OOLOGY LIBRARY

THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

THE

NATUEALIST IN NORWAY;

OE,

NOTES ON THE WILD ANIMALS, BIRDS, FISHES,
AND PLANTS, OF THAT COUNTRY.

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF

t principal Salmon liiiurs.

BY

KEY. J. BOWDEIST, LLD.,

AUTHOB OF ' NOBWAY ', ITS VKOPL^, PE<)I)TIC^S, AND INSTITUTIONS,

^T,^ PTC.

LONDON :

L. REEVE & CO., 5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT G-AKPEX.

1869.

BIOLOGY
LIBRAE

BfOLOGY LIBRARY

PlilNTKO BY TAYLOR Alfl) CO.,
LITTLE QUEEN STHEKT, LINCOLN'S INN 2IELD3.

ff-

TO THE

RIGHT HONOURABLE

LORD DUFFERIN AND CLANDEB01E, K.P.

ETC. ETC. ETC.,

Cfjese images are, fcg permission, BeBicatelJ,

BY HIS LOEDSHIP'S GEATEFUL SEEVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

M167364

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Page

The Zoological Museum at Christiania.— Eare Birds.— Wild
Animals.— Tlie Game Laws of Norway.— A " Heavy
Fine."— The Brown Bear.— Ancient Writers.— The Bear
in Winter Quarters. — Modes of Capturing it. — Its
Strength.— Its Size.— The Best Time for Hunting Bears
in Norway. — The Tailor and the Bears. — Norwegian Pro-
verb . * • • • 1

CHAPTER II.

The Lynx in Norway.— Difference of Species. — Hunting the
Lynx in Norway. — Its Habits. — Its Ferocity. — Its Food.
—The Value of its Skin.— The Lynx and the Goat.— The
Farmer and the Lynx. — An Unpleasant Predicament. —
The Wild Cat in Norway.— Sport and English Sportsmen
in Norway. — Hints to Sportsmen 10

CHAPTER III.

The Elk in Norway. — Its Description. — Where Found. —
The Penalty for Killing an Elk out of Season.— Food of
the Elk. — Modes of Capturing the Elk in Norway. —
Habits of the Elk.— Medicinal Virtues.— Snow Skates. —
Candidates for Office.— A Singular Race 20

Vlll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

Page

The Reindeer in Norway. — Where Found.— Hunting the
Reindeer. — Good Sport. — Reindeer Dogs. — A Norwegian
Sseter. — Reindeer Venison. — Singular Accident to a
Herd of Reindeer. — The Estimated Number of Reindeer
in Norway. — The Rutting Season.— The Horns. — Origin
of the Reindeer in Norway. — Habits of the Reindeer. —
Its Food. — The Fawns. — Modes of Capturing the Rein-
deer in Norway. — Tho Red Deer and Chamois in Norway 26

CHAPTER V.

The Wolf in Norway. — When First Seen in this Country.
—The Cubs.— Its Food.— Strange Food.— A Sick Wolf.
— The Wolves on the Ice. — A Catastrophe. — Partiality
of the Wolf for Pork. — An Adventure with Wolves.-—
The Bishop and the Wolves. — Medicinal Virtues of the
Wolf. — Its Skin. — Modes of Capturing Wolves in Nor-
way.—Boldness of the Wolf in Winter 36

CHAPTER VI.

The Fox in Norway. — Two Kinds. — Its Norwegian Name.
—Fox Skins.— A Sick Fox.— The Black Fox.— A Nor-
wegian Housekeeper in Peril. — The White Fox. — Its
Habits. — Its Food.— The Foxes and the Birds' Eggs. —
The Fox as a Fisherman. — The Fox and the Crows. —
The Fox and the Badger.— The Fox and the Otter.— The
Fox and the Fleas.— Tricks of the Fox.— The Fox and
the Hedgehog. — The Agility of the Fox. — Medicinal
Virtues 44

CHAPTER VII.

The Norwegian Hare. — Where Found. — Its Description. —
Opinion of Nilsson. — Habits of the Hare in Norway. —
Opinion of Linnaeus. — Partiality of the Hare for Mice
in Norway. — Hare's Blood as a Cosmetic. — The Badger

CONTENTS. IX

Page

in Norway. — Where Found. — The Young. — Badger
Hams in Norway. — Singular Habit of the Badger.— The
Marten in Norway. — Kept in Confinement. — The Squirrel
in Norway 54

CHAPTER VHI.

The Glutton in Norway. — Where Found. — Its Voracious
Appetite. — Ancient Writers concerning the Glutton. —
Its Description. — Its Skin. — Superstition of Norwegian
Peasants. — Quackery in Norway. — The Glutton in Lap-
land.— Lapp Method of Deceiving the Glutton. — Food
of the Glutton.— Its Offspring.— The Hedgehog in Nor-
way. — How the Hedgehog Gets Rid of the Bear ... 62

CHAPTER IX.

The Otter in Norway. — Where Found. — Its Description. —
Its Habits.— Its Nest.— Its Offspring.— Mode of Capture
in Norway. — Food of the Otter. — Bishop Heber's De-
scription of a Tame Otter. — The Otter in Confinement. —
The Beaver in Norway. — Where Found. — Its Descrip-
tion.— Its Tail. — Its Habits. — Republican Notions. —
Food of the Beaver.— Its Flesh ......... 69

CHAPTER X.

The Lemming.— Where Found in Norway. — Description
of the Animal.— Its Habits. — An Experiment. — Its Re-
sults.—A Singular Line of Argument. — Migration of the
Lemming from the North.— Cause of the Migration. —
The Migratory Hordes.— What Becomes of Them.—
Grimalkin and the Lemmings. — Pugnacity of the Lem-
ming.— Its Food. — A Plague of Lemmings. — Singular
Superstitions.— Opinions of Ancient Writers. — An Exor-
cism.—The Lemming's Nest 77

CHAPTER XL

The Ermine in Norway.-— Where Found.— Its Skin.— A

b

X CONTENTS.

Page

• Royal Gift.— Habits of the Ermine.— Its Nest.— Its Off-
spring.— An Ingenious Expedient. — Pugnacity of the
Ermine. — The Ermine and the Bear. — A Small but Dan-
gerous Assailant. — The Ermine and the Eagle. — Method
of Capturing the Ermine in Norway. — Its Food. — Its
Colour. — Medicinal Virtues. — The North Cape. — Its De-
scription.— French Travellers in Norway. — A Singular
Mistake 87

CHAPTER XII.

The Tame Reindeer in Norway. — Reindeer Flax. — A Lapp
Lady. — Reindeer Harness. — The Travelling Sledge. —
Vieiousness of the Reindeer. — Food of the Tame Rein-
deer.— Reindeer Cheese. — Reindeer Dogs. — Superstitious
Feelings of the Lapps. — Hospitality of the Lapps. —
Reindeer Venison. — Mode of Slaughtering the Reindeer
in Lapland. — Rich Lapps. — Food of the Lapps .... 93

CHAPTER XHI.

Notes on the Birds of Norway.— The Eagles.— The Hawks,
etc '. . . 100

CHAPTER XIV.
The Buzzards.— The Owls 108

CHAPTER XV.

The Woodpeckers.— The Cuckoo.— The Wryneck.— The
Wren.— The Crow.— The Jay.— The Nutcracker.— The
Night-jar. — The Bohemian Waxwing.— The Garrulous
Roller.— The Swallow.— The Starling.— The Shrike . . 116

CHAPTER XVI.

The Song-Birds of Norway.— The Wagtails.— The Titmice.
—The Larks.— The Pipits 125

CONTENTS. XI

CHAPTER XVII.

Page

The Buntings. — The Finches. — The Crossbills. — The
Pigeons 134

CHAPTER XVIII.
The .Feathered Game of Norway 142

CHAPTER XIX.

The Bustard.— The Plover.— The Stork.— The Crane.— The
Spoonbill.— The Heron.— The Quail.— The Ibis.— The
Godwit.— The Redshank 151

CHAPTER XX.

The Sandpiper.— The Stint.— The Avocet.— The Ruff. -The
Rail.— The Moor Hen.— The Coot.— The Phalaropes.—
The Woodcock.— The Snipe . . . . . . . . . . 158

CHAPTER XXI.
The Geese.— The Swans 166

CHAPTER XXII.

The Divers.— The Grebes.— The Guillemots.— The Auks.—
The Puffin.— The Cormorants.— The Gannet .... 173

CHAPTER XXIII.

The Gulls.— The Skuas . .' 181

CHAPTER XXIV.

The Terns.— The Petrels.— The Great Shearwater.— The
Manx Shearwater.— Seafowl off the Coast of Norway.—
Methods of Capturing them and their Eggs 187

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXV.

Page

The Ducks of Norway.— The Eider Ducks 194

CHAPTER XXVI.
The Other Species of Duck in Norway . 201

CHAPTER XXVII.

The Fisheries of Norway. — The Herring Fishery. — The
Cod Fishery. — Salmon and Salmon-Rivers in Norway . 209

CHAPTER XXVIII.

The Climate of Norway.— Its Effect on Vegetation.— Wild
Berries. — Vegetables. — Trees. — Minerals 224

CHAPTER XXIX.
The Flora of the Dovre-fjeld.— The Ferns of Norway . . 233

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE PAGE
I. GUDBRANDSDALEN. Frontispiece.

II. A NORWEGIAN PEASANT'S ENCOUNTER WITH A

BEAE , 7

III. EACING ON SKIE IN NORWAY . 24

IV. EEINDEER IN THE DOVRE FJELD 34

Y. LAPLANDERS AND TAME EEINDEER 95

VI. NORWEGIAN POST STATION AND CARRIOLE . . . 143

VII. LITTLE MJOSEN-VAND 219

VIII. NORWEGIAN FLOWERS . 233

THE NATUKALIST IN NORWAY.

CHAPTEK I.

The Zoological Museum at Christiania. — Rare Birds. — Wild Animals.
— The Game Laws of Norway. — A " Heavy Fine." — The Brown Bear.
— Ancient Writers. — The Bear in Winter Quarters. — Modes of Cap-
turing it. — Its Strength. — Its Size. — The Best Time for Hunting
Bears in Norway. — The Tailor and the Bears. — Norwegian Proverb.

THE English sportsman or naturalist will be much
pleased with the Zoological Museum at Christiania, the
present capital city of Norway. Here may be seen
fine specimens of almost every kind of bird, fish, in-
sect, or wild animal, to be found in this interesting coun-
try. The Lapland gray owl (Strix Lapponica, Retz),
Pallas' s sand grouse, the roller (Ooraccias garrula), the
wandering albatross (Diomedia exulans), the glossy
ibis (Ibis falcinellus), and many other rare birds, all of
which have been shot or captured in Norway, are to be
seen in this museum. Here also may be observed the
common brown bear, the white bear, the Norwegian
wolf, the lynx (Felis lynx), the reindeer, the elk, etc.

B

2 , , THE NATTTEALIST IN NOEWAY.

1 *? ^'o **"* " ° -1 *} r 'i «

O »*J 3 ~ 0 I'' o<2) O ° * s I

' An eminent ^Norwegian naturalist once remarked to
me, "My country can well spare some of its wild
animals and birds of prey." In a single year in Nor-
way (1855), 205 bears, 235 wolves, 125 lynxes, and
2559 eagles and other birds of prey, were killed or
taken alive. This number includes only those that
were brought to the foged, or sheriff, by the peasants,
for the sake of the head-money. If we add to this
list those animals and birds that were destroyed by
sportsmen and others, we can form an estimate of this
kind of sport in Norway.

The following are the Game Laws of Norway now in
vogue : —

The reindeer may be hunted from August 1st to
April 1st.

Elk hunting continues for only three months in the
year, viz. during August, September, and October.

The Norwegian hare (Lepus varidbilis) may be killed
from August 15th to June 1st.

The blackcock, male capercaillie, eider-duck, and
lijerpe (hazel grouse), from August 15th to June 1st.

The gray hen and female capercaillie, from August
15th to the middle of March.

The partridge from the beginning of September to
the beginning of January.

The penalty for shooting an elk out of season varies
from 40 to 60 sp. dollars ; for a reindeer, 10 sp. dollars ;
for a hare, 2 sp. dollars ; for birds, 1 sp. dollar. The
Type (white grouse) is not preserved by law.

The game laws are not strictly enforced in Norway.
I have seen elk venison offered for sale in the streets
of Christiania during the close season, and most game-
birds are snared in this country at forbidden seasons.

TEEATMENT OF POACHERS IN NOEWAY. 3

The eider duck is not allowed to be killed north of
Throndjem (Drontheim) at any time of the year.

