■ I 562 .7 3> .N52> \ Vx'v^ro ]ELfeuVe> NEW YORK? D. APPLETON A C? AND WILEY BOSTON? GOlllDt KENDALL & LI N C O LN AX. B ANY* PUTNAM T&iURLDW WEEP PRINTER TO G“ME STATE® l§42e X. Townsend. Russell, Sr. MINERALOGY OF NEf-YORK; COMPRISING DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MINERALS HITHERTO FOUND IN THE STATE OF NEW-YORK, AND NOTICES OF THEIR USES IN THE ARTS AND AGRICULTURE. By LEWIS C. BECK, M. D. Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in Rutgers College, New-Jersey. ALBANY : PRINTED BY \V. & A. WHITE & J. VISSCHER. 1842, The copy right of this work i, secured for the benefit of the People of the State of New- York. SAMUEL YOUNG, Albany , 1842. Secretary of State. To His Excellency WILLIAM H. SEWARD, GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF NEW-YORK. I have the honour to submit a Report on the Mineralogy of the State of New-York. Your obedient servant, LEWIS C. BECK. Albany, November 1, 1842. ■ ' ( . . ■ PREFACE. In the arrangement of the Geological Survey of New-York, the part assigned me by the late Governor, the Hon. William L. Marcy, was the examination, scientific description and chemical analysis of its mineral products, or what was understood to be included under the term Mineralogy in its broadest acceptation. This commission was continued by Governor Seward ; and the work now pre¬ sented to the public, is the final result of my investigations. Desirous of following out to the fullest extent the views which were enter¬ tained in regard to the department entrusted to me, the plan which I pursued was, to visit the more interesting mineral districts, for the purpose of obtaining illustrative specimens ; to determine with as much accuracy as was necessary, the chemical composition of the most useful and interesting minerals and mineral waters ; and finally to present detailed descriptions of all the minerals hitherto found in the State, with notices of their localities and uses. The results of my labours, in regard to the analysis of useful minerals and mineral waters, will be found in the first part of this work, entitled Economical Mineralogy. In this, my object has been to give an extended and popular ac¬ count of these products, with such remarks, either directly or indirectly con¬ nected with the subject treated of, as I thought would be useful to those who are engaged in the various manufactures dependent on them. The ores of iron, lead and manganese, gypsum, the water limestones, and the mineral springs, have especially engaged my attention, and full details con¬ cerning them will be found in the following pages. Impressed as I have been Min. B Vlll PREFACE. with the conviction that these must hereafter become important sources of wealth, I could not doubt the propriety of devoting a large space to their consideration. Those who are acquainted with the difficulties which attend investigations of this kind, will, I hope, at least give me credit for industry in the execution of this part of my trust. At the commencement of the Survey, few persons, I. believe, were aware of the mineral wealth of New-York, or of the number of species which it con¬ tains. Such indeed is the extent of territory which the State embraces, and the vast number of mineral localities which it contains, that I could do no more than visit the most important ones. These were of course situated in the great pri¬ mary regions of the northern and southern counties, although the western ones also afforded rich supplies of species peculiar to their limestone and other for¬ mations. The second part, entitled Descriptive Mineralogy, contains detailed de¬ scriptions of the various species hitherto found in New-York, with all their varie¬ ties, and notices of their principal localities. In preparing these descriptions, I have freely consulted standard authorities ; while remarks upon such peculiarities as our varieties present, have been introduced in their proper place. I may also add, that even in those cases where all the varieties have not yet been found within the limits of the State, I have still given the descriptions of them, in order to render the work as complete as possible in regard to our minerals. A few species have been introduced, whose occurrence as New-York mine¬ rals is still doubtful, or which require further examination ; such are Aluminite, Arfwedsonite, Achmite, &c. This course I thought less objectionable than the omission of any species which really belongs to the State. I have also added a list of such American minerals as have not heretofore been found within our limits. As the crystalline forms of minerals are of great interest, and indeed consti¬ tute a very important part of the science of mineralogy, I have paid much atten¬ tion to the determination of those which have been noticed in this State. The PREFACE. IX numerous figures which are here given, from cuts prepared by Mr. Peckham of New-York, will sufficiently attest the richness of our localities in this respect. To render this part of the work convenient for reference, all the figures scattered through the volume have been collected in the form of tables, with the mea¬ surements of the several angles. I should state, that in regard to the projections of crystalline forms, Brooke’s “ Introduction to Crystallography,” and Haiiy’s “Traite de Mineralogie,” have been my principal guides. In the measurements of angles, however, I have often adopted the views of Phillips, and other more recent authors, in preference to those of Haiiy, for reasons which will be under¬ stood by the mineralogist. As there is some difference in this respect, it may be proper to state, that the scale of hardness which I have followed is that proposed by Mohs, and which is as follows, viz: I, Talc; 2, Gypsum; 3, Calcareous spar; 4, Fluor spar; 5, Apatite ; 6, Adularia ; 7, Rock crystal ; 8, Topaz ; 9, Corundum ; 10, Diamond. The history of the progress of Mineralogy in the State of New-York, is in some measure connected with that of Geology. The former science, however, was cultivated here long before geology assumed the form of a distinct and im¬ portant branch of knowledge. Attention was turned to the study of mineralogy in this State about the end of the last century. It is to the late Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, of New-York, that the science is indebted for the first movement made in its behalf. The first and second volumes of the Medical Repository, published in 1798 and ’99, contain “ A Sketch of the Mineralogical History of the State of New-York,” by that gentleman, which, although meagre in its details, shows that even at that early day the business of collecting materials upon this subject was commenced. In 1799, a Mineralogical Society was formed in the city of New-York, the first in the United States. The circular address of that society was published in the second volume of the Medical Repository. Dr. Mitchill was the president of this association ; and, as he himself states, its object was to “ arm every hand X PREFACE. with a hammer, and every eye with a microscope.” The late Hon. Samuel M. Hopkins, and George J. Warner, Esq., were among the most active members of this society. That the interest in the science continued to increase, is evinced by the papers which are to be found in several succeeding volumes of the Medical Repository. Among these, I may notice “ Observations on the Natural History of the Village of Kinderhook, by the Rev. David Warden;” “ Mineralogical Description of the Country near the Walkill and the Shawangunk Mountains in New-York, by Samuel Akerly “Descriptions of fluate of lime and oxide of manganese, in the State of New-York, and Mineralogical notices of Onondaga, N. Y.” In 1810 was commenced, in the city of New-York, the “ American Minera¬ logical Journal,” by Archibald Bruce, M. D. This work was continued until 1814, and it contributed greatly to advance the cause of Mineralogy in the United States. It contains papers on the mineral productions of New-York, by Drs. Mitchill, Bruce, Akerly and Arnell, and by Mr. J. Griscom. “ The Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures,” incorporated in 1793, and whose charter expired by the limitation contained in the act, was revived in 1804, under the name of the “ Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts.” This Society has published four volumes of Transactions. The first of these contains “ A Memoir on the Onondaga Salt Springs and Salt Manufactories in the State of New-York, by Benjamin De Witt, M. D.” This is, so far as I am informed, the earliest scientific account of these valuable springs, and is a remarkable paper for the time at which it was written. It is well worthy of being consulted even at the present day. Although the object of this society, as expressed in its title, was chiefly the promotion of agriculture and the arts, mineralogy was by no means neglected. Being provided with rooms in the Capitol at Albany, they were advantageously situated for the collection of specimens from various parts of the State. A mine¬ ralogical cabinet was at length commenced, and through the zeal and activity of some of the members, it was placed on what at that day should be considered a respectable footing. PREFACE. XI In 1813, an address was delivered before this Society, “ On the Mineralogical Resources of the United States, by T. Romeyn Beck, M. D.”, which was publish¬ ed in the third volume of its Transactions. This address contains a notice of the most important mineral productions at that time known to occur in this State. Professor Cleaveland’s Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology ap¬ peared in the year 1816, and it afforded abundant and gratifying proofs of the attention which had been paid to the study of American minerals. The rapid sale of this edition, and the publication of a new and enlarged one in 1822, show the general interest which this science excited. It is much to be regretted that the demand for this work, which has long been out of print, has not been met by new and improved editions. Notwithstanding many later works on mineralogy have appeared, Cleaveland’s Treatise is still referred to as one of the standard authorities both in Europe and America. In 1818, Dr. Mitchill published an edition of the popular “ Elementary Intro¬ duction to Mineralogy, by William Phillips,” with notes and additions on Ameri¬ can articles. The object of this reprint was, as stated by the editor, to fur¬ nish a more cheap, portable and compendious manual than Cleaveland’s work, and which seemed to be demanded in consequence of the increasing attention to this department of science. During the same year, Professor Silliman commenced the American Journal of Science and the Arts, and which has been continued by him until the present time. This work has probably done more than any other for the diffusion of science in the United States. Of course, Mineralogy has always held a promi¬ nent place among the subjects discussed in it, and several of the volumes contain valuable papers relating to the minerals of this State.* “ The Lyceum of Natural History of New-York,” which was also formed during the same year, contributed much to promote the cause of mineralogy. A fine cabinet was soon formed by the liberality and industry of some of the * A list of these papers, up to 1836, will be found in Gen. Dix’s Report on the Geological Survey of New-York. Docu¬ ments of the New-York Legislature, 1836. Xll PREFACE. members. This again excited an interest in others, who in their turn made large additions to the collection. In 1823, an institution similar to that at New-York was incorporated at Albany, under the name of the “ Albany Lyceum of Natural History.” By a subsequent arrangement between this body and the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, articles of association were agreed upon, and the result was the forma¬ tion of the “Albany Institute,” in 1829. From that time to the present, this society has constantly, though in an unobtrusive manner, been engaged in deve¬ loping the natural resources of New-York. The extensive and well arranged cabinet of minerals in the Hall of the Albany Academy, the use of which, with characteristic liberality, was granted to the Institute by the Trustees, affords sufficient evidence of the industry and perseverance of its members. This ca¬ binet is particularly rich in regard to the mineralogy of New-York ; and from its location at the seat of government, it has probably done much to awaken the interest which is now evinced on this subject in various parts of the State. This institution was selected as the depository of all the specimens which were collected in the early geological surveys conducted under the patronage of the late Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. A liberal donation was also made to it by William Caldwell, Esq., to be devoted exclusively to the purchase of books on Mineralogy, and thus the library was furnished with almost every important work on that branch of science. I am indebted to this valuable collection for the opportunity of consulting several volumes, which I should not otherwise have found it easy to obtain. Societies similar to that just noticed, were formed in several other cities and villages of the State, and their attention was chiefly directed to the development of the mineral resources of the districts in which they were located. From the period when the geological surveys were commenced, the progress of mineralogy has been in a measure identified with that of geology. Its im¬ portance has always been duly appreciated, and the advance of the one must hereafter keep pace with that of the other. PREFACE. Xlll Such is a sketch of what has heretofore been done for the promotion of Minera¬ logy in this State. I have been desirous not only to embody in this volume the facts which have been collected during the progress of the Survey, but to post up all the information that was previously possessed in regard to it. With this view, I have consulted all the American books and periodicals which were thought to contain any thing on this subject. Adhering scrupulously to the prin¬ ciple which I have uniformly adopted, I have given due credit for every impor¬ tant fact which has been thus introduced ; and to afford those who may be desi¬ rous of consulting original papers, the opportunity of doing so, I have, in nearly all cases, given the references in full. It remains for me to present my acknowledgments for the assistance which I have received during the prosecution of this work. I have already, in my several annual reports, noticed such gentlemen in various parts of the State as afforded facilities in the collection or study of our minerals. To them I again tender my thanks. It is an act of justice to state, that I am under great obliga¬ tions to Dr. William Horton, who for three years was my assistant. From this gentleman I have constantly received important aid in nearly every depart¬ ment of the work entrusted to me. For the original observations which he has from time to time furnished, I have given him credit under the appropriate heads. From Dr. Emmons, of the Survey, I have received many favours, such as the loan of interesting specimens for notice and description, and of several maps and cuts. Indeed, it will be seen by an examination of this volume, that I am greatly indebted to all the geologists for interesting facts in regard to the mineralogy of the districts which they examined. Nor should I omit to state, that for the careful supervision of these sheets as they passed through the press, my thanks are due to Mr. John Patterson, of the State Printer’s Office. His scientific attainments have admirably qualified him for labours, the value of which can only be fully appreciated by those who have had the experience of publishing a work of this kind. ' ' . , k'Je - ■ . . ■ ' . . > LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS REFERRED TO IN THIS VOLUME. Allan. A Manual of Mineralogy, comprehending the more recent discoveries in the Mineral Kingdom. By Robert Allan, Esq. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1834. American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Benjamin Silliman, M.D., LL.D. &c., 1819 to 1838; and by Benjamin Silliman, M.D., LL.D., and Benjamin Silliman junior, A.B. 1838 to October, 1842. 43 vols. 8vo. New-Haven. American Mineralogical Journal. Conducted by Archibald Bruce, M.D. 8vo. New-York, 1814. Annals of Philosophy. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. And the continuation under the titles of Philosophical Magazine , or Annals of Chemistry, &c. ; The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science; and The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine. London, 1813 to 1842. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New-YorJc. 8vo. 3 vols. and one number. New-York, 1824 to 1837. Bertliier. Traite des Essais par la voie seche. Par M. P. Berthier. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1834. Beudant. Traite El ementaire de Min eralogie. Par F. S. Beudant. 2 vols. 8vo. 2d Edition, Paris, 1830-1832. Beudant. Voyage Mineralogique at Geologique en Hongrie pendant l’annee 1818. Par F. S. Beudant. 4 vols. 4to. Paris, 1822. Boston Journal of Natural History. Containing Papers and Communications read to the Boston Society of Natural His¬ tory. 3 vols. and one number. Boston, 1837 to 1842. Brooke. A Familiar Introduction to Crystallography. By Henry James Brooke, F.R.S. &c. l2mo. London, 1823. Chaptal. Chemistry applied to Agriculture. By John Anthony Chaptal. 12mo. Boston, 1835. Cleaveland. An Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology. By Parker Cleaveland. 2 vols. 8vo. 2d Edition, Boston, 1822. Dana. A System of Mineralogy, including an extended Treatise on Crystallography, &c. By James Dwight Dana, A. M. 8vo. New-Haven, 1837. Daubeny. Report on the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mineral and Thermal Waters. By Charles Dau- beny, M.D., F.R.S. Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1836. Dumas. Traite de Ckimie appliquee aux arts. Par M. Dumas. 4 vols. 8vo. with a folio atlas, Paris, 1828-1833. Min. c XVI LIST OF BOOKS. Eaton. A Geological and Agricultural Survey of Rensselaer County, N. Y. &c. Taken under the direction of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. By Prof. Amos Eaton. 8vo. Albany, 1822. Eaton. A Geological and Agricultural Survey of the District adjoining the Erie Canal, in the State of New-York. Taken under the direction of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. By Prof. Amos Eaton. 8vo. Albany, 1824. Eaton and Beck. A Geological Survey of the County of Albany, N. Y. By A. Eaton and T. R. Beck. 8vo. 1821. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. Exhibiting a View of the Progressive Discoveries and Improvements in the Sciences and the Arts. Conducted by Robert Jameson, F.R.S. &c. 33 vols. 8vo. Edinbuigh, 1826 to 1842. Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. Exhibiting a View of the Progress of Discovery in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Natural History, Practical Mechanics, Geography, Statistics, and the Fine and Useful Arts. Conducted by Dr. Brewster and Prof. Jameson. 16 vols. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1819 to 1826. Elements of Practical Agriculture. By David Low, Esq., F.R.S. Republished in the American Farmer. New-York, 1839. Emmons. Manual of Mineralogy and Geology. By Ebenezer Emmons, M.D. 12mo. 2d Edition, Albany, 1832. Gairdner. Essay on the Natural History, Origin, Composition and Medicinal Effects of Mineral and Thermal Springs. By Meredith Gairdner, M.D. l2mo. Edinburgh, 1832. Gordon. Gazetteer of the State of New-York. By Thomas F. Gordon. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1836. Hall. Catalogue of Minerals found in the State of Vermont, and in the adjacent States, together with their Localities. By Prof. Frederick Hall. 8vo. Hartford, 1824. Hastings. A Lecture on the Salt Springs of Worcestershire, with an Appendix. By Charles Hastings, M.D., F.G.S. Worcester, 1835. Hauy. Traite de Mineralogie. Par M. L’ Abbe Hauy. 2d Edition, 4 vols. 8vo. with a quarto atlas. Paris, 1823. Holland. ( J .) History and Description of Fossil Fuel, the Collieries and the Coal Trade of Great Britain. London, 1835. Hitchcock. Reports on the Geology of Massachusetts. By Edward Hitchcock, LL.D. Jackson. Reports on the Geology of New-Hampshire, Maine and Rhode-Island. By Charles T. Jackson, M.D. Jameson. Mineralogy according to the Natural History System, forming the Article under that head in the Seventh Edi¬ tion of the Encyclopa;dia Britannica. By Robert Jameson, F.R.S. &c. Small 8vo. Edinburgh, 1837. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 7 vols. and 1 part. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1817 to 1839. Kane. Elements of Chemistry, including the most recent Discoveries and Applications of the Science to Medicine and Pharmacy, and to the Arts. By Robert Kane, M.D. &c 8vo. Dublin, 1840-41. Meade. Chemical Analysis of the Waters of New-Lebanon, N. Y., with Observations on their Medicinal dualities, and principally as a Bath. By William Meade, M.D. 8vo. Burlington, 1818. Medical Repository. Edited by Samuel L. Mitchill and Edward Miller. 8vo. New-York, 1798- 1812. New Series, 1812 - 1823. Some of the earlier volumes contain papers on the Mineralogy of the State of New-York. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 4 vols. 4to. Boston, 1785 to 1818. Mohs. Leichfakliche Anfangsgrunde der Naturgeschichte des Mineralreiches um Gebrauchebei seinen Borlesungen fiber die Mineralogie von Friederich Mohs. 2 vols. 8vo. Wien, 1836-1839. New-York Geological Reports. Documents of the New-York Legislature, from 1837 to 1841 inclusive. New-York Medical and Physical Journal. 9 vols. 8vo. New-York, 1822 to 1830. Phillips. An Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy: comprising a Notice of the Characters and Elements of Minerals; with Accounts of the Places and Circumstances in which they are found. By William Phillips, F.L.S. &c. 4th Edition, considerably augmented by Robert Allan, F.R.S.E. &c. 12mo. London, 1837. Report of the Commissioners to survey the Route of the Ogdensburgh and Champlain Railroad. Documents of the New-York Legislature, 1841. Robinson. A Catalogue of American Minerals, with their Localities, &c. By Samuel Robinson, M.D. 8vo. Boston, 1825. Rogers. ( H . D.) Reports on the Geology of New-Jersey and Pennsylvania. By Prof. Henry D. Rogers. Rogers. (W. B.) Reports on the Geology of Virginia. By Prof. William B. Rogers. Salt Springs. Reports of the Superintendent of the Salt Springs in Onondaga county. Documents of the New-York Legislature. Shepard. A Treatise on Mineralogy, consisting of Descriptions of the Species, and Tables illustrative of their Natural and Chemical Affinities. By Charles Upham Shepard, A.B. 2 vols. 12mo. New-Haven, 1835. LIST OF BOOKS. XVII Shepard. Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. By Charles Upham Shepard, M. D. 8vo. New-Haven, 1837. Steel. An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Saratoga and Ballston, with Practical Remarks on their Medicinal Proper¬ ties, &c. By John H. Steel, M.D. 12mo. Saratoga Springs, 1831. Thomson. Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology, and Mineral Analysis. By Thomas Thomson, M.D. 2 vols. 8vo. Lon¬ don, 1836. Transactions of the Albany Institute. 1 vol. and 4 parts. 8vo. Albany, 1830 to 1840. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for promoting Useful Knowledge. 7 vols. 4to. from 1789 to 1841. Philadelphia. Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1833. Transactions of the New- York State Medical Society. 4 vols. and 2 parts. Albany, 1833 to 1842. Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, instituted in the State of New-York. 8vo. Albany, 1801. Also Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts in the State of New-York. 3 vols. 8vo. Albany, 1807 to 1816. Von Kobell. Instructions for the Discrimination of Minerals by simple Chemical Experiments. By Franz Yon Kobell. Translated from the German, by Robert Corbet Campbell. Published in Griffin’s Scientific Miscellany. 8vo. Glasgow, 1841. ! ' 1 . CONTENTS. Part I. ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. ORES OF IRON. pagb. Magnetic Oxide of Iron, . . . . 1 Magnetic Iron Sand, . 22 Specular Oxide of Iron, . 23 Lenticular Clay Iron Ore, . . . 26 Hydrous Peroxide of Iron, . 29 Present Condition of the Manufacture of Iron in the State of New-York, . 38 ORES OF LEAD, ZINC AND COPPER. Sulphuret of Lead, or Galena, . 44 Sulphuret of Zinc, or Blende, . . . 52 Sulphuret of Copper, or Copper Pyrites, . . . . . . 