relied upon to keep the number of seals down.
Johow states that agriculture will never become profitable, for the simple
reason that there is very little arable land and that the soil, once deprived of
its natural vegetation cover, will be subject to erosion. Wheat should be imported
from the mainland and land utilization limited to cultivation of potatoes and veget-
ables for local consumption. Nothing is said of the aspects as grazing land.
There were very few animals in Johow’s time. After these introductory remarks the
commission proceeds to answer a number of questions.
With regard to the administration, some kind of authority should be estab-
lished on Masafuera. A small steamer would become necessary to serve the com-
munications between Masatierra and Valparaiso. An “inspector de colonizacion”’
should be appointed. The question whether it would be necessary to prohibit
the cutting of chonta and sdndalo is answered in the affirmative. Johow estimated
the number of full-grown chontas at 100 to 150, and he had occasion to visit
the last living sandalo. They were already under provisional protection and it
was recommended ‘no solo por motivos meramente ideales o sea cientificos, sino
tambien por consideraciones de cardcter comercial i econdémico” that the law
should remain in force and violation be subject to severe penalty: “‘No seria, a
nuestro juicio, exajerado castigar la destruccion de un solo ejemplar de chonta
o de sandalo como delito de robo comun, i prohibir.tambien su corta bajo pre-
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 175
testo cientifico.’’ And the commission made public that, at repeated occasions,
the crew — they forgot to add “‘and officers’’ — of vessels belonging to the Armada
Nacional had possessed themselves of large quantities of chonta trunks — with
the assistance of the colonists. (Such is the attitude of the majority of people
all over the world that if an individual stands before the last living specimen of
a plant or animal, he will grab it, because if he doesn’t, someone else will have it.)
In the 1890's there were no plantations needing protection, but in Johow’s
opinion the existence of the native forest was jeopardized by the ravages of a
parasitic fungus, Axtexnarta scortadea Berk. (Limacinia fernandeziana Neger ex
Johow), and he feared that it would ‘“‘concluir poco a poco con la vejetacion de
muchas quebradas’’. The fungus is still plentiful, but its killing capacity was, as
far as I could see, greatly overrated. The commission recommended to make pun-
ishable to set the woods on fire, and to enjoin the inhabitants and visitors in
need of wood to use only the fallen trunks. If I remember right there later was
a regulation that only the maqui could be used for fuel. In the report nothing
is said about the damnable habit of visitors to rob the forest of the stately en-
demic tree-ferns which, always without success, they tried to plant in their gardens
on the mainland. Ermel saw the lifeboats of his ship return laden with young
chontas and tree-ferns and looking like gardens afloat. I have witnessed the same
traffic myself, but I do not know if it still flourishes — there is a long way now
to the young chontas and to the tree-ferns.
A question if fishing with dynamite ought to be forbidden was answered in
the affirmative, but not because it would reduce the fish supply very much —
though it is admitted that the demand for fish might be greater in the future —
but rather because “‘la dinamita... manejada por personas de poca o ninguna
ilustracion, facilmente orijina funestos incidentes .. .’’. With regard to the langosta
no scarcity had made itself felt, but it was recommended to leave it in peace
during the breeding season.
Among the remaining questions, of which many were referred to specialists
and not answered by the commission, one is of interest: it was recommended to
exterminate the wild dogs and the native buzzards on Masafuera. The motive was
to take better care of the goats, still considered to be an important source of
meat; the meat is, I admit, very palatable. A bounty was therefore suggested.
Nobody will grieve the loss of the wild dogs; they are not good company, but
in the case of the buzzard, Buteo erythronotus exsul, the care for the goats gets
in conflict with the interests of science. In his catalogue of the insular Ornis Johow
remarks that the “aguiluchos quizas representan una variedad endémica si no una
especie distinta de la del continente’’ — nevertheless he would not hesitate to
exterminate it. Had he known the flora of Masafuera better, he would have been
less kindly disposed toward the goats.
Finally the commission underlines the urgent need of regular communications
with the mainland with rapid steamers permitting the products of the fishing in- -
dustry to arrive fresh at their destination.
Thus the wants and needs were stated, but little was accomplished. The
wild dogs on Masafuera were exterminated, but fortunately the buzzard escaped.
176 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 89. Lobster fishers working for Recart y Doniez by their boats during the closed season.
Cumberland Bay. — Photo K. Backstro6m Dec. 1916.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS I
Fig. 90. The take is brought into the Recart y Doniez factory; left, live lobsters; right, the
metal cooking baskets. — Photo C. Skottsberg °/, 1917.
Fig. 91. The harbour in Cumberland Bay, showing three schooners at anchor, a motor launch
and a number of fish-chests used for storing the take until shipped alive to Valparaiso. —
Photo C. Skottsberg 3/, 1917.
12 — 537351 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Est. Viole fe
178 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 92. The village in Cumberland Bay, seen from the slope of Salsipuedes. — Photo C. Skotts-
berg 24/, 1917:
Masafuera got no supervisor, the management of the forests continued as before,
the chonta continued to be cut unlawfully —- a common occupation during the
winter months, Weber says p. 116 — nothing was done for the fishing industry,
no steamer came and went to the benefit of the inhabitants. Life went on as before.
Let us return to the langosta. Ever since the days of the discovery of the
islands this magnificent crayfish had been appreciated as very good eating, and at
Anson’s time the beaches literally swarmed with large-sized specimens. No in-
strument was needed to catch any amount in one or two feet of water. How
long this happy state of affairs lasted I do not know, nowadays the best catch
is made in depths from 40 to 80 meters. In spite of the value of this marine
product, which from time to time was shipped to the mainland, none of the
tenants had the means to organize the industry on a larger scale. A company
was formed in 1893, but even with a catch of 35 to 40 thousand annually and
exporting some 40000 tins of preserved tails, the business did not pay, and a
new company formed in 1900 also failed (see Guzman p. 209). In 1914 Messrs.
Recart y Doniez started their establishment. We had the very best opportunity
to watch the fishing from the catch of the sharks used as bait to handling the
langosts in the factory (figs. 88—g91) and to the export of the living animals, in
the company of which we made our return voyage to Valparaiso onboard one of
the schooners. The stern is built as a well with free circulation of the water, and
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 179
Fig. 93. Carica papaya in the garden of Mr. Charpentier, Valle Anson. — Photo C. Skotts-
layers By G7
if the passage could be completed in 21/, to 3 days all went well, but in too
calm or too bad weather the motor alone did not help very much, the crossing
was slow and it happened that very few of the lobsters arrived alive. Two minor
companies were also in operation. The closed season was strictly observed. On
the 2d of January at 6 a.m. a rifle shot signalled the open season, and the
launches towed a string of boats, each party rushing to gain the best grounds
which it monopolized during the season. Recart y Doniez also held the licence
to fish at Masafuera and sent a schooner thither several times. I don’t remember
having heard that any kind of fish was exported at that time, but fish was the
staple food on the island. About 200 people lived there, most of the men being
employed by the companies. The village in Cumberland Bay (fig. 92) looked
quite inviting with its neat, if not always too well kept houses, vegetable gardens,
fruit trees and flower-beds, set among exotic trees like araucarias, eucalypts,
poplars, pines, A/b/zzta, Eriobotrya and so forth. Johow has published a paper
on the plants cultivated in the islands, and also a list in his book pp. 263—266.
With the exception of the fig and the quince most of the fruit trees yielded in-
different fruits. The climate is of the Mediterranean type, but at the same time
pronouncedly oceanic, and the lack of a period of real warm weather seemed to
be responsible for the failure of Citrus fruits. The more surprising was it to find
the papaya in cultivation in a garden belonging to a colonist of French descent.
180 C. SKOTTSBERG
‘ig. 94. Threshing the wheat with a tropilla of horses, Cumberland Bay. — Photo K. Back-
strom I917.
Fig. 95. Chaff before the wind. Same place as fig. 94. — Photo K. Backstrom 1917.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 181
Fig. 96. A rodeo in Cumberland Bay. — Photo K. Backstrém 1917.
The specimens were small, and so were the fruits, which we had no opportunity
to taste (fig. 93). This seems to be the only tropical tree thriving in this warm-
temperate climate. Several ornamental plants have become naturalized in the neigh-
bourhood of the village, e.g. Zantedeschia aethiopica, Pelargonium spp., Tropaecolum
majus, Matthiola incana and Lochnera rosea.
Wheat-fields were few and small and harvesting methods quite primitive;
see figs. 94 and 95. Most of the flour was imported, and there was also a shortage
of potatoes. Unfortunately the number of animals had increased very much, much
more than would be deemed necessary, but milk-cows were few. Imported wine
was the daily beverage, here as in other parts of Chile. Herds of cattle roamed
through all the valleys from Pto Frances to Vaqueria on the north and from the
foot of Mt. Yunque to Puente on the south side of the island. I regret having
neglected to ask their number; every animal had its owner. Fig. 96 shows a
rodeo in Cumberland Bay. Only the herd in Vaqueria was left to run wild. Horses
were seen in some valleys, but I cannot remember having seen any sheep, and
we were never offered mutton.
After 1917 the population remained about the same for years, but in 1930
it had increased to 298, of which 155 were male, including the boys. Ten years
later it had grown to 434 (225).
I shall leave Masatierra for the present and try to follow the fate of Masafuera.
182 C. SKOTTSBERG
Fig. 97. View from the south slope of Casas valley, Masafuera, showing the headquarters of the
first convict settlement. — Photo K. Backstrom Feb. 1917.
The first house was built in 1867 (Weber). Goat-hunters or fishermen used to visit
the island. In 1908 we found some people staying there, but there was no perma-
nent settlement. The next year saw a radical change. The full history is told by
Guzman pp. 87—101. A short summary is given here. Guzman begins with the
following words: “‘Tal vez la descripcién de la flora natural de la isla de Mas Afuera
que hiciera el sabio sueco Skottsberg, hizo creer a un Ministro de Justicia del
Presidente Pedro Montt, que dicha isla era el sitio ideal para la fundacion de un
presidio agricola.’ Certainly Guzman is joking, the more so as I tried on my
return to start a campaign in favour of preserving the native flora and fauna
— not the goats however! — and never said a word about Masafuera as a suitable
place for agricultural or any kind of commercial experiments. Two months later
a decree was signed, transforming the island into a settlement of criminals, and
in April 1909 “‘Carcel Pedro Montt”’ received its first inmates and soon after a second
lot, together 170. For the State it was no cheap affair to erect substantial headquar-
ters at the entrance to Casas valley, to build a jetty in the turbulent water of the so-
called landing-place and a schooner to serve the colony, but the parents of the
scheme were optimistic and thought that once in operation, the establishment
would soon become self-supporting, a miracle to be performed by cutting trees
and cultivating the soil. Goats were plentiful and easy to get hold of, at least to
begin with. ‘Tal era la conviccidn que tenian los creadores del presidio en la fe-
racidad de la estéril Mas Afuera, que al alcalde se le designo con el singular titulo
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 183
a
a A Ee
Fig. 98. The ruined forest and village of Las Chozas, Masafuera. — Photo K. Backstrém Feb. 1917.
de Director y Jefe de Cultivos’’, Guzman writes. This official was a thrifty fellow,
but he could not call up arable land where there was none. Houses were built in
many places, vegetables sown and potatoes planted, cattle introduced and killed
surreptitiously by the convicts, but much food had to be imported, and when the
boarders obtained permission to send for their wives or relatives to keep them com-
pany the population rose to 350 persons. Good luck did not favour this humanitarian
enterprise, the situation on the island became, to say the least, unpleasant, the
schooner was shipwrecked and lost, and in 1913 Masafuera was abandoned. The
buildings in Casas were in tolerably good condition in 1917 (fig. 97), but the
wooden huts more or less fallen to pieces. Ruined forests, abandoned potato
fields and a host of new weeds told the story (fig. 98). Of domestic animals only
two horses could be discovered. We caught them because we could use them.
But, as Guzman says, “los juristas no podian aceptar que una Naturaleza
tan prdodiga en helechos y en plantas sub-alpinas, no fuera generosa también para
con las legumbres, hortalizas y frutales . . ."’, and in 1927 ‘‘Prision Carlos Ibanez’’
was established, this time not reserved for ordinary criminals — in addition 150
political offenders were exiled to Masafuera. More trees were cut, new houses
built, new seeds sown, but the harvest was no richer than before, and in 1930
the colony was discontinued. Guzman seems to fear a repetition of this sad story,
to judge from his concluding remark “‘ . . . el hombre con sus disposiciones legales
184 C. SKOTTSBERG
Table J.
Lobster catch 1940—46. After Guzman.
Gross weight in kg
Number
Total Living Tinned
TGA ORR crs) i or tea 109 250 BIZe5a ir 15 533 96 998
Koy Wire am I ato Oo Gino 103 605 100 590 14 415 86 175
ICV iZ3Gh ig: Uo ath 56 6 & 134 589 112 5311 20 903 gi 628
TOAS pir a ens Hel ela 62 287 64 160 14 929 49 231
LO AA. sem beats 1 (2 alte 27 959 28 600? II 947 16 633
IVI G 5 5 GG Golo 9 < 23 516 24 220 13 643 10 557
TOA#O Sy pee eck ey oe en ee Fs 56 431 58 120 — —
y con su persistencia, indiferente del pasado, espera el momento propicio para
construir un nuevo penal, sobre las ruinas del séptimo presidio”’ (there had been
5 on Masatierra).
On January the 16th, 1935, President ARTURO ALESSANDRI signed a decree
making the Juan Fernandez Islands (together with Easter I.) a National Park, and
two German residents, Weber and CARLOS BOCK, both addicted to the study of the
fauna and flora, were appointed honorary forest inspectors. Bock soon died, and
Weber left the islands after some years. The regulations were strict; had they been
followed the goal for which I had fighted so many years, supported by Chilean col-
leagues, would have been attained. The rules did not infringe upon the reasonable
rights of the colonists, nor was the fishing industry affected. In order to collect
specimens of the indigenous plants and animals, also for scientific purposes, a license
was required. No permanent habitations could be erected on Masafuera and Santa
Clara. It is evident that Weber, in spite of his earnest intentions, did not quite
understand what effective conservation involves or he would not have written the
following words (p. 138): “Die Tierwelt von Juan Fernandez war leider sehr
sparlich, es sollte mehr Leben in die schweigsamen Walder kommen” — it did
not occur to him that the introduction of foreign animals, even a few birds, would
disturb Nature’s balance in a way never properly to be foreseen.
Unfortunately a law has little effect without adequate means to enforce it.
Without money and men with authority a conservation program cannot be realized,
and in the case before us there was neither. Serious inroad upon the forests
might, however, be prevented, and with the declining lobster industry and the
non-existent possibilities to expand agriculture there seemed to be no danger that
more people would settle on Masatierra. But what happened? Guzman’s interesting
account gives the answer, l.c. p. 37.
1 This figure, which is identical with the figure for 1940, must be incorrect. In all other cases
save one (1941) the average weight of the langosts slightly exceeded 1 kg, and it was very little
below that weight in 1941.
2 On p. 202 Guzman quotes a very different figure: 47 238 kg obtained during the period
Jan.—Aug. The balance cannot, I am sure, have been consumed locally, because the people
fish for the companies, so that some other explanation has to be found.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 185
“>
Fig. 99. The central part of Masatierra, seen from the air and showing the cultivations and
8- 99 Pp : ving
plantations around Cumberland Bay: from left to right V. Colonial, V. Anson and Quebr. del
Minero. — Photo B. Frédin 8/, 1952.
In 1940 the population amounted to 434 persons (225 men and boys), in
1943 771 (198 men; the number of women was 123, of children no less than 450);
1944 shows a drop to 653, a result, one would think, of the heavy drop in the
number of lobsters caught. In 1948 the population was about 600. The total
export of lobster, living and tinned, is shown in Table I (after Guzman).
As we see, the proportion of preserved lobsters underwent a rapid decrease
during these years; the export of live animals was undoubtedly more profitable.
The reasons for the sudden rise in total output in 1946 are not known to me,
nor if it indicated a reliable increase or just a transient improvement; after 1946
no figures have been available to me.
The growth of the population between 1940 and 1943 cannot have had
anything to do with the fishing industry, and the drop from 1943 to 1944 does
not run parallel with the quantity of lobsters; besides, the effect would not show
before 1945, when no census was taken.
More people meant more houses, more gardens, more timber and fuel used,
etc. The effect is shown by comparing figs. 24, 27 and 92 with 22, 30 and gg.
In 1917 the lower slopes of Q. del Minero were barren, in 1952 there were plant-
ations; Anson’s valley, where few people lived in 1917, bears sign of much
activity, and the aspect of the settlement in the Colonial valley has changed a
great deal from 1917 to 1952. Everybody welcomes that the devastated slopes
near the sea, where erosion is a serious problem, have been planted, nobody
objects to the growth of the population as long as fishing provides a decent
186 C. SKOTTSBERG
livelihood for the majority. This, however, is not the case. The time has come
when the old dreams to utilize the land, fostered by well-meaning patriots, are
coming true. The statistics tell us that Masatierra is being transformed into a
cattle and sheep farm, a new and strange type of National Park. In 1945 the
island had 5000 sheep, 600 head of cattle, 500 tame (?) goats and 300 horses,
and even if the horses and cows mostly graze the open country with grasses and
herbs, mainly introduced weeds, they do not despise the light forest which, and
this was easy to observe already in 1917, suffers. The habits of the sheep and
goats are different; wild sheep were observed by Weber in the thirties (p. 116).
There are no fences and nothing to prevent these animals to run wild among the
crests, where it is difficult to follow them. No palatable plant species is likely to
escape these gluttons and in contradistinction to the naturalist, they need no license.
It goes without saying that they will take to the mountains when, at the end of
the drier season, food becomes scarce. Guzman recommends introducing new kinds
of grasses, better adapted to the climate, a measure probably unheard of in combina-
tion with the management of a national park. It should not be forgotten that one
Mr. Orro RIEGGEL, “el gran amigo de las ciencias naturales’ as Guzman calls
him, celebrated the creation of the national park by introducing 6 pairs of rab-
bits (!) which, as everywhere else, will take what the sheep leave; nor that a parti-
cularly dangerous weed, the zarzamora (Rubus ulmzfolius), a wellknown pest on the
mainland, was introduced on purpose to be used as living fences. The success was
complete. The thrushes took care of the dispersal of the fruits, invasion is going
on everywhere, and I have just been told that the entire Plazoleta del Yunque pre-
sents the picture of an impenetrable “living fence’. From the same source I have
the information that the unlawful cutting of the Chonta has not been stopped —
I doubt that anybody tried to stop it — but is going on just as before and with
the same method: before a tree is felled a cut with an ax is made near the base
in order to know the thickness of the wood cylinder; if it is too thin to be of
value the tree is left standing, a potential victim of fungus attacks.
It remains to be mentioned that 17 colonists settled on Masafuera some
years ago (72 persons in all). Their principal occupation is said to be lobster
fishing.
Basing his opinion on his personal knowledge of the islands and on a wealth
of material from various sources, Guzman discusses the present situation and the
possibilities to improve it. There can be no doubt that he is interested in the
preservation of the nature, but it is also evident that he greatly underrates the
dangers jeopardizing the survival of the indigenous flora and fauna. The pros and
cons in agriculture and silviculture are set forth in detail. In his appreciation of
the fruit produced he differs considerably from Johow who did not hold a very
high opinion of the quality, and our impression was not too favourable. Oranges
and lemons, not grown in our time, are said to prosper in the valleys — this may
be true, but what are the fruits like? The wheat, of poor quality according to
Johow, is excellent, which must mean that new strains have been introduced. A
circumstance in favour of agriculture, Guzman says, is that as a national park all
the land belongs to the State, and the concessioned farmer needs not worry about
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 187
rents or amortizations. On the other hand, Guzman continues, the factors render-
ing agriculture difficult are also conspicuous. The men working for the companies
— there are three of them, but the Recart y Doniez Co. was taken over “‘en
estado ruinoso” by Cia Santa Sofia — earn much more money than the farm hands,
with the result that everybody prefers to be a fisherman. The schooners cannot
accommodate the export of fruit or vegetables. Good soil is rare and shallow,
because the islands are too young (!). The zarzamora is taking possession of the
best agricultural soil and is becoming a serious problem. The strong winds are
another inconvenience, to be overcome by planting hedges.
The most serious obstacle is the very limited extension of arable land, referred
to above p. 171; 300 hectares, in 9 different localities, including Masafuera and
Santa Clara, might be utilized, with an annual output of cereals amounting to
2300 quintales. If 800 are reserved for local consumption and 300 for seed-corn,
1200 remain for export (l.c. p. 160) to compete on the market with millions of
quintales produced on the mainland, and having to carry the cost of freight! It
it disgusting to find that such imaginary hopes have been carried from genera-
tion to generation. How much of the land is level? Almost nothing. And what
would happen if the slopes, where the inclination rarely falls below 15 to 20%,
and the soil is very thin, are plowed? The badly eroded areas seen everywhere
give the answer. When Guzman recommends the declivities for tree-planting he
gets on safer ground. And he believes that reforestation, large olive plantations
and the creation of orchards and artificial meadows would transform Masatierra
into an ‘‘alegre huerto isleno, deleite de los turistas” (l.c. p. 164).
Masatierra is already blessed with sheep, cattle, goats and rabbits, all in excess
—- will it also be necessary to add a host of tourists? Guzman holds a very high
opinion of the attractions of Juan Fernandez. He quotes “el célebre viajero Carlos
Rowsel” (I regret never having heard his name before) who once said that if
Masatierra were situated 60 instead of 360 miles from Valparaiso it would be “‘la
Reina de los Balnearios’” in the Pacific — and this in spite of the fact that there
is not the slightest trace of a bathing beach on the island. And when Guzman
compares Juan Fernandez to Hawaii and finds that the one is just as marvellous
as the other, he has lost all contact with reality. I should add that I happen to
be very well acquainted with both, and that nobody could appreciate the beauties of
Juan Fernandez more than I do. Call it a miniature Hawaii if you like, but deprived
of the tropical luxuriance, the colourful Royal history of the natives, the white,
palm-shadowed beaches of coral sand, the gigantic mountains and active volcanoes,
not to mention the comfort and luxury offered by the busy cities, the large hotels,
beautiful camp sites, excellent motor roads and easy and rapid communications
by sea and air with the outside world! The nature of the indigenous living
world is, in principle, of the same type in the two cases, but incomparably richer
and more varied in Hawaii — there is room for half Masatierra in the caldera of
Haleakala. To the average tourist Masatierra remains Robinson Crusoe’s island
— this is its main attraction. I have no doubt that the traffic will grow and the
tourists become a moderate source of income which nobody will envy the kind and
hospitable colonists, but I am afraid that Guzman is too optimistic when he thinks
188 C. SKOTTSBERG
that the day is near when Juan Fernandez will become “el balneario habitual de
los sonadores del mundo” (p. 229) and when large passenger planes will land on
the big aerodrome on Masatierra. At present not even a tiny plane is able to land
without crashing, but there are some places where an autogiro could come down
safely. The roadstead in Cumberland Bay is so far the only place where a plane
(a Catalina) has alighted, but with a high wind and a heavy swell the situation
gets unpleasant. The level land by the sea in front of the colony is the only
place where a small airport could be constructed. Its length will be 500 m or, if
the front slope of Cordén Central with the old prison caves be blasted, perhaps
800 m, but the buildings belonging to the fishing companies and a good many
other houses would have to disappear. On the table-land of Masafuera, about
1200 m above sea level, another airport could be built at enormous cost, another
one, probably a little cheaper, on the Loberia plain. Neither would serve any
sensible purpose if not a strategic one. Let us limit our plans of making Juan
Fernandez a popular goal of the tourist to an improvement of the communications
and to a couple of modest guest-houses — and to impress on the visitor that
he finds himself in a sanctuary where he has to keep his hands off. An unknown
number of plants and animals barely manage to hold their own, and obviously
many are on the verge of extinction, pronouncedly stenotopic as they are. The
trail to Portezuelo ought to be improved and kept in repair, for everybody will
want to see Selkirk’s Lookout, to read the memorial tablet and behold the grand
views. And there is no point within easy reach where the endemic flora is — or
was, at least, in 1917 — better displayed.
: *
6
If we want to preserve a unique living world of very great scientific interest
and as such belonging not to a single country but to the whole world, these are
the rules:
to limit plantations and fields to the waste-land on the north side of Masa-
tierra;
to encourage gardening for local consumption;
to declare war on the introduced noxious weeds, goats and rabbits;
greatly to reduce the number of domestic animals and to keep them out of
the native forest;
to reduce the number of wild goats on Masafuera and keep it on a minimum
or, which would be the best, to exterminate them;
to teach the inhabitants not to disturb Nature’s equilibrium;
to enforce the Law of Jan. 31, 1935, by appointing a sufficient number of
salaried supervisors and guardians.
Human influence has cut its mark deep and it has changed the natural scen-
ery greatly without adding to its beauty. In part this has been inevitable, if man
was to live on the islands, but there has been and is too much senseless destruc-
tion. This is the more to be regretted as the welfare of the population need not
at all depend on either breeding cattle or sheep-farming. Once the lobster meant
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS 159
i eat il
wae’
Ren i
|
i
4
Fig. roo. Large specimen of bacalao, Cumberland Bay. The gentleman is Don NATALIO SAN-
CHEZ, subdelegado civil and the highest authority in the islands at the time of our visit. —
Photo K. Backstrém 1917.
Igo C. SKOTTSBERG
everything. To-day we can speak with Guzman of the “‘Crepusculo de la langosta”’.
The situation is alarming, he calls for measures to put an end to the decline, and
he proposes certain ways and regulations. I would like to add that in a case as
serious as this the best thing to do is to proclaim the whole year a closed season
during a sufficiently long period. An industry based on the enormous supply
of fish, with the bacalao (fig. 100) heading the list, would, if carefully handled,
become a profitable enterprise. A ship with modern equipment would bring the
frozen fish to the mainland where it would find a ready market. The new methods
of cold storage permit deep-frozen food, fish not excepted, to keep absolutely
fresh during any length of time. Beside the bacalao, the most abundant of all and
considered to be the most delicious, there are several other kinds of commercial
value unknown on the coast of Chile. I shall add one more remark. Cumberland
Bay ought to be an ideal place for a biological station. The fauna and flora,
terrestrial as well as marine, offers a wide field for scientific research, no less
important from a practical viewpoint.
The present management of these precious islands is not in good accordance
with the intrinsic meaning of the Law and, in some cases, directly violates it.
If the responsible authorities do not change their attitude, Juan Fernandez will
become a second Saint Helena and a disgrace to an enlightened world.
Speaking as on behalf of the Chilean nation, I would like to say, with a
slight alteration, what Guzman said about the threatened langosta (p. 223):
No permitamos que nuestras islas se transformen en el recuerdo de una
riqueza extinguida en forma irreparable. Asi lo exige nuestro prestigio de nacion
civilizada, asi lo esperan de nosotros las generaciones futuras.
December 1953.
Bibliography.
ANDERSON, G. W. A new, authentic and complete collection of voyages round the
world. London. No date. (Byron’s and CarTeret’s visits to Juan Fernandez.)
Anson, G. A voyage round the world in the years 1740—44. Compiled by RicHarRD
Water. London 1749.
Brancut, FE. C. La Isla de Robinson. Valparaiso 1922.
Brtccen, M.J. Fundamentos de la geologia de Chile. Santiago 1950.
Burney, JAmes. A chronological history of the discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific
Ocean. London. Vol. II (1813, L’Heremite), IV (1816).
BurGer, O. Die Robinson-Insel. Leipzig 1909.
Ermet, A. Eine Reise nach der Robinson-Crusoe-Insel. Hamburg 1889.
Fropin, B. Expedition pa svenskt uppdrag kartlade sagoén i Stilla havet. (Expedition
on Swedish initiative mapped the fairy isle in the Pacific Ocean.) Dagens Ny-
heter 72/, 1952.
Grar Marin, A. Problemas economicos de Juan Fernandez. Departamento General
de la Produccioén. Oficina de Enlace Agricola. Memorandum 158. Santiago,
29 de Abril de 1944. (Typewritten.)
GrauaMm, Marta. Journal of a residence in Chile during the year 1822. London 1824.
Guntuer, E. Derrotero de la costa de Chile. V. Anuario Hidrografico de la Marina
desChile: 32. 1920.
GuzmAn Parana, J. Cumbres ocednicas. Santiago. No date.
A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS Ig!
HacerMan, T. H. Beitrige zur Geologie der Juan Fernandez-Inseln. Nat. Hist. of Juan
Fernandez and Easter Island. 1: 1. 1920.
HawkeswortH, J. An account of the voyages undertaken ... for making discoveries
in the Southern Hemisphere. I. London 1783. (Byron's and CarTERET’s journeys.)
Instrucciones nduticas de la costa de Chile. Anuario Hidrografico de la Marina de
Chile. XX. 1896.
Jouow, F. Estudios sobre la Flora des Islas de Juan Fernandez. Santiago 1896.
Juan, G. y ULLoa~, A. DE. Relacién historica del viage a la America meridional. Pt. 2,
vol. III. Madrid 1748.
Lopez, JuAN E. Esploracion de las islas esporddicas de la costa de Chile. Anuario
Hidrografico de la Marina de Chile. II. Santiago 1876.
Puiuipp1, R. A. Geognostische Beschaffenheit der Insel Masafuera. Neues Jahrb. fiir
Mineralogie etc. Stuttgart 1857.
Puiippson, A. Die Erosion des fliessenden Wassers und ihr Einfluss auf die Land-
schaftstypen. Geogr. Bausteine herausgeg. von Dr. HERMANN Haack. Gotha 1914.
PoEHLMANN, R. Noticias preliminares sobre las condiciones jeograficas i jeoldjicas del
Archipiélago (de Juan Fernandez). In: Jonow, Estudios.
QuensEL, P. (1) Die Geologie der Juan Fernandez-Inseln. Bull. Geol. Inst. of Upsala.
RE 1912.
—— (2) Additional Comments on the Geology of the Juan Fernandez Islands. Nat.
Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island. I: 3. 1952.
Skortsserc, C. (1) The Wilds of Patagonia. London rort.
—— (2) Till Robinson-6n och viarldens ande. Stockholm 1918.
—— (3) The vegetation of the Juan Fernandez Islands. Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez
and Easter Island. II: 29. 1953.
Surc.irre, Tu. (1) Sixteen years in Chile and Peru from 1822 to 1839. London 1841.
—— (2) Crusoniana or Truth versus Fiction, elucidated in the history of the Island
of Juan Fernandez. Manchester 1843.
Tenz, O. Una ascensién emocionante a la cumbre del Monte Yunque. El Mercurio
8/, 1921. Valparaiso.
Vipat Gormaz, F. Jeografia ndutica de la Reptiblica de Chile. Anuario Hidrografico
de la Marina de Chile. VII. 188r.
Viet, O. Islas de Juan Fernandez. Anuario Hidrogrdfico de la Marina de Chile. IV.
1878.
WALTER, R. See ANSON.
WaLpoLe, F. Four years in the Pacific in Her Majesty's ship “‘Collingwood’’, from 1844
to 1848. London 1850.
Weser, Huco. Signalmaat Weber. Zehn Jahre auf der Robinson-Insel. Reutlingen 1940.
Addition.
This paper was in page proof when my friend Mr. G. Looser sent me a report
written by Dr. Arperto Grar Marin, Head of the Oficina de Enlace Agricola in Sant-
iago, and kindly put at my disposal (see Bibliography). Dr. Graf Marin visited Masa-
tierra in January 1944 in order to inform himself of the economic situation of the
population, 452 persons in 1943, a figure very different from the one quoted by Guzman
for the same year, 771; both cannot be correct. Graf Marin judged the living condi-
tions to be comparatively good, even if much remained to be improved in the way
of housing, teaching, medical care, entertainment, travel facilities, etc. It goes without
saying that lobster fishing gave the main income; again, there is a discrepancy be-
tween his figures and those of Guzman: 84 100 lobsters shipped to the mainland in
1943, whereas the total catch was 62 287 according to Guzman. The average annual
192 C. SKOTTSBERG
profit derived from the export of wool was about 1/, of the income from fishing, the
number of sheep 3000. Finally, some mutton was sold to Cia Oto Hnos, apparently
the only fishing enterprise in operation (comp., however, p. 187). With regard to the
lobster Graf Marin was told that it breeds the year round whence follows that the
fears later expressed by Guzman would seem groundless and a closed season — after
1931 1/6—30/9 — umnecessary.
Although Graf Marin recognizes the fishing industry as the main source of wealth
he revives the old dream of Masatierra as a future rich farming country, and his plans
were drawn up without regard to the fact that Masatierra forms part of a National
Park, protected by a law which, nevertheless, he does mention in passing. He recommends
to import farmers from the region of Concepcion, where the climate is similar. As
the soil, save for the houses and gardens, is fiscal property, anybody is entitled to
supply himself with wood in the forest — only maqui is used for fuel, however. The
forest should be subject to economic management by multiplying the few good timber-
trees and by introducing new ones; the Mediterranean cork-oak is particularly recom-
mended beside Acacia melanoxylon and Pinus radiata. Of the endemic trees two are
(or rather were) of commercial value, the chonta palm and the sdndalo; the former —
and also the latter, if it could be rediscovered — ought to be propagated in nurseries
and planted on a grand scale. He tells us that the last living sandal tree seen by
Johow in 1892 and by me in 1908 was ordered by the Subdelegado VeERA in 1918
or 19 to be cut down — but in 1916 I was assured by the same man who brought
me to the tree in 1908 that it had died and the wood been taken care of. I have
no reason whatsoever to doubt the correctness of his statement.
With regard to the black pest Avfennaria (Limacinia) Graf Marin shares my
opinion that Johow exaggerated its dangerousness. A more serious enemy of the luma
is an insect, Sazssetia oleae, and he recommends the introduction, successfully arranged
for on the mainland by himself, of its parasites.
Even if various fruits can be produced in sufficient quantity to be exported —
the water-supply is good and the streams might be canalized and used for irrigation —
raising live stock should constitute the main occupation of the farmers, but it is
jeopardized by the spread of the zarzaparilla (Acaena argentea) and of the zarzamora
(Rubus ulmifolius). They ought to be exterminated, which is just as desirable from
the naturalist’s viewpoint, but much easier said than done. In order to improve the
pasture alfalfa and new and more nutritious foreign grasses should be introduced. Above
all, to stimulate general utilization of the land and to prevent that a single thrifty
person take possession of most of it, the island ought to be parcelled and the size
of the lots fixed with regard to their rentability. The total value of Masatierra, settle-
ments not included, is said to be 220000 pesos, of Masafuera 120 000 (considerably
more to-day that 1o years ago). From a scientific and scenic viewpoint the value of
these islands cannot be expressed in figures — it is inestimable. If the plan set forth
in Graf Marin’s interesting report materializes, Juan Fernandez will stand as a unique
example of a National Park, the home of a unique fauna and flora, offered for sale.
THE NATURAL HISTORY
OF JUAN FERNANDEZ
AND EASTER ISLAND
BDLITEDABYVS DR. CARL: SKO LPS ii tee
VOL. I
GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY,
ORIGIN OF ISLAND. LIFE
PART III
5. C. SKOTTSBERG: Derivation of the Flora and Fauna of Juan
Fernandez and Easter Island.
Part III completes vol. I.
UPPSALA 1956
ALMQVIST & WIKSELLS BOKTRYCKERI AB
ww.
5. Derivation of the Flora and Fauna of Juan Fernandez
and Easter Island.
By
C. SKOTTSBERG.
With 1 Map.
Part I.
THE JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS.
Chapter I.
Composition, distribution and relationships of the Flora.
The statements made below are based on the results laid down in vol. II of
this work and in a number of papers published from time to time prior to the
survey in the field undertaken by myself and collaborators during a three months’
stay in the islands, Dec., 1954—March, 1955. Later on some minor changes
will have to be made in the lists of the Vascular Plants, but as they will not alter
the conclusions drawn I have preferred not to include them here, more so as the
species in question, some of them at least, have to be subjected to a close taxo-
nomical study. With regard to the Cryptogams, to be referred to a number of
specialists, the revision of the collections will take some time, but even if a few
new species will be described, and other additions made to the lists, the pro-
portions between the various geographical elements will, I think, remain much the
same.
1. Angiospermae.
In the islands 42 families are represented of which one, Lactoridaceae, is
endemic and monotypic. Until recently Juan Fernandez (Masatierra) was the only
oceanic island possessing an endemic family, but after the discovery of the genus
Degeneria, which forms the monotypical family Degenerzaceae, it shares this
honour with Fiji; the Fiji group is, however, not as ‘oceanic’, in the current
sense of this word, as Juan Fernandez.
The largest families are Compositae with 28 (13 gen.), Cyperaceae with 14
(7 gen.), and Gramineae with 13 species (10 gen.), but these are very large fami-
lies almost everywhere; Campanulaceae (2 gen.) and Juncaceae have 6 (2 gen.,
but some species of Fucus may not be truly indigenous), Rubiaceae 5 (4 gen),
13 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
194 C. SKOTTSBERG
Umbelliferae 5 (3 gen.), Chenopodiaceae 4 (2), Myrtaceae 4 (4), Piperaceae 4 (1),
Rosaceae 4 (3), Solanaceae 4 (2), and Urticaceae 4 (3), Caryophyllaceae 3 (2),
Cruciferae 3 (1), Gunneraceae 3 (1), Halorrhagidaceae 3 (1), Berberidaceae 2 (1)
Bromeliaceae 2 (2), Convolvulaceae 2 (2), Labiatae 2 (1), Leguminosae 2 (r1),
Plantaginaceae 2 (1), Rutaceae 2 (1), Scrophulariaceae 2 (2); represented by 1
species only: Aizoaceae, Boraginaceae, Callitrichaceae, Empetraceae, Ericaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Iridaceae, Lactoridaceae, Loranthaceae, Palmae,
Ranunculaceae, Rhamnaceae, Santalaceae, Saxifragaceae, Verbenaceae, Wintera-
ceae, 17 families or 40 % of the entire number. Some of the families are alto-
b)
gether small, but others are large and widespread also in Andean America—
as, for instance, Umbelliferae-Hydrocotyloideae (Azore//a), Caryophyllaceae, Cruci-
ferae, Labiatae, Leguminosae (Adesmia, Cassia), Plantaginaceae, Scrophulariaceae
(Calceolaria), Boraginaceae (Plagiobotrys and related genera), Euphorbiaceae, Iri-
daceae (S¢syrizchium), Ranunculaceae, Rhamnaceae, Verbenaceae. The absence
of such families as Amaryllidaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Fagaceae, Geraniaceae, Lau-
raceae, Liliaceae, Nolanaceae, Onagraceae, Orchidaceae, Oxalidaceae, Polygona-
ceae, Portulacaceae, Valerianaceae and Violaceae is noteworthy, being more or
less well, some of them very well, represented on the Chilean mainland.
Of the 42 families Masatierra possesses 39, seven of these also found on
its satellite Santa Clara, and Masafuera 30; 12 are confined to Masatierra (Plan-
taginaceae also on Santa Clara) and 3 to Masafuera; 27 are common to Masa-
tierra and Masafuera. The families are, in contradistinction to the genera and
species, evenly distributed over the group, as shown by the list of Genera and
Species, Dable I.
The number of genera is 89; of these 71 are found on Masatierra, 9 on
Santa Clara and 54 on Masafuera; 35 are known from Masatierra only, including
those known from Santa Clara, all also found on Masatierra; 18 are confined
to Masafuera, 36 shared by both islands. Expressed in percentage: Masatierra
39.3 %, Masafuera 20.2 %, Masatierra + Masafuera 40.5 %. Thus less than one
half of the genera are common to both islands. The floristic difference between
them is partly explained by the difference in altitude and thereby in climate—
Masafuera has an alpine and subalpine flora for which there is no room on
Masatierra, partly by the more varied topography of this island, which has a richer
flora. The difference becomes particularly obvious when endemism is considered.
Of the 89 genera, 17 (19 %) are endemic; of these 12 (70.6 %) are confined
to Masatierra, 1 (5.9 %) to Masafuera and 4 (23.5 %) found on both islands; see
Table II.
Of 71 genera known from Masatierra 16 (22.5 %) are endemic to the islands,
of 54 found on Masafuera, 5 (9.3 %); of 35 genera only found on Masatierra, 12 are
endemic (34.3 %), the corresponding figures for Masafuera are 18, 1 and 5.5 %
and, for the genera occurring on both islands, 36, 4 and 11.1 %. These figures
serve to illustrate the great difference in the distribution of the endemic genera
commonly looked upon as representing the most ancient element among the
Angiosperms in Juan Fernandez.
Of the total number of species, 147, 99 are found on Masatierra, 9 on Santa
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA
Table I.
Endemics bold-faced, endemic genera in capital letters.
_Abrotanella crassipes Skottsb. .
Acaena ovalifolia Ruiz et Pav.
— masafuerana Bitter
Agrostis masafuerana Pilger .
Apium fernandezianum Johow
Azara fernandeziana Gay
Berberis corymbosa Hook. et Arn.
— masafuerana Skottsb.
Boehmeria excelsa Wedd.
Callitriche Lechleri (Hegelm.) Fassett
Calystegia tuguriorum R. Br. .
Cardamine chenopodiifolia Pers. .
— flaccida Cham. et Schlechtd. .
— Kruesselii Johow
Carex berteroniana Steud.
— Banksii Boott
CENTAURODENDRON dracaenoides Johow
Centella triflora (Ruiz et Pav.) Nannf. .
Chaetotropis chilensis Kunth
— imberbis (Phil.) .
Chenopodium crusoeanum Skottsb.
— nesodendron Skottsb.
— Sanctae Clarae Johow .
Chusquea fernandeziana Phil.
Cladium scirpoideum (Steud.) Benth. et Hook. f.
Colletia spartioides Bert.
Coprosma Hookeri (G. Don) W. R. B. Oliver .
— pyrifolia (Hook. et Arn.) Skottsb.
CUMINIA eriantha Benth.
— fernandezia Colla
Cyperus eragrostis Lam.
— reflexus Vahl
Danthonia collina Phil.
DENDROSERIS litoralis Skottsb.
— macrantha (Bert.) Skottsb. .
— macrophylla D. Don
— marginata (Bert.) Hook. et Arn.
Masatierra
Santa Clara
195
Masafuera
196 C. SKOTTSBERG
Dichondra repens Forst.
Drimys confertifolia Phil.
Dysopsis hirsuta (Muell. Arg.) Skottsb.
Eleocharis fuscopurpurea (Steud.) H. Pfeiff.
Empetrum rubrum Vahl
| Erigeron fruticosus DC. .
| — Ingae Skottsb.
— Innocentium Skottsb.
— luteoviridis Skottsb. .
— rupicola Phil. .
— turricola Skottsb.
Eryngium bupleuroides Hook. et Arn.
— inaccessum Skottsb. .
— sarcophyllum Hook. et Arn.
| Escallonia Gallcottiae Hook. et Arn.
| Euphrasia formosissima Skottsb.
Fagara externa Skottsb. .
— miayu (Bert.) Engl. .
Galium masafueranum Skottsb. .
Gnaphalium spiciforme Sch. Bip.
Gunnera bracteata Steud.
— Masafuerae Skottsb. .
|— peltata Phil.
| Halorrhagis asperrima Skottsb.
}— masafuerana Skottsb.
— masatierrana Skottsb. .
Hedyotis thesiifolia St. Hil. .
Hesperogreigia Berteroi Skottsb.
HESPEROSERIS gigantea (Johow) Skottsb.
JUANIA australis (Mart.) Drude
Juncus capillaceus Lam.
— dombeyanus Gay .
— imbricatus Laharpe
— planifolius R. Br.
— procerus E. Mey. .
Koeleria micrathera (Desv.) Griseb.
|} LACTORIS fernandeziana Phil.
| Lagenophora Harioti Franch. .
Libertia formosa Grah. .
ota Ue | 22
sneer &
s| 3 |
op)
4 +
+ - ot
) |
_>
= - +
+ ~ +
= = 35
= - +
= — +
= - +
= — 4
Reed
- = -
= = +
= = +
= = +
= = a
= = +
+ = ==
= = +
= = +
|
Pe ee |
— = +
reese |p
|)
¢ he Ae
| ae
ae
fees eer
, oe
= = +
+ - E
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 197
— O =
Pretselia ailleneay, IPSS oy” pCR Ac OR oe, Oa leew et at ACen geen eevee | = +
inigattlaytiASALICLANA SKOLLGD Spe. cy 4) sy ee ck ee es “ae es ws ey ee, ws NS ~ --
PMacoynicanpus disynus (Bitter) Skottsb. . . . . . - . . . 2 5.2 flees 4 = =~ |
~MEGALACHNE berteroniana Steud. |
|— masafuerana (Skottsb. et Pilger) Hubbard ms. ..........) — ; + |
| Vite ISee LAD TALUS PEL. ss ES TOnMAr 6 i) ty su ev ell eno) s,s) atte ee hte Be - = + |
| Mrraenventan Ss CUULZeCL | OHOWi a lel certs ahs) ou ck oso) a = © cele) SSO e - ~
Beier amiiimicatlatian( POI.) Bers os 53 2 a ew I ee — =
NegteLame EAN aACensis) (stills) MOruCe Vatet- seo = oy oe ns ue mc, OS -- — 3
ieaianagCOLGirolane nil sp. yic a ota cee ae Aine felt) — -
| NOTHOMYRCIA fernandeziana (Hook. et Arn.) Kausel ..... . +. - -
O@EAGAVTACelesansyP Dis 5 0) 08 Fen ee ce ok ok we ee ne oe SE + -- -
| Oreobolus ObmsanomlusnGant Ghee they) ot ilm ace fev ev: ea fone Mohs) 2h ce 3 clea — - +
Ee atk Gde Dial AMUNLITENUE LES Ue NACI sung ce ce chats) tea ea toy ee en Wai ies PMTs tee) Pe ee — — 2"
Pi aLory Chitane MiNENSISHD Css a2, von ney eit) tok 3, Ni Vol pied ey pce Slot oes iar on ep - — =
Peperomia berteroana Miq.
CRM ALCL eZ TAT am VIG a tsss, 3) cy 12, tee Poe Ge cich em 2p oh vom ep Su oi. ay Gayton vo | Shes + = +
| — margaritifera Bert.