The following incident may be mentioned as charac-
teristic of the treatment of poachers in Norway. An
Englishman travelling in this country found on his ar-
rival at a certain post- station that no horses were in
readiness for him. The postmaster, however, hinted that
some good wild-duck shooting was to be had on a neigh-
bouring sheet of water. Now most Englishmen are
fond of sport, and the one mentioned was no exception
to the general rule, so he sallied forth for a raid on
the wild ducks. Arrived at the water's side, the
traveller found a boat almost inviting him for an
excursion ; so getting into it, he paddled himself into
the middle of the small lake, where he managed to
bag several brace of wild ducks. The trespasser was
not fated to get off scot-free, for, on returning to land
with the spoils of the chase, he found an enraged
bonde, or peasant, awaiting him, who vehemently de-
manded how he dared to shoot his wild ducks. A
visit to the nearest foged was threatened, and a " heavy
fine " was mentioned. The Englishman began to have
visions of imprisonment, with, of course, a sudden and
disagreeable termination of his journey ; but, on asking
what the "heavy fine" was to be, the farmer sternly
demanded six skillings, a sum rather less than three-
pence, English money. The Englishman paid the fine,
and carried off the wild ducks.

THE WILD ANIMALS OF NOEWAY.

Norway forms the western half of the Scandinavian
peninsula, and contains 121,800 square miles, of which
only a small portion is in a state of cultivation. The

B 2

4 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

greater part consists of large tracts of forest and moun-
tain lands, which abound with wild animals. Here
Nature reigns supreme.

The brown bear (Ursus arctus) is pretty common in
all parts of this country, especially in Nordland and
the central districts. It is but seldom seen in the
neighbourhood of Christiania.

It was for a long time believed that two or three
different kinds of bears were to be found in Norway.
Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen, who wrote in the
middle of the eighteenth century, remarks, " Bears are
most commonly found in the Bergen and Throndjem
Stifts, and they are of two kinds, viz. the hesterbjorn,
or horse-bear, somewhat larger, and the myrebjorn, or
ant-bear, somewhat smaller." Another ancient scribe,
Olaus Wormius, affirmed that no less than three dif-
ferent species were to be found in Norway. " People
have observed," says this old writer, " three kinds of
bears in Norway. The first very large, not altogether
black, but brown ; not quite so hurtful as the other
kinds, for it feeds on grass and the leaves of trees,
being found in desert places and vast woods, where it
lays up stores of nuts and acorns before the winter
approaches. The second kind is less in size and blacker
in colour, carnivorous, hostile to horses and other ani-
mals, a most voracious creature. A third kind, which
is the least hurtful, which they call the ant-bear, because
it delights in ants, and overturns their nests in order
to gain possession of them/'

It is now acknowledged by Norwegian naturalists
that only one kind of bear is to be found in Norway,
viz. the common brown bear. It is true that bears
are sometimes seen in this country that are blackish-

HUNTING BEARS IN NORWAY. 5

brown, rufous-brown, and even gray in colour, but the
difference is to be attributed to age, or to the effects of
climate.

It is commonly believed in Norway that when the
bear retires to his winter quarters, he stops up the
intestinal canal with a plug, called in this country the
tappen, and remains without food during the whole
season of hybernation. During that period, Bruin is
supposed to exist by sucking his paws. It is possible
that the he-bear may be able to maintain life in winter
without food, but it can hardly be so with the female,
as she brings forth her young in Norway by about the
beginning of January, when she must have necessary
food, otherwise she would be unable to suckle her off-
spring. She produces two cubs at a birth, and selects
the time when the male has retired to his hie, or den,
so that he may not devour the young ones. The cubs
when born are naked and blind, but the mother soon
licks them into shape, according to the saying, " Lam-
bendo sicut ursa catulos." The young bears are, at
first, about as large as puppies; but they grow fast,
and the she-bear, like an attentive nurse, holds them
to her breast with her paws to keep them warm, and
to protect them from danger.

In Norway, bears are hunted with small dogs, which
are trained for the purpose. When brought to bay,
the dogs run in and attack the bear in its tender parts,
when the hunter comes up, and puts a rifle ball through
its head. Sometimes it is taken in deep pitfalls, and
in large traps. The bear is apt to frequent the same
locality for a long time, when it is exceedingly de-
structive to the farmer's cattle. When this happens,
notice is given to all the able-bodied men in the dis-

0 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

trict, who are obliged to assemble armed at a given
place and on a fixed day. A cordon is then formed,
the circle of hunters is gradually narrowed, and the
bear generally falls a victim to its marauding habits.

The Norwegian bear is not a very dangerous animal
when left alone. It very seldom attacks human beings,
but gets out of their way when possible. On asking a
Norwegian friend — an ardent sportsman — if he had
en countered many bears in his hunting expeditions, I
received the following reply : — " I have killed thirty-one
bears in my time, and was never attacked by one. I
have frequently, when unarmed, met them in the woods,
when they appeared quite as eager to escape from me
as I was anxious to avoid them." On another occasion,

1 asked an old Norwegian peasant woman if she had
ever met a bear in her part of Norway, " Oh, bless
you, yes, often," was her answer; "but they never
did me any harm. I have often passed one on a high
hill near our village, and so close that I could almost
have touched it."

A Norwegian bear, when about three years old, will
weigh about 350 pounds. It feeds in this country on
grass, on various kinds of herbs, and especially on the
wild berries which grow so abundantly in some parts
of this northern land. It is said that when Bruin has
fed for some time on wild berries, his teeth get so set
on edge that he longs for animal food, when he
attacks and kills horses, cows, calves, sheep, and
goats. These forays generally take place in autumn,
when the animal becomes so fat by the indulgence
of his carnivorous tastes, that he can retire to his hie,
and remain in a torpid state throughout the winter.
It is quite certain that when he makes his appearance

COMBAT WITH A BEAR. 7

in the spring, he is lean and emaciated, and is not a
very formidable antagonist. On this account, the
best time for bear-hunting in Norway is in the early
spring, when the animal is fresh from his winter quar-
ters, or in the autumn, when he is about to retire, for
a time, from the haunts of men. During the summer
months, he becomes a denizen of the impenetrable
forests, and is seldom seen abroad.

Many interesting stories are narrated in this
country concerning bears, of which the following is
a specimen. A bonde was one day felling trees in a
forest, and was accompanied by a favourite goat, the
pet of his children. A bear unluckily came by that
way, attacked and killed the goat, but took no notice
of the honest peasant. The latter, enraged at his loss,
seized his gun, which was close at hand, and wounded
the bear, but not in a vital part. Then there ensued a
combat as fierce as it was brief. The man had no time
to reload his gun, but drew his short knife (tolrkniv),
and with repeated stabs laid the bear dead at his
feet.

The following " veracious history " of a bear-hunter
was told to the author by a Norwegian friend. When
Christiania was but a small city, bears were so com-
mon in the neighbourhood, that they were regularly
hunted by some of the citizens. The most noted and
most successful hunter was a brave little man, a tailor
by trade, and Ole Hansen by name. Now, it unfortu-
nately happened that this Nimrod of the Norwegian
chase was troubled with a scolding wife, who con-
sidered that her husband was more profitably employed
at his trade than in hunting bears. Ole was of a con-
trary opinion, and one day, when intelligence was

8 THE NATURALIST IN NOKWAY.

brought into the town of a bear in the vicinity, Ole
armed himself as usual, and prepared to set forth.
The wife, who was a big, fat woman, was determined
to keep her husband at home by force on this particular
occasion. The little tailor was so enraged at the at-
tempt, that in a fit of ungovernable passion, he raised
his rifle, and put an end at once to his wife and her
interference. The luckless tailor was tried for the
crime, and was sentenced to be decapitated. Capital
offenders were then, as at the present time, beheaded
with a sword. Ordinary criminals were compelled to
kneel with their heads on the block ; traitors were
allowed the melancholy privilege of being decapitated
standing. As Ole Hansen was a free-born citizen of
Christiania, and, moreover, a man of some note, he
was permitted to be beheaded standing. When the
day for the execution arrived, crowds of weeping citi-
zens followed the condemned man to the scaffold, for
they mourned for his loss, as they considered he had
been a public benefactor. The executioner, who was
also a respectable citizen of Christiania, as well as a
personal friend of the culprit, and had often accom-
panied him on his hunting expeditions, took his com-
rade kindly by the hand, and condoled with him. It
was this worthy's intention to decapitate his friend in as
skilful and expeditious a manner as he could. To do
so effectually, he took out his snuffbox, and offered
Ole a pinch of its contents. While the criminal was
raising his fingers to his nose, a single stroke of the
sword was given, and the head of the murderer rolled
on the scaffold. Then followed a strange incident.
For several seconds the body of the decapitated man
stood upright, while the right arm moved slowly up-

NORWEGIAN PROVERB.

wards to the head, the fingers containing the pinch of
snuff, still seeking in vain for the absent nose.

The bear furnishes the Norwegian peasants with
the following proverb : — " Soelge bjornen's hud forend
man liar fan get dem ;" or, "To sell one's bear-skin
before it is found/' equivalent to the English saying,
" Don't reckon your chickens before they are hatched."

The white bear is not to be met with in Norway.

10

CHAPTER II.

The Lynx in Norway. — Difference of Species. — Hunting the Lynx in
Norway. — Its Habits. — Its Ferocity. — Its Food.— The Value of its
Skin. — The Lynx and the Goat. — The Farmer and the Lynx. — An
Unpleasant Predicament. — The Wild Cat in Norway.— Sport and
English Sportsmen in Norway. — Hints to Sportsmen.

NATUKALISTS were for a long time of opinion that more
than one species of lynx was to be found in Norway,
and Pontoppidan speaks of the ulve-goupe, or wolf-
lynx ; of the roeve-goupe, or fox-lynx ; and of the katte-
goupe, or cat-lynx. Only one species is to be met
with in this country, and the mistake probably arose
from the fact that the Norwegian lynx varies in colour
according to the time of the year or its age.

The lynx (Felis lynx), called in Norway goupe, was
formerly common in this country, but is now but rarely
found, except in the central parts, and not very often
there. It has, however, been killed in the neighbour-
hood of Chris tiania. In summer it abides in the
mountainous and wooded districts, lying close by day
in, some hole or crevice of a rock, and stealing forth
at night, with slow and stealthy tread, in search of its
prey. It is a savage and powerful brute, and as it is

HABITS OF THE NORWEGIAN LYNX. 11

also courageous, it is a much, more formidable anta-
gonist than the cowardly wolf. When hunted by dogs
— the ordinary way in Norway — it throws itself on its
back, and when the dogs approach, it flings out its
paws, which are armed with long, sharp, and retractile
claws. Woe betide the unfortunate hound that then
presumes to attack it, for it is soon ripped open by the
lynx. The dogs generally keep the animal at bay,
remaining at a respectful distance, but taking care
that it shall not escape until the hunter comes up and
shoots it through, the head with, his rifle. The Nor-
wegian lynx is quite as destructive as the wolf, and
seems to delight in the shedding of blood, while it kills
much more than it can eat or carry off. Instances are
on record, when it has been known to destroy twenty
sheep in a night, leaving its victims where they have
been slain, and simply sucking the blood, or eating
certain dainty parts of one or two of them.

The Norwegian lynx is not gregarious, but pairs,
and the male and female keep constantly together;
but when the latter is accompanied by her young, she
drives her mate away from her, and claws him most
unmercifully if he attempts to approach the cubs.
Should either of the pair be killed, the survivor is sure
to return to the dead body, and the hunters conceal
themselves near, knowing that they are almost certain
to secure the living lynx when it comes back to sniff at,
and howl round, the carcass of its defunct mate.

This animal is carnivorous, and subsists entirely on
flesh. It conceals itself in the stubble, and pounces
on the capercaillie, blackcock, and other large birds.
When these last are scarce, it pays a nocturnal visit to
the farmyard, and preys on sheep, goats, and poultry.

12 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

It is so partial to the flesh of the hare that the best
bait for a lynx-trap is the dead body of poor puss.

The colour of the Norwegian lynx is generally of a
light gray marked with dark spots. Some specimens
are of a dark rufous-brown, spotted here and there
with a darker shade. The light gray skins are the
most valuable, especially when the dark spots are well
denned. The young of the Norwegian lynx, when a
few months old, are much like the domestic cat in
appearance, except that they are thicker in frame and
stronger-looking. They have also a fierce and cruel
countenance. Their colour varies, and is sometimes
grayish-brown, and occasionally rufous-brown.