52 Ores of Manganese, . 53 Titanium and its Ores, . . . . . 55 Ores of Arsenic, . 56 Magnesian Minerals, . 57 Materials for Brick, Pottery and Porcelain, . 59 Stone Paints, Ochres, &c. . . 60 CALCAREOUS MINERALS. Hydrous Sulphate of Lime, or Gypsum, . 61 Marble, . . . . . 67 Manufacture of Lime, . 74 Hydraulic or Water Limestone, . 75 Marl, . 83 Soils, . 89 Min. d XX CONTENTS. COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. page. Sulphur, . 94 Anthracite and Coal, . 94 Peat, . 95 Graphite or Plumbago, . . . . . . . . . 96 MINERAL SPRINGS. Brine Springs or Salines, . . 99 Manufacture of Salt, . Ill Origin of the Brine Springs, . . . . . . 119 Gas or Carburetted Hydrogen Springs, . 128 Origin of the Carburetted Hydrogen, . 131 Nitrogen Springs, . 133 Acidulous or Carbonated Springs, . 134 Sulphuretted or Sulphureous Springs, . 141 Origin of the Sulphureous Springs, . . 153 Petrifying Springs, . 156 Catalogue of the Mineral Springs in the State of New- York, hitherto known, with their composition as far as determined, . 160 Part II. DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY. CLASS I. GASEOUS MINERALS. ORDER I. COMBUSTIBLE GASES. 1. Hydrogen, . 171 3. Sulphuretted Hydrogen, ..... 173 2. Carburetted Hydrogen, . 172 4. Phosphuretted Hydrogen, ... . 173 ORDER II. NON-COMBUSTIBLE GASES. 1. Oxygen, . 174 3. Carbonic Acid, . 175 2. Nitrogen, . . . 174 4. Atmospheric Air, . 176 CLASS II. LIQUID MINERALS, NOT COMBUSTIBLE. ORDER I. LIQUID ACIDS. Hydrous Sulphuric Acid, . 177 ORDER II. LIQUID MINERALS, NOT ACID. 1. Atmospheric Water, . . 178 2. SeaWater, . . . 179 CONTENTS. XXI CLASS III. COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS, NOT GASEOUS. 1. Sulphur, . 181 2. Bitumen, . 182 3. Amber, . 185 4. Graphite, . 186 5. Anthracite, . 188 6. Coal, . 190 7. Lignite,...'. . 191 8. Peat, . . 192 CLASS IV. ALKALINE MINERALS. ORDER I. AMMONIA. Carbonate of Ammonia, . 195 ORDER II. SODA. I. Glauber’s Salt, . . . . . . . 196 3. Common Salt, . . 198 2. Natron, . . . 197 4. Hydriodate of Soda, ........ 200 ORDER III. POTASH. 1. Sulphate of Potash,. 3. Muriate of Potash, . 202 2. Carbonate of Potash. . . 201 4. Hydrobromate of Potash, .... 202 5. Alum, . CLASS V. ALKALINE-EARTHY MINERALS. ORDER I. BARYTA. Heavy Spar, . ORDER II. STRONTIA. 1. Celestine, . . 2. Strontianite, . . 212 3. Barystrontianite, , ORDER III. LIME. 1. Carbonate of Lime, . 5. Apatite, . . 239 2. Arragonite, . 6. FluorSpar, . . . 243 3. Gvpsum, . . . 237 7. Muriate of T.ime . 245 4. Anhydrite, . 8. Da'.holite, . 246 9. Pharmacolite, . 247 ORDER IV. MAGNESIA. 1. Brucite (Hydrate of Magnesia), 248 3. Epsom Salt, . . 251 2. Carbonate of Magnesia, . 249 4. Magnesian Carbonate of Lime, 252 5. Ilydrobromate of Magnesia, . . 256 XXII CONTENTS, CLASS VI. EARTHY MINERALS. ORDER I. SILICA. 1. Quartz and its varieties,. 8. Talc, . 284 2. Tabular Spar, . . 270 9. Pyroxene, . 286 3. Nemalite, . 10. Hornblende, . 298 4. Serpentine, . 11. Arfwedsonite, . 309 5. Magnesite, . . 12. Hypersthene, . 309 6. Chondrodite, . 13. Schiller Spar, . 311 7. Boltonite, . 14. Anthophyllite, . 312 15. Hydrous Anthophyllite, . 313 ORDER II. ALUMINA. 1. Corundum, . 18. Apophyllite, . 348 2. Spinelle, . 19. Prehnite, . 349 3. Automolite, . . 319 20. Thomsonite, . . 350 4. Gibbsite, . . 320 21. Laumonite, . 351 5. Aluminite, . 22 Analcime, . 352 6. Idocrase, . . 321 23. Chahazite, . 353 7. Garnet, . 24. Epidote, . 354 8. Scapolite, . . . 25. Tourmaline, . 356 9. Staurolite, . . 333 26. Clintonite, . . 361 10. Feldspar, . . . 334 27. Andalusite, . „ . 362 1 1 . Labradorite, . 28. Bucholzite, . 364 12. Albite, . . 342 29. Kyanite, • • . 365 13. Stellite, . . . 342 30. Achmite, . . 366 14. Mesotype, . 31. Pitchstone, . . . 367 15. Stilbite, . 32. Spodumene, ......... . 368 16. Heulandite, . . . . . . 346 33. Pyrophyllite, . . 368 17. Epistilbite, . . 347 34. Mica, . . 369 ORDER III. GLUCINA. 1. Emerald, . 2. Chrysoberyl, . . 375 ORDER IV. ZIRCONIA. Zirconite, or Zircon, . 378 CLASS VII. METALLIC MINERALS. ORDER I. IRON. 1. Native Iron, . 3. Specular Iron Ore, . .. . 385 2. Magnetic Iron Ore, . . . . 4. Limonite, . . 386 CONTENTS. XXI11 5. Iron Pyrites, . . . 387 13. Copperas, . 399 6. Magnetic Iron Pyrites, 1 4. Alumina-Sulphate of Iron, .... 400 7. White Iron Pyrites, . . . . 15. Chrome-Iron Ore, . 400 8. Arsenical Iron Pyrites, , 16. Vivianite, . . 401 9. Scorodite, . . 396 17. Cacoxenite, . 402 10. Iron Sinter, . . 396 18. Ilvaite, . 403 1 1. Spathose Iron, ........ 19. Silicate of Iron, . 404 12. Ankerite, . 20. Hudsonite, . 405 ORDER II. MANGANESE. 1 . Oxide of Manganese, . . . 406 2. Manganese Spar, . 406 3. Babingtonite, . . . ORDER III. ZINC. 1. Zinc Blende, . 2. Cadmia, . 411 ORDER IV. LEAD. 1 . Galena, . . . 4. Yellow Lead Ore, . 416 2. White Lead Ore, . . 5. Pyromorphite, . 417 3. Anglesite, . . 6. Vauquelinite, . 418 ORDER V. BISMUTH. Native Bismuth, . . . ORDER VI. COPPER. 1. Native Copper, . 4. Copper Pyrites, . 423 2. Red Copper Ore, . 5. Green Malachite, . 425 3. Vitreous Copper, . 6. Azurite, . 426 ORDER VII. TITANIUM. . 1. Native Titanium, . 4. Ilmenite, . 431 2. Anatase, . . 428 Ft Spheric 433 3. Rutile, . . 6. Warwickite, . 436 ORDER VIII. MOLYBDENUM. Molybdenite, . 438 ORDER IX. ARSENIC. --T' Orpiment, . 439 ORDER X. CERIUM. Allanite, . 440 ORDER XI. SILVER. I. Native Silver, . 442 2. Vitreous Silver, . . 443 XXIV CONTENTS. ADDITIONS. Terenite, . . . 444 Bitumen, . 444 Quartz, . 444 Native Iron, . 445 Catalogue of American Minerals, not hitherto found in the' State of New-York; with short descriptions, localities, etc . . . . . 447 Tables of the Crystalline Forms introduced into the descriptive part of the work, with the measure¬ ment of their several angles, . . . . 460 t ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY ORES OF IRON. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. Cleaveland. Fer Oxidule. Hauy. — Octahedral Iron Ore. Black or Magnetic Iron Ore. Jameson. — Magnetic Iron Ore. Thomson and Dana. — Octaedrisches Eisen Erz. Mohs. — Oxidulated Iron. Phillips. — Aimant. Beudant. — Magnetic Iron. Shepard. Description. Colour usually iron black, but sometimes bluish or steel grey. Powder always nearly or quite black. The pure ore, when reduced to powder, is attracted by the magnet. Some specimens also possess polarity. This property, so far as my observations extend, belongs to those varieties which have a crystalline or foliated structure, and does not appear to be much influenced by their purity. Primary form a regular octahedron. Frequently all the edges of the octahedron are replaced by tangent planes. When these secondary faces become so much enlarged as to efface the primary planes, the crystal assumes the form of the rhombic or garnet dodecahedron. Some¬ times also the angles of the octahedron are truncated, but rarely to such an extent as to form the cube. The following crystalline forms occur in this State : Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 2 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Fig-. 4. Fig. 5. O’Niel Mine, Orange County. (Very rare.) Cleavage parallel with the primary form. In some cases, as in the specimens from the Rich Iron Mine in Orange county, easily obtained ; in others, entirely obliterated by the conchoidal or uneven fracture. Lustre metallic, but sometimes imperfect ; opaque, brittle. Hardness 5 .5 to 6 .5. Specific gravity 4.74 to 5.09 (Beudant) ; 5 .092 {Thomson) ; 4.20 to 5.20 (Cleaveland) ; 4.729 to 5.019 by my own trials on massive varieties from this State. Not altered by the blowpipe per se. But when highly heated, it assumes a brown colour, and loses its power over the magnetic needle. With borax, in the oxidizing flame, it fuses into a dull red glass, which becomes clear on cooling, and often assumes a yellow tint. In the reducing flame, it becomes bottle green. Insoluble in nitric acid ; usually soluble in hot concentrated muriatic acid, but for this pur¬ pose the mineral should be reduced to a very fine powder. Sometimes, however, the presence of foreign matters renders it necessary to calcine the ore with carbonate of soda or potash be¬ fore its solution can be effected. Distinctive characters. The black colour of its powder, and its strong action upon the magnet, will usually serve to distinguish this species from the specular oxide of iron, which it often resembles. Composition. This mineral was formerly supposed to be a pure protoxide of iron. It was first proved by Berzelius that it contains both the protoxide and the peroxide of iron. Accord¬ ing to that celebrated chemist, the proportions are 31 protoxide to 69 peroxide ; but these pro¬ portions are subject to great variations. The value and importance of this ore will be properly appreciated by the single remark, that the Swedes iron, so justly esteemed in the arts, is produced entirely from it. Geological situation. The magnetic oxide of iron is most generally found in beds or Warwick, Orange County, MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 3 veins in the primary rocks, especially in granite, gneiss and mica slate. It has also been met with in serpentine, greenstone and hornblendic rocks, and is said to have even been observed in what have been called transition and secondary strata. In northern New-York, magnetic iron ore is almost as widely diffused as are the mountains of granite and of gneiss, in the counties of Warren, Essex, Clinton and Franklin. The rocks in which this ore is found in these counties, however, differ somewhat in their characters. In some parts of Essex, they are chiefly composed of quartz and hornblende of a fine granular structure, while in others they are granite or sienite made up almost entirely of dark coloured feldspar, containing masses of labradorite, and in some places a small proportion of pyroxene. In Clinton county, the rock in which this ore is found is a granite composed of quartz and feldspar, quartz and hornblende, or feldspar and hornblende, sometimes with scales and seams of mica forming gneiss. In the county of Franklin, the rocks which accompany the magnetic iron are said to contain much more hornblende, which is frequently observed in crystalline masses in the walls of the beds and among the ore.* The magnetic iron ore in these counties is, with scarcely an exception, in what are usually termed beds, or deposits of variable widths and unknown depths running parallel to the course of the stratification, when the rock is stratified. The general direction of these beds is north- northeast and south-southwest ; but when subject to local variations, the course is north and south, or northeast and southwest. Sometimes, however, this ore occurs in large masses in the rock, without any regular parallelism of the sides, as is the case in Essex county. And lastly, it is occasionally disseminated in particles in the rock, apparently without any connexion with a bed or vein.f In Orange county, where the magnetic oxide of iron is very abundant, it is always found in the granitic gneiss or gneissoid granite so common in the highlands. It lies in beds and layers in this rock, and has the same line of bearing and dip. Where it exists in layers, they are from one inch to twenty feet in thickness, and in some places the layers of the ore alternate several times with those of the rock. But the ore sometimes occurs in masses, the magnitude of which has never been ascertained.^ The same general description will apply to the geological situation of the magnetic oxide of iron, as found in the counties of Putnam, Saratoga, Washington, Herkimer and Lewis. And from a review of all the observations which have been made on this subject, there is little doubt that the position and geological relations of this important mineral are entirely similar in all parts of the State in which it has been found. Geographical range. From what has just been said in regard to the geological relations of the magnetic iron ore in this State, a tolerably correct idea may be formed of its geogra¬ phical distribution. * See the Reports of Dr. Emmons and Mr. Hall. New-York Geological Reports, 1837. + Mr. Mather thinks, that in Putnam county, the magnetic iron ore occurs in true veins. t Dr. W. Horton’s Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of Orange County. New-York Geological Reports, 1839. 4 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Commencing with the southern part of the State, we first observe beds or veins of magnetic iron ore crossing the line between New-Jersey and New-York, at or near the southern extre¬ mity of Orange county ; and they occur abundantly in various parts of the primitive ranges which traverse this county in a northeasterly direction. Crossing the Hudson, this ore is found in abundant, though less numerous, deposits in Putnam county. In proceeding from these primary ranges in a northern direction, the magnetic iron gives place to other ores of this metal, until we reach the granitic ranges of Saratoga, Washington, Warren, Herkimer and Lewis ; in each of which counties, beds of the former ore are found of greater or less extent. They also abound in various parts of Hamilton, Essex, Clinton and Franklin counties, while they are rarely met with in Jefferson and St. Lawrence. Before proceeding to describe the particular localities of this important ore, it may be proper to remark, that so far as my observations extend, it possesses great similarity of composition as well as of combination. In a great majority of instances, it is both mechanically and che¬ mically mixed with silica. In several cases, however, other minerals are associated with it, as hornblende, feldspar, pyroxene and mica. It sometimes also contains small proportions of titanic acid, a fact which is proved not only by chemical analysis, but by the small crystals of metallic titanium which are found in the slag produced during the process of reduction. Sul¬ phur, in the form of iron pyrites or bisulphuret of iron, is moreover a common associate of the ' magnetic iron ore, a fact of importance to the iron master, as it often occurs in such large proportion as to prove injurious to the resulting iron. In such cases the exposure of the ore to the combined agency of air and moisture, causes the decomposition of the pyrites, and the consequent production of sulphate of iron, which is at length entirely removed by rains. A fine illustration of the correctness of this remark will be found in a heap of ore which was some years since raised from a part of the great Philips vein in Putnam county, and which has thus been freed from the iron pyrites originally associated with the ore in such a large proportion as to render it almost valueless. There are few foreign matters usually mixed with magnetic iron ore that appear to exert any injurious effect upon it in the process of reduction, unless they are in considerable pro¬ portion. Sulphur is probably the most common of all these substances, but many of our most valuable ores contain small portions of it. Quartz, hornblende, feldspar, pyroxene and mica, are only so far objectionable as that they require larger quantities of fluxing materials and an increased expenditure for fuel. Even titanic acid, which some have thought to be exceedingly deleterious, does not in reality seem to be so, unless the proportion be large ; for it is found in the slags of some of the most largely and profitably worked furnaces, both here and abroad. These facts are especially worthy of notice, because they lead to the conclusion that the quality of an iron depends perhaps as much upon the mode of manufacture employed as upon the kind of ore. Chemical analyses of iron ores, and indeed of most other ores, are usually open to the ob¬ jection that specimens of greater purity are operated upon than the average produce of the locality. It is in this way that incorrect opinions have sometimes been formed in regard to the value of ores, which have at length proved to be the cause of loss and perhaps ruin to MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 5 many individuals. This, however, is no fault of the chemist ; for the specimens sent to him for his experiments, instead of being the average of the produce of the mine, are almost always the purest and best which have been obtained. In all these cases, perhaps the true value of a chemical analysis consists in the determining the kind of ore, and the nature of the foreign matters mixed with it ; but the proportion of these matters in large quantities of the ore, and indeed the true economical value of the ore can only be learned by a careful inspec¬ tion of the locality. And it is this consideration which renders it important that, in the study of minerals with reference to their uses in the arts, the trials of the laboratory should be united with the observations of the geologist. The purity and consequent value of the magnetic iron ores may in general be very easily determined in those cases where the questions in regard to their quantity, and the ease of conducting mining operations, have been previously settled. For this purpose, it is only necessary to take a known quantity (say an ounce) previously reduced to powder, and then to subject it to the continued action of a strong magnet. The pure magnetic oxide will thus be separated from the foreign matters with which it was mixed ; and from its weight, the propor¬ tion which it bears to the whole may be at once ascertained. This, it will be observed, is the principle of the separating machine, which is so advantageously employed in many parts of Northern New- York. I shall now proceed to describe in detail the more important localities of the magnetic oxide of iron, commencing at the southern part of the State, and passing from thence towards the north. Rockland County. Specimens of magnetic oxide of iron, sometimes possessing polarity, are not unfrequent in the granitic ranges of this county. I have a specimen from the vicinity of Ramapo, which has a specific gravity of 5.019 ; but this ore has no where been found in beds or veins of any considerable extent. Orange County. This county contains very abundant and rich localities of the magnetic oxide of iron. It is doubtful, indeed, whether the quantity which exists here does not exceed that found in an equal area in any part of the world. The towns of Monroe, Warwick and Cornwall, are the most remarkable in this respect. Stirling Mine , or Stirling Mountain. This is a vast deposit of iron ore which occurs in a mountain of moderate elevation, rising at the south end of Stirling pond in the town of Monroe. From the excavations which have been made in various parts, there can be no doubt that this deposit of ore is three miles in length. The mine is said to cover a surface of more than thirty acres, by survey. Over a part of this area the ore is bare, while in others it is covered by soil and rock of from six inches to five feet in thickness. The ore from this mine is usually granular, but it occasionally occurs in octahedral crystals, and is associated with ilmenite, crystallized green hornblende, pyroxene, green mica, quartz and flesh-coloured feldspar. It is feebly magnetic, and is also sometimes mixed with iron Pyrites, to which perhaps the peculiar character of the metal obtained from this ore is to be ascribed ; being, according to Mr. Townsend, intermediate between cold and hot short. 6 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. The Stirling iron ore yields about fifty per cent of iron in the blast furnace. The amount annually raised has been from 500 to 2000 tons. The mean of this gives 137,000 tons as the total amount obtained from this mine. It has been largely used for casting cannon, and for making bar iron. This mine was discovered in 1750, and named after Lord Stirling, who was then the pro¬ prietor of the soil. It was sold, and a blast furnace was put into operation by Messrs. Ward and Colton, in 1751. At the outlet of Stirling pond are still to be seen the ruins of the furnace at which the manufacture of iron was carried on with great activity previously to the revolu¬ tionary war. It was at this furnace that the iron was smelted which was used in the construction of the chain laid across the Hudson river at West-Point.* The Belcher Mine, discovered in 1792, is about one and a half miles southwest of the Stirling mine, and at the southern termination of the mountain in which that is found. The ore has been worked about 115 feet in width, without finding a rock wall on either side. It yields about forty-eight per cent of cold short iron, and is well adapted to the making of bar iron by the blooming process. This mine is supposed to be a prolongation of the Stirling mine. . ' Red or Spruce Swamp Mine, in the same town with the preceding, is nearly three miles south of Long Mine. Its ore is magnetic, and largely mixed with iron pyrites, so much so indeed that it has been but little used. For the same reason also it decomposes rapidly when exposed to the air. The surface of the mine is thus covered with a powder of an iron black colour. Crossway Mine, upon the Townsend estate, is 400 or 500 yards southwest of the Mountain Mine, to be presently noticed. This bed is described as being fourteen feet thick, and having been wrought sixty-five feet in depth, and one hundred and fifty yards in length. The ore and walls very nearly vertical ; associated with hornblende, epidote, mica and feldspar. About 28,000 tons of ore are said to have been obtained from this mine. The resulting iron is moderately red short.] Paterson Mine. This is situated about three quarters of a mile southwest from Long Mine, to be hereafter described. The general direction of the bed is the same as in the latter, and the minerals which are found in it are also similar. The ore is massive, and breaks into columnar fragments. It is not only attracted by the magnet, but possesses magnetic polarity, approaching to the variety called native loadstone. It does not differ in chemical composition from that of the Long Mine, except perhaps in containing a larger proportion of silica. About 10,000 tons of this ore have been used, but the mine has not been recently worked. It yielded about fifty-six per cent of good red short iron. * The principal facts above stated in regard to the Stirling Mine, were communicated by Peter Townsend, Esq. one of the oldest, most intelligent and enterprizing iron masters in our country. Much valuable information was also obtained from the same gentleman concerning the other iron mines of this county. The statements of Mr. Townsend are embodied in Dr. Horton’s Re¬ port on the Geology and Mineralogy of Orange county ( New-York Geol. Rep. 1839), which I shall have frequent occasion to quote. f Dr. Horton’s Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of Orange county. New-York Geological Reports, 1839. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 7 Mountain Mine, Antoine Mine, Conklin Mine and New Mine, are a group from twenty- live to fifty rods northwest and north from the Paterson Mine, belonging to the Messrs. Townsend. The lie in nearly parallel beds ; the ore of all apparently similar, being a rich black magnetic oxide, possessing polarity. About 5000 tons of ore have been taken from these mines. The iron obtained from it is red short. The associated minerals are hornblende, feldspar and pyroxene ; the last of which, is laminated, and often very beautiful* Long Mine. This mine is situated about five miles southwest of Southfield furnace. The ore occurs in gneiss rock, and follows the general direction and dip of the strata, and is never at right angles to them. It has been traced in a direction nearly north and south for the dis¬ tance of a mile or more. The average width of the deposit is sixteen feet, to make up which there are two parallel layers, with a thin waving stratum between them, from four to twelve inches thick. The associates of the ore are hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, mica and feldspar, the proportions of which are subject to great variation. The ore itself, in a state of the greatest purity, is of a bluish black colour, and has minute grains of quartz disseminated through it, which causes it to give fire with steel. It breaks into columnar fragments, and being of a granular structure, is without much difficulty reduced to a coarse powder ; and when in this state, it is strongly attracted by the magnet. Its average specific gravity is 4 . 885 ; and with the exception of the silicious particles, it is entirely soluble in hot concentrated muriatic acid. Upon analysis, this ore was found to have the following composition, viz : Protoxide of iron, . . . 25.40 Peroxide of iron, . 70.50 Oxide of manganese, . 1.60 Silica or quartz, and loss, . 2.50 These proportions of protoxide and peroxide of iron are equivalent to 68 . 