= Skottsbergii C. DC.
PERLE 2) Teo FD Cs So aio auone irae Gai ae eM - = oF
| PHOENICOSERIS berteriana (Dene) Skottsb............-/ # | = | -
| — pinnata (Bert. ex Dcne) Skottsb. |
|— regia Skottsb. .
Pehayetanthus Berterot (Hook, eb Arm))\Reiche = 2's. 2 37. 3 3 3 3 - = =
| FipLoecncetmimpicolors (Vall) Preslgitawss - Geel 2 a sf) shiek (eu reas ~ = =
ania oOrernand eZiavbenc tury ey, Elecite. ee ieh ta ee ici oy ce fel sive sene a5 = ae |
UI CAA CHAM MaVAL YE St Pauleand
Amsterd. Is.
Douglasii Boott.
costata Kuekenth. Related to the former.
pirleoides Pers. Andes from Colomb. to S. Chile and Patag.
tenuis Poepp. Centr. Amer.?; Andes of Chile to Fueg.
Carex L. About 1500; worldwide, but comparatively few trop. sp.
Banks Boott. Andes of Centr. Chile to Fueg. Belongs to the boreal section
Frigidae-Fuliginosae of KUKENTHAL.
berteroniana Steud. Sect. Echinochlaenae of KUKENTHAL, with few excep-
tions (Austral., Tasm., Norfolk I. and one Chilean sp.) confined to N. Zeal.
Palmae.
Juania australis (Mart.) Drude. Affinities undoubtedly trop. Andean. Included
in the Iriarteae by DRUDE, but perhaps nearer to the Morenieae, or possibly
regarded as type of a separate subtribe. HUTCHINSON brought ¥awania next to
Ceroxylon, following BENTHAM and HOOKER, CROIZAT (77) remodelled Morenieae,
including Fuanza and the Mascarene Hyophorbe, otherwise linked with Chamae-
doreae.
Bromeliaceae.
Hesperogreigia Berteroi Skottsb. 2 or perhaps more sp. Subtrop. Andean, related
to Greigia (8 sp., Costa Rica, Venez.-S. Chile). LoOosER called Hesperogreigia
monotypical, because my paper (2Z0) had escaped him; if not, he would not have
written ““:Quiza de la afinidad de Greigia?’” (770. 291). Inspired by L. B. SMITH
he suppressed Hesperogre7gia in an appendix to his paper (p. 299), an attitude
I cannot take. The two genera differ very much.!
1 Sepals free. Pericarp thin. Seed testa thin, with a thick coat of mucilage, forming a massive
pulp. Raphe inconspicuous. Scales with irregular, more or less isodiametric cells . Hesperogreigia
Sepals connate into a tube. Pericarp fleshy. Testa very hard, without mucilage. Raphe very con-
spicuous. Scales with long and narrow cells radiating from centre. ......... . Greigia
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 203
Ochagavia elegans Phil. Very near the Chilean genus Rhodostachys; see 229. 110
and 249.774.
Juncaceae.
Lusula DC. A world-wide essentially temp. and mainly boreal genus of about
80 sp., also represented on trop. mountains and in the S. Braz. highland; south
to Fueg., Falkl. and N. Zeal.
masafuerana Skottsb. Nearly related to some Andean sp. (Mex., Boliv.—
Fueg.) neading taxonomic revision.
Funcus LL. Mainly temp.subtrop.; about 225. Well represented S. hemisph. (about
50), especially Austral. and N. Zeal., less so temp. S. Amer.
wmoricatus Laharpe. Ecuador—S. Chile, Braz., Argent., Urug.
capillaceus Lam. Ecuador, Centr. Chile, Braz., Argent., Urug. Introduced?
procerus E, Mey. S. Chile.
dombeyanus Gay. Pert, Chile, Braz., Argent., Urug.
planifolius R. Br. S. Chile, Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal. Introduced?
Iridaceae.
Luveruvacopreng. 5 sps,°3 Chile, 2 N..Zeal.
formosa Grah. S. Chile.
Piperaceae.
Peperomia Ruiz et Pav. Possibly over 1500; pantropical.
berteroana Mig. Extremely like P. ¢v7stanenszs Christoph. from Gough L;
see 245.
margaritifera Bert. ex Hook. Possibly related to P. Remecket C. DC. (Samoa).
Skottsbergii C. DC. Allied to the former.
These species form a separate subgenus 77/denidium Skottsb. (247), which
seems to stand closer to palaeotropical than to neotropical groups. P. derteroana
and ¢ristanensis show affinity to P. urvilleana A. Rich. (Austral., N. Zeal., Lord
Howe I., Norfolk I.) and P. Ventenati Mig. (Java).
fernandeziana Miq. Central (Frai Jorge, Talinay) and S. Chile (Valdivia). Be-
longs to subgen. Sphaerocarpidium.
Urticaceae.
Urtica L. About 40 sp. widely scattered in temp. zones on both hemisph., well
represented in Amer. (13, Mex.—Fueg.).
Masafuerae Phil. Related to U. echinata Benth. (Ecuador).
fernandeziana (Rich.) Ross. A very distinct species without near relatives
(WEDDELL).
Boehmeria Jacq. About 100, trop.-subtrop.
excelsa (Bert. ex Steud.) Wedd. Seems to be more nearly related to Pacific
than to American species. Very similar to B. dealbata Cheesem. (Kermadec Is.).
204 C. SKOTTSBERG
Parietaria L.. Some 30 sp.; in all parts of the globe. Several medit.-orient., others
N. and S. Amer., one (P. debzlis Forst.) supposed so be widely distributed.
humifusa Rich. Chile. Until now listed as debz/7s which, in WEDDELL’s mon-
ograph, is a collective species. I have shown (247) that FORSTER’s species from
Australia, New Zealand and Polynesia has little to do with the forms referred to
this but occurring elsewhere and that none of the specimens from S. Amer. seen
by me belong to true dedz/zs. Pending a revision of the genus, Awmzfusa is a cor-
rect name for the Chilean plant.
Loranthaceae.
Phrygtlanthus Eichl. About 30; bicentric: Mex.—Braz. and Chile, Argent., Urug.;
Austral N3-ZealeeN: «Guim Philipp. Is!
Berteroi (Hook. et Arn.) Reiche. Related to Andean sp.
Santalaceae.
Santalum L. 18; Austral—N. Guin. 5, Melan. 2, Polyn. 2, Hawaii 7, Bonin 1, and
the following. See 236 and 270.
fernandezianum F. Phil. Extinct. Belongs to sect. Polynesica Skottsb.; not
as has been said (zzz), related to S. freycinetianum of Hawaii which belongs to a
different section (270).
>
Chenopodiaceae.
Chenopodium 1. Over 250; world-wide, but essentially temp.
Sanctae Clarae Johow, crusoeanum Skottsb. and nesodendron Skottsb. On
my request Dr. P. AELLEN, who created sect. Skoftsbergia to receive the three
island endemics, sent me the following remarks: “Ich wurde sagen, dass die drei
Arten zu keiner der uns heute bekanntgewordenen Arten irgendwelche verwandt-
schaftliche Ziige und Beziehungen aufweisen. Es sind vollig isolierte Typen, Re-
likte eines im Meere versunkenen Florenreiches.”’ Evidently Dr. AELLEN does
not support the idea that they are related to panzculatum Hook. (N. Amer., Pert—
Chile) or oahuense Meyen (Hawaii), which latter has the same arboreous habit.
Salicornia L. Widely distributed, about 30 sp.
Jruticosa V. (peruviana Kunth). Taken in a wide sense Mediterr., S. Afr., W.
Ind., Polyn.; peruviana, W. coast of S. Amer. to S. Chile.
Aizoaceae.
Tetragonia L. About 25 sp. Strongly represented in S. Afr., several sp. in Chile.
expansa Murr. Coasts and islands of the Pacific; Braz.
Caryophyllaceae.
Spergularia Pres]. A widely scattered genus of about 40 sp.; numerous in Chile.
confertifiora Steud. San Ambrosio. Related to species from Centr. Chile.
masafuerana Skottsb. Related to the former and to S. media (L.) Presl.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 205
Paronychia L. About 40, scattered in temp. and subtrop. regions.
ohilensis OG: Centri—S. Chile, S. Braz., Argent.
Ranunculaceae.
Ranunculus L. Probably over 300; world-wide, particularly boreal, numerous sp.
IN; *Zeal.
caprarum Skottsb. Apparently with distinct relations in New Zealand, not
near boreal or S. American species (229. 125; 173).
Berberidaceae.
Berberis .. About 540 sp. distributed over the N. hemisph. and extending south
along the Andes to Fueg.; also S. Braz.
corymbosa Hook. et Arn. Referred to sect. Corymbosae Schneid. (3, trop.
And.). Not close to Chilean species.
masafuerana Skottsb. Near the former.
Winteraceae.
Drimys Forst. 40; 29 N. Guin., 6 Austral., 1 Borneo—Philipp. Is., 3 Mex.—Fueg.,
and the following.
confertifolia Phil. Near D. Winteri Forst. (Centr. and S. Chile to Fueg.).
Lactoridaceae.
Lactoris fernandeziana Phil. With regard to the position of the family system-
atists disagree, some bringing it to Polycarpicae, others to Prperales. GUNDERSEN
(720) asserts that it belongs to the latter, but it differs from this in very important
characters.
Cruciferae.
Cardamine 1. About 130; world-wide, essentially temperate, many Chilean sp.
chenopoditfolia Pers. Boliv., Braz., Argent., Urug.
flaccida Cham. et Schlechtd. Centr. and S. Amer. to S. Chile.
Kruesselii Johow. Related to C. vulgaris Phil. (S. Chile).
Saxifragaceae.
Escallonia Mutis. About 50, Colomb.—Fueg., Braz., Argent., Urug.
Callcottiae Hook. et Arn. Occupies a rather independent position among
the Chilean sp. (z58).
Rosaceae.
Rubus L. A very large, temp. and trop.-montane genus, richly developed in the
N. hemisph.
geoldes Sm. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl.
Margyricarpus Ruiz et Pav. 4 or 5, trop. Andes to Patag.
206 C. SKOTTSBERG
digynus (Bitter) Skottsb. Near J7. pzunatus (Lam.) O. K. (Pert, Chile, S.
Braz., Argent.).
Acaena \.. An austral genus’ of over 100 sp., the majority in’ S: Amen sya
Austral.-N. Zeal., single sp. Calif., Hawaii, the Cape, etc.
masafuerana Bitter. Near A. antarctica Hook. f. (Magell., Fueg.).
ovalifolia Ruiz et Pav. subsp. australis Bitter. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl. Per-
haps accidentally introduced to Juan Fernandez.
Leguminosae.
Sophora V.. 70-80, Old and New World; sect. 7etrapterae (‘“Edwardsia’’) austral-
circump.; 17 closely related species.
fernandexiana (Phil.) Skottsb. and masafuerana (Phil.) Skottsb. Very near
the Chilean “¢etraptera’ (S. macnabiana Phil.), not identical with S. ¢etraptera
Ait. from N. Zeal.
Rutaceae.
Fagara L. Over 200, pantrop.; a large palaeotrop. group well represented in the
S. Pacific (Austral., N. Caled., Polyn.), extending north to Hawaii. The two Juan
Fernandez species F. mayu (Bert., Hook. et Arn.) Engl. and externa Skottsb.,
which are very closely allied, form the sect. M/ayu Engl. Related to W. Pacific sp.
Euphorbiaceae.
Dysopsis Baill. 3; 1 in Ecuador [D. paucidentata (M. Arg.) Skottsb.], 1 in S. Chile
[D. glechomotdes (Rich.) M. Arg. p. p.|, and the following.
hirsuta (M. Arg.) Skottsb.
Callitrichaceae.
Callitriche LL. Widely distributed in the N. hemisph., austral-circump., south to
Austral. and S. Chile but absent from the southern half of Afr.
Lechleri (Hegelm.) Fassett. S. Chile to Magell. (249. 781).
Rhamnaceae.
Colletta Comm. 17, Andean and extratrop. S. Amer.
spartioides Bert. ex Colla. A well-marked species, related to Chilean and
Ofheres, emer norms,
Flacouttiaceae.
Agata Ruizsetwbaves 20-21 .sp.; 18-19 Chile,.1, Braz:, 1, Argent.
fernandeziana Gay. Closely related to A. serrata Ruiz et Pav. (S. Chile).
Myrtaceae.
Ugni Turcz. 15, Mex., Centr. Amer., Andes, south to Chiloé, Venez., Braz.
Selkirkii (Hook. et Arn.) Berg. Probably related to species in Centr. Amer.
and Venez., perhaps also to U. Candollei (Barn.) Berg from Chile; not very close
to U. Molinae Turcz. (S. Chile; KAUSEL in litt.)
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 20
sa |
Myrteola Berg. 12, Colomb.—Chile.
nummularia (Poir.) Berg. Chile, Cord. Linares to Fueg., Falkl.
Nothomyrcia \ausel. A monotypical genus, related to Chilean genera.
fernandeziana (Hook. et Arn.) Kausel.
Myrceugenia Berg. About 40; trop. Andes, S. Braz. (many sp.) and about 20 in
Chile, south to Chiloé.
Schulzei Johow. Related to J. planipes (Hook. et Arn.) Berg (S. Chile).
Gunneraceae.
Gunnera 1... About 30 sp. Subgen. Pangue, 16 sp. Costa Rica, Colomb.-S. Chile,
Magell., Braz.; Hawaii 2 sp., but some more, of doubtful taxonomic status, have
been described. Other subgenera in the Andes of Colomb. to Chile, south to
Fueg. and Falkl.; Urug.; S. and Centr. Afr.; Malays.—Philipp. Is.; N. Zeal., Tasm.
peltata Phil. and Masafuerae Skottsb. related to Andean sp.
bracteata Steud. Seems to come closer to the Hawaiian G. kauatens?s Rock
than to S. Amer. species.
Halorrhagidaceae.
FHlalorrhagis Forst. About 80, the great majority Austral—N. Zeal., single sp.
scattered north to Indonesia, Philipp. Is., China and Japan, and east to Rapa
and J. Fern.
asperrima Skottsb., masatierrana Skottsb. and masafuerana Skottsb. belong
to Subsect. Cercodia and are closely related to H. erecta (Murr.) Schindl. (N. Zeal.)
and other Austral. and N. Zeal. sp. All J. Fern. forms were formerly incorrectly
identified with erecta.
Umbelliferae.
Cemieiia 1.29; 19 Afr., Madag., 1 China, 2 Austral., 5 trop.. Amer and, the
widely dispersed C. aszatica (L.) Urb.
trifiora (Ruiz et Pav.) Nannfeldt. Centr. and S. Chile, formerly included under
astatica. Introduced?
Eryngium LL. About 230, in all parts of the world, but with two centres: W. Eur.—
Medit. and trop.—subtrop. Amer. Poorly represented in N. Amer. and Australas.
bupleuroides Hook. et Arn., inaccessum Skottsb. and sarcophyllum Hook.
et Arn. form a special sect. /rufzcosa, but differ mainly in being arborescent from
the species occurring on the mainland.
Apium L. About 30; in all parts of the world.
fernandezianum Johow. A well-marked species, probably not nearly related
to the Chilean species, but showing some affinity to A. prostratum Labill. (Austral.)
or australe Thouars (Tristan da C.)
Ericaceae.
Pernettya Gaud. About 12, 6 or 7 Mex. and Centr. Amer. and along the Andes
to Fueg. and Falkl.; 1 Galapag. Is., 2 N. Zeal., 2 Tasm.
rigida (Bert.) DC. A well-marked sp. (252).
208 C. SKOTTSBERG
Empetraceae.
Empetrum L. A bipolar genus, /. xzgrum L. north, £. rubyum Vahl south, but
according to GOOD the latter is represented in the Subarctic by special forms.
See 270. 781.
rubrum Vahl. Andes of S. Chile and Argent. to Fueg. and Falkl.; Tristan da C.
Convolvulaceae.
Dichondra Forst. 5 trop.-subtrop. Amer., 1 N. Zeal., and the following.
repens Forst. Widely spread over both hemispheres, north to N. Amer. and
China, south to S. Chile and N. Zeal.
Calystegia RK. Br. 10-20; temp.-subtrop. in all parts of the world.
tuguriorum R. Br. S. Chile (Hantelmanni Phil.) and N. Zeal.
Boraginaceae.
Selkirkia Berteroi (Colla) Hemsl. According to JOHNSTON (248) very near Hackelia
Opiz, a genus centering in western N. Amer., with outposts in S. Amer. and
Euras.; //. revoluta (Ruiz et Pav.) Johnst. Peru to Boliv. and Argent.
Verbenaceae.
Rhaphithamnus Miers. 2, one in Centr. and S. Chile. Near C7tharerylon L., a neo-
trop. genus of about 20 sp., Mex. and W. Ind. to Boliv. and Braz.
venustus (Phil.) B. L. Robins. A very distinct species.
Labiatae.
Cuminia Colla. 2. An isolated genus, referred to Praszotdeae by EPLING (go), a
palaeotropical group best developed in Hawaii, but whereas Cumznza has the drupe
of this tribe, it has the corolla of Stachyotdeae-Menthinae, where BRIQUET placed
it; BURGER’S statement that the flowers are “Lippenbliiten” (4z. 23) is erroneous.
fernandezia Colla and eriantha Benth. Perhaps united by intermediate forms.
Solanaceae.
Solanum L. Probably over 1000; in all parts of the world, richly represented in
trop. Amer, many in Chile.
fernandezianum Phil. Related to S. “wderosum L. coll.
masafueranum Bitter et Skottsb. A very well-marked Morella.
robinsonianum Bitter. See above p. 200.
Nicotiana 1. 60; 45 Amer., Calif—Mex., And. S. Amer. (Ecuad.—Pert—Chile, Braz.—
Argent.—Patag.), 15 Austral. (1 N. Caled., etc.).
cordifolia Phil. Belongs to the Austica group, confined to trop. Amer. and
Australas., and related to NW. Ratmondii Macbr. (Andes of S. Pert), solanzfolia
Walp. (N. and Centr. Chile) and panzculata VL. (Pert, N. Chile). Dr. GOODSPEED
expressed his opinion (in litt.) that the Aws/7ca complex originated in the region
now occupied by western Bolivia and Pert and extended to the ‘‘Juan Fernandez
land’, becoming isolated during the final uplift of the Andes or possibly even earlier.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 209
See also r72. F. B. H. BROWN (35. III. 262) suggested an affinity between cordifolia
and fatuhivensis F. B. H. Brown (Marquesas), but they belong to different subgenera
and the latter is referred to V. fragrans Hook. from N. Caled. as a variety (772).
Scrophulariaceae.
Mimulus L. About 130; widely dispersed, predominantly western N. Amer. (80
Calif.), south to S. Chile; 2 Afr., Madag., 4 E. Asia, 5 Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.
glabratus H.B.K. N. Amer. to Boliv., Argent. and Chile; polymorphous, the
island form very close to var. parviflorus (Lindl.) Grant (zr4).
Euphrasia L. About 100; bor.-circump. with isolated populations in the S. Andes,
south to Fueg. and Falkl., and in Austral—N. Zeal., the gap between E. Asia
and Australia bridged over by trop. mountain stations; see map 7&8. 224.
formosissima Skottsb. The fact that this species is very unlike the 777fidae
of Chile makes it particularly interesting. In 229.169 I emphasized the differ-
ence between /formosisstma and the Australes of N. Zealand and placed it nearer
to the boreal Semzcalcaratae. WETTSTEIN, in his contribution to my paper (I.c. 209),
expressed the opinion that it could be attached to a Japanese group of species,
intermediate between Australes and Semicalcaratae. The question was taken up
by Du RIeETz who thinks, with good reason I believe, that I overrated its rela-
tions to boreal species (77. 533) and that, in most respects, it is more nearly related
to N. Zealand forms.
Plantaginaceae.
Plantago L. About 270; world-wide, essentially temp.
fernandezia Bert. The nearest relative appears to be P. przuceps Cham. et
Schld. of Hawaii. Both belong to sect. Palaecopsyllium, scattered over the S. hemisph.
and extending north to N. Amer., Hawaii and S. Eur.: N. Amer. 5, S. Amer. 1,
S. Eur. 2, Afr. 5, St. Helena 1, Madag. 1, Lord Howe I. 1, Auckl. Is. 1, Rapa 2,
and Hawaii 9.
truncata Cham. Centr. and S. Chile. PILGER distinguished the island form as
a separate subspecies close to ssp. firma Pilger, but I doubt that it deserves the
rank assigned to it, and it is even possible that it is a very late arrival in the
islands.
Rubiaceae.
Fledyotis L. A large pantrop. genus.
thesitfolia St. Hil. Trop.-subtrop. S. Amer., in Chile south to Chiloé. Very
likely not truly indigenous in J. Fern.
Nertera Banks et Sol. 10-12; centering in N. Zeal. (4 endem. sp.), north to Malaya
and Hawaii; Tristan da C.; S. Amer. from Falkl. and Fueg. to Colomb. and Mex,
granadensis (L. fil.) Druce. A polymorphous species, reported from S. Amer.,
Tristan da C., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., Java and Hawaii—see 244, where I pointed
out that it is heterogeneous but that the plant from Masafuera seems to be iden-
tical with the form common in Magell. and Falkl.
Coprosma Forst. 90; a western Pacific genus centering in N. Zeal. (39) and distri-
14 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
210 C. SKOTTSBERG
buted from Australia to Malays., Melan. and Polyn. with a secondary centre in
Hawaii (18); entirely absent from Amer.
Hookeri (G. Don) W.R. B. Oliver (792). Forms a separate monotypical section.
pyrifolia (Hook. et Arn.) Skottsb. Belongs to a section of 8 Polyn. sp. (4
Mahiti, 1 Cook Is., 1 Kapa, 1_ Pitcairn, a_.J. Fetn:).
Galium 1. World-wide, essentially boreal. Over 500 have been described, almost
1/, of these Medit.—Orient.; about 50 in S. Amer., mostly along the Andes and
extending south to Fueg., Falkl. and S. Georgia.
masafueranum Skottsb. Related to G. eriocarpum Bartl., DC. and frichocar-
pum DC. (both Coquimbo-Cord. Linares), the fruit as in masafueranum covered
with straight hookless hairs.
Campanulaceae.
Wahlenbergia Schrad. Essentially S. African; about 230 sp. (9 S. Amer., 10 S.
Eur.—Orient., 2 or 3 St. Helena, 20 trop. Afr., 6 Madag.—Mascar., 150 S. Afr., 9 As.,
tN; Goin 3 Austtal., 8 IN. Zeal) 5); Ferm,):
Larrainii (Bert. ex Colla) Skottsb., fernandeziana A. DC. p. p. and Grahamae
Hemsl. are closely related to each other.
Masafuerae (Phil.) Skottsb. approaches the former, but has the large tuber
of the following.
Berteroi Hook. et Arn. occupies a rather independent position.
Most African species are annuals and quite unlike the island species, and
these have little in common with the single Chilean or the other American forms,
nor with those from Australia or N. Zealand, even if there is a superficial likeness
between IV. Masafuerae and a couple of perennial S. African species such as
W. Ecklon Buek and oxyphylla A. DC. On the other hand, the resemblance
between the J. Fernandez and St. Helena species is quite striking, and in spite of
the difference in the number of carpels, the ovary being trimerous in the former
and dimerous in the latter, the possibility of a common origin cannot be dismissed.
The number of carpels in the genus varies between 2 and 5; in most species
they are 3. HEMSLEY (727. 61) regarded the St. Helena species as allied to African
and Juan Fernandez species.
Lobelia L.. 350-370; particularly numerous in Amer. and Afr., less so in As.,
Austral. and Oceania, 2 in Eur.
alata Labill. S. Chile, S. Afr., Austral. A sea-side sp.
Compositae.
Lagenophora Forst. A bicentric austr.-subantarct. genus of 16 sp., most numerous
in Austral.—N. Zeal.; Fiji, Rapa, extending north to Philipp. Is. and Hawaii.
Flariott Franch. Andes of S. Chile to Fueg.
Lrigeron L. A large bor.-temp. genus. Ind. Kew. lists about 700 sp. as valid,
half of them in N. Amer. and about 100 in S. Amer., where the genus is richly
developed along the Andes, south to Patag., Fueg. and Falkl. Not few are known
from trop. mountains in the W. and E. hemispheres; very few reported from
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 2251
Australia. One species is found on Rapa, related to the Juan Fernandez species
according to BROWN (35. III. 338).
fruticosus DC. and luteoviridis Skottsb. are related to each other.
Ingae Skottsb., Innocentium Skottsb.' and turricola Skottsb. form another
group.
rupicola Phil. stands apart from all other species.
VIERHAPPER (see 229.182) suggested that the island species are allied to
Andine species, but also that /. fruticosus comes very close to /. lepidotus Less.
of Hawaii; this is, however, now referred to Zetramolopium by SHERFF. There is
no “rzgeron in Hawaii.
Guaphalium L. A large subcosmopol., essentially temp. genus needing revision.
spiciforme Sch. Bip.; comp. 229. 187-188. Patag. Fueg. The assemblage to
which the alpine species of Masafuera belongs is in a state of taxonomic confusion.
The identity with the Magellanian plant may be doubted, but I am convinced
that the island form cannot be referred to either americanum Mill., purpureum L..,
Spicatum Lam. or mucronatum Phil. which, together with coxsanguimeum Gaud., are
regarded as forms of a single polymorphous taxon.
Abrotanella Cass. An austr.-subantarct. genus of 20 sp., the majority in N. Zeal.
with the subantarct. islands (9) and W. Patag._Fueg.—Falkl. (5); of the remainder
rt in Austral., 2 Tasm., 1 N. Guin., 1 Rodriguez I., and the following.
crassipes Skottsb. Very near A. MoseleyZ Skottsb. nom. (W. Patag.); see
229. 189-190.
Robinsonia DC. BENTHAM (20. 460) remarks on Rodivsonia and Rhetinodendron:
“Although their connexion with Eusenecioneae seems greater than with any other
subtribe or tribe, yet in their dioecious capitula, in the presence of small free
anthers without pollen in the female floret and some other points they approach
the subtribe Petrobieae of Helianthoideae.’’ The idea was rather attractive, be-
cause the Petrobieae inhabit St. Helena and S. America. Another suggestion men-
tioned the Hawaiian Duabautza and Razllardia, but they are not dioecious. Re-
cently an undisputable relative was discovered in New Guinea, 4rachionostylum
Mattfeld (278. 27-28):
Von Senecio, dessen pacifische Arten unserer Pflanze recht nahe kommen, unter-
scheidet sich diese Gattung wesentlich durch die Zweihdusigkeit ... und weiter in
Zusammenhang damit durch die Form der Griffelschenkel der Scheibenbliiten, die
der Fegehaare ganz entbehren und vorn nicht gestutzt sondern abgerundet sind. Diese
Merkmale hat sie aber mit den auf Juan Fernandez endemischen Gattungen Rodbinsonia
und PRhetinodendron gemeinsam, von denen sie sich iiberhaupt durch kein generisches
Merkmal unterscheidet. Aber die Ubereinstimmung erstreckt sich sogar auf kleinere
Merkmale, wie den leicht hinfalligen Pappus, die kurzen, aber verhaltnismassig sehr
breiten, etwas vorspringend gestreiften Zungen, die Form der durch ein kleines Be-
cherchen gekr6nten Achaenen, und schliesslich die Wuchsform und Verzweigungsart:
bei beiden schliesst der schopfig beblatterte Stengel mit dem Bliitenstande ab, wahrend
der Fortsetzungsspross aus der Achsel eines der oberen Laubblatter unter dem Blii-
tenstande entspringt und diesen bald zur Seite dringt.... So bleibt als einziger Un-
terschied der durch die sehr verschiedene Blattform bedingte habituelle Eindruck... .
1 Described as a variety of the former and now raised to specific rank.
212 C. SKOTTSBERG
Die Bliitenképfe sind bei Rodimsonia erheblich zahlreicher und kleiner, kurz und breit
glockenf6rmig, bei unserer Pflanze aber schmalglockig.
Wiirden diese Sippen demselben pflanzengeographischen Gebiete angehéren, so
wiirde man sie sicher nicht generisch trennen kénnen. Was hier aber wesentlich dazu
zwingt, ist, dass die Zweihiiusigkeit, die ja hier die wesentliche Ubereinstimmung be-
dingt, bei den Kompositen zu den verschiedensten Malen in den verschiedensten und
auch in denselben Gruppen entwickelt wurde und daher keineswegs als Kriterium
fiir eine generische Verwandtschaft angesehen werden kann.
To this I shall remark that nobody would think of uniting Rodzusonza and
Rhetinodendron, because they differ in essential floral characters. brachionostylum
is, to judge from the description and plate XC: B (only 2 known), closely related
to Robimsonia but not to Rhetinodendron. The mode of growth is not quite the
same, for in Robzmsonia (as well as in Rhetinodendron) 2 or 3 innovations are
developed, and none of them continues the mother axis. Besides, Brachionostylum
has petiolate, penninerved leaves of a type current in dicotyledons and widely
different from the sessile, linear-lanceolate, broadly clasping and parallel-veined
leaves of Rodbznsonta.
gayana Dcne and thurifera Dcne are a pair of related species.
evenia Phil. and Masafuerae Skottsb. form another pair.
gracilis Dcne stands more isolated.
Symphyochaeta (DC.) Skottsb. See 249. 785.
macrocephala (Dcne) Skottsb.
Rhetinodendron Meisn. Berterii (Dcne) Hemsl. See above.
Centaurodendron dracaenoides Johow. Not, as has been supposed, just an ar-
boreous Cendaurea, but differing materially in flower structure (273).
Yunquea Tenzii Skottsb. See 237. 163.
Dendroseris C. Don. An isolated genus, perhaps distantly related to 7hamuno-
servis Phil. from Desventuradas Is., but probably not to /7¢chza Hook. fil. BEN-
THAM stated (20.480) that the achenes of Dendroseris differ from those of the
Cichorioideae in general, and that also the involucre and the habit are different.
With regard to the achenes this is certainly true of Dendroser7s s. str., and also
of Phoentcoseris, whereas they are of a rather normal type in Rea and Hespe-
roserts. All are devoid of paleae, which are present in 7ammnoseris and Fitchza,
a distinctive feature pointed out by BENTHAM, but the awned achenes of /2¢chza
differ from those of all the other genera mentioned. In spite of the profound
discrepances in such important characteristics as inflorescence, involucre, recep-
tacle and stigma Z7hamunoseris has more in common with the Denxdroseris as-
semblage than with other genera.
macrophylla D. Don, macrantha (Bert. ex Decne) Skottsb., marginata (Bert.
ex Decne) Hook. et Arn. and litoralis Skottsb., all lumped together by JOHOW, are
well-marked species; comp. 229. 201-204.
Phoenicoseris Skottsb., 249. 787.
pinnata (Bert. ex Dene) Skottsb. and berteriana (Dcne) Skottsb. (Masatierra)
are closely related but quite distinct; regia Skottsb. (Masafuera) differs from both
in leaf shape, but fertile specimens have not been found.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 213
Rea Bert. ex Dene p.p. See 249. 788.
neriifolia Dcne. Little is known of this, but it is undoubtedly a very good
species; micrantha Bert. ex Decne and pruinata (Johow) Skottsb. are near rela-
tives but good species (comp. 229. 207).
Hesperoseris Skottsb. gigantea (Johow) Skottsb. See 279. 788.
Vicarious species.
VIERHAPPER (276) distinguished between true and false vicarism. True vi-
carists have arisen from a common initial species and become differentiated either
within the limits of the area this once occupied or after penetration into a
different habitat, followed by isolation, whereas in the case of pseudo-vicarism
they have a different origin; a second species may invade the area of the first
and colonize such parts of the area as are unsuitable to the latter. Very often
the term ‘“‘vicarious’’ has been taken in a much wider sense: any two related
species replacing each other in separate areas were called vicarious, and phyto-
geographers used the term to designate two plant species, related or not, that
played corresponding roles in two closely allied plant communities; in this case
Nothomyrcia fernandeziana and Myrceugenta Schulzet, which form the bulk ot
the forest in Masatierra and Masafuera, respectively, are vicarists, although they
belong to different genera. Species not fulfilling the conditions claimed by VIER-
HAPPER were called ‘‘substitute species’.
WULFF (297. 66-67) devotes considerable space to a discussion of vicarism.
He agrees with VIERHAPPER: true vicarism is a result of one taxon breaking
up into two, adapted to different habitat conditions. CAIN (42. 265) expresses
himself in slightly different words, but their meaning is the same: ‘‘closely re-
lated allopatic species which have descended from a common ancestral popula-
tion and attained at least spatial isolation.’ He summarizes statements made
by DRUDE, DIELS, WULFF and SETCHELL, who called species vicarious if they
were only slightly discontinuous morphologically but widely so geographically;
certainly anybody would call them vicarists but use the same term for a pair
of intimately related forms of which one inhabits granite and the other limestone
within the same geographical area.
I am afraid that, in most cases, we know very little or nothing at all of
the ancestry of species we are used to call vicarious, let it be that we have
reason to assume that they have differentiated out of a common population some
time in the past. This is, at least, the situation in Juan Fernandez. Here I
should perhaps refer to what CAIN (l.c. 276) calls polytopic species, 1.e. when
the same taxon occurs in two or more discrete areas, disjunction being the
result either of dispersal from one original centre or of the breaking up of an
area through subsidence or formation of some other kind of barrier; upon a close
investigation it has been shown in many instances that slightly different forms
within the original population happened to become isolated and appear as ex-
amples of true vicarism.
JoHOw (z50. 233) held forth that 6 species endemic in Masatierra correspond
to 6 other species endemic in Masafuera, but he did not use the term vicarious.
214 C. SKOTTSBERG
These were (the species from Masatierra mentioned first): Dexdroserts micrantha-
gigantea (belong to different genera), Waklenbergia Berteroi-tuberosa (= Masa-
fuerae, not very closely related), Myrcengenia fernandeziana—Schulzet (different
genera), Lryngium bupleuroides—sarcophyllum (only distantly related), Cardamiue
alsophila( = flaccida) — Kruesselii(not nearly related), and Urtica glomeruliflora(= fer-
nandeztana)—- Masafuerae (belong to different sections). There is not among them
a single example of either vicarism or pseudo-vicarism in the sense of VIERHAPPER.
In 1914 (227) I distinguished 4 pairs of vicarists in Juan Fernandez: Dendro-
servis micrvantha—gigantea, Myrceugenia fernandeziana—Schulzet, Gunnera peltata-
Masafuerae, and Peperomia margaritifera—Skottsbergi; the flora of Masafuera was
at that time little known. Of these pairs the last two still hold good, the species
replace each other from a taxonomical as well as from a sociological viewpoint;
nevertheless | am not prepared to argue that they arose out of ove initial spe-
cies: several species may have been involved, for they differ in a number of
minor characters and all we can say is that they make the impression of coming
from the same stock. On the basis of our present knowledge of their taxonomy
the following nine pairs are distinguished; the species replace each other, call
them vicarious or substitute: Berberzs corymbosa—masafuerana, Chenopodium cru-
soeanum—nesodendron, Dendroseris macrantha-macrophylla, Fagara mayu—externa,
Gunnera peltata— Masafuerae, Halorrhagis masatierrana—masafuerana, Peperomia
margaritifera—Skottsbergu, Robinsontia evenia— Masafuerae, and Sophora fernan-
deztana—masafuerana. As regards Lerberis, Fagara, Halorrhagis and Sophora,
perhaps also Gunnera, Peperomia and Robinsonia, the two members of a pair are
closely related, but in the case of H/alorrhagis the situation is complicated be-
cause there is a third species, endemic in Masafuera, /7. asperrima; masafuerana
seems, however, to be a better match for masatierrana than asperrima. As we
have seen, there is also a third species of Chenopodium, endemic to Santa Clara,
very likely formerly occurring also on Masatierra, but extinct there. Of the 3
species of Dendroserzs inhabiting Masatierra, margimata and /itoralis form a pair
of one inland and one coast species.
An unbalanced flora.
It has always been argued that an island flora, where the number of species
is small compared with the number of genera and many large and widely distri-
buted families, well developed under different conditions, poorly represented or
altogether absent, furnishes one of the best proofs of the absolute oceanity of its
abode, and Juan Fernandez is no exception from this rule. | have mentioned this
above (p. 194) pointing out that most of these families have numerous genera
and species on the opposite mainland, thus Caryophyllaceae 20 genera, Compo-
sitae some 130, Cruciferae 28, Leguminosae 22, Scrophulariaceae 18, Umbelliferae
about 30, and so forth, and examples of important families in Chile not found
in the islands were also given. This state of things calls for an explanation. JOHOW
paid much attention to it; as he believed that the islands had been isolated from
the very beginning he blamed chance in all cases where, according to the cur-
rent opinion, the diaspores were adapted for dispersal across a wide expanse of
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 215
water. He mentions Compositae-Labiatiflorae, Calyceraceae, Valerianaceae, Cacta-
ceae, Orchidaceae and Dioscoreaceae as good examples. In other cases he blames
the diaspores as in Nolanaceae, Leguminosae, Violaceae, Fagaceae, Amary|lidaceae
and Liliaceae.
Also with reference to life-forms the island flora makes an impression of being
unbalanced, a fact already discussed at some length in 257. 825-830; I shall
only repeat that woody species are in overwhelming majority and annuals almost
absent, whereas they are very numerous, also proportionately, on the mainland.
Already in 1914 (227) I argued that climatic differences alone do not offer an
explanation and that historical causes must be taken into account.
Geographical elements.
In his survey of the flora p. 229-232 JOHOW discussed its composition and
distinguished various elements. The endemic genera and a few peculiar endemic
species of non-endemic genera form his first (and most ancient) group; the second
group contains the remainder of endemic species: (a) markedly distinct, (b) nearly
related to continental species. Both groups make up “Continjente A’’. The third
group, Continjente B’’, contains the species found elsewhere, all occurring in South
America except Halorrhagis ‘alata’. America is claimed as the source of the en-
demic element as well: “tanto las especies del primero como las del segundo grupo
pertenecen, con la unica excepcion del Saxtalum, a jéneros representados, si no
en Chile, a lo menos en alguna parte de la costa occidental de Sud-América’’—
this did not, however, apply to the isolated Compositae, to Lacforzs etc., which
JoHow regarded as originated from ancestors to be looked for in the Tertiary
flora of Chile. Halorrhagis, Santalum and Coprosma, mentioned later, were sup-
posed to have immigrated from western Pacific.
It serves no purpose to go into detail; when JOHOW wrote his book our
knowledge of the flora was too defective to allow him to arrive at anything like
safe conclusions. The same may be said of my 1914 paper (227), even if my short
visit to the islands revealed the existence of an up till then unknown element.
Four main groups were distinguished: I. Old Pacific (ENGLER’s Altoceanisches
Element), comprising genera or species supposed to have a long history behind
them within the precincts of the Pacific and lacking near relatives; subdivision
A, Endemic genera, with 11 sp., and Non-endemic genera with 10 sp.; subdivision
B with allied species in Hawaii, Polynesia, Australia and New Zealand, 16 en-
demic species—the genus Dendroseris was also placed here—and 1 non-endemic
(Halorrhagis). Group HU, called Neotropical, contained 6 endemic species; Cumznza
and ¥uania were included here. Group III, called Chilean, was the largest and was
divided into 3 lots: A, very distinct species, 18 (Ochagavia placed here); B, less
well-marked species, 11; C, also found in Chile, 28, but among them were 6 not
now regarded as native. So far the main difference between this arrangement and
JoHow’s lies in the greater number of species with supposed west Pacific connec-
tions. Finally Group IV, Subantarctic-Magellanian, 4 species, was added.
The study of our 1916-1917 collection added many species not known before
and gave rise to a fresh analysis of the vascular plants (239), of which a
216 C. SKOTTSBERG
short summary is given here (translated from French). The ferns are not included
below.
1. Neotropical and Andean element. Species either found in Chile (with one exception, c)
or endemic but allied to Chilean species; 47.
) in Central or S. Chile, 20.
) in the Magellan region, but not of subantarctic character, 3.
)
)
omm)
in South America, but not in Chile, 1.
endemic species of non-endemic genera, 21.
e) sf endemic mints
2. Element consisting of wide-spread species, also inhabiting Chile, 5.
Neotropical element, not represented in Chile, 7.
a) endemic species of non-endemic genera, 3.
b) species belonging to endemic genera, 4.
4. Magellanian - Old Antarctic element, 27.
a) subantarctic species, 10.
b) austral species, 5.
c) endemic species allied to subantarctic species, 7.
d) endemic species not allied to subantarctic species, 5.
5. Pacific element, 59.
a) isolated endemic species of wide genera, 21.
b) endemic species belonging to genera or sections of west to central Pacific distribu-
tion or, if belonging to wide genera, then more closely related to Pacific species, 17.
c) species of isolated endemic genera with supposed transpacific relations, 18.
d) species of endemic genera with unknown relations, 3.
(ayyelq)
This analysis was based on my memoir on the Phanerogams published in
1922 (229). Since that time several pending questions have been restudied, additional
plant material has come to hand, and recent monographs have been consulted.
The results were communicated above, and we shall now proceed to the following
arrangement of the angiosperms.
I. Andine-Chilean element.—69 (46.9 %).
a. Endemic species (34). In two cases, Ochagavia and Nothomyrcia, also the
genus endemic, but nearly related to Chilean genera. Chaetotropis imberbis, Chus-
quea fernandeziana, Uncinia Douglasii and costata, Hesperogreigia Berteroi, Ocha-
gavia elegans, Luzula masafuerana, Phrygilanthus Berteroi, Spergularia masafue-
rana, Cardamine Kruesselii, Escallonia Callcottiae, Margyricarpus digynus, Sophora
fernandeziana and masafuerana, Dysopsis hirsuta, Colletia spartioides, Azara fer-
nandeziana, Nothomyrcia fernandeziana, Myrceugenia Schulzei, Gunnera peltata
and Masafuerae, Apium fernandezianum, Pernettya rigida, Rhaphithamnus venus-
tus, Solanum fernandezianum, masafueranum and robinsonianum, Galium masa-
fueranum, Erigeron fruticosus, luteoviridis, Ingae, Innocentium, turricola and
rupicola.
6. Known from continental Chile, many also in other parts of S. America or
of still wider distribution (33): Stipa neesiana and laevissima, Piptochaetium bicolor,
Chaetotropis chilensis, Trisetum chromostachyum, Danthonia collina, Koeleria micra-
thera, Cyperus eragrostis and reflexus, Scirpus cernuus and nodosus, Eleocharis
fuscopurpurea, Uncinia phleoides, Juncus imbricatus, capillaceus, procerus, dom-
beyanus and planifolius, Libertia formosa, Salicornia fruticosa, Tetragonia expansa,
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 217
Peperomia fernandeziana, Parietaria humifusa, Paronychia chilensis, Cardamine
flaccida, Callitriche Lechleri, Centella triflora, Dichondra repens, Calystegia tugu-
riorum, Mimulus glabratus, Plantago truncata, Hedyotis thesiifolia, Lobelia alata.
c. Also known from San Ambrosio: Spergularia confertiflora.
d. S. American, but not reported from Chile: Cardamine chenopodiifolia.
II. Subantarctic-Magellanian element.—15 (10.2 %).
a. Endemic (4): Agrostis masafuerana, Drimys confertifolia, Acaena masafue-
rana, Abrotanella crassipes.
6. Not endemic, in several cases extending north along the Andes (11): Oreo-
bolus obtusangulus, Uncinia brevicaulis and tenuis, Carex Banksii, Rubus geoides,
Acaena ovalifolia, Myrteola nummularia, Empetrum rubrum, Nertera granadensis,
Lagenophora Harioti, Gnaphalium spiciforme.
III. Neotropical element.—19 (12.9 %).
a. Belonging to endemic genera without or with only distant relations to the
present Andean flora but presumably of neotropical ancestry (5): Megalachne
berteroniana and masafuerana, Podophorus bromoides (only tentatively referred here),
Centaurodendron dracaenoides, Yunquea Tenzii.
6. Belonging to endemic genera of undoubted neotropical affinity (2): Juania
australis, Selkirkia Berteroi.
c. Endemic species belonging to widespread genera and presumably of neo-
tropical ancestry (7): Urtica fernandeziana, Chenopodium Sanctae Clarae, crusoe-
anum and nesodendron, Eryngium bupleuroides, inaccessum and sarcophyllum.
d. Endemic species of unquestionably neotropical parentage (5): Urtica Masa-
fuerae, Berberis corymbosa and masafuerana, Ugni Selkirkii, Nicotiana cordifolia.
IV. Pacific element.— 26 (17.7 %).
Affinities along the route New Zealand—Australia—Melanesia—Polynesia—Hawail;
all endemic.
a. The genus endemic (9): Cuminia fernandezia and eriantha, Robinsonia
gayana, thurifera, evenia, Masafuerae and gracilis, Symphyochaeta macrocephala,
Rhetinodendron Berteril.
6. Only the species endemic (17): Cladium scirpoideum, Carex berteroniana,
Peperomia margaritifera and Skottsbergii, Boehmeria excelsa, Santalum fernande-
zianum, Ranunculus caprarum, Fagara mayu and externa, Gunnera bracteata,
Halorrhagis asperrima, masatierrana and masafuerana, Euphrasia formosissima,
Plantago fernandezia, Coprosma Hookeri and pyrifolia.
V. Atlantic - S. African element.—6 (4.1 %). Endemic.
Peperomia berteroana, Wahlenbergia Larrainii, fernandeziana, Grahamae, Masa-
fuerae and Berteroi.
VI. Eu-Fernandezian element.—12 (8.2 %).
Isolated endemics of unknown parentage, the Cicoriaceous genera forming a
natural group.
218 C. SKOTTSBERG
Lactoris fernandeziana, Dendroseris macrophylla, macrantha, marginata and
litoralis, Phoenicoseris pinnata, berteriana and regia, Rea neriifolia, micrantha and
pruinata, Hesperoseris gigantea.
The differences between this arrangement and the one of 1934 are consider-
able, but partly at least more apparent than real. Group 1 of 1934 corresponds
(if we exclude (b), which from a purely geographical point of view has to go to
the present group II) to I, but Se/kzrkza has now been placed in III, a group
corresponding to the 3d element of 1934. Group 4 was rather heterogeneous and
included, beside Magellanian species, several bicentric ones and some endemics
of austral-circumpolar affinity now referred to I a. Group 5, Pacific element, in-
cluded the new groups IV—VI and part of III.