In the middle of the last century, according to the
statement of Pontoppidan, the skin of a lynx in Nor-
way would sell for as much as twelve sp. dollars. It
is now not worth more than from two to three sp. dol-
lars. The Russians buy up all the Norwegian lynx-
skins, and sell them again, at an enormous profit, to
the Chinese. With the exception of the Swedish and
Eussian, the Norwegian lynx is larger in size than that
of any other country.

Pliny speaks of a lynx which he saw at Rome in the
time of Pompey, but the animal came from Gaul. It
is not to be met with in France at the present time.
Among the ancients the lynx was consecrated to
Bacchus, for we find that the ancient poets and painters
represented the god of wine as drawn in a chariot by
tigers, panthers, and lynxes.

Pontoppidan gives an amusing account of an en-
counter between a lynx and a goat. It appears that
the lynx burrows in the ground, where it conceals it-
self by day, so a cunning old ram (gede-buk] having

THE LYNX AND THE GOAT. 13

observed a lynx do this, stationed himself near its
hole. The lynx was frightened at the venerable ap-
pearance of the ram, and refused to come out of his
hie. Tired at length of his captivity, and troubled
with the pangs of hunger, he ventured to put forth his
head to take a look round him, when whack came the
goat's head and horns against his cranium. This was
a style of proceeding that did not suit the lynx, so he
popped back into his den. The attack and retreat
were repeated again and again, until at last the ram
laid the lynx dead at the mouth of the hole; or, as
Pontoppidan quaintly expresses it, " at hav laae dod i
sin selv-gjorte grav ;" that is, "laid him dead in his
self-made grave."

The following singular adventure happened some
years ago to a Norwegian bonde, or peasant-farmer.
The man had made a large and deep pitfall for the
capture of wolves. Now, these pitfalls are made in
such a manner that it is almost impossible for wild
animals to get out of them when they have once fallen
in. Then, to render them more difficult of egress, they
are not only made very deep, but the sides at the top
are lined with sharp pieces of iron, with the stumps of
trees, and even with broken scythes. Well, the farmer
set out early one morning to visit a certain pitfall
which was made in a forest at a considerable distance
from his homestead. On coming near to it, he knew
by infallible signs that some species of wild animal
had fallen into it. Approaching eagerly to discover
what his prize might be, the luckless fellow over-
balanced himself, and tumbled headlong into his own
trap. Escape was impossible, as it would have re-
quired a ladder for the man to have got out again.

14 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

Dinner and supper time came and passed, but the
farmer did not put in an appearance at home. " Oh !"
said the wife, " Peder has gone to the town to buy
something." When, however, the next day passed,
and no Peder appeared, the family became alarmed,
and the man^s younger brother went in search of him.
In due time he arrived also at the mouth of the pitfall.
Finding his brother in the trap, his first thought was
to stretch down his hand and drag the captured man
out by main force. The weight was, however, too
great, and, overbalancing himself, the second farmer
fell into the pit. This was an awkward predicament,
especially when it was discovered that a lynx was a
companion of their captivity. But this animal is by
nature a coward, and, when captured in the way I
have described, it will sneak into a corner, whence it
will not budge unless driven out by dogs or a long
pole. At first the men thought of attacking the lynx,
but they soon gave up the intention ; they felt, in fact,
some pity for the poor brute that was shivering near
them. They had, also, quite enough to do in puzzling
their brains in order to hit upon some expedient by
which they might escape from their prison. The fates
were unpropitious, and they remained in durance vile
for two days and two nights, when they were found by
their friends and released. They also very good-
naturedly set the lynx at liberty as well.

The flesh of the lynx is eaten in Norway, and is not
considered unpalatable. It is by no means tender,
but resembles in flavour the flesh of a tough old
goat.

The Norwegian peasants believe that if a person
wears a necklace made of the fore-claws of a lynx, it

SPORT IN NORWAY. 15

will preserve him from spasms and the cramp. It
would appear that the Kussians entertain a somewhat
similar superstition, for when they sell lynx-skins to
the Chinese, they charge a much higher price for them
if the fore-claws are included.

The wild cat (Felis catus) is pretty common in woods
of deciduous trees in the south of Norway, especially
in the neighbourhood of Tonsberg. It is rather larger
in size than the domestic cat, and varies in colour,
being brown, gray, and sometimes light blue. When
captured young it is easily tamed, but it is not a
favourite in households, as its habits are dirty. This
creature is an excellent swimmer, and dives readily
under water in pursuit of rats. The young of this
species are grotesque little things ; they have hair six
inches long, and a large unwieldy head, but are very
playful.

SPORT IN NORWAY.

There is no battue shooting in this country; and
sport, so called, is very different here to what it is in
Great Britain. The English sportsman who bags his
eight or ten brace of birds in a single day here, will
have reason to consider himself lucky, while the labour
will be great. But the healthy exercise, the pure
mountain air, the grand and picturesque scenery, and
the entire absence of constraint, will have the most
exhilarating and wholesome effects on the constitution
of a man in good health. No delicate person should
think of undertaking a journey in this country, either
for sport or pleasure.

Some of the best sport in Norway is to be had in
Thelemarken, a district reached without difficulty from

16 * THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

Christiania via Drammen and Kongsberg. In the
wide expanse of country called Thelemarken, there
are rapid rivers, lofty mountains, romantic waterfalls,
charming valleys, extensive forests, and picturesque
mountain lakes. Here may be seen the Rjukandfos,
or reeking waterfall, a stupendous cascade which is
formed by a rapid river that, falling over rocks, pre-
cipitates itself to a depth of 900 feet. The following
account of this magnificent waterfall is taken from
Everest's ' Norway ' : — " Many a waterfall did we pass
this day which in other places would have been a
theme of wonder, but was here without a name. At
last we saw a light cloud of vapour resting on the side
of the hill. The atmosphere around was clear, but it
remained steadfast, like the spirit of the waters ; this
was the Ejukan (Reeking). We left our horses at a
small plot of ground which afforded room for two or
three sheds, and then had more than a mile to go 011
foot along a goat's track, for the valley had now
become nothing more than a great cleft in the rock.
We crept forward, however, sometimes on a narrow
ledge of the bare slate, nearly perpendicular ; at others
clinging to the bushes of birch and fir, till the falling
river opened upon us. It comes from the distance
tumbling down a slope, and distorted by the rocks
that oppose it, till it reaches the spot where they
separate, and shoots into the depths below. It appears
as fine and fleecy as white wool or cotton ; and though
the vapour obscures everything near it, yet in looking
over the cliff you can discern shoots of foam at the
bottom like rockets of water radiating in every direc-
tion. A low sound and vibration appear to come from
beneath one's feet. As I hung half-giddy on the

THE GOUSTA FJELD. 17

steep, and turned my eyes opposite to the mountain
mass that breasted me, its black sides seemingly within
a stone's throw, and its snowy head far in the clouds
above, my thoughts involuntarily turned to Him at
whose bidding it upsprang. I long gazed upon this
wonderful scene, which seemed like the end of the
world. It still floats before me like a dream."

The celebrated Gousta Fjeld is in this neighbour-
hood, and may be ascended from Dal. The mountain
is 5688 feet high, and embraces a most extensive
prospect, extending to a distance of 70 English miles.
It is distinctly seen from the neighbourhood of Chris-
tiania.

Reindeer may occasionally be found on the Gousta
Fjeld.

There is an abundance of trout in the lakes of Thele-
marken, and good salmon-fishing may be had in some
of its rivers. A bear may sometimes be found in the
forests, while a few reindeer resort to the higher
fjelds.

Another part of Norway justly celebrated for its
sport is Gudbrandsdalen, on the direct route from
Christiania to Throndjem. The scenery of this part of
the country is extremely romantic and picturesque
during the summer months ; indeed, travellers have
asserted that the most beautiful scenery in the whole
of Norway is to be found in this lovely and extensive
dale. Here, also, — that is to say in the mountains, —
the best reindeer-shooting is to be had; while the
rype, or white grouse, the hjerpe, or hazel grouse, the
blackcock, and capercaillie are common.

It may be said that all the Norwegian rivers abound
in trout and salmon, although the latter are more

c

18 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

numerous, and are larger in size, in the northern
rivers of this country.

The English sportsman in Norway will do well to
supply himself before starting with guns, ammunition,
and fishing-tackle. These articles may certainly be
purchased in the larger Norwegian towns, but they
are very inferior in quality. In hunting the bear, the
Norwegian bonde uses a roughly-manufactured kind of
rifle, a breech-loader, a specimen of native skill; but
he is expert in the handling of it. It is by no means
an unserviceable weapon, and costs about 12 sp. dollars,
or £3 English money. Norwegian powder is coarse
and gritty, and is liable to miss fire, — an awkward cir-
cumstance when the sportsman is standing face to face
with a savage bear, determined not to turn tail. The
English sportsman in Norway should also have plenty
of warm clothing, for the climate is variable — extremely
cold on the mountains, and very damp on the west
coast. The best general wearing apparel in this
country is flannel shirts and tweed suits. A water-
proof sheet will also be found very useful when camp-
ing out.

The Norwegians have some very singular notions
about English sportsmen in general. They appear
to think that every Englishman carries a gun in his
pocket, and that he has a bulldog concealed some-
where. Opinions of this kind, however, are not con-
fined to Norwegians. Our northern friends also give
us the credit of being thorough cockneys in our
amusements. They tell a story at Christiania of an
English Nimrod who arrived there per steamer for
the purpose of shooting bears. After looking about
him a little, this worthy adventurer is reported to

A COCKNEY SPOETSMAN. 19

have inserted an advertisement in the newspapers
for furnished apartments on the outskirts of the
town. The parlour was to be on the second floor,
so that the sportsman might shoot the bears as
they passed his window ! Such opinions are harm-
less enough, and none are the worse for them.

c 2

20

CHAPTEE III.

The Elk in Norway. — Its Description. — Where Found. — The Penalty
for Killing an Elk out of Season. — Food of the Elk. — Modes of
Capturing the Elk in Norway. — Habits of the Elk. — Medicinal
Virtues. — Snow Skates. — Candidates for Office. — A Singular Race.

THE elk (Cervus alces), which has been called the
"antlered monarch of the north/' is said to have
found its way into Sweden when Scania, its southern
province, was connected with Germany. It was at one
time very common in Norway ; so much so, that there
was no law for its preservation ; and, as it was hunted
throughout the year by the Norwegian peasants, it was
becoming extinct ; but, having been strictly preserved
during the last few years, it is now on the increase.

The elk, called in Norway elg, els-dyr, is a large un-
wieldy animal, with a huge head and high shoulders.
It is, however, capable of very rapid flight when
pursued.

The colour of this animal is dark brown, and the
hair on the skin is long and coarse; a tuft of hair
hangs down under its neck. The horns are short and
palmated, and have from five to seven points.

The Norwegian elk is now most common in Hede-

THE ELK IN NORWAY. 21

marken, especially in Osterdalen. It is to be occa-
sionally seen in the neighbourhood of Christiania, and
it is even said that once upon a time an elk was killed
in the streets of the Norwegian capital. I have seen
the head and horns of an elk which was shot in the
Eingerige district in November, 1862. The bondo
who had shot the animal was offering the venison for
sale in the Christiania market at 4<d. per pound.

The elk is now strictly preserved in Norway; the
time for shooting it extends from August 1st to
October 31st. The owner of a landed estate may only
shoot a single elk on his property during the season.
He may transfer his right of shooting to another^ but
in that case he must refrain himself. The penalty for
killing an elk out of season is as high as 60 sp. dollars ;
but, notwithstanding this, many elks find their way
into the peasant's pot at unlawful times. The Norse-
man is a hardy hunter, and nothing will detain him
from his favourite pursuit ; while it must be confessed
that elk-hunting is most exciting sport. When a Nor-
wegian peasant kills an elk, he either sells it in the
nearest town, or salts it down for winter use. Almost
everything in the shape of animal food that comes into
the possession of the bonde goes into his pickle-tub.
He exhibits a decided preference for salt provisions.
He eats his ham, salmon, or red-herring raw, and has
a strong penchant for the smoked breast of a goose,
which would be considered spoilt by him if cooked.
Salted elk and reindeer venison, and salted herrings,
form the staple winter food of the Norwegian pea-
santry.