50 per cent of metallic iron. The ore is said to yield, on the average, 62 per cent, in the large way. According to Mr. Townsend, the Long Mine was discovered in 1761, by David Jones. About 37,500 tons of ore have been taken from it, being an average of 500 tons annually. The iron obtained from it is remarkably tough, clean and strong, and has been much used for steel, cannon, muskets, wire and fine malleable iron. Greenwood Mine, is two miles southeast of Greenwood furnace in the town of Monroe. It is in granitic gneiss. Three layers of ore, separated by a few feet of rock, are exposed, of which the middle one is nine feet in thickness. These layers dip to the southeast, lying conformably with the gneiss. The ore is mostly compact and hard, and it contains a consi¬ derable proportion of iron pyrites. Hence it requires to be roasted before it can be advanta¬ geously used in the furnace. Its associates are quartz, hornblende and mica.f The Rich Iron Mine is situated five miles southeast of Monroe Works, and is on the * Dr. Horton’s Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of Orange county. New- York Geological Reports, 1839, t Ibid. 8 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. McFarlane tract. It has not been extensively wrought, although there are evidences of an abundant deposit. The ore is strongly magnetic, possesses polarity, and is remarkable for the ease with which it cleaves in the direction of the primary octahedron. Large cleavage crystals may be obtained. Associated with the ore are mica, hornblende, pyroxene, magnetic and common iron pyrites. The following are the results of my analysis of a specimen of this ore, which had the octahedral cleavage and an iron black colour : Protoxide and peroxide of iron, . 96.50 Silica and alumina, _ . . _ . _ _ 3.50 Forsliee Mine. This is an extensive bed of magnetic iron ore, about a quarter of a mile southwest of the O’Niel Mine. The whole hill, which is more than a quarter of a mile in length and nearly as much in width, appears to consist of alternate layers of rock and ore, the latter forming a large proportion. The general direction of the deposit is nearly north and south. Some of the layers of ore have a compact structure, while others are made up of what is called shot ore , often quite free from iron pyrites. Rarely it is found crystallized in the form of octahedrons. In some parts of the mine, the ore has a cavernous or cellular structure, as if some of the original constituents had undergone decomposition and been dis¬ solved out. This form of ore passes into an earthy oxide of iron, having a dark brown colour, and closely resembling umber. The following is the composition of the cellular variety of the magnetic oxide of iron from this mine : Protoxide of iron, _ _ 44.10 Peroxide of iron, . . . 52.75 Silica and alumina, . . . . . . 3.15 Oxides of titanium and manganese, . _ traces. The constituents of the umber, according to my analysis, are as follows, viz : Peroxide of iron, . 68.00 Peroxide of manganese, . 8.50 Silica and alumina, . . . 6.50 Water, . . . . 17.00 The last, therefore, is a hydrous peroxide of iron, and is undoubtedly the result of the decomposition of iron pyrites. Associated with the iron ore at this mine, are delicate veins of amianthus, red garnet, brown tremolite, calcareous spar, serpentine and mica. It may be added, that the ore from the Forshee Mine is highly valued by the iron masters in this part of the State, especially those portions of it which are granular and cavernous. The latter variety is sufficiently free from iron pyrites to be used without the preliminary operation of roasting. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 9 O'Niel Mine. This is about a quarter of a mile northeast of the preceding, and is a vast bed of the magnetic oxide of iron. The ore is generally hard and compact, but is often traversed by seams which are studded with crystals having the form of the regular octahedron, which is occasionally modified, and rarely passes into the form of the cube. (See Fig. 1, 2, 3 and 5.) This mine has been extensively worked. The ore contains iron pyrites, and requires to be roasted before it is used by the smelter ; but it yields a good iron of the red short variety. Its immediate associates are white calcareous spar, which is abundant, rose coloured garnet, green coccolite, dark coloured pyroxene and massive hornblende ; amianthus in delicate fibres, serpentine, and probably arragonite also occur. The O’Niel ore is strongly attracted by the magnet, and possesses polarity. The following is its composition : Protoxide and peroxide of iron, . 95.75 Silica and alumina, . . . 4.25 The Clove or Wilks Mine, which is the most westerly of the great iron ore deposits now wrought, is situated about a mile south of the village of Monroe. The ore is strongly attracted by the magnet, and is sometimes granular and pure, at others it is largely mixed with iron pyrites. It makes red or hot short iron, and generally requires roasting before it is used. At the south end of the mine, which has been opened about 500 feet, the ore occurs in the form of a black powder, which is here called fine or soft ore, and is probably the result of the decomposition of iron pyrites. Large quantities of this variety have been obtained, and it does not require the ordinary roasting process. According to Dr. Horton, the solid ores of this mine are in layers having the direction and dip of the rock in which they occur. The layers are from a few inches to a yard or more in thickness. The immediate associates of the ore are mica, hornblende, quartz, feldspar, asbes- tus, occasionally carbonate of lime, a kind of serpentine or soapstone, and perhaps, though rarely, chrome-iron ore in minute octahedrons. The following are the constituents of one of the purest specimens of the Clove ore, by my analysis : Protoxide and peroxide of iron, . 98.90 Silica and alumina, . . 1.10 But the granular magnetic ore is usually mixed with iron pyrites, as above stated. It may be added, that masses of well characterized hematite are found on the surface, in the immediate vicinity of this mine. The remaining deposits of the magnetic oxide in this county are much less important than those previously described. They are principally in the town of Cornwall. A bed of the magnetic oxide of iron occurs about one or two hundred yards east of the reservoir at West-Point. Its quantity is not known, but it has been traced, at short intervals4 for some distance in a southerly direction towards Meek's Mine, on the western part of Bear hill, southwest of Buttermilk falls. The ore of the latter mine is said to be titaniferous.* Part I. 2 Mather. New-York Geological Reports, 1839. 10 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Kronkite’s Mine, on the farm of Richard Kronkite, Esq. is about four and a half miles south-southwest of West-Point. There are two veins or beds of ore, separated by a sheet of rock, which are from a few inches to ten feet in thickness. They have been traced from fifty to eighty rods, and have a range north-northeast. About 800 tons of ore were taken from this mine nearly forty years since, which is said to have yielded iron of a good quality. There is another unimportant mine on the east side of Bear hill in this town, and one or two in the vicinity of Round pond. To these may be added the Smith Mine , which was opened in 1828, and is about a mile and a half south of Kronkite’s Landing, between the Crow’s Nest and Butter hill. The bed or vein of ore, which is strongly magnetic, is three or four feet thick, and dips with the gneissoid rocks in which it is contained. It has, however, been abandoned.* The Forest of Dean Mine is situated about five miles west of Fort Montgomery, on the Hudson. The vein is from thirty to thirty-six feet in width, and has been opened for the distance of one hundred and fifty yards or more. The ore is attracted by the magnet, and is usually free from sulphur. When employed alone, it is said to afford a cold short iron ; but when mixed with the ore from the next mine, it yields an iron of good quality for bars and for castings. This mine is one of the first that was opened in this county, and perhaps in the State. It supplied a furnace on the spot for twenty-one years previously to 1777, when it was abandoned. Since that time, the ore has been used at Queensborough and other places. The Queensborough, Mine is another extensive deposit of the magnetic oxide of iron in the vicinity of the preceding. It has been long opened, and much ore obtained from it. Green's and Titus' Mines. These are situated on Deer hill, near the village of Canterbury. The ore, which is contained in the gneiss rock, is granular, easily broken, and is associated with quartz, feldspar and actynolite. The ore is said to be of good quality, but the extent of the deposit is not known. In the vicinity of the preceding locality, the same ore is found associated with ilmenite and zircon. Putnam County. Several extensive and important deposits of the magnetic oxide of iron occur in this county. The Philips Vein, as it has been called, has been traced, at short intervals, for about eight miles, and is thought by Mr. Mather to be continuous throughout the whole of that distance, except where it is interrupted by dykes and transverse heaves of the strata. It follows the crest of the east ridge of the Highlands ; its width varying from three to thirty feet.f Several mines have been opened on this vein, and some of them are now worked. The following are those most worthy of notice. The Philips Mine is a deposit of the magnetic oxide of iron fifteen or twenty feet in width. It is situated on the Cold Spring turnpike in Philipstown, about eight miles southeast of Mather. New- York Geological Reports, 1839. t New- York Geological Reports, 1839. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 11 Davenport’s inn. It is contained in the gneiss or hornblendic gneiss rock, and follows its line of bearing and dip. The ore is usually quite compact, and sometimes mixed with iron and copper pyrites. In some parts of this mine, which is a mile or more in length, the ore is so highly charged with iron pyrites as to render it unfit for working, without the preliminary process of roasting. There are here apparently three distinct deposits of this ore, scarcely differing from each other, except in the proportion of iron pyrites which they contain. However much they may resemble veins when on the surface of the rock, wherever they have been opened to any extent, they are found to be parallel with the general stratification. Hornblende, both massive and in imperfect crystals, crystallized sphene, graphite, iron and copper pyrites, carbonate of lime, green and blue carbonate of copper, and hyalite, are found in immediate association with this ore, or in the rock in which it occurs. The Denny Mine is about three qixarters of a mile south-southwest of the preceding, and seven miles east of Philips’ mill. It is situated on one of the crests of the eastern ridge of the Highlands. The ore is usually compact and tolerably pure, but it is often largely mixed with silica. It is strongly attracted by the magnet, and also possesses polarity. It is easily reduced to powder, which, as usual, is black, unless when largely mixed with foreign matters. The deposit is in beds or veins in gneiss, which, however, have a higher inclination than is usual. Mr. Mather has correctly remarked, that the rocks on each side of the principal vein are more or less traversed with thin veins of ore ; and it has been suggested, that the ore has been injected into the cracks and crevices of the rock when broken by some upheave. The constituents of one of the compact specimens of this ore, are as follows : Magnetic oxide of iron, . . 89.00 Silica, &c . . . 11.00 Besides silica, feldspar, and rarely carbonate of lime and asbestus, are associated with this ore. This mine has been worked about thirty years ; and Mr. Mather states that, about 600 tons of ore are annually obtained from this and the other openings in the immediate vicinity. It is used at the furnace at Cold Spring, and at some of the furnaces in Orange county, where it is mixed with the ore from the O’Niel and Forshee mines. The Coal Grove Mine is about a mile and a half south-southwest of the Denny mine. The vein, which is in gneiss, is narrow at the surface, but widens in descending. The ore is represented as being of good quality, and well adapted to use in the forge. The mine is nearer to the furnace and Cold Spring Landing than any of the preceding. To these may be added the Kemble Mine, a short distance north-northeast of the Coal Grove Mine, and the Gouverneur Mine, four miles east of the Philips manor house, both on the Philips vein ; neither of which, however, have been much worked. The Townsend Mine, which occurs in the Simewog hill in the town of Southeast, has been opened for nearly half a mile, and has a course about northeast and southwest. This is one of the earliest discovered and most extensively worked mines in this part of the State. 12 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Large quantities of ore have been raised here, and there seems to be still an abundance of it in various parts of the vein. But in consequence of its distance from the furnaces now in operation, the working of it has been abandoned. Mr. Mather remarks, that he has no doubt that this vein is at least two miles in length, with an average width of six feet. The ore is strongly attracted by the magnet, and is quite similar to the ores found in the deposits just described. The associated rocks are gneiss and hornblendic gneiss.* A locality of the magnetic oxide of iron occurs on the farm of Mr. Tilly Foster, about two and a half miles southeast of Carmel. The ore forms a large part of a hill about a hundred yards long and ten to forty feet broad. There is here, probably, an extensive deposit of ore. To these it may be added, that a bed of the same ore was, many years since, opened on Anthony’s Nose on the Hudson river, but it contained much iron pyrites, and was not, it is believed, thought to be of much value. In proceeding from this range in a northern direction, I am not aware that any considerable deposits of magnetic iron ore are known to exist, until we reach the county of Saratoga. It here occurs in a mountain about half a mile west of the Hudson, and a short distance north of Jessup’s Landing.f It is on lands belonging to Thomas I. Porter, Esq. and was discovered about the year 1826. It is now opened to the depth of twenty feet or more, and the vein is said to have been traced for more than a mile. The ore is said, moreover, to furnish a re¬ markably hard and tough iron, and to possess those steely properties which are ascribed to the Duane ore in Franklin county, and of which I shall say something hereafter. Herkimer County. Abed of the magnetic oxide of iron was discovered, during the year 1839, on the land of Mr. Willit Congdon, three or four miles northeast of Salisbury Centre. It has, however, been traced on the adjoining lots for three quarters of a mile. The mine has not yet been sufficiently opened to reveal its character. From one to two hundred tons of ore had been obtained from it at the time of my visit, (in 1840.) The ore is compact, attracted by the magnet, and possesses polarity. It is associated with silica. The walls of the bed are gneiss. The situation of the mine, as at present opened, is by no means advantageous for drainage, which is a matter of no trifling importance. The discovery of iron ore in this part of the State, is one of great importance. There are here all the facilities for its manufacture, and no iron is made in its vicinity. It is, moreover, interesting as being the nearest point to the Mohawk valley, where the magnetic iron ore, in any abundance, has hitherto been found. Lewis County. Iron sand is abundant on the banks of Moose and Black rivers, and the massive magnetic ore has been noticed near Louisburg furnace, at the High falls of Black river, at Lyondale, and on the road from Harrisville to the Natural Bridge ; but it has not yet been found in sufficient abundance to be worked 4 * Mather. New-York Geological Reports, 1839. + For the facts concerning this deposit of ore, 1 am chiefly indebted to Dr. J. M. Allen, late superintendent of the salt works in Onondaga county. % Vanuxem. New-York Geological Reports, 1840. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 13 A specimen of the magnetic sand from the banks of the Moose, gave, upon analysis, the following results, viz : Silica and titanic acid, . „ „ . . 5.16 Magnetic oxide of iron, . 94.84 Washington County. An extensive bed of magnetic iron ore occurs in the town of Fort- Ann, four miles north of the village of the same name ; the ore, however, is largely mixed with black garnet, granular and crystalline hornblende. There are also similar deposits near Mount-Hope furnace in Fort- Ann. The ore is magnetic, and sometimes exhibits polarity. It lies in beds, sometimes pure, and sometimes intermixed with garnet, coccolite or hornblende. Some other localities are noticed by Mr. Mather.* The following is the composition of a specimen of magnetic iron ore from Fort- Ann : Protoxide of iron, . 42.26 Peroxide of iron, . . 53.69 Insoluble matters, . 4.05 Warren County. The magnetic oxide of iron is found on French mountain, three miles south of the village of Caldwell, and some expense has been incurred in the excavations which have been made. The ore is strongly magnetic, and possesses polarity. It is usually massive, but octahedral crystals are also occasionally obtained. The associates are white and red feldspar, of which large and handsome cleavages are abundant. These sometimes contain grains of quartz. As a locality of iron ore, this is of very little consequence. Aside from the great difficulty of access, there is as yet no evidence that the ore exists here in any quantity. At Warrensburgh, near the East river, twelve miles from the village of Caldwell, this mineral has been found in beds of considerable extent, and has there been worked by the bloomery process. In one of these beds the ore was at first of good quality, but it gradually changed its character when the mining was continued, until at length it became unfit for use. This ore has a granular structure, the grains being of various sizes and colours, and evi¬ dently consisting of different minerals. It is easily reduced to powder, and the grains are sometimes held together by so feeble a cohesion, that they may be separated by a slight blow of a hammer. The whitish or transparent particles are usually about the size of a pin’s head, are scratched by fluor spar, and effervesce with acids. Small scales, of a steel grey colour, which soil the fingers and give a blackish trace upon paper, are also disseminated through the mass. From this description it is evident that the results of the analyses of this ore must be more or less discordant. The following is the mean of several trials : Magnetic oxide of iron, . 70.80 Carbonate of lime, . 25.00 Plumbago, . 3.00 Silica, and loss, . 1.20 New- York Geological Reports, 1841. 14 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. The separating machine, or washing, would be required to render this ore fit for the forge. It would undoubtedly be valuable for the high furnace. On the land of Mr. Harris in Schroon, is a vein of magnetic oxide of iron, six or seven feet wide, which may be traced a number of rods. It is on the west side of Paradox lake. It is a coarse grained and pure ore, being mixed only with a small quantity of quartz. Beds of the same mineral exist also in the towns of Athol and Luzerne, and in Hyde town¬ ship.* The ore is usually pure, although that at the latter locality is sometimes mixed with sulphur. With little trouble they would all furnish a sufficiently pure iron. Deposits of the magnetic oxide of iron are also known to occur in the town of Hague, but their extent has not to my knowledge been determined. They cannot, however, at present be of much value. Essex County. This county is abundantly supplied with rich and extensive deposits of the magnetic oxide of iron, several of which are profitably worked. In the vicinity of Ticonderoga there occurs an ore of this kind, which consists of grains of various sizes, and which have a brilliant lustre, resembling polished steel. The precise locality is unknown. As it was so peculiar in its appearance, I was induced to analyze a portion of this ore, when it was found to be a nearly pure magnetic oxide of iron, containing only a very small admixture of silica and iron pyrites. It is strongly magnetic, and possesses polarity. There is an important deposit of the magnetic oxide in the town of Crown Point, known as the Penfield Ore Bed. It is extensively worked, and the ore is of an excellent quality. It is attracted by the magnet, and possesses polarity. The structure is usually compact, but the ore easily reduced to a coarse powder, in which form it is subjected to the action of the magnetic separating machine to free it from the silica with which it is mixed. One of the purest specimens of this ore had the following composition : Magnetic oxide of iron, . 92.97 Silica and alumina, . . . 5.93 On the immediate bank of Lake Champlain, near Port Henry in the town of Moriah, and known in the vicinity by the name of Crag Harbour, is a deposit of magnetic iron ore of about twelve feet in thickness. It dips to the southwest at an angle of about 35° or 40°, and is overlaid by a stratum of hornblende, which mineral is also a constant associate of the ore. It is probably owing to this that the resulting iron is hard and brittle, and unfit for many of the uses to which that metal is applied. This difficulty might perhaps be removed, by mixing the ore with one of a different kind, and by a proper adjustment of the flux. The advanta¬ geous situation of this deposit, and its probable extent, render it worthy of some effort to accomplish so desirable an end. The Crag Harbour ore is of a black colour and semi-crystalline structure ; is tough and with difficulty broken into fragments. It is powerfully attracted by the magnet, and ordinarily Emmons. New- York Geological Reports , 1839. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 15 possesses feeble polarity. It is almost always accompanied by hornblende, and good specimens of black mica may be obtained in its immediate vicinity. Thin veins of iron pyrites are also frequently observed. The specific gravity of this ore is 4.729. The following is its com¬ position, viz : Protoxide of iron, . . 24.50 Peroxide of iron, . . . 66.80 Insoluble matters, silica, &c. . . . . 8.70 About a mile and a half southwest of the preceding, is another bed of this ore, with similar associates. The ore is of a greyish black colour, and contains grains of iron pyrites disse¬ minated through it, which renders the operation of roasting necessary, previously to its intro¬ duction into the furnace. It is granular, friable, and is said to furnish a softer iron than the preceding, although it is less fusible. Cheever Mine. This is an important deposit of magnetic ore, situated about a mile and a half from Port Henry, near the line of the town of Westport. It is in the primitive rock, has a course about northeast and southwest, and is from seven to ten feet in thickness. It has been opened for at least 900 feet, and more or less ore taken out at various points. About 3000 tons are annually obtained from this mine. The ore is made up of grains loosely united, of a shining black colour, and it is highly magnetic. The associates are hornblende, a little feldspar, and sahlite or hypersthene. This ore is used at the furnaces at Port Henry, and is said to yield good iron. The Sanford Mine, is found in the town of Moriah, about six miles west of Port Henry. This is an extensive deposit of ore, and it has been quite largely worked ; but it seems now to have given place to some of the other mines with which this region abounds. The ore is usually granular, but sometimes highly polished cleavages of some size may here be obtained. Like the preceding, it is strongly attracted by the magnet, but is not usually polar. The associates of the ore are somewhat peculiar, and probably exert an important influence upon the quality of the iron obtained from it. Veins of delicate fibrous amianthus or byssolite are not uncommon, and many specimens are studded with small but perfect six-sided crystals of phosphate of lime. These were observed in abundance in a heap of this ore near the Port Henry furnace. This is probably one of the most troublesome associates of iron ore, espe¬ cially when it exists in such comparatively large proportions as it seems to do in some parts of the Sanford Mine. The carbon used in the furnace causes the decomposition of this phosphate, and the liberation of phosphorus, which, during its contact with the iron, must injure its quality.