II. Pteridophyta.
Six families (taken in the old sense) are represented, Ophioglossaceae only
on Masatierra, Lycopodiaceae only on Masafuera. The number of genera is 23;
21 (91.3%) are found on Masatierra and the same number on Masafuera, 3 on
Santa Clara. Two genera are confined to Masatierra (8.7%) and 2 to Masafuera,
19 (82.6%) shared by both islands, 3 of them also known from Santa Clara. A
single genus (7/yrsopteris) is endemic in Juan Fernandez and found on Masatierra
and Masafuera.
Of the 53 species listed 43 occur on Masatierra, 3 on Santa Clara and 45
on Masafuera. Only 8 species are restricted to Masatierra, 15.1% (18.6% of the
total found there) and 10 to Masafuera, 18.9 % (22.2% of the total); 35 (66%)
are found on both.
There are 18 endemic species (34%), of which 16 inhabit Masatierra and 14
Masafuera; no endemic is found on Santa Clara. Of the endemics 4 are confined
to Masatierra and 2 to Masafuera, 12 having been recorded from the two islands;
in percentage: 22.2, 11.1 and 66.7%, respectively.
A high percentage of ferns is to be expected in ‘oceanic’ islands, whether
or not isolated from the beginning, and Juan Fernandez is no exception from this
rule, for of the 200 vascular plants 26.5% are Pteridophytes.
Of the 35 species also found elsewhere 4 are confined to Masatierra, 8 to
Masafuera and 23 found on both islands, 3 of these also on Santa Clara; in per-
centage 11.4, 22.9 and 65.7, respectively. The differences in percentage between
endemic and non-endemic species is due to the occurrence, in the highland of
Masafuera, of a few mountain ferns not found on the other island. But whether
our analysis bears upon families, genera or species the distribution over the archi-
pelago is very much more even than the dispersion of the angiosperms, and this
is of course what we have every reason to expect. Also, the number of species
to a genus is greater, 2.3.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 219
The systematical position of the endemites and the geographical distribution
of the genera and species also found elsewhere.
Hymenophyllaceae.
Trichomanes L. coll. The island species belong to Vandenboschia Copel., a pan-
trop. and circum-austr. genus of about 25 sp., extending north to N. Amer., Engl.
and Japan.
philippianum Sturm. “One of the most distinct species of 77zchomanes ...
its cellular structure quite unique’? (CHRISTENSEN 62. 3). — Also in S. Chile? (see
itr2):
Ingae C. Chr. Belongs to the neotrop. pyazdiferum group.
exsectum Kze. S. Chile, south to Chiloé. Near the neotrop. 7. tenerum Kze.
Serpyllopsis v. d. Bosch. A monotypical genus without near relatives (COPELAND
69. 37).
caespitosa (Gaud.) C. Chr. (var. fernandeztana C. Chr. et Skottsb., slightly
different from the forms described from the mainland). Falkl. and Fueg. to S. Chile.
Flymenoglossum Pres]. Monotypical and without near affinity to any known genus
{COPELAND l.c.).
cruentum (Cav.) Presl. S. Chile, Valdivia to 49° s. lat.
Hymenophyllum Sm. coll.
a. Mecodium Presl. About 100, pantrop. and austral, with several sp. in N.
Zeal.; north to Sakhalin.
cuneatum Kze. S. Chile, Valdiv—W. Patag.; Marquesas Is., Rapa. Near
ff. polyanthes Sw.,a variable pantrop. sp.
caudiculatum Mart. Pert, S. Braz., S. Chile, Valdiv.—qg° s. lat.
fuciforme Sw. S. Chile to W. Patag. A very distinct sp., referred to Meco-
dium with considerable doubt (COPELAND 66.95).
b. Hymenophyllum s. str. About 25, austr.-circump. with outlying stations in
W. Eur. and Japan; 1. peltatum (Poir.) Desv. widely scattered in slightly different
forms.
pectinatum Cav. S. Chile, Valdiv.Fueg. An aberrant species, COPELAND 69. 34.
fatlklandicum Bak. W. Patag., Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia. Related to peléatum
which, if falklandicum really belongs to Mecodium, where COPELAND placed it
66.94, also must be brought here; felfatum is known from extratropical regions
of both hemispheres and also reported from Chile (perhaps = var. J/enszesz (Pres)
C. Chr. 67.4), by CHRISTENSEN also quoted for Juan Fernandez—he must have
forgotten that in 62.11 all material from there was referred to falklandicum.
rugosum C. Chr. et Skottsb. Related to H. cunbridgense (L.) Sm., W. Ind.,
Venez., Chile, Atl. islands, Mediterr., S. Afr., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.
c. Sphacrocionium Copel. A pantrop. and austral genus of about 50 sp., richest
developed in trop. Amer.
ferrugineum Colla. S. Chile, Valdiv.Fueg. Related to the pantropical //. cz-
Ziatum Sw. and belonging to a small austral-tricentric group of closely allied spe-
cies, H. Frankliniae Col. (N. Zeal., probably = ferrugineum, CHRISTENSEN 61. 5),
220
C. SKOTTSBERG
Table 11,
List of species.
Endemics bold-faced,
endemic genera in capital letters.
Adiantum chilense Kaulf.
Asplenium dareoides Desv. .
— obliquum Forst. var.
| — macrosorum Bert. ex Colla
— stellatum Colla
Blechnum auriculatum Cav.
— chilense (Kaulf.) Mett.
— cycadifolium (Colla) Sturm .
— longicauda C. Chr.
— Schottii (Colla) C. Chr. .
— valdiviense C. Chr.
Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh.
Dicksonia berteriana (Colla) Hook. .
— externa Skottsb.
Elaphoglossum Lindenii (Bory) Moore
Gleichenia cf. litoralis (Phil.) C. Chr. .
— pedalis (Kaulf.) Spr.
— quadripartita (Poir.) Moore
Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) JeSm:
Hymenoglossum cruentum (Cav.) Presl
Hymenophyllum caudiculatum Mart.
— cuneatum Kze .
— falklandicum Bak.
— ferrugineum Colla
— fuciforme Sw.
— pectinatum Cav.
— plicatum Kaulf.
— rugosum C. Chr. et Skottsb.
— secundum Hook. et Grey.
— tortuosum Hook. et Grev. .
Hypolepis rugosula (Labill.) J. Sm.
Lycopodium magellanicum Sw,
— scariosum Forst.
Ophioglossum fernandezianum C. Chr.
| Pellaea chilensis Fée
| Polypodium magellanicum (Desv.)
Arthropteris altescandens (Colla) J. Sm.
Dryopteris inaequalifolia (Colla) C. Chr. .
Lophosoria quadripinnata (Gmel.) C. Chr.
|
+ +
SC Mf
few."
+ +
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 221
Mt SC Mf |
PE NPeEINe MI COllawweener aia deo thas ke) + 6) so els) «sor "ey wr see) el) eaect euets = ane
— lleecallayabinne dees. spehhy c= te Soe Bein Doel Sine A RECra NO NIC a OAC mec Eye oC Ramen i ap = +
— WiagainermG iil a 6 Noe Sa oto) to Mok ceo Hamm mac (cence SC Sur -roa e = | = +
MAC TOMATO’ ES OWia oc rie CUee ne tonas: fos eel ce) side ys (a oa 6 ow wf) se |p ores —
Polystichum berterianum (Colla) C.Chr. ..............{ + =
PROG TTEMUIU( PULSE) ETeES 00. ie sl eae es + es et ee =F — | + |
PUGEG SEO ONIN “gs @ velar 6 tomo uc" «0! ol Bo acolo, BS sarc a hal| ee
=. @OTTeTSTGHIDS A OB sa, cS eS ae A toe eee rine 5 a. _
= scemimadnata ebile . 2... - RMR ee eck ap ah aes eal pete — | +
Ae |
Serpyllopsis caespitosa (Gaud.) C.(\Chr. 2 2 1. ee ee Jae os | +
|
Mio OPDMERUS elegans KZemy se ee es ee we ee aa - +
Tims OMNIES GAGNON TAS 5S <0 Yo 0 By -ol 6 0 Ol io Ge oh GD Oo Go Mole ot a
= lmene C. City se 6 we ame foM Ge & a G20 %0! 6% fol 0 26, “alos OBS Gre) WON = + | = | =
mTaSUSAGI EFI ATUEPENE SCTE (oF. fare oe wee eee re) a ee i Ret ere fee Marie Met | —- | =
aeruginosum (Thouars) Carm. (Tristan da C. and N. Amsterd. I.), and Marlothii
Brause (Cape).
d. Meringium Copel. About 60, S. Chile, Afr., Ceylon, Formosa, N. Guin.,
IN. Zeal:,. Fijt.
secundum Hook. et Grev. S. Chile, Valdiv.—Fueg.
plicatum Kaulf. See 249.763. S. Chile, Valdiv.-W. Patag.
tortuosum Hook. et Grev. S. Chile, Valdiv.—Fueg., Falkl.
Cyatheaceae.
Thyrsopteris elegans Kze. Unanimously regarded as a very ancient type (BOWER,
SEWARD, BERRY, WINKLER, COPELAND, etc.). BERRY (27.88) pointed out that
Cyatheotdes thyrsopteroides Berry is remarkably similar to 7hyrsopteris; it was,
however, found sterile, and he adds that most of the fossils formerly referred to
Thyrsopteris are based on too slender evidence. SEWARD (220. 221) says: “Thyr-
sopteris is very closely allied to certain Jurassic Ferns from the Yorkshire coast
and many other places: geological evidence points to a remote antiquity, and its
present isolation is in all probability the last phase in its history of a direct deriva-
tive of a widely scattered Jurassic type.’ COPELAND called it “a relic from the
time when Décksonia and Cyathea had a common ancestor’ (69. 48) and he thinks
that it is allied to Culcita Presl. He brought 7Ayrsopteris to his large and possibly
very heterogeneous family Pteridaceae, where also Decksonza is placed.
WINKLER’s statement that ZAyrsopteris is found on Masafuera only (287. 472)
is erroneous.
Lophosoria Pres]. One polymorphous species.
guadripinnata (J. F. Gmel.) C. Chr. Trop. and subtrop. Amer., Mex.—Chile and
south to W. Patag., 49° s. lat. The taxonomical status of the various forms re-
mains to be settled. The island form (or forms, for there seems to be some dif-
ZLZ C. SKOTTSBERG
ference between the plants of Masatierra and Masafuera) is certainly unlike the
form inhabiting Chile; see 62. 16.
Dicksonia L’Hérit. 24; 1 Mex., 3 Centr. Amer. to Colomb., 1 Ecuad.—Braz., 2 Peru;
1 St. Helena, 1 Malays., 4 N. Guin., 2 Austra]—Tasm., 3 N. Zeal., 3, Ni @aleam
1 Fiji-Samoa.
berteroana Colla and externa Skottsb. are very near each other and closely
related not to the Andean group but to DY. /anxata Col. from N. Zeal. CHRIST
(59.154) further quotes as relatives D. antarctica Labill. (Austral.), B/amez (Kze)
Moore (Indones., Philipp.), gvazd7s Ros. (N. Guin.) and species from N. Caledonia
and the South Sea islands.
Polypodiaceae.
Cystopteris Bernh. 15; 1 boreal, 10 Ind—China, Japan, N. Zeal., 2 Eur., 1 S. Braz.
fragilis (L.) Bernh. coll. A wide-spread, polymorphous sp., found in all parts
of the world (83° n. lat. to S. Georgia) except Australia. The form occurring on
Masafuera presumably related to a form from the mainland (62. 18).
Dryopteris Adans. Sens u C. Chr. about 1200 sp.; s. str. COPELAND about 150; “an
assemblage of genera that must be segregated in their entirety before of use for
a study of distribution” (COPELAND 69). _
inaequalifolia (Colla) C. Chr. Belongs to a neotrop. group and comes nearer
to tropical forms than to the south Andean D. spectadzlis (Kaulf.) C. Chr., which
extends south to Chile.
Polystichum Roth. About 225; widely spread, numerous in E. As.
berterianum (Colla) C. Chr. Near P. adantiforme Forst., spread through the
5) temp: zone, northivto Wind,
vestitum (Forst.) Presl coll. S. Amer. (also Chile), Austral., N. Zeal.
Arthropteris J. Sm. About 20; palaeotrop., recorded from trop. Afr., north to Arab.;
Madag., Australas., north to Philipp. Is.; New Caled., Fiji, Samoa; best developed
N. Guin., N. Caled. and Madag.
altescandens (Colla) J. Sm. Closely related to Pacific forms (62. 21).
Asplenium . 650-700; cosmopolitan.
obliguum Forst. var. chondrophyllum (Bert.) Mett. Typical od/zguum reported
from S. Chile, Austral. and N. Zeal.
macrosorum Bert. ex Colla. Distantly related to neotrop. sp.; see 62. 23.
stellatum Colla. Belongs to the pantrop. /uzulatum group; see 62. 24.
dareoides Desv. (magellanicum Kaulf.). S. Chile, Fueg., Falkl. Closely related
to A. alvaresense Rudm. Brown of Diego Alvarez (Tristan da C.); see 67. 13.
Blechnum \.. 180-200; essentially southern.
auriculatum Cav. Temp. S. Amer., common in Centr. and S. Chile and related
topbMaustrale le (Sy Atr.).
valdiviense C. Chr. Chile, south to Chiloé. Related to B. /anceolatum (R. Br.)
Sturm from Austral. and N. Zeal. As regards the nomenclature, see 769.54, and
249. 764.
Schottii (Colla) C. Chr. Stands near B. attenuatum (Willd.) C. Chr. (S. Afr.,
E. Austral., Polyn.) and meridense (Kaulf.) C. Chr. (trop. Amer.); see 62. 27.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 223
chilense (Kaulf.) Mett. Centr. Chile to W. Patag.; Falkl. Belongs to the capense
group (S. Afr., Indomal.), see 62.27 and 169. 47.
cycadifolium (Colla) Sturm. Almost too near 2B. magellanicum (Desv.) Mett.
(S. Chile to Fueg. and Falkl.); both related to 2. zabulare (Thunb.) Kuhn (S. and
E. Afr., Madag., Mascaren.).
longicauda C. Chr. Very near 4. Sprucez C. Chr. from trop. S. Amer. (Ecuad.,
Boliv., Braz.), see 250. HICKEN records it from Tucuman in Argent. (733.246),
a statement overlooked also by CHRISTENSEN.
Pellaea Link. About 80, the majority in S. Amer. (south to Chile), S. Afr. and
islands: N. Amer. north to Canada; N. Zeal.
chilensis Fée. Very close to P. xivea (Poir.) Prantl (Ariz.—Chile), see 62. 30.
Hypolepis Bernh. A pantrop. genus of 45-50 sp., half of them trop. Amer., several
Afr. and surrounding islands, others N. Guin—E. As. and Austral.—Polyn.
rugosula (Labill.) J. Sm. Centr. and S. Chile; the typ. sp. Austral., N. Zeal.,
var. villosoviscida (Thouars) C. Chr. (67. 6) on Tristan da C.; Polypodium viscidum
Roxb. from St. Helena very likely is another variety.
Adiantum LL. 200-225; widely distributed but most numerous in S. Amer.
chilense Kaulf. Pert—Chile, Patag., Falkl.
Pteris L.. 270-280, mainly trop. but extending north to S. Eur. and south to S. Afr.,
Tasm. and N. Zeal.
chilensis Desv. Near P. leptophylla Sw. (S. Braz.).
semtadnata Phil. S. Chile, Valdiv—Huafo I. A distinct sp., possibly related
to P. pulchra Schlechtd. from Mexico.
berteroana Ag. Related to P. comans Forst. (Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.) and
particularly to P. exdlicheriana Ag. (Norfolk 1.).
Histiopteris (Ag.) J. Sm. An assemblage of trop. and austr.-circump. forms which
according to CHRISTENSEN cannot claim to be regarded as different species
(62. 36), whereas COPELAND (69.60) speaks of local, derived species (a concentra-
tion in Indomal.—Polyn.) differing sufficiently from the following polymorphous taxon.
tncisa (Thunb.) J. Sm. Chile, S. Afr., Tristan da C., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.,
Polynes.
Polypodium 1. coll. World-wide; Ind. Fil. registers more than 1100 sp. The genus
is now generally broken up, most radically by COPELAND, who segregates numer-
ous genera partly restored from synonymy.
a. Grammitis Sw. About 150; an essentially southern genus, reaching north
to West Indies and Bonin Is. and richest developed in New Guinea.
magellanica Desv. S. Chile, Valdiv._Fueg., And. Patag. (Rio Negro); Tristan
da C., Marion I. In 62.36 as P. Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. var. magellanicum
(Desv.) C. Chr., but later restored to specific rank by CHRISTENSEN 67.18. Distri-
bution of Bzllardiert: Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., Auckl. and Campb. Is., Lord
Howe and Norfolk Is., St. Paul and N. Amsterd. Is., Kerguel.
b. Syxammia Presl. According to COPELAND 69.184 only one species, S.
Feuillet (Bert.) Copel. (Polypodium trilobum Cav.), but I fail to see how we could
exclude the island species.
224 C. SKOTTSBERG
intermedium Colla |translucens (Kze) Fée]. JoHow united P. rzlobum Cav.
and californicum Kaulf. with translucens, and they seem to belong to the same
small group, to which also P. Espznosae Weatherby (Chile, Atacama) must be
referred.
c. Polypodium s. str., about 75 sp., mainly N. hemisph. and neotrop.
Masafuerae Phil. S. Pert to N. Chile (Antofagasta), Argent.; comp. 749.14
and 268.33. Very clese to P. pycnocarpum C. Chr. (Mex.-N. Chile).
d. Xzphopteris Kaulf. About 50, pantrop.
trichomanoides Sw. Trop. Amer. A puzzling record (see 249. 766).
e. Pleopeltis Humb. et Bonpl. About 40, pantrop.; the following sp. wide-
spread.
lanceolatum \.. Mex. and W. Ind. to subtrop. S. Amer. (also in Chile), St.
Helena, Tristan da C., Afr., Madag., Indomal., Hawail.
Elaphoglossum Schott. A pantrop. genus of more than 400 sp., very numerous
in And. S. Amer., 4 sp. on Tristan da C., and many sp. in Polyn. and Hawaii.
Lindentt (Bory) Moore. Mex. to Ecuad. and Braz.
Gleicheniaceae.
Gleichenta Sm. About 130 sp., the majority of them referred to Stcherus (Kaulf.)
Ching, to which also the species in J. Fern. belong; about a dozen sp. spread
over the austral zone; 5 Chile, one extending to Falkl.; 1 5S. Afr., 1 Madag.,
Masearen. and Seych. Is., 1 Tasm., 1 Tasm. and,N: Zeal:, 2 N. Zeal
quadripartita (Poir.) Moore. S. Chile to Fueg.
pedalis (Kaulf.) Spreng. S. Chile, south to Chonos Is.
cf. Zztoral’s (Phil.) C. Chr. Hardly identical with this little known species and
perhaps only a form of G. fedalis.
Ophioglossaceae.
Ophioglossum \.. 28 sp. recognized by. CLAUSEN (64); the genus “scattered with
remarkable uniformity over the habitable globe’? (COPELAND 69. 12).
fernandezianum C. Chr. Not very near O. ypanense Mart. (Colomb., Braz.)
as CHRISTENSEN thought, but close to O. scarzosum Clausen from Pert, Dept. Junin.
Lycopodiaceae.
Lycopodium L. A large world-wide genus, badly ill-treated by NESSEL, who listed
several undistinguishable species in J. Fern.; see 249. 766.
magellanicum Sw. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, Marion I., Kerguel.
scartosum Forst. Chile, Valdiv.-Guaytecas Is. (ZL. gayanum Remy), N. Zeal.;
Trop. Andes, Braz. (L. Fusszeuz Desv.). See |.c. 767.
In his treatment of the geographical groups distinguished by him, JOHOW
included the ferns—no Fern Allies were at that time known from Juan Fernandez.
All were classified as American except 3, Dicksonia berteroana, said to be similar
to a species from Fiji, Preris berteroana (identified with comans), and “Asplenium
longissimum Blume’, the species now known as Blechnum longicauda. In 1914
(227) I went a step further; to my ‘“‘Altpazifisches Element” 5 species were referred,
to the Trop. American 5, and all the rest to the Chilean. In 1934 I attempted
a more detailed subdivision (239, here translated from French).
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 225
1. Neotropical and Andean element. Species either found in Centr. and S. Chile or
endemic but allied to Chilean species; 28.
a) in Chile, 22.
b) in the Magellan. region, but not of subantarctic character. 3.
d) endemic species of non-endemic genera, 3.
Element consisting of wide-spread species, also inhabiting Chile, 2.
3. Neotropical element, not represented in Chile, 7.
a) non-endemic species, 1.
b) endemic species of non-endemic genera, 6.
4. Magellanian-Old Antarctic element, 9.
a) non-endemic Magellanian species, 2.
nN
By o%55 * Old Antarctic but not Magellanian species, 4.
c) endemic species allied to subantarctic species, 2.
d) & E. not allied to subantarctic species, 1.
Peace element, 5.
a) isolated endemic species of wide genera, 1.
b) endemic species belonging to genera or sections of west to central Pacific distribu-
tion, 3.
d) species of endemic genus with unknown relations, 1.
A modified arrangement is attempted below, corresponding to the analysis
of the angiosperms.
I. Andine-Chilean element.—34 (64.1 %).
a. Endemic species (5, 9.4%): Hymenophyllum rugosum, Polystichum berteri-
anum, Blechnum cycadifolium, Pellaea chilensis, Polypodium intermedium.
6. Known from continental Chile, many also in other parts of S. America
or of still wider distribution (29, 54.7%): Trichomanes exsectum, Hymenoglossum
cruentum, Hymenophyllum cuneatum, caudiculatum, fuciforme, pectinatum, ferru-
gineum, secundum, plicatum and tortuosum, Lophosoria quadripinnata, Cystopteris
fragilis, Polystichum vestitum, Asplenium obliquum, Blechnum auriculatum, valdi-
viense and chilense, Hypolepis rugosula, Adiantum chilense, Pteris chilensis and
semiadnata, Histiopteris incisa, Polypodium magellanicum, Masafuerae and lanceo-
latum, Gleichenia quadripartita, pedalis and cf. litoralis, Lycopodium scariosum.
II. Subantarctic-Magellanian element.— 4 (7.5 %).
Not endemic, extending north but not beyond Centr. Chile: Serpyllopsis caes-
pitosa, Hymenophyllum falklandicum, Asplenium dareoides, Lycopodium magel-
lanicum.
Ill. Neotropical element.—g9 (17 %).
a. Endemic species (7, 13.1%): Trichomanes philippianum and Ingae, Dryo-
pteris inaequalifolia, Asplenium macrosorum and stellatum, Blechnum longicauda,
Ophioglossum fernandezianum.
6. Not endemic (2, 3.8 %): Polypodium trichomanoides, Elaphoglossum Lindenii.
IV. West Pacific element.—5 (9.4 %).
Affinities in Australia, New Zealand and Oceania, not in America. All en-
demic: Dicksonia berteroana and externa, Arthropteris altescandens, Blechnum
Schottii, Pteris berteroana.
15 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
226 C. SKOTTSBERG
V. Eu-Fernandezian element.—1 (1.9 %).
Endemic genus without affinities among the living ferns: Thyrsopteris elegans.
As could be expected, the Chilean element is stronger among the ferns than
among the angiosperms, followed in great distance by the neotropical, which also
is comparatively stronger, whereas the Magellanian and the Pacific are less im-
portant, especially the latter; long-distance advocates would expect the opposite,
because ferns ought to travel across the ocean much more readily than flowering
plants.
Ill. Musci.
The following list is based on BROTHERUS’ paper in vol. II (34) and on his
treatment of the group in the 2nd editicn of Natirl. Pflanzenfam. In many cases
the figure for the number of species (in brackets) is too low, as numerous mosses
have been described in later years, but I have refrained from searching the litera-
ture. Much information was obtained from HERZOG’s work (729) and in pt. 2 of
IRMSCHER’s book (743). Iam indebted to Dr. HERMAN PERSSON for kind assistance.
Mt = Masatierra, Mf = Masafuera.
Ditrichaceae.
Pleuridium Brid. (about 30). Wide-spread, mainly temperate.
Robinsonii (Mont.) Mitt. Chile, Urug. Belongs to a S. Amer. group.—Mt.
Ditrichum Vimm (about 50). In all parts of the world.
affine (C.M.) Hampe. S. Chile and Patag., E. Austral., N. Zeal., Auckl. Is.
Not listed in 270, where D. elongatum (H. f. et W.) Mitt. is quoted for Chile, Austral.,
Tasm. and N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
longisetum (Hampe) Jaeg. S. Chile to Fueg.—Mf.
Ceratodon Brid. (2, one trop.).
purpureus (L.) Brid. Cosmopol.—Mt, Mf.
Pottiaceae.
Hymenostomum R. Br. (50-60). All over the world.
kunzeanum (C.M.) Broth. S. Chile.-—Mt.
Gymnostomum Hedw. (10). All over the world.
calcareum Bryol. germ. Eur., Afr., As., N. Amer., S. Amer.: Ecuad.—Chile;
Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
Trichostomum Hedw. (81). Cosmopolitan.
brachydontium Bruch. Eur., Caucas., N. Afr., Macaron., Mascar., Japan, N.
Zeal., but not mentioned in 2z70.—Mf.
Dicranaceae.
Amphidium Nees (10). Very widely distributed.
cyathicarpum (Mont.) Broth. Ecuad.—-Chile, S. Georgia, Afr., E. Austral., Tasm.,
N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 227
Dicranella Schimp. (60). All continents, numerous S. Amer. and As.
costata Broth.—Mt, Mf.
Oncophorus Brid. (8). Southern S. Amer., Eur., E. As., Ceylon.
fuegianus Card. Patag—Fueg.—Mf.
Dicranoloma Ren. (76). Almost exclusively S. hemisph., austr.-subantarct., 1 S. Afr.
fernandezianum Broth. Near PD. Duseniz Broth. (S. Chile).—Mt.
capillifolium Broth. S. Chile-Fueg.—Mt.
capillifolioides Broth. Near the former.—Mf.
Menzies (Tayl.) Par. S. Chile, E. Austral., Tasm., Norfolk I., N. Zeal.,
Chatham Is., Auckl. Is.—Mt.
Billardiert (Schwaegr.) Par. Pert-Fueg., Falkl., S. Afr., Austral., Tasm., N.
Zeal., Auckl. and Campb. Is.—Mt, Mf.
nigricaule Angstr. S. Chile, south to Fueg.—Mf.
Campylopus Brid. (about 500). All over the world, mainly trop.-subtrop.
introfiexus (Hedw.) Mitt. N. Amer., S. Amer., Ecuad. to Urug. and Fueg.,
islands of W. and E. Afr., Ascens., St. Helena, Tristan da C., Marion I., Austral.,
Tasm., N. Zeal., Auckl., Campb. and Antipodes Is., Pacific islands.—Mt.
punacams ©. M. Chile-—Mt.
polytrichoides De Not. W. and S. Eur., N. Afr., Mascar.—Mt.
aberrans Broth. A very peculiar sp.—Mt, Mf.
areodictyon (C.M.) Mitt. Centr. and S. Amer., Venez.—Boliv.—Mf.
subareodictyon Broth. Related to the former.—Mf.
blindioides Broth.—Mf.
Thysanomitrium Schwaegr. (31). Trop.-subtrop., especially Old World, extending
south to the austr.-subantarct. zone.
Richardt Schwaegr. Centr. and S. Amer. to Chile.—Mt, Mf.
leptodus (Mitt.) Broth. [Campylopus clavatus (R. Br.) H. f. et W.| Ecuad., Chile,
Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., Auckl. and Campb. Is—Mt, Mf.
Dicnemonaceae.
Eucamptodon Mont. (7). Chile (1), Austral. (1), N. Caled. (4), N. Zeal. +N. Caled. (1).
perichaetialis Mont. S. Chile to Magell.—Mf.
Fissidentaceae.
Fissidens Hedw. (over 700). All continents, very numerous in trop. zones.
fernandezianus Broth.—Mt, Mf.
crassicuspes Broth. Related to F. crassipes Wils. (Eur. Mediterr., Madeira).—Mt.
rigidulus Hook. f. et Wils. Ecuad._W. Patag., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.—
Mt, Mf.
leptochaete Dus. Chile.—Mt.
maschalanthus Mont. Chile, south to W. Patag.—Mt, Mf.
pycnotylus Broth. Very near the former.—Mt.
asplenioides (Sw.) Hedw. Centr. Amer. to Pert, S. Chile and Braz., W. Afr.,
Macaron., Tristan da C., Indomal., Queensl., N. Zeal.—Mt.
228 C. SKOTTSBERG
Leptodontium Hampe (80). Most numerous in Amer., 40% And.
fernandezianum Broth. Related to L. luteum (Tayl.) Mitt. (trop. And.).—Mf.
Didymodon Hedw. (91). Subcosmopol., mainly temp., essentially Amer.: Mex.—
Centr. Amer.—Pert and Chile; 1 Antarct.
calymperidictyon Broth.—Mt.
linearis Broth.—Mf.
Tortula Hedw. (220). Subcosmopol., mainly temp.
scabrinervis (C.M.) Mitt. Chile-—Mt.
flagellaris (Schimp.) Mont. Chile.— Mt.
Grimmia Ehrh. (230). Subcosmopol. but rare in the trop. zones.
phyllorhizans Broth.-——Mt.
Rhacomitrium Brid. (80). As Grimmia.
subnigritum (C.M.) Par. W. Patag.—Fueg.—Mf.
symphyodontum (C.M.) Jaeg. S. Chile to Fueg. and Falkl., S. Afr., Kerguel.,
Tasm., N. Zeal. Not listed for N. Zeal. in 270.—Mt, Mf.
striatipilum Card. S. Chile to Fueg., S. Georgia; N. Zeal. (2z0).—Mf.
lanuginosum (Hedw.) Brid. Cosmopol.—Mf.
loriforme Dus. W. Patag.—Mf.
convolutum Mont. S. Chile to W. Patag.—Mf.
Ptychomitriaceae.
Ptychomitrium (Bruch) Fiirnr. (62). Of wide distribution in temp. zones.
fernandezianum (Mitt.) Jaeg.—Mt, Mf.
Orthotrichaceae.
Zygodon Hook. f. et Tayl. (about 100). N. and Centr. Amer. (6), trop. S. Amer.
(40), S. Chile and Argent. (20), Eur. (4), trop. Afr. (2), trop. As. (6), E. Austral.—
N. Zeal. (10).
intermedius B. et S. S. Amer., Afr., Monsoon reg., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.
—Mt. (264). Z. obovalis Mitt., a doubtful species (373. 139), is supposed to be iden-
tical with zz~fermedius.
Menzies (Schwaegr.) W. Arn. S. Chile, Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mt.
Stenomitrium (Mitt.) Broth. (2). Peru, Chile.
pentastichum (Mont.) Broth. Peri-W. Patag.—Mf.
Ulota Mohr (43). N. and S. temp. zones, 1/3 Chile, some N. Zeal.
fernandeziana Malta (373). Near U. rufula (Mitt.) Jaeg. (Chile-W. Patag.,
Argent., N. Zeal.).—Mf.
Macromitrium Brid.(415). Trop.-subtrop., special groups Chile—Patag. and E. Austral.—
Tasm—N. Zeal.
hymenostomum Mont. S. Chile-Fueg.—Mt.
saxatile Mitt.—Mt, Mf.
fernandezianum Broth. Related to I/. asperulum Mitt. (Tasm., N. Zeal.; not in
210).—Mt.
Masafuerae Broth. Near the former.—Mf.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 229
Funariaceae.
Funaria Schreb. (200). A world-wide genus.
hygrometrica (L.) Sibth. Cosmopol.—Mt, Mf.
Bryaceae.
Mielichhoferia Hornsch. (100). Widely distributed, centering in the Andes.
longiseta C. M. Ecuador.—Mt.
Bryum Dill. (about 800). All over the world.
Lechlert C. M. Chile.—Mf.
fernandezianum Broth. Related to B. Cruegert Hampe (neotrop.).—Mt, Mf.
Leptostomaceae.
Leptostomum R. Br.(11). S. Chile (2), Indomal., Austral., N. Zeal., Norfolk I., Campb. I.
Menziesti (Hook.) R. Br. S. Chile to W. Patag. and Fueg.— Mf.
Eustichiaceae.
Eustichia (Brid.) Mitt. (8). 6 Mex.-S. Chile, 1 S. Afr., 1 islands of E. Afr.
Poeppigtt (C. M.) Par. S. Chile-Magell.—Mt, Mf.
Rhizogoniaceae.
Rhizogonium Brid. (27). Austr.-circump. (S. Amer., S. Afr., Austral., N. Zeal., Polyn.),
extending into the N. hemisph.; 1 pantrop.
Novae Hollandiae Brid. var. patagonicum Card. et Broth. W. Patag.; the typical
speeustral., Lasm., N. Zeal:-—Mt.
mntotdes (Hook.) Schimp. Colomb.-Fueg., E. Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mf.
Bartramiaceae.
Anacolia Schimp. (7). W. N. Amer.-trop. Andes (5), 1 Medit., 1 Ethiop.
subsessilis (Yayl.) Broth. Mex._Ecuad.—Mt, Mf.
Bartramia Hedw. (110). Subcosmopol., a few sp. subantarct.-circump.
aristata Schimp. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
patens Brid. W. Patag.—Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, Kerguel., E. Austral., Tasm.,
N. Zeal.—Mf. Not mentioned in 270, where B. halleriana Hedw., widely distributed
in the N. hemisphere, is credited to Patag., Fueg., Austral., Tasm. and N. Zeal.—Mf.
fernandeziana Card.—Mt.
Philonotis Brid. (174). Subcosmopol., two monotyp. sections in S. Amer.
krauseana (C. M.) Jaeg. Centr. Chile to W. Patag.—Mt, Mf.
glabrata Broth. Related to the former.—Mt.
scabrifolia (Hook. f. et Wils.) Broth. Circump.-subantarct., forming a separate
section. Ecuad—Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, S. Afr., Marion I., Kerguel., Austral.,
iiasni.,..N:. Zeal,, Avekl and -Campb: is:—Mt; Mf,
vagans (Hook. f. et Wils.) Mitt. Forms a separate section. Chile-Fueg., 5.
Georgia.—Mf (an aberrant form).
Breutelia Schimp. (104). Best developed trop. mountains, rare N. Amer., numerous
austr.-subantarct.
Masafuerae Broth.—Mf.
230 C. SKOTTSBERG
Hedwigiaceae.
Rhacocarpus Lindb. (24). Centr. Andes and Braz. mountains etc.; almost confined
to the S. hemisph.
Humboldt (Hook.) Lindb. Mex., W. Ind., Colomb—And. Patag., Fueg., Falkl.,
Centr. Afr., Madag., Réunion, Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal. A polymorphous sp.—Mf.
Cryphaeaceae.
Dendrocryphaea Par. et Schimp. (4). Austr.-subantarct., 2 Chile, 1 Argent.—Patag.,
1 Tasm.-N. Zeal.
cuspidata (Sull.) Broth. S. Chile.—Mf.
Cyptodon Par. et Schimp. (6). 2 Austral—N. Zeal., 1 N. Caled., 2 Fiji-Samoa—Tonga,
La) epeiern.
crassinervis Broth. Close to C. (2z0 under Cryphaea) dilatatus (Hook. f. et
Wils.) Par. (E. Austral., N. Zeal.).—Mf.
Lepyrodontaceae.
Lepyrodon Hampe (6-8). 1 bicentric (Chile-Fueg., E. Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.,
Campb, I.), 2 or 3 trop. Andes to Braz. and Argent., 2 or 3 Chile sieNeewear
parvulus Mitt. Centr. and S. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
tomentosus (Hook.) Mitt. Colomb.—Peru, Braz., Argent., W. Patag.—Mt.
zmplexus (Kze) Par. Chile, south to Fueg.—Mt.
Ptychomniaceae.
Ptychomnium Hook. f. et Wils. (9, or 8 if evyguisetum = aciculare). Austral-subant-
arct., extending north to Braz. and Hawaii; Argent. and Chile to Fueg., E. Austral.,
Tasm., N. Zeal. and subant. islands, Lord Howe I., N. Caled., Polyn.
subaciculare Besch. Chile, south to Fueg.—Mt.
falcatulum Broth. Related to the former.—Mt.
ptychocarpum (Schwaegr.) Mitt. Chile, south to W. Patag.—Mf.
Neckeraceae.
Weymouthia Broth. (3-4). Austr.-circump., Hawaii.
mollis (Hedw.) Broth. Centr. and S. Chile to Magell., E. Austral., Tasm.,
N. Zeal.—Mt, Me.
Leptodon Mohr (4). Afr. and islands (3), and the following.
Smithii (Dicks.) Mohr. Argent., Chile; S. Eur., Caucas., Afr., Macaron.; E.
Austral., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
Neckera Hedw. (127). Widely distributed trop.-subtrop., extending south to Chile
and N. Zeal.—Auckl. I.
rotundata Broth. A very distinct sp.——Mf.
Porothamnium Fleisch. (51). 1 W. N. Amer., 41 Centr. and S. Amer., extending
southito!Patasy,..7..trop. sAfcy1 10 Geylon,yim N.. Zeal:
fasciculatum (Sw.) Fleisch. W. Ind., Colomb.—Pert, Braz.—Mf.
arbusculans (C. M.) Broth. Chile, Patag.—Mf.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 231
Thamnium Bryol. eur. (33). N. Amer., W. and S. Eur., Macaron., S. Afr., N. and
E. As., Indomal., Austral., N. Zeal., Melan. The Juan Fernandez species belong
to a southern section.
rigidum (Mitt.) Broth.—Mt.
latinerve (Mitt.) Broth.——Mt.
Caroli Broth. Related to rz7g7dum.—Mt.
Ingae Broth. Very near the former.—Mt.
crassinervium (Mitt.) Broth.—Mt.
proboscideum Broth. Near the former.—Mt.
assimile Broth. Very near the former.—Mt.
confertum (Mitt.) Broth.—Mt.
Pinnatella (C. M.) Fleisch. (37). Pantrop.
macrosticta Broth. A very distinct sp.—Mf.
Hookeriaceae.
Distichophyllum Dozy et Molk. (93). Essentially austral, extending south to Austral.,
Tasm., N. Zeal.; well represented Indomal. region.
subelimbatum Broth.—Mt.
assimile Broth. Near the former.—Mt.
fernandezianum Broth. Related to D. rotundifolium (Hook. f. et Wils.) Broth.
(Chile, Patag., E. Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.).—Mf.
Pterygophyllum Brid. (32). Mainly S. hemisph., 6 S. Chile-Fueg., 25 Austral—Tasm.—
Ne Zeal. 2 of these also S.. Amer.
anomalum (Schwaegr.) Mitt. Fueg.—Mt. Perhaps only an extreme water form
of the following (z7z. 85)
obscurum (Mont.) Mitt. S. Chile to W. Patag., Falkl., Tasm.—Mf.
tenuinerve Broth. Very near the former.—Mt.
denticulatum (Hook. f. et Wils.) Mitt. W. Patag.—Fueg., Falkl., E. Austral.,
Tasm., N. Zeal., Auckl. and Campbell Is.—Mt. Not included in 2z0, where
P. dentatum (Hook. f. et Wils.) Mitt. is supposed to occur in Chile and Fuegia.
Eriopus (Brid.) C. M. (25). Some trop. Andes, 1 S. Afr., numerous N. Zeal.
leptoloma Broth. Related to £&. apiculatus (Hook. f. et Wils.) Mitt. (S. Chile-
Fueg., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.).—Mt, Mf.
grandiretis Broth. Near the former.—Mf.
Lamprophylum Schimp. Monotypical; more or less distantly related to neotrop.
genera.
splendidissimum (Mont.) Schimp. S. Chile and W. Patag.—Mf.
Hypopterygiaceae.
Lopidium Hook. f. et Wils. (16). 14 paleotrop., 2 S. Amer. (Braz., Chile).
conciunum (Hook.) Fleisch. Chile, south to W. Patag., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.,
Auckl. Is.—Mt.
Hypopterygium Brid. (61). Widely distributed N. and S. Amer., Afr., As., Indomal.,
one small group austr.-bicentr.
232 C. SKOTTSBERG
Thouini (Schwaegr.) Mont. S. Chile-Fueg. Belongs to a group of 4 sp. (3 Chile,
1 N. Zeal.).—Mf.
Rhacopilaceae.
Rhacopilum Palis. (51). Pantrop., mainly southern, south to N. Zeal.
fernandezianum Card. S. Chile. Related to R. tomentosum (Sw.) Brid. (trop.—
subtrop. Amer.).—Mt, Mf.
Thuidiaceae.
Thuidium Bryol. eur. (161). All over the world, especially in humid mountain climates.
Masafuerae Broth. Related to 7. fulvastrum (Mitt.) Jaeg. (Tristan da C.,
N. Zeal. but not included in 270) and to the following sp.—Mf.
Valdiviae Broth. S. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
Amblystegiaceae.
Sciaromium Mitt. (22). Mainly austral, the majority southern S. Amer., 1 Cape, 2
China, 2 E. Austral., 1 N. Zeal.; the single N. Amer. sp. forms a separate section.
Sect. Aloma 6 (1 Boliv., 2 Fueg., 2 E. Austral., 1 N. Zeal.).
pachyloma (Mont.) Par. S. Chile-W. Patag.—Mt, Mf.
Hypnaceae.
Stereodon Mitt. (7). 2 Mex., 1 Chile, 4 mountains of Asia.
Lechlert (C. M.) Mitt. Centr. Chile to W. Patag.—Mt.
Isopterygium Mitt. (170). Widely distributed, preponderately trop.—subtrop.
fernandezianum Broth. Related to /. cexerum (Sw.) Mitt. (neotrop.).—Mt.
Sematophyllaceae.
Rhaphidostegium (Bryol. eur.) De Not. (106). Subcosmopol., trop. and temp. The
Chilean species sometimes regarded as belonging to a separate genus Xhaphido-
rhynchiume.
Masafuerae Broth. Similar to 2. cyparisstoides (Hornsch.) Besch. (Braz.).—Mf.
aberrans Broth. Similar to A. callidum (Mont.) Jaeg. (S. Chile to W. Patag.).—
Mt, Mf.
caespitosum (Sw.) Jaeg. W. Ind., trop.—subtrop. S. Amer.—Mt, Mf.
caespitosoides Broth. Related to the former.—Mf.
brachycladulum Broth.—Mt.
Rigodium Kze. (19). Trop.-subtrop. Amer., 2 Afr.
toxarium (Schwaegr.) Schimp. Trop. S. Amer. to W. Patag.—Mt, Mf.
arborescens (C. M.) Broth. S. Chile-W. Patag.—Mt, Mf.
Aylocomioides Card. et Broth. Patag.—Mf.
robustum Broth.—Mt.
Looseri Thér. Related to R. gracile Rén. et Card. (Costa Rica).—Mt.
tamarix C. M. (elegantulum Card.). S. Chile-W. Patag.—Mt.
Rhynchostegium Bryol. eur. (130). Temp.-subtrop., almost cosmopol.
complanum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Centr. Chile—Mt, Mf.
tenuifolium (Hedw.) Jaeg. Urug., S. Chile, E. Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mt.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 233
Catagoniopsis Broth. Monotypical, related to Catagoninm (S. hemisph.)
berteroana (Mont.) Broth. Centr. Chile.—Mt.
Hypnodendraceae.
Hypnodendron Lindb. (28). Chile (2), Indomal., Austral., Polyn., Hawaii.
Mf.
microstictum Mitt. Chile.
Polytrichaceae.
Oligotrichum Lam. et DC. (13). Widely scattered: 2 W. N. Amer., 4 Chile; single
Sieoraz., trop. Andes, Arct.-alp., Eur., bor.-cireump.
canaliculatum (Hook.) Mitt. var. The typical sp. in S. Chile.—Mf.
Psilopilum Brid. (17). A bipolar genus, tricentric in the S. hemisph.
antarcticum C. M. Boliv., Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, Kerguel.—Mf.
Polytrichadelphus (C. M.) Mitt. (22). Centering in the Andes (17), 1 W. N. Amer.,
1 Braz., 2 Magell., 1 subant.-bicentric.
magellanicus (L.) Mitt. Patag., Fueg., Falkl., E. Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., Auckl.
and Campb. Is.—Mf.
Dendroligotrichum (C. M.) Broth. Monotypical.
dendroides (Brid.) Broth. Peru, S. Chile south to Fueg., N. Zeal.—Mf.
The geographical distribution of the mosses is less well known than of the
vascular plants, and some of the species now considered to be endemic in Juan
Fernandez will perhaps be discovered on the mainland. No specialist ever visited
the islands, where most likely further species, endemic or known from elsewhere,
will be found. Species now only recorded from Masatierra may be found on Masafuera,
and vice versa.
The 131 species of mosses hitherto recorded from Juan Fernandez belong to 65
genera (2:1), all known from elsewhere; 48 species (36.6 %) are endemic, a high
figure in a spore-bearing group, higher than for the Pteridophytes (34%). On Masa-
tierra 84! were collected, 50 of these (38.1%) not found on Masafuera, where 81
were recorded, of which 47 (35.9 %) are restricted to this island; 34 (26 %) are known
from both islands. No mosses have been reported from Santa Clara.
The mosses are less evenly distributed than the ferns, presenting a higher
degree of local endemism, but this may be due to insufficient knowledge of their
distribution. Endemics are more local than non-endemics; of the former (48), 24
(50 %) are only known from Masatierra, and 16 (33.3 %) only from Masafuera, 8 (16.7 %)
being found on both islands; of the non-endemics (83), 26 inhabit Masatierra (31.3 %),
31 Masafuera (37.4%) and 26 (31.3 %) both islands. Endemics are proportionately
more numerous on Masatierra, where 32 species or 38 % are endemic; the figures for
Masafuera are 24 and 29.6. It is remarkable that all the 8 species of 7amnium
are endemic on Masatierra.