The elk in summer abides in the shady recesses of
the forest. Its food then consists of the bark and

22 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

tender twigs of young trees ; it also devours large
quantities of the wild berries which grow so abundantly
in this country. It is said to eat the numerous fungi
which are found in the Norwegian woods. In winter
the food principally consists of the twigs of the birch,
willow, and mountain-ash; it is very partial to the
berries of the last-mentioned tree. Like the reindeer,
it also feeds on lichens. The rutting season is in
autumn, when there are fierce combats between the
males for the possession of the females. The doe
brings forth her young, one or two at a birth, towards
the end of the following May.

Mr. Lloyd, in his ' Scandinavian Adventures/ says
that the elk fawns have been brought up by a cow.
" At first the cow showed reluctance to the fawns, but
after awhile her dislike was converted into a special
affection, and she licked and caressed them with great
fondness. The smallest of the fawns at once began to
suck, and continues so to do until the present time.
The larger one will not suck, but, nevertheless, closely
follows her stepmother whenever she goes in a large
enclosed pasture ; and, in the meanwhile, it feeds on
grass, and treats itself to leaves, especially those of the
willow. Its evening repast consists of a bowl of meal,
mixed with milk and water, of which it partakes with
much pleasure. When dogs approach, whether it be
in the field or within the narrow enclosure or shed
where they have their night quarters, the cow always
defends them with courage and success ; and she also
evinces her displeasure when children or mischievous
boys approach too near to her adopted offspring."

Other authors besides Caesar have confounded the
elk with the reindeer. This is strange, for the two

HABITS OP THE ELK IN NORWAY. 23

species entirely differ in appearance. According to
Pontoppidan, the elk in Norway is sometimes attacked
by epileptic fits, when the animal cures itself by open-
ing a vein behind its ear with its hind foot.

In ancient times, the elk was captured in this
country by means of pitfalls. These were made large
and deep, and were generally near the water, so that
when the animal went to drink it tumbled in headlong,
and was taken. Many of these ancient pitfalls may
still be seen in Norway, and are scrupulously avoided
by the superstitious peasants. Nowadays the elk is
pursued by the hunter, who is armed with a rifle. He
holds a small dog of sharp scent in a leash, which goes
on before him. The keenness of scent of the elk is
remarkable, while its sense of hearing is so acute that
the breaking of a twig or the noise caused by the dis-
placing of a small stone will put it to flight. When
alarmed, it makes off at a swinging trot, and when
hard pressed it gallops. It never stops to look back,
but presses onwards, shrugging its shoulders, throwing
back its large ears, and holding its head rather de-
pressed. As it weighs as much as 1000 pounds, the
momentum given to it in its flight is very great.

The elk is a ruminating animal, and only feeds by
day. It eats slowly, and when it has satisfied its
hunger, it lies down in some sheltered spot, generally
in the shade of some deciduous tree, and not far from
the water. Here it takes its ease, and ruminates like
the cow. Having a large and short neck, it ruminates
much more easily than the reindeer, whose neck is long
and narrow.

Medicinal virtues are ascribed to various parts of
the elk by the Norwegian peasantry. Thus it is be-

24 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

lieved that a ring made from its hoof, and worn on the
finger, is a sovereign remedy for colic and cramp ; a
draught of the blood, swallowed warm, is supposed to
make the person that drinks it strong and courageous.
An electuary made of the horns pulverized is considered
a certain cure for epilepsy.

The elk is turned to various uses in Norway. The
handles of knives, and other articles, are manufactured
from its horns. The hide is tanned and makes excel-
lent leather. The under part, on the belly, makes soft
gloves. The hoofs are boiled down into glue.

It is sometimes necessary for the hunter to be on
his guard when pursuing this animal, for, when hard
pressed, it will turn back, and attack the hunter with
great determination and courage. The Norwegian elk
is an excellent swimmer, but drinks little during the
winter months. In the rutting season, and in hot
weather, it is of a thirsty nature.

In winter, the Norwegian hunters pursue the elk on
skie, or snow-skates. These skie are made of wood,
are not wider than the feet, and are 10 feet in length.
They are turned up at the end, and are pointed. They
are fastened round the feet by short straps. The
hunter is able to proceed over the snow at a great
speed when he has skie on his feet. The skie-loler, or
runner, propels and guides himself by a pole, which he
holds in his hand. He goes downhill at a breakneck
pace. As a proof of the rapidity of travelling with
skie when they are used by a practised skater, I may
relate the following, which is a true story : — 'During a
severe winter in Norway, when the snow was unusually
deep, intelligence reached Christiania that a klokker, or
clerk, was required in a parish about twenty miles dis-

CANDIDATES FOR OFFICE. 2o

tant. Now, the parish clerk is an official of some im-
portance in rural districts in this country, and as the
klokker-penge, or fees, are considerable, when a vacancy
occurs, there are many aspirants for the coveted office.
On the occasion in question, two candidates were in
the field, or to be precise, we should say in the snow,
and both started at the same time from Christiania for
the prceste-gaard, or house of the clergyman who was
to make the appointment. One started on horseback,
the other on skie. Bets ran high in Christiania on the
occasion, although the candidate on horseback was the
favourite, as it was naturally supposed he would arrive
the first at the winning-post, and gain the prize. There
is, however, nothing like leather, or, in this case, like
wood; and, as the horseman had to travel by a cir-
cuitous route, while the skie-lober cut over the hills,
and was, moreover, a practised skater, the latter ar-
rived first at his destination, and obtained the situ-
ation.

26

CHAPTEE IY.

The Reindeer in Norway. — Where Found.— Hunting the Eeindeer. —
Good Sport. — Reindeer Dogs. — A Norwegian Sseter. — Reindeer
Venison. — Singular Accident to a Herd of Reindeer. — The Esti-
mated Number of Reindeer in Norway. — The Rutting Season. —
The Horns. — Origin of the Reindeer in Norway. — Habits of the
Reindeer. — Its Food.— The Fawns. — Modes of Capturing the Rein-
deer in Norway. — The Red Deer and Chamois in Norway.

THE reindeer (Cervus tarandus) is the most interesting
and useful wild animal in Norway. It is found on the
higher fjelds of the Dovre-fjeld, in the Jotun-fjeld,
Fille-fjeld, Hardanger-fjeld, and Suletind-fjeld; it is
also common in the Ssetersdal-fjeld, in the Christian-
sand Stift. The best resort for the English sportsman
when reindeer-hunting in Norway, is one or two sta-
tions in Gudbrandsdal and Osterdal. Good general
sport with the gun is also to be had in the same
localities.

In the middle of August, 1863, two Norwegian
sportsmen visited the Dovre-fjeld in search of rein-
deer, and killed four animals in a single day. They
were out ten days altogether, and killed ten deer.
That was unusually good sport, such as is not often
to be had, and was obtained about three miles in the

REINDEER-HUNTING IN NORWAY. 27

interior of the mountains, between Gudbrandsdal and
Osterdal. Another party, at the same time, and in
the same neighbourhood, killed six deer in seven days.
English sportsmen who visit this country for the sake
of reindeer shooting, would think themselves fortunate
indeed, if they could meet with such luck as this, but
it is very seldom to be met with.

An English friend who visited the Dovre-fjeld in
1862, remained there for three months, and shot three
reindeer, while another Englishman in the same lo-
cality, and during the same period, only shot one. It
must not be supposed, however, that the sport is tame,
far otherwise. The exhilarating effects of the pure
mountain air, the excitement of pursuing the reindeer,
the healthy exercise, with the novelty of the rough
living, and hungry appetites induced by it, render
reindeer-hunting one of the most exciting and enjoy-
able of field sports. All that the English sportsman
requires is warm clothing, English ammunition, an
English rifle, a waterproof overcoat and sheet, and
a few creature comforts in the shape of potted meats,
cordials, etc. Health and strength are required, of
course, to endure the fatigues of an expedition to the
fjelds. A good Norwegian guide is an indispensable
assistant ; and a small dog, purposely trained to hunt
the reindeer, should be purchased, if possible ; al-
though, as a general rule, the peasants ask an exor-
bitant price for their little animals, an especial draw-
back when it is considered that their small specimens
of the canine race would be yclept curs in England.
As to the Norwegian language, a very trifling acquaint-
ance with it will suffice, and there is no teacher like
necessity. When hunger is gnawing at a man's vitals,

28 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

his tongue soon finds an expressive way of proclaiming
his wants; 'while he is soon understood when he has
money in his purse.

The principal refuge for the sportsman in the Nor-
wegian mountains is the soeter, which answers, in many
respects, to the Swiss chalet. Here, in summer, the
cattle are driven to find pasture ; and here, afc night,
the tired hunter finds sleeping accommodation, such
as it is, with rye-bread and flat cakes, called in Nor-
way flad-brod, cheese, cream, and butter. Fresh eggs
may generally be had at the eaters, although poultry
is kept only at the farms in the lowlands. Tea, coffee,
and sugar, are not to be had at any price. It is to be
hoped, however, that the sportsman will have been
fortunate enough, during his day's sport, to have
provided himself with a fresh steak of reindeer
venison, a dish not to be despised. The sceters are
inhabited by healthy and robust, but plain-looking
peasant girls, who are extremely attentive to the
wants of the traveller, and are very modest and well-
behaved.

The Norwegian bonder, who live in mountainous
districts, go to the fjelds in summer to hunt the rein-
deer, on which their families almost entirely subsist
during the long winter. They erect stone hovels on
the mountains, and when a reindeer is killed, it is
flayed, divided into quarters, then wrapped up in the
skin, and placed en cachette,to protect it from the ravages
of wolves, gluttons, and foxes. The hunter comes the
next morning with a pony, and removes the deer to
his home, where it is salted down for domestic use
during the winter. The man then returns to the fjelds,
and continues his hunting until he has procured suf-

THE NUMBER OF KEINDEEK IN NOEWAY. 29

ficient venison for his family's use throughout the win-
ter, when he hunts no more that year.

A few years ago, a singular accident happened on
the Dovre-fjeld. Some hunters were one day pursuing
a herd of more than a hundred reindeer, when the
animals approaching too near a precipice, the snow
gave way beneath their feet, and the whole herd fell
over and were killed. The peasants in the neighbour-
hood had a rich windfall of reindeer venison that season,
and were several days in removing the carcases of the
reindeer to their cottages.

The reindeer is called in Norway reens-dyr. In
ancient times it was called hrein-dyr. In the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, herds of three or four
hundred animals were seen at one time in the fjelds,
and now they are much more numerous. Nilsson, the
Swedish naturalist, informs us that reindeer are some-
times seen in extraordinary numbers. He has observed
them in the Swedish f jails, for the breadth of three miles
and a half, as thickly collected together as sheep in a
flock. " A number of hinds had recently calved, and
the fawns followed their dams. The herd extended so
far, that the eye could not embrace them all at once."
He compares the sight to the herds of antelopes in
the deserts of Africa, or to the extensive herds of
bisons to be seen on the prairies of America.

There are, perhaps, at a rough guess, thirty or forty
thousand wild reindeer in Norway; and it is by no
means improbable that there are a great many more,
for the number killed annually by the hunters is com-
paratively small.

The rutting season takes place in the beginning of
September for the old males, and rather later for the

30 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

younger ones. The horns are shed once a year, and
are covered with a dark ash-blue nap, of the consist-
ency of plush. Bach animal has two long upright
horns, with numerous branches, as well as a pair of
frontal horns which project over the forehead, and are
palmated, the right-hand one being longer than the
other. Nature appears to have bestowed the frontal
horns on the reindeer to assist it in scraping away the
snow from the lichens, which are its principal food in
winter. Speaking of the horns of this animal, Pont-
oppidan says : — " When the new horns are beginning
to grow, then it is that they appear to be covered with
a kind of skin ; and until they come to the length of a
finger, they are so soft that they may be cut with a
knife like a sausage, and are eaten raw." The bishop
adds that he obtained his information from the hunters
themselves, who often, when out on the fjelds, and
suffering from hunger, found these budding horns of
the reindeer both meat and drink to them. The
beauty and size of the reindeer's horns depend very
much on the facility with which the animal obtains its
food. As a proof of this, I mention the following in-
teresting circumstance : — Some Norwegian hunters on
the fjelds killed a small reindeer that was without
horns, and so emaciated that it was literally nothing
but a "bag of bones/' On looking for the cause of
this singular freak of nature, they found that the
animal had had part of its jaw shot away. The wound
had healed, but the poor creature was unable to obtain
proper nourishment ; it could hardly swallow, and, in
consequence, the horns had been unable to grow.
The horns are so intimately connected with the organs
of reproduction, that if they are cut before the rutting

ORIGIN OF THE REINDEER IN NORWAY. 31

season, they grow no more that year, and the deer is
rendered unfit for breeding purposes the following
season.