* I believe it has been usual to wash this and the other ores found in this * It may not be unimportant to add, that phosphorus, so frequently contained in iron ores, and furnished even by the ashes of the combustible, does not injure the quality of iron, unless it exists in a comparatively large proportion. According to Karsten, a compound of 10,000 parts of iron and 50 of phosphorus, gives an iron of good quality, which resists the blow of a hammer. A compound of 10,000 iron and 75 phosphorus, yields an iron which frequently breaks by a blow; while an iron consisting of 100 phosphorus and 10,000 iron, cannot be bent to a right angle. 16 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. vicinity, previously to their being used in the furnace. In the present case, this process seems to be especially indicated. About a mile west of the Sanford Mine, is the Barnum Mine, which has apparently been largely worked. The ore is strongly magnetic, is often compact, and almost entirely free from foreign minerals, but is in general mixed with quartz. Black hornblende is also one of the associates of this ore, and some of the specimens of this mineral, from the walls of the mine, are of large size and of great beauty. Masses of labradorite were also found strewed on the surface of the ground near this mine. HalVs Mines. These are deposits of magnetic iron ore, about a quarter of a mile north of Hall’s inn. They are similar in their general characters to the other deposits in this vicinity, more nearly resembling beds or alternations in the strata of primitive rock than true veins. The ore is magnetic, and its principal associate is quartz, veins of which sometimes traverse it, and occasionally exhibit crystalline forms. A reddish feldspar, of some beauty, is some¬ times found here ; and I also noticed, in the second opening, specimens of pyroxene, horn¬ blende, and the crystals of phosphate of lime, similar to those found at the Sandford Mine. Brown zircon, exhibiting some interesting crystalline forms, was found in a small vein of white quartz running through the ore. The Hall ore is highly esteemed at the furnaces in this region, and is said to yield an iron of an excellent quality. It is usually washed before it is employed by the iron smelter. It should be observed, that a vein of pulverulent black matter runs through the Hall Mine, probably consisting of peroxide of iron. I also obtained a few specimens of jaspery iron ore, or an intimate mixture of the peroxide with quartz. In the vicinity of the preceding are the Everest and Green, and the Everest Mines, and others, which are all deposits of magnetic ore, of greater or less extent, and exhibit the same general appearances. At the Everest Mine, however, a circumstance occurs, which, although not very uncommon, is nevertheless worthy of notice. It is the occurrence in the same vein or bed, and as it were passing into each other, of the black magnetic oxide and the red or specular iron ore. There can, I think, be little doubt that the latter was originally a magnetic ore, which, by those agencies which are believed to have been subsequently operating, has been brought to its present state of oxidation. But the most extensive deposits of the magnetic oxide of iron in this county, occur in the town of Newcomb. These have been already so minutely described by Dr. Emmons, that I shall notice them briefly. Sandford Mine. This is situated on the western face of a hill which rises 600 or 700 feet above Lake Sandford, and is about two miles south of the village of McIntyre. The ore is usually granular, with a crystalline structure in the mass, but is rarely compact ; it is some¬ times friable, forming the shot ore of the miners. The surface masses of ore are magnetic, but seldom possess polarity. In descending, the structure becomes slaty, and the layers have an easterly dip. These layers are often intermixed with hypersthene and granular feldspar. The shape of this vein or deposit of ore, which has been exposed, is nearly triangular ; and from excavations which have been made, it is ascertained that its length is sixteen hundred MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 17 and sixty-seven feet, and its width five hundred and fourteen feet. According to Dr. Emmons, if we merely estimate the amount of ore at the depth of two feet from the surface, we shall find it to be 6,832,734 tons, a large proportion of which may be raised without the use of powder. This entire deposit is said to be free from iron pyrites, and from all substances known to exert an injurious influence on iron. The associated minerals are hypersthene, labradorite, hornblende and common feldspar.* In a specimen of this ore which I examined, I found 92.15 per cent of magnetic oxide of iron, and the remainder earthy matters, principally silica. There are outcrops of ore, similar in character to that just described, at the distance of a mile and a half, and on the opposite side of the lake, in the direction of Hill’s island. Dr. Emmons supposes these to be prolongations of the Sandford vein, and if so, its whole length is two and a half miles. In the immediate vicinity of the present works is a deposit of magnetic oxide of iron, which has been called the vein of coarse grained black ore, from the colour and coarsely granular texture of the ore. The grains are larger than those of the Sandford ore. The extent of the vein has not been accurately determined, but it has been traced in the direction of its strike 3168 feet, while its width has been ascertained to be more than 700 feet. Hypersthene, labradorite, serpentine in small masses, and occasionally iron pyrites, are found associated with this ore ; the iron obtained from which is remarkable for its toughness and ductility.! In addition to the preceding, there is in this immediate vicinity a vein of fine grained ore, more or less mixed with iron pyrites. This vein has been traced 7742 feet, and is about 70 feet in width. There are also veins of less extent near the village of McIntyre. One is on the west side of Lake Henderson, about three quarters of a mile from the works. It is a fine grained ore, and is thought to be worthy of exploration. There is another on the west side of Lake Sandford, which is quite extensive ; and still another on the east side of the Sandford hill, which is supposed to be a continuation of the vein of the same name. Its extent is not known. There are one or two apparently important deposits of magnetic oxide of iron in the vicinity of Brant lake. Clinton County. This county is peculiarly rich in localities of the magnetic oxide of iron. Among these, the most extraordinary is that which is known by the name of the Arnold Bed ; the ore from which has long enjoyed a high reputation, that analysis shows to be well deserved. Indeed, I think it may be safely asserted, that it is one of the purest and best ores that is now known. The Arnold Mine is situated in a mountain of gneiss, about three miles northwest of Clin- tonville. It has been traced nearly three quarters of a mile, in a direction varying but little from north and south. There are three parallel veins which constitute the mine, and the ore * Emmons. New- York Geological Reports, 1840. t See the experiments of Prof. Walter R. Johnson, quoted by Dr. Emmons. Neiu-York Geological Reports, 1840. Part I. 3 18 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. from these differs somewhat in its characters. In one of them it is granular, and of a blue- black colour. When reduced to grains, it is strongly attracted by the magnet ; but none of the masses which I have tried, possess polarity. It is free from foreign admixture, except a minute portion of quartz. Its specific gravity is 4.977. The following is its composition, according to my analysis : Protoxide of iron, . 27.00 Peroxide of iron, . 71.50 Quartz (mechanically mixed) and loss, . 1.50 The average width of this vein is four or five feet. It is, as well as the rest, crossed by a dyke of greenstone. By the side of the black vein, there is a vein of light blue granular ore, and one of a grey variegated colour. They are separated from each other by a few feet of rock. The blue ore is almost destitute of metallic lustre, and is not magnetic, although it bears a general resemblance to the magnetic ores. Its powder is red, thus indicating an ore in the highest state of oxida¬ tion, which is also confirmed by the results of its analysis. Its composition is as follows : Peroxide of iron, . 98.00 Silica, . 2.33 Lime, . traces. The greyish ore is easily reduced to grains, and often has spots of a green and blue colour. It does not possess the least magnetic properties, and the powder has a brownish red colour, like the specular ores. I suppose both these last ores to have acquired their high state of oxidation by some decomposition which has taken place subsequently to the original deposition of the mineral. The composition of this ore is as follows : Peroxide of iron, . 97.00 Insoluble matters, . 2.83 Oxide of manganese and lime, . traces. The width of the blue vein varies from two to eight feet, which is also about the width of the grey vein. According to Dr. Emmons, calcareous spar, in opaque masses, forms a large proportion of the gangue of these ores, through which also fluor spar, in green or purple grains, is sparingly disseminated. The Finch vein is a continuation of the Arnold vein. The ore is grey and black, and has been much used in the vicinity of Clintonville ; but it is not worked at present. About two or three miles west of the preceding, is the Palmer Mine. This was opened several years since ; but, according to Dr. Emmons, the principal vein, which is thirty-five feet in width, was not worked until 1839. The geological relations of this deposit are similar to those of the Arnold Mine, but the accompanying rock is of a more crystalline character. Large masses of feldspar and of quartz frequently occur, mica being- more sparingly disse¬ minated. The ore is black and magnetic, but so largely mixed with foreign minerals, prin¬ cipally silica, as to render it necessary to subject it to the process of washing, or to the action MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 19 of the magnetic separating machine. With this previous preparation, it is considered one of the best ores in this district. Cook Mine. This traverses a hill three miles northwest from Clintonville. There are here two parallel veins, only four or five feet distant from each other ; the one of which is not more than two feet wide ; the other, more recently discovered, is thirteen feet wide. There are also three other veins, parallel with the last, one six feet wide, another three, and another two feet. The ore is black, sometimes granular and soft ; at others, compact, or in firm masses. It is strongly attracted by the magnet, and possesses polarity. The gangue of the ore is quartz, black mica and hornblende, and these are so intimately mixed with the ore as to require their separation by washing, or by the magnetic machine. It then yields iron of an excellent quality.* Baltic Mine. This, although a mile and a half from the Cook Mine, is to be considered as a part of the same deposit, the connexion being traceable by surface ore. Several openings have been made in the immediate vicinity of each other, and there is probably a large quantity of ore. It is, however, more or less mixed with iron pyrites. The gangue is entirely similar to that of the preceding. Rutgers Mine. This is situated about eight miles west of Clintonville, in one of the primary ranges. The vein is about ten feet wide, and the gangue or mineral matter associated with the ore is said to be peculiar, and is thought by Dr. Emmons to be new. The course of this vein is parallel with that of the Arnold and Cook veins ; but as the ore does not yield so good an iron as some others, it is not at present worked. Winter Mine. This has been thought to differ in its character from the other deposits of ore in this district, as it appears like a thick plate covering several square rods of the rock with which it is associated, or, as Dr. Emmons expresses it, as if it was deposited horizon¬ tally on the rock, like an overflowing melted mass of lava. This gentleman states, however, that' it presents no appearances which, in reality, differ from those attending the ordinary veins. The layer or mass of ore just noticed, is about one hundred feet in length by forty in breadth, and two or three feet in thickness. This was found to be underlaid by masses of lean ore, exhibiting the parallel bands or stripes which characterize other veins. The deposit is every where traversed by transverse dykes ; and since the removal of the rich superficial mass of ore, there does not seem to be much inducement for working it. To those now described may be added the Mace, the Burt, the Jackson and the McIntyre veins, or mines, which occur in the same district, but which are probably of secondary im¬ portance. The Skinner Mine, situated about three miles north of the Saranac river, and about seven miles from Cadyville, is represented as an inexhaustible deposit of the richest magnetic ore. It is coarsely granular, has a dull metallic lustre, and is but slightly magnetic. It yields a tough and valuable iron.t The accompanying rock is a reddish granite ; but the ore, according * Emmons. New-York Geological Reports , 1840. t B. S. Roberts, in the Report of the Commissioners to survey the route of the Ogdensburgh and Champlain railroad. Docu¬ ments of the New-York Legislature, 1841. 20 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. to Dr. Emmons, has mixed with it a greenish mineral, resembling phosphate of lime and hornblende. In the same district are the Conger Mine and the Sailly and Averil's Mine , which, however, do not require particular descriptions. Franklin County. Although the magnetic oxide of iron has not heretofore been found in such abundance in this county as in some of those which are contiguous to it, several deposits are already known to exist, and there can be no doubt that others will hereafter be discovered. In the vicinity of Malone, a bed of this ore was opened many years since, from which several hundred tons of good ore have been obtained. A fine deposit is noticed by Dr. Em¬ mons, as occurring near Miller’s in the town of Franklin, and another on a ridge near the outlet of Tupper’s lake. The Deer River ore has a resinous lustre, and its masses are intermixed with hornblende. Its gangue is coarsely crystallized hornblende, accompanied with large imperfect garnets, and some black mica. The Duane Bed is represented as a mixture of coarse and fine ore. It is a rich ore, inter¬ mixed with particles of granular greenish-white feldspar. But the most interesting ore of iron in this county, is that which is known as the “ Steel ore.” The deposit from which this is obtained, is situated in the Old Military township, No. 9, adjoining the town of Duane. The ore is of a black colour, is strongly attracted by the magnet, and possesses polarity. The associates are principally hornblende, quartz and feld¬ spar. There is considerable variation in the width of the vein. It has been opened for several years. I analyzed this ore some years since, and found that it did not differ from common magnetic oxide of iron. It has also been assayed, as we are informed, by Thomas B. Clemson, Esq. who gives the following as the result :* Iron and Scoria, . 15.42 Iron alone, . . . 12.90 The part possessing the properties of steel,. .. 64.50 This ore possesses considerable interest, from the fact that it is said to yield, directly, by the process of smelting, a substance possessing all the properties of manufactured steel. By some, these properties are thought to be inherent in the ore itself, while Dr. Emmons has advanced the opinion that the iron obtained from the ore is converted into steel during the process of tempering.! * MS. communication from James C. Duane, Esq. of Schenectady. See also the Report of the Commissioners to surrey the route of the Ogdensburgh and Champlain rail-road. Documents of the New-York Legislature, 1841. ■)■ See Dr. Emmons’ Report on the “ Steel Ore ” to the Assembly of the State of New-York, March 10th, 1841. Also the com¬ munication of B. S. Roberts, in the Report of the Commissioners to survey the Ogdensburgh and Champlain rail-road. Documents of the Nav-York Legislature, 1841. MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON. 21 On this subject I will only add, that there is probably nothing peculiar in this ore, and that the same steely properties will be found to belong to many of our magnetic iron ores. The important point which I think still remains to be determined is, whether the steel thus obtained from the Duane ore is of such an uniform texture as to produce good cutting instruments, without some subsequent process. If correct ideas have heretofore been entertained in regard to the nature of steel, the properties for which it is most esteemed are due as much to me¬ chanical as to chemical agencies. The metal yielded directly by the process of smelting, may possess some of the characters of steel ; but I should doubt, whether, without the me¬ chanical operations which are ordinarily employed, it would stand the test to which good steel is to be subjected. It is not improbable that this ore may be well fitted to the manu¬ facture of steel, which will hereafter render it valuable ; but I can not yet give entire credence to the statements which have been made concerning the direct mode in which the “ best steel ” may be so easily and so directly obtained. St. Lawrence County. By far the largest proportion of the iron ores now known in this county, belongs to the species to be hereafter described ; but there are some deposits of the magnetic oxide of iron, which deserve to be briefly noticed. In Pierrepont, a bed of magnetic oxide of iron has been worked to some extent, and the ore is thought to be abundant. Ore of the same kind is also found in the town of Canton, on the land of the Hon. H. Van Rensselaer. Chamont Ore Bed. This bed, according to Dr. Emmons, was several years since exten¬ sively worked. It is situated in a hill of gneiss, about four miles west from the point where the Albany road crosses the Oswegatchie river. The ore is black and highly magnetic, but is largely mixed with quartz. It is thought, however, to be sufficiently pure.* Magnetic oxide of iron is often observed in the gneiss rock in the western part of this county, sometimes accompanied with hornblende, and sometimes without that associate. About seven miles south of Potsdam, a bed of this ore is found, which supplied a forge at that village. I have also obtained good specimens from the town of De Kalb, but the mineral has not heretofore been found there in any quantity. Jefferson County. The deposits of magnetic oxide of iron in this county, as in the pre¬ ceding, are few in number, and limited in extent. The town of Alexandria furnishes some localities, but they are of little importance. There is a deposit of this ore, apparently abundant, on the farm of P. Wicks, two and a half miles southwest of the village of Oxbow. What adds to the interest of this, is the fact that it is quite near to a bed of specular iron ore, which, as we shall presently see, is abun¬ dantly diffused through this, as well as the preceding county. I have thus noticed the principal localities of the magnetic oxide of iron in this State ; and have traced the deposits of this ore, with some interruption, from the extreme southern part, in a northern direction, nearly to the Canada line, and thence westwardly upwards of one New-York Geological Reports, 1840. 22 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. hundred miles. Throughout this whole extent, the ore is tolerably uniform in its character, and differs in value chiefly in consequence of variations in the proportions of foreign matters with which it is mixed. There are very few cases in which positively injurious substances occur. The deposits usually have a northern and southern direction, and are parallel with, and not at right angles to, the strata in which they occur. Whether their formation has been cotemporaneous with that of the rocks in which they occur, whether they have been separated by chemical affinity during the process of consolidation, or by electric agency, are questions, the discussion of which does not properly belong to this department. I shall defer some general remarks concerning the manufacture of iron, until I have com¬ pleted my account of the remaining ores of this metal. Magnetic Iron Sand. This variety occurs in the form of small crystals, or fragments of crystals, or in grains constituting a sand. It is usually of a dark bluish black, or iron black colour, is strongly attracted by the magnet, and may thus be completely separated from the earthy matters with which it is mixed. It is often found to contain oxide of titanium, chromium, and it is frequently associated with grains of garnet. Some New-York localities of iron sand have already been given in the preceding account of the magnetic oxide. It maybe useful, however, to bring together all the information that we possess, in regard to this variety. We are informed by Mr. Mather, that magnetic iron sand is found in small quantities along the whole coast of Long Island, where the surf beats the shore. In some localities, there are layers of it two or three inches thick. It is most abundant after storms. The same substance is found on the banks of the Hudson near West-Point, and on the banks of many of the streams in the Highlands. It also occurs in great abundance at Port Henry and elsewhere on Lake Champlain ; on the shores of Lake Ontario, in Monroe county ; on those of Geneva lake and Lake Erie ; and on the banks of the Moose river, at Lyondale, in Lewis county. It is sometimes in such abundance as to be used by the iron smelter. In regard to the occurrence of this sand, it may be observed that the theory commonly received is, that it is the result of the disintegration of rocks which are contiguous, and which abound in crystals of magnetic iron. This is said to be the case at West-Haven in Connecticut, where it occurs on the beach which forms the margin of the seashore, while contiguous to the beach is a formation of chlorite slate, abounding with minute crystals of magnetic iron. These crystals, liberated from the slate, and broken by the action of the waves, constitute the magnetic sand of the beach.* Now although the explanation here given may be applicable to this locality, it can hardly be considered as generally applicable. The iron sand is fre¬ quently found at a great distance from known beds of magnetic ore, and moreover its chemical composition is oftentimes so very peculiar, that it is impossible to account for its occurrence in the mode just described. Silliman. Cleuveland's Mineralogy. Second Edition. SPECULAR OXIDE OF IRON. 23 SPECULAR OXIDE OF IRON. Cleaveland. Fer Oligiste. Hauy. — Rhombohedral Iron Ore. Jameson. — Specular Iron Ore. Thomson. — Specular Iron. Phillips, Dana and Shepard. — Oligiste. Beudant. — Rhomboedrisches Eisen-erz. Mohs. (It includes the true Specular Iron, Iron froth, Iron Mica, Red Hematite, Red Clay Ironstone, Red Siliceous Ironstone, Red Ochre, &c.) Under the above name are now included many varieties which pass into each other by almost imperceptible gradations, so that it is impossible to draw the line of specific distinction between them. Description. Colours dark steel-grey bordering on iron-black, iron-black and brownish red. The powder in all cases is some shade of red, usually cherry-red, or reddish brown. It is sometimes feebly magnetic. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in granular, lamellar and fibrous distinct concretions ; massive, disseminated, reniform, botryoidal, stalatitic and globular. The primary form is a rhombohedron. P on P' — 86° 10b P on P" = 93° 50b Fig. 6. The mineral sometimes assumes the form of an octa¬ hedron, sometimes of a triangular dodecahedron, with its apices truncated, either very deep, or near the apex. Lustre from splendent to dull, and is metallic or semi- metallic. Fracture conchoidal or earthy. Usually opaque, but sometimes thin laminae are faintly translucent. Hard¬ ness 5.5 to 6.5. Specific gravity 4 . 