For two reasons it is a difficult task to segregate with sufficient accuracy the
1 BROTHERUS p. 420 records Rhacomitrium subnigritum from both islands, but the locality
quoted for Masatierra is situated on Masafuera.
234 C. SKOTTSBERG
various geographical elements of which the flora is made up: many of the non-
endemic species have a more or less wide distribution, and the accurate systematic
position of the endemic ones is, in many cases, uncertain or quite unknown; where
no information was given by their author and nobody has studied them after him,
I have not ventured to find a place for them. Thus 11 species had to be left out,
bringing the number down to 120, on which the percentages have been calculated.
Even so it stands to reason that the arrangement below cannot be definite because
many doubtful points remain to be cleared by the bryologist.
As to the 83 non-endemic species the main thing is whether, regardless of
their total distribution, they have been found in S. America or not; in consequence
of the geographical position of Juan Fernandez they must be referred to one of
the American groups I-III. No less than 25 % are austral or subantarctic and
bicentric; their origin, if antarctic or not, will not concern us here.
The geographical elements.
I. Andine-Chilean element.—77 (64.2%).
a. Endemic species (15): Dicranoloma fernandezianum and capillifolioides, Fissi-
dens pycnotylus, Didymodon calymperidictyon and linearis, Ulota fernandeziana,
Philonotis glabrata, Ptychomnium falcatulum, Distichophyllum fernandezianum,
Pterygophyllum tenuinerve, Eriopus leptoloma and grandiretis, Thuidium Masa-
fuerae, Rhaphidostegium aberrans, Rigodium robustum.
6. Also known from Chile, rarely extending to the extreme south (57):
Pleuridium Robinsonii, Ditrichum affine and longisetum, Hymenostomum kunzeanum,
Amphidium cyathicarpum, Dicranoloma capillifolium, Menziesii and nigricaule,
Campylopus truncatus, Thysanomitrium Richardi and leptodus, Eucamptodon
perichaetialis, Fissidens rigidulus, leptochaete, maschalanthus and asplenioides,
Tortula scabrinervis and flagellaris, Rhacomitrium loriforme and convolutum, Zygodon
intermedius and Menziesii, Stenomitrium pentastichum, Macromitrium hymeno-
stomum, Bryum Lechleri, Leptostomum Menziesii, Eustichia Poeppigii, Rhizogonium
mnioides, Bartramia aristata, Philonotis krauseana and vagans, Rhacocarpus Hum-
boldtii, Dendrocryphaea cuspidata, Lepyrodon parvulus and implexus, Ptychomnium
subaciculare and ptychocarpum, Weymouthia mollis, Leptodon Smithii, Porotham-
nium arbusculans, Lamprophyllum splendidissimum, Lopidium concinnum, Hypo-
pterygium Thouini, Rhacopilum fernandezianum, Thuidium Valdiviae, Sciaromium
pachyloma, Stereodon Lechleri, Rigodium toxarium, arborescens, hylocomioides
and tamarix, Rhynchostegium complanum and tenuifolium, Catagoniopsis berte-
roana, Hypnodendron microstictum, Oligotrichum canaliculatum, Dendroligotrichum
dendroides.
c. Cosmopolitan (5): Ceratodon purpureus, Gymnostomum calcareum, Cam-
pylopus introflexus, Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, Funaria hygrometrica.
II. Subantarctic-Magellanian element.—13 (10.8 %).
All non-endemic, found in the far south, many going north to the latitude
of Valdivia or even farther; several occur on the Falkland Is., South Georgia or
other subantarctic islands, and not few reappear in New Zealand, etc.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 235
Oncophorus fuegianus, Dicranoloma Billardieri, Rhacomitrium subnigritum,
symphyodontum and striatipilum, Rhizogonium Novae Hollandiae, Bartramia patens,
Philonotis scabrifolia, Pterygophyllum anomalum, obscurum and denticulatum,
Psilopilum antarcticum, Polytrichadelphus magellanicus.
III. Neotropical element.—14 (11.7 %).
Recorded from tropical America but not from Chile, or related to tropical
species.
a. Endemic (8): Campylopus subareodictyon, Leptodontium fernandezianum,
Bryum fernandezianum, Pinnatella macrosticta, Isopterygium fernandezianum, Rha-
phidostegium Masafuerae and caespitosoides, Rigodium Looseri.
6. Non-endemic (6): Campylopus areodictyon, Mielichhoferia longiseta, Anacolia
subsessilis, Lepyrodon tomentosus, Porothamnium fasciculatum, Rhaphidostegium
caespitosum.
IV. West Pacific element.—13 (10.8 %).
Endemic species, allied to S.W. Pacific species (Australia, Tasmania, New Zea-
land etc.) but, as far as known, not to S. American species: Macromitrium fer-
nandezianum and Masafuerae, Cyptodon crassinervis, Distichophyllum subelimbatum
and assimile, Thamnium rigidum, latinerve, Caroli, Ingae, crassinervium, probosci-
deum, assimile and confertum.
V. Atlantic element.-—3 (2.5 %).
a. Endemic: Fissidens crassicuspes.
6. Not endemic: Trichostomum brachydontium, Campylopus polytrichoides.
Endemic species of unknown position: Dicranella costata, Campylopus aberrans
and blindioides, Fissidens fernandezianus, Grimmia phyllorhizans, Ptychomitrium
fernandezianum, Macromitrium saxatile, Bartramia fernandeziana, Breutelia Masa-
fuerae, Neckera rotundata, Rhaphidostegium brachycladulum.
The dominance of a South American element is self-evident; groups I to III
make up 86.7 %. It is hard to draw a line between I and II; the Magellanian species
are supposed to have come from the far south, and theirs is a more southern area,
but many of the species referred to 16 may have had the same history though,
at present, they do not reach so far south.
The Atlantic element is artificial. /Zss7dens crassicuspes is, if BROTHERUS is right,
related to a species that has its nearest station on Madeira, but the genus is a very
large one, and another connection may be found. Campylopus polytrichotdes is an
Atlantic species with its nearest locality on Madeira; its presence on Masatierra
is indeed surprising. 77r7chostomum brachydontium is scattered over half the globe,
with its nearest stations in Macaronesia, but it extends not only to and beyond
the Mediterranean region, but turns up on the island of Réunion, in Japan and
on New Zealand. Have we to do with isolated remnants of a once more continuous
area, or is it still to be discovered in other places? Is it a bipolar species?
236 C. SKOTTSBERG
Of the species left aside for the present, Décranella costata (many in S. Amer.),
Ptychomitrium fernandeszianum (other sp. in the Andes), Wacromitrium saxatile (many
in S. Amer.), Bartramia fernandeziana and Breutelia Masafuerae (many austral sp.)
may turn out to belong to an American element. The occurrence in Masatierra
of 8 endemic species of 7/amnzum is astonishing, for not one is quoted for South
America, whereas related species are found in Australia-New Zealand, Oceania and
Malaysia; for this reason I have referred the species in Masatierra to the Pacific
element.
IV. Hepaticae.
No handbook equal to BROTHERUS’ comparatively modern account of the mos-
ses exists of the Hepaticae. SCHIFFNER’s treatment of this group in the Ist edition of
Naturl. PAanzenfamilien is too antiquated to be of much use. Much important infor-
mation is, however, found in HERZOG’s work (729) as well as in DOMIN’s paper (76),
and also in this case Dr. PERSSON kindly helped me, but to search the voluminous
special literature of the last thirty years was not to be thought of. The number of
species given 1s, in many cases at least, too low, but I don’t think this matters
very much.
The following list is based on EVANS’ and HERZOG’s papers (93, 730) with
a few alterations (73z). Several species credited to Juan Fernandez by STEPHANI
(333) but not mentioned by HERZOG are included here; some of them are, perhaps,
identical with other species.
Marchantiales.
Plagiochasma WLehm. et Lindenb. (about 20). Mostly trop.—subtrop.
vupestre (Forst.) St. Cosmopol., also Chile-—Mt, Mf.
Reboulta Raddi (1).
hemisphaerica (L.) Raddi. Cosmopol., also Chile.-—Mt, Mf.
Lunularia (Mich.) Adans. (1).
cructata (L.) Dumort. S. Amer., also Chile, Medit. Eur., Atl. islands, Afr.,
Austral.—Mt, Mf.
Marchantia L. (about 50). Subcosmopol., numerous trop.
polymorpha . Cosmopol., also Chile.—Mt, Mf.
berteroana Lehm. et Lindenb. Chile south to Fueg., Falkl., St. Helena, S. Afr.,
Marion I., Kerguel., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
foliacea Mitt. S. Chile, Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
Metzgeriales.
Riccardia S.F. Gray (140-150, but much higher figures are given). N. temp. 6,
trop. Amer. 43, Afr. 14, trop. As.—Oceania 53, austr.-subantarct. 35.
Juegiensis Massal. S. Chile to Fueg.—Mf.
breviramosa (St.) Evans. Falkl.—Mt, Mf.
adglutinata Evans.—Mt, Mf.
zmsular7s Schiffn. St. Paul and New Amsterd. Is.—Mt.
variabilis Evans. S. Chile.—Mt.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 237
leptostachya Evans. Related to the former.—Mt.
nudimitra (St.) Evans. S. Chile to W. Patag.—Mf.
Metzgeria Raddi (about 50). Well developed trop., some widely spread N. hemisph.
in oceanic climates.
decrescens St. S. Chile to W. Patag.—Mf.
decipiens (Massal.) Schiffn. et Gottsche. Centr. Chile to W. Patag., Austral.,
N. Zeal., Antipodes Is.—Mt, Mf.
multiformis Evans. Closely related to the former.—Mt, Mf.
violacea (Ach.) Dumort. Centr. and S. Chile, Fueg., Argent., W. and S. Afr. N.
Zeal., Antip. Is. Brought to W/. deczpzens as a variety by HODGSON (736. 278).—Mf.
Hymenophytum Dumort. (5). S. Amer., Ind., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., Melanes.
flabellatum (Labill.) Dumort. Colomb., Chile, Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., N. Caled.,
Fiji,.—_ Patagi——Mf
Mittenat St. Falkl.—Mt, Mf. 2
Madotheca Dumort. (153). Trop-subtrop. Amer. (45), trop. As.-Oceania (67),
Austral._N. Zeal. etc. (12).
chilensis Lehm. et Lindenb. var. fernandesiensis Herz. Centr. Chile (Co-
quimbo; main sp. S. Chile to W. Patag.).—Mt, Mf.
subsquarrosa Nees et Mont. S. Chile to Fueg.—Mt.
220). Mainly trop.—subtrop. Bor. zone (Eur., N. Amer., 7), trop.—
6), Afr. (37), Indomal.—Oceania (69), Austral—-N. Zeal. (29), sub-
Frullania Raddi (500-600). World-wide, but mainly trop. and southern: N. Amer.
(35).
Ecklonz Spr. (crassa Herz.). Centr. Chile to W. Patag.; W. and S. Afr.—Mt.
chilensiss St. Se (Ehileto’ W: Patag:—Mf.
lobulata Hook. f. et Wils. W. Patag., Fueg.—Mf.
magellanica (Spreng.) Web. et Nees. Centr. and S. Chile to Fueg., Tristan
da (G2 Wasme,, Campb. Mt VE.
stipatiloba St. Centr. Chile to W. Patag.—Mt.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 241
Lopholejeunea Spruce (74). Trop. and austral; trop. Amer. (13), trop. Afr. (17),
trop. As.Oceania (38), Austral.-N. Zeal. (6).
spinosa St.—Mt, Mf.
Brachiolejeunea Spruce (65). Trop. Amer. (26), Chile (1), Afr. (10), trop. As. —Oce-
ania (22), Austral._N. Zeal. (6).
spruceana (Massal.) St. S. Chile-Magell.—Mf.
Harpalejeunea Spruce (57). Trop. Amer. (36), Chile (2), Afr. (2), As—Oceania (8),
Austral.-N. Zeal. (9).
oxyota(Mont.) St. Centr. (Coquimbo)and S. Chile to W. Patag, Tristan da C.—Mf.
setifera (St.) Herz. Magell.—Mf.
Strepsilejeunea Spruce (47). Trop. Amer., south to Chile (19), Afr. (6), As. (7),
Austral._N. Zeal. (7), subantarct. (8).
acuminata (Lehm. et Lindenb.) St. S. Chile —Mt.
squarrosula Herz.—Mf.
macroloba Herz.—Mf.
Siphonolejeunea Herz. (1).
nudicalycina Herz. Centr. Chile (Coquimbo, 237. 65).—Mt, Mf.
Lejeunea Lib. (190). Pantrop., scarce toward the south.
reticulata Herz. Related. to Chilean sp.-—Mt, Mf.
Aphanolejeunea Evans (13). Trop.-subtrop.
asperrima St. S. Chile.—Mt.
diaphana Herz. Centr. Chile (Coquimbo, S. ARNELL ms.).—Mt.
Cololejeunea Spruce (about 80). Mainly trop.
Skottsbergii Herz. Nearly related to a species from N. Zealand.—Mt, Mf.
Colura Dumort. (30). Trop. to subantarct.; Amer. (8), Magell. (2), Eur. (1), Afr.
(2), Indomal. (16).
bulbosa Herz. W. Patag. (137. 66).—Mf.
The 124 Hepaticae, of which 25 (20.2 %) are endemic, belong to 47 genera
(2.6:1); 27 are thallose, 97 foliose. None have been reported from Santa Clara.
Of the 27 ¢hallose species 21 have been recorded from Masatierra and 23
from Masafuera; 4 (15 %) are known from Masatierra only, 7 (25 %) restricted to
Masafuera, 16 common to the two islands. Of the 5 endemics 2 have been found
on Masatierra only, 3 on both islands. Endemism is stronger on Masatierra (25 %)
than on Masafuera (13 %). ,
Of the 97 foliose species 59 occur on Masatierra and 67 on Masafuera; 30
(30.9 %) are restricted to Masatierra, 38 (39.2 %) to Masafuera, 29 (29.9 %) are found
on both islands. Endemic species 20 (21.6%), of these g only on Masatierra, 5
only on Masafuera and 6 found on both islands.
Of the 59 species recorded for Masatierra 15 are endemic in the islands (25° Aca)
the corresponding figures for Masafuera are 67, 11 and 16.4 %. After the discovery
of Szphonolejeunea on the mainland of Chile there is no endemic genus in Juan
Fernandez.
Of the ¢ofal number of species, 124, 80 occur on Masatierra and 90 on Masa-
16 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
242 C. SKOTTSBERG
fuera; of these 20 (25 %) and 14 (16.5 %), respectively, belong to the endemic
element; 34 species are restricted to Masatierra (27.4 %), 44 to Masafuera (35.5 %)
and 46 (37.1%) shared by the two islands. The corresponding figures for the
endemic species are: Masatierra 11 (44%), Masafuera 5 (20%), both islands 9
(36 %), and for the non-endemics 23 (23.2 %), 39 (39.4 %) and 37 (37.4 %). Of the 99
species also found elsewhere Masatierra has 60 and Masafuera 76. This island is
richer in non-endemic species, many of which belong to higher altitudes.
Geographical elements.
I. Andine-Chilean element.—97 (78.3 %).
a. Endemic (20): Riccardia adglutinata and leptostachya, Metzgeria multifor-
mis, Solenostoma obtusiflorum and rostratum, Plagiochila fuscobrunnea, Tylunan-
thus silvaticus, bilobatus and densiretis, Lophocolea papulosa, angulata and sub-
muricata, Lepidozia fragillima and disticha, Schistochila Skottsbergii, Balantiopsis
hians and lancifolia, Strepsilejeunea squarrosula and macroloba, Lejeunea reticulata.
6. Also known from Chile and not restricted to the extreme south (73): Mar-
chantia berteroana and foliacea, Riccardia fuegiensis, variabilis and nudimitra,
Metzgeria decrescens, decipiens and violacea, Hymenophytum flabellatum, Sym-
phyogyna circinata and hymenophyllum, Monoclea Forsteri, Androcryphaea con-
fluens, Solenostoma crassulum, Jamesoniella colorata and grandiflora, Anastrophyl-
lum leucocephalum, Anastrepta bifida, Plagiochila gayana, fasciata, hyadesiana,
deformifolia, chiloénsis, rectangulata, remotidens, pudetensis, homomalla, neesiana,
riparia, squarrosa and robusta, Tylunanthus limbatus, Mylia repens, fuscovirens
and ligulata, Lophocolea fernandeziana, attenuata, divergenticiliata, chilensis and
muricata, Chiloscyphus integrifolius, Saccogyna squarristipula, Marsupidium piliferum,
Bazzania cerina and peruviana, Lepidozia bicuspidata, pseudozoopsis, fernandeziensis,
plumulosa and Jacquemontii, Herberta runcinata, Lepicolea ochroleuca, Lepidolaena
magellanica, Trichocolea verticillata, Schistochila berteroana, Balantiopsis cancellata,
chilensis and purpurata, Radula hastata, microloba and Dusenii, Madotheca chi-
lensis and subsquarrosa, Frullania Ecklonii, chilensis, magellanica and stipatiloba,
Brachiolejeunea spruceana, Harpalejeunea oxyota, Strepsilejeunea acuminata, Sipho-
nolejeunea nudicalycina, Aphanolejeunea asperrima, Colura bulbosa.
c. Cosmopolitan (4): Plagiochasma rupestre, Reboulia hemisphaerica, Lunu-
laria cruciata, Marchantia polymorpha.
II. Subantarctic-Magellanian element.—18 (14.5 %).
All non-endemic: Riccardia breviramosa, Symphyogyna Hochstetterf, Mega-
ceros fuegiensis, Jamesoniella maluina and oenops, Acrobolbus excisus, Plagiochila
elata and Notarisii, Lophocolea rotundifolia, pallidevirens and textilis, Chiloscyphus
lobatus, Adelanthus sphalerus, Schistochila pachyla and splachnophylla, Radula
Mittenii, Frullania lobulata, Harpalejeunea setifera.
Ill. Neotropical element.—5 (4.0 %).
a. Endemic (4): Fossombronia fernandeziensis, Anthoceros Skottsbergii, Lo-
pholejeunea spinosa, Aphanolejeunea diaphana.
6. Not endemic: Lepidozia sejuncta.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 243
IV. West Pacific element.— 3 (2.4 %).
a. Endemic (2): Trichocolea opposita, Cololejeunea Skottsbergii.
6. Not endemic: Pallavicinia xiphoides.
V. Known from St. Paul and New Amsterdam Is.—1r (0.8 %).
Riccardia insularis.
2 0/
The American element is in absolute dominance; 120 species, 96.8 %, belong
to elements I-III. The Pacific group is very small, but as we shall find later, many
species are austral and bicentric.
Table IV.
Comparison between the Angiosperms, Pteridophytes and Bryophytes. Figures in %.
A, Andine-Chilean; M, Magellanian; N, Neotropical; P, West Pacific.
A M N 1B
Leaks: 575 iG oo Go 5 ZACKS) 10.2 12.9 WET
Ptenidapliytesmm-ispcm cn eens) BOARD 7-5 17.0 9.4
IMIGSSCSmee wean ory a fan a eeeen, or) OAR 10.8 Taliny/ 10.8
IG DARIGS. bepis we vagts, Sana eee EONS 14.5 4.0 Dr
The lower percentage of Mosses in A, as compared with the Hepatics, may
be due to imperfect knowledge of the distribution and to the fact that 11 moss
species had to be left out of consideration.
V. Lichenes.
What I have said above when dealing with the Bryophytes holds good of
the Lichens in a still higher degree: no lichenologist ever visited Juan Fernandez,
and a non-specialist is bound to pass over many species; collecting crustaceous
lichens growing on hard basalt is not easy and generally time-absorbing. Our
collection is listed after ZAHLBRUCKNER (296, 297), where also the species found
by other collectors, but not found by us, are included. Some changes had to be
made; for instance, ZAHLBRUCKNER did not distinguish between S7zcta and Pseu-
docyphellaria; on my request, Dr. R. SANTESSON kindly revised the nomenclature.
Some determinations in these and other genera were corrected by him (see vol.
II. 886). Later he went over the proof-sheets of this paper and added further
corrections. | thank him for generous assistance.
It is to be regretted that ZAHLBRUCKNER did not indicate the distribution
of the non-endemic species, and the statements in his Catalogus are too general.
I have tried to collect further data from a number of papers on the flora of Chile
and the Subantarctic and Antarctic regions (z, 72, 73, 139, 176, 177, 182, 154, 295,
327-329) but it was beyond my possibilities to search the entire literature. Dr.
A. H. MaGnusson, who kindly took the trouble to go over my list, supplied much
useful information.
SC = Santa. Clara:
244 C. SKOTTSBERG
Verrucariaceae.
Verrucaria Schrad. (about 270). All parts of the world.
microspora Nyl. N. Amer., Chile, Eur., Jap.—Mt.
Microglaena Koerb. (37). Eur., except 1 Braz., 1 Socotra, and the following.
fernandeziana Zbr.—Mt, SC.
Dermatocarpaceae.
Normandina Nyl. (1).
pulchella Ny\. N. and S. Amer., south to Fueg., Eur., Afr., St. Paul’s 1, As,
Hawaii. Zeal.— vite
Pyrenulaceae.
Arthopyrenta Mass. (150). Trop.—subtrop.
Cinchonae M. Arg. Widely distributed in the trop. zone; also Hawaii.—Mt.
adnexa M. Arg. var. leptosperma Zbr. The typ. sp. Braz.—Mf.
planorbis M. Arg. Trop.-subtrop., also Hawaii.—Mt.
Porina M. Arg. (235). All over the globe, south to N. Caled. and N. Zeal.
fernandeziana Zbr. Belongs in the vicinity of P. chlorotica (Ach.) M. Arg.,
a cosmop. sp.—Mt.
rufocarpella Zbr.—Mt.
depressula Zbr. Possibly related to P. exserta M. Arg. (Braz.).—Mt, Mf.
Pyrenula Ach. (170). Widely distributed in the trop. zone.
aspistea Ach. Trop., also Hawaii.—Mt.
mammillana Trev. Trop.; Hawaii, 5. Chile.—Mt.
Kunthii Fée. Trop.—Mt, Mf.
Astrotheliaceae.
Pyrenastrum Eschw. (18). Trop.
chilense Mont. Chile.—Mt.
Sphaerophoraceae.
Sphaerophorus Pers. (8). Of wide distribution, centering 5S. hemisph.
melanocarpus (Sw.) DC. Almost cosmop.; Chile, south to Fueg., Falkl.; N. Zeal.,
Auckl. and Campb. Is.—Mt, Mf.
Arthoniaceae.
Arthonia Ach. (about 370). The majority trop.-subtrop.
Cytisi Massal. var. meridionalis Zbr. The typ. sp. Eur.—Mt.
subnebulosa Zbr. Related to A. ephelodes Ny). (N. Caled.) and scztuda Krmph.
(Braz.).—Mt.
berberina Zbr. Related to A. varia (Ach.) Nyl. (trop. Amer.).—Mt.
complanata Fée. Pantrop., also Hawaii; Chile.—Mt.
Graphidaceae.
Graphis Adans. (about 280). The majority trop.subtrop.
intricata Fée. Widely distributed trop. zone.—Mt.
Dumasti Spreng. Trop.—Mt.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 245
Phaeographina M. Arg. (80). Trop.-subtrop.
scalpturata M. Arg. Trop.-subtrop. S. Amer., N. Zeal.—Mt.
Chiodectonaceae.
Enterostigma M. Arg. (2). 1 trop. Amer., and the following.
Skottsbergii Zbr.—Mf.
Dirinaceae.
Dirina Fr. (12). Of wide distribution.
limitata Nyl. Chile.—Mt.
Lecanactidaceae.
Schismatomma Fw. et Koerb. (80). Mainly warmer countries.
accedens (Nyl.) Zbr. Chile.—Mt.
Chrysotrichaceae.
Byssocaulon Mont. (5). Austral—Oceania.
niveum Mont. Subtrop., north to Japan, south to Chile and N. Zeal.—Mt.
Thelotremaceae.
Ocellularia Spreng. (over 100). Mainly warmer regions.
subdenticulata Zbr.—Mf.
Thelotrema (Ach.) M. Arg. (over 100). Mainly warmer regions.
lepadinum Ach. Widely distributed; also Hawaii, Chile, south to Fueg.,
N. Zeal., Auckl. Is.—Mt, Mf.
Diploschistaceae.
Diploschistes Norm. (30). Cold-temp., trop.-alp.
actinostomus (Pers.) Zbr. N. and S. temp.; Hawaii.—Mt.
scruposus (Schreb.) Norm. N. and S. temp.; S. Chile, south to Fuegia.—Mt.
Gyalectaceae.
Dimerella Trev. (39). Mostly trop.
lutea (Dicks.) Trev. Widely distributed, also S. Chile, Patag.; Haw.—Mt, Mf.
Gyalecta Ach. (60-70). Mainly colder climates.
jenensis (Batsch) Zbr. N. Amer., Eur.; N. Zeal.—Mt.
Pachyphiale Loennr. (4). 2 S.W. Eur., 1 bor.-temp., and the following.
cornea (With.) Poetsch et Schiederm. Eur.; Chile.—Mt.
Coenogoniaceae.
Coenogonium Ehrenb. (30). Centr. and trop. S. Amer., Afr., trop. As., Austral.
velutinum Zbr. S. Chile (comm. by R. SANTESSON).—Mt.
Racodium Fr. (1).
rupestre Pers. N. and S. Amer. (Staten I., comm. by R. SANTESSON); Eur.—Mt.
246 C. SKOTTSBERG
Collemaceae.
Lemmopsis (Vain.) Zbr. (4). 1 temp. N. Amer. + Eur., 2 S.W. Eur., and the
following.
polychidioides Zbr.—Mt.
Physma Massal. (10). W. Ind., trop. As., Japan, Austral., N. Caled.
chilense Hue. Chile.—Mt.
Leptogium (Ach.) S. F. Gray (over 100). All over the world.
moluccanum (Pers.) Vain. Widely scattered; Hawaii, also Chile.—Mt, Mf.
tremelloides (L. fil.) S. F. Gray. Trop.temp., in Chile south to W. Patag.,
5; Georeia.—Mt.
cyanescens (Ach.) Koerb. Temp.-subtrop., e.g. Hawaii, S. Amer.—Mt, Mf.
phyllocarpum (Pers.) Mont. Trop.-subtrop., S. Amer., Chile, S. Afr., Philipp.,
Australia.—Mt.
Menziestt (Sm.) Mont. Mount. of trop. Amer., Hawaii, Chile south to Fueg.,
Falkl., S. Georgia.—Mf.
callithamnion (Tayl.) Nyl. Trop. Amer.—Mt.
Pannariaceae.
Parmeliella M. Arg. (40). Widely scattered, warm and cold climates.
nigrocincta (Mont.) M. Arg. Chile, south to Fueg., W. Afr. islands, Hawaii,
Austral., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
symptychia (Tuck.) Zbr.—Mt.
pycnophora (Nyl.) R. Sant. var. subdivisa (Zbr.) R. Sant. W. Patag. (329). The
tygonsps N- Zeal:-—Me:
Pannaria Del. (about 60). Widely spread over the world.
Juegiensis Zbr. Fueg.—Mt.
hilaris Zbr.—Mt.
rubiginosa Del. Scattered; e.g. Hawaii, Chile, Falkl., St. Helena, Campb. I.—Mt.
rubiginosa var. vulcanica Zbr. Perhaps specifically distinct.—Mt.
Massalongia Koerb. (2, 1 E. As.).
carnosa (Dicks.) Koerb. Mount. of N. Amer. and Eur., Falkl., N. Zeal.—Mf.
Psoroma Nyl. (about 60). Mainly cold and temp., centering in N. Zeal. etc.
vulcanicum Zbr.—Mf.
cephalodinum Zbr.—Mt.
pholidotum (Mont.) M. Arg. Chile, south to Fueg.—Mt.
sphinctrinum (Mont.) Nyl. S. Amer., also Chile, south to Fueg.; N. Zeal.—
Mt, Mf.
dasycladum Zbr.—Mt.
angustisectum Zbr.—Mt.
Stictaceae.
Lobarta Schreb. (70). Mainly warmer countries.
crenulata (Del.) Trev. Trop. Amer., south to Chile, Hawaii, Austral.—Oceania.
—Wihe:
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 247
Pseudocyphellaria Vain. (with Sticta about 200). Humid trop. to temp. climates.
argyracea (Del.) Vain. Chile, S. Afr., Madag., Mascar., Malays., Hawaii,
N. Zeal., Polyn.—Mt, Mf.
intricata (Del.) Vain. S. Amer.; Chile south to Fueg., Falkl.; Ireland, Macaron.
Mascar., Cape, Tristan da C., Hawaii.—Mt.
Jragillima (Bab.). S. Amer., Austral., N. Zeal., Auckl. and Campb. Is.—Mt.
subvariabilis (Nyl.) Vain. Philipp., Austral., N. Zeal.—Mt.
chloroleuca (Hook. f. et Tayl.) Du Rietz. S. Chile to Fueg., N. Zeal.—Mf.
cinnamomea (Rich.) Vain. S. Chile to Fueg., Austral., Tasm., Philipp.—Mt, Mf.
berteroana (Mont.).—Mt.
hirsuta (Mont.) Malme. S. Amer.; Chile south to Fueg.—Mt.
Guillemini (Mont.). S. Chile-Fueg.— Mt.
gilva (Ach.) Malme. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl., S. Afr., Australia —Mt.
mougeottana (Del.) Vain. Warmer countries; Hawaii, also Chile-—Mt, Mf.
aurata (Ach.) Vain. Trop.-subtrop.; N. Amer., Chile, W. Eur., St. Helena,
Hawaii, Austral.—Mt, Mf.
nitida (Tayl.) Malme. S. Chile to W. Patag., Fueg.—Mf.
endochrysea (Del.) Vain. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia; Austral., N. Zeal.,
Auckl. and Campb. Is.—Mt, Mf.
Durvillet (Del.) Vain. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl., N. Zeal.—Mt.
flavicans (Hook. f. et Tayl.) Vain. W. Patag.—Fueg.; Philipp., Hawaii, Australia.
—Mt.
Freycinetit (Del.) Malme. S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, Austral., Tasm.,
N. Zeal., Campb. and Antipodes Is.—Mt, Mf.
Richardi (Mont.) Raes. W. Patag.Fueg., N. Zeal., Auckl. Is.—Mt.
Sticta Schreb.
Weigel (Ach.) Vain. Widespread, also Hawaii, S. Chile to Fueg.; Austral.,
N. Zeal.—Mt.
lineariloba (Mont.) Nyl. S. Amer., south to Magell.—Mt.
latifrons A. Rich. Chile, N. Zeal.—Mt.
laciniata (Huds.) Zbr. S. Amer.—Mt.
Nephroma Ach. (27). N. and S. temp.
plumbeum Mont. Chile.—Mt.
cellulosum (Sm.) Ach. S. Chile to Fueg., Tasm., N. Zeal.—Mt.
antarcticum (Wulf.) Nyl. S. Chile to Fueg., Tasm.—Mt, Mf.
australe A. Rich. S. Chile, N. Zeal.—Mt.
Peltigera Pers. (20). World-wide.
rufescens (Neck.) Humb. Cosmop.; Patag., Fuegia, Falkl., S. Georgia.—Mt.
polydactyla (Neck.) Hoffm. Cosmop.; Chile, south to Fueg., Falkl., Tristan
da C., Marion I., Kerguel., Auckl. and Campb. Is.—Mt, Mf.
b
Lecideaceae.
Lecidea (Ach.) Th. Fr. (1000 or more?). Preferably cold or temp. climates.
avium Zbr. Related to L. aeruginosa Nyl. (Chile).—Mt.
248 C. SKOTTSBERG
inactiva Zbr.—Mt.
cyanosarca Zbr.—Mt, Mf.
leucoplaca M. Arg. Chile.—Mt.
leucozonata Zbr.—Mt.
enteroleuca Nyl. Temp. Eur., etc. St. Helena, etc.—Mt, Mf.
latypea Ach. Temp. widely distributed.—Mt.
viridans Lamy. Eur.—Mt.
mutabtlis Fée. N. and S. Amer., also Chile, W. Eur.—Mt.
icterica Tayl. S. Amer., also Chile.—Mf.
Catillaria (Ach.) Th. Fr. (about 150). Widespread N. and S. hemisph.
intermixta Arn. Widespread, south to N. Zeal.—Mt.
melastegia (Nyl.) Zbr. S. Amer., Chile south to Fueg., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
endochroma (Fée) Zbr. N. and S. Amer.—Mt.
leucochlora (Mont.) Zbr. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
theobromina Zbr.—Mt.
Megalospora Mey. et Flot. (about 50). Warmer regions.
versicolor (Fée) Zbr. var. microcarpa Zbr. The typ. sp. S. Amer., N. Zeal.—Mt.
Bacidia (De Not.) Zbr. (at least 200). World-wide.
endoleuca Kickx. Almost cosmop., also S. Amer., N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf.
arceutina (Ach.) Arn. var. hyposcotina Zbr. The typ. sp. Eur.—Mt.
delapsans Zbr. Hawaii.—Mt.
subluteola (Nyl.) A. Zbr. Braz.—Mf.
Toninia Th. Fr. (about 80). Mainly temp.
bullata (Mey. et Flot.) Zbr. Ecuador: Chimborazo.—Mf.
Lopadium Koerb. (about 50). Almost cosmop.
leucoxanthum (Spreng.) Zbr. var. albidius Zbr. The typ. sp. subtrop., south
to Austral. and N. Zeal.; Hawaii.—Mt.
sp., different from the former, described as M/yxodictyon lopadioides by ZAHL-
BRUCKNER p. 383. Chile.—Mt.
Rhizocarpon DC. (about go). Cosmopol., cold to temp. climates.
geographicum (1...) DC. Cold and temp., both hemisph.; Patag., Fueg., Falkl.,
Kerguel., W. Antarct.—Mf.
microspermum Zbr. Similar to the following sp.—Mf.
obscuratum (Ach.) Massal. var. deminutum Zbr. The typ. sp. cold and temp.
climates.—Mf.
Phyllopsoraceae.
Phyllopsora M. Arg. (25). Trop.—subtrop.
parvifolia (Pers.) M. Arg. Widespread, also Chile, Hawaii and N. Zeal.—Mt.
Cladoniaceae.
Baeomyces Pers. (34). Majority trop.; 7 N. Zeal.
chilensts (Mont.) Cromb. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
Cladonia (Hill) Vain. (about 280). All over the world.
pycnoclada (Pers.) Nyl. Boliv., S. Chile to Fueg., Falkl.; Tristan da C.?-—Mt,
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 249
Mf. To this belongs C. a/pestris of ZAHLBRUCKNER 296. 370, a species not occur-
ring in the south hemisphere (SANTESSON 327 and in letter).
bacillaris (S. F. Gray) Nyl. Very widespread; Chile, Fueg., Falkl., Campb. I.
—Mt.
didyma Vain. Mex.—Fueg., Austral., N. Caled., Hawaii.—Mt.
coccifera (L.) Willd. Very widespread; Chile, Patag., Fueg., Falkl., Tristan
da C., W. Antarct.—Mt, Mf.
aggregata (Sw.) Ach. N. and S. Amer., Chile to Fueg., Falkl.; St. Helena,
S. Afr., Madag., Auckl. and Campb. Is., Macquarie I.; Asia; Hawaii.—Mt, Mf.
furcata (Huds.) Schrad. Cosmopol.; Chile to Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, W.
Antarct., Antipodes Is.; Hawaii.—Mt.
gracilis (L.) Willd. Cosmopol.; Chile to Fueg., Falkl., S. Georgia, Tristan
da C.; Hawaii; Kerguel., W. Antarct.—Mt, Mf.
pyxidata (L.) Fr. Cosmopol.; Chile to Fueg., Falkl., Tristan da C., Kerguel.,
St. Paul’s I.; Hawaii.—Mf.
jimbriata (L.) Fr. Cosmopol.; Chile to Fueg., Falkl., Marion I., Kerguel., W.
Antarct., Auckl. and Campb. Is.; Hawaii.—Mt, Mf.
pityrea (Flk.) Fr. Cosmopol.; Falkl., Tristan da C.; Hawaii.—Mt, Mf.
Stereocaulon Schreb. (about 90). N. and S. temp., trop—subtrop. mountains.
patagonicum M. Lamb. S. Chile and Patag. to Fueg., Falkl.—Mt, Mf.
ramulosum (Sw.) Raensch. N. and S. Amer., Chile south to Magell., N. Zeal.
—Mt, Mf.
wmplexum Th. Fr. S. Amer., south to Fueg.; N. Zeal.—Mt, Mf (f. compactius
(Zbr.) M. Lamb.).
Acarosporaceae.
Acarospora Massal. (over 200). World-wide.
smaragdula (Wahlenb.) Massal. var. N. temp.—Mf.
aanthophana (Nyl.) Jatta. S. Amer. mountains.—SC.
Pertusariaceae.
Coccotrema M. Arg. (1).
granulatum (Hook. f. et Tayl.) R. Sant. n. comb. (C. curbitula M. Arg., Porina
granulata Hook. f. et Tayl.). Chile: Valdiv—Fueg., Ceyl., Jap., Philipp., N. Zeal.
—— Mt:
Pertusaria DC. (about 200). World-wide.
letoplaca (Ach.) Schaer. Cosmop.—Mf.
polycarpa Krph. var. monospora Zbr. The typ. sp. Braz.—Mf.
hadrocarpa Zbr. Similar to A. cerebrinula Zbr. (Falkl.).—Mt, Mf.
Skottsbergii Zbr. Related sp. in Chile-—Mt, SC.
Melanaria Erichs. (15). N. and S. Amer., Eur., S. Afr., As., N. Zeal.
melanospora (Nyl.) Erichs. S. Amer., also Chile.—Mt, SC, Mf.
Lecanoraceae.
Lecanora Ach. (over 200). World-wide.
masafuerensis Zbr. Close to L. subimmersa (Fée) Vain. (Braz.).—Mf.
250 C. SKOTTSBERG
coarctata (Sm.) Ach. Widespread temp.; Chile.—Mf.
atra (Huds.) Ach. Cosmop.; Chile, Falkl.; Hawaii.—Mt, Mf.
Ingae Zbr.—Mt, Mf.
albellina M. Arg. var. validior Zbr. The typ. sp. Fueg.—Mf.
dispersa (Pers.) Flk. Widespread N. hemisph.—Mt, Mf.
polytropa (Ehrh.) Ach. Cosmop.; Chile, Falkl., W. Antarct.; Hawaii.—Mf.
chrysoleuca (Sm.) Ach. W. Arct., Eur. mountains, Antarct., etc.—Mt.
saxicola (Poll.) Ach. N. Amer., Eur.; ?Chile.—Mt.
Placopsis Nyl. (31). Widely distrib., but mainly austral, 18 southern S. Amer.
chilena M. Lamb. Chile.—Mf.
Juscidula M. Lamb, S. Chile to Fueg., Tristan’ da C.—Mt,’ Mf.
parellina (Nyl.) M. Lamb. Boliv. And., Chile to Fueg., Java, S. Austral.,
N. Zeal., Hawaii.—Mt.
gelida (L.) Ach. Circumpol. Arct. and temp. oceanic; Chile, Tristan da C.,
Kerguel., Java, N. Zeal., Hawaii.—Mf (var. subreagens M. Lamb, but identity
doubtful).
Candelariella M. Arg. (27). N. and S. Amer., Eur.
vitellina M. Arg. Widespread; Chile, Falkl., Hawaii.—Mt, Mf.
Myxodictyon Massal. (3, 1 Australia).
chrysostictum (Tayl.) Mass. Chile, N. Zeal.—Mt. J7. lopadioides Zbr. 296. 383
is a species of Lopfadium (SANTESSON in letter).
Parmeliaceae.
Parmelia (Ach.) De Not. (about 400). World-wide.
laevigata (Sm.) Ach. Widespread temp. and trop.; also Hawaii and Chile.
NE,
laevigatula Ny\. Braz.—Mt.
revoluta F\k. Widespread temp.-trop. Also Hawaii.—Mf.
cetrata Ach. Very widespread temp. and trop., also Hawaii.—Mt, SC, Mf.
_ saxatilis (L.) Ach. Widespread, in Chile south to Fueg., Falkl.; W. Antarct.
= Mit.
conspersa (Ehrh.) Ach. Cosmop., also Hawaii, Falkl.—Mt, SC, Mf.
abstrusa Vain. Braz.—Mf.
perlata Ach. Widespread; also Hawaii and S. Chile.—Mt.
nilgherrensis Ny\. Trop.-subtrop.—Mf.
puosella Hue. N. Amer. to Mex., Eur.—Mt, Mf.
piloselloides Zbr.—Mt.
cetrarioides Del. Very widespread.—Mf.
microstictta M. Arg. Trop. Amer.—Mt.
caperata (L.) Ach. Temp. zones; Chile, Hawaii.—Mt, Mf.
soredica Nyl. Calif., Mex.—Mf.
Menegazzia Mass. (30). Few north hemisph., majority S. Amer. (11) and Austral.-
Tasm.-N. Zeal. (14).
sanguinascens (Raes.) R. Sant. (328. 11, Parmelia pertusa (Schrad.) Schaer. in
290. 389), Valdiv. to Fueg.—Mt, Mf.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 2
On
_
Ramalina Ach. (about 100). World-wide.
linearis (Sw.) Ach. Warmer regions; Chile, Fueg., Falkl., N. Zeal.—Mt.
usnea (L.) Howe Jr. Trop.temp., N. Amer., Chile.—Mf.
Usnea Wigg. (about 100). Cosmop.
dasypogoides Ny\. Rodriguez I.—Mt, Mf.
florida (L.) Hoffm. Very widespread, also Chile.—Mf.
subtorulosa (Zbr.) Motyka. Easter I.—Mf.
angulata Ach. N. Amer., south to Mex.; S. Amer. to Chile.—Mf.
Caloplacaceae.
Blastenia (Massal.) Th. Fr. (about 60). World-wide.
fernandeziana Zbr.—Mt, SC.
ferruginea (Huds.) Massal.—Mt. Determination probably incorrect acc. to Dr.
MAGNUSSON.
Bombyliospora De Not. (25). Mostly trop.-subtrop.
dolichospora (Nyl.) Zbr. Chile.—Mt.
Caloplaca Th. Fr. (over 100). World-wide.
clandestina Zbr.—Mf.
Selkirkii Zbr.—Mt, Mf.
rubina Zbr. Easter I1.—Mt, SC, Mf.
isidioclada Zbr.—Mf.
subcerina (Nyl.) Zbr. var. aurantiaca Zbr. Trop.—Mf.
elegans (Link) Th. Fr. var. australis Zbr. Chile, W. Patag. The typ. sp. cold
tomremp. N: and S: hemisph.—Mt, SC, Mf.
orthoclada Zbr. In the vicinity of C. Felipone? Zbr. (Urug.).—Mf.
Teloschistaceae.
Teloschistes Norm. (12). World-wide.
flavicans (Sw.) M. Arg. Widespread trop.-subtrop., in 5. Amer. south to
muess Falkl-—Mt-.
Buelliaceae.
Buellia De Not. (about 200). World-wide.
concinna (Stzbgr.) Th. Fr. var. oceanica Zbr. The typ. sp. Eur.—SC.
siphoniatula Zbr. Similar to B. posthabita (Nyl.) Zbr. (Colomb.) and fa/k-
landica Darb. (Falkl.).—Mt.
stellulata (Tayl.) Mudd. Cosmop. Chile; Kerguel.—Mt, SC, Mf.
halophila M. Arg. Australia.—Mt.
halophiloides Zbr. Easter 1.—Mt.
Jernandeziana Zbr. Easter I.—Mt.
masafuerana Zbr.—Mf.
barrilensis Zbr.—Mf.
Physciaceae.
Pyxine (Fr.) Nyl. (16). Warmer regions.
curvatula Zbr.—Mt.
252 C. SKOTTSBERG
Physcia (Schreb.) Vain. (100-150). Cosmop., most numerous temp. regions.
picta (Sw.) Nyl. Widespread trop.-subtrop. Also Hawaii.—Mt.
Anaptychia Koerb. (30). Widespread, mainly warmer regions.
hypoleuca (Muhlb.) Massal. Widespread, also Hawaii.—Mt.
pectinata (Zbr.) R. Sant. Patag. (Nahuelhuapi), Fueg.—Mt.
Hymenolichenes.
Cora Fr. (8). Trop.—subtrop.
pavonta (Sw.) Fr. Mex.—Chile, south to Fueg.; St. Helena.—Mt, Mf.
The list includes 194 species; 103 (53 %) of these are restricted to Masatierra,
including 3 also found on Santa Clara, 2 (1 %) have only been encountered on
this islet, 39 (20 %) only on Masafuera; 50 (25.7 %) are listed for both islands,
6 of them also found on Santa Clara. The number of endemic species is 36 (18.5 %),
a number likely to be reduced when the lichen flora of South America becomes
better known; some species described by ZAHLBRUCKNER as endemic in Juan
Fernandez have later been found on the mainland or on Hawaii. New discoveries
will, on the other hand, be made in the islands.
Masatierra has 153 species, of which 26 (17%) are endemic in Juan Fer-
nandez; the corresponding figures for Santa Clara are 11 and 3 (27.3 %) and for
Masafuera 89 and 15 (16.8%). Masatierra is richer in lichen species than Masa-
fuera; this may have something to do with the greater variety of substratum of-
fered by the numerous species of trees and shrubs inhabiting only Masatierra.
Of 100 corticolous species 62 are restricted to Masatierra, 16 to Masafuera and
22 occur on both islands; thus 84 species have been collected on the former and
only 38 on the latter.
The greater wealth of Masatierra is also shown in the number of endemic spe-
cies found only on Masatierra, 21 (of 36) or 58.3%; 3 were found also on Santa
Clara. The figure for Masafuera is 10 = 27.7%; of these 5 belong to the highland
above 1000 m. Only 5 species (14%) have been found on both islands. I suppose
that the superiority of Masatierra depends on the greater variation of habitat.
Future research will, I suppose, yield numerous additional species, but I do not
expect that the relation between the islands will be much altered.