The wild reindeer is a handsome animal, but is by
no means so graceful as the red deer, on account of
the formation of its neck, which obliges it to carry its
head low. In summer, its colour is brownish-gray,
in winter it is of a much lighter gray. It is dappled
gray when it is shedding its coat. The hair under the
neck hangs down in a long tuft. The weight of the
animal varies from 200 to 280 pounds. The legs are
short and thick, and the hoofs are large and broad,
and well adapted for the rapid motion of the animal
over the snow. As it moves from place to place, the
hoofs make a snapping noise, which is occasioned,
says Mr. Lloyd, " by the contraction of the hoof when
the foot is raised from the ground, and the consequent
striking of the inner parts of the hoof against each
other." Other writers assert that the noise is caused
by the incessant crackling of the knee-joints of the
animal, as if produced by a succession of electric
shocks.

The wild reindeer is strictly preserved in Norway
from April 1st to August 1st. As to the origin of
the reindeer in Scandinavia, Nilsson is of opinion that
the animals once to be found in Scania, a province of
Southern Sweden, came from the south, immediately
after the boulder-formation, and whilst Sweden was
still united to Germany; while, on the contrary, the
reindeer, which are now found in Northern Sweden
and in Norway, arrived at a much later period, and
after the land stretching between the Gulf of Bothnia
and the White Sea had risen from the deep. The

32 THE NATUEALIST IN KOEWAY.

Swedish naturalist Nilsson bases his conclusion from
the fact that fossil remains of reindeer have been found
in abundance in the marshy grounds in some parts of
Scania ; while in the whole expanse of country between
Scania and Lapland, no fossil remains of reindeer have
been found.

There is a very fine specimen of the wild reindeer
in the Zoological Museum at Christiania, which was
obtained under rather interesting circumstances. The
Kings of Norway are still crowned in the cathedral of
Throndjem; and when the late King Oscar was re-
turning to Christiania, accompanied by his Queen,
after his coronation, due notice was, of course, sent to
the different post-stations en route, to request the post-
masters to be on the alert, and provide themselves
with something better than the fldd-krod and gammel-
ost, or old cheese, which are the staple articles of food
at all Norwegian post-stations. Now, at one station
on the royal journey, the postmaster was in a dilemma,
for he had no proper edibles to place before his royal
visitors. Fortunately, however, in this predicament,
some sportsmen in the neighbourhood killed a noble
reindeer, and loyally brought it as a gift to their king.
The present was gladly accepted, the royal table was
unexpectedly supplied with reindeer venison, and the
skin of the animal, an unusually fine one, was for-
warded to Christiania, when it was stuffed, and placed
in the Zoological Museum there, where it may still be
seen.

It is an old but trite saying, " First catch your hare,
then cook it ;" and before hunting the reindeer, the
sportsman must learn something of its habits. The
wild reindeer leave but little " trail " behind them on

FOOD OF THE REINDEER. 33

the hard and rocky ground of the fjelds, so the hunter
must make the most of such traces as he can find. It
is useless to pursue the deer with the wind blowing
towards the hunter, for they are keen of scent and
quick of hearing. They always travel against the wind,
so the best way is to stalk them on the flank, A pretty
sure sign of reindeer being in the neighbourhood
is when the hunter finds that the flowers of the Ra-
nunculus glacialis have been recently cropped, for the
reindeer are especially fond of them. It should also
be mentioned, that when a herd is on the move, sen-
tinels are thrown out in the rear, who never rejoin
the main body until all suspicion of danger has ceased.
The hunter must take care, therefore, not to advance
until these sentinels are withdrawn ; for if he is seen
by them, the whole herd is off at a gallop, to be seen
no more that day. In fact, reindeer-hunting requires a
great deal of patience and perseverance to be crowned
with success.

Like the domestic cat, the reindeer dilates and con-
tracts the pupil of the eye, which cannot bear a strong
light. It may be mentioned, however, that it contracts
and dilates the pupil of the eye horizontally, while the
cat, the owl, and some other creatures, do this verti-
cally.

In summer the food of the reindeer consists of
grasses and lichens, of the tender shoots of the birch,
and of various Alpine plants, especially the Ranunculus
glacialis, which grows on the highest fjelds, and close
to the glaciers, and is called in Norway rein-blomme,
or rein-flower. In winter it feeds on reindeer moss,
Cladonia rangiferina, and other lichens, as well as on
the tender twigs and bark of the birch. The animal

34 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

obtains the moss by scraping away the snow that
covers it with its hoofs and frontal horns.

The doe brings forth her young in May, and has one
or two fawns, and very seldom three. Nature is kind
to these young creatures, and enables them to follow
their dam a few days after they come into the world.
Singularly enough, the buck would kill and devour the
fawns if he could get at them, but the doe protects
them from his unnatural attacks. One would reason-
ably suppose that the reindeer would prefer the low
grounds in winter, where they would find protection
from the cold winds and tempests ; but such is not the
case. In summer they remain in the lower mountain
regions, where they are sheltered from the piercing
rays of the hot Norwegian sun by high rocks ; they
also visit the low grounds at this season of the year to
graze on the pastures. In winter they ascend the
higher fjelds, because a more plentiful supply of rein-
deer moss is to be found there than anywhere else, and
because the high winds blow away the snow, and leave
bare places on which they can browse. In mountain-
climbing they are as expert as the chamois, and can
ascend a high fjeld at a gallop.

In ancient times the most common way of capturing
reindeer was by pitfalls, which were generally made on
the slopes of the fjelds, and especially in the passages
leading through rocks to the mountain lakes ; for the
deer fell into the pits when they went to drink. They
were also run down on skie. In the present day they
are killed in summer by the rifle, and must be stalked.
This is a laborious undertaking, for the ground is
covered with large stones, which are easily displaced,
and roll down with a noise which alarms the deer. In

THE CHAMOIS IN NORWAY. 35

winter, when the snow is on the ground,, the peasants
still pursue the reindeer on skie, and kill many of
them. This is not, however, easily managed, for the
reindeer proceeds at a much more rapid rate over the
snow than the elk ; and, when the snow is deep, the
animal keeps to the highest fjelds.

The red deer has never been common in Norway,
and is now only to be found on Hitteroen, an island off
the coast of Throndjem, and on Smolen, an island off
the coast of Christiansund. The reason why they left
the mainland for the islands was because they suffered
so much on the former from the ravages of wolves.

Fossil remains of the red deer have been found on
one or two of the larger islands off the west coast of
Finmark.

An attempt has been made to introduce the chamois
into Norway. A herd of eight chamois was purchased
in Switzerland, and was set at liberty in the Gousta
Fjeld, near Tindsoen, a lonely inland lake in Thele-
marken. The locality was well chosen, but most of
the animals have perished, and no doubt the attempt
will be a failure.

36

CHAPTEE Y.

The Wolf in Norway. — When First Seen in this Country.— The Cubs.
—Its Food.— Strange Food.— A Sick Wolf.— The Wolves on the
Ice, — A Catastrophe. — Partiality of the Wolf for Pork. — An Adven-
ture with Wolves. — The Bishop and the Wolves. — Medicinal Virtues
of the Wolf. — Its Skin.— Modes of Capturing Wolves in Norway.—
Boldness of the Wolf in Winter.

THE wolf (Canis lupus) is common in all the moun-
tainous districts of Norway, especially in the central
parts. Nilsson was for a long time of opinion that the
black wolf (Canis lycaon) was also found in Sweden
and Norway ; but this appears to have been a mistake,
as it has been ascertained that only the common species
frequents the Scandinavian peninsula. It would appear
that, in former times, the ravages of this animal were
confined to the eastern and north-eastern parts of the
country. The unwelcome brute no doubt found its
way into Sweden from Russia, where it remained for a
long time on the frontier of Norway. We find from
Pontoppidan that wolves were unknown in the Bergen
Stift until 1718. Before that year the ravages of these
hated and dreaded animals had not extended beyond
the Fille Fjeld, a range of mountains at a considerable

FOOD OP THE WOLF IN NORWAY. 37

distance from Bergen. About the year mentioned, a
few wolves, more venturesome than their fellows, ap-
peared in the Bergen Stift ; and at the end of the last
war between the Danes and Swedes, an army having
to cross the Fille Fjeld during the winter, was fol-
lowed by great numbers of wolves, attracted, no doubt,
by the provisions of the soldiers, or even by the dead
bodies of those who perished on the march through
that desolate region. The wolf is called in Norway
ulv and graa-been, or gray-leg.

The Norwegian wolf breeds once a year, in the be-
ginning of May, and produces five or six young at a
birth. The cubs resemble young foxes, except that
the tip of the tail is never white. As they grow in
size they assume the gray colour.

In winter the wolf feeds on almost anything he can
get. He destroys thirty or forty sheep at a time, eat-
ing only certain dainty parts of one or two of them.
He is an inveterate enemy of the elk and reindeer, and
is detested by the Lapps for his destructive forays
among their herds of tame reindeer. He pursues the
elk with extraordinary patience and perseverance, until
he comes within sight of his prey, when there ensues a
chase of some hours' duration ; but the quarry is sure,
sooner or later, to succumb to its relentless pursuer.
In the winter the wolf awaits the elk on the borders
of some frozen lake, and then contrives to drive its
victim on the ice. The unwieldy deer flounders along,
staggering at every step, until it falls with a crash on
the ice, when its enemy leaps at its throat, and sucks
its life-blood.

It is said in Norway that when the wolf has fasted
for a long time, and has become almost mad with

38 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

hunger, it will devour clay. Now, this kind of food
cannot be digested, so it remains in the animal's sto-
mach for some time, when at last nature interposes,
and works off this unnatural article of diet; but the
wolf suffers excruciating pain, and howls dismally
during the operation.

Pontoppidan says that by Vandelv, in Sundmor, a
farmer once saw a wolf that appeared to be very sick
and exhausted; approaching the animal, he struck it
on the head and killed it. Being of an inquiring turn
of mind, the worthy agriculturist opened the dead
wolf to see if he could discover the cause of its ail-
ment; when, to his surprise, he found a solid lump of
moss and birch-twigs in its stomach, which, being a
species of food unfit for a beast of prey, had brought
on colic and indigestion.

Sometimes the Norwegian wolf attacks and devours
the dogs which are chained up to guard farms and
outbuildings. About ten years ago, during an un-
usually severe winter, some wolves attacked and de-
voured in one night several dogs that were kept at the
Botanical Gardens, Christiania.

Mr. Lloyd, in his interesting work on the e Scan-
dinavian Fauna/ says, "When the wolf is hungry,
everything is game that comes to his net. In the
Gulf of Bothnia he often preys on seals. When that
sea is frozen over, or partially so, as is generally the
case soon after the turn of the year, he roams its icy
surface in search of the young of the gray seal, which
at that season breed amongst the hummocks in great
numbers ; and, finding this an easy way of procuring
sustenance, he remains on the ice until it breaks up in
the spring. It not unfrequently happens, however,

AN ADVENTURE WITH WOLVES. 39

that, during storms, large fields of ice, on which
numbers of wolves are congregated, break loose from
the shore, or the land ice, in which case, as soon as the
beasts perceive their danger, but see no possibility of
escape, they rush to and fro, keeping up the while a
most woful howling, heard frequently at a great dis-
tance, until they are swallowed up by the waves."

The wolf has a peculiar fondness for pork,- and often
makes a wholesale attack on the farmers' pigs. This
weakness of the animal for the unclean flesh often
causes him to fall a victim to his depraved tastes. A
young pig is conveyed on a winter night in a sledge
over the snow, as a bait for wolves. Three men gene-
rally go together on this peculiar kind of sporting ad-
venture. The pig is carried in a sack until the sledge
arrives at a likely locality, when it is taken out, and
one of the men begins to pinch its tail, which of course
causes poor piggy to squeak. Should there happen to
be wolves in the neighbourhood, the cry of the pig
soon attracts them to the spot, and they pursue the
sledge, remaining for some time at a respectful dis-
tance, licking their chaps at their anticipated feast.
This agreeable thought is irresistible, and they ap-
proach nearer and nearer, until they come within range
of a rifle, when one of them pays the penalty of his
fondness for pork. This sport is attended with some
danger, for should a pack of wolves attack the sledge,
it is by no means improbable that horse, men, and pig
may be devoured.