8 to 5.3 ( Jameson ) ; of a crystallized specimen from Sweden, 5.251 ( Hai - dinger ). Infusible by the blowpipe per se, but melts with borax, and forms a green or yellow glass, like magnetic oxide of iron. It is soluble in hot muriatic acid. Distinctive characters. From the magnetic oxide of iron, which it often resembles, it may be distinguished by its red powder, and feeble action on the magnetic needle. Composition. The specular oxide of iron, when pure, is a peroxide of iron, containing in 100 parts, 69.34 of iron, and 30.66 of oxygen. It seldom occurs in nature in this state of purity, but is generally mixed with silica, alumina, lime, &c. ; and upon the proportion of these must depend the value of any particular variety of ore. In a table exhibiting the com¬ position of various specimens of the specular oxide, according to the analyses of Berthier and others, the amount of peroxide of iron varies from 28 to 99 per cent, the latter propor¬ tion being found only in a specimen from the department of Moselle, in France.* It may be Berthier. Traite des Essais par la Voie Seche, II. 223. 24 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. stated, as a sufficient evidence of the value of this ore, that in the island of Elba it has been worked since the time of the Romans, and that the iron obtained from it has always been held in the highest estimation. Geological situation. The specular oxide of iron is usually found in beds and veins in the primary or the older transition rocks. It is not met with in any abundance in the secondary formations. According to Dr. Emmons, this ore is found in the State of New-York in two geological situations. In the first, it is associated with primary limestone, as occurs in many cases in the town of Edwards, St. Lawrence county ; in the second, it has gneiss or some other primary rock below and the Potsdam sandstone above, as in the Kearney and Parish mines in the same county.* As I intend, under the name of Specular Oxide of Iron, to describe localities of ores which are often known by other names, it may be useful here to notice the different varieties, now included under the present species. Common Specular Iron , has a metallic appearance, is of a steel-grey or iron-black colour, and frecpiently occurs in the form of crystals. Characteristic specimens are found in several deposits in St. Lawrence county. Micaceous Specular Iron. This resembles the preceding in its colour, but is composed of thin shining laminas, or scales, applied to each other. Its powder is a dark red. Red Ron Stone , is destitute of a metallic appearance, and includes red hematite, found in masses, stalactites, kidney-form balls, &c., and having a brownish red colour and fibrous structure ; the compact and ochrey red iron ores, which are massive and have a compact texture ; and iron froth, composed of scaly friable parts, which soil strongly, and have a colour between cherry and brownish red. To these may be added the Lenticular Clay Iron ore, so abundant in the western part of the State. Geographical range. This ore is found almost exclusively in the northern and western parts of the State. In the county of St. Lawrence it takes the place of the magnetic oxide, while it becomes less abundant as we proceed to the eastern boundary of the State. Again, in the counties bordering on the Erie canal, the lenticular variety is met with in layers of various degrees of thickness, from Herkimer to Monroe. I shall now describe some of the most important deposits of this ore. Essex County. Near the summit of Mount Defiance, in Ticonderoga, is a narrow vein of the red hematite in a granitic rock. It is associated with quartz, and sometimes passes into the variety known by the name of jasper y iron. It is peroxide of iron mixed, and chemi¬ cally combined, with variable proportions of silica. It is used both as a paint, and as an ore for furnishing metallic iron. About thirty tons of the mineral are said to have been obtained from this locality, but the difficulty of access renders it almost valueless. New- York Geological Reports, 1 840. SPECULAR OXIDE OF IRON. 25 In Crown-Point, this ore, although not found in separate deposits, is nevertheless often associated with magnetic oxide of iron, and its formation is no doubt due to the alteration of the latter mineral. Thus in the Saxe Ore Bed, the red ore, which has been changed from themagnetic oxide to the peroxide, exhibits the fibrous structure of the common hematite. The same transformation may be observed in some of the mines in the town of Moriah, and in perhaps a still more striking manner in the celebrated Arnold Mine in Clinton county. St. Lawrence County. Numerous deposits of the specular oxide of iron have already been made known in this county. The most valuable are those known by the names of the Kearney and Parish Ore Beds. These beds are situated about four and a half miles south¬ west of the village of Gouverneur. Although they are distinguished by the names above given, they are not more than 80 or 100 rods distant from each other, and are undoubtedly parts of one vast deposit, which has been traced at least a mile in a northern and southern direction. A large quantity of ore has been taken from the present openings, and it yields iron of a good quality. The deposit of ore seems to be a bed resting on the primitive rock, and overlaid by the oldest of the sandstones. The specimens from the Parish and Kearney beds present several varieties ; such as the slaty, like the micaceous ore ; hard and compact ; jaspery and semi-crystalline ; the blades, although small, having the high lustre of the Elba ore. The powder of all these has a bright red colour, and soils the fingers like red paint. Associated with the ore are crystals of brown spar, carbonate of iron, calcareous spar in dodecahedral crystals, and rarely sulphate of ba¬ rytes. A vein of so-called arragonite, (most probably calcareous spar,) also passes through the bed, from which fine specimens, both crystallized and fibrous, may be obtained. The most abundant ore, however, is that which has a brownish red colour, compact texture,' and a dull earthy aspect. The specific gravity of an average specimen of this is 4.855, and the following is its composition, viz : Peroxide of iron, . 96.52 Silica, alumina, &c . 3.48 The ore, when properly selected, is of good quality, and yields in the large way fifty per cent of pig iron, of which about 2600 pounds are said to yield a ton of wrought iron. A mixture of bog iron ore improves the quality of the iron obtained. Several important deposits of the specular oxide of iron are found in the towns of Plermon and Edwards. The ore is often in large brilliant plates, and is associated with crystallized quartz of the dodecahedral form, and with carbonate of iron. At Gouverneur Bow there are several unimportant localities of this ore, some specimens from which have the high lustre so characteristic of this mineral when in a crystallized form. It is here usually in small veins, with associates similar to those observed in the beds pre¬ viously noticed. Beds of this ore are said also to occur in the towns of Fowler and Scriba. In Canton there is a bed which was formerly worked, but is now abandoned ; and there is also a deposit in Part I. 4 26 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Pierrepont, a specimen of which, according to my analysis, proved to be peroxide of iron, with from three to four per cent of silica. Jefferson County. Sterling Ore Bed. This is probably the most important deposit of the specular oxide of iron in this county. It is situated in the town of Antwerp, five miles southeast of the village of Oxbow. The ore is principally of the compact variety, but is sometimes in crystalline plates with a high metallic lustre. It is often much mixed with sili¬ ceous matter. Dodecahedral crystals of quartz abound in the ore, and in the sandstone which accompanies it. The rare cacoxenite is also found in the crevices of the ore ; and carbonate of iron, in well defined crystals, is occasionally met with. On the farm of Mr. P. Wicks, about two and a half miles southwest of Oxbow, there is a somewhat abundant deposit of this ore ; but it is largely mixed with foreign matters, has a slaty structure, and is not thought to be of much value. There is a bed of the specular oxide of iron, known as the Theresa Bed, about four miles east of the High falls in this county. The ore is similar to that from the Parish and Kearney mines, and the deposit is also in sandstone.* These, together with one on or near Muscolunge lake, are the only localities of this ore worthy of notice in this county. Lewis County. The specular oxide of iron has been discovered, within a few years, about two miles from the Lewisburg furnace. The hard red ore, with what is called the red froth, is associated with sandstone ; and below these are the crystalline ore and its calcareous associates, the latter reposing upon the primary rock.f Near the Natural Bridge is a deposit of a mixture of red iron ore, chlorite, plumbago, &c. which contains usually about fifty per cent of peroxide of iron. This was strangely enough supposed to be silver ore. It is scarcely necessary for me to say that I could not detect the slightest trace of that metal in any of the specimens which I examined. It may, however, prove to be of some value as an ore of iron. Lenticular Clay Iron Ore. This mineral, which is also known by the name of Argillaceous Iron Ore, is now generally considered to be a variety of the specular oxide of iron. It is very interesting to us, in conse¬ quence of its great abundance in the western part of the State. There seem to be two distinct beds or strata of this ore in the protean group of Mr. Yanuxem, arranged in lines parallel to each other, extending from the county of Herkimer to the Genesee river. These beds, liable however to some interruptions, are usually about twenty feet from each other, and vary from one foot to two and a half feet in thickness. The width of the strata is exceedingly variable This ore consists of lenticular or flattened grains of various sizes, which apparently have been made to cohere by the pressure applied to the mass. It frequently contains joints or disks of the encrinite, and fragments of other organic remains. Its usual colour is brownish Emmons. New-York Geological Reports, 1840. f Yanuxem. New-York Geological Reports, 1840. SPECULAR OXIDE OF IRON. 27 red, its powder being more red. It is very friable, soils the fingers, has but little lustre, and is often studded with minute grains of iron pyrites. The specific gravity of a fair specimen from Wolcott in Wayne county, is 3.740. All the samples which I have examined effer¬ vesce freely in acids, which is probably due to the admixture of carbonate of lime. By some its formation is ascribed to the decomposition of carbonate of iron ; and by others, to that of iron pyrites. The infiltration of water, acting in a slow and imperceptible manner, is sup¬ posed to be the cause which has produced this decomposed form of the ore. In Herkimer County, there are from one to two beds of the lenticular clay iron ore. They are found on all the water courses, which have cut through the shales resting on the millstone grit of Eaton.* In Oneida County, numerous pits have been opened in the towns of New-Hartford, Kirk¬ land, Vernon, Westmoreland and Verona. There are three beds of the ore in this county, varying from twelve to twenty inches in thickness. They have been long and extensively worked, and the ore, although containing a less proportion of metallic iron than many other ores, is nevertheless highly valued by iron smelters. Previous roasting improves its quality, and is indeed often quite essential to its successful reduction, in consequence of the presence of iron pyrites. Madison County. Passing westward from Verona, the iron ore beds are either buried under the alluvial, or more probably washed away, excepting on the land of Thomas Donnelly in the town of Lenox. It exists in solid masses a short distance below the surface, and is a very pure ore, the carbonate of lime having been removed by solution in water.! An ore entirely similar in its external characters to that of Verona, has also been found at one or two places on the shores of Oneida lake ; but from some cause or other, it seems not to have yielded good results in the furnace. This ore has been found in Cayuga County, in the creek near Martville, and also south of Hulme’s sandstone quarry ; but it has not yet been obtained in large quantities. In Wayne County, a stratum of the lenticular ore has been found extending through it, and at about two miles distance from Lake Ontario. In the immediate vicinity of Wolcott, there is a bed of about a foot in thickness. About a mile north of the village is a furnace, which is now supplied with ore from the eastern part of the town, where the stratum of ore is about three feet in thickness. Near the mouth of Salmon creek in the town of Sodus, this ore was formerly worked ; but it is largely mixed with carbonate of lime, and is less valuable than that from other localities. Pits for the raising of this mineral have also been opened in the vicinity of Ontario furnace, which is situated upon Bear creek about two miles south of the ridge. This ore is said to Vanuxem. New-York Geological Reports, 1838. t Ibid. 28 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. yield from 33 to 35 per cent of metallic iron, which, however, is brittle, and is employed only for large castings. By mixture with' bog iron, or the magnetic oxide, a better result is ob¬ tained. “ This ore requires a high heat for melting, and it consumes one third more of char¬ coal than the harder ores. There is always produced a considerable quantity of carburet of iron, in thin bright scales or leaves, exactly resembling plumbago.”* It may be stated that this ore, and the rock immediately associated with it, often contain nodules of massive and crystallized sulphate of barytes of a flesh red colour. The crystalline forms, sometimes highly modified, are not, in any specimens which I have seen, sufficiently perfect to be accurately projected. The following are the results of an analysis of a specimen of the lenticular clay iron ore from Wolcott : Peroxide of iron, . 51.50 Carbonate of lime, . 24.50 Carbonate of magnesia, . 7.75 Silica, . 6.00 Alumina, . 7.50 Moisture and loss, . 2.75 Several localities of this ore occur in the County of Monroe ; but it is nowhere, I believe, converted to use in the process of reduction. At Rochester, a stratum of about a foot in thickness is observed at the Lower falls, and from thence specimens of ordinary purity may be obtained. It is entirely similar in its external characters to the ore from other localities. The following is its composition : Peroxide of iron, . 42.93 Carbonate of lime, . 28.33 Carbonate of magnesia, . 10.40 ■ Silica and alumina, . . . 17.66 This ore has not been found, between the Genesee and Niagara rivers, in a regular stratum. It may, perhaps, be found again west of the latter stream. The preceding are the principal localities of the specular oxide of iron heretofore found in this State. In point of abundance, it cannot be compared with the magnetic oxide, nor is it equal to that oie in purity. It, however, yields an iron which, is highly valued for various purposes, especially for castings ; and when mixed with other ores, it greatly -improves their quality. -• • " ' " ' . . . * Dr. G. W. Boyd. New- York Geological Reports , 1838. HYDROUS PEROXIDE OF IRON. 29 HYDROUS PEROXIDE OF IRON. Thomson. Limonite. Beudant and Shepard. — Brown Oxide of Iron, and Argillaceous Oxide of Iron. Cleaveland. — Rhombokedral Iron Ore. Jameson. — Hydrous Oxide of Iron. Phillips. — Rhomboedrisches Eisen-Erz. Mohs. — Brown Iron Ore. Dana. (It includes Brown Hematite, Brown Ochre, Umber, Yellow Iron Stone, Brown Clay Iron Stone, and all the varieties of Bog Iron Ore.) Under the general name of Hydrous Peroxide of Iron, or Limonite, are now included the several species and varieties above mentioned ; for the reason, as in the case of the Specular Oxide, that all these minerals run into each other in such a manner as to baffle all attempts to give distinctive characters. Description. Colours various shades of brown, sometimes yellowish. Powder yellowish brown. Without action on the magnet. Very rarely occurs crystallized; it usually presents stalatitic, botryoidal or mammillary forms, having a fibrous structure ; also massive, and sometimes earthy. When crystallized, the primary form is said to be a right rectangular prism, but its occurrence in crystals has been doubted by many mineralogists. Hardness, when pure, 4.5 to 5 ; in its impure form, its hardness is very variable. Specific gravity 3.922 (Haidinger) ; 3.37 to 3.94 ( Beudant ). Infusible by the blowpipe, but gives out water by calcination ; and most of the varieties become black or reddish black, and magnetic. With borax, it melts into a green or yellow glass ; and it is soluble in heated nitro-muriatic -acid. Composition. Limonite is supposed to be a hydrate of the peroxide of iron, the proportions being 85.30 peroxide of iron, and 14.70 of water ; so that in its purest form, 100 parts of the ore contain 59.70 metallic iron. There are, however, generally found in it various other substances, either in mixture or in combination; as silica, alumina, oxide of manganese, and some ore of zinc. Titanium is also occasionally associated with it. It is sometimes mistaken for the oxide of manganese, but the chemical characters are sufficiently distinctive. This mineral is here very widely and abundantly diffused. It is one of the most important of our ores, and furnishes a considerable proportion of the iron at present produced in this State. I shall now notice some of the principal localities of this ore, commencing in the southern part of the State, and proceeding towards the north and west. Richmond County. Five or six miles southwest of the Quarantine,' on the road to Rich¬ mond village, there are beds of brown hematite, of some extent. The ore is sometimes massive, and at others consists of spherical grains of various sizes, united by a ferruginous cement, and known by the name of shot ore. It often has a shining surface, and appears to be mixed and coated with talc. Brown and yellow ochres are also found here, and are used by the inhabitants as paints. 30 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. The following is the composition of a specimen of the shot ore : Peroxide of iron, . . . 72. 3 T Silica and alumina, . . . 15.43 Water, . 12.20 DungirCs Mine, a short distance from the preceding, has ores of a similar character. In consequence, chiefly, of the scarcity of fuel, no furnaces have been erected in the im¬ mediate vicinity of these deposits. The ore, however, has been transported in considerable quantities, and is said to afford a valuable iron. On Long Island brown hematite is often met with in detached masses, but no important or extensive beds of it have as yet been made known. On the Island of New-York, bog iron ore is of frequent occurrence, but the quantities of it are entirely too small to answer any valuable purpose. It is most usually reddish brown, cellular, and contains much oxide of manganese.* Westchester County. A bed of hematite, apparently of a good quality, is found on the farm of Mr. James Ammerman, about a mile and a half north of the county poor house, and four or five miles east-northeast of Tarrytown. Several tons of ore have already been ob¬ tained from this bed, and it is thought to be extensive. It is associated with white limestone ; and Mr. Mather states, that this range of rock reaches the banks of the Hudson, a short distance below Dobbs’ Ferry. t Bog iron ore occurs a mile and a half south of Sing-Sing, but it has heretofore only been obtained in quantities sufficient for cabinet specimens. Again, the varieties of this species, usually denominated Red Ochre and Red Chalk, occur in some abundance on the farm of H. I. Cruger, Esq. in Cortlandtown. Rockland County. Thin veins of the hematitic ore, probably associated with oxide of manganese, are found on the banks of a small stream, two miles west of the village of Ramapo. A dark brown, nearly black, oxide of iron, occurs near Haverstraw, which deserves only to be noticed from the fact, that it was mistaken for the oxide of manganese ; in consequence of which, the bed of ore was represented as being of great value. When subjected to the action of the blowpipe, the mineral becomes strongly magnetic. It is easily fusible with borax, but does not communicate a violet tinge to it. Orange County. There are in this county several localities of limonite, in its several varieties. It rarely, however, occurs in sufficient abundance to be worked as an ore. Two and a half miles west of the village of Canterbury, in the town of Cornwall, is a mine of limonite, belonging to Mr. Thomas Townsend. The ore. occurs massive, and in a variety of imitative forms. In some parts of the bed it is filled with organic remains. Large quan- Pierce and Torrey. Cleavdand' s Mineralogy. Second Edition. t New-York Geological Reports, 18?*' HYDROUS PEROXIDE OF IRON. 31 tities of this ore have been raised, and although intermixed with earthy matters, it yields an excellent iron. The balls and masses of true hematite are mixed with a ferruginous powder, which sometimes results from the decomposition of the associated strata of rocks. Washing is, therefore, necessary to prepare this ore for the iron smelter. This bed of limonite lies in the limestone rock, which reposes on the millstone grit. The limestone and hematite can be traced across this town into that of Monroe, where we meet the magnetic oxides already described. They are observed a quarter of a mile north of the Wilks or Clove Mine, and in many places between this and the Townsend Mine, a distance of at least ten miles.* Hematite is also found along the whole western side of Bellvale mountain, and in many places along the Warwick valley, to the New-Jersey line. Of bog iron ore, specimens of various sizes may be obtained in the towns of Blooming- Grove and Monroe. Putnam County. A bed of limonite, containing some oxide of manganese, occurs very near the line between Philipstown and Carmel, in Peekskill Hollow, about ten miles northeast of Peekskill village. Its extent is not known, but great quantities of ore have been raised from it. It seems, however, to be too largely mixed with earthy matters to yield good results in smelting. Dutchess County. Extensive and most valuable deposits of brown hematite occur in various parts of this county. They have been long and profitably wrought, and the quantity of ore seems to be inexhaustible. The first of these deposits that I shall notice, is the Fishkill Bed , situated in the town of Fishkill, about three miles northeast of the village of Hopewell. It occurs in a hill, the surface of which is made up of a very coarse gravel, imperfectly cemented with clay and loam. The ore, which is chiefly limonite, presents almost all the varieties from the compact brown hematite to the yellowish clayey ochre, which in its moist state forms a cement for the more compact masses. The brown ore is usually in the form of rounded nodules, which are some¬ times hollow ; and when this is the case, the inner surface is highly polished, and has the appearance of having undergone fusion. Not unfrequently beautiful stalactites of various forms and sizes are found in these balls, and, occasionally, there is observed a very thin lining of a black powder, which is believed to be oxide of lfianganese. These stalactites exhibit fibres radiating from the centre in the most distinct and beautiful manner. According to the observations of Mr. Mather, this, as well as the other beds of limonite found in this part of the county, is situated at the junction of mica or talcose slate with the grey and white limestone. f Clove Ore Bed. This is an extensive deposit of brown hematite, situated in the south¬ western part of the town of Union-Vale. The general appearance of the hill or mound in which it occurs, does not differ much from that of the preceding ; the bed, however, seems Horton. New-York Geological Reports, 1839. f New- York Geological Reports, 1838. 