It is difficult to arrive at a geographical classification of the lichens because
in too many cases only very general information is given: “‘in the tropics’, “in
warmer regions’, ‘in temperate regions” and so forth, and “‘cosmopolitan” is used
too generously. Statements suggesting the most surprising disjunctions are not
uncommon; some are probably due to wrongly named specimens. Unfortunately
the lichen flora of Chile is not very well known. I have tried to find out if a
species called cosmopolitan has been recorded for Chile. Many world-wide lichens
have been found in Juan Fernandez; if also found in Chile they were referred
to the Chilean element.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 2
n
eS)
I. Andine-Chilean element.—106 (62.4%).
a. Endemic species supposed to be most nearly related to Chilean species (7):
Psoroma vulcanicum, cephalodinum, dasycladum and angustisectum, Pseudocyphel-
laria berteroana, Lecidea avium, Pertusaria Skottsbergii.
6. Also known from Chile (88): Verrucaria microspora, Normandina pulchella,
Pyrenula mammillana, Pyrenastrum chilense, Sphaerophorus melanocarpus, Arthonia
complanata, Dirina limitata, Schismatomma accedens, Byssocaulon niveum, Thelo-
trema lepadinum, Diploschistes scruposus, Dimerella lutea, Pachyphiale cornea,
Coenogonium velutinum, Racodium rupestre, Physma chilense, Leptogium molucca-
num, tremelloides, cyanescens, phyllocarpum and Menziesii, Parmeliella nigrocincta
and pycnophora var., Pannaria rubiginosa, Psoroma pholidotum and sphinctrinum,
Lobaria crenulata, Pseudocyphellaria argyracea, intricata, cinnamomea, hirsuta,
Guilleminii, gilva, mougeotiana and aurata, Sticta Weigelii, lineariloba and lati-
frons, Nephroma plumbeum and australe, Peltigera rufescens and polydactyla,
Lecidea leucoplaca, mutabilis and icterica, Catillaria melastegia and leucochlora,
Rhizocarpon geographicum, Phyllopsora parvifolia, Baeomyces chilensis, Cladonia
pycnoclada, bacillaris, didyma, coccifera, aggregata, furcata, gracilis, pyxidata,
fimbriata and pityrea, Stereocaulon ramulosum and implexum, Coccotrema granu-
latum, Melanaria melanospora, Lecanora coarctata, atra and polytropa, Placop-
sis chilena, fuscidula, parellina and gelida, Candelariella vitellina, Myxodictyon
chrysostictum, Parmelia saxatilis, laevigata, conspersa, perlata and caperata, Mene-
gazzia sanguinascens, Ramalina linearis and usnea, Usnea florida and angulata,
Bombyliospora dolichospora, Caloplaca elegans, Buellia stellulata, Theloschistes
flavicans, Cora pavonia.
c. Widespread to cosmopolitan species expected to occur on the mainland
of Chile (11): Diploschistes actinostomus, Pseudocyphellaria fragillima, Sticta laci-
niata, Catillaria intermixta and endochroma, Bacidia endoleuca, Pertusaria leio-
placa, Parmelia revoluta, cetrata and cetrarioides, Physcia picta.
II. Subantarctic-Magellanian element.—1 4 (8.2 %).
a. Endemic: Pertusaria hadrocarpa.
6. Also in W. Patagonia, Fuegia etc. (13): Pannaria fuegiensis, Pseudocyphel-
laria chloroleuca, nitida, endochrysea, Durvillei, flavicans, Freycinetii and Richardi,
Nephroma cellulosum and antarcticum, Stereocaulon patagonicum, Lecanora albel-
lina (endem. var.), Anaptychia pectinata.
III. Neotropical element.—26 (15.3 %).
Endemic, or found or expected in South America, but not recorded for Chile.
a. Endemic (5): Arthonia subnebulosa and berberina, Enterostigma Skotts-
bergii, Lecanora masafuerensis, Caloplaca orthoclada.
6. Not endemic, some perhaps to be expected in Chile (14): Arthopyrenia
Cinchonae, adnexa and planorbis, Phaeographina scalpturata, Leptogium calli-
thamnion, Megalospora versicolor (endem. var.), Bacidia subluteola, Toninia bullata,
Acarospora xanthophana, Pertusaria polycarpa (endem. var.), Parmelia laevigatula,
abstrusa and microsticta, Anaptychia hypoleuca.
254 C. SKOTTSBERG
c. Widespread tropical-subtropical species, probably also occurring in South
America (7): Pyrenula aspistea and Kunthii, Graphis intricata and Dumastii, Lo-
padium leucoxanthum (endem. var.), Parmelia nilgherrensis, Caloplaca subcerina
(endem. var.).
IV. Pacific element.—7 (4.1 %).
Pseudocyphellaria subvariabilis, Bacidia delapsans, Usnea subtorulosa, Calo-
placa rubina, Buellia halophila, fernandeziana and _ halophiloides.
V. Boreal element.—16 (9.4 %).
a. Endemic: Lemmopsis polychidioides.
6. Not endemic (15): Arthonia cytisi (endem. var.), Gyalecta jenensis, Massa-
longia carnosa, Lecidea enteroleuca, latypea and viridans, Bacidia arceutina
(endem. var.), Rhizocarpon obscuratum (endem. var.), Acarospora smaragdula,
Lecanora dispersa, chrysoleuca and saxicola, Parmelia pilosella and soredica, Buel-
lia concinna (endem. var.).
VI. Only reported from Juan Fernandez and Rodriguez I.
Usnea dasypogoides.
The following 22 endemic species had to be left out, their taxonomic rela-
tions being unknown: Microglaena fernandeziana, Porina depressula, fernandeziana
and rufocarpella, Ocellularia subdenticulata, Parmeliella symptychia, Pannaria hilaris,
Lecidea inactiva, cyanosarca and leucozonata, Catillaria theobromina, Rhizocarpon
microspermum, Lecanora Ingae, Parmelia piloselloides, Blastenia fernandeziana,
Caloplaca clandestina, Selkirkii and isidioclada, Buellia siphoniatula, masafuerana
and barrilensis, Pyxine curvatula—further, Lopadium sp, and the dubious Blastenia
sp. have been excluded. The percentages were calculated with 170 as a total.
VI. Fungi.
Our knowledge of the fungus flora is very limited, and time did not permit
us to pay due attention to this group. Of Baszdiomycetes about 40 species were
identified by ROMELL (207), including those enumerated by JONOW (several spe-
cies doubtful). Endemic species few. KEISSLER’s list of Ascomycetes (159, 160),
with additions by ARWIDSSON (377), short as it is—only 31 species—gives some
idea of the relation between the geographical elements. Of the 20 named spe-
cies, 9 were known before from S. America (mostly Chile) and 1 from N. Amer-
ica; 5 are widespread and 5 endemic, one of these belonging to an endemic
genus. Limacinia scoriadea (Berk.) Keissl. is also known from Chile, Java and New
Zealand. Three of the endemic genera of Compositae have their special rusts,
the endemic Luphrasza is attacked by the same Uvedo that is found on two species
of sect. 77zfidae in Chile, Azara fernandeztana by the rust known from A. ixtegrifolia
in Chile, and Rudus geoides is accompanied by the same parasite as in Fuegia (z59).
Of Gasteromycetes only 2 named species were reported; of these //eodictyon
gracile Berk. is of geographical interest: S. America, S. Africa, Australia and New
Zealand, the second species was known before from N. America and Samoa (z02).
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA
nN
UW
wn
The Myxophyta, 18 species, are more or less cosmopolitan (zo7).
I have tried above to indicate where the native plants have their nearest sta-
tions outside the islands or, if endemic, where their closest relatives occur. Sta-
tistics like this serve to assign to a local flora its position within a certain floristic
region and, when dealing with an oceanic island, to trace the sources from where
its living world is likely to have been derived. The position generally assigned
to Juan Fernandez is that of an outpost from South America. In ENGLER's Syl-
labus the islands form the “Gebiet von Juan Fernandez und Masafuera’’ under
“Zentral- und siidamerikanisches Florenreich’’; it is characterized thus: “Gattungen
vorzugsweise verwandt mit denen der chilenischen Ubergangsprovinz”, i.e. Cen-
tral Chile and the Valdivian forest region, ENGLER’s transitional belt between the
ae
Andean and Magellanian provinces. GOOD (zog) distinguished a ‘“‘Region of Juan
Fernandez’ under his “Neotropical Kingdom’, giving it the same rank as the
“Amazone Region’, the ““Andean Region’, etc. We have seen that there is an
unmistakable floristic agreement between Juan Fernandez and South Chile, but
also that it is far from complete, and both ENGLER and GOOD were well aware
of the presence of elements that had little to do with the flora of the mainland.
They were barely recognized by JOHOW (see above p. 215) who, with his faith
in unlimited transoceanic dispersal, paid little attention to them; they were too
few to disturb the Chilean picture. Not until the flora had become better known
did its strange features stand out in a clearer light. It is surprising that GUILLAU-
MIN who knew and quoted the synopsis published in vol. II of this work (229)
failed to recognize them. In his paper on the floristic divisions of the Pacific he
states that Juan Fernandez lies outside Oceania and he includes it in his discus-
sion only for the sake of comparison. The flora is characterized as follows (778.
931): “Sur 142 Phanérogames indigénes, la moitié sont endémiques mais appa-
rentees aux espéces chiliennes; les autres sont cosmopolites ou Sudaméricaines,
surtout chiliennes.” It is not easy to understand how he arrived at this conclusion.
On the other hand, some authors were led astray by the dzfference between the
islands and the continent. ERMEL, who got his impression from a short visit to
Masatierra, wrote (gz. 48):
.. muss die Zusammengehdrigkeit dieser Insel zum amerikanischen Festlande, zu
welcher Ansicht deren geringe geographische Entfernung von selbst hinleiten kénnte, aufs
nachdriicklichste in Abrede gestellt werden, weil die beiderseitige Flora and Fauna zu
grosse Verschiedenheiten aufweist, wo wir an geeigneter Stelle die notigen Beweise bei-
bringen werden. Die Gestaltung der Flora ordnet die Inselgruppe vielmehr dem australischen
Weltteile zu, von dem der grésste Teil heruntergegangen ist.
It is hardly necessary to mention that his proofs were based on his ignorance
of the composition of the island flora and very likely also of the floras of Australia
and Chile.
256 C. SKOTTSBERG
Chapter II.
Sources of the island flora as judged by the total distribution of the
geographical elements distinguished, with special reference to the
composition of the Chilean flora.
I have attempted above to describe the distribution of the non-endemic spe-
cies, to state where the endemics have their relatives, if any, and to distinguish
a number of geographical elements. Now I shall proceed a little further and look
at the matter from a wider horizon. A species was called Chilean because it is
found also in Chile or has its relatives in the south Andean flora, or it was referred
to a Magellanian group because it occurs only in the farthest south of the conti-
nent, and so forth; but in order to know something of the genesis and history
of each group we cannot stop here. We shall find that our “Chilean element’,
Chilean from our insular viewpoint, consists of several types, each with its own
distribution pattern. To speak with WULFF (297. 203), until now we occupied our-
selves with the geographic elements, now we shall try to trace the gezefzc ones,
“species grouped according to their region of origin, thus reflecting the genesis
of a given flora”. He very properly adds: ‘To determine the region of origin of
a species’’—and indeed also of a genus or family—“‘is often a very difficult mat-
ter, requiring a monographic study... .’ With regard to Juan Fernandez, the ge-
netic elements are congruent to WULFF’s “migration elements”.
I. Angiospermae. ;
Of the two species of S#pa, xeeszana is distributed from Mexico through the
tropical Andes to Central Chile and east to Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, /ae-
vissima (Nassella) a typical Andean species; the former is neotropic, the latter
Chilean, extending north into Pert and east into Argentina. Almost the same
area is occupied by Piptochaetium bicolor, a genus limited to extratropical South
America.
Podophorus is a unique anomaly without known neotropical affinities, as it
were, a far-travelled member of an Arcto-tertiary flora, if its affinity with Lrachy-
elythrum hits the mark; in PILGER’s opinion it sides with A/egalachne.
The species of Chaefotropis were referred to the neotropical group— tropical”
not to be taken in a purely climatic sense, because a species included under this
heading may just as well be subtropical and even extend into a temperate zone.
Agrostis masafuerana and the bicentric A. magellanica were linked together,
but only provisionally, because in a large and world-wide genus like Agvosézs the
relationships cannot be safely judged without a thorough taxonomic-genetic study
of the whole genus. Assuming that PILGER was right, Antarctica becomes in-
volved, and the two species—and probably others as well—should be classified as
“Old Antarctic’, or, as I now prefer to term them, Antarcto-tertiary (correspond-
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 257
ing to Arcto-tertiary). An Antarcto-tertiary taxon is not necessarily of Antarctic
ancestry; strictly spoken it certainly should be, but there are numerous cases
where the point of origin was either the South American or the Australasian—
New Zealand centre, and Antarctica only served as a trans-continental route of
migration.
Trisetum chromostachyum is Chilean, but the genus is both N. and S. temper-
ate, perhaps originally Arcto-tertiary? Danthonia collina and Koeleria micrathera
also are Chilean, but the distribution pattern of the genera indicates that Antarc-
tica eventually was involved in their history.
Megalachne, temporarily referred to Bromus but once more stated to be an
independent genus, is a relict type with unknown history, eventually a remnant
of a pre-Andean flora (comp. above p. 217).
The genus Chusquea belongs to the neotropical element in the flora of Chile,
and the same is true of the species of Cyperus. Scirpus nodosus and cernuus are
circumpolar seaside plants and most likely thalassochorous; if Antarctica had a
share in their earlier history is impossible to say, but it is not improbable. //eo-
charis is another large world-wide genus, perhaps too wide-spread to allow us to
locate its place of origin.
Oreobolus. The Antarcto-tertiary character of Oveobolus can hardly be dis-
puted; it is often referred to as a classical example of an Antarctic genus. Of the
6 species recognized by KUKENTHAL, I (with 2 varieties) is found in S. and E.
Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, 2 in N.E. New Guinea, one of them
extending to Borneo, 1 in N. Sumatra and Malacca, 1 in Hawaii, and O. ob/usangu
fus in Chile from the cordilleras of Valdivia to Fuegia, the Falkland Is. and Juan
Fernandez. [A seventh species, O. pfezfferianus Barros, was identified by KUKEN-
THAL (764. VIII) with pumzlio var. fectinatus.|
Cladium (164. Xi1) is wide-ranging but it is not cosmopolitan in spite of the
large areas occupied by C. marzscus L. and its varieties, among which jamazcense
is circumpolar and distributed also south of the equator. The main distribution
of subg. Machaerina (incl. Vincentia), where C. scérpotdeum of Juan Fernandez
belongs, is palaeotropical with 11 species (Madagascar, Mascarene Is., Australia,
Lord Howe I., New Guinea, Indonesia, Oceania); 5 are neotropical (W. Indies,
Brazil). Its austral character is clear enough. The closest relative of scirpozdeum
is not an American species but C. anxgustifolium (Gaud.) Benth. et Hook. fil. (New
Guinea, Tahiti, Hawaii). Subg. Bauwmea, with 29 scattered from Australia, where
there are 18 species, over the Indomalayan region west to Ceylon, north to Hong-
kong and Japan, east to Melanesia and Hawaii, has 15 in Australia—lasmania—
New Zealand and 1 in the region of Madagascar and Mascarene Is. Together the
two subgenera cover the 3 sectors, the African, the Australian-Malaysian and the
American. In the centre of this vast area lies Antarctica or, as it were, Gond-
wana Land. The history of Cladim may well lead back to the Mesozoic, and
it seems natural to refer the genus to the Antarcto-tertiary element. The same
applies to Unxcznia, one of the generally recognized Antarctic genera, represented
in Juan Fernandez by 5 species, 2 of them endemic. Within the South American
sector are 13 species distributed along the Andes with a concentration toward the
17 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
258 C. SKOTTSBERG
south, one species going north as far as Mexico and the West Indies, 1 extending
east from Fuegia to the Falkland Is. and Tristan da Cunha. On the opposite side
of Antarctica are 18 species, 14 of these indigenous in New Zealand, where 8 are
endemic, the remainder scattered along the route Macquarie I—Auckland and Camp-
bell Is.-Tasmania—Australia-New Zealand—Lord Howe and Norfolk Is.; one New
Zealand species reappears in Hawaii, another on Kerguelen and New Amster-
dam I., and Marion I. has an endemic species. Finally, 2 species are found in New
Guinea, one of them also reported from Borneo, and the Philippines have 1 en-
demic species. Both sections of subg. Lu-Uncinia are represented in America, only
Stenandrae in the opposite sector. The monotypical subg. Pseudocarex is Magel-
lanian.
It is not easy to find one’s way through the labyrinth of the enormous and
still. growing genus Carex, world-wide but unbalanced as the tropics are poor in
species in comparison with the temperate and cold zones. Our two island species,
the endemic C. derteroniana and the south Andean Baxksz7, belong to different
sections and different geographic groups, the former to sect. Echinochlaenae: of
20 species 16 are endemic in New Zealand (one with a variety on Norfolk I.),
1 in Australia, 1 in Tasmania; the little known Chilean C. /amprocarpa Phil. and
C. berteroniana are far-flung outposts, but it lies near at hand to assume that they
or their ancestors migrated across Antarctica. C. Banksia belongs to Frigidae-
Fuliginosae, a boreal group centering in Eurasia with one species in Pacific North
America, but I cannot tell if Baxkszz comes near this species.
The systematic position of F¥wanza australis was briefly discussed in 229.
109 and above p. 202, but whether we bring it to Morenieae or Iriarteae or let it
form a separate subtribe it remains a member of the neotropical element. HUTCHIN-
SON followed BENTHAM and HOOKER in placing it next to Ceroxy/on, but this
genus is polygamo-monoecious and the stigma becomes basal in fruit. To me
CROIZAT’s opinion lacks foundation; he solves what he calls “‘a hopeless conflict
among taxonomists” (77.85) by deriving ¥wanza from ‘‘a massive center of origin
of angiospermy at the Mascarenes”’ (p. 103).
Ochagavia and Hesperogrezgia belong to an Andean-neotropical assemblage
of genera, with close relatives in Chile.
To judge from BUCHENAU’s monograph of the Juncaceae in Pflanzenreich
Luzula masafuerana must be referred to a group of Andean species, L. racemosa
Desv. (Mex.-S. Chile), exce/sa Buch. (Boliv.), Hzeronym7 Buch. (Argent.), Leydoldiz
Buch. (Chile), and chz/ens7s Nees et Mey. (Chile, south to Fuegia), but in the same
group we find ZL. sfzcata (L.) DC. (Arct.-circump. and Alpine) and adyssznica Parl.
(Ethiop., Brit. E. Afr.), and the possibility that the Andine species are of boreal
origin should be considered. On the other hand much speaks in favour of a south-
ern origin of Juncaceae: the subantarctic genera Marsippospermum and Rostkovia,
the isolated Przoxium in South Africa, endemic Andine genera like Oxychloe and
Patosia, well-marked endemic species of Luzu/a in New Zealand and the Magel-
lanian region, and the subantarctic-bicentric Funcus scheuchzerioides group. It is
true that 4 of the 5 Yuzcus species reported from Juan Fernandez—some of them
perhaps not native—inhabit the Andes, 3 going east to Brazil, Argentina and Uru-
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 259
guay, the fifth, ¥. planzfolmus, shared by Chile and Australia~Tasmania—New Zea-
land, but it is also true that even if we look for the origin of the family in
Antarctica, a possibility pointed out by WEIMARCK (287), we must count with
secondary centres of evolution in the boreal zone where the overwhelming major-
ity of sections and species are found. Some 50 species are in the South hemi-
sphere with main centres in South Africa (20) and Australia (17).
Libertia with 3 species in Chile and 2 in New Guinea—Australia-New Zealand
telis a story of an Antarctic past, and the group Sisyrinchineae has a stronghold
in the South, where the genera concentrate; Szsyrizchinm itself centres in South
America, where 4 small genera are endemic (Symphyostemon, Chamaelum, Sole-
nomelus and Tapetnia); South Africa is another stronghold (Avzstea, Witsenia,
Bobartia, Klattia and Cleanthe), and 3 (Orthosanthus, Diplarrhena and Patersonia)
are found in the East Australian -Indomalayan region, but this does not entitle us
to derive Iridaceae from the far south.
Of the 4 island species of Peperomia only P. fernandeziana (Chile) is neo-
tropical, while the other species appear to be more nearly allied to palaeotropical
ones (Java, Australia, Oceania); P. derteroana occupies a unique geographical posi-
tion (p. 203). The genus is of tropical origin and centres in America, but if we
try to understand the history of the endemic species of Juan Fernandez, the possi-
bility of Antarctica as a migration route should be considered.
Whereas Urtica masafuerana, one of the few indigenous annuals, is related
to a species from Ecuador, U. fernandeziana with the habit of a miniature tree
(229. 862) appears to lack near relatives. The family is, I suppose, of tropical
origin, but the actual centre of Uyézca is in the north temperate and subtropical
zones; there are 14 species in Eurasia, including the Mediterranean region, and
7 in North and Central America with a secondary centre in the Andes (Colomb.—
Fueg. 6); 3 species are tropical (Braz—Urug., Ethiopia, Java). There are a few
species in the south hemisphere, 2 S. Afr., 1 Australia, 2 N. Zeal. and 1 Auckl. Is.
U. fernandeziana seems to represent an ancient type.
Boehmeria excelsa was described by BURGER (47) as an elegant shrub which came
from S. America; it is a clumsy tree and not related to neotropical species. It
comes nearest to B. dealbata (Kermadec Is.) and points west, not east.
Parietaria humifusa (Chile); see above p. 204. Belongs to a neotropical group
which has not been cleared up (247) but is also closely related to the Australian-
Polynesian debz/zs of FORSTER. WEDDELL’s dedz/7s is a mixture of varieties scat-
tered over the globe and most likely consists of several good species.
Phrygilanthus Berteroz. The family Loranthaceae is tropical, but Phrygzlanthus
is of Antarctic origin. Of the 7 sections, 4 (about 20 species) are American and
range from Lower California to S. Chile, 1 with 2 species belongs to Australia
and New Zealand, 1 (1 species) to New Zealand, and 1 has one species in Aus-
tralia, another in New Guinea and a third in the Philippines—a typically austral-
bicentric genus.
The genus Saxtalum ranges from Australia and Melanesia to Micronesia and
Malaysia and east to Polynesia and Hawaii with a distant outlying station in
Juan Fernandez; see TUYAMA’s map (270). Of the 4 sections distinguished by
260 C. SKOTTSBERG
TuyaMA (who divided my section Lusaxfa/um in 2 and referred the Hawaiian
Eusantala to a separate section So/enanthus), Eusantalum s. str. is the largest with 9
species, Solenanthus and sect. Hawaitensza (together 8) confined to Hawaii (incl. Lay-
san), and sect. Polynesica (2, with varieties) to Polynesia; in this section the extinct
S. fernandesianum occupies a rather independent position. “Aber woher kam der
fremdartige Eremit Santalum?’’ BURGER (47. 22) exclaims, “zweifelsohne fern aus
ostindischen Meeren, wo die Wiege seines altberihmten Geschlechtes steht’’—
nothing could give a wronger idea of the history of the sandalwoods, because
everything points toward Antarctica as their cradle. There are related endemic
genera in Australia, J/zda in New Zealand, Exocarpus ranges from Australia across
Polynesia to Hawaii, and several endemic genera are at home in temperate S.
America (Arjona, lodina, Ovidia, Quinchamalium, and Nanodea in the extreme
south and in the Falkland Is.}; one is tempted to regard the family as of Antarctic
ancestry, but with Zheszuwm in mind it might be safer to speak of a special
Antarcto-tertiary centre.
The 3 endemic species of Chenopodium were commented upon above (p. 204).
In general appearance they are very like the Hawaiian cahuense but the special-
ist opines that they are not nearly related to this nor to other species. I can find
no better place for them than in a neotropical group.
Salicornia fruticosa, taken in a wide sense, is a thalassochorous plant scattered
along tropical and subtropical coasts; the same is the case with Jetragonia ex-
pansa in the S. hemisphere, but while Sa/zcornza is a world-wide genus, Jefra-
gonia has a stronghold in South Africa and several endemic species in Chile.
Spergularia is a wide-ranging, but mainly boreal genus with a vigorous branch
in Andean America but absent from Australia, New Zealand and Oceania. The
2 island species, of which S. conxfertifiora is also found on San Ambrosio, are
closely related to Chilean species. Paronychia has about the same distribution
pattern as Spergularia, but is poorly represented in S. America.
Ranunculus caprarum. A very large essentially boreal-temperate genus with
well-stocked branches in S. America and on New Zealand. The Masafueran en-
demic stands apart from its American congeners and approaches certain New Zea-
land species, perhaps also the Hawaiian ones. An Antarctic migration route seems
probable.
Berberts corymbosa and masafuerana belong to a small section confined to
the tropical Andes and not extending to Chile, where we have many other spe-
cies. The present area of the Berberidaceae testifies to its Arcto-tertiary charac-
ter; it centres in E. and S. Asia and ranges far south only in America, where 3
species reach Fuegia.
Of the six genera of Winteraceae (253), Bubbza has 2 species in Australia,
1 on Lord Howe I., 8 in New Caledonia and 19 in New Guinea, Belliolum 4
in New Caledonia and 4 in the Solomon Is., Pseudowintera 2 in New Zealand,
Exospermum 2 and Zygogynum 6 in New Caledonia, and Drimys 6 in Australia
{1 also in Tasmania), 29 in New Guinea and 1 on Borneo, Celebes and in the
Philippines, all these belonging to sect. Zasmania; the other section, Ludrzmys,
is American with 4 species, D. confert7folia endemic in Juan Fernandez. This sec-_
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 261
tion is a distant branch of an Australasian family and ranges from the uttermost
south along the mountains to Mexico and to Roraima in Brazil. That Antarctica
once played a role in the history of Drzmys is proved by the Tertiary fossils
discovered in West Antarctica.
Lactorts is generally looked upon as a primitive member of the Ranales and
claimed to belong to the most primitive element in the island flora. It has no
relatives in America. It is no typical member of the Magnoliales, an Arcto-tertiary
order, which it needs a CROIZAT to derive from the Antarctic. Geographically,
Lactoris is a parallel to Degeneria of Fiji, but the affinities of the latter are not
questionable and they have little in common. It lies near at hand to think of the
small family Lardizabalaceae, endemic in Chile. HUTCHINSON regards Lactorida-
ceae as ‘‘closely related to the Winteraceae, of which it is probably a reduced
derivative’ (zzo. II. 85)—but is the perfect trimery a result of reduction? And are not
the never quite closed carpels an indication of primitiveness? I daresay most sys-
tematists agree that the Polycarpicae, whether regarded as ove order or split up, are
among the oldest living angiosperms. The distribution of Winteraceae and the
occurrence in the South Hemisphere of small isolated families as Degeneriaceae,
Lactoridaceae and Lardizabalaceae suggests that the Antarctic continent was one
of the centres of evolution.
Cardamine is a world-wide, mainly temperate and essentially boreal genus,
extending into the tropics and south to Fuegia and New Zealand. The 3 island
species, one of them endemic, were commented on above (p. 205).
Among the numerous Chilean species of Fscallonia, £. Callcottiae stands a
little apart from the rest (758); the genus is spread along the Andes and extends
to Brazil and Uruguay. The subfamily Escallonioideae is austral-circumpolar: 772-
beles (1 S. Chile-Fueg.), Valdivia (1 S. Chile), Forgesia (1) and Berenice (1),
Réunion, Azopterus (2, Tasm., E. Austral.), Cuéts7a (1 E. Austral.), Argophyllum
(10 E. Austral., N. Caled.), Colmeiroa (1 Lord Howe I.), Carpodetus (1 N. Zeal.,
N. Guin.), Quéntinéa (15 Austral.-N. Guin.-N. Caled., Philipp.), Pottingerta (1 N.E.
Ind.)—a distribution suggesting an Antarctic origin.
Rubus geoides has a single near relative, R. radicans, in S. Chile. They differ
very much from the numerous north temperate and tropical montane species and
form their own section or subgenus, and their resemblance to the Tasmanian
R. gunnianus Hook. Icon. Plant. II is no proof of affinity. They seem to represent
an isolated offshoot from the north which has become cut off from its source of
origin and found its way into the subantarctic zone. ;
Acaena. Nobody if not CroIzAT would argue that Rosaceae are a southern
family, but this cannot prevent us from assuming that the Saxzguzsorba assemblage
of genera has gone through part of its evolution at least in the far south. BITTER
(3z) distinguished 10 sections: I, 13 species, S. Amer.; II, 1, The Cape; ELE, 1.2
tS, Amer., 1 Hawaii;-IV, 1, S: Amer.; V, 8, 6 S. Amer., 1 J. Fern., 1 Tasm:;
VIy 1, S: Amer.; VII; 28; 26 S. Amer.,:1 Galif., 1 Tasm:; VII, 64; 58°S. Amer,
1 Tristan da C., 1 N. Amsterd. I., 3 N. Zeal., 1 N. Zeal—Tasm.—Austral.—N. Guin.;
IX, 1, N. Zeal.; and X, 2, N. Zeal. Two Magellanian species occur on S. Georgia
and 1 on Kerguelen. The circumpolar distribution shows no gaps. About 70 %
262 C. SKOTTSBERG
of the species inhabit extratropical S. America, but many of them are so closely
related that they are little more than microspecies and in not few cases based
on one or two specimens from a single locality, and the number of separable
taxa will perhaps be reduced when more material becomes available. Be this as
it may, 7 sections are represented in America, 5 in the Australian—N. Zealand
area, 3 are common to both, one of them ranging to the African sector, where
another section is endemic. As regards dA. masafuerana see p. 206 above. I sup-
pose we can draw no other conclusion from this distribution than that Acaena is
an Antarcto-tertiary genus, 2 sections having developed numerous species in the
Andes and Patagonia.
Margyricarpus, a small Andean genus, is so closely allied to Acaena that they
have produced a bigeneric hybrid in Juan Fernandez. Two more genera are found
in the Andes, 7etraglochin and Polylepis. In S. Africa we have the large genus
Cliffortia. The remaining genera Sanguzsorba, Poteritum and Bencomia (Macarone-
sia) belong to the N. hemisphere.
Sophora sect. Tetrapterae is austral-circumpolar: New Zealand (3 species),
Chatham I. (1), Lord Howe I. (1), Austral Is. (1), Rapa (1), Marquesas (1), Hawaii
(1), Easter I. (1), Juan Fernandez (2), Chile (2; S. sacrocarpa, however, rather unlike
all the others), Diego Alvarez (1), and Réunion (1). With the exception of macrocarpa
and the Hawaiian chrysophyla the remaining species used to be united under
tetraptera Ait., otherwise endemic in New Zealand. They are very closely related,
but distinct; it is of minor importance if we call them species or geographical
subspecies. Unless we believe that S. zedvaptera was carried by water from island
to island and was transformed into a new species wherever it landed, we must
look upon Antarctica as a one-time centre of a polymorphous population, which
radiated in various directions; we shall not discuss here how this may have hap-
pened. We have not to do with litoral but with inland plants; the pods are
adapted to float, assisted by the four narrow wings, JOHOW says, but some of the
forms have no wings at all, and even if they have, the pods open on the tree and
discharge their seeds.
Fagara mayu and externa form their own section. When BURGER said (47. 19)
that /agara had migrated to Juan Fernandez from the primeval forests of Pert
and Colombia he overlooked that the affinity is with palaeotropical rather than
with neotropical species; there are numerous species scattered from Australia and
New Caledonia to Polynesia and Hawaii, where many are endemic. Rutaceae were
perhaps represented in the Antarctic in Tertiary times, and we have too look for
a route across to the American sector.
The family uphorbiaceae is pantropical, let alone that Lwphorbia has at-
tained a world-wide distribution and flourishes also in temperate climates. Dysopszs
is Andean, Se7delza (2) and Lezdesza (1) South African, the fourth genus of the
Mercurialis group, Mercurialis (8), ranges from North Europe to the Mediterranean
and is found in E. Asia. The southern genera seem to be more closely con-
nected mutually than with J/ercuralis. The disjunctions are interesting and difficult
to explain, unless we can find good reason to look for a common source in the
Antarctic.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 263
The systematical position of Ca//itriche has been discussed many times, but
we know nothing of its history or where it started. The genus is world-wide, but
many species are not wide-spread and some are quite local, among them C. Lech-
feri, which may have been carried to Juan Fernandez from the mainland by
accident.
The tribe Colletieae of the otherwise wide-ranging Rhamnaceae is called
austral-antarctic by SUSSENGUT (Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. 2nd ed.): except Adolphia
(Mexico-U.S.A.) the genera are distributed over Andean and extratropical S. Amer-
ica, centering in Chile, and Colletta spartioides finds its place with the Andean
element. It should be mentioned that Dzscarza (11) extends south to Fuegia and
reappears in Australia (1) and New Zealand (1), suggesting transantarctic migra-
tion from America.
The family +/7/acourtiaceae is tropical; Azara is neotropical with about 19
species in Chile, 1 in Brazil and 1 in Argentina. The tribe to which it belongs
is well developed in the south hemisphere: tropical America and Africa, Mada-
gascar and neighbouring islands, Asia, New Guinea and (Ay/osma) Oceania to
Hawaii, but Antarctica may not at all be involved in its history.
Myrtaceae. A very large world-wide and tropical-subtropical family. Of the
subfamily Myrtoideae, some 2400 species, 75 % are American, the remainder scat-
tered over Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania. The Leptospermoideae, some 850,
are restricted to Australasia with the single exception of 7epwa/ia, monotypical
and endemic in the Chilean rain forests, south to West Patagonia, a most inter-
esting case of disjunction. BERRY (26) regards the family to be of American ori-
gin and to have attained its present distribution before the close of the Creta-
ceous. Basing his conclusions on fossil evidence he thinks that during the cooling
down of the climate during late Tertiary, the ancestral stock of Myrtoideae with-
drew from North America to the neotropical zone; the Australian Leptospermo-
ideae represent the remnants of the Cretaceous radiation during which numerous
new types became evolved. Some of these eventually invaded Antarctica and
Tepualia survives on Chilean soil.
The Juan Fernandez Myrtoideae are closely linked to Andean types. For Ugwz
Selkirkit and Myrteola nummularia see p. 206. Nothomyrcia, now restricted to Masa-
tierra, may or may not have inhabited a larger area. Iyrceugenia has about 20
species in Chile.
Gunneraceae (often placed as a subfamily under Halorrhagidaceae) is a classi-
cal example of a tricentric Antarcto-tertiary type. Its long and complicated history
is reflected in its taxonomic differentiation; Gwuera is composed of 6 subgenera.
Pangue is the largest with 10 species ranging from Costa Rica to S. Chile, 1 in
Brazil, 3 in Juan Fernandez and 2 in Hawaii. Perpensum is monotypical with
separate varieties in S. Africa, British E. Africa and Madagascar, Ostenza an aber-
rant monotype endemic in Uruguay. MW/rsandra includes 3 species, one extending
from Colombia to Fuegia and Falkland, one restricted to the S. Chilean Andes
and one to subantarctic America; MWi//igania has 8 species in New Zealand and
1 in Tasmania. The monotypical Pseudogunnera inhabits New Guinea, Java, Su-
matra and the Philippines. No subgenus is found in more than one sector. It is
264 Cc. SKOTTSBERG
surprising that the geographically isolated Hawaiian species are closely related to
the species of Juan Fernandez. We know other examples of this connection, but
to construct a route between Hawaii and Juan Fernandez meets with serious obsta-
cles, and Pangue may have reached Hawaii along a quite different route. The
evolution and differentiation of the subgenera very likely took place in Antarctica.
SCHINDLER (Pflanzenreich) expressed his opinion of the history of Hador-
rhagidaceae thus: ““Aus der geographischen Verbreitung der urspringlichsten Halor-
rhagaceen, namlich der Gattung Halorrhagis, ist mit Sicherheit zu folgern, dass die
Familie antarktischen Ursprungs ist.’ It is not easy to see how he arrived at this
conclusion, though I think it is correct, because at that time the endemic species
of Juan Fernandez were unknown; they passed as //. erecta, a New Zealand en-
demic, and this, incorrectly attributed also to Juan Fernandez and Chile, had been
carried there on purpose: “Der Standort auf Juan Fernandez und in Chile ist kein
urspriinglicher, sondern durch die auch in Neuseeland erfolgende Verwendung der
Pflanze als Futterpflanze erklart.’’ But there was no //a/orrhagis on the mainland,
and the species indigenous in Juan Fernandez were not used as forage, let it be
that the introduced animals eat them. H/alorrhag7s, eminently Australian (59 out
of 80 species) and with 7 species in New Zealand, extends north to Indomalaya,
Micronesia, S.E. China and Japan and east to Rapa (not known to SCHINDLER)
and Juan Fernandez—see TUYAMA’s map of distribution (277). The genus “well
illustrates the not infrequent extension of an Australasian group far north of the
equator, and the much rarer condition of occurrence in Juan Fernandez but not
in continental America’ (zog. 108). Halorrhagis shows the same distribution pat-
tern as Santalum.
Centella is essentially African, see above p. 207; the distribution is tricentric
with some remote stations. The widespread C. aszatica is scattered over a broad
belt but not reported from America. Very likely the Hydrocotyloideae, a sepa-
rate family according to some authors, are of Antarctic origin, but C. ¢v7flora
may well have reached Juan Fernandez with the traffic from Chile.
The peculiar endemic species of Axvyxgzum differ so much in habit from all
other species of this large and widespread genus that they have been referred
to a separate genus, a rank to which they are not entitled. Exyxgzum concen-
trates in the Mediterranean region and in tropical South America, where also the
island species belong, in spite of their arborescent habit; to quote TURMEL (269.
130): “Se rattachant a la Région chilienne, on cite les espéces de Juan Fernandez
£. bupleuroides, sarcophyllum et tmaccessum..., plantes, du moins pour les deux
premicres, arbustives s’opposant radicalement aux autres especes des territoires
voisins —but 7zzaccessum also is a dwarf tree, more so I would say than sarco-
Phyllum. | doubt that they descend from herbaceous continental forms; they be-
long to an ancient type and find their proper place with the neotropical element.
The tribe Apioideae-Ammineae is very widely spread, with a concentration
in the North hemisphere, Afzwm distributed also in the south temperate zone, and
A. graveolens L. is frequently regarded as bipolar species. I don’t believe that
any of the southern forms should be included; they are, however, in need of
revision. A. fernandezianum is a well-marked species, related, but not very closely,
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 265
to a series of forms, probably good species, reported from subantarctic America,
Falkland, Tristan da Cunha, Australia, etc. and possibly descending from an
old Antarctic stock.
Pernettya: 13 species, 8 Mexico and Centr. America to Chile, south to Fuegia
and Falkland, 1 Galapagos Is., 2 in Tasmania and 2 in New Zealand; P. rigida
is linked to Andean species, but very distinct (252). The genus is more diversi-
fied in the American sector, and this seems to be where it originated, having
reached New Zealand across the Antarctic, if not with Gau/therza, well developed
in New Zealand, descending from a common Antarcto-tertiary stock.
Empetrum is a bipolar genus, the family most likely of boreal origin. Con-
cerning /. rubrum see 249.781.
Of the 7 Drchondra species 5 are neotropical, 1 endemic in New Zealand
and PD. repens (incl. servzcea) spread round the world. It is common on the coast
of Chile and possibly adventitious in Juan Fernandez. The occurrence of an en-
demic species in New Zealand suggests that Antarctica witnessed part of its
history.
Calystegia. About 25 species have been described, scattered over the globe,
C. sepium sensu lat. reported from America, Eurasia, N. Africa, Australia, New
Zealand, Easter I., etc. and evidently very easily naturalized. The plant found
on Masafuera and also on the mainland was described as C. Hantelmanni Phil.
and later identified with tgurzorum from New Zealand; see 249. 783. If this is
correct, C. tuguriorum offers one of the very few cases of a species restricted to
Chile and New Zealand, but even if they are kept apart, they present a remark-
able case of disjunction.
Selkirkia Berterot, the only representative of Boraginaceae, so richly devel-
oped on the mainland, was regarded as an isolated, Old Pacific type (227. 31, 224.
593) until JOHNSTON (748) showed that it comes close to //ackelia and differs from
this principally by its arboreous habit. With Uréica fernandeszana, the species of
Eryngium etc. I refer it to the neotropical element.
Rhaphithamnus venustus is of neotropical ancestry (see above p. 208); the
second species is common in Centr. and S. Chile.
BRIQUET placed Cumznia in the Stachyoideae-Menthinae next to Oreosphacus
Phil., a shrub of the high Cordillera in the boundary region between Chile and
Argentina, but this genus has a schizocarp of four nuts. It has also been com-
pared with Bystropogon L) Hérit. (Canary Is., Colomb.—Pert, different sections). Ep-
LING (using the fancy name Yohow7a) referred Cuminia to Prasioideae, an ancient
group showing great disjunctions: Praszwm Mediterranean, Stexogyne, Phyllostegia
and Haplostachys in Hawaii, Bostrychanthus and Gomphostemma in Asia; Cuminia
differs in the shape of the corolla (see above p. 208), but even so it seems to repre-
sent a palaeotropic element in the island flora.
Solanum fernandezianum is a distinct species of indubitable neotropical and
Andean ancestry. With regard to S. vobzxsonianum, see above p. 200.
Nicotiana cordifolia has, according to GOODSPEED (z72. 347), its closest resem-
blance, in flower structure as well as in general habit, to V. Ratmondi. Crosses
266 C. SKOTTSBERG
with this species and with solanifolia gave evidence of fundamental affinities between
the island endemic and species of the mainland to the north (l.c.).
Mimulus is essentially a western N. American genus with few species else-
where: the somewhat polymorphous J. glabratus ranges from N. America to
Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.
The different opinions on the systematic position of Luphrasia formosissima
have already been referred to above. Within the area of the geographically isolated
Chilean-Magellanian 77zfidae occurs the semicalcarate /. perpuszlla Phil. (S. Chile).
Both would indicate a road from the Australian-New Zealand area across the Ant-
arctic to America, just as the tropical mountains of Malaysia served as a road
between Asia and Australia, as DU RIEYZz thinks (77. 536): “The Euphrasia popu-
lation of Juan Fernandez may therefor very well have formed the northern end
of a population so far south that the lack of close relationships between £. for-
mosissima and the species of Middle Chile is fully explained, and the semical-.
carate anthers of the more southern L. perpuszlla may be the last South American
remnant of this old connection.’ Another question, not yet answered, is this: are
the very well-marked 777fidae, reaching from subantarctic America to the Andes
of S. Chile, likewise descendants from a remote southern population or did they
originate in Chile? .
Plantago fernandezia is another arborescent member of a herbaceous world-
wide genus and often cited as an example of a mysterious connection between
Hawaii and Juan Fernandez, but if we look at the total distribution of sect. Padlaeo-
psyllium (see above p. 209) its character of an austral group is revealed, even if
it extends north to N. America and S. Europe. In the south it is circumpolar,
and the route from New Zealand (Auckland Is.) via Rapa to Hawaii can be traced
—a radiation from Antarctica seems not unthinkable.
Plantago truncata, represented in Juan Fernandez by an endemic (?) variety,
belongs to the large section Novorbzs and needs no further comments.
The neotropical Hedyotis thestifolia is a recent addition to the flora and may
have been accidentally introduced.
Nertera is an austral-circumpolar genus allied to Coprosma and best devel-
oped in New Zealand where 5 species occur, 4 of them endemic; the fifth is
N. granadensis (depressa), claimed to be very widely spread. One species is en-
demic in Tristan da Cunha. Recent observations tend to show that granadensis
includes taxonomically distinct forms; the Malaysian plant is not identical with
the Andean, and other forms will perhaps become distinguished after a critical
revision. Be this as it may, the genus is Antarcto-tertiary and, if we link Tristan
da Cunha with Africa, tricentric.
Coprosma is a parallel to Halorrhagis but differs in being present in Hawaii;
another difference is that the species of Juan Fernandez do not have their closest
relatives in New Zealand or Australia—Hookerz forms its own section, pyrifolia
is of Polynesian affinity. As the genus is absent from America as well as from
Africa it should lie near at hand to refer it to a West Pacific element, a position
favoured by the relationships of pyrzfolza, and to the believers in transoceanic
migration combined with evolution of local endemics wherever Coprosma happened
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 267
to land this is the only course to take, even if the sudden appearance of an iso-
lated type like H/ookerz becomes somewhat embarrassing. With an extension north
and east of an Antarctic borderland Cofrvosma could pass as of Antarcto-tertiary
origin.
C. pyrifolia offers a good example of an incorrect taxonomic position leading
to false conclusions. It was described as Psychotria and referred to a neotropical
group: it came, as BURGER writes (gz. 20), “‘von den Urwaldern Perus und Co-
lombias’’.
Of the more than 500 species described under Gadium about 400 are distri-
buted over the boreal zone and some 50 or 60 are known from South America,
extending from the tropical Andes to Fuegia, the Falkland Is. and South Georgia;
about 30 are African, the remaining species being divided between India, Malaysia,
Australia, New Zealand, etc. Gal/ium is a boreal genus with a strong represen-
tation along the Andes, a not uncommon case. G. masafueranum is allied to
species from the mountains of Central Chile, probably also to species found farther
north. Nothing indicates that Antarctica ever had a share in the history of this
genus.
Whether Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae evolved in the tropics or in the far South
will not be discussed here. The remarkable concentration of arboreous genera,
two of them large, in Hawaii, has given rise to much speculation, and the occur-
rence of other endemic genera in Polynesia as well as the Australian affinity of
Brighamza of Hawaii have led some authors to look for the origin of the sub-
family (or family) in the Antarctic. In our special case we can leave this question
aside because Lobelia alata is a widely distributed seaside species, tricentric in
the South Hemisphere.
The distribution of Wahlenbergia, a large and widespread genus, is inter-
esting. It is essentially southern, of the about 230 species described 150 are South
African and 20 tropical African, 6 are reported from Madagascar and the Masca-
rene islands. North it extends to the Mediterranean, the Orient and Asia, together
some 25 species. Scattered species are known from New Guinea (1), Australia (7),
New Zealand (7), Lord Howe I. (2) and St. Helena (3). Species are few in America
{North Amer. 1, South Amer. 8); a single species, WV. gracilz7s, ranges over the
south hemisphere.