Some years ago, a Norwegian Amtmand, a friend of
the author, was travelling in a carriole between Kongs-
vold and Jerkin, two mountain-stations established in
1120 by King Eyestein, for the accommodation and

40 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

safety of travellers over the Dovre-fjeld. Our friend
was musing on affairs of state,, or was congratulating
himself, perhaps, on the certainty of arriving soon at
comfortable quarters for the night. His mind full of
these pleasant thoughts, what was his astonishment
and dismay to see straight before him half-a-dozen
wolves ! The traveller was unarmed, and his horse
was tired. Luckily, Jerkin was not far distant, and
our friend passed the wolves at a gallop, but they
followed him up to the door of the station, and then
sneaked off, disgusted, no doubt, at the escape of their
anticipated prey.

Tofte, another station on the Dovre-fjeld, is kept by
a lineal descendant of Harald Haarfager, one of the
ancient kings of Norway. The family is so proud of
its origin, that its members have intermarried for
several generations ; the consequence of this constant
" breeding-in " is, that the only son of the present
head of the family is a dwarf. When the present
King of Norway stopped at Tofte on his way to
Throndjem to be crowned, the station-master informed
the attendants on the King that they did not require
to unpack the plate-chest, for he had silver spoons and
forks enough to accommodate any number of royal
guests.

Pontoppidan relates the following amusing story of
the incredulity of a Norwegian bishop : — " Hunger
sharp as a sword makes the wolf in winter unusually
bold ; so that he will often, and especially on the ice,
attack and take away a horse from a sledge. On
account of this fierceness of the wolf, prudent travellers
in winter always go armed. Bishop Munck would not
believe, most probably because he resided at Chris-

AN INCREDULOUS BISHOP. 41

tiania, that there was any necessity for such precau-
tions, and having heard that a clergyman of his diocese
named Kolbjorn was in the habit of carrying a loaded
gun in his sledge for the purpose of protecting himself
from the attacks of wolves, the bishop rebuked him
severely for doing so ; the practice, in fact, did not
coincide with the bishop's notion of clerical consist-
ency, and he requested the pastor to dispense with
firearms when travelling for the future. A request
coming from such a quarter was tantamount to a com-
mand, so the clergyman made up his mind to obey.
Now it happened that during the following winter the
bishop had occasion to visit Mr. Kolbjorn at his par-
sonage; there he dined, and left again rather late in
the evening. The clergyman drove the bishop in his
own sledge, and when they arrived at a certain sheet
of water which was frozen over, Mr. Kolbjorn re-
marked, ' This is a very likely spot for wolves ; and,
indeed, I heard yesterday that several had been seen
about here/

"' Wolves!' exclaimed the bishop. 'Then surely,
Herr Kolbjorn, you have brought your gun with
you?'

" ( Oh, no ! Herr Biskop/ replied the clergyman ;
'you convinced me of the impropriety of such a bad
habit, and I left my gun at home.'

" As the clergyman was speaking, several wolves ap-
peared in the distance, in pursuit of the sledge. The
parson knew, however, that he could trust to his
horse's speed, which soon left the wolves in the rear.
The event made a great impression on the bishop's
mind, and he never travelled in winter again without
having a gun in his sledge."

42 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

The flesh of the wolf is not palatable, but I have
been informed that some of the Norwegian peasai)ts
are glad enough to eat it in severe winters, when they
can get nothing else.

It is very probable that the Norwegian wolf occa-
sionally pairs with the dog. I have seen dogs in this
country that exhibited undoubted signs of their wolfish
origin. One particular dog, that often passed me in
the streets of Christiania, closely resembled a wolf in
appearance.

Medicinal virtues are ascribed to the wolf in Nor-
way. The peasants believe that powdered wolfs flesh
excites an appetite, and that an ointment made from
its fat, and applied externally on the chest, is a specific
in pulmonary complaints.

The skin of the wolf is used in this country for fur
coats, rugs, and thick warm aprons for sledges, to pro-
tect the traveller's legs from the severe cold. A large
wolf-skin coat costs in Norway from 20 to 100 sp.
dollars. In ancient times, heroes were permitted to
wear a wolf-skin as a mark of distinction ; and an old
writer states that, once upon a time, Norse warriors
wore wolf-skins over their coats of mail, to terrify
their enemies.

The wolf is commonly captured in Norway by the
ordinary steel trap ; he is also taken in pitfalls called
ulve grav, which are made very deep for the purpose,
and are guarded round the sides by pointed stakes, by
broken scythes, and sharp pieces of iron, so that the
captive may not leap out again and escape. It is also
captured in the ulve-gaard, or wolf-house or yard, a
fenced enclosure into which the animal is enticed, and
when it is inside, a person stationed to watch closes

A DAEING WOLF. 43

the entrance. The fence is made so high that the
wolf cannot leap over it, although it constantly endea-
vours to jump over, always to fall back baffled into the
enclosure. Some one then comes and puts it out of its
misery by shooting it. The wolf is but seldom regu-
larly hunted in Norway, for the dogs of the country
are not strong enough to tackle it. A great number
are, however, captured in traps, or killed by stratagem,
such as that of the squeaking porker.

I may observe, in conclusion, that the Norwegian
wolf is not dangerous in summer ; for at that time of
the year it avoids human beings, and hides itself when
it can. In severe winters, when rendered almost mad
by hunger, two or three wolves together will attack a
solitary traveller, and devour him and his horse. This
creature is bold and daring in winter, and then ap-
proaches the towns. I have myself seen a wolf com-
posedly trotting across the ice on the Christiania-fjord,
and I was near enough to the brute to see him show
his teeth at me. Some time since a lady was driving
a sledge in the neighbourhood of Christiania, when a
wolf leaped out of a hedge, and carried off an unfor-
tunate lap-dog that was lying asleep by its mistress's
side.

44

CHAPTEE VI.

The Fox in Norway. — Two Kinds. — Its Norwegian Name. — Fox Skins.
— A Sick Fox. — The Black Fox. — A Norwegian Housekeeper in
Peril— The White Fox.— Its Habits.— Its Food.— The Foxes anu
the Birds' Eggs. — The Fox as a Fisherman. — The Fox and the
Crows. — The Fox and the Badger.— The Fox and the Otter. — The
Fox and the Fleas.— Tricks of the Fox.— The Fox and the Hedge-
hog.— The Agility of the Fox. — Medicinal Virtues.

THE fox (Canis vulpes) is common in all parts of Nor-
way. Two species are found in this country, viz. the
common red fox, and the Arctic or white fox. The
black fox is occasionally to be met with, but is now
acknowledged to be simply a variety of the common
fox. The crossed fox, which is larger and stronger,
and is said to be more courageous than the common
fox, appears, also, to be only a variety. At any rate,
some Norwegian naturalists say so, while others assert
that it is a distinct species. The fox is called in Nor-
way reeve, and in rural districts it receives the familiar
appellation of Michel. Although it is not pursued for
sport in this country, but is simply regarded as vermin,
the peasants have no particular dislike for it, rather
the reverse, and think Reynard a cunning sort of fel-
low, deserving of some respect.

THE BLACK FOX IN NOEWAY. 45

So plentiful were foxes in Norway in the eighteenth
century, that no less than 4000 skins were annually
exported from Bergen to foreign countries. That
town, then in reality the capital of Norway, was, no
doubt, the centre to which the skins were sent from
all parts of the country. The Eussians purchase a
great number of Norwegian fox- skins every year.

The colour of the fox in Norway is a light rufous-
brown, tinted with yellow, with white on the forehead,
shoulders, and lower parts of the back ; cheeks and
throat, white ; tail, rufous-yellow, tinged with black,
tip white ; ears tipped with black ; paws, black. The
female produces from three to five cubs in April. I
have seen a common bitch fox in Norway, which had
just recovered from a,flode sygdom, or flowing sickness.
It was emaciated, the fur was short and patchy, the
tail was almost bare, and of a dark ash-blue colour.

The black fox is held in high estimation in Norway,
and its skin is extremely valuable. Its hair is much
finer, softer, and longer, than in the common fox. Its
colour is black, tinged in parts with silvery white. A
good skin of a black fox is worth from 50 to 100 sp.
dollars.

A friend of mine at Christiania had purchased a
litter of five young foxes, which he intended to send
to England. They were placed in a large box, but
during the night they managed to escape. After
playing about the yard for a time, they got into the
corridor which runs round all Norwegian houses. The
jom-fru, or housekeeper, hearing the noise made by
the young foxes scampering up and down, unfastened
her chamber-door and looked out ; when the playful
young creatures ran in and began to bite and scratch

46 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

her legs. Thejom-fru screamed " Murder/' when her
tormentors, frightened at the unusual sound of a fe-
male's voice in distress, made off. They were cap-
tured a few days afterwards in a timber-yard in the
town.

The Arctic or white fox (Vulpes lagopus) has its
home in Norwegian Lapland. It is also to be met
with in the Dovre-fjeld, but seldom visits the southern
parts of this country. It differs, in many respects,
from the common fox. It is more cleanly in its habits,
nor does any offensive smell proceed from the anal
glands. It has a broader and sharper head than the
common fox, while the ears are not so pointed, and are
yellow on the inside of them. The eyes are situated
low down in the head, which gives it a singularly trucu-
lent look. It is also considerably smaller in size than
the common red fox. Its body colour is white, which is
tinged in summer with very pale blue. In winter it is
white or dirty white all over the body. The hair is
long and fine, but the skin is of less value than that of
the common fox, as the hair is liable to come off. This
animal is gregarious, and lives in colonies ; it also
burrows in the sand on the seacoast. It is said to be
an excellent swimmer, and on the west coast of Fin-
mark, it occasionally leaves the mainland, and swims
to the adjacent islands. Although it does not possess
the cunning of the common fox, it displays consider-
able sagacity at times, for it hides its food in the snow,
and always does so when it thinks no person is ob-
serving it.

Writing of the white fox, Captain Lyon says, " I
frequently observed my dog-fox, when no snow was
attainable, gather his chain into his mouth, and in

THE SAGACITY OF THE WHITE FOX. 47

that manner, carefully coil it so as to hide his meat.
On moving away, satisfied with his operation, he, of
course, had drawn it after him again ; and sometimes,
with great patience, repeated his labours five or six
times, until, in a passion, he has been constrained to
eat his food without its having been rendered luscious
by previous concealment. Snow is the substitute for
water to these creatures, and on a large lump being
given to them, they break it in pieces with their feet,
and roll on it with great delight. When the snow
was slightly scattered on the decks, they did not pick
it up, as dogs are accustomed to do, but by repeatedly
pressing with their nose, collected small lumps at its
extremity, and then drew them into the mouth with
the assistance of the tongue."

The sagacity of the same white fox is thus de-
scribed : — " He was small and not perfectly white ;
but his tameness was so remarkable that I could not
afford to kill him, but confined him on deck in a small
hutch with a scope of chain. During the first day,
finding himself much tormented by being drawn out
repeatedly by his chain, he at length, whenever he
retreated to his hut, took this carefully up in his
mouth, and drew it so completely after him, that no
one who valued his fingers would endeavour to take
hold of the end attached to the staple."

The Arctic fox feeds on sea-birds and their eggs,
which it finds on the coast, — on the bodies of dead
fishes, and on marine insects. In Norwegian Lapland
it preys on the lemming, of which it is especially fond ;
and when there is a migration of the lemmings from
the northern fjelds to the south of Norway, many Arc-
tic foxes follow in pursuit of them.

48 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

This animal is called in Norway the livid-reeve, or
white fox, and fjeld-rceve, or mountain fox.

I have said that this animal is partial to the eggs of
birds, and I heard the following amusing story of
its sagacity in Norway : — On the coast of Finmark, or
Norwegian Lapland, innumerable sea-birds build their
nests in the holes and crevices of the rocks, or even
lay their eggs on the bare rocks themselves. These
rocks are high and perpendicular ; but the more in-
accessible they are, so much the greater number of
nests are to be found on them. Now, the Arctic foxes
are well aware of this fact, and wishing to get at the
nests, they adopt the following ingenious expedient.
A number of the animals assemble on the summit of
the rocks, and having held a wrestling match, to try
their relative strength, the strongest fox throws him-
self over the cliff, clinging with his paws to the top of
the rocky eminence. The next fox then creeps over
the first one's back, and holds on by its tail, and so
on in succession, until a long string of foxes is formed,
each holding on by its neighbour's tail. The last fox
down bags the eggs. It is not said how the foxes
get back again to terra firma ; should the first fox
let go his hold, the catastrophe that would ensue may
be imagined.

When the winter is very severe in Lapland, the
white foxes come southwards ; but they always follow
the coast line, except where they break off occasionally
to visit the mountains. When pressed by hunger in
the fjelds, they subsist on roots, which they dig out of
the ground by scraping with their paws and snout.