32 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. to be more extensive, at least it has been more extensively worked. This, like most of the other ore beds in this district, is worked to the day , as it is technically called ; excavations being made in various places from the surface of the ground, and the ore thus exposed, and subsequently removed. In its mineralogical characters, this ore is quite similar to that found in the Fishkill bed ; but perhaps there is a larger proportion of the oclirey or f ne ore, as it is here called, which is usually considered more valuable than the other varieties. Associated with this ore there is occasionally found' a bluish mass resembling specular oxide of iron, but which, upon exa¬ mination, is ascertained to consist of minute crystals of oxide of manganese with a high me¬ tallic lustre. This locality is further deserving the notice of the mineralogist, from the fact that the rare mineral gibbsite is associated with the hematite. Previously to my announcing its occurrence here in 1837, it had only been found at Richmond in Massachusetts. The following is the composition of a specimen of hematite from the Clove mine : Peroxide of iron, . 80.27 Insoluble matters, . 7.43 Water, . 11.66 Foss Ore Bed. Proceeding from the Clove bed in a northwestern direction, after crossing Chesnut ridge, we come to a deposit of ore known by the above name. It is situated in the town of Dover, about a mile and a half west-southwest from the furnace of the Dover Iron Company. This bed is found in a valley between two spurs of the mountain which passes through this part of the county ; and it is particularly interesting as showing the association of the hematite with the mica slate, which occurs here in strata of some thickness, and con¬ tains garnets of various sizes and forms. In extent, however, this bed appears to be inferior to either of those already noticed. The ore also is in much larger masses, does not exhibit those beautiful imitative forms, and is not only with more difficulty reduced to powder, but contains a larger proportion of foreign substances. Amenia Ore Bed. This is found near Ameniaville, in the northwestern part of the town of Amenia. This is an enormous deposit of hematitic iron ore, from which supplies are con¬ stantly obtained for several furnaces in the vicinity. The bed has been opened at various places for the distance of an hundred yards, and the ore presents all the varieties observed at the other localities, and at the celebrated Salisbury Mine in Connecticut. It often occurs iii the form of stalactites of various sizes, and possessing uncommon beauty. The same high polish, or blackish sooty matter, is observed on the inner surface of the nodules ; and they not un- frequently have a light brown colour, and a structure so distinctly fibrous as to give them a considerable resemblance to wood. There is also intermixed with the nodules of the brown ore, a fair proportion of the yellow pulverulent ochre which is usually so much esteemed by iron smelters. A fragment of a beautifully radiated stalactite from this locality had a specific gravity of 3 . 828 ; and upon calcination, lost 13.5 per cent of its weight. It is probably a specimen of one of the purest varieties of this ore. Its composition was ascertained to be as follows : HYDROUS PEROXIDE OF IRON. 33 IV. Peroxide of iron, . 82.90 Silica and alumina, . 3.60 Water, . 13.50 Oxide of manganese, . traces. This bed is said to furnish five thousand tons of ore per annum, the average yield of which is fifty per cent of pig iron. The amount of ore is supposed to be inexhaustible. There are several beds of the same ore, but of inferior importance, in the vicinity of that just noticed. Such as the Chalk Pond and the Indian Pond ore beds, the former of which is about two and a half miles northeast of Ameniaville, and the latter, on or near the Connecti¬ cut line between Salisbury and Sharon. There is also another bed at Squabble Hole, about two miles south-southwest of Ameniaville, which may .prove to be a continuation of the Amenia bed. At each of these localities, ore of good quality, and in considerable quantity, has been obtained. The iron region which has just been described, is undoubtedly a part of the great series of deposits which has, with little interruption, been traced in a nearly northern direction through the States of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont. Thus the ore is known to occur at Kent and Salisbury in Connecticut, at Lenox and Richmond in Massachusetts, and at Ben¬ nington, Pittsford and Monkton in Vermont. At many of these localities it is accompanied by an ore of zinc, although in proportions too small to be detected by ordinary analysis ; and in Vermont, it is associated with the oxide of manganese. At the Ancram furnace in Columbia county, where the Salisbury ore is used, layers of oxide of zinc are formed in the chimney ; and the same thing has been observed at some of the furnaces in Dutchess county, proving that this mineral also exists , in the ores there found. A specimen of this substance which I obtained at Ancram,* made up of several distinct layers of a yellowish colour, gave upon ana¬ lysis the following results in 100 parts, viz : Oxide of zinc, . . . 96.10 Oxide of iron, . . . 2.90 Carbon, . . . . . 1.00 Bog iron ore has been found in various parts of this county, but not of such a quality or in such quantity as to be of any value. Columbia County. Few important beds of iron ore are at present known to exist in this county. The following deserve to be noticed. Prescott'' s Ore Bed. This is situated in the town of Hillsdale, one and a half mile north of the Columbia turnpike. The ore is hematite in detached nodules, alternating with ochre and fragments of decomposed slate rock. It has been used chiefly for the manufacture of yellow * This substance is known by the name of Cadmium or Cadmia. The oxide of zinc contained in these ores of iron is volatilized by the heat, and is again deposited in the chimney of the furnace. Several analyses will be found in Dumas, Chimie appliquee aux Arts, III. 197. Part I. 5 34 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. ochre by Mr. C. Prescott, who also opened another bed about three quarters of a mile south of the former, and which has since been worked by an iron company in Salisbury, Connecticut.* Copake Ore Bed. This is situated about two miles northeast of Copake Flats. Although not extensively worked, the ore is thought to be abundant. In addition to these beds of hematitic ore, Mr. Mather has noticed, in the Report just quoted, several localities of bog iron ore. One is in the valley of Kline Kill, three or four miles east of Kinderhook, and is thought to be extensive. Others less important are noticed in the towns of Claverack, Beekman and Austerlitz. Limonite, principally in the form of bog ore, has been found in small quantities in the counties of Ulster, Sullivan, Delaware, Broome, Tioga, Otsego and Cattaraugus ; but I am not aware that in any of them it is in sufficient abundance to warrant the expectation that it will be of any value in the manufacture' of iron. Albany and Saratoga Counties. Bog iron ore occurs in various parts of these coun¬ ties. It is here, as elsewhere, usually found in swampy or marshy ground, and affords a fine illustration of those chemical operations which are continually going on in nature ; as the ore is evidently deposited from water, which, by its excess of carbonic acid, originally held the oxide of iron in solution. From Albany county a considerable quantity of this ore has been obtained, and its principal use has been to mix with the magnetic oxide, by which means the quality of the resulting iron is said to be much improved. Washington County. Brown hematite has been found in various parts of this county, and some of the beds are of considerable value. At the head of South Bay is an abundant deposit, and there is also an extensive locality of the same variety about two miles southeast of the village of Whitehall. The specimens of this ore which I have seen, are generally similar to many of those found at the beds in Dutchess county. * ♦ Essex and Clinton Counties. There are but few localities of limonite in these counties. A small and probably quite unimportant bed of the bog ore occurs about a mile north of Port Henry in Essex, and the same variety is said to be abundant on the head waters of the Sara¬ nac in Clinton county. Franklin County. Bog iron ore is found at Malone and several other places. It is only at Westville, however, that it is found in sufficient abundance to be used in the process of reduction. St. Lawrence County. There is scarcely a town in this county in which bog iron ore does not occur in beds of greater or less extent. Dr. Emmons advances the idea that all the deposits of this kind found here have been produced by the decomposition of pyritous iron, and the oxides intermixed with it. “ This is the case certainly,” he says, “ with some of the larger collections, as their formation can be traced directly to the parent rock, in which the iron pyrites is largely disseminated, and which is also undergoing constant decomposition.”! Mather. New-York Geological Reports, 1838. t New- York Geological Reports , 1838. HYDROUS PEROXIDE OF IRON. 35 One of the largest collections of this kind is on the lands of Dr. Thatcher and Mr. Kent, in the town of Hermon. The quantity at this bed is supposed to be inexhaustible ; but in consequence of the admixture of iron pyrites, it becomes necessary to submit the ore to the process of roasting, or long exposure to the atmosphere. In the town of Fowler there is a bed of the same variety of ore, which has long supplied the Fullerville furnace. There are deposits of this ore in the towns of Fowler and Gouverneur, in which are dis¬ tinctly observable twigs, roots and leaves of the birch and beech, the vegetable matter of which is entirely replaced by the ferruginous oxide ; the process being probably analogous to that by which the substance of leaves, &c. is replaced by carbonate of lime, in what is commonly called the process of petrifaction. Bog ore is not unfrequently met with in the town of Canton, but the quantity has heretofore proved insufficient for use. This remark also applies to the town of De Kalb. The bed from which the Waddington furnace is supplied, is situated near the River La Grasse, about two and a half miles from the village of Columbia, and about seven miles from the village of Waddington. There are three varieties of ore, differing very little in their composition. One consists of large lumps, and is known by the name of pan ore ; another, in small masses more or less rounded, is called shot ore ; and lastly, the ochrey ore, called also loam ore. All these varieties have a reddish yellow colour when reduced to powder, and, by calcination, lose from 18 to 20.5 per cent of their weight. After this operation they become black, and are freely taken up by the magnet ; although before they are subjected to heat, they are not in the slightest degree influenced by it. A specimen of this ore gave, on analysis, the following results, viz : Peroxide of iron, . 71.00 Silica and alumina, . 8.50 Water, . 20.50 The extent of this bed has never been fully ascertained, but it is supposed to be sufficient to supply the furnace fifteen or twenty years. Another valuable bed of the same ore has been found near the boundary of the towns of Madrid and Louisville ; and still another, said to be of great extent, is situated on the Deer river in the town of Brasher. The variety called pan ore predominates, and it is of an excel¬ lent quality.* Jefferson County. Near Carthage, in this county, there is a bed of bog iron ore, which has been worked for several years, but it does not yield a very abundant supply. There is also a deposit of this ore in the vicinity of the village of Oxbow, which resembles some of those occurring in St. Lawrence, in containing stems, roots and leaves, which have 'undergone the process of conversion into oxide of iron. For this and the preceding notices, I am indebted to William Ogden, Esq. of Waddington. 36 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. In the Counties of Madison, Onondaga, and in some of the still more western ones, there not unfrequently occur deposits, to which Mr. Vanuxem has given the name of Tufaceous Iron Ore, being a mixture of calcareous tufa and hydrate of iron. Among other localities, may be noticed one a mile west of Chittenango in Madison county ; another, two and a half miles northeast of Salina in Onondaga ; and another on Nine-mile creek, between Marcellus and the great embankment of the Syracuse and Auburn railroad. The proportion of oxide of iron in this compound is usually small. With the magnetic oxide, it would be valuable as a flux ; but it so happens that the abundant iron ore of Western New-York, (the lenticular clay iron ore,) is itself largely mixed with carbonate of lane. COMPOSITION OF IRON ORES. 37 TABLE Exhibiting the composition of several Iron Ores found in the State of New- York, and, the proportion of Metallic Iron which they contain, in 100 parts. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. Protoxide of iron, . 25.40 £ 96.50 44.10 1 95.75 £ 98.90 1 89.00 ^ 94.84 42.26 Peroxide of iron, . 70.50 52.75 53.69 Oxide of manganese, . 1.60 traces. ' ( and tita- 2 nic acid. Silica, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ $ and loss, \ 2.50 3.50 | 4.25 \ 1.10 | 11.00 | 4.05 Alumina, _ _ _ | 3.15 ( 5.16 traces. . Metallic iron, . 69.10 71.11 71.22 70.55 72.86 65.57 69.88 70.13 IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. Protoxide of iron, . . Peroxide of iron, . £ 70.80 1 92.97 24.50 66.80 ? 92.15 27.00 71.50 98.00 97.00 96.52 ' ' ( and loss, l 1.20 | 5.93 ) f and other < insol. mat 5 and loss, 1 1.50 2.33 2.83 ^ 3.48 V 8.70 ( 7.85 J- Carbonate of lime, _ 25.00 Plumbago, _ 3.00 .traces. traces. > Metallic iron, . . i. 52.16 68.50 65.81 67.89 71.00 68.60 67.90 67.56 XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. Peroxide of iron, . 96.00- 51.50 42.93 72.37 80.27 82-. 90 71.00 68.00 Oxide of manganese, . traces. 8.50 Silica, . . 4.00 6.00 | 17.99 | 15.43 j. 7.43 ' £ 8.50 Alumina, . 7.50 1 3.60 f 6.50 Carbonate of lime, . 24.50 28.33 Carbonate of magnesia, _ 7.75 10.40 Water, . . . 5 and loss, 12.20 11.66 13.50 20.50 17.00 l 2.75 .v Metallic iron, _ _ 67.20 36.05 30.05 50.65 56.18 58.03 49.70 47.60 No. I. Magnetic oxide of iron.. Long Mine, Monroe, Orange county. Page 7. II. Magnetic oxide of iron. Rich Iron Mine, Monroe, Orange county. Page 8. III. Magnetic oxide of iron. Forshee Mine, Monroe, Orange county. Page 8. IV. Magnetic oxide of iron. 0;Niel Mine, Monroe, Orange county. Page 9.. V. Magnetic oxide of iron. Wilks Mine, Monroe, Oraftge county. Page 9. VI. Magnetic oxide of iron. Denny Mine, Philipstown, Putnam county. Page 11. VII. Iron sand. Banks of Moose river, Lyondale, Lewis county. Page 13. VIII. Magnetic oxide of iron. Fort-Ann, Washington county. Page 13. IX. Magnetic oxide of iron. Warrensbuvgh, Warren county. Page 13. X. Magnetic oxide of iron. Penfield Mine, Crown-Point, Essex county. Page 14. XI. Magnetic oxide of iron. Crag Harbour, Essex County. Page 15. XII. Magnetic. cxide of iron. Newcomb*, Essex county. Page 17. XIII. Magnetic oxide of iron. Arnold Mine, Clinton county'. Page 18. XIV. Light blue ore. Arnold Mine, Clinton county; Page 18. XV. Grey ore. Arnold Mine, Clinton county. Page 18. XVI. Specular oxide of ifon. Kearney Ore Bed, St. Lawrence county. Page 25. XVH. Specular oxide of iron. Pierrepont, St. Lawrence county. Page 26. XVIII. Lenticular clay iron ore. Wolcott, Wayne county. Page 28. XIX. Lenticular clay iron ore. Lower Genesee Falls, near Rochester, Monroe county. Page 28. XX. Limonite. Southfield, Richmond County. Page 30. XXI. Hematite. Clove Ore Bed, Union Vale,* Dutchess county. Page 32. XXII. Hematite. Amenia Ore Bed, Amenia, Dutchess county. Page 33. XXIII. Bog iron ore. St. Lawrence county. Page 34. XXIV. Brown iron ore, or umber. Forshee Mine, Monroe, Orange county. Page 8. 38 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Present Condition of the Manufacture of Iron in the State of New-York. The manufacture of iron was commenced, in the State of New-York, at a comparatively early period. It was actively carried on in Orange county for several years previously to the American Revolution. I have, however, no means of determining the extent of the manufac¬ ture at that early date. In 1810, the value of the iron manufactured in the State was esti¬ mated at $859,895. At that time there were in the counties of Essex and Clinton, one bloomery and twelve forges, at which 259 tons were manufactured, besides 100 tons from the furnaces.* In 1830, the number of iron works and trip hammers in the State was 335, of which the Fourth and Fifth Senate Districts contained no less than 176. According to the census returns made in 1835, the number of iron works and trip hammers was 434, and the value of the iron manufactured was $4,713,530; being an increase from 1830 of nearly 100 iron works and trip hammers, and in the value of iron manufactured of upwards of $1,000,000. In 1840, according to the census returns, there were 306 furnaces, bloomeries, forges and rolling mills ; in which 82,654 tons of cast iron, and 58,275 tons of bar iron, were manufac¬ tured. The capital invested in these was estimated at $2,113,818. To this should be added $1,806,638, as the value of hardware, cutlery, &c. manufactured. If these statements are to be relied on, the manufacture of this important article did not advance in the State of New-York during the period from 1835 to 1840. The prosperity of the manufacture of iron in any country must depend mainly upon the abundance of the raw material, and the low price at which it can be obtained. It is essential also to its success, that the iron produced be of good quality. From the account which has been presented of the iron ores found in this State, it is evident that there is a supply for the utmost demand. There is, however, a considerable difference in the quality of these ores ; or, what amounts to the same thing, manufacturers give a de¬ cided preference to those from particular localities, which thus have a greatly increased value, while others have been in a measure neglected, or at least are considered of little importance. Making every allowance for the natural superiority of some ores, this result may in part be ascribed to the want of skill in conducting the mining operations, and in following out the details of the manufacture. In regard to the first of these points, it may be remarked, that the raising of the ores has heretofore been generally conducted in the rudest and most careless manner. With a few exceptions, the whole object of the proprietors of our mines seems to have been to obtain a present supply of ore at the easiest and cheapest rate. Hence excavations have often been improperly made, and good beds of ore have not unfrequently been rendered valueless by the falling in of rocks, or by vast collections of rubbish which have accumulated. The conse¬ quence of these injudicious, and in some instances ruinous operations, the result oftentimes of false notions of economy, has been to render this branch of mining a peculiarly expensive Tench Coxe. Statement of Arts and Manufactures in the United States. MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 39 and precarious employment. This of course must have an effect upon the manufacturer ; and it is not too much to say, that until this business is conducted with that science and skill which are brought to bear upon it in other countries, there will be wanting in our case one important element of success. A review of the processes of manufacture pursued in some parts of the State will, I think, afford another clue to the causes which have served to depress this branch of industry ; and as this is one of the most important topics connected with the practical part of this investiga¬ tion, I trust that I shall be excused for entering somewhat in detail. In the description of the ores of iron which I have already given, it will be observed that some of them are nearly pure ; that is, consist almost entirely of iron and oxygen in variable proportions. Such are many of the ores found in the northern counties, in Orange county, &c. As it is only necessary, in order to convert these pure minerals into metallic iron, that they should be deprived of the oxygen which they contain, the reduction may be effected in a very simple manner. They are accordingly often mixed with a proper proportion of charcoal, and subjected to heat in a low or Catalan forge. A part of the carbon, combining with the oxygen of the ore, passes off in the form of carbonic acid gas ; while a variable proportion of the carbon also combines with the iron, and causes the formation of cast iron, steel, or mal¬ leable iron, according to circumstances. If the application of the heat be discontinued after the first reduction of the ore, the result will be cast iron ; but as the object in this case is usually to obtain malleable iron by a single process, charcoal is added, and the heat continued until the cast iron loses its liquidity, and is converted into a loup, as it is termed ; after which it is brought under heavy hammers, and formed into bars of various sizes and forms. When a peculiar ore, as the spathic iron, is employed, the product of this process is an inferior kind of steel. This forge is the most humble, and probably the oldest workshop of iron, and was formerly in general use where the ores were sufficiently pure to admit of its employment. As it could be erected at a trifling expense, it enabled the small capitalist to prosecute the manufacture in situations where fuel was abundant, and it often employed the farmer in the intervals of agricultural labor. These are perhaps the principal reasons why the forge is so generally used in the northern part of the State. But I think it may be safely affirmed that its employ¬ ment is wasteful ; and as fuel becomes less abundant, and capital increases, it must give place to the improved furnace.* It is evident from the description of the process which has just been given, that the conver¬ sion of the cast iron into malleable iron in the open forge, takes place during the free exposure of the former to heat and air in contact with the combustible. There must, however, be great waste both of fuel and of ore. Facts prove the correctness of this assertion. If I have been correctly informed, three tons of the best ore, such as that from the Arnold mine, are required for producing one ton of malleable iron ; and five hours is the average time consumed in carry- See Col. Gibbs’ Observations on the Iron Works at Vergennes, Vermont. Bruce's American Mineralogical Journal, p. 80. 40 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. ing the ore to the state of rough bar, one hundred and fifty pounds being the usual weight of the loup. Now analysis shows that the Arnold ore contains from sixty-eight to seventy-one per cent of metallic iron ; and although great allowance is to be made for the waste necessarily attendant upon metallurgic processes, we may fairly conclude that when it amounts, as it does in the present case, to a hundred per cent, there must be some defect in the process of reduction. The clay iron-stone so extensively used in Great Britain, seldom contains more than thirty- five per cent of metallic iron ; and yet it is stated that three tons of this ore yield about one ton of cast iron, and this last again loses about ten or twelve per cent of its weight by con¬ version into refined iron, so that about three and a half tons of the ore yield a ton of refined iron. The difference will be more apparent from the following statement. Three tons of Arnold ore, at 70 per cent, . — 4,704 lbs. metallic iron. Three and a half tons clay iron-stone, at 35 per cent, _ = 2,744 “ do. do. Difference, . 