If we look at the related genera, some 13 in number, the dominant position
of South Africa becomes still more conspicuous: 7 are exclusively or preponder-
antly South African, 1 is from tropical Africa, E. Indies and Brazil, 4 Asiatic
and 1 from S.E. Europe, all according to the old synopsis in Natirl. Pflanzenfam.
Our island species are, as we have seen, not matched in Africa, nor in America
or other parts of the world except on St. Helena, see above p. 210. All known
facts suggest that the genus had a long and complicated history in the far south
and that S. Africa is a secondary centre where evolution has been progressive
and prolific in species formation. It is important to remember that our island forms
are not a group of closely related taxa but that Il’. Wasafuerae and particularly
Berteroi stand apart from the rest. The distribution of the genus can hardly be
explained without admitting Antarctica into the picture.
268 C. SKOTTSBERG
The distribution of Lagenxophora clearly testifies to its Antarctic origin: 3
Magellanian species, one of them also on Tristan da Cunha and one on Masafuera,
7 in New Zealand, 2 in Australia, one of these north to the Philippines, 1 in Fiji
and 3 in Hawaii, the four Pacific ones connected with ZL. Bl/ardieri Cass. (Austral.),
whereas the Magellanian species point toward L. pumila Cheesem. and fetiolata
Hook. fil. (New Zealand).
In Evigeron we meet again with a large boreal genus strongly represented
along the Andes and ranging south to Patagonia, Fuegia and Falkland; 135 species
are reported from Eurasia, incl. India, 345 from North America, 35 from Centr.
America and the W. Indies, 95 from S. America, 10 from Africa, 8 from Australia
and a single species from Oceania (Rapa), /. rapenszs F. B. H. Brown, and this is
compared with our island species. To judge from the description it has the same
habit as these, a shrub about 3 dm tall with the leaves in terminal rosettes. In
Hawaii the genus is represented by Zetramolopium, which is very close to Erigeron;
VIERHAPPER (229. 182) suggested that the Juan Fernandez species came near the
Hawaiian &. lepidotus Less., which is now referred to 7etramolopium, and that we
ought to look for relatives among the Andine and Mexican forms. Among our
island species /. rupicola differs much in habit from the rest, but all belong together
and most likely represent a special branch of the Andine /yégeron flora which, in
its turn, comes from a boreal stock.
To what I said above about Guaphalium spiciforme nothing can be added
at present. Chile is well provided with poorly limited species related to G. pur-
pureum \.; most of them are badly known. Their boreal parentage can hardly
be doubted.
Abrotanella resembles Lagenophora in its distribution, but is absent from Oce-
ania; the majority inhabits New Zealand with its subantarctic islands (9 sp.), I is
found in Victoria, 2 in Tasmania, 1 in New Guinea and 5 in S. America (W.
Patagonia to Fuegia and Falkland); in addition, one is found on Rodriguez I.
The genus is, as it were, tricentric and its Antarcto-tertiary character indisputable.
The concentration of isolated arborescent Compositae in the Pacific was em-
phasized by BENTHAM; the main groups of the family are represented among them,
and the accumulation of endemic genera in Hawaii and Juan Fernandez has led
to much discussion. The enormous development and differentiation in the family
on American soil is an undeniable fact, but simply to derive the endemic Pacific
genera from America as did Guppy (z2z) does not seem possible. Speculations (comp.
f. inst. SETCHELL 279) led back to Antarctica, but not until Brachionostylum was
discovered in New Guinea and found to be nearly related to Rodzsonza of Juan
Fernandez were we able to stand on tolerably firm ground.
With regard to Centaurodendron, to which Yunqguea seems to be related, the
situation is different. Cextaurea and all the genera of Centaureinae belong to the
Old World with the exception of a single species in N. America and a few in
the Andes, south to Centr.’Chile. The group ranges over Europe with a strong-
hold in the Mediterranean, the Orient, Ethiopia and through Centr. Asia to Japan.
The Chilean species of Centaurea belong to the Plectocephali, but Centauroden-
dron differs not only from this section but from all in sex distribution (243). It
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 269
serves no purpose to say that Cezfaurodendron descends from some continental
Centaurea which became arboreous under insular conditions, because the character
of the ray floret is entirely opposed to such a theory and Centaurodendron seems
to be a more ancient type than Cezzfaurea, a relic from an epoch previous to the
final uplift of the Andes.
The four Cichoriaceous genera, to which 7/amnoserzs of the Desventuradas
Is. shows some slight affinity, are even more isolated. The only other genus to
which they bear some resemblance is the Polynesian /7¢chza, but the differences
are too profound to allow us to visualize an Antarctic-Pacific ancestry of the Dev-
droservis group and it remains us to link it with the neotropical element.
Referring to the synopsis given above the Phanerogams are rearranged in
the following way according to their supposed source of origin.
I. Antarcto-tertiary element.—62 sp. (42.2 %).
1. Distribution pattern austral-circumpolar, bicentric or tricentric.—33 sp.
a. Endemic species (17): Cladium scirpoideum, Uncinia Douglasii and costata,
Carex berteroniana, Luzula masafuerana, Drimys confertifolia, Phrygilanthus Ber-
teroi, Acaena masafuerana, Sophora fernandeziana and masafuerana, Gunnera pel-
tata, Masafuerae and bracteata, Apium fernandezianum (?), Pernettya rigida, Plan-
tago fernandezia, Abrotanella crassipes.
6. Species also found on the continent (16): Danthonia collina, Koeleria micra-
thera (?), Oreobolus obtusangulus, Uncinia brevicaulis, phleoides and tenuis, Juncus
imbricatus, capillaceus, acutus, dombeyanus and planifolius, Libertia formosa,
Acaena ovalifolia, Centella triflora, Nertera granadensis, Lagenophora Harioti.
2. Genera only found in S. America, but supposed to be of Antarctic origin.
The species are endemic: Escallonia Callcottiae, Margyricarpus digynus.—2 sp.
3. Endemic genera or species as far as known without continental American
affinities, either suggesting an ancient Antarcto-Pacific track east from Australasia
without reaching America, or having arrived along the road over the Scotia Arc
without leaving any traces in the present S. American flora.—21 sp.
a. Belonging to endemic genera (7): Robinsonia gayana, thurifera, evenia, Masa-
fuerae and gracilis, Symphyochaeta macrocephala, Rhetinodendron Berteril.
6. Endemic species of genera of wider distribution (14): Peperomia berteroana,
margaritifera and Skottsbergii, Santalum fernandezianum, Boehmeria excelsa, Ra-
nunculus caprarum, Fagara mayu and externa, Halorrhagis asperrima, masatier-
rana and masafuerana, Euphrasia formosissima, Coprosma Hookeri and pyrifolia.
4. Endemic species with relatives in the African sector only: Wahlenbergia
Larrainii, fernandeziana, Grahamae, Masafuerae and Berteroi.—5 sp.
5. Endemic family, possibly of old Antarctic, perhaps pre-Tertiary ancestry:
Lactoris fernandeziana.—1I sp.
II. Neotropical-Andean element.—5 4 sp. (36.7 %).
1. Endemic genera or species of neotropical parentage; non-endemic species
Seuth: Amencan-——31 sp:
a. Belonging to endemic genera (4): Juania australis, Ochagavia elegans, Notho-
myrcia fernandeziana, Selkirkia Berteroi.
270 C. SKOTTSBERG
6. Endemic species of non-endemic genera, some of wider distribution (14):
Chaetotropis imberbis, Chusquea fernandeziana, Hesperogreigia Berteroi, Urtica
Masafuerae, Dysopsis hirsuta. Colletia spartioides, Azara fernandeziana, Ugni Sel-
kirkii, Myrceugenia Schulzei, Rhaphithamnus venustus, Solanum fernandezianum,
robinsonianum and masafueranum, Nicotiana cordifolia.
c. Species also found on the continent (13): Stipa neesiana and laevissima,
Piptochaetium bicolor, Chaetotropis chilensis, Cyperus eragrostis and reflexus, Eleo-
charis fuscopurpurea, Peperomia fernandeziana, Parietaria humifusa, Myrteola num-
mularia, Mimulus glabratus, Plantago truncata, Hedyotis thesiifolia.
2. Endemic genera or endemic sections of wide-ranging genera without relatives
in the present continental flora but supposed to descend from extinct neotropical
ancestors.—23 sp.
a. Belonging to endemic genera (16): Podophorus bromoides, Megalachne ber-
teroniana and masafuerana, Centaurodendron dracaenoides, Yunquea Tenzii, Den-
droseris macrophylla, macrantha, marginata and litoralis, Rea neriifolia, micrantha
and pruinata, Phoenicoseris pinnata, berteriana and regia, Hesperoseris gigantea.
6. Belonging to endemic sections (7): Urtica fernandeziana, Chenopodium
Sanctae Clarae, crusoeanum and nesodendron, Eryngium bupleuroides, inaccessum
and sarcophyllum.
Ill. Arcto-tertiary element.—23 sp. (15.6 %).
Genera essentially boreal but extending south along the Andes or reappearing in S.
America.
a. Endemic species of wide-ranging genera (13): Agrostis masafuerana, Sper-
gularia confertiflora (also Desventuradas) and masafuerana, Berberis corymbosa
and masafuerana, Cardamine Kruesselii, Galium masafueranum, Erigeron fruticosus,
luteoviridis, Ingae, Innocentium, turricola and rupicola.
6. Species also found on the continent (10): Trisetum chromostachyum, Carex
Banksii, Paronychia chilensis, Cardamine chenopodiifolia and flaccida, Rubus geo-
ides, Callitriche Lechleri, Empetrum rubrum, Calystegia tuguriorum (?), Gnaphalium
spiciforme.
IV. Palaeotropic element.—2 sp. (1.4 %).
Endemic genus: Cuminia fernandezia and eriantha.
V. Austral element of wide-ranging seaside species.—6 sp. (4.1 %).
Scirpus nodosus and cernuus, Salicornia fruticosa (peruviana), Tetragonia ex-
= a «
pansa, Dichondra repens, Lobelia alata.
Even if Antarctica is recognized as an important source of evolution of both
plants and animals and as a centre from where large-scale migration took place,
a percentage of 42 may seem surprisingly high, and I admit that some genera
or species have been referred to group I with considerable hesitation. This does
not, with very few exceptions, apply to I.1, 22.4% of the total or 53.2% of I.
Luzula and Funcus were placed here because the family was regarded as Antarctic,
but even if this be true it is possible that the sections including our species are
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 271
of boreal origin and has spread south. Pernet/ya is a bicentric genus, but it
is much better developed in America and may have originated with Gaultheria
in the Antarctic. The same should apply to \7zcotiana according to MERRILL
(306. 310) who thinks that its actual distribution was attained in the Tertiary pe-
riod by way of Antarctica; however, JV. cord?folia cannot be removed from II. 1.b
and find a better place with I. 1.a. On the other hand, a truly Antarctic genus
may have produced numerous species in one sector and few in another, or the
few may be a remnant of a larger population. In group I. 3 Peperomia berteroana
calls for attention. As I have shown (245) it is so close to P. ¢réstanens7s that
their common origin cannot be doubted and that little prevents us from regarding
them as forms of ove species, very distinct but clearly related to the other two
species endemic in Juan Fernandez, and they point west. This is the reason why
all three were referred to I. Wahlenbergia (I. 4) is another mysterious case, but as
it is neither boreal nor palaeotropical or neotropical but South African (and on St.
Helena), only a far southern ancestry remains to explain the disjunction.
Of the endemic genera belonging to group II. 1 only Yuanza is taxonomically
isolated, Rhodostachys of Chile is brought to Ochagavia by some authors, and
Selkirkia comes very near Hackelia. With regard to the endemic Cichoriaceous
genera authors’ opinions differ. BENTHAM looked upon the arborescent Pacific
Compositae as relics of an old Polynesian flora but did not refer directly to Ant-
arctica as source; GUPPY (727) quoting BENTHAM believed that, with the Hawatian
Lobelioideae, they belonged to an ancient flora of the Pacific which had origi-
nated in America and gained dominance during what he termed “Age of Lobe-
liaceae’’ and ““Age of Compositae’’, respectively. Antarctica seems not to have
meant anything at all to him, but as I have discussed his ideas in some detail
in an earlier paper (248), I shall not enter upon this subject here.
Calystegia tuguriorum is doubtful case, but few people will be inclined to
think that it originated independently in Chile and New Zealand.
In a paper of 1928 (278) SETCHELL discussed what he called the two prin-
cipal elements in the Pacific flora, the Indomalayan and the ‘‘Subantarctic’. With
this he did not understand what, from a geographical viewpoint, I call subant-
arctic, nor the species of old Antarctic genera found in the bogs of Hawaii, the
Pacific flora with which he was particularly concerned, but the group he later
(279) called “the Old pacific and antarctic element’, for it included also the ar-
boreous Lobeliaceae and Compositae, which he believed had a common origin
in high southern latitudes. They had migrated north along different lines, the
Compositae taking an easterly course along the route Juan Fernandez—Hawaii, the
Lobeliaceae, which are absent from Juan Fernandez but have left traces in Poly-
nesia, a more westerly; a third line is called the Dammara (Agathis)—-Podocarpus
line, an Australasian line running over Fiji. What interests us here is that the
isolated genera of Compositae were regarded as Antarctic. As we have seen, |
did not venture to include the Cichoriaceous genera, but I cannot assure that
SETCHELL was wrong.
272 C. SKOTTSBERG
Before quoting some other authors who have paid special attention to the
Antarctic problems I want to add a few remarks on the relations between the far
South and South America—Juan Fernandez. The Antarctic flora invaded the Amer-
ican continent, advancing especially along the rising Andes and in some cases
extending north of the Equator. It must have been a climatically diversified flora,
for the great southern continent must have had coast and inland, lowland and
mountain climates, and consequently the Antarctic plants in S. America have
varying claims on moisture and heat. The less exacting plants are concentrated
in West Patagonia, Fuegia and the Falkland Is., rising higher and higher as they
advance north along the Cordillera, whereas such as require more favourable tem-
perature conditions are found farther north in S. Chile and in the montane region
of the tropical Andes. Father RAMBO, a wellknown expert on the flora of S. Brazil,
called my attention (letter of Nov. 30, 1953) to an Antarctic element in the high-
lands of Rio Grande do Sul, where such genera as Acaena, Margyricarpus, Es-
callonia, Gunnera, Drimys and Phrygilanthus are represented; in 202. 30 he mentions
Araucaria angustifolia, Podocarpus Lamberti, Drimys Waintert, Acaena fuscescens,
Fuchsia regia, Gununera manicata, and Griselinia ruscifolia, elements which, in his
opinion, constitute the last remnants of the old flora that inhabited the southern
lands united until early Tertiary times. |;
HILL (734) was cautious in his judgment of the importance of Antarctica in
the history of the plant world. He quotes SEWARD who had pointed out that a
number of families now largely in the South Hemisphere were present in the North
Hemisphere already in Mesozoic times and that this would lead us to derive them
from there, which most likely is true in certain cases. He also refers to SMUTS,
who looked at the “‘ancient lands of the Southern Hemisphere’ as the cradle of
the peculiar S. African flora, and HILL formulates the following question (p. 1497):
Did the angiosperms originate in the north and migrate southwards and then, having
reached the south, evolve along special lines in lands comparatively isolated from the
land masses in the north, or did certain groups first appear in the South Hemisphere
in an ancient Antarctic Continent and become dispersed northward into our present-
day New Zealand, Australia, South America and South Africa?
With regard to Juan Fernandez he finds that
the present flora suggests that at one time these islands formed part of the Antarctic
continent or were united to the extreme south of Chile, a view which is shared “by
Jhering and Joly, who believe that such a connection may have existed in early Ter-
tiary times and that Kerguelen Island was probably part of a large land mass at the
same period...
and he continues:
It seems also likely, on geological evidence, that Antarctica extended in the Ter-
tiary epoch towards Tasmania and Australia, and so to Asia, and towards New Zea-
land, and the distribution of certain present-day plants in the Australasian region lends
considerable support to such an extension (p. 1479).
Nevertheless, the problem is not as simple as it might seem to be:
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 273
We must be prepared to modify our views extensively in those cases which appear
to afford fairly certain evidence of distribution from a Southern centre, but from the
evidence available it seems probable that such genera as Calceolaria, Fovellana, Fuchsia,
Ourisia, Pelargonium, Caltha, Lilaeopsis, Gunnera, Hebe, Pernettya, Azorella, Drapetes
and other Thymelaeaceae, WVothofagus, Eucryphia, Laurelia, probably the Proteaceae,
some of the Ericaceae ... may have originated in some continental area in the South
Hemisphere, whence their descendants spread northwards...
It is of course possible that in early times many of the plants from which these
Southern Genera evolved belonged to the Northern region and gradually migrated to
the south and having reached the Southern regions they there, in a state of some isola-
tion, evolved peculiar types which in their turn spread again northwards ... without
however crossing the Equator and reaching the North Hemisphere. On this view we
may perhaps best regard many of the present day genera which are now only found
in the South Hemisphere (p. 1480).
He adds,
It may be almost impossible in these latter days to make any certain pronounce-
ment as to which natural families or genera, if any, actually originated in the Southern
Hemisphere, when it is remembered that there have been a succession of alternations
of warm temperate and cold glacial periods at various geological epochs not only in
the Arctic but also in the Antarctic regions.
He thinks that the cold spells gave rise to an extensive migration south and
north, respectively, but he did not recognize the glaciations as contemporary in
the two hemispheres.
Of other modern authors, W. H. CAmp (43) interests us here. My Antarcto-tertiary
element lists Drzmys as a classical example of an Antarctic genus; in fact, the
entire family Winteraceae is supposed to be of Antarctic origin. On CAMP’s map,
however, the original seat of the family is placed in the region of the old Bering
Land bridge, from where tracks lead south through Asia to Australia-Tasmania
and through western N. America to S. America. The related Magnoliaceae are
circumboreal and have left numerous fossil remains in the north. Another map
shows Laurelia, Eucryphia, Luzuriaga and Fovellana, all as a rule considered to
be Antarctic; here CAMP has two alternatives, one track leading from the north
as in Dyzmys, another from the south. Other southern families shown on his maps
are Tetrachondraceae, Eucryphiaceae, Centrolepidaceae, Epacridaceae (Hawaii in-
advertently left out), Stylidiaceae, Restionaceae, Liliaceae-Milliganieae, Philesiaceae,
Halorrhagidaceae and Gunneraceae. He emphasizes the fact that of the natural
families, some 300 in number, 103 have a fairly restricted range, and that 80 of
these are on the South Hemisphere. I shall quote him in full.
In the majority of instances an analysis of a group indicates that the primitive
members are on the southern part of the group’s range. If we were to follow the well-
known dicta of Matthews we could conclude that these primitive forms were “‘driven’’
unto the southern land mass extremities by the more highly specialized, better adapted,
and more recently derived groups of the north. The natural corollary to this, therefore,
is that we should find the majority of the peculiar specialized and more recently derived
families farthest away from the primitive forms. However, as can quite easily be seen
in the angiosperms, in most instances this is not the case. I therefore incline to the
conclusion that these southern land masses are not only the original homes of the great
18 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
274 C. SKOTTSBERG
majority of our basic angiosperm groups, but that also it has been on these same southern
land masses where the greater part of their primary evolutionary divergences took place
(pp. 180-18 1)
and he continues,
It seems likely that the angiosperms, as a group, arose on this southern land mass
contemporaneously with the Paleozoic of the northern (Holarctic) land mass and that
the divergences of the basic, generalized familial groups had been accomplished in this
southern land mass certainly by the mid-Mesozoic.
This would make the Jurassic the great period of ascendency of the angiosperms.
Camp's theory does not, at least at first sight, agree too well with his opinion
on the origin of the Magnoliales, always regarded as a primitive group though
not of restricted range; the Winteraceae have a stronghold in New Guinea—Australia—
New Zealand, and the actual distribution of this family testifies to a southern origin.
Recently STEBBINS (257) took up the question of the history of the Ranales.
He points out (p. 8) that this order
includes a high proportion of species which on the basis of all characteristics must be
placed not only in monotypic genera but even in monogeneric or digeneric families.
They are obviously relict types of which the close relatives have long been extinct... .
Finally, distributional studies show that the genera and species are at present strongly
concentrated in eastern Asia and Australasia, and at least one family, the Winteraceae,
may have radiated from the latter center (A. C. Smith 1945). This family was dispersed
through the Antarctic regions. .
We cannot deny the possibility that New Guinea was the birthplace of types
that now generally pass as Antarctic, a theory first advanced by Miss GIBBS (106)
and perhaps strengthened by the sensational discovery there of a great number of
Nothofagus species, but it is quite clear that, if they are bicentric, they must have
migrated across what is now the Antarctic continent in order to arrive in S. America
which again compels us to assume that connections were established on both sides,
and the existence of fossil plants belonging to taxa now living in the two sectors
furnishes additional evidence that Antarctica took an important part in their history.
Anyhow, Wothofagus survives in greater variation in New Guinea than either in
New Zealand or in Chile, though these are situated nearer to the Antarctic continent.
Before Antarctica was recognized as a possible centre of evolution, the Holarctic
region was claimed as the great and only cradle of temperate plant families which
spread south during the Tertiary just as, in pre-Tertiary times, tropical families
had extended to the present Arctic. GORDON (773), although he finds undeniable
proofs of an old Antarctic radiating centre, carefully scrutinizes the possibility of a
northern origin of temperate types now found in the south, referring to OLIVER’s
theory that a genus like Nothofagus originated in N. America and that two tracks
lead south, one to subantarctic America, one across the Bering land to Australia
and New Zealand, but he doesn’t think it probable that we can explain the dis-
junctions of numerous taxa in the south in this way and that the chances for cool
climate types to cross the broad and well-stocked tropical belt must have been small.
To me it would seem more acceptable to fall back on an ancient pantropical
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 275
flora, spread from pole to pole before any temperate zones had become sharply
delimited and when the distribution of land and sea was quite different from what
it is now. With the appearance of distinct climatic belts a sorting out of meso-
and microthermic groups followed, and these belts, both north and south, started
to produce their own particular new groups which dispersed toward the equatorial
zone and eventually met and passed it where mountain ranges offered a passage.
This is in agreement with FLORIN’s opinion (95) that the temperate floras, angio-
sperms as well as gymnosperms, developed independently throughout the Tertiary
period in the north and south hemispheres. The march of Antarcto-tertiary types
north corresponds to the march of Arcto-tertiary types south.
Recently Antarctica and the far south in general as the birthplace of the world’s
floras has found an eloquent advocate in LEON CROIZAT (7z), who throws all other
speculative authors in the shade. His ideas were criticised by SPARRE (256), but,
as Juan Fernandez is regarded by CROIZAT as “one of the most interesting domains
of general phytogeography”’, I cannot pass him in silence.
The original southern plant world, CROIZAT says, spread over the globe in
a way not to be deducted from the present map; we have to go back to the map as
it looked during the Cretaceous, but he does not tell which of the constructions
he prefers, only that he dismisses WEGENER’s theories; that everybody who devotes
himself to the study of plant migrations should pay attention not only to the present
configuration of the continents goes without saying. His own ideas of Cretaceous
geography in the south are expressed on p. 252:
It is most probable, sure we would venture to say, that an ancient shore connected
every land in the deep south of our maps, not only, but that the lands, now vanished,
but once extant between the approach of Kerguelen Islands and Magellania are the ultimate
hub of angiospermous dispersal.
Here extends the Patagonian-Mascarene baseline with its two triangles, Natal-Ker-
guelen—Tristan da Cunha (the Afro-antarctic triangle) and Ceylon—Madagascar-—
Mascarenes, the ‘“‘hub’” spoken of above. CROIZAT points at South Georgia as a
proof of the existence of an old Antarctic flora:
The theory that a nebulous ‘Glacial Epoch’ killed off very nearly all the ancient
vegetation of the antarctic islands is shown to be false by the comparatively large plant-
world still endemic in South Georgia, indeed a sizeable flora if we consider that it thrives
in what is now hardly better than a glaciated mountain straight out of the ocean (p.255)
Now, CROIZAT otherwise deals with the phanerogams only; there is not a single
endemic species in South Georgia, but there are many endemic bryophytes and
lichens. And he forgets to mention that the ‘‘nebulous”’ glacial epoch has left its
very distinct marks there, because we know that the lowland was ice-covered where
the phanerogams now form closed communities and that it is very improbable that
the higher flora survived. It is surprising that, in this connection, he does not men-
tion Kerguelen where endemic genera such as Prizglea and Lyadia surely survived.
A second baseline indicates the extension of an Antarcto-Gondwana in the
S. Indian Ocean, a third lies along 60° S. and runs from south and east of Chatham
Is. to contact S. America. From these centres the angiosperms started to disperse
276 C. SKOTTSBERG
¢
during late Jurassic and very early Cretaceous times through three “gates’’ in three
main streams, the West Polynesian, the Magellanian and the African gate. Many
of the genera occurring in Juan Fernandez, endemic or not, are mentioned by CROIZAT;
several of them are, also in my opinion, of Antarctic origin.
Oreobolus. Instead of allowing it to enter S. America through the ‘“Magellanian
gate’’ CROIZAT makes a circuit along his Pacific baseline from New Zealand to Fuegia.
¥uania. | have already discussed the taxonomic position of this genus which
CROIZAT derives from a Mascarene centre in company with related Andine genera.
HUTCHINSON. linked it with Cevoxy/on to form a tribe Ceroxyleae; CROIZAT remarks
that
this may be better taxonomy, we do not know, but does not change substances in the
least. The ingredients that make up the Morenieae, Iriarteae and Ceroxyleae are all from
the same kitchen. In one case /yophorbe speaks, in another so does the face of dispersal.
Everything in the end rhymes to the very same. With or without /yophorbe, seasoned
with this or that sauce, the stew does not change. . . classification of such a genus as
this is bound forever to remain the plaything of opinion (pp. 456-457),
a statement quite characteristic of this author’s method of approaching a phyto-
geographical problem.
Peperomia has its stronghold in tropical America where a number of subgenera
are found. To CROIZAT the genus is Pacific and Juan Fernandez one of the starting-
points of its dispersal toward the heart of S. America, the four island species leading
straight to north Chile. He based this opinion on YUNCKER who wants to bring
them to subgen. Sphaerocarpidium, where, however, only one of them belongs, while
the other three, as was brought forth above (p. 259), point west, one of them inti-
mately related to P. tristanensis, which, unexpectedly it is true, brings the Antarctic
within sight. In a footnote CROIZAT admits that I may be right in my opinion of
the taxonomic position of P. derteroana; none the less he finds the contact Juan
Fernandez—Tristan not at all peculiar. Aypetrum is another example, both “a
mere aspect of the standard dispersal between Africa and South America” (p. 102).
But this “standard dispersal’, as discussed by ENGLER, refers to a number of
tropical genera and families bearing witness of a transatlantic bridge. In CROIZAT’s
opinion the track Mascarenes—Africa-America was a very important route.
Palms and Peperomias are pantropical and range south to New Zealand and
central Chile, and there are many endemic palm genera on the Indian and Pacific
islands south of the Equator, whence follows that the field is open for speculation
and that the possibility of a primary centre in the south may be discussed without
breaking the rules of the game, but to derive exclusively neotropical families from
a Mascarene centre cannot fail to cause astonishment. CROIZAT, dealing with Cac-
taceae, Bromeliaceae, Rapateaceae etc.—and in an earlier chapter he asserts that
Malesherbiaceae also had their starting point in Africa—says that
to credit groups of the kind with “American’”’ origin steps must be taken as a prelim-
inary which no one trained in precise thinking will encourage. . . . AAzpsalis is doubtless
a Gondwanic genus because it is rooted within the triangle Ceylon—Madagascar-Masca-
renes. It well may have reached Brazil and the West Indies from West Africa... . the
baseline of the Cactaceae squarely rests between Patagonia and the Mascarenes, and if
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 277
Rhipsalis is Gondwanic it is likely, to say the least, that the archetypes of the family
itself stem from the A/roantarctic triangle (pp. 364, 365).
Much could be said to this, but I shall confine myself to remarking that the
claims of RAzpsalis outside America to true citizenship are still under suspicion and
that the existence of this specialized type of angiosperms in the Gondwana flora
needs proofs of some sort. But CROIZAT does not stop here. On p. 523 we read:
Considering that the New World is wzzformly at the receiving end of angiospermous
tracks throughout the first epoch of migration we are drawn to conclude that none of
the primary angiosperms ever originated in the Americas.
But who will tell us where the first angiosperms were evolved? We have to
go back to times when “the Americas’, as we know them, did not exist and where,
just as everywhere else, all centres of origin are secondary. I cannot see that his
opinion that the primary centre must be looked for in an “Afroantarctic triangle”
rests on a stable foundation, but everybody will agree when he formulates the
following recommendation to the “phytogeographers of the Academic school”:
“Look, and keep silent awhile ere you speak.”
Phrygilanthus and Santalum; compare what will be said below about Coprosma.
Dysopsts. Antarctic according to CROIZAT p. 51; I regarded it as neotropical.
“A large part of the Ericaceae originated with the Empetraceae in the Afro-
antarctic Triangle’, CROIZAT writes p. 381. That the Antarctic has been used as
a migration route of the Gaultherioideae seems certain, let alone where the family
or complex of families had its beginning. CRoIzAT finds that the occurrence of a
species of Pernettya in Juan Fernandez and of another in Galapagos is
one of the most interesting aspects of the Gaultherioideae. . .. a track of this nature is
nothing unusual, of course, because dispersals of this extent and nature are commonplace
between the vicinity of Juan Fernandez and Hawaii, not to speak of the Galapagos and
the Revilla Gigedos (pp. 167, 168).
We have examples of a floristic “‘contact’’ between Juan Fernandez and Hawaii,
but they are very few and to call this type of dispersal commonplace is an inadmis-
sible exaggeration of facts. The American area of Pervet/ya extends from Fuegia-
Falkland to Mexico, and its presence on Juan Fernandez and Galapagos, outlying
stations west of the continent, is not surprising; we need not construct a special east
Pacific track to explain them, nor assume that “the South Pacific is a fundamental
center of the Ericaceae’’.
I have mentioned Ampetrum and the boreal centre of Empetraceae, also that
CROIZAT wants them to have followed the same stream as Ericaceae: ‘‘they begin
their visible dispersal only westward from the Cape region” (p. 349), ‘with the
present Atlantic as the axis of their distribution” (p. 353). Empetrum used to pass
as a classical example of bipolarism, but to those who still believe that bipolarity
exists CROIZOT says: “bipolarism, as we know, is a bugaboo of academic phyto-
geography’’—I am.afraid that some of us didn’t know that.
The case of Cumznia (for which CROIZAT uses the fancy name Fohow1a), whether
or not to be linked with the Old World and Hawaiian Prasioideae, is embarrassing:
278 C. SKOTTSBERG
my discussion with F. B. H. BRowN (2377) made CROIZAT remark that “the debate
proved futile, as could be anticipated’. To attempt a solution and to discuss possible
routes of migration is called “obvious nonsense”.
Of the presumable history of Zxphrasza enough has been said above. In CROI-
ZAT’s opinion there cannot be the question of a north-south track from Asia across
Malaysia to Australia and New Zealand; his map fig. 6 shows the centre far south
in the Pacific, from where tracks lead east to S. America and west to New Zea-
land and Australia and thence from there to Eurasia and along the Aleutian arc to
N. America.
From the hypothetical ‘“‘main angiospermous center’ south of Madagascar,
where Plantago-Palaeopsyllium was born, one branch leads west around S. America
to Juan Fernandez, another east to Polynesia and from there to Hawaii, alterna-
tively reached directly from Juan Fernandez. I preferred the first alternative, but
even if the circumpolar distribution suggests an Antarctic origin I can see no good
reason to place the starting point south of Madagascar.
Coprosma is one of the standard Antarctic dispersal types but lacking in Africa
and in continental America. From its distribution CROIZAT draws the following
conclusions.
This dispersal shows a) An Antarctic range in the southern Pacific which fed Co-
prosma to all lands between Juan Fernandez and E. Java, b) This range could possibly
reach Hawaii from West along the line East Malaysia—Hawaii, c) The trend of this type
of dispersal is all westward from the Americas (Juan Fernandez to New Zealand, Aus-
tralia, New Guinea, Malaysia) ultimately veering again eastward to reach Hawaii (p. 101).
To make Juan Fernandez the source of Coprosma in New Zealand is utterly im-
possible and the statement is not in agreement with CROIZAT’s map, fig. 29, which
shows a baseline along lat. 60° between the longitudes of New Zealand and Fuegia
and arrows pointing west to New Zealand and northeast to Juan Fernandez.
I am not going to enter upon a discussion of the origin of a world-wide family
like Compositae; I shall only quote the following sentence: ‘‘The perfect circum-
polar distribution of Zaraxacum magellanicum ... in itself tells us where is to be
sought the ultimate origin of the Compositae’”’ (p. 63). Even if it is true that this
interesting dandelion also inhabits New Zealand, the conclusions would seem too
far-reaching.
I shall conclude this discussion with a summary of a recent paper by AXELROD
(75) who gives us a palaeontologist’s view on angiosperm evolution.
The cradle of angiosperms stood in the tropical belt, the width of which has
undergone considerable change during the geological ages. The angiosperms origi-
nated and evolved in uplands during Permian to Triassic times and gradually
descended to the lowlands to replace the vanishing floras now extinct or repre-
sented by such remnants as the Cycadophyta. Fossil records, especially of pollen,
make it probable that many families existed in early Jurassic, and from middle
Cretaceous, when angiosperms had gained dominance over gymnosperms and ferns,
the presence of numerous families belonging to very different orders bear witness
of a long history. By that time three different lowland floras had developed, the
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 279
Tropic-, Arcto-, and Antarcto-Cretaceous, and it is the latter that interests us here.
AXELROD emphasizes that numerous data allow us to conclude that many families
and genera generally regarded as having evolved in the temperate zones originated
in the tropics.
The data seem to support the view that angiosperms have not had an exclusively
holarctic source, or a wholly austral center of origin. They were being assembled in
both regions by the gradual adaptation of basic tropical groups to extratropical conditions
during the long period of Permo-Triassic down to the Cretaceous. On this basis the
Arcto-Cretaceous and Antarcto-Cretaceous floras of higher temperate latitude represent
vegetation types whose genera were derived largely by the long and continued differen-
tiation of successively derivative members of original tropical and border-tropical angio-
sperms. From this standpoint, the temperate regions to the north (holarctic) and south
(antarctic) are subordinate or secondary centers in early angiosperm evolution.
The conclusions we can draw from this are (1) that the origin and primary seat
of the angiosperms was in the tropics before anything like the present map existed;
(2) that this tropical flora gradually gave birth to a temperate flora also in the
south; (3) that Antarctica became the centre of a varied Antarcto-tertiary flora
which spread north and over S. America reached the region where now stands
Juan Fernandez.
II. Pteridophyta.
Owing to their great age and perhaps also to their greater faculty of dispersal
many of the genera and some species have attained a very extensive range making
it difficult or impossible to assign them to one of the elements proposed in the sub-
division of the angiosperms. Of 23 genera found in Juan Fernandez, 16 are very
wide-spread; some of them belong to the largest fern genera, and even if we avail
ourselves of the generic concept used by COPELAND (69), the situation remains
practically the same. To COPELAND 50-75 % of the living ferns are of austral or
Antarctic ancestry; we shall see to what extent this is true of the Juan Fernandez flora.
With regard to the Hymenophyllaceae COPELAND remarks (67. 174) that “no
other plant family of its size and diversity is quite so conspicuously Antarctic in
origin as this one’.
Trichomanes-Vandenboschia is pantropical; as 2 of the 3 insular species are
decidedly neotropical in their affinities, also 7. phz/7ppzanum is referred to the same
element.
Serpyllopsis is subantarctic-American and best attached to an Antarcto-tertiary
element.
Hymenoglossum should perhaps be referred to the same element, but its re-
lations are just as unknown as those of Serpyllopsis.
Hymenophyllum-Mecodium is a pantropical group, also represented in New Zea-
land; cuneatum and caudiculatum are most likely of neotropical origin and this may
be true also of fuctforme. H. pectinatum stands, COPELAND says, apart from the other
species, but I can find no good reason to call in Antarctic, while the distribution
of Sphaerocionium ferrugineum and its near relatives testifies to their Antarctic origin
in spite of their affinity to ci/zatum (comp. above p. 219). Hymenophyllum s. str.
280 C. SKOTTSBERG
as limited by COPELAND 1938 (66) does not include fa/klandicum (Mecodium accord-
ing to COPELAND p. 94), though it is closely akin to peltatum, and H. rugosum
“Gs to H. tunbridgense what H. falklandicum is to H, peltatum’’ (62. 13). According
to CHRIST (59.146), peltatum and tunbridgense are essentially Antarctic-andine but
found north as far as Mexico, also reported from S. Africa and New Zealand, ex-
tending in insular climates to western Europe. The conclusion would be that also
falklandicum and rugosum should be brought to the Antarctic group.
Hymenophyllum-Meringtum secundum, plicatum and tortuosum are subantarctic-
American in their present distribution; J/er7zg7um is austral and extends north to
tropical Asia, and its origin most likely Antarctic.
Thyrsopteris. Mesozoic fossils supposed to come near this genus have been re-
ported from the boreal zone; besides, from the Tertiary in Chile (see below p. 399).
HILL (734.1477) calls it “a remnant of a once widespread group which migrated
southwards, possibly in Cretaceous times, from the Northern Hemisphere’. With
regard to its present unique station COPELAND (67.175) writes:
As Juan Fernandez can hardly have evolved so peculiar a fern, its most reasonable
origin, as a Juan Fernandez fern, is Antarctica, whether directly or through southern
Chile. European fossils have been referred to this genus, but Juan Fernandez was not
colonized from Europe.
Lophosoria is exclusively neotropical at present, but if we are to believe, as
COPELAND thinks, that the Cyatheaceae derive from Antarctica, it is unlikely that
Lophosoria would be an exception.
The Antarctic origin of Dzcksonza seems very clear to judge from its actual
distribution pattern. To what was said above p. 222 I shall add that along the
track New Zealand—Australia-New Caledonia—Fiji(-Samoa)—Malaysia 14 species are
found, along the Andean path 9, and that the species of Juan Fernandez are not
linked with the neotropical but with southwest Pacific species.
The present distribution of the genus Cystopferzs suggests a boreal origin.
In its wide as well as in its more restricted sense Dryofterzs is world-wide,
and COPELAND’s remark (67.181) that he has little doubt that the group as a
whole is of southern origin (see also 69.122) is perhaps little more than a guess.
I think we can take it for granted that hundreds of species have evolved in the
neotropical region, where the single Juan Fernandez species D. 7xaegualifolia has
its relatives.
Polystichum. Eastern Asia is the centre of greatest concentration; the section
occurring there is, in COPELAND’s opinion, the least primitive, and we have a number
of southern bi- or tricentric forms, among them P. vestédum coll. The endemic P.
berterianum is very close to the circumpolar adzantiforme. To quote COPELAND: “The
case for an Antarctic origin of Polystichum is so clear that the evidence has long
been familiar even to those hesitant to draw the obvious conclusion” (67. 181);
and, “The distribution .. . testifies clearly to its Antarctic origin’ (69. 109).
Arthropieris is the only fern genus found in Juan Fernandez which is absent
from continental America, but otherwise typically austral. Its Antarctic origin is
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 281
beyond doubt, and 4. altescandens has its nearest allies in Oceania; comp. above
preee.
Asplenium. COPELAND points out that some groups at least are southern and
that perhaps the same applies to the whole genus: “it migrated in its present
form from Antarctica” (69. 167). Of the species found in Juan Fernandez, ob/iquum
is austral-bicentric, ste//atum close to neotropical species, macrosorum most likely
of neotropical affinity; daveoides comes very near alvarezsense from Tristan da
Cunha and is not, as has been suggested, related to the boreal rufa muraria.
Blechnum. According to COPELAND (69.157) no fern genus is more con-
spicuously austral in its present distribution and thus more evidently Antarctic
in origin. Of the 6 species found in Juan Fernandez auriculatum, chilense and cy-
cadifolium belong to an Afro-american group, Schoft7z and perhaps also valdiviense
of austral-circumpolar type, and /ovgzcauda intimately related to the neotropical
Sprucez; even so it cannot blur the picture of an old Antarctic genus.
Pellaea is an austral-tricentric genus extending north to Canada, but P. chz-
/ensis, endemic in Juan Fernandez, but dangerously close to a widespread American
species, belongs to a group that, according to COPELAND (69. 70), is best allowed
to form a separate genus; I have brought it to the neotropical element.
Hypolepis is pantropical, especially neotropical, but numerous species are
scattered in the equatorial and austral zones: Africa with neighbouring islands,
Malaysia and north to Japan, Australia-New Zealand—Lord Howe—Melanesia—Hawaii
—when COPELAND said “without surviving Chilean representatives” he forgot 7ugo-
sula. This species is bicentric or, including Polypodium villosoviscrdum of Tristan,
tricentric; there is another variety on St. Helena. Thus when COPELAND 67. 177
calls Hypolepis ‘‘an old antarctic genus now at home chiefly in the Tropics but
with two of its paths still occupied’, we can add that also the third path is indicated.
Adiantum is most numerous in S. America, and A. chi/exse and related species
tell us nothing of the earlier history of the genus; COPELAND 69.78: “I suppose
that at least the most of the extant species are of Antarctic ancestry, but the
genus is old and may have lived elsewhere without interruption”; in 67.178 he
, but that the genus
’
says that “Antarctica has played a major part in its history’
“may include elements surviving from other floras and from an age prior to the
great dispersal from the south’. I refer A. chz/ense to the neotropical group.
Pteris. The great wealth of species is in the tropics and only few extend as
far south as to south Chile, S. Africa and New Zealand. P. chilens7s is of neo-
tropical character, perhaps also P. semzadnata, while derteroana belongs to a group
regarded by COPELAND as Antarctic to judge from its distribution pattern (see
above p. 223).
Histiopteris incisa is a pantropical and circum-austral, polymorphous fern with
a number of “local derived species” (COPELAND) in Indonesia and Polynesia. The
genus is, COPELAND says (69.60), “evidently old enough to be a migrant from
Antarctica”.
Polypodium is an aggregation of unities of different origin and history. Gram-
mitis is, in COPELAND’s opinion (67.184), “a plain Antarctic case’, and G. z/-
lardierit “surrounds Antarctica more closely and completely than does any other
282 Cc. SKOTTSBERG
fern’ (69. 211; see above p. 223); it was at that time supposed to be circum-
polar, but is replaced in S. America by P. magellanicum. As mentioned above,
I believe that if a genus Syxzammza with Polypodium Feuillez as the typical species
is accepted, the endemic P. zx¢ermedium finds its place with this, but I fail to see
why COPELAND (68) regards S. Feuillei as ‘clearly Antarctic’, whereas the nearly
related Gontophlebium is called ‘‘a northern genus’. Of the remaining species
P. Masafuerae and P. (Xiphopteris) “#7chomanoides are neotropical and P. (Pleo-
peltis) /axceolatum pantropical but not reported from Australia and not indicating
an Antarctic origin.
We have no good reason to look for an Antarctic ancestry of Elaphoglossum,
though COPELAND thinks that it “may have come from the south” (67. 185), and
i. Lindenii is a neotropical species.
The species of Gletchenia occurring in Juan Fernandez belong to Sécherus,
a genus segregated by some modern authors; II species are scattered over the
austral zone, and in COPELAND’s opinion Gleicheniaceae are ‘‘obviously and en-
tirely of Antarctic ancestry” (69.26), or “entirely Antarctic at some stage of its
history” (67.173); how this should be explained I cannot tell unless he means
that the family characters first evolved in the Antarctic, secondary centres of
evolution having become established in the tropics. The genetic relations between
the species inhabiting the three sectors (see above p. 224) should be studied.
Meanwhile I shall refer the 5 species occurring in southern S. America to the
Antarcto-tertiary element.
The Ophioglossaceae are an ancient family, “scattered with remarkable uni-
formity over the habitable globe’ (COPELAND 69.12). In 67.167 he paid special
attention to Botrychium australe R. Br. which has the peculiar distribution Argentina,
Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand and “may be regarded as an obvious immi-
grant from the south’. It is surprising that the species found in Patagonia and
Fuegia is not this, but the northern 2. duzarza L. We have no reason to regard
Ophioglossum fernandezianum as coming from the south.
Lycopodium was not discussed by COPELAND. L. magellanicum is subantarctic-
circumpolar, and part of the history of the genus may have been enacted in Ant-
arctica, the more so as L. scarzosum, which belongs to another section, is bicentric.
With reference to the discussion above the Pteridophytes are arranged as
follows.
I. Antarcto-tertiary element.—32 sp. (60.4 %).
1. Distribution pattern austral-circumpolar, bicentric or tricentric.—20 sp.
a. Endemic species (2): Hymenophyllum rugosum, Polystichum berterianum.
6. Species also found in S. America (Chile), many of them with a wider
distribution (w) in the S. hemisphere (18): Hymenophyllum secundum, plicatum,
tortuosum, ferrugineum and falklandicum (w), Polystichum vestitum (w), Asplenium
obliquum (w) and dareoides, Blechnum valdiviense and chilense, Hypolepis rugosula
(w), Histiopteris incisa (w), Polypodium magellanicum (w), Gleichenia pedalis,
quadripartita and cf. litoralis, Lycopodium magellanicum (w) and scariosum (w).
2. Species belonging to genera endemic in S. America but supposed to be
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 283
of Antarctic origin: Serpyllopsis caespitosa, Hymenoglossum cruentum(?), Lopho-
soria quadripinnata.—3 sp.
3. Endemic species without near relatives in America, suggesting either an
ancient southern Pacific west-east path or an Antarctic-Magellanian track now
not occupied: Dicksonia berteroana and externa, Arthropteris altescandens, Blech-
num Schottii, Pteris berteroana.—5 sp.
A. Species closely related -to S. African ones:—2’ sp.
a. Endemic: Blechnum cycadifolium.
6. Also on the mainland: Blechnum auriculatum.
5. Endemic species very nearly related to a neotropical species: Blechnum
longicauda.—1I sp.
6. Endemic genus without affinities to living genera: Thyrsopteris elegans.
Sas:
II. Neotropical-Andean element.—20 sp. (37.7 %).
a. Endemic species (8): Trichomanes Ingae and philippianum, Dryopteris
inaequalifolia, Asplenium stellatum and macrosorum, Pellaea chilensis, Polypodium
intermedium, Ophioglossum fernandezianum.