Ancient writers, such as Pontoppidan and Olaus
Magnus, relate some marvellous stories of the fox.

THE FOX AND THE BADGER. 49

According to Pontoppidan, when the fox is hungry, it
sets out on a piscatorial excursion ; arrived at the sea-
side, it insinuates its bushy tail in the water near large
stones, when crabs, small lobsters, and oysters seize
the hairy appendage, and are drawn out by Reynard,
who thus makes a hearty meal. But the following
stratagem is more singular. Some fishermen on the
coast were astonished one day by seeing a fox care-
fully laying the heads of fishes in a row near one of
their cottages. They could not imagine at first what
Michel was about; but on closely watching its mo-
tions, the mystery was explained. The fox concealed
itself behind a large stone, and pounced on the first
crow that came, attracted by the bait.

The fox gets possession of the badger's den in this
manner : — When the badger is absent, Reynard visits
its den, where he conducts himself in a very disrepu-
table manner, dirts about, and leaves such a disagree-
able smell behind him, that when poor Broc returns
home and discovers the state of affairs, he heaves a
profound sigh, and 'vacates the premises in despair.
The fox, who has concealed himself within view, no
sooner observes the departure of the badger, than he
enters in and takes possession. The Norwegian fox
outwits the otter in an ingenious manner. Having
discovered the favourite fishing ground of the otter,
the fox hides himself near, generally behind a stone.
The otter comes out of the water fish in mouth, which
it lays on the ground, preparatory to a feast. The
fox at this critical moment makes a sudden spring
from his hiding place, the otter starts back in blank
astonishment, and Reynard is soon at a safe distance
with his prize.

50 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The fox is said in Norway to be partial to honey,
and when he conies to a beehive he makes a hole in it,
through which he insinuates his tail, the enraged in-
sects swarm round it, when the fox coolly walks off,
switches his tail against a tree, or immerses it in water,
and when he has thus got rid of the bees, he returns
to the hive and devours the honey.

According to Pontoppidan, the fox gets rid of fleas
in the following manner : — He takes a small bunch of
straw, or some of his own hair, which he holds in his
mouth, and then gets quietly into the water. His
restless little enemies are immediately on the alert,
and, fearing a watery grave, they hasten to take re-
fuge in the straw or hair which is floating on the sur-
face of the water. As soon as the fox perceives the
state of things, he opens his mouth, and abandons the
vermin to their hapless fate.

Pontoppidan also relates the following amusing stra-
tagem of a fox : — " When an old bitch-fox is pursued
by the dogs, she is at her wit's end, and is even more
fertile than the male in expedients for throwing off her
pursuers. One ingenious device is to deluge her tail
with her own water, and when the dogs approach near
enough, she whisks her tail in their faces, when they
are glad to beat a hasty retreat, their eyes smarting
with the pain caused by the penetrating fluid \"

Olaus Magnus has also some curious stories to tell
of the fox. When Michel is hungry, and unable to
find anything to eat, he stretches himself out at full
length, shuts his eyes, hangs out his tongue, and pre-
tends to be dead. The crows then, thinking they have
fallen in with a rich prize, approach the supposed dead
fox, in order to feed on its body. When they are near

THE AGILITY OP THE FOX. 51

enough, Reynard is himself again, and pounces on and
captures one or more of his deluded victims. Some-
times, when caught in a steel trap, the fox simulates
death ; the bonde then approaches, and seeing the fox,
as he supposes, dead, he is careless in opening the
trap. As soon as he finds the teeth of the trap loosened,
Reynard is alive again, and quickly makes off, to the
astonishment and chagrin of the worthy agriculturist,
who did not expect such a resurrection.

The fox has an invincible predilection for the flesh
of the hedgehog, and circumvents the poor creature in
this way. Of course he finds the hedgehog rolled up in
a ball, when he turns it on its back, and makes water
into its eyes ; the pungent fluid causes the poor hedge-
hog to uncoil itself with pain, when it is soon killed
and devoured.

Such are some of the tricks of the fox, according to
Pontoppidan and Olaus Magnus, whose statements,
however, must be received cum grano sails. Bishop
Pontoppidan was a learned man for the times in which
he lived, but he was singularly credulous, and, among
other things, fervently believed in the existence of the
sea serpent, called in ^ Norway kraken, and gave a
minute description of one he had seen !

The following amusing story of the agility and cun-
ning of the fox is narrated by Mr. Lloyd : — ' ( A certain
jagare, who was one morning keeping watch in the
forest, saw a fox cautiously making his approach
towards the stump of an old tree. When sufficiently
near, he took a high and determined jump on to the
top of it, and, after looking round a while, hopped to
the ground again. After Reynard had repeated this
knightly exercise several times, he went his way, but

E2

52 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

presently returned to the spot bearing a pretty large
and heavy piece of dry oak in his mouth, and thus
burdened, and as it would seem for the purpose of
testing his vaulting powers, he renewed his leaps on to
the stump. After a time, however, and when he found
that, weighted as he was, he could make the ascent
with facility, he desisted from further efforts, dropped
the piece of wood from his mouth, and coiling himself
upon the top of the stump remained motionless as if
dead.

ff At the approach of evening an old sow and her
progeny, five or six in number, issued from a neigh-
bouring thicket, and, pursuing their usual track, passed
near to the stump in question. Two of her sucklings
followed somewhat behind the rest, and just as they
neared his ambush Michel, with the rapidity of thought,
darted down from his perch upon one of them, and in
the twinkling of an eye bore it in triumph on to the
fastness he had so providently prepared beforehand.

" Confounded at the shrieks of her offspring, the old
sow returned in fury to the spot, and until late in the
night made repeated desperate attempts to storm the
murderer's stronghold; but the fox took the matter
very coolly, and devoured the pig under the very nose
of its mother."

The Norwegian peasants consider that the fat of the
fox is an excellent lubricant for those parts of the
body that are affected by rheumatism. An ointment
made from the fat of the fox is also supposed to be a
certain relief for colic, if rubbed on the pit of the
stomach.

The Norwegian bonde has a profound belief in the
French saying, " Le loup nuit plus au paysan, le renard

A FKENCH PKOVEEB. 53

nuit plus au gentilhomme." On this account the wolf
is pursued with relentless detestation, while the fox is
but little molested. A few foxes are caught in steel
traps, a few are killed by sportsmen, and a few are
captured alive in the pitfalls made for bears, wolves,
and lynxes.

54

CHAPTEE VII.

The Norwegian Hare. — Where found. — Its Description. — Opinion of
Nilsson. — Habits of the Hare in Norway. — Opinion of Linnaeus. —
Partiality of the Hare for Mice in Norway. — Hare's Blood as a Cos-
metic.— The Badger in Norway. — Where Found. — The Young. —
Badger Hams in Norway. — Singular Habit of the Badger. — The
Marten in Norway. — Kept in Confinement. — The Squirrel in Norway.

THE hare (Lepus variabilis) is common in all parts of
Norway, and is even found in Magero, close to the
North Cape. It differs in size, colour, and flavour
from the common hare (Lepus timidus) which is found
in Great Britain.

The Norwegian hare changes its colour twice a year,
hence its designation, variabilis. In April it begins to
assume its spring colour, called in Norway vaar-dragt ;
it gradually changes, until in summer it is gray-brown
on the upper parts, and pale gray underneath its body.
In September it appears in its autumnal dress, host-
dragt, when it is white all over, except the tips of the
ears, which are always black.

The Norwegian hare is smaller in size than the
common species, while its flesh is white and much less
savoury ; its price in the Christiania market is about
that of a rabbit in England.

HABITS OP THE HAEE. 55

Nilsson, the Swedish naturalist, is of opinion that
two species of hare are found in Scandinavia, one of
which he calls the syd-hare, or southern hare, the other
the nord or f jail-hare, that is, northern or mountain
hare. Most probably only one species is to be found
in Sweden and Norway, and the difference in appear-
ance is owing to climate and the changes of seasons.
I have handled no less than a dozen hares in the Chris-
tiania market at the same time, no two of which were
exactly similar in colour. Attempts have been made
to introduce the common brown hare into Sweden, but
hitherto without success.

The hare feeds by night, and its food consists of
various kinds of herbs, especially parsley, for which it
has a great liking ; it also eats roots, the tender leaves
of plants, grasses, and grain. Its habits are well
described in the following lines of the poet : —

" The timid hare,

Scared from the corn, and now to some lone seat
"Retired : the rushy fen, the rugged furze
Stretched o'er the stony heath, the stubble chapt,
The thistly lawn, the thick entangled broom
Of the same friendly hue, the withered fern,
The fallow ground laid open to the sun
Concoctive, and the nodding, sandy bank
Hung o'er the mazes of the mountain brook."

The poor hare has many enemies in Norway, and
falls a victim to wild animals, as well as to birds of prey,
especially eagles and large owls.

As to whether the hare is a ruminating animal or
not, I do not venture to express an opinion. Linnaeus
asserts that it is, but in a manner unlike other rumi-
nating animals, which have a stomach of four cavities,

56 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

whilst the hare has a stomach of two, macerating the
food in one, and digesting it in the other.

Pontoppidan mentions a singular taste, if true, of the
hare in Norway. "In Norway," he says, "rabbits are
only found in a few places, but hares are found in great
numbers. Their skins, brown and gray in summer,
become white in winter. They kill and eat mice like
cats. They are also smaller than those of Denmark."

The rabbit in a wild state is now almost unknown in
Norway. I never saw one myself in the country, nor
have I ever met with a Norwegian who had.

The hare is commonly captured in Norway by wire
snares. The peasants bring cartloads of them to market
during the season. It is preserved by law from June
1st to August 15th.

The Norwegian peasants consider the blood of the
hare to be an excellent cosmetic for removing scorbutic
eruptions from the skin, as well as freckles from the
face. It is also said that linen rags steeped in hare's
blood and then dried are a cure for erysipelas, although
they must not be applied to the affected part, but
simply near to it.

THE BADGER.

The badger (Meles vulgaris) is common in the
southern and central parts of Norway ; it does not visit
the far north. It frequents the dense woods and forests
with which this country abounds, and remains almost
entirely in its hole during the severe Norwegian winter,
only going out when pressed by hunger. It is popu-
larly believed in Norway that during its hibernation it
lives like the bear by sucking its paws. In Scotland
and the north of England the badger still retains its

FOOD OF THE BADGEE IN NORWAY. 57

old Anglo-Saxon name of broc, and it is an interesting
fact that it still preserves in Norway and Denmark
the name of brok.

In Norway the female brings forth from three to five
young ones in April. She is a good mother, but the
male is an indifferent father and does not trouble him-
self with domestic affairs. When her time is near, the
female comes out of her hole, and collects a bundle of
dry grass, which she drags to her den, and with which
she makes a comfortable nest. She remains with her
young until they are old enough to shift for themselves,
while she only ventures forth at night to bring back
birds' eggs, lizards, young rabbits, and honey, which
she complacently lays before her offspring, who come
to the mouth of the hole to feed.

The Norwegian peasants esteem the flesh of the
badger, and call it delicious ; they salt and smoke
the hams, and eat them in a raw state.

I have described how the cunning fox drives the
badger from his den, to obtain possession of it himself.
When this happens, the badger does not wander about
in idleness, but removes to no great distance, sets
busily to work, and, with his short legs and powerful
claws, soon scoops out another hole, to be again dis-
lodged by some other fox.

This animal is now much scarcer in Norway than it
was in former times. Its skin, being thick and imper-
vious to wet, is employed in this country for the co-
vering of trunks; its hair supplies the painter with
brushes.

Pontoppidan says that when the badger bites a hu-
man being, it does not let go its hold until its teeth
meet, and its bite is considered almost incurable. The

58 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

same writer states that in winter it inserts its snout in
the pouch, membranum genitale, under its tail, and Jives
without nourishment. The Russians consider the skin
of the badger to be valueless, but they think its grease
is delicious. There is no accounting for taste in such
things.

The pine marten (Mustela martes) is pretty common
in all parts of Norway. It is found in Norwegian Lap-
land, and the Lapps ornament their dresses and caps
with pieces of the fur. It is rather smaller in size
than the common marten, and its skin is more valu-
able. Its throat is yellow, while that of the common
species is white.

In Norway the marten is generally to be found in
the shady recesses of the forest, where it preys on rats,
mice, moles, rabbits, birds, and their eggs. Some-
times it eats vegetables and grain. It makes its nest
in hollow trees, or in the crevices of rocks, and brings
forth from three to five young in the beginning of
May. Its Norse name is maar.