1,960 lbs. Showing that, by the process of which we are now speaking, for every ton of rough bar iron obtained, there is a waste of nearly another ton of metallic iron. And in this estimate, nothing has been allowed for the loss which these bars suffer in the various operations to which they are subjected previously to their preparation for the manufacture of nails, &c. The important influence which the facts just stated must exert upon the manufacture of iron in the district where this process is almost exclusively employed, can scarcely be doubted, when it is stated that the price of ore is sometimes not less than five dollars the ton. To all this should be added the waste of fuel, which I am satisfied may be fairly set' down to this mode of manufacture. Another, and perhaps more serious objection to the process under examination, is the want of uniformity in the texture of the iron, and its unfitness for many uses to which this metal is applied. This is owing to the alternate mixture of steely grains with those of the malleable iron, a result which no care can prevent. Hence chain cables manufactured from this kind of iron, although they are sufficiently tough in some parts, in others have a tenacity so in¬ considerable as to be easily destroyed by the weight applied to them. To the same want of uniformity in the texture, is to be ascribed the rapidity with which they are oxidated by ex¬ posure to the atmosphere. In adverting to these facts, I trust that I shall not be accused of a want of interest in our manufactures. They are, it is believed, well known to most of our iron masters ; and my object in thus noticing them, is to urge the importance of the introduction of a less exception¬ able process than that which has just beer} described. The iron ores in various parts of the State will not suffer in the comparison with any in the world ; and there is no-reason, if proper attention be paid to the manufacture, why the iron obtained from them should not be as valuable as any other. _ The Dannemora iron ore, from which the most celebrated Swedish iron is obtained, is similar MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 41 in its characters to the primitive or magnetic ores found in the northern and southern parts of the State. It sometimes, however, contains, as we are informed by Dr. Thomson, a portion of carbonate of lime, and is also associated with quartz and with hornblende. In the process of reduction, the ore is broken into small pieces, roasted, and then put into conical shaped furnaces constructed of the slag from cast iron, which is found to answer the purpose fully as well as bricks, and to come much cheaper. In these furnaces, it is mixed with the requisite quantity of charcoal ; but the addition of limestone is seldom necessary, because it exists already in the ore. Here it is melted and separated from the slag, which is allowed to run off, or is cast into bricks, according as it is wanted. The cast iron obtained by this process is- as white as silver, very hard and brittle, and is not liable to rust ; but in this state it cannot be applied to any useful purpose, in consequence of its brittleness. This iron is converted into malleable iron by heating it in a bed of charcoal and oxide of iron, and hammering it out into bars while hot. In this state it is whiter than common iron, of a distinctly fibrous tex¬ ture, and is much stouter than any other species of iron whatever.* There is still some uncertainty in regard to the cause of the superiority of the Dannemora iron. By some it is ascribed to the presence of manganese. Berzelius supposes it due to the presence of the metallic basis of silica ; another author, again, refers the superiority to the mixture of carbonate of lime which the ore contains ; and finally, it has been ascribed prin¬ cipally to the process employed ; for it is asserted, that by following a similar mode of manu¬ facture, as good iron has been obtained from other Swedish ores as from that of the Danne¬ mora mine. In those parts of the State where what are called high furnaces are in use, the leading principles of the process of smelting are well understood, and in some cases a considerable degree of perfection has been attained. But so many circumstances enter into the iron smelter’s manufacture, and an attention to each of them is so important to the success of the whole, that it may be regarded as a striking proof of the ingenuity of our coimtrymen, that with so few of the necessary data, they have been enabled to prosecute it with even tolerable success. It is now admitted, that in order to carry on this branch of art in the most advanta¬ geous manner, it is essential that the chemical composition of the ore should be accurately determined, as well as that of the flux to be used, of the slag or scoria formed during the process, and finally of the iron which is the result. Investigations of this kind have been prosecuted for some years in Sweden, France, Germany and England ; and the result has been the introduction of improvements, by means of which the ores have been made to yield a larger quantity and a better quality of iron than was formerly obtained from them. It has already been stated, that when the ore is of great purity, the process of reduction is exceedingly simple. But as the, ores most generally used contain earthy bodies, as silica, alumina, &c. in considerable proportions, the business of the iron smelter consists in fusing the earths, and in deoxidizing the ore by the agency of carbonaceous matter. But silica, when Part I. 6 * Dr. Thomson. Travels in Sweden. 42 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. subjected to high heat in contact with oxide of iron, unites with it, and forms a silicate which cannot be reduced by carbon. It is, therefore, of great importance to prevent the formation of this compound. One of the means by which this end may be attained, is the roasting of the ore, an operation which is too often neglected by our manufacturers. By being previously roasted, the ore loses its water, if it contains any ; the carbonic acid and volatile matters are also driven off, and it is brought to that porous state which permits the flame to come into contact with each of its particles, and thus the metal is reduced before the silicates can be formed. Another advantage gained by the roasting of the ore is, that we avoid in a great measure the evolution of the gases in the furnace, which not only obstruct the free passage of flame, but have a tendency to cool it. It is, therefore, of the greatest importance that particular attention should be paid in all cases to the process of roasting ; but especially so, when the more compact kinds of magnetic and specular ores are employed. As the operation is analogous to the burning of limestone, it may be performed either in the open air, or in furnaces constructed for the purpose, as may be found most convenient and economical.* In most cases, however, the roasting is not sufficient to effect the complete separation of the matters which prevent or retard the reduction of the metal. In order to facilitate the operation, substances are added, which are denominated fluxes, the use of which is to bring the earthy matters, mixed or combined with the oxide of iron, to a state of thin fusion or liquidity, so that the particles of metallic iron, having been formed by the action of the car¬ bon, may run together and fall down to the bottom of the furnace. It is evident, therefore, that the nature of the flux must differ with that of the ore. When siliceous matter predomi¬ nates, limestone is used, so that the silica may form with it a fusible compound, and thus liberate the metal. On the contrary, when an ore contains carbonate of lime, this substance being also infusible, a siliceous flux is then to be employed. From this view of the nature and use of fluxes, it is apparent that they cannot be employed in an arbitrary or empirical manner. The particular kind, as well as the proportion, must be determined by the chemical composition of the ore ; and it is very seldom that two ores so closely resemble each other as to allow the use of exactly the same flux. With the exception of the lenticular argillaceous oxide of the western part of the State, and the magnetic iron from Warrensburgh, all the ores which I have examined are siliceous or aluminous, and require for their reduction a flux composed chiefly of carbonate of lime. Limestones well adapted to this use, abound in various parts of the State. That the proper adjustment of the flux to the nature of the ore is a subject not yet suffi¬ ciently attended to by our iron smelters, I think is evident, from an examination of the scoriae of many of our furnaces. Small globules or buttons of nearly pure iron, or of the metal slightly oxidated, are sometimes found in the hard and glassy compound, and by treating this refuse with additional portions of flux, a large proportion of metallic iron is obtained. I was informed by the conductor of a furnace in Dutchess county, that a heap of this slag, which * For descriptions of processes and apparatus, see Dumas, Traite de Chimie appliques mix Arts, IV. 619. MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 43 he had considered as without value, and which he intended to have removed from his pre¬ mises at some expense, had been found to be worth more than $3,000, for the iron which it contained. I have already observed, that the nature and proportion of the flux most proper to be employed in any given case, cannot be positively determined without an analysis of the ore. Berthier gives some general directions on this subject, which it may be useful to introduce in this place ; and especially so, as his statements are the result of an extensive series of expe¬ riments. According to this chemist, the proportion of flux to the ore necessary to ensure the requisite degree of fusibility should be such, as that the compound may contain from 45 to 60 per cent of silica, 20 to 35 per cent of lime, and 12 to 25 per cent of other earths. The nature of the latter has a great influence upon the fusibility of the scoria. Alumina is the least fusible, and it should not much exceed the proportion of 0.15. Magnesia is much more fusible, and it may attain the proportion of 0.25 without inconvenience.- But when other metallic compounds form part of the ore, as manganese, titanium, phosphate of iron and of lime, the arseniates of iron, iron pyrites, galena, blende and chromium, the proportion of fluxing materials must be determined by their nature, and by the proportions in which they exist in the ore.* In regard to fuel, and its mode of employment, there is also room for improvement in our manufactories. Charcoal, the combustible almost exclusively employed at present, no doubt possesses great advantages ; but the want of due attention to the process of carbonization, renders this substance of very variable purity. This not only increases the expense, but causes a variation in the degree of heat quite unfavourable to the success of the iron smelter’s operations. In those cases, by no means unfrequent, where the proprietors of iron works have also under their control the manufacture of charcoal intended for their use, it would be greatly to their advantage to introduce some of those improvements which have been adopted in England and France, and the value of which experience has fully confirmed. Although charcoal is perhaps the best fuel for the iron furnace, it is well known that causes are gradually, though constantly, operating to diminish the supply, and of course to increase its price. In some cases this already begins to act as a damper upon the manufacture in question. The same difficulty was experienced in England at a very early period, when it was fortunately ascertained that the bituminous coal, which abounds in that country, when converted into coke, might be substituted in the place of charcoal. And it is to this discovery that England is chiefly indebted for the commanding position which she now occupies as a manufacturing nation. In this country, various attempts have been made to substitute anthra¬ cite for charcoal, in iron smelting ; which at length, by the employment of the hot blast, have been crowned with complete success. This great improvement in the manufacture of iron, however, will be of more value in those States where anthracite is found, than in our own ; but it cannot fail, even here, to be highly beneficial. t * Traite des Essais par la Voir Seche, II. 339. t I have just received a small work, entitled “ Notes on the use of Anthracite in the Manufacture of Iron," by Prof. Walter R. Johnson ; to which I would refer those who are interested in this subject. 44 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. ORES OF LEAD, ZINC AND COPPER. Although these ores have been for a long time known to occur in various parts of this State, they have, for a few years past, in some counties at least, been objects of peculiar interest. It has, indeed, been supposed, that lead, zinc, and perhaps copper, would be ranked among our most important mineral productions. Whether these anticipations are well founded, will probably appear from the facts about to be presented. SULPHURET OF LEAD, or GALENA. Cleveland. Plomb sulfure. Hauy. '■ — Hexahedral Galena, or Lead-glance. Jameson. — Hexaedrischer Bleiglanz. Mohs. — Galene. Beudant. Description. This mineral, which, here as in other parts of the world, is the common ore of lead, has a bluish grey colour, usually called lead-grey ; streak unaltered. The colour is liable to tarnish, and the mineral then becomes iridescent. It occurs massive and crystallized. When massive, it is granular or compact, and some¬ times striated or fibrous. When crystallized, it is foliated, and has a threefold cleavage parallel to the faces of the cube, which is the primary form. Sometimes the cube is trun¬ cated on its angles and edges, and sometimes it is elongated. It occurs also in octahedrons, cubo-octahedrons, &c. The following crystalline forms have been observed in this State : Rossie, St. Lawrence Co. Martinsburgh, Lewis Co. Rossie, St. Lawrence Co. Rossie, St. Lawrence Co. SULPHURET OF LEAD. 45 Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Morristown, St. Lawrence Co. Martinsburgh, Lewis Co. Morristown, St. Lawrence Co. Martinsburgh, Lewis Co. Wurtzboro’, Sullivan Co. Lustre splendent to glimmering, and metallic ; sectile ; very easily frangible. Hardness 2.5 to 3. Specific gravity 7.532 to 7.652 (Thomson)-, 7.759 ( Beudant ). Fusible before the blowpipe, with the disengagement of fumes of sulphur. When heated on charcoal, the metallic lead is obtained. Soluble in nitric acid, forming a white precipitate of sulphate of lead. When dissolved in dilute nitric acid, with only a slight elevation of temperature, the solution produces a preci¬ pitate of brilliant blades of metallic lead upon a clean plate of zinc ; but not upon a plate of copper, unless it contains sulphuret of silver. Distinctive characters. From graphite and sulphuret of molybdenum it may be dis¬ tinguished by its greater specific gravity ; while from sulphuret of zinc, which it sometimes resembles, its metallic and shining streak will be sufficient to distinguish it. Composition. The constituents of this mineral when pure, are sulphur 13.34, lead 86.66, in 100 parts ; but it sometimes contains minute proportions of silver, antimony and iron. This mineral is found in various parts of the State, and sometimes in large quantities. The localities will be noticed in the alphabetical order of the counties in which they occur. Columbia County. At the Ancram Lead Mine, as it is usually called, about four miles southeast of the Ancram furnace, galena is found in a hill composed of slate and limestone. Two or three veins may here be observed on the surface ; which, with their gangue, vary in width from a foot to three or four feet. When they widen, as they sometimes do, the ore is very sparingly disseminated in the calcareous spar and quartz, which constitute its principal associates. The galena at this locality does not seem to form a true vein, but to be a collec¬ tion of strings communicating with masses or beds of various dimensions. These strings are parallel with the strata, and not at right angles to them, and the ore is not bounded by a re¬ gular wall, but gradually loses itself in the accompanying rock. 46 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. The galena is both foliated and granular, but no regular crystalline forms have been ob¬ served. It is associated with blende and copper pyrites in a gangue of quartz ; calcareous spar and sulphate of barytes are also occasionally intermixed. It is owing to these foreign minerals, that some difficulties have been encountered in the separation and reduction of the lead. The following are the results of the analyses of two of the best specimens of galena ob¬ tained from this locality, viz : I. II. Sulphur, . . . 13.00 12.68 Lead, . 83.65 81.61 Silica, or quartz, . 3.50 5.71 Carbonate of lime, . traces. But it is difficult to obtain any quantity of lead ore without an admixture of the sulphurets of zinc and copper, and the other associated minerals. In addition to these, it may be re¬ marked, that there is also a minute proportion of sulphuret of silver mixed with the ore. This, however, is scarcely deserving of notice in an economical point of view, as the expense of separating the precious metal would probably exceed the value of the product. This mine has been extensively worked at various times, and the visitor will find shafts and adits of great depth and length, and the proofs of large expenditures. Unfortunately, the expectations of those who were engaged in these operations have not been realized ; and I am constrained to add, that there is nothing at this locality which would warrant any additional outlay. Several other localities of galena, although of less importance than that just noticed, occur in other parts of this county. In the town of Canaan, veins of lead ore have been found, one or two miles south of Whiting’s pond. The ore is fine grained, and is mixed with yellow blende, and with black and yellow copper. There is also a similar vein in the town of Cla- verack, and the same mineral has been found in several places in New-Lebanon.* Dutchess County. There is a thin vein of galena in the southwest corner of the town of Northeast, which is probably a continuation of some of those noticed in the county of Columbia. On the farms of Judge Bockee and Mr. W. Bryan, are several openings, from which considerable quantities of ore have been obtained. These mines are said to have been worked as early as the year 1740, by a company of Germans, and the ore sent to Bristol, England. They were, however, soon abandoned, but were re-opened during the revolution, when a few tons of lead were again obtained. Since that time they have been entirely neglected. Excavations are to be seen on the lands of Judge Bockee, at short intervals for half a mile, showing numerous small veins of galena, associated with the sulphurets and carbonates of Mather. JYew-York Geological Reports , 1838. SULPIIURET OF LEA.D. 47 copper. Mr. Mather states, that all the openings are in the limestone, (which is of a bluish- grey colour, and nearly compact structure,) a few rods east of its junction with the slate on the west. From the great number of small veins in this vicinity, he thinks it probable that larger ones occur, of which these are the mere strings.* Unimportant localities of sulphuret of lead have also been noticed in the towns of Amenia and Rhinebeck. Herkimer County. From the specimens of galena which have been found in this county, it was supposed by some that workable beds of it would be discovered. Thus far, however, these anticipations have not been realized. Excavations have been made about two miles from Salisbury Corners, but they have furnished only cabinet specimens of the sulphurets of lead, iron, zinc and copper, with occasional stains of the green carbonate of copper and bog iron ore ; the former, proceeding from the action of the atmosphere upon pyritous copper ; and the latter, from the decomposition of iron pyrites. Small quantities of lead ore have been found in Jefferson County, but its occurrence has not yet led to many extensive mining operations. Lewis County. Near the village of Martinsburgh, galena is found associated with iron pyrites in narrow veins, traversing the Trenton limestone. At one of these, about three thou¬ sand dollars have been expended in excavations, which extend for nearly two hundred feet along the surface, and at one point are fifty feet in depth. Copper pyrites and blende are sometimes associated with the galena. The gangue is calcareous spar, which often exhibits interesting crystalline forms. Some of the specimens of galena have a beautiful feathery appearance, resembling certain ores of silver. A specimen of the galena from this locality gave the following results, viz : Sulphur, . 11.97 Lead, . 77.15 Iron pyrites, carbonate of lime, &c . 10.88 The same minerals are found in minute quantities on the banks of Whetstone creek, a mile and a half from Martinsburgh. The galena at this locality is often in small but perfect octahedrons. The associated calcareous spar has the form of lenticular crystals. At the falls near Lowville in this county, galena has been found with cubes of green fluor and six-sided crystals of calcareous spar. This ore was erroneously thought to contain a large proportion of silver, and the locality is often called the “ Silver Mine.” Monroe County. Small masses of galena occur in the limestone near Rochester in this county, and at one locality a small vein has been noticed. A company was some time since formed for mining and working this ore ; but it is almost unnecessary to add, that it has never commenced active operations. New-York Geological Reports, 1838. 48 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Montgomery County. Lead ore occurs in this county, but none of the localities seem to be of much importance. On Flat creek in the town of Root, about a mile and a half south¬ east of Spraker’s Basin, are several small veins of iron pyrites, galena and blende, in a matrix of calcareous spar, the whole being in a fissile slate rock. A small outlay has been incurred here, which has been sufficient to exhaust the supply of ore. It is even difficult, at the pre¬ sent time, to obtain good cabinet specimens. Oneida County. Galena has been found in small quantities in the towns of Vernon and Westmoreland. According to Mr. Vanuxem, this ore, associated with blende, occurs near Hamilton College, in a rock consisting of carbonate of lime and sand. In Orange County, this mineral has been found near Fallbrook in the town of Deerpark, but in quantities so very small as to deserve only a mere notice. And the latter remark will apply to its occurrence in Rensselaer County. St. Lawrence County. Valuable deposits of galena have, within a few years, been discovered within this county. On account of their real or fancied importance, and the large expenditures which have been made in working them, it is proper that a detailed description should be here presented. The first, and perhaps still the most important vein in this county, was opened in the winter of 1835-36. It is commonly known by the name of the Rossie Lead Mine ; although dif¬ ferent parts of the same vein, being owned by different proprietors, usually receive in the vicinity their distinctive appellations. This mine is situated about two and a half miles south of the village of Rossie. The following is a description of it, as it appeared in the early part of August, 1836. The vein of galena and white decomposed ore was distinctly visible for some distance, passing down a precipitous ledge of primitive rock about fifty feet in height. The average width of the vein was two feet, and it cut the rock in a nearly perpendicular direction ; at the lower part, however, inclining slightly to the north. On ascending the ledge, the course and extent of the vein could be easily determined by the excavations which had been made, and by the appearance of the surface in those parts where it had not been opened. Its course was found to be about south-southeast and north-northwest ; and its length, as exposed at that time, was about four hundred and fifty feet. And throughout this whole extent, the vein seemed to be so distinctly characterized as to excite surprise that it had not long before been noticed. About eight feet from the principal vein was a smaller one, which intersected the rock in a direction nearly parallel with the former, and which, at the depth of about thirty feet, united with it. The galena found in this vein is often crystallized in large cubes, which are not unfrequcntly modified by truncations upon the angles. A large proportion of the ore, however, is either in foliated masses, which, in consequence of their threefold cleavage, break into cubical or rec¬ tangular fragments, or is made up of grains of various sizes. Throughout the whole extent SULPHURET OF LEAD. 49 of the vein, the ore is imbedded in a gangue of carbonate of lime, with druses of calcareous spar of great beauty, and presenting a great variety of crystalline forms. The average width of this gangue is about four feet. As usual, the proportion of the gangue is quite variable, the ore being in some parts nearly pure, and easily separable from the walls ; while in others, nearly the whole of the vein is made up of calcareous spar. The common metallic associates of galena are also found here, viz. iron and copper pyrites and zinc blende, although the latter is of rare occurrence. Two specimens of galena from this mine were subjected to analysis, with the following results, viz : I. II. Sulphur, . . .. 13.20 13.26 Lead, . . . . .. 85.40 85.35 Carbonate of lime, and loss, . . . . 