6. Also on the mainland, restricted to Chile or more wide-ranging (10): Tricho-
manes exsectum, Hymenophyllum cuneatum, caudiculatum, fuciforme and _ pecti-
natum, Adiantum chilense, Pteris chilensis and semiadnata, Polypodium Masafuerae
and lanceolatum.
c. Non-endemic neotropical species not found in Chile (2): Polypodium tricho-
manoides, Elaphoglossum Lindenii.
Ill. Arcto-tertiary element.—r sp. (1.9 %).
Also in Chile: Cystopteris fragilis var.
The Antarctic element is considerably larger than in the angiosperms, 60.4 %
against 42.2, the neotropical being of the same size, 37.7 and 36.7 %. On the other
hand, the boreal element is very insignificant (even open to doubt). No living
pteridologist has a wider general knowledge of the ferns than E. B. COPELAND, and
even if his new system does not appeal to everybody, we are bound to pay attention
to his theories. In several of his writing he points, as we have seen, to Antarctica
as the main source. On the other hand he admits that
ferns existed well over the world longer ago than I have would try to explain their
presence as immigrants from Antarctica, and must be supposed to have maintained
continuous existence elsewhere. This being so, the preponderance of ferns of apparent
Antarctic origin in the world to-day is surprising indeed (67. 188).
This origin is not readily revealed in the large and world-wide families and
genera; the best proofs are furnished by small families restricted to high southern
latitudes and bi- or tricentric in distribution—most of these families have been
created as a result of the modern splitting process. With a single southern genus
in a large tropical family we cannot feel on safe ground, and if in a large tropi-
cal genus only a solitary species is southern, we are not inclined to classify
284 C. SKOTTSBERG
the genus as Antarctic in origin. But, COPELAND remarks, if the ferns as a group
were of tropical origin they would be expected to be far more abundant north-
ward, where the land areas increase, than southward where the land decreases
—and very much so—in size, and this would be still more so if they were of
northern origin. The conclusion is that if a family or genus is mainly southern
to-day, this fact is a strong indication of its Antarctic origin and that, if the pre-
sent range is wholly southern, the evidence becomes almost conclusive. If the
more primitive families or genera are found to be characteristically southern, a
southern seat of old fern evolution is almost demonstrated (68. 626). But when it
comes to the large families, their history may be much more difficult to read:
A large family, even if of southern origin, cannot possibly be predominantly southern
in present distribution, because tropical and northern species must outnumber the whole
flora of Antarctic America, or even of New Zealand (67. 158).
With this he wants so say, I suppose, that a vigorous family has invaded the
tropics and also extended north under rapid evolution of genera and species con-
cealing the primary origin; he believes this evolution to have been so rapid that
the period since the Miocene has been sufficient to create most of the existing
species and a large part of the genera and for their spread over any expanse ot
suitable land area (l.c.).
We have no evidence that the Tropics as a whole were at any past time unfit for ferns;
and the assumption that this has been the chief place of evolution obviates the neces-
sity of assuming and explaining migration in latitude. It is only when we open our
eyes to anomalies in present distribution that appeal to other places of evolution be-
comes necessary (67. 163).
Great geographical disjunctions, of which the Juan Fernandez fern flora offers
many examples, are such anomalies, and they seem to show that Antarctica has
taken a very important part in fern history.
III. Musci.
In his analysis of the Magellanian moss flora CARDOT (48) distinguished an
Antarctic element and he believed in a common origin of the floras of Magella-
nia and New Zealand (p. 44). HERZOG (z2g) found that Juan Fernandez has “eine
fast vollstandig austral-antarktische Moosvegetation’’, but also possesses ‘‘ein paar
tropisch anmutende Arten: 7hysanomitrium Richardt, Porothamnium fasciculatum,
Pinnatella macrosticta und ein Rhacopilum.’ The monotypical Chilean genus Lam-
prophyllum was also mentioned as a genus of tropical ancestry. A circumpolar
austral-antarctic element is said to dominate in the moss flora of Patagonia and
Fuegia; characteristic genera, also represented in Juan Fernandez, are Dicranoloma,
Ulota, Dendrocryphaea, Lepyrodon, Ptychomnium, Weymouthia, Distichophyllum,
Pterygophyllum, Eriopus, Hypopterygium, Sciaromium, perhaps also Catagontopsis
and Pszlopilum. IRMSCHER (r43) gives many examples of austral-bicentric taxa:
Lepyrodontaceae, Polytrichadelphus, Weymouthia, Pterygophyllum, Sciaromium sect.
Aloma, Hypopterygium sect. Stenobasis, Hypnodendron, and species of Déstecho-
phyllum, Tortula, Macromitrium and Mielichhoferia.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 285
The synopsis pp. 226—233 led to a classification according to the actual geo-
graphic distribution. We have to look for austral-antarctic species and genera
in the Andine-Chilean, Subantarctic-Magellanian and Pacific groups; thereby I
have tried to follow the same principles as applied before. Many of the endemic
species are difficult to place because their author did not compare them with other
species or discuss their position; 11, belonging to large and widespread genera were
left out (see list p. 235). The 8 species of 7hamunium, all endemic, were tentatively
included in group IV. In Natirl. Pflanzenfam. 2d ed. BROTHERUS enumerates 34
species, but none at all are quoted for S. America. Sect. I is entirely austral,
with a single species in tropical Asia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippines); 2 are
found in Australia and New Zealand, 1 in New Caledonia and 8 in Juan Fernandez.
Of sect. II, 3 species are southern (New Hebrides, E. Australia-New Zealand, New
Zealand-Java-Sumatra), the remainder scattered over the boreal zone, 2 iP
America, 3 mediterrmacaronesian, I England, 1 W. Europe to Japan, 2 Cauca-
sus, 9 E. Asia.
The total number of species included in the following synopsis is 120.
I. Antarcto-tertiary element.—67 sp. (55.8 %).
1. Bicentric or tricentric (t) distribution: Ditrichum affine, Amphidium cyathi-
carpum, Dicranoloma Billardieri (t) and Menziesii, Campylopus introflexus (t),
Thysanomitrium leptodus, Fissidens rigidulus and asplenioides (t), Rkacomitrium
symphyodontum (t), Zygodon intermedius and Menziesii, Rhizogonium Novae Hollan-
diae and mnioides, Bartramia patens (t), Philonotis scabrifolia (t), Rhacocarpus Hum-
boldtii (t), Weymouthia mollis, Leptodon Smithii (t), Pterygophyllum obscurum
and denticulatum, Lopidium concinnum, Rhynchostegium tenuifolium, Polytricha-
delphus magellanicus, Dendroligotrichum dendroides.—24 sp.
2. Endemic or also found in Chile and restricted to the S. American sector,
in either case with Australian-Neozelandic relations, with the exception of Eusti-
chia.—30 sp.
a. Endemic species (9): Dicranoloma fernandezianum, capillifolioides and nigri-
caule, Ptychomnium falcatulum, Distichophyllum fernandezianum, Pterygophyllum
tenuinerve, Eriopus leptoloma and grandiretis, Thuidium Masafuerae.
6. Also in Chile (21): Ditrichum longisetum, Dicranoloma capillifolium, Eu-
camptodon perichaetialis, Rhacomitrium subnigritum and striatipilum, Macromitrium
hymenostomum, Leptostomum Menziesii, Eustichia Poeppigii (other species in
America and Africa), Dendrocryphaea cuspidata, Lepyrodon parvulus, tomentosus
and implexus, Ptychomnium subaciculare and ptychocarpum, Pterygophyllum ano-
malum, Hypopterygium Thouini, Thuidium Valdiviae, Sciaromium pachyloma,
Catagoniopsis berteroana, Hypnodendron microstictum, Psilopilum antarcticum.
3. Endemic species of presumably Australasian and Polynesian affinity, not
or more distantly related to American species: Macromitrium fernandezianum and
Masafuerae, Cyptodon crassinervis, Thamnium rigidum, latinerve, Caroli, Ingae,
crassinervium, proboscideum, assimile and confertum, Distichophyllum subelimba-
tum and assimile.—13 sp.
286 Cc. SKOTTSBERG
II. Neotropical element.—26 sp. (21.7 %).
a. Endemic species (11): Campylopus subareodictyon, Leptodontium fernan-
dezianum, Didymodon calymperidictyon and linearis, Bryum fernandezianum, Pin-
natella macrosticta, Isopterygium fernandezianum, Rhaphidostegium Masafuerae
and caespitosoides, Rigodium robustum and Looserl.
6. Also in S. America (15); Gymnostomum calcareum (widely dispersed), Cam-
pylopus areodictyon, Thysanomitrium Richardi, Mielichhoferia longiseta, Anacolia
subsessilis, Porothamnium fasciculatum and arbusculans, Lamprophyllum splendi-
dissimum, Rhacopilum fernandezianum, Stereodon Lechleri, Rhaphidostegium
caespitosum, Rigodium toxarium, arborescens, hylocomioides and tamarix.
Ill. Chilean element.— 24 sp. (20.0 %).
a. Endemic species (4): Fissidens pycnotylus, Ulota fernandeziana, Philonotis
elabrata, Rhaphidostegium aberrans.
6. Also in Chile, mostly southern (17): Pleuridium Robinsonii, Hymenosto-
mum kunzeanum, Oncophorus fuegianus, Campylopus truncatus, Fissidens lepto-
chaete and maschalanthus, Tortula scabrinervis and flagellaris, Rhacomitrium lori-
forme and convolutum, Stenomitrium pentastichum, Bryum Lechleri, Bartramia
aristata, Philonotis krauseana and vagans, Rhynchostegium complanum, Oligotrichum
canaliculatum.
c. Cosmopolitan (3): Ceratodon purpureus, Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, Funa-
ria hygrometrica.
Note-—On p. 234 Campylopus introflexus was placed here; it was transferred to
I: 1 on account of its circumpolar distribution in the far south, from where it may have
invaded the tropics and migrated north, but it is perhaps just as probable that it is
an old pantropical species which has spread both north and south.
IV. Atlantic-Mediterranean element.— 3 sp. (2.5 %).
Comp. above, p. 235.
a. Endemic: Fissidens crassicuspes.
6. Not endemic: Campylopus polytrichoides, Trichostomum brachydontium.
We have seen above that HERZOG regarded the moss flora of Juan Fernan-
dez as almost entirely austral-antarctic and that the tropical element was small.
Most likely he added the species forming my Chilean element, because they are
concentrated in the moist southern part of the country and in several cases range
south into the subantarctic zone which is, however, no proof of their Antarctic
ancestry. A species like Porothamnium arbusculans is, as far as I know, restricted
to Chile and Patagonia, but the genus is essentially tropical, Szereodon Lechlert
extends from S. Chile to W. Patagonia, but is the only species reported south
of the Equator; Rigodium is American except 2 species found in Africa and
essentially tropical. On the other hand it is difficult to draw a limit between
groups II and III, but the species with a southern area are so numerous that I
felt obliged to make this distinction. The Atlantic element will perhaps disappear
when the distribution becomes better known.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 287
The bi- or tricentric species found in Juan Fernandez represent a minor frac-
tion only of the mosses common to S. America and New Zealand. SAINSBURY’s
new Flora (270) contains nearly 60 species with this type of distribution, and to
these some occurring in Australia and Tasmania, but not in New Zealand, may
be added. Detrichum affine, Trichostomum brachydontinm, Rhacomitrium symphyo-
dontum, Bartramia patens, and Pterygophyllum denticulatum, \isted for New Zealand
by BROTHERUS (34), are not recorded by SAINSBURY.
Consequently, what Miss FULFORD (see below p. 289) says about the Hepati-
cae is true also of the mosses.
IV. Hepaticae.
In an interesting paper on the distribution of the Hepaticae DOMIN (76) lays
stress upon that they are just as specialized geographically as the flowering
plants, and
einen uralten, heutzutage in den gemissigten und kialteren Gebieten sozusagen erstarr-
ten, sich von ihren ganz speziellen Standorten nicht weiter ausbreitenden, wenig an-
passungsfaihigen Typus darstellen, welcher auf der nérdlichen Hemisphire seinen Ent-
wickelungsgang in weit zuriickliegenden Epochen durchgemacht und bereits zur Tertiar-
zeit in den Hauptziigen beendet hat (p. 3).
He thinks that the evolution still continues in the tropics. Numerous genera are
widespread, but the majority of genera and species inhabit the tropical and south
temperate rain forests in America, Africa (perhaps not so rich?), Malaysia, Austral-
asia and Oceania. Austral-antarctic genera mentioned by DOMIN are Schzstochi/a,
Balantiopsis, Adelanthus (hardly austral), Lophocolea, Chiloscyphus, Trichocolea, and
many genera with their greatest wealth of species in the tropics are well repre-
sented in the temperate and cool south, such as Azccardia, Symphyogyna, Pla-
giochila, Madotheca, Lepidozsia, Radula, Frullania, while few, in cases very few,
species are found in the boreal zone. From HERZOG's handbook the following
genera may also be quoted as tropical-austral, or essentially or exclusively south-
ern: Hymenophytum, Acrobolbus, Tylunanthus, Famesoniella, Saccogyna, Lepicolea
and Marsupidium, to mention only genera also found in Juan Fernandez. Lefz-
dolaena is restricted to the south temperate and cold zones. In the following ar-
rangement I have been guided by these authors.
I. Antarcto-tertiary element.—84 sp. (67.7 %).
1. Bicentric or tricentric (t) species: Marchantia berteroana (t) and foliosa,
Riccardia insularis, Metzgeria decipiens and violacea (t), Hymenophytum flabellatum,
Symphyogyna hymenophyllum, Monoclea Forsteri, Pallavicinia xiphoides, Jame-
soniella colorata (t) and grandiflora (t), Acrobolbus excisus, Mylia repens, Lophocolea
pallidevirens and muricata (t), Marsupidium piliferum, Bazzania cerina, Lepidozia
sejuncta (t) and plumulosa, Lepicolea ochroleuca (t), Lepidolaena magellanica,
Schistochila splachnophylla, Frullania magellanica (t).—23 sp.
2. Restricted to the American sector, endemic in Juan Fernandez or also
found on the mainland, connected with species in the Australia-New Zealand sec-
tor S61 Sp:
288 Cc. SKOTTSBERG
a. Endemic (17): Riccardia adglutinata and leptostachya, Metzgeria multifor-
mis, Tylunanthus silvaticus, bilobatus and densiretis, Lophocolea papulosa, angulata
and submuricata, Trichocolea opposita, Schistochila Skottsbergii, Balantiopsis hians
and lancifolia, Lopholejeunea spinosa, Strepsilejeunea squarrosula and macroloba,
Cololejeunea Skottsbergii.
6. Also found in Chile (44): Riccardia fuegiensis, breviramosa, variabilis and
nudimitra, Metzgeria decrescens, Symphyogyna circinata and Hochstetteri, Jame-
soniella maluina and oenops, Tylunanthus limbatus, Mylia fuscovirens and ligulata,
Lophocolea rotundifolia, fernandeziensis, chilensis, attenuata, textilis and divergenti-
ciliata, Chiloscyphus integrifolius and lobatus, Saccogyna squarristipula, Adelanthus
sphalerus, Lepidozia bicuspidata, pseudozoopsis, fernandeziensis and Jacquemontil,
Trichocolea verticillata, Schistochila berteroana and pachyla, Balantiopsis cancellata,
chilensis and purpurata, Radula hastata, microloba, Mittenii and Dusenii, Madotheca
chilensis and subsquarrosa, Frullania Eckloni, chilensis, lobulata and stipatiloba,
Brachiolejeunea spruceana, Strepsilejeunea acuminata.
II. Neotropical element.—1 3 sp. (10.5 %).
a. Endemic (3): Fossombronia fernandeziensis, Anthoceros Skottsbergii, Le-
jeunea reticulata. :
6. Also in tropical South America, extending to Chile, or southern, but pre-
sumably of tropical origin (10): Megaceros fuegiensis, Androcryphaea confluens,
Anastrophyllum leucocephalum, Bazzania peruviana, Harpalejeunea oxyota and
setifera, Siphonolejeunea nudicalycina, Aphanolejeunea asperrima and diaphana,
Colura bulbosa. —
Ill. Chilean element.— 27 sp. (21.8 %).
Chilean species without tropical connection, nor suggesting Antarctic rela-
tions.
a. Endemic (5): Solenostoma obtusiflorum and rostratum, Plagiochila fusco-
brunnea, Lepidozia fragillima and disticha.
6. Also in Chile, especially in the south (18): Solenostoma crassulum, Ana-
strepta bifida, Plagiochila gayana, fasciata, hyadesiana, deformifolia, chiloensis,
rectangulata, remotidens, pudetensis, homomalla, neesiana, riparia, squarrosa,
robusta, elata and Notarisii, Herberta runcinata.
c. Cosmopolitan (4): Plagiochasma rupestre, Reboulia hemisphaerica, Lunularia
cruciata, Marchantia polymorpha.
Even if not the Juan Fernandez Hepatics are almost entirely Antarctic as
HERZOG thinks, the Antarcto-tertiary element is proportionally larger than in any
other group, and it is not impossible that genera like Wegaceros or Harpalejeunea,
the island species of which were referred to the neotropical element, are Antarctic,
and that this is true also of Bazzania, represented in I and I, but on the other
hand we must admit that pantropical genera like Rzccardia, Anthoceros, Mega-
ceros, Bazzania, Lepidozia, Radula, Madotheca, Frullania etc. may have extended
far south during a warmer period and given rise to important groups all around
the circumpolar belt, and that we have to show that such disjunct southern groups
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 289
are interrelated in such a manner that we can derive the genera from a common
Antarctic centre. This is a problem that only an expert and all-round hepatologist
can solve. In our island case the result may be that the Antarctic element will
shrink and the Neotropical swell; we may have to merge the Chilean element in
the Neotropical. Disregarding the cosmopolitan species, anthropophilous and anthro-
pochorous and very likely of recent introduction, we find that the bulk of the
Chilean species is formed by the 14 species of Plagiochila; we need a critical
revision of this gigantic assemblage before we shall know anything of its origin
and history. Also small but widely scattered genera offer difficulties: Axastrepia,
Adelanthus and Herberta, for instance.
The discontinuous distribution of many southern genera and several species
was commented upon by Miss FULFORD (703. 846):
The distribution patterns indicate that they were contemporaries at a time when free
migration was possible between South America, Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the
Sikkim area in N.E. India. They also indicate that the Antarctic Continent has been of
great importance in the distribution of genera and identical species in South America, the
Antarctic Islands [vead Subantarctic], Australia-New Zealand and probably Africa.
Finally, let us repeat our comparison of the four phyla analyzed. No obviously
Arcto-tertiary (Boreal) species were distinguished among the Hepaticae. The Chilean
element accepted in the mosses and hepatics has been combined with the Neotropical
to form a Neotropical-Chilean group (NC); A, Antarctic; B, Boreal.
Table V.
A NC B
ANOSIOSOETONS Sy GG i 60a 8 Bela 4252 30.7 15.0
PASTA OINNAWES 6 S46 0 a 6 6 oo WOz BO 1.9
IMOSSESENeechas cts ss Th 3s | SEO 41.7 2.5
LENGIORNENES 5" Ei, Veil co. LOM ecient OT) 32.3 —-
V. Lichenes.
Unlike the Archegoniates the Lichens offer insuperable difficulties when we
try to trace eventual centres of origin and evolution. Of 67 genera represented in
Juan Fernandez no less than some 55 have a wide, in cases world-wide distribu-
tion; they are called cosmopolitan, subcosmopolitan, tropical, temperate and so
forth, and with regard to about 70 species the situation is the same. Only ina
very limited number of instances a genus, or a group of related species is, to
judge from its present distribution, concentrated to a limited area, tempting us
to consider it a centre of evolution. On the other hand we must not forget that
lichens are lichenized fungi; modern lichenologists do not regard them as a spe-
cial phylum but range them with the different fungus orders and families accord-
ing to the taxonomic position of the fungus component. Nothing prevents us
from assuming that the same lichen species originated in different places widely
apart where both fungus and microscopic alga happened to be present at the time
when lichen-forming fungi existed as independent organisms. Nor should it be
19 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
290 Cc. SKOTTSBERG
forgotten that numerous green and bluegreen algae are cosmopolitan and that the
fungus spores as well as the thallogenous diaspore (in fact more important for
dispersal) of lichens are quite resistant and adapted to long-distance transporta-
tion, also that they have a greater facility to get established where they happen
to land than the spores of ferns and bryophytes.
During early Tertiary times—and certainly much earlier—South America had
a rich and varied lichen flora of tropical and subtropical character. With the grad-
ual climatic differentiation and the evolution of cold-resistant forms the rising
Andes provided stations for both northern and southern lichens; migrations in
both directions helped to equalize the Boreal-arctic and Austral-antarctic floras and
furthered the origin of a bipolar element.
With our present insufficient knowledge of the distribution of the lichens all
we can say with regard to a majority of species or genera is that they are tropi-
cal-subtropical or temperate and either northern or southern; it is rarely pos-
sible to decide in favour of the north or the south as a primary source of the
Andean temperate flora. The exceptions from this rule are few; for instance, gen-
era like Pachyphiale, Lemmopsis and Massalongia may be classified as northern,
while Byssocaulon, Pseudocyphellaria, Nephroma and Stereocaulon are southern or,
if bipolar, have a southern centre making it permissible to conclude that the
Antarctic continent has played an important part in their history and that the
bicentric distribution of so many species, also in the larger genera, testifies to an
Antarctic origin or at least indicates that a transantarctic migration route once
existed. Thus I have ventured to distinguish an Antarcto-tertiary element also in
the Chilean-Juan Fernandez lichen flora. Here as in other groups the possibility
that a bicentric species may have reached its stations from the north must be
taken into account; that a circumglobal species has reached southern Chile and
New Zealand is no proof of a transantarctic connection.
Below an attempt is made to distribute the Juan Fernandez lichens among
geographical-genetic groups. Only 164 species could be included. No place at all
could be assigned to many of the endemic species—see above p. 254—and the fol-
lowing non-endemic ones with their disjunct areas were also excluded: Baczdia
delapsans, Usnea dasypogoides and subtorulosa, Caloplaca rubina, Buellia halophiloides
and fernandesiana.
The arrangement proposed is far from satisfactory and will, I am sure, be
subjected to criticism. With our very imperfect knowledge of the real distribution
of lichens called “wide-spread” or even “‘cosmopolitan’’, mistakes in assigning a
species to a certain element are unavoidable. Thus, many were referred to group
I with great hesitation because it is impossible to decide if they have reached their
austral-bicentric stations (south Chile, New Zealand) independently from the north,
or if Antarctic routes are involved. The species lumped under IV surely represent
several different distribution patterns.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 291
I. Antarcto-tertiary element.—58 sp. (35.4 %).
b, Austral-bicentric; t, Austral-tricentric species.
a. Endemic species (5): Psoroma vulcanicum, cephalodinum, dasycladum and
angustisectum, Pseudocyphellaria berteroana.
6. Non-endemic (53): Sphaerophorus melanocarpus, Phaeographina scalpturata
(b), Byssocaulon niveum (b), Leptogium phyllocarpum (b), Parmeliella nigrocincta (t)
and pycnophora, Pannaria fuegiensis and rubiginosa(b), Massalongia carnosa, Psoroma
pholidotum and sphinctrinum (b), Lobaria crenulata (b), Pseudocyphellaria argyracea
(t), intricata (b), fragillima (b), subvariabilis (b), chloroleuca (b), cinnamomea (b), hir-
suta, Guillemini, gilva (t), mougeotiana, aurata (t), nitida, endochrysea (b), Durvillei
(b), flavicans (b), Freycinetii (b) and Richardi (b), Sticta Weigelii (b), lineariloba,
latifrons (b) and laciniata, Nephroma plumbeum, cellulosum (b), antarcticum (b) and
australe (b), Catillaria melastegia (b), Megalospora versicolor (b), Phyllopsora parvifolia
(b), Cladonia pycnoclada, didyma (b) and aggregata (t), Stereocaulon patagonicum,
ramulosum (b) and implexum (b), Coccotrema granulatum (b), Lecanora albellina,
Placopsis chilena, fuscidula (b) and parellina (b), Myxodictyon chrysostictum (b),
Buellia halophila (b).
II. Andean tropical to temperate element.— 54 sp. (32.9 %).
a. Endemic species (9g): Arthonia subnebulosa and berberina, Enterostigma
Skottsbergii, Coenogonium velutinum, Lecidea avium, Pertusaria hadrocarpa and
Skottsbergil, Lecanora masafuerensis, Caloplaca orthoclada.
6. Non-endemic (45): Arthopyrenia cinchonae, adnexa and planorbis, Pyrenula
aspistea, mammillana and Kunthii, Pyrenastrum chilense, Arthonia complanata,
Graphis intricata and Dumastii, Dirina limitata, Schismatomma accedens, Thelotrema
lepadinum, Dimerella lutea, Physma chilense, Leptogium moluccanum, tremelloides,
cyanescens, Menziesii and callithamnion, Lecidea leucoplaca and icterica, Catillaria
endochroma and leucochlora, Bacidia endoleuca and subluteola, Toninia bullata,
Lopadium leucoxanthum, Baeomyces chilensis, Acarospora xanthophana, Per-
tusaria polycarpa, Melanaria melanospora, Parmelia laevigatula, abstrusa, nilgher-
rensis, soredica and microsticta, Menegazzia sanguinascens, Usnea angulata, Bom-
byliospora dolichospora, Caloplaca subcerina, Theloschistes flavicans, Physcia picta,
Anaptychia pectinata, Cora pavonia.
III. Boreal element.—14 sp. (8.5 %).
a. Endemic: Lemmopsis polychidioides.
6. Non-endemic (13): Verrucaria microspora, Arthonia cytisi, Gyalecta jenensis,
Pachyphiale cornea, Racodium rupestre, Lecidea enteroleuca and viridans, Bacidia
arceutina, Acarospora smaragdula, Lecanora dispersa and saxicola, Parmelia pilosella,
Buellia concinna.
IV. Pantemperate-Bipolar to Cosmopolitan element.— 38 sp. (23.2 %).
Normandina pulchella, Diploschistes actinostomus and scruposus, Peltigera
rufescens and polydactyla, Lecidea latypea and mutabilis, Catillaria intermixta,
292 C. SKOTTSBERG
<=
Rhizocarpon geographicum and obscuratum, Cladonia bacillaris, coccifera, furcata,
eracilis, pyxidata, fimbriata and pityrea, Pertusaria leioplaca, Lecanora coarctata,
atra, polytropa and chrysoleuca, Placopsis gelida, Candelariella vitellina, Parmelia
laevigata, revoluta, cetrata, saxatilis, conspersa, perlata, cetrarioides and caperata,
Ramalina linearis and usnea, Usnea florida, Caloplaca elegans, Buellia stellulata,
Anaptychia hypoleuca.
Chapter III.
Composition, distribution and relationships of the Fauna.
There are no indigenous reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fishes or mammals
on the islands; of the introduced mammals, goats, rats and mice were naturalized
centuries ago and during the last 20 years also rabbits and Nasua rufa.
Aves.
LONNBERG (774); names in brackets used by GOODALL-JOHNSON-PHILIPPI (770).
Indigenous land-birds.
Turdus magellanicus King (T. falklandii magellanicus). Both islands. North
Chile to Patagonia and Fuegia; according to 57. V. 224 not known to be migratory.
“More richly coloured with buff below than specimens from the mainland avail-
able to me’, LONNBERG wrote l.c. 3, a colouring characteristic of 7. falkland-
cus (Quoy et Gain), comp. 5z. V. pl. XIII. In zzo this is called 7. f. falklandi and
the island form is referred to magellanicus.
Anaeretes fernandestanus (Phil.) (Spizitornis f.). Endemic on Masatierra. Azae-
vetes is a neotropical genus of 7 species (Ecuador to N. Argentina and Chile).
A. fernandezianus is related to a Chilean species.
Aphrastura masafuerae Phil. et Landb. Endemic on Masafuera. A second
species ranges from Centr. Chile to Patagonia and Fuegia.
Cinclodes oustaleti Scott ssp. baeckstroemit Lonnb. Both islands, endemic but
very near the typical species (Antofagasta—Chiloé). A genus of 13 species (Ecuad.
to Argent., Patag., Falkl. Is.).
Eustephanus fernandensis (King as 7rochtlus) Gould (Thaumaste f.). Endemic,
forming an endemic genus according to zro. 300: “‘Coloracion totalmente diferente
de la de cualquier Picaflor que habita el continente.’’ These authors leave open
the question whether or not £. deyboldzi Gould of Masafuera is distinct but list it
as Th. f. leyboldi and the form from Masatierra as 7h. f. fernandensis. LONNBERG
Pp. 7 gave good reasons for considering them as identical. The humming-bird
seems to be extinct on Masafuera.
Lustephanus galeritus Mol. (as Trochilus; Orthorhyncha sephanoides Lesson
et Garnot 1827—but MOLINA’s name must be about 50 years older; Sephanoides
s., 770). Masatierra and on the mainland from Centr. Chile to Fuegia. Said to
migrate to the coast and spend the winter there (774), a statement not quoted
by GOODALL.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 293
Asio flammeus Pontoppidan (A. f. suinda Vieillot). Masatierra. The typical spe-
cies almost cosmopolitan; swzvda ranges over South America from Venezuela to
Fuegia.
Cercnets sparverius (L.) ssp. fernandensis Chapm. (Falco s. f.). Masatierra,
endemic, the species distributed from North America and the West Indies to northern
South America, another ssp. in Chile. A genus of 28 species and very wide
distribution, but not recorded for Oceania.
Buteo erythronotus King ssp. exsul Salvin (B. polyosoma e.). Endemic on Masa-
fuera, an accidental visitor to Masatierra; typical evythronoftus ranges from Peru
to the Magellan Straits and Falkland. On Masafuera the principal food of the
buzzard are rats, mice and young goats’ kids, all introduced by man, but it has
been observed attacking petrels and thrushes. A widespread genus of 33 species
(Amer., Euras., Austral., Ocean.).
Breeding sea-birds.
Fregetta grallaria Vieillot. Masatierra and Santa Clara and also Desventu-
radas (San Ambrosio); coasts and islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
4 species, subtropical-tropical seas.
Puffinus creatopus Coues. Masatierra and Santa Clara; California—S. Chile,
where it breeds on Mocha I. and islands in the vicinity of Chiloé. Migrates during
the winter to Peru and along the coast north to Alaska, returning south in No-
vember. The genus (28 sp.) is world-wide.
Pterodroma neglecta Schleg. Masatierra and Santa Clara; also on San Am-
brosio and further reported from Lord Howe and Kermadec Is. Strolls north during
the winter. A genus of about 30 species spread over the south hemisphere and
extending north to the north Atlantic and to Japan.
Pterodroma externa Salvin (P. e. externa). Endemic on Masafuera, migrates
north as far as Costa Rica. Another race breeds on Tristan da Cunha, a third
on Kermadec Is.
Pterodroma cooki Gray ssp. defilippiana Gig). et Salvin. Endemic to Santa
Clara, Masatierra and Desventuradas. Typical cookz on New Zealand, P. cook? orten-
talis Murphy on the coast of Pert and Chile, but breeding places unknown;
defilippiana is said to extend its flights to Peru.
Pterodroma cooki ssp. masafuerae Lonnb. (P. leucoptera Masafuerae). Masafuera,
endemic. At first LONNBERG felt inclined to identify the bird with P. c. deucoptera
“in spite of the zoogeographical difficulties for such a theory” (p. 15); LONNBERG’s
opinion is strengthened by the fact that, whereas defilippiana and J/eucoptera are
surface-breeding like neglecta, externa and masafuerae are burrowing.
Two aliens are naturalized in the islands, a melanistic form of Columba livia
Briss. in the 18th century and now common, and Lophortyx californicus Shaw et
Nodd, introduced 1912 or 1913. Several landbirds have been observed as acci-
dental visitors, Crymophilus fulicarius and Butco obsoletus migrants from the north
and Belonopterus chilensts, Cathartes sp., Cygnus melanocoryphus, Haematopus ater
and Czrcus maculosus from the opposite coast. Petrels, albatrosses, Cape pigeons
294 C. SKOTTSBERG
and penguins are occasionally seen around the islands but do not breed
there.
Of the 15 species breeding on the islands 3 are endemic; of the remaining
12, 6 are represented by endemic subspecies of which, however, 2 also breed on
the Desventuradas Islands. Including these, 60% of the birds are endemic, a high
figure in animals as mobile as birds are. Otherwise, the poverty of the island ornis
is noteworthy, as also the fact that the affinities of the landbirds are all with
5S. "America:
With regard to the actual distribution we can distinguish the following two
groups.
I. South American (especially Chilean) group.——1o sp.
a. Endemic (6): Anaeretes fernandezianus, Aphrastura masafuerae, Euste-
phanus fernandensis, Cinclodes oustaleti baeckstroemi, Cercneis sparverius fer-
nandensis, Buteo erythronotus exsul.
4. Not endemic (4): Turdus magellanicus, Eustephanus galeritus, Asio flam-
meus, Puffinus creatopus.
II. South Pacific group.—5 sp.
a. Endemic (3): Pterodroma externa externa, cooki defilippiana and cooki
masafuerae.
6. Not endemic (2): Fregetta grallaria, Pterodroma neglecta.
The first group includes of more tropical birds Anaeretes, Cinclodes and Eu-
stephanus, and of more temperate 7urdus, Asio, Cerchners, Buteo and Puffinus.
Of the endemic species Lustephanus fernandensis is the most notable, in certain
characters a unique type in the family Trochilidae. The second group is of par-
ticular interest as including, beside the widespread frigate-bird, four species of
Pterodroma not breeding on the mainland, where, perhaps, a special race of
P. cooki breeds. The genus is essentially austral-circumpolar, as it were tricentric,
with Tristan da Cunha representing the African sector. Cases like those of P. zeglecta
and eaterna call for a common source and suggest that Prerodroma belongs to
an Antarcto-tertiary element which inhabited the coasts and islands of Antarctica
n preglacial times.
Oligochaeta.
MICHAELSEN (787) regards all the earth-worms of Juan Fernandez as adven-
titious. The single strictly South American Kerrza saltenszs was, he believes, in-
troduced from Chile with the human traffic, and this is also true of the three species
of Allolobophora, introduced to Chile from Europe, and by /redericia galba. The
occurrence of Pachydrilus verrucosus offers more interest. It was known from Great
Britain, the Hebrides, S.W. Africa and Fuegia, everywhere living on the seashore;
on Masatierra it was not found on the beach but inland in a freshwater stream.
Hirudinea.
The leech discovered in 1917 in the highland of Masafuera was described
as a new species of the Australian genus Philaemon, Ph. skottsbergi L. Joh. (£47).
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 295
Whether or not the two species described from Samoa and Madagascar, respec-
tively, belong to PAz/aemon remains to be settled. JOIANSSON expressed some
doubts with regard to the position of the Juan Fernandez leech and after his death
the question was taken up by NYBELIN who showed that it should form a separate
genus, Vesophilaemon (188). With its allies it forms a small austral group, pos-
sibly of old Antarctic ancestry. It must, of course, have a host; it was found in
the extremely wet Dicksonza forest, where Pterodroma cooki masafuerae makes
its burrows, the only possible host existing here (see also 747. 442). Truly no
leech has been collected on the bird, but extremely few specimens of this have
been taken care of and examined.
Crustacea.
Amphipoda (56).
Orchestia chilensis (chiliensis) Milne-Edw. Both islands, terrestrial and found
from near the shore to almost 600 m altitude. It is a bicentric species, known
also from Chile and New Zealand.
Isopoda (277).
Beside 3 cosmopolitan species 2 endemic ones have been found, both be-
longing to widespread genera, Ligza “itiginosa and Philoscia mirifica, the latter
referred to a new subgenus.
Arachnoidea.
Araneae (22).
I am indebted to Professor ALB. TULLGREN, who supplied much information
on the distribution of the genera. BERLAND lists 24 species, of which 4 are cos-
mopolitan and also occur in Chile; of the remaining 20 one, belonging to the very
large and widely spread genus Avaneus and perhaps new, was left unnamed. The
other 19 are enumerated below. Here as in the following + signifies an endemic
species, + + an endemic genus. Mt = Masatierra, SC = Santa Clara, Mf = Masafuera.
Ariadna maxima Nicolet. Chile-—Mt, Mf. The genus widely distributed
(N. and S. Amer., Afr., E. Ind., Australia).
+ Theridion Baeckstroemi Berl.—Mt. The genus is cosmopolitan.
Th. gracile Keyser]. Chile.—Mf.
+Lephthyphantes Fernandest Berl.—Mf. A cosmopolitan genus, but only a
single species recorded for S. America (Patagonia).
+ Macrargus pacificus Berl.—Mt. The genus is known from northern N. Amer-
ica and Europe, but TULLGREN (in litt.) doubts that it has a wide distribution
in America; thus, its appearance in Juan Fernandez is rather unexpected.
+M. australis Berl.—Mf.
+Leptorhoptrum (2?) Platet F. Cambr.—Mt. Doubtfully referred to this Eu-
ropean genus, from which it differs in certain characters: ‘‘l’épigyne est d'un type
tout a fait différent’’ (22. 430).
+ Tmeticus Defoet ¥. Cambr.—Mt. The genus used to be quoted from N.
America and Europe, but TULLGREN informed me that a great many species are
now referred to other genera.
296 C. SKOTTSBERG
Meta nigrohumeralis ¥F. Cambr.—Mt, endemic? (see l.c. 430). The genus is
known from all continents.
+Selhirkiella alboguttata Berl.—Mt. The genus is related to the neotropical
Guolus, known from Peru, Brazil and Chile, and appears not to be restricted to
Juan Fernandez; BERLAND has seen a very closely related species from Valdivia
(22. 432).
Mecysmauchenius segmentatus Simon. Patagonia and Fuegia.—Mt. A genus
of 2 species, the second one from the Magellanian region.
+ Misumenops Sjoestedti Berl—Mt. An American, especially N. American
genus.
+Gayenna Skottsbergi Berl.—Mt. A S. American, especially Chilean genus
of numerous species.
G. maculatipes Keyserl. Chile.—Mt.
+ Oxysoma Delfint Simon.—Mt. A S. American genus.
+ Philisca ornata Ber|.—Mt. A subantarctic-magellanian genus extending north
into Chile.
+Ph. mgens Berl.—Mt.
+Lycosa Fernandezi F. Cambr.—Mt. The genus is cosmopolitan.
Evophrys quilpuensis Simon. Centr. Chile-—Mt. The genus is known from
Centr. and S. America, Europe, S. Africa and Japan.
Of the 19 species enumerated 13 or perhaps 14 are endemic in the islands;
15 (11 or 12 endemic) are restricted to Masatierra, 3 (2 endemic) to Masafuera
and a single Chilean species found on both islands. The only conclusion we can
draw from these figures is that most likely only a minor part of the spiders occur-
ring on the islands is known. It is quite possible that there is a marked differ-
ence between the two islands, but it is not probable that Masafuera is so poor
and that Santa Clara is devoid of spiders. Only a short visit was paid to this islet.
The fauna makes the impression of being almost entirely neotropical or, at
least, S. American, with the exception of the two species of Macrargus, which
are of boreal parentage; of the doubtful Lepftorhopirum nothing can be said. The
presence of a southern, eventually Antarctic element is indicated by JZecysmauche-
mius, possibly also by Phzl7sca, but so far there is no sign of a bicentric group.
Whether it can be distinguished in subantarctic America I cannot tell.
Acarina.
TRAGARDH (268) enumerates 28 species, of which 2 are cosmopolitan, the re-
mainder endemic. He points out that the collection, the first ever made in Juan Fer-
nandez, undoubtedly represents only a small part of the acarofauna; this is evident
already from the fact that not a single species came from Masafuera or Santa Clara.
Whether the cosmopolitan species are late arrivals or not is impossible to tell, but
very likely they are. This would mean that the entire acarofauna is endemic, and
new investigations will not change its independent character unless some species
are discovered on the mainland. Of the 23 indigenous genera only one—probably
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 297
a second will have to be described—is endemic and several have a wide distri-
bution.
The scant knowledge of this neglected group in these regions, particularly
in Oceania, is to be regretted; it certainly does not yet lend itself to zoogeo-
graphical speculations. Nevertheless it deserves to be mentioned that Luv/ergus
similis Trag. belongs to a genus hitherto recorded only from New Zealand and
that Phyllhermannia dentata Trag. is related to a neozelandic species; the genus
is also found elsewhere.
Pseudoscorpionidea (79),
+ + Asterochernes vittatus Beier.—Mt. The genus has its greatest resemblance
to Thalassochernes Beier from New Zealand.
+ Chelanops insularis Beier.—Mt.
+Ch. kuschelt Beier.—Mt. Related to a Chilean species.
+ Geogarypus bucculentus Beier.—Mt.
+ Parachernes kuschelt Beier.—Mt, Mf.
++ Protowirthius fernandestanus Beier.—Mf.
+P. robustus Beier.—Mt.
Neotropical elements are present, but species with their relatives in the
Australian-Polynesian region are in dominance and part of the fauna shows not-
able archaic characters (l.c. 205).
Myriapoda.
The very small and incomplete collection—no specimens were brought from
Masafuera or Santa Clara—was studied by VERHOEFF (274). In order to get some
information on the distribution of the genera I asked Dr. OTTO SCHUBART of
Pirassununga, Brazil, for assistance, and he most liberally put his wide knowledge
of this group at my disposal (letter, Aug. 27, 1954). Several changes had to be
made in the nomenclature; the names used by VERHOEFF, if different, have been
put in brackets.
Diplopoda.
Brachyiulus pusillus Leach (Microbrachyiulus litoralis Verh.). Indigenous in
western Europe, adventitious in N. America and Argentina.
Brachydesmus superus Latzel. A European species, adventitious in N. America
and Argentina.
+ Aulacodesmus insulanus (Verh.) Schubart (Semnosoma, Verh.). Endemic. A
genus of 16 species, distributed over Chile and Argentina and belonging to the
austral family Sphaerotrichopidae (S. Amer., S. Afr., Madag., Nossi Bé, Austral.,
Tasm., N. Zeal., N. Caled., Hawaii).
Nopoiulus venustus Meinert (pulchellus Leach). Widely distributed in Europe,
introduced to N. America and Chile.
Cylindroiulus frisius oceanicus Verh. Typical friséus (C. Owent Bollman)
introduced to N. America, Argentina (also in forma oceanicus), S. Africa and St.
Paul's I.
298 C. SKOTTSBERG
Chilopoda.
+ Nesogeophilus laticollis (Attems) Schubart (Geophilus, Verh.). Endemic. The
genus, which has not been reported from S. America, includes after the latest revi-
sion by ATTEMS (as subgenus of Geophilus) 11 species (1 S.W. Austral., 1 N. Zeal.,
1 N. Caled., 1 Annam, 3 Jap. and 2 Eur,).
+ Nesogeophilus baeckstroem? (Verh.) Schubart (Geophilus, Verh.). Endemic.
Schizotenia alacer (Pocock) Silvestri. Chile, south to Fuegia, Argentina. A
genus of 6 species (3 Chile and Argent. to Patag., Fueg., 1 E. Austral., 1 N. Zeal.,
T@hatham’ 1s.)
Lithobiomorpha africana Porat (Lamyctes insignis Pocock, insignis baeckstroemi
Verh.). Widely distributed over Africa; also Tristan da Cunha, St. Paul’s I,
S.W. Australia and Hawaii. The genus very wide-ranging [N. Amer., W. Ind.,
S. Amer. (also Chile), Afr., E. Ind., Austral., Tasm., N. Zeal., Chatham Is., N.
Caled., Kermadec Is., Guam, Hawaiil.
If we exclude the 4 species regarded, rightly I presume, as introduced with
the human traffic, 5 species remain, 3 of these endemic in Juan Fernandez. This
is indeed a very small number, but in spite of being so few, they tell a story of
an austral-circumpolar, presumably Antarcto-tertiary element.
Collembola.
Of the 8 species distinguished by SCHOTT (276), the first ever collected in
Juan Fernandez, 2 inhabit Chile, 3 are known from various parts of the world
and 3 endemic. As long as so little is known about the distribution of this group
it does not lend itself to zoogeographical speculations. The occurrence of widely
dispersed boreal species in S. America and other parts of the south hemisphere
(Australia, New Zealand etc.) is noteworthy, but whether their wide range is due
to the great age of Collembola or a result of later dispersal is unknown.
Thysanura (222, 293).
+TIsolepisma annectens Silvestri.—Mt, Mf. The specific epithet refers to the
intermediate position between /solepzsma and Heterolepisma; the species is com-
pared with forms known from Africa and Australia.
+ + Kuschelochilis Ochagaviae WWygodz.—Mt. A monotypical endemic genus
related to Allomachilis and Nesomachil7s from Australia, but not, as far as known,
to an American genus.
Among the Invertebrates treated above the endemic leech offers great in-
terest. Of Arachnoidea the Pseudoscorpionidea include a remarkable Antarcto-
tertiary element, whereas the true spiders, strangely enough, are quite disap-
pointing in this respect, even more so than the centipedes.
Insecta.
In order to get an idea of the zoogeography of the island insects I asked a
number of specialists for information on the general distribution of genera and
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 299
species. For their readiness to supply me with the necessary data I am much
obliged to Dr. OLOF AHLBERG, Stockholm (Thysanoptera), Dr. KJELL ANDER,
Linképing (Orthoptera), Dr. PER BRINCK, Lund (Coleoptera), Mr. NILS BRUCE,
Gardby (Coleoptera), Dr. LARS BRUNDIN, Stockholm (Coleoptera), Mr. FELIX BRYK,
Stockholm (Lepidoptera), Dr. W. E. Cuina, London (Hemiptera), Dr. K.-H. Forss-
LUND, Stockholm (Trichoptera), Dr. G. J. KErRicH, London (Hymenoptera), Dr.
K. Princis, Lund (Orthoptera), Mr. Bo TyepER, Falun (Neuroptera) and Dr.
B. P. Uvarov, London (Orthoptera).
JOHOw (z50) enumerates 26 species of insects from Juan Fernandez; some finds
may, I presume, have escaped his notice, but probably not many, and it is evident
that the entomofauna was very little known at that time. During our survey 1916-17
a fair number of insects were collected and many novelties were described in vol.