Pontoppidan asserts that there are two species of
marten in Norway, viz. the espe-maar, or common
kind, and the birke-maar, or birch marten, which is
smaller, darker, and more valuable than the first men-
tioned. " It keeps itself to hollow trees, and lives on
wood-mice or birds, and in pursuit of the latter it
climbs trees, and leaps from one branch to another."

The marten has been kept in confinement, and has,
to a certain extent, been tamed, but it could hardly be
called a docile pet, although it was reared from the
nest. It did not take kindly to the people of the
house, and when it was unchained, it not only attacked
and killed every cat in the neighbourhood, but it played

A TAME MARTEN. 59

sad havoc with the poultry. Its chain was fastened
round the middle of its body, but it would often get
loose, and then would absent itself for several hours ;
returned home, it would exhibit no pleasure at the
sight of the people of the house, although it would beg
for food like a dog, and was very clamorous until its
wants were attended to. It remained absent for a
longer time on each successive occasion of its escape,
until it reappeared no more. It would eat almost
anything that was given to it, meat, bread, cake, su-
gar, butter, cheese, for the last of which it evinced an
extraordinary partiality, and would come at the call of
even a stranger if he held a morsel of cheese between
his fingers. It would not touch vegetable matter of
any kind. It was a thirsty little creature, and would
eagerly lap up milk, especially if sweetened with honey
or sugar. It was fond of weak tea, and even of beer,
if diluted freely with water. Water itself it would not
touch unless it was very thirsty. It would sleep for
two or three days and nights at a stretch, while it
would remain awake for even a longer period. When
asleep it curled itself up, taking especial care to place
its tail underneath its body. It appeared to sleep with
one eye open, for if any person attempted then to play
tricks with it, it was immediately on the alert, ready
to wage a fierce fight for its protection, and woe betide
the venturesome assailant who felt its sharp teeth in
his fingers. It was very destructive when allowed to
have its liberty ; and if it could get into a room, it
would smash every brittle article in it, china, glass,
etc. It would upset the inkstand over the table or
carpet, and do its utmost to show its mischievous
nature.

60 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The pole-cat and weasel are found in the south of
Norway, but the ferret is unknown. The squirrel
(Sciurus vulgaris) is common in all parts of Norway,
even in the far north, although I am informed it does
not visit the neighbourhood of the North Cape. In
winter it becomes of a gray colour all over the body,
except the cheeks and legs, which retain their rufous-
brown hue all the year round. During the long and
severe Norwegian winter, this little creature cannot
procure its usual food, and it is then obliged to be
satisfied with the tender shoots, and even with the
outside bark of the birch. The climate of this country
even sometimes makes the squirrel white.

The skin of the squirrel when gray is much more
valuable than when it is red, as it can only be obtained
at one season of the year. It is said, in an ancient
Norwegian chronicle, that King Harald Erichsen re-
ceived the name of Graafell, which I suppose signified
gray fellow, because he wore an outer garment trimmed
with the fur of the gray squirrel.

The Norwegian name of this little creature is egern.
The bonder say that when it wants to cross a river or
fjord, it floats on the surface of the water, puts up its
tail for a sail, and the winds waft it gently over to the
other side.

In ancient times, squirrels were ordinarily shot in
Norway with blunt arrows, which knocked them on
the head lifeless, without injuring the skin. They
were also captured in snares, which were set at the
foot of trees, and were baited with a bird's head or
some other dainty ; they were also hunted with small
dogs.

Pontoppidan asserts that, in his time, flying squirrels

FLYING SQUI REELS. 61

were found in Eussia which could fly from tree to tree.
The worthy bishop doubts the truth of the statement,
and considers that they were but common squirrels
that possessed unusual agility, and could spring ra-
pidly from one branch of a tree to another. It is, how-
ever, asserted by travellers that a flying squirrel exists
in the Kocky Mountains of North America, and in
Fernando Po.

Squirrel soup is by no means uncommon in Norwe-
gian country districts, and is not to be despised.

62

CHAPTEE VIII.

The Glutton in Norway. — Where Found. — Its Voracious Appetite. —
Ancient Writers concerning the G-lutton. — Its Description. — Its Skin.
— Superstition of Norwegian Peasants. — Quackery in Norway. — The
Glutton in Lapland. — Lapp Method of Deceiving the Glutton. — Food
of the Glutton. — Its Offspring. — The Hedgehog in Norway. — How
the Hedgehog gets rid of the Bear.

THE glutton or wolverine (Mustela gulo) is common in
the northern and central parts of Norway, especially
in the Throndjem and Bergen Stifts. It is found in
the Dovre-fjeld and other mountains frequented by the
reindeer. It is but seldom seen in the woods and
forests, for its favourite resort is in the highest moun-
tains.

The glutton is carnivorous, and, like the wolf and
lynx, destroys much more than it can eat ; it does not,
however, leave behind it what it cannot eat at one time,
but conceals it in a secure place for an emergency. As
its name implies, it is a voracious eater ; it is always
hungry, and is always ready to begin again after a
hearty meal, while it is said to possess the power of
disgorging its food, so that it is able to eat, and eat,
and eat again.

APPETITE OP THE GLUTTON. 63

Ancient writers had some curious notions concern-
ing the eating powers of the glutton. Thus, Pontop-
pidan says, " If the glutton finds a carcass six times
as big as itself, it does not leave off eating while a
mouthful of it is left. It must be plagued with such
an insatiable hunger that a full belly does not even
satisfy it." The bishop also affirms that a personal
friend, in whose truthfulness he could place implicit
confidence, informed him that he had seen a glutton,
when captured alive, a rare occurrence, and kept in
confinement by being chained to a staple in a wall,
endeavour to appease its hunger by eating the mortar
and stones !" " Perhaps," says this quaint old author,
" the glutton is created as a moral lesson for those men,
of whom the apostle says, ' At deres Gud er bugen,'
1 Whose belly is their God/ "

Olaus Magnus, Archbishop of Upsala, in Sweden,
asserts that the glutton squeezes itself between two
trees, in order to get rid of the contents of its stomach,
so that it may eat again. The same author adds, that
if a person sleeps on a bed covered with a glutton's
skin, he will be troubled with the most frightful
dreams. He will have visions of dainty meats and
expensive drinks, of which he cannot partake, al-
though dying of hunger and thirst; and this tanta-
lizing banquet will be spread before his longing eyes
night after night without a single intermission.

The Norwegian glutton is long and thin in body.
It is evident that its voracious appetite does not put
much flesh on its bones. It is about three feet four
inches in length. Its claws and teeth are sharp ; its
muzzle is pointed ; its colour is black, streaked with
brown and yellow; sometimes it is brown, with a

64 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

glossy black streak running along the back; the legs
and feet are also black. The skin is much dearer than
that of the wolf or lynx, as, from its glossy appearance,
it is much more valuable. Unlike other wild animals
in this severe climate, its colour does not vary through-
out the year.

It was once supposed in Norway that the glutton
was the third cub of a bear ; and as the bear commonly
brought forth only two cubs at a time, when she had a
third, it was a lusus naiur<Ry which fully accounted for
the peculiar propensities and gluttony of the animal.
The Norwegian peasants are very superstitious, and
place much faith in the marvellous. They have im-
plicit confidence in the medicinal virtues of certain
parts of wild animals, for, in fact, quackery of any
kind pays well in this country. Indeed, quacks would
abound in Norway were it not that the government,
caring for the health and well-being of the people,
treats charlatanism with the utmost rigour. If, how-
ever, it pleases the worthy Norseman to believe that
the powdered bones, a draught of the warm blood,
the application of a poultice made from the minced
flesh, or a necklace made of the claws of a certain
wild animal, has a remedial effect on the human
frame, either by outward application or by internal
digestion, we can hardly blame them for their credu-
lity, for such notions can do very little harm, if they
do no good; they are not much more hurtful than
bread pills. It is also true that, in the cure of cer-
tain complaints, the imagination plays an important
part; and if a man wears a bear's claws round his neck
to stop the bleeding of his nose, the talons of a lynx to
ward off the cramp, or an electuary made from pow-

HABITS OF THE GLUTTON. 65

dered hare's flesli to cure the rheumatism ; it is just
possible that faith in the agent applied may accom-
plish the desired effect. In Norway it is supposed
that a fillet of glutton's claws, worn round the head,
has the effect of dispelling vapours and giddiness ; and
that an ointment made from the grease of this animal
is a certain cure for cutaneous eruptions. The fur of
this gluttonous creature is so thick, fine, and smooth,
that its grease is as much esteemed as " thine incom-
parable oil, Macassar."

The glutton is called by various names in Norway.
The most common is viel-fras, the word viel being no
doubt a corruption of fjeld, so called because, the ani-
mal frequents the mountains. It is called kola in the
Throndjem Stift, and also j erven, erven, and gierv, in
different parts of Norway.

Like the lynx, the glutton is not gregarious; but
pairs, and the male and female keep close together ;
should the male be killed, the female is certain to be
found somewhere near. It is also as active and expert
as the lynx, and its long and sharp claws enable it to
climb trees with facility.

The glutton is thoroughly detested in Norwegian
Lapland, for it is as destructive as the lynx among the
Lapps' tame reindeer. The Lapps, however, have va-
rious ways of circumventing and destroying the animal,
and the following is a common method of deceiving its
suspicious nature : — When the tent is pitched on the
spot where the Lapp intends to remain for some time
with his family and reindeer, he sets up a high table,
which he fixes in the ground. This table is made of
the dried branches of the birch, and on it the Lapp
places at night his reindeer venison, and other pro-

66 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

visions. The glutton comes after dark sniffing and
prowling round the tent, and arriving at the birch
table, which is about five feet high, it surveys it, sus-
pects that it is a snare, and makes off as fast as it can.

Mr. Lloyd mentions the following stratagem adopted
by a Lapp to destroy a glutton : — " During his rambles
through the forest the Lapp discovered a glutton in a
tree. Unfortunately, however, he had not wherewithal
to destroy the beast ; but to deter it from descending
the tree, while he hastened home for his gun, he fixed
an upright pole in the ground near to the tree, and
with his pels, or fur cloak and cap, rigged out a coun-
terpart of himself. This notable expedient perfectly
succeeded, for on his return some time afterwards he
found the glutton still in the tree, and presently made
him his prize."

The glutton lives entirely on flesh. It climbs trees
in pursuit of birds ; it attacks the elk, and pursues the
reindeer for miles, until it approaches near enough to
make its fatal spring. It also feeds on rats, mice, and
lemmings ; and destroys a vast number of hares. Some
travellers have asserted, and among them Dr. Richard-
son, that the glutton does not pursue and kill the rein-
deer. It is now pretty well acknowledged that it does ;
and when it springs on the reindeer's neck, it lacerates
the flesh and tears open the veins of its prey with its
powerful claws, when the poor creature loses so much
blood that it falls down exhausted and expires.

The glutton breeds only once a year, and produces a
litter of two, sometimes of three young ones. The
flesh is rank, and not palatable, but the Lapps eat and
enjoy it very much. No doubt this taste for its flesh,
on the part of this diminutive people, arises partly from
spite.

THE HEDGEHOG IN NORWAY. 67

This animal is not easily captured. It is generally
run down by dogs, while it is often shot. Pitfalls are
dug for it in vain, unless very carefully guarded round
the edges, so that when the brute has tumbled in, it
cannot get out again. Some are taken in the common
steel trap, but the trap is not baited ; it is simply placed
in the track of the animal, which accidentally passes
over it, and is caught. Considerable care must be
observed in handling the trap, so that the naked hand
may not touch it ; gloves are, therefore, necessary, for
the glutton has a very keen scent, and will avoid a
trap that has been touched by a human hand.

Although the skin of this creature is valuable, it is
so given to shedding blood, and its habits are so de-
structive, that it is much wished in Norway that it
should be exterminated.

The hedgehog (Erinaceus Europceus) is now but
rarely seen in Norway. It is, in fact, so scarce, that
when a specimen was required for the Zoological Mu-
seum at Christiania, it was necessary to send to Ger-
many for one. It is called in Norway pind-sviin ; the
name of the female is pind-so ; its ancient Norse name
was busJce-dyvel, or bushy devil. It feeds on worms,
slugs, beetles, eggs, wild berries, and vegetables. The
female brings forth from two to four young at a birth.
The young are born naked and blind, and are covered
with short, soft spines, which soon become hard and
strong.

It is said in Norway that the hedgehog drives away
the bear from his den in the following manner : —
On coming to the bear's "hie," the hedgehog enters
it, at which piece of presumption Bruin is overwhelmed
with astonishment and rage. He puts his nose to the

r