1.40 1.39 No. I. was part of a cubical fragment detached from the gangue. It had a specific gravity of 7.500. No. II. was of a lighter colour, and somewhat silvery appearance. This peculiarity is probably caused by a tarnish, or perhaps by the contact of the gangue. This ore also contains a minute proportion of silver, which may be separated by the process of cupellation, but which can hardly be detected by the humid process. The lead ashes, as it is commonly called, found in great abundance on that part of the Rossie vein which was exposed to the atmosphere, and which invested most of the surface specimens of galena, proved to be a mixture of the carbonate and sulphate of lead and car¬ bonate of lime in variable proportions. The formation of this compound was undoubtedly due to the reaction of the carbonate of lime and sulphuret of lead, together with a free ex¬ posure to atmospheric influence. For three or four years, this mine was worked with great activity, and shafts were sunk to the depth of upwards of one hundred and fifty feet. At this depth the vein presented similar appearances to those observed nearer the surface, except perhaps that the proportion of ore to the gangue was somewhat less. Fine druses of crystallized galena and calcareous spar, together with variously modified crystals of iron pyrites and some copper pyrites, were from time to time laid open. A few beautiful specimens of crystallized sulphate of strontian, of a bluish colour, were also found. Since 1839, however, this mine has not been worked, whether in consequence of the in¬ sufficient supply of ore, the expense of raising it, or the large previous outlay, it is unneces¬ sary now to inquire. A short distance from the preceding, towards the road leading from Rossie to Oxbow in Jefferson county, is the Jepson vein, which has a bearing south 88° 30/ east. It has pro¬ duced a large quantity of ore, and was thought to be little inferior in value to the Rossie vein. Its gangue and associated minerals are also similar. Part I. 7 50 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. Two other veins were opened in this vicinity, viz. the Robinson and the Ross veins ; but they have not proved to be of much value. Some idea of the extent to which the Rossie mines were worked may be inferred from the fact, that the amount of lead produced from them in 1838 was 3,347,463 pounds.* At Mineral Point on Black lake, six miles below the village of Rossie, is another mining region which promised to be of considerable importance. One vein was opened, which had an average width of two feet ; but the ore was largely mixed with the usual gangue, calca¬ reous spar. The general course of the deposit was similar to that of the Rossie vein ; but the ore, which was both crystallized and massive, was more largely mixed with sulphuret of zinc. The mania of speculation which so generally prevailed in 1836 and 37, led to the opening of several other veins in the immediate vicinity. These, however, are at the present time scarcely deserving of notice. In one of them I observed the galena associated with fluor spar, which is not a common occurrence in this region. In the northern part of the town of Gouverneur is the Wilson vein , which in fact is rather a vein of calcareous spar in which are disseminated small masses of galena, than a true vein of lead ore. Some beautiful specimens of crystallized spar have been obtained from this locality. Veins of galena and calcareous spar, similar in most respects to those already described, have been found in several other parts of this county, viz. in the towns of Fowler and Pit¬ cairn ;t but they are at present of no importance, and are not deserving of a detailed descrip¬ tion. Sullivan County. The principal deposit of galena in this county is near the summit of the Shawangunk mountains, about two miles northwest of the village of Wurtzboro’, and three quarters of a mile from the Hudson and Delaware canal. The vein or bed is situated in the millstone grit of which this mountain is composed, and which here has a dip west- southwest of about 45°. At the spot where the galena was first observed, a perpendicular shaft was sunk ; to intersect which, a tunnel has been excavated, arid with this there com¬ municate galleries of several hundred feet in length. The deposit of ore at this locality is from two to five feet in width, but in this there is a large proportion of quartzose materials. Three varieties of galena are here found, viz. the common, in the form of foliated masses, and breaking into cubical or rectangular fragments ; the granular, composed of granular concretions resembling grains of steel ; and the compact, made up of very fine grains, and having a compact texture, a somewhat conchoidal fracture, and little metallic lustre. The galena, in all its varieties, is associated with the sulphurets of zinc, copper and iron ; indeed so large is the proportion of the former of these ores, that the vein may with more propriety be called a zinc , than a lead mine. The galena and blende often appear in the form Report of the St. Lawrence Railroad Committee, 1839. t Emmons. New-York Geological Reports, 1838. SULPHURET OF LEAD. 51 of rounded nodules of various sizes in the quartz, the former being sometimes a central nu¬ cleus passing gradually into, and at length entirely surrounded by, the blende. The difficulties which attend the reduction of the lead ore thus largely mixed with foreign matters, will at once be apparent. Various attempts were made, and large sums expended, by the company, in useless trials to effect the economical separation of these metals. At length, however, this object has been obtained by mechanical contrivances similar to those in use in Germany. At what expense these processes are conducted, and whether they are sufficiently economical to warrant their continuance, I have no means of knowing. I have only to add, that the mining operations have been carried on in the most judicious manner, all the galleries and levels being susceptible of complete drainage and ventilation. The amount of ore obtained is large, and it is quite probable that it may be increased to any extent, and at a trifling cost. The mineral was reduced in a reverberatory furnace ; and the lead, of which many tons have been manufactured, is said to have been of good quality. Both the lead and the ore yield- by cupellation a small proportion of silver ; too small, however, to warrant the separation in a large way. The ore itself, aside from the associates above named, is as rich, as valuable, and as easily reduced, as that of any lead mine whatever. The location of this mine too, and the prospect of a supply of ore, are all as favorable as could be desired, while the average quantity of ore in a cubic yard of the vein is as great, if not greater, than that of any lead mine at pre¬ sent known in the State. The Sullivan and St. Lawrence mines may be thus briefly contrasted. In the latter, the ore is in small veins, with very good associates, and is easily reduced ; but the situation of the mines is bad. In the former, the ore is in large veins, with bad associates, and is more difficult of separation and reduction ; but the mines are admirably situated, whether we regard the removal of the ore, or the facility of transporting the produce of it. Ulster County. A mine of galena was opened in this county in 1837, and worked by the North American Coal and Mining Company. It is in the Shawangunk range, about three quarters of a mile from the Red Bridge, which forms the boundary between the counties of Ulster and Sullivan, on the Hudson and Delaware canal. The general character of the de¬ posit of ore is similar to that of the one found in the adjoining county ; but the galena has thus far been procured only in very small quantities. It is associated with copper pyrites and sulphuret of zinc. The gangue is quartz, which often occurs in large crystals of great beauty; seldom, however, with double terminations. This mine was worked by a perpendicular shaft, to which levels, passing into the moun¬ tain at different heights, were constructed. There did not seem to me to be any thing here to warrant the expenditure which had been incurred. The Ellenville Mine is about half a mile from the village of that name, at the base of the Shawangunk mountain. The vein is in one of the traverse breaks of the strata, and ranges south 60° east, nearly vertical. The materials which compose it are nearly the same as the grit rock, which it traverses, but more or less loaded with pyrites and crystallized quartz, 52 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. and in some places with blende and galena. The vein is from two to three feet wide, and a copious spring flows near its junction with the marsh below. The mine was opened many years since, and has been worked again within a few years, but very little lead ore has been obtained.* Washington County. Galena was found in the impure limestone in White-Creek, in the year 1823 or 1824. The locality has been examined by Mr. Mather, who represents the ore as lying in small strings and bunches in the rock ; and he adds, that the indications on the surface are such as to justify the belief that it will be explored at some future time ; but it is doubtful whether it would be a profitable investment of capital. It has the same geological position and relations as the mines in the counties of Columbia and Dutchess, and the ore is said also to contain a small proportion of silver.! Such are the mines of lead ore at present known in this State. Upon a review of all the information that we possess, truth compels me to say, that the sanguine hopes that a few years since were entertained in regard to them, are far from being realized. SULPHURET OF ZlNC, OR BlENDE. From the preceding account of our lead mines, it will be observed that the sulphuret of zinc is a very common associate of galena ; indeed, the latter is seldom found in any consi¬ derable quantity without the former. The only ore of zinc heretofore credited to this State, is the sulphuret. This, however, is not found in such quantity as to lead to its use for ob¬ taining the metal. Moreover, this ore is confessedly difficult of reduction, and is not the one from which the metallic zinc is usually obtained. I shall, therefore, reserve the notice of this mineral, and its localities, for the succeeding part of this work. Sulphuret of Copper, or Copper Pyrites. The remarks made in regard to the sulphuret of zinc, are generally applicable to this spe¬ cies. It is most usually associated with galena. But it has nowhere been found in sufficient abundance to warrant its introduction into the catalogue of our useful minerals. It will be treated of hereafter. Mather. New-York Geological Reports, 1840. f New-York Geological Reports, 1841. ORES OF MANGANESE. 53 ORES OF MANGANESE. The most valuable of these ores are the oxides, of which there are several distinct species and varieties. The mineral most abundant in this State, is that which is known by the name of the Earthy Oxide of Manganese, or Wad. Description. The colour of this mineral is brownish, or iron-black ; it has an earthy ap¬ pearance, and it is usually mixed with other substances, as silica, alumina, oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, and vegetable matter. It is often friable, easily reducible to powder, and strongly soils the fingers ; sometimes, however, it has a fibrous texture, the fibres radiating from a common centre. It is infusible by the blowpipe, but is converted by it into brownish oxide. It communicates a violet colour to borax. Heated with sulphuric acid, it gives out oxygen gas ; but with mu¬ riatic acid, it exhales the odour of chlorine. From recent researches, it appears that the variety known by the name of wad, differs in containing a portion of water, and it has the chemical name of hydrated peroxide of manga¬ nese, although all the varieties of this oxide are indiscriminately applied to the same uses in the arts. These are in the preparation of chlorine for bleaching, and in the manufacture of glass. It is not improbable that it may be found in this State in considerable quantities, of a sufficient degree of purity for all these purposes. Columbia County. According to Mr. Mather, wad is found in some abundance in a nar¬ row range in this county. “ It is deposited,” says he, “ from solution in water, in marshes, like bog iron ore. It has been found in quantity only in the vicinity of a range of slate, in¬ jected with quartz veins, which contain brown spar. When this spar is decomposed, oxide of manganese remains, which frequently retains the crystalline texture of the spar. This quartz, when exposed to the air, soon loses the brown spar by decomposition, and becomes cellular in consequence. The manganese of the wad is supposed to be derived from the brown spar which has been decomposed, and the constituents of which have been transported by water into the low grounds where the manganese is deposited. Brown spar is composed of the carbonates of lime, magnesia, iron and manganese ; and as these bodies are isomorphous, they may replace each other without changing the crystalline form. The brown spar of this range of rock seems to contain an unusually large proportion of manganese.”* Such is the explanation given by Mr. Mather of the occurrence and mode of formation of this mineral, to which I have nothing to add at present. Several localities have been noticed in this county, among which are the following, viz : New- York Geological Reports, 1838. 54 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY, On the farm of Mr. H. W. Gott, two miles west of Austerlitz, where it occurs in a marsh, and is deposited like bog iron ore. It is thought to be an extensive bed. On the farm of Mr. Judson Park, a mile south of the above, there is said to be another bed of the same mineral. Several similar localities are reported to exist in the northeastern part of the town of Aus¬ terlitz. Also on the farm of Mr. David Parsons, three quarters of a mile south of Canaan Centre ; and on the farm of Mr. Joseph Goodsell, in the town of Hillsdale, &c. Mr. Mather states, that in the counties of Columbia and Dutchess, 50,000 tons of wad could be procured without any great expense. If carefully prepared, it would be worth $20 a ton, or for the whole amount $1,000,000. In Cattaraugus County, the black oxide of manganese has been found in small grains in various parts of the Conewango and Little valleys ; but the quantity is too small to give it any value. The same is also true in regard to the occurrence of the hydrate of manganese in the County of Allegany ; the lamellar variety of which, according to Mr. Vanuxem, is found associated with calc tufa near Angelica. Essex County. On the sands near the village of Keeseville, there occur small rounded masses of a reddish brown colour externally, which, upon analysis, are found to contain a considerable proportion of oxide of manganese. Lewis County. On the summit of Tug hill, about two miles from the village of House- ville, there is a bed of the earthy oxide of manganese in a marsh. It varies in depth, as at present exposed, from three to eight inches, being made up of rounded masses of various sizes. It is somewhat doubtful whether this is an extensive bed, and I am not aware that any means have been taken to determine the point. New-York County. This mineral has long been known upon the Island of New- York, where it occurs in hollow friable masses in alluvial hills. The quantity, however, is small. Orange County. Four miles southeast of Warwick, there is a compact variety of the oxide of manganese, which, however, is largely mixed with oxide of iron and earthy matters. Westchester County. In the dolomite near Sing-Sing, there are occasionally found nodules of compact black oxide of' manganese. They possess a higher specific gravity than most of the specimens of wad already described, and have a minute portion of copper com¬ bined with the manganese. They may belong to the variety noticed by Cleaveland under the name of Cupreous Oxide of Manganese. These, with the addition of the small masses occasionally met with in the slates of Albany- and Rensselaer Counties, constitute the New-York localities of this mineral. It is usually quite largely mixed with the oxide of iron and other foreign matters, which would of course detract from its value as an article of commerce. The following table will exhibit the results of the several analyses which I have made of this substance from different localities. TITANIUM AND ITS ORES. 55 TABLE Showing the composition of various specimens of Wad , from the State of New- York. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. YU. Peroxide of manganese, . 68.50 58.50 50.50 53.00 33.40 11.45 26.66 | Peroxide of iron, . Earthy matters, (silica and alumina,) 16.75 22.00 24.50 32.15 34.10 28.20 6.00 l 3.25 2.50 4.50 6.90 8.75 44.75 57.50 J Water, . . . . Copper, . . . 11.50 17.00 20.50 6.85 traces. 24.00 15.60 ( and loss, fl l 9.83 j: No. I. — Specimen from the farm of Mr. Joseph Goodsell, two miles northwest of Hillsdale, Columbia county. Earthy, friable, of a blackish brown colour. No. II. — From the farm of Mr. H. W. Gott, two miles west of Austerlitz, Columbia county. External characters similar to those of the preceding. No. III. — From the farm of Mr. David Parsons, three quarters of a mile south of Canaan Centre, Columbia county. Exter¬ nal characters similar to the former. The specific gravity of this and the two preceding is not above 3. No. IV. — From Sing-Sing in Westchester' county Colour bluish or brownish black; compact. Specific gravity 4.33. Found only in small masses in dolomite. No. V. — Found near Keeseville, Essex county. Occurs in rounded masses about the size of a pea, brownish black in the centre, earthy, friable. It contains a large proportion of water and oxide of iron. No. VI.- — From Tug hill, Lewis county. Colour jet black or brownish black ; earthy, friable. This specimen was very impure, but I cannot doubt that there are others possessing a larger proportion of the oxide of manganese. No. VII. — Four miles southeast of Warwick in Orange county. Specimen compact, and highly siliceous ; colour black. TITANIUM AND ITS ORES. The metal titanium was discovered in 1791, but its. properties were not satisfactorily de¬ termined until the year 1822, when Dr. Wollaston found it in a slag at the bottom of a large smelting furnace in Wales. It has since been found at several other iron works in Great Britain. Dr. Emmons obtained this metal from the hearth stone of an iron furnace in St. Lawrence county, and I have detected it also in the slag of the Greenwood furnace in Orange county. It usually occurs in the form of cubic crystals, which in colour and lustre resemble burnished copper. In my specimen there is also associated with the metal a coating of a beautiful purple colour, which may be the oxide of titanium, supposed to exist only in the rare mineral called anatase. There is another oxide of titanium, now more correctly termed titanic acid, which exists in variable proportions in several of the ores of iron, and from the decomposition of which, during the smelting of these ores, the metallic titanium is obtained. This substance closely resembles 56 ECONOMICAL MINERALOGY. silica in many of its characters ; and when in considerable proportion, it is supposed to have an injurious effect upon the quality of the ore with which it is associated. In its pure or near¬ ly pure form, it is used for the purpose of giving a yellowish tint to artificial teeth ; and in consequence of its comparative scarcity, and the difficulty of its separation from other sub¬ stances, is sold at a high price. Of the titaniate of iron in the crystalline form, and now known by the name of crichtonite, we have an interesting locality in Warwick in Orange county, where it is imbedded in a dark coloured serpentine ; and variable proportions of titanic acid are also contained in several of the iron ores of St. Lawrence, Jefferson and Orange counties. ORES OF ARSENIC. Arsenical pyrites, from which the compounds of arsenic used in the arts are obtained, has been found in this State, in the counties of Essex, Orange and Putnam. Essex County. Small veins of this mineral occur in the town of Lewis ; but the quantity which exists there, I have reason to believe, is quite inconsiderable. Orange County. There is a locality of arsenical minerals on the lands of Mr. B. Hop¬ kins, near the village of Edenville, which is particularly deserving of notice. Arsenical py¬ rites, composed of arsenic, sulphur and iron, occurs here in a vein in the white limestone. Associated with this is the arseniate of iron, or cube ore, as it is called from the primary form of its crystal, which here forms a coating to the preceding, and possesses a beautiful green colour and an adamantine lustre. Every where investing these two minerals is a powder of a lemon-yellow colour, which is ascertained to be the sulphuret of arsenic or native orpiment. In another part of the same vein is found a considerable quantity of the red oxide of iron, which, together with the sulphuret of arsenic, has undoubtedly been produced by the decom¬ position of the arsenical pyrites. And in addition to these metallic minerals, we have also arragonite in delicately radiated fibres, and of a snow-white colour, and occasionally thin la¬ minae of transparent sulphate of lime or selenitfe. On the whole, this is one of our most in¬ teresting localities, not only on account of the minerals which it affords, but of the apt illustra¬ tion which it presents of the changes produced in the mineral kingdom through the influence of chemical agencies. Putnam County. Near Brown’s quarry are two localities of arsenical pyrites, one of which has, at some former period, been extensively worked. The ore, which might be used for the extraction of arsenic, seems to be abundant ; but the present condition of the mine renders it difficult to arrive at a certain conclusion on this subject. Its reported mixture with silver, is probably one of those stories circulated for selfish purposes ; and the only ground for it in the present instance, is the fact that in other countries the arsenical ores are often asso¬ ciated with those of a more valuable metal. MAGNESIAN MINERALS. 57 e MAGNESIAN MINERALS. Several minerals are found on Staten Island, and also in other parts of the State, which, in consequence of their containing large proportions of magnesia, may properly enough for my present purpose be grouped together under the name of magnesian minerals. Some of these may be turned to account in the arts. The mineral called serpentine constitutes the principal range of hills on Staten Island,' ex¬ tending from New-Brighton to a little west of Richmond, a distance of eight miles. It assumes a great variety of aspects, from black to nearly white, and from compact to earthy. Some of the talcy varieties are commonly known by the name of soapstone. Talc, carbonate of mag¬ nesia and hydrate of magnesia abound in it, and the rock might be used with profit in making magnesian salts.* The suggestion here made in regard to the preparation of magnesian salts from the minerals so abundant on Staten Island, is deemed worthy of great consideration. These minerals con¬ tain from one third to two thirds of their weight of magnesia, as will be seen from the following results of their analysis. TABLE Showing the composition of several Magnesian Minerals, especially in reference to the proportion of Magnesia which they contain, in 100 parts. Magnesia. Lime. Carbonic acid. Water. Silica. Protoxide of iron. Peroxide of iron. Foreign matters, and loss. 1. Hydrate of magnesia,! . 2. Hydrocarbonate of magnesia, { 70.00 42.41 . 3(L82 30.00 18.53 0.57 0.27 1.40 3. Compact carbonate of magnesia, § 44.00 3.50 50.00 _ 2.00 0.50 C & alu- 4. Magnesite or kerolite,|| . . 41.26 2.39 13.50 41.00 < mina, 5. Common serpentine, If . . 42.16 1.03 12.33 42.26 1.98 ( 1.85 No. 1. From Staten Island, and Hoboken, New-Jersey. No. 4. From Staten Island, Stony Point, Rockland Co. etc. No. 2 and 3. From the same localities. No. 5. Found in various parts of the State. The magnesia contained in either of these minerals would furnish, by combination with sulphuric acid, upwards of two hundred parts of sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salts, in the form in which it is ordinarily sold in the shops. Moreover, the sulphate of magnesia, thus obtained, may be decomposed by carbonate of soda or potash, and produce carbonate of mag- * Mather. New-York Geological Reports, 1838. X Wachmeister. Silliman's Journal, XVIII. 167. II By my analysis. The specimen was from Staten Island. Part I. 8 f Bruce. American Mineralogical Journal, I. 26. (j Nuttall. Silliman's Journal, IV. 17. 11 Thomson. Outlines of Mineralogy,