3 of this work, but the collection gave the impression of being very fragmentary.
The intense collecting undertaken in 1951 and 1952 by the Rev. Dr. GUILLERMO
KUSCHEL revealed, however, the existence in the islands of a surprisingly rich
and varied insect world. As Dr. ALEXANDER, the wellknown specialist on Tipu-
lidae, expresses himself (4.35): “Father Kuschel’s collecting has completely
revolutionized our knowledge of the insect fauna of the islands in many groups, in-
cluding the crane-flies’’—only 3 species were known, the number now amounts to 37.
Until now only a part of Dr. KUSCHEL’s large material has been worked up
by specialists, and I can only refer to what has been published (142, 208, 292,
293, 309, 314), but for some groups we now have sufficient data to form an
opinion of the zoogeographical position of the islands as far as the insects go. At
the end of 1954 Dr. KUSCHEL joined my new expedition to the islands and brought
back a third very large collection. When all his material has been studied, the insect
fauna of Juan Fernandez will be better known than that of most isolated islands. At
present about 340 indigenous species have been recorded, of which about 230(70 %)
are regarded as endemic. Dr. KUSCHEL (letter, Oct. 16, 1955) calculates that of
a total of about 600 species collected by him, about 360 still await publication:
Among them are 25-30 flies, probably over 50 butterflies, many endemic, at
least 180 beetles (more than 120 weevils, of which 4 have been introduced
accidentally, the remainder being endemic), and some 40 hymenopters.
Orthoptera.
Dermaptera (225).
+ Euborellia annulipes (Lucas).—Mt, SC, Mf. The genus S. Amer., E. Afr.,
Orient, Ind., Ceylon, Tasm.
Anisolabis Bormansit Scudd. Galapagos Is., Easter I.—Mt. A large genus of
world-wide distribution.
Saltatoria (535, 225).
+ Hoplospyrium Skottsbergi Chopard.—Mt. An American genus, the species
related to species from N. America and Chile.
Trimerotropis ochracetpennis Blanch. Chile.—Mt. The genus is American.
300 C. SKOTTSBERG
Corrodentia.
Isoptera.
+ Kalotermes gracilignatus Emerson.—Mt. The only Termite known from Juan
Fernandez. “The wing venation is close to that of Kalotermes brouni Froggatt
from New Zealand” (83. 393).
Mallophaga (266).
Puffinus creatopus and Pterodroma neglecta and externa are infested with the
same mallophagous parasites found on these and related birds in other regions. A
new Halipeurus is mentioned but not described.
Thysanoptera ( 3).
Aecolothrips fasciatus L. Boreal.—Mt.
+Physothrips Skottsbergi Ahlb.—Mt. The genus is distributed over N. Amer-
ica, Europe, W. Asia and Australia.
+Sericothrips ineptus Ahlb.—Mt. Perhaps nearest to a Californian species.
The genus is otherwise confined to Europe, where it is widely spread.
Thrips tabact Lindem. N. America.—Mt. The genus known from N. America,
Eurasia, N. Africa and Australia.
The two non-endemic species may have been introduced accidentally. Both
were found in the spathe of Zantedeschia aethiopica, cultivated and naturalized.
Neuroptera (785, 92, 125).
++Conchopterella kuscheli Handsch.—Mt.
+C. maculata Handsch.—Mt.
Gayomyta falcata (Blanch.). Chile, Argentina.—Mt, Mf. A small S. American
genus.
+ Hemerobius Sioestedti Navas (H. fumosus Esb.-Peters., H. nigrinus Esb.-
Peters.).—Mt. An almost world-wide genus, absent from the S. hemisphere except
for the Andean region (Colomb., Pert, Boliv., Braz., Argent., Chile).
+H. Skottsbergi Navas.—Mt, Mf.
Trichoptera (274).
+ Australomyia masatierra Schmid.—Mt. The genus is known from Chile,
Patagonia and Falkland Is.
+A. masafuera Schmid.—Mf.
Verger Porter? Nav. Centr. Chile-—Mt. A Chilean genus.
Lepidoptera (73).
A great number of genera and species will have to be added when Dr.
KUSCHEL’s material has been determined.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 301
Tineomorpha.
Gelechidae.
+ + Apothetoeca synaphrista Meyr.—Mt. The genus is closely allied to the large
and widespread Gelechia (N. and S. Amer., Galdp., Palearct., Macaron., S. Afr.,
Australia).
Oecophoridae.
+ Depressaria relegata Meyr.—Mt. Near a species from the Andes of Ecuador.
The genus is Holarctic and also found in S. Africa.
Endrosis lactella Schiff—Mf. Widely spread, domestic.
Tineidae.
Monopis croctcapitella Clem.—Mt, Mf. In most parts of the globe, domestic.
Pyralimorpha.
Pyralidae.
+Crambus fernandesellus Hamps.—Mt. A world-wide genus.
Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zell. Centr. and S. Amer.—Mt.
Ephestia kuehniella Zell. Widespread, domestic.
+ +lernandocrambus Baeckstroemt Auriv.—Mt, Mf. The genus nearly related
to Crambus.
+f. brunneus Auriv.—Mt.
+P, fuscus Auriv.—Mt.
++Fuania annulata Auriv.—Mt. Similar in some ways to Prochostola Meyr.
(S. Afr., Australia).
Nomophila noctuella Schiff. Cosmopol.—Mt, Mf; adventitious.
+Pionea fumtpennis (Warren) Hamps.—Mt. A world-wide genus.
Scoparia Ragonott Butl.—Mt, Mf. Chile. A very widespread genus.
Geometrina.
Geometridae.
+Eupithecia halosydne Prout.—Mt. A widespread genus, but not found in
Australasia.
+E. (?) zuepta Prout.—Mt.
+k. physocleora Prout.—Mt.
+ Lobophora msularis Auriv.—Mt. An essentially Palaearctic genus.
Lortricidae.
+ Crocidosema insulana Auriv.—Mt. A S. American genus.
+kulia griseiceps Auriy.—Mt. The genus Holarctic, also in Hawaii; few else-
where. :
+E. Robinsont Auriv.—Mt.
+E. striolana Auriv.—Mt.
Noctuina.
Noctuidae.
Copitarsia turbata Herr.-Sch. Venezuela, Colombia.—Mt. The genus in Mex.,
Centr. and S. Amer. (Argent., Chile).
Feltia malefida Guén. Amer. (south to Chile); Macaronesia.—Mt.
302 C. SKOTTSBERG
+ +Hoplotarsia magna Auriv.—Mt. Related to Copitarsza.
Leucania impuncta Guén. Chile-—Mt. A bipolar genus (Palaearct., N. Zeal.).
+Lycophotia Baeckstroemt Auriv.—Mt. The genus widespread (Arct., Amer.,
Eur., S. Afr., Madag., N. Zeal.). )
L. messium Guén. Chile, Patag.—Mt.
Rachiplusia nu Guén. Patag., Urug., Argent., Chile.—Mt.
Syngrapha gammoides Blanch. Chile-—Mt, Mf. A Palaearctic genus; Mex.,
SH Amer:
Rhopalocera.
Pyrameis carye Huebn. Widespread in S. America and probably introduced
in Juan Fernandez.—Mt.
Diptera (84, 742).
Acroceridae (208).
+ Ogcodes kuscheli Sabr.—Mt. A temperate genus, recorded from all con-
tinents, but only 2 species known from the mainland of S. America.
Anthomysidae (128).
Anthomyza cursor (Kieffer). Cosmopol., also S. Chile.—Mt.
Calliphoridae (255).
Callyntropyga humeralis (Walker) Souza L. et Alb. (C. Selkirki Enderl.). Chile
Concepcion).—Mt, Mf.
Paralucilia fulvicrura (Desvoidy) Aub. et Baxt.—Mt, SC, Mf.
Sarconesia chlorogaster (Wiedem.) Arrib. Chile, Easter I—SC, Mf.
Sarconesiomima bicolor Souza L.. et Alb. Chile (Santiago).—Mt, SC. A mono-
typical genus.
Cecidomyidae (84, 100).
++Psadaria pallida "nderl.—Mt, Mf. Related to Campylomyza Meigen.
Chloropidae (209).
Hlippelates australis Sabrosky |/f. (Cadrema) metadlicus Enderl. non Beck.
(=H. flavipes (Loew) Sabr.)|. Ecuad., Pert, Argent., Chile-—Mt, probably ad-
ventitious.
Culicidae.
Culex interfor Dyar.—Mt, Mf.
Dolichopodidae (126).
+fydrophorus kuscheli Harmston.—Mt.
FH. poliogaster (Phil.) Harmston. Chile-—Mt, SC.
+Sympycnus fernandezensts Harmston. Near a Chilean sp.—Mt, Mf.
Ephydridae (289).
Dimecoenia caesia (v.d. Wulp) Wirth. Argent., Uruguay.—Mt, SC.
+ Discocerina fumipennis Wirth.—Mt. Near a Chilean sp.
Flyadina certa Cresson. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
Hydrellia vulgaris Cresson. Guatem., Boliv., Chile.—Mt.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 303
+Scatella angustipennis Wirth.—Mf. An almost Cosmopolitan genus.
+S. argentifacies Wirth.—Mt.
+S. drachyptera Wirth.—Mt.
+S. decemguitata Wirth.—Mt, SC, Mf.
+§. discalis Wirth.—Mt.
+S. fernandesensis Wirth.—Mt.
+ S$. kuscheli Wirth.—Mt, Mf.
+S. lutea Wirth.—Mt.
+S. marginalis Wirth.—Mt.
+S. masatierrensis Wirth.—Mt.
+S. minima Wirth.—Mt.
+S. nanoplera Wirth.—Mt.
+S. pallida Wirth.—Mt.
+S. pilimana Wirth.—Mf.
+.$. stenoptera Wirth.—Mt.
+S. vittata Wirth.—Mt.
+ Scatophila fernandeztana WWitth.—SC.
S. medifemur Wirth. Chile (Coquimbo).—Mt, SC.
Heleidae (288).
+Dasyhelea australis Wirth.—Mt, Mf. Near a Chilean sp., genus cosmop.
+Forcipomyia tenuisquamtpes Wirth.—Mt. A widespread genus (N. and S.
Amer., Eur., Afr., Austral.); one species common to Paraguay and Australia.
+F. sanctaeclarae Wirth.—Mt, SC.
Helomyzidae (128).
Blaesochaetophora picticornis (Bigot) Henn. S. Chile.—Mt.
Prosopantrum flavifrons TYonn, et Mall. (Cnemospathis Baeckstroemi et
Schoenemanni Enderl.). Chile, S. Africa, New Zealand.—Mt, Mf.
Lonchaetdae (128).
Lonchaea patagonica Malloch. Chile.—Mt.
Muscidae (128).
Austrocoenosia ignobilis (Stein) Hennig. Chile.—Mt.
Craspedochaeta limbinervis (Macq.) Hennig. S. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
Delia platura v. sancti-jacobi (Bigot) Hennig. Chile—Mt, Mf.
Euryomma peregrinum (Meigen) Hennig. Peru, Chile.—Mf.
Fannia anthracina (Walker) Hennig. Chile.-—Mt.
F-. canalicularis (L.) Cosmopol., also in Chile-—Mt, Mf.
F. punctiventris Malloch. S. Chile.—Mt.
Fucellia intermedia Lundbeck (Egeria masatierrana et masafuerana Enderl.).
Bur, Oceania.—Mt, Mf.
Hydrotaea cyanetventris Macq. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
Limnophora patagonica Malloch. S. Chile, Patag.—Mt.
+ Notoschoenomyza kuscheli Hennig.—Mt, Mf.
Ophyra caerulea Macq. Centr. Chile to Fueg.—Mt.
304 C. SKOTTSBERG
+ Schoenomysina emdent Hennig.—Mf.
+ Syllimnophora lispomima Hennig.—Mt, Mf.
Mycetophilidae (r00).
+Lxechia furcilla Freem—Mf. Near a Chilean species; world-wide genus.
+Leta malleolus Freem.—Mt. Allied to a species reported from Bolivia,
Pert and Brazil; the genus world-wide.
Macrocera funerea Freem. Chile-—Mt. A world-wide genus.
+Mycetophila angustifurca Enderl—Mt, Mf. The genus world-wide.
M. conifera Freem. Chile.—Mf.
M. cornuta Freem. Chile.—Mt.
M. flavolunata Freem. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
M. (2) tusecta Freem. Chile.—Mt.
Mf.
+M. subfumosa Freem.—Mt.
+Paraleia nephrodops (Enderl. s.n. Selkirkius) Freem.—Mt.
P. nubilipennis Walker. Chile-—Mf. The genus neotrop., Austral., Tasm.
Sciophila ochreata Phil. Chile-—Mt. A world-wide genus.
M. spinosa Freem. Chile.
Piophilidae (128).
Piophila caset (L.). Cosmopol., domestic.—Mt, Mf.
P. foveolata Meigen. Cosmopol.—Mt.
Phoridae (84).
+Lioyella guanfernandesica Enderl.—Mt, Mf. A European genus.
Phryneidae (128).
Phryne fuscipennis Macq. S. Chile.—Mt, Mf.
Platyp esidae.
Microsania pallipes Meigen. Cosmopol.—Mf.
Psychodidae (84, 2172).
Psychoda cinerea Banks. Cosmopol., also Chile—Mt. A widespread genus.
+P. masatierrensis Satchell—Mt, Mf. Possibly = the following.
+P. minutissoma Enderl.—Mt.
P. severint Tonnoir. Widespread in temperate regions.—Mt, Mf.
Sarcophagidae (255).
Hypopygta varia (Walker) Townsend. Chile-——Mt, SC, Mf.
Scatopsidae (84, T00).
++Masatierra ferruginea Enderl.—Mt. Related to the European Rhaeboza
Enderl. FREEMAN does not mention JJasatierra.
Scatopse fuscipes Meigen.—Mt, Mf. A world-wide genus.
S. notata (L.). Cosmopol., introduced with the traffic—Mt.
Sciavidae (160).
+ Bradysia fusca Freem.—Mt, Mf. A world-wide genus.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 3905
+B. media Freem.—Mt, Mf.
+Mertanina kuscheli Freem.—Mt, Mf. Another species in Brazil.
+Psilosciara nitens Freem.—Mt.
Simultidae (294).
+ Gigantodax kuschelt \Wygodz.—Mt, Mf. An essentially Chilean-Patagonian
genus with single species as far north as Mexico.
Sphaeroceridae (84, 204).
Archiborborus submaculatus Duda. S. Chile, Patag—Mt.
++Gyretria binodatipes Enderl—Mt. The genus is perhaps identical with
Skottsbergia Enderl. and this is merged into Leftocera by RICHARDS who,
however, does not list the two Gyvetria species described by ENDERLEIN, but
not found in Dr. KUSCHEL’s material.
+G. crassicosta Enderl.—Mf.
Leptocera brachystoma (Stenhammar) Richards. Cosmopol., also in Chile.—
Mt, Mf. The genus is widespread and well represented in S. America.
+L. cultellipennis (Enderl. ut Skottsbergia) Richards —Mt.
L. darwint Richards. Chile, Argent.—Mt, Mf.
L. divergens Duda. Pert, Boliv., Chile, Argent—Mt, SC.
+L. duplicata Richards.—Mt.
+L. ellipsipennis Richards.—Mt.
L. flavipes (Meigen) Richards. Eur., N. Afr.—Mt.
L. mediospimosa Duda. Cosmopol.—Mt.
L. pectinifera (Villen.) Richards. Eur., Falkl. Is.—Mt.
L. pulchripes Duda. Argent., Parag., Urug.—Mt.
+ +Phthitia alexandrt Richards.—Mt. The genus must be very near Lepéocera.
+Ph. selkirki (Enderl. ut Pterodrepana) Richards.—Mt.
+Ph. venosa Enderl.—Mt.
Syrphidae (96).
Allograpta exotica (Wiedem.) (A. Skottsbergi Enderl.). Neotropical. An
American genus of at least 16 species, the majority in S. America.—Mt, SC, Mf.
+A. robinsoniana Enderl.—Mt. Mf.
Melanostoma fenestratum (Macq.) Fluke. Chile—Mt. An American genus.
+M. Lundbladi (Enderl. ut Carposcalis) Fluke.—Mt.
Eristalis tenax (1..). Cosmopol., also in Chile-—Mt, Mf.
Sterphus aurifrons Shannon. Chile—Mt.
Tachinidae (70).
Incamyia chilensis Aldrich. Chile-—Mt, SC, Mf. AS. American genus.
+Phantastosiphona kuscheli Cortés—Mt. A Centr. American genus.
Tendipedidae (288).
Anatopynia vittigera Edw. S. Chile, Patag—Mf. A world-wide genus.
+ Clunio fuscipennis Wirth.—Mf. A large, wide-ranging genus.
+ Hydrobaenus fernandezensis Wirth.—Mt, Mf. The genus world-wide.
20 — 557857 The Nat. Hist. of Juan Fernandez and Easter Isl. Vol. I
306 C. SKOTTSBERG
H. pratorum (Goetgeb.) Coe. England, Chile, Patag.—Mt.
H. pusillus (Eaton) Coe. England, Kerguelen.—Mt.
+ Podonomus acutus \WWirth.—Mf. A genus of numerous species in southern
S. America, few elsewhere (Eur., N. Amer.).
+P. discistylus Wirth.—Mt, Mf.
P. kiefferi (Garrett) Edwards. Brit. Columb., Chile, Eur.—Mf.
+P. kuscheli Wirth.—Mf.
P. nigrinus Edwards.—S. Chile.—Mf.
+P. selkirkt Wirth—Mt, Mf.
Tanytarsus flavipes (Meigen) Townes. N. Amer., S. Amer., also Chile,
Eur.—Mf.
Tipulidae (4).
Evioptera pilipes (Fabricius). Cosmopol.—Mt, SC, Mf.
+Limonia (Dicranomyia) affadilis Alex.
ranging genus.
+L. amphionts Alex.—Mt.
+L. axterasta Alex.—Mt.
+L. harpax Alex.—Mt.
+L. kuscheliana Alex.—Mt.
+L. masafuerae Alex.—Mf.
+L. pedestris Alex.—Mf.
+L. selkirki Alex.—Mt, Mf.
+L. stuardot Alex.—Mt.
L. trituberculata Alex. S. Chile, Patag—Mt, SC (an endemic variety).
+L. venatrix Alex.—Mt.
+L. veneris Alex.—Mf.
+L. yunqueana Alex.—Mt.
+Molophilus amphacanthus Alex.—Mt. A world-wide genus well developed
on the mainland.
+M. antimenus Alex.—Mt, Mf.
+M. appressospinus Alex.—Mt.
+M. arciferus Alex.—Mf.
+M. canopus Alex.—Mt.
+M. defoeanus Alex.—Mf.
+M. distifurcus Alex.—Mt.
+M. filiolus Alex.—Mt.
+M. filius Alex.—Mt.
+M. masafuerae Alex.—Mf.
+M. multifidus Alex.—Mt.
+M. neptunus Alex —Mt.
+M. pectiniferus Alex.—Mt.
+M. rectispinus Alex.—Mt.
+M. selkirkianus (Enderl. ut Archimolophilus) Alex.—Mt.
+1. styx Alex.—Mf.
Mt, Mf. A very large and wide-
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 307
+M. tridens Alex.—Mt.
+M. variatus Alex.—Mf.
+M. yunquensts Alex.—Mt.
+ Shannonomyia kuschelt Alex.—Mf. An American genus, well represented
also in Chile and extending north to Canada.
+.Sh. masatierrae Alex.—Mt.
+ Sh. selkirkiana Alex.—Mt.
+ Tipula baeckstroemt Alex.—Mt. The genus world-wide.
Coleoptera.
As yet little has been published about the beetles collected by Dr. KUSCHEL;
to judge from what is known the number of island species no doubt will be
multiplied.
Anobtidae (195).
Anobium punctatum De Geer. Cosmopol., introduced.—Mt. Beside the typical
species an endemic ssp. described by Pic (Mt).
Mt.
+ Calymmaderus atronotatus Pic—Mt, Mf. Near a Chilean species. Numerous
A. striatum Ol. Cosmopol., introduced.
species in N. and S. America.
++Masatierrum impressipenne Pic—Mt, Mf. A genus near Megorama Fall.,
a small N. American genus.
Stegobium (Sitodrepa) paniceum (L.). Cosmopol., domestic.—Mf.
Xyletomerus pubescens ssp. kuscheli Pic—Mt, the ssp. endemic. A north
American genus.
X. pubescens var. picettarsis Pic (fumosus var., Pic)—Mt. The variety endemic.
Anthribtidae (153).
++ Opisolia lenis Jordan—Mt. Related to Lucyclotropis Jordan (Centr. and
S. Amer.).
Bostrychidae (166).
Neotertus pulvinatus Blanch. Chile-——Mt. A small genus reported from Pert
and Chile.
Prostephanus sulcicollis Fairm. et Germ. Chile.—Mt.
Carabidae (5, 260).
Bembidium inconstans Solier. Chile-—Mt. A world-wide genus.
L. punctigerum Solier. Chile.-—Mt.
Laemosthenes complanatus Dejean (Pristonychus, Gory, Andrewes). Cosmopol.,
also Chile; introduced.—Mt, Mf.
+Metius eurypterus Putzeys—Mf. A S. American genus, mostly in the far
south.
M. flavipes Dejean. Chile—Mt, SC.
+M. kuschelt Straneo.—Mt.
+M. ovalipennits Straneo.—Mf.
308 C. SKOTTSBERG
+ Plerostichus kuscheli Straneo—Mt. A world-wide genus.
+ Pt. selkirki Andrewes.—Mt, SC.
+Pt. skottsbergt Andrewes.—Mt.
+ Pt. walkeri Andrewes.—Mt.
++ Trachysarus basalis Straneo—Mt. The genus presumably endemic (260.
138).
Mt.
Mt.
bicolor Straneo.
i
T. emdent Straneo.
T. kuscheli Straneo.—Mt.
T. ovalipennis Straneo.—Mt.
T. pallipes Germ.—Mt, Mf.
T. punctiger Andrewes.—Mf.
ik
+ 4+ + + + 4+
+7. sericeus Andrewes.—Mf.
+ Trechisibus baeckstroemi (Andr.) Straneo.—Mf. An American genus.
T. femoralis Germ. Chile.—Mt (end. ssp.), SC.
+7. kuscheli Jeannel.—Mt.
+ Variopalpus crusoet Reed.—Mt, SC.
Chrysomelidae (282, 18).
++Minotula fernandezsiana Bechyné.—Mt. The genus is related to /Hypno-
phila (W. Eur.—Japan).
+M. kuschelt Bechyné.—Mt.
+I. nitens Weise.—Mt.
Ciotdae (166).
+ Cis bimaculatus Germ.—Mt. A world-wide genus.
+C. fernandeztanus Lesne.—Mt.
+C. rufus Germ.—Mt.
Cleridae (213).
Necrobia rufipes De Geer. Cosmopol.—Mt, introduced.
Coccinellidae (282).
Eviopis opposita Guér. Chile-—Mt. The genus ranges from Vancouver I. to
Patag. and Fuegia.
Colydiidae (200).
+ Pycnomerodes masafuerensis Pope—Mf. Beside the two Juan Fernandez
species there is a third in New Zealand.
+P. masatierrensis Pope.—Mt.
+ Pycnomerus insularis Grouvelle-—Mt. The genus N. and S. Amer., E. Ind.,
Japan, Australia, N. Zeal. (numerous), Samoa.
+P. germaint Pope.—Mf.
Cryptophagidae (36).
Cryptophagus atomarioides Grouv. (Selkirki Bruce’). Chile—Mt. A world-
‘Wetter’ 19:9. 1954.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 309
wide genus, the subg. J/zzonomus, where the island species belong, in Eur., N. and
Centr. Afr., Macaron., Centr. Asia, probably also N. Amer.
+C. Skottsbergi Bruce.—Mt.
+C. splendens Bruce.—Mt.
++Cryptosomatula longicornis Bruce.—Mf.
+Loberoschema convexum Bruce——Mt. Beside the island species 3 in Bo-
livia and 2 in Chile.
+L. discoideum Bruce.—Mt.
Curculionidae (z2). Dr. KUSCHEL, who specializes in this family, estimates the
number of species collected by him to exceed one hundred.
++Anolethrus gracilis Auriv.—Mt.
++ Apteronanus dendroseridis Auriv.—Mt.
+A. (?) gunnerae Auriv.—Mt.
Aramigus Fullert Horn. A widespread noxious beetle.—Mt.
+Caulophilus (?) nigrirostris Auriv—Mt. The genus in southern U.S.A.,
Centr. and S. America. It does not exist on Juan Fernandez (KUSCHEL in litt.).
+ Cyphometopus masafuerae Auriv.—Mf. 3 species in Chile, where the island
species most likely also occurs (KUSCHEL in litt.).
++ Fuanobta ruficeps Auriv.—Mt.
++ Fuanorhinus Robinsont Auriv.—SC.
Ottorrhynchus rugosostriatus Goeze. W. and S. Europe.
introduced via Chile.
Mt, accidentally
+ + Pachystylus dimidiatus Wollaston.—Mt.
+P. nitidus Auriv.—Mt.
+ Pachytrogus crasstrostris \Wollaston.—Mt.
+ Pentarthrum affine Wollaston.—Mt. A widespread genus, found on many
oceanic islands.
+P. nigropiceum (Phil.) Auriv.—Mt.
+P. nitidum Wollaston.—Mt.
+P. rufoclavatum Auriv.—Mt. Close to P. afzcale Broun from New Zealand.
+ +Platynanus arenarius Auriv.—Mt.
+P. Baeckstroemt Auriv.—Mt.
+P. hirsutissimus Auriv.—Mt.
+P. quadratifer Auriv.—Mt.
+P. sericatus Auriv.—Mt.
+P. Skottsbergi Auriv.—Mt.
+ Strongylopterus nitidirostris Auriv.—Mt. The genus is also found in Chile
and New Caledonia.
S. ovatus Boh. Chile.
Mt, Mf.
Dermestidae (104).
Dermestes vulpinus L. Cosmopol., introduced.—Mt.
Dytiscidae (299, 117).
Antsomeria bistriata Brullé. Chile. —Mt. The genus known from Tristan da Cunha.
310 C. SKOTTSBERG
+Lancetes Baeckstroemt Zimmerm.—Mf. The genus austral bicentric.
Rhantus signatus ssp. kuscheli Guignot.—Mt, Mf. An endemic variety of
a Chilean species.
Lathridiidae (196).
+ Coninomus curtipennis Pic.—Mt. Near C. dimidiatus Belon (Boliv., Chile).
An essentially European genus.
C. subfasciatus Reitt. Chile-—Mt.
Melasidae (308).
+ Pseudodiaeretus Selkirki Flet—Mt. An Argentine genus.
Mycetophagidae (196).
Mycetophagus chilensis Phil. Chile-—Mt. The genus in Eur., Asia, Afr. and Amer.
Nitidulidae (196, 107).
+ Cnips acuta Gillogly—Mt. A Chilean genus.
+C. atrata Gillogly.—Mt.
+C. diversa Pic—Mt.
+C. fernandezia Gillogly.—Mt.
+C. mucronis Gillogly.—Mt.
Scarabaeidae (215).
Aphodius granarius 1. Cosmopol., domestic.—Mt.
Pleuropharus caesus Creutz. Reported from N. Amer., Chile, Eur., Orient,
Madagascar.—Mt, introduced.
Scolytidae (309).
Guathotrichus corthyloides Schedl. Chile-—Mt. The genus in N. and S. America.
Phloeotribus willet Schedl. Peru and Chile.—Mt.
Staphylinidae (25).
+Atheta Robinsont Bernhauer.—Mt. Near a Brazilian species. A cosmopoli-
tan genus of about 2000 species.
+Eleusis semtrufa Fairm. et Germ.—Mt. A genus of about 150 species, S.
Amer. (also Chile), Austral., N. Zealand.
+Medon crusoéanus Bernhauer—Mt. A cosmopolitan genus of about 500
species.
+ Ocyusa Baeckstroemi Bernhauer.—Mt. About 40, mainly Palaearctic.
Phitonthus nitidipennis Solier. Chile—Mt. A cosmopolitan genus of about
800 species.
+ Trogophloeus Skottsbergi Bernhauer.—Mt. A cosmopolitan genus of about
350 Sp.
Temnochilidae (196).
+ Phanodesta cribraria (Blanch.). Includes Ph. angulata Reitt—Mt, SC. A
Chilean genus.
+Ph. robusta Pic.—Mt.
+Ph. variegata Germ.—Mt.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 311
Tenebrionidae (104, 196).
Blapstinus punctulatus Solier. S. Amer., also Chile-—Mt, SC. Numerous spe-
cies in N. and Centr. Amer., some in S. Amer.
+Enneboeus Baeckstroemi Pic.—Mt. Near a species from Panama. The genus
Mex.—Colomb., Tasmania.
Nycterinus gractlipes Phil. Chile-—Mt. Numerous species in Chile.
Hymenoptera.
Aphelinidae (211).
Aphelinus jucundus Gahan. N. America.—Mt, Mf.
Bethylidae (191).
+Cephalonomia skottsberg? Brues.—Mt.
++Lepidosternopsis kuscheliana Oglobin.—Mt.
+ Peristerola maculicornis Oglobin.—SC. A widely distributed genus of about
25 species.
+P. sanctae clarae Oglobin.—SC.
Braconidae (187).
+ Apanteles evadne Nixon.—Mt, Mf. A wide-spread genus.
+A. morroensts Nixon.—SC.
Aphaereta minuta (Ns.).—Mt.
+Opius kuscheli Nixon.—Mt, Mf.
+O. scabriventris Nixon.—Mt.
Dryinidae (191).
+ Haplogonatopus insularis Oglobin—Mt. A genus of 6 species (N. Amer.,
J. Fern., Australia, Pacif. Is.).
++Idologonatopus nigrithorax Oglobin.—Mf. A genus related to the former.
Elachertidae (211).
++Kuschelachertus acrasta De Santis —Mt, Mf.
+Pseudelachertus semiflavus De Santis—Mt. The genus otherwise Aus-
tralian.
Encyrtidae (211).
+Hemencyrtus kuscheli De Santis—Mt, Mf. A neotropical genus.
Entedontidae (211).
+Achrysochris bicarinata De Santis—Mt, Mf.
Euparacrias phytomyzae (Bréthes) De Santis. Chile, Argentina —Mt, introduced.
+Omphalomorphella elachertiformis De Santis. Said to come near an Aus-
tralian sp.—Mt, Mf.
Eulophidae (211).
+Diaulomyia calvaria De Santis ——Mt, Mf. Allied sp. in Australia.
312 C. SKOTTSBERG
Formicidae (283).
Ponera trigona Mayr var. opacior Forel. N. Amer., W. Ind., Chile, Argent.
—Mt. The typical species in Brazil. Probably spread with the traffic.
Prenolepis obscura Mayr ssp. vaga Forel. Melanesia—Mt. The typical spe-
cies Java, Australia, Hawaii, another variety N. Guinea and Melanesia.
Tetramorium guineense (Fabricius). An African ant, now widely spread with
the human traffic—Mt.
Ichneumonidae (206).
Enicospilus purgatus Say. Temperate N. and S. America.—Mt, Mf. An al-
most world-wide genus (Amer., Eur., Afr., Austral., N. Zeal., Hawaii).
+ Hemiteles Baeckstroemi Roman.—Mt. An almost world-wide genus, less
rich in the tropics.
+H. masafuerae Roman.—Mf.
+ Holocremna (?) juaniana Roman.—Mt. The genus is known from Europe.
Metelia (Paniscus) gerling? Schrottky. Chile—Mt. Range of genus very
wide, including S. Amer., Falkl. Is., Rodriguez, Austral., N. Zeal.
Stilpnus gagates Grav. var. Robinsont Roman.—Mf. The. typical species in
Europe, the genus also in N. America and Greenland.
Triptognathus aequicinctus Spin. Chile-—Mt.
Mymaridae (190).
Anagrus incarnatus Hal. Palaearctic—Mf, undoubtedly introduced.
++Cremnomymar fernandezi Oglobin.—Mt.
+C. wnperfectus Oglobin.—Mt.
++ Nesopolynema caudatum Oglobin.—Mt.
Polynema fuscipes Hal. Palaearctic—Mf, supposed to have been accidentally
introduced.
+ +Scolopsopteron kuscheli Oglobin.—Mt.
Oo
co)
Rhynchota.
Heteroptera.
Anthocoridae (21).
+ Buchanantella devia Bergroth—Mt. Related to B. continua B. White from
Madeira; other species reported from Tasmania and Hawaii.
Lyctocoris campestris Fabr. Cosmopolitan, probably adventitious.—Mt.
Ly gaeidae (21, 161).
++Micrymenus kuscheli Kormilev—Mt. Most nearly related to Metagerra
B. White from New Zealand (KORMILEY).
+iM. seclusus Bergroth.—Mt.
+Nystus Baeckstroemi Bergroth—Mt, Mf. An almost cosmopolitan genus
with numerous species in New Zealand and Melanesia, east to Samoa; greatest
concentration in Hawaii. V. Baeckstroemz is closer to N. Huttont B. White from
New Zealand than to any American species (KORMILEV).
+ + Robinsonochoris tingitoides Kormilev.—Mt. Forms a separate tribe.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 5 SS
Miridae (50).
+Derophthalma fernandestana Carv.—Mt. A neotropical genus (Braz., Argent.
Urug.).
+ +Kuscheliana masatierrensts Carv.—Mt.
Nabididae (21).
Nabis (Reduviolus) punctipennis Blanch. Chile—Mt, Mf. A world-wide genus.
’
Reduviidae (292, 310).
Empicoris (Ploeariodes) rubromaculatus (Blackb.). Almost cosmopolitan.—Mt,
probably adventitious.
+Metapterus additius Wygodz.—Mt. A wide-ranging genus (Amer., also
Ghile, 5. Eur., N. Afr, W- Asia).
+M. kuschelt Wygodz.—Mt.
+M. masatierrensts Wy godz.—Mt.
Plotaria chilensis (Phil.) Kuschel.—Mt, Mf. Almost cosmopolitan; also in
Chile and probably adventitious in Juan Fernandez.
Homoptera.
Aphididae (communicated by Dr. KUSCHEL): 4 introduced species on garden plants.
Cicadellidae (57).
++Kvansiella kuscheli China.—Mt.
Delphacidae (314).
+ Nesosydne sappho Fennah.—Mt. A genus known before from south and
central Pacific islands including Hawaii, but never reported from America.
+ lV. minos Fennah.—Mt, Mf.
+ WV. oreas Fennah.—Mt.
+V. calypso Fennah.—Mt, Mf.
+N. philoctetes Fennah.—Mt, Mf.
+NV. vulcan Fennah.—Mt.
+ Delphacodes kuscheli Fennah.—Mt. A widely distributed genus.
+D. (Sogata) selkirkz (Muir) Fennah.—Mt.
Fasstdae (21).
++ Alloproctus amandatus Bergroth.—Mf.
Some soogeographical statistics.
Orthoptera.—Of the four species known 2 are endemic but of American
affinity, one a Chilean species and one reported from Galapagos Is. and Easter I.
Neuroptera.—Endemism strong, 4 species of 5, 2 forming an endemic genus,
the fifth an American species. Relations presumably Andean.
Lepidoptera —Of the 26 indigenous species 18 (69 %) are endemic, and there
are four endemic genera. Of these, Afothetoeca and Fernandocrambus are related
to world-wide genera also represented in S. America, //op/ofarsza to an American
314 C. SKOTTSBERG
genus; the systematic position of Fuanta has not been stated. Together they
include 6 species. Of the remaining 12, 7 belong to genera with a large to world-
wide area including at least some part of America, and one belongs to an American
genus. Lulia (3 sp.) and Lobophora are essentially boreal. The 8 non-endemics
are found in Chile or in some other part of S. America.
The total absence of all indigenous Rhopalocera is remarkable.
Diptera.—At present 157 named species belonging to 27 families have been
reported. Nine or ten species at least have been introduced with the human traffic»
147 are thought to be indigenous and of these 94, 64%, are endemic. Con-
sidering our insufficient knowledge of the dipterofauna of Chile, too much weight
should not be laid on these figures, but even if quite a few of the insular en-
demics will, in the future, be discovered on the mainland, I trust that a fair
number will remain, sufficient to show the peculiar character of the fauna. Be-
sides it can be foreseen that Dr. KUSCHEL’s new material will bring to light
some remarkable additions.
The fauna is not a haphazard crowd of wind-drifted flies. It gets its stamp
less from the few endemic genera—of 10 new genera proposed by Enderlein
only 4 remain—than from the presence of six non-endemic, 5. American or
more wide-ranging genera with six or more species each, Jolophilus with 19
(all end.), Scatella with 16 (all end.), Lzmonia with 13 (12 end.), Leptocera
with 10 (3 end.), Mycetophila with 7 (2 end.) and Podonomus with 6 (4 end.),
together 71 species of which 56 (79%) are endemic.
The Neotropical-Chilean character of the fauna is obvious. This is what we
expect quite apart from what we may think about the history of the fauna, but
the almost total absence of even a small austral-circumpolar or Pacific element
is noteworthy; the only examples would be Prosopantrum flavipes (austral-
tricentric) and /ucellia intermedia, said to be distributed over “‘Oceania’’. There
are some striking cases of disjunction, suggesting bipolarity (Lioyella, Flydrobaenus,
Podonomus Kiefferz), but the distances will perhaps be lessened when the dis-
tribution becomes better known.
Coleoptera.—| want to emphasize that of Dr. KUSCHEL’s collections ony 5
families have been worked out; it is to be regretted that no list of the Cur-
culionids is available. On the other hand I believe that the beetles inhabiting
the Chilean mainland are better known than the flies and some other insect
groups so that the proportion between endemics and non-endemics will not
undergo very great change in the future.
The number of named species hitherto reported from Juan Fernandez is
103, belonging to 19 families, perhaps little more than 1/3 of the species found
there. Eleven species are anthropochorous. Of the remaining 92 no less than 74 are
endemic—80 %, only 20% having been found elsewhere. Future research will
alter these figures, I suppose, a number of island endemics will be stated to
extend to Chile and vice versa, but on the other hand we have good reason
to expect that practically all Curculionids collected but not yet described will
prove to be endemic; of 22 indigenous species enumerated by AURIVILLIUS 21
were described as new.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA ZI5
So far 49 indigenous genera are cited, of which 10 are endemic; five of
these are Curculionids.
The non-endemic species are, with one exception—Aylelomerus pubescens, a
N. American species represented by 2 endemic varieties—also found in Chile.
As yet no austral-bicentric or -tricentric species have been found. However,
Pycnomerodes with 2 species in Juan Fernandez, 1 in New Zealand and none
elsewhere, as well as Pycnomerus, Strongylopterus, Eleusis and Enneboeus suggest
the existence of a small austral, possibly Antarctic element, even if the area
in cases extends north of the Equator.
Hymenoptera.—TVhe 35 registered species, 5 of them adventitious, cannot
represent but a minor portion of the fauna. Just as in all other insect groups
endemism is strong, 23 species are endemic (76.6 %) and of the 26 genera 6. The
affinities were, as a rule, not indicated by the authors; very likely they are,
with some exceptions, with 5. American forms. //af/ogonatus is essentially south-
ern, Prenolepis obscura is a southern, mainly Pacific ant. Aphelzus jucundus and
Stilpnus gagates are said to be boreal, but in these as in other similar cases
the possibility of accidental introduction must be considered.
Flemiptera—The 21 indigenous species—there are 7 adventitious ones—are
by no means a fair representation of the RKhynchota inhabiting the islands. Dr.
KUSCHEL’s collection contains twice as many species, more than half of them
endemic; of the 21 named species 20 are restricted to Juan Fernandez. Where
3 of the 4 endemic genera have their relatives I cannot tell, but the fourth, J/zcry-
menus, is most nearly allied to a genus in New Zealand. Buchananiella is quoted for
Madeira, Tasmania and Hawaii, but not from America, Wyszus, a world-wide
genus, has a stronghold in New Zealand and in the Pacific, and the single is-
land species stands nearer to a species endemic in New Zealand than to its
American congeners. It seems likely that we have to do with an austral-
antarctic element.
Mollusca.
The following synopsis is based on information supplied by Professor NILS
ODHNER who put his unique knowledge of this group at my disposal. The
additions and changes in his earlier list (759) are entirely due to him, and I
thank him for invaluable assistance. Possibly the new material brought back by
our 1954-55 survey will give additional taxonomic results, but they will not alter
the zoogeographical position of the fauna.
Lindodontidae.
++Amphidoxa helicophantoides Pfeiff—Mt. The genus (only 2 species known)
is related to Stephanoda. |
+A. marmorella Pfeiff—Mt.
+Charopa (Endodonta, s. lat.) zzvoluta Odhner.—Mt. Numerous species,
Polyn.2 NY Guint, ‘Australy: N)
and Henderson (Elizabeth), an islet of raised coral said to be only 25 m high
(345) but nevertheless the home of an endemic Saztalum (compare Laysan of the
Leeward Hawaiian Islands with S. e//zpdicum var. laysanense). The Marquesas flora
is considered to be well known and the same may be true of the flora of the
other islands, even if no complete lists have been published; I suppose that all
the novelties have been described, but my figures for wide-spread species are,
perhaps, too low. There is a difference between my figures and those given by
BROWN, because varieties are counted by him as units equal to species, which
explains why his figures for the endemics are so high.
The largest families are Rubiaceae (36), Cyperaceae (25), Compositae (19),
Euphorbiaceae (16), Gramineae (13), Leguminosae (12), and Piperaceae (10). Other
large and important families, such as Araliaceae, Cruciferae, Ericaceae, Malvaceae,
Myrtaceae, Orchidaceae, Sapindaceae, etc., are represented by fewer species. We
have every reason to believe that the flora has suffered losses after man had
taken possession of the soil.
The total number of presumably indigenous species—many of aboriginal
introduction and not few later arrivals have become naturalized—is 282, of which
156 are endemic within the area. The genera are 145, of which only 3 are endemic
according to BROWN. The ratio species: genus is almost 2:1. No genus is very
large, the largest is Psychotria with 12 species, and 10 have from 5 to 10 species
each. The distribution of the species and the number of local endemics are indi-
cated in Table VIII. The figures do not pretend to be exact.
A large proportion of endemics and of woody, arboreous or fruticose species
—suffruticose excluded—are characteristic of oceanic floras of considerable anti-
quity. Of the 156 endemic species 113 (72.4%) are woody, of the 126 found
elsewhere 69 (54.8%). The herbaceous species are, with very few exceptions, peren-
nial. Systematically isolated types are few, and even the Marquesas Islands can-
not, in this respect, be compared with either Hawaii or Juan Fernandez.
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 425
Table VIII.
Distribution of angtosperms in Southeastern Polynesia.
Number of Number of % Woody species
species endemics endemics Number %
Marquesas <)<=- .- ebhe: structure of the Pacitie Basie Ibidi V1:
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12. AURIVILLIUS, CHR. Coleoptera-Curculionidae von Juan Fernandez und der Oster-Insel.
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24.
49.
50.
GI.
52.
53-
54.
55-
56.
57-
DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 429
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DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 431
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DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 433
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209. —-— Chloropidae. (Insect. J. Fern. 19.) Ibid. 4, 1955.
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DERIVATION OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA 437
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Go DH RR W
®W N N N
O ©
WW W
DW Ww Ww
oo |
©} N we
C. SKOTTSBERG
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337. ——— La Flora fosil de la region del alto Rio Chalia en Santa Cruz (Argentina).
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341. —— Plant succession on recent lava flows in the island of Hawaii. Géteb. K.
Vet. o. Vitterh. Samh. Handl., 6:e foljden, ser. B, bd 1:8, 1941.
342. —-— The Vegetation of Easter Island. Nat. Hist. Juan Fern. II, 1927.
343. Cooker, G.H. Te pito te henua, known as Rapa Nui. Rep. Smithson. Inst. 1897.
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344. Moryka, J. Lichenum generis Usnea studium monographicum. Lwow 1938.
345. Bricnam, W. T. An index to the islands of the Pacific ocean. Mem. Bishop Museum
Vol. I: 2. Honolulu rgoo.
346. Forsvrer, G. Florulae insularum australium Prodromus. Goettingen 1776.
347. —— A Voyage round the world ...commanded by Capt. James Cook 1772, 3, 4
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348. —-— De plantis esculentis insularum oceani australis Commentatio botanica. Berlin
1786.
Contents.
Part 1. The Juan Fernandez Islands.
Chapter I. Composition, distribution and relationships of the Flora ...... 193
Chapter Il. Sources of the island flora as judged by the total distribution of the
I . . . - J = ‘s . —
geographical elements, with special reference to the composition of the Chilean
We ef 3 tae Uva ML ot, ca teas Ga een ee A oe. eS et eee A
Chapter III. Composition, distribution and relationships of the Fauna .... . 292
Mech. Continental and Oceanic islands.<5 5°) 20). ea ke ALF
pee ¥. fhe Pacific Ocean and. Continental Drift-. .:9.. 52... .. : 325
Peery to bransoceanic: Inigration fi 0529S os, Sosy wele 8 ee Se ere 31
“hapter VII. Biological characteristics of isolated islands ......°..... 351
Peer viil. Evolution im: Oceanic islands! Je0 x25. (Fe Gh eS) eye ee - 363
Paer 1X. Juan Fernandez—oceanic or contimental? . . - 2 2.2042 es se. 372
Chapter X. The Chilean coast line and the history of the Andes ....... 380
Saager XI. Fhe Tertiary floras of Chile and Patagonia... ...-....-... 386
Chapter XII. Antarctica as a source of the present circumpolar floras .... . 389
Chapter XIII. The history of Juan Fernandez—a tentative sketch .-..... - 394
Part 2. Easter Island.
Chapter XIV. Composition, distribution and relationships of the Flora... . . 406
Chapter XV. Composition, distribution and relationships of the Fauna... . . 417
Chapter XVI. The biogeographical history of Easter Island .......... 421
enn STEAL Te oP! Se Ga cee Pe Pte Mae, the ee Et ode ie is. ad vo be gw eel 428
Printed October 26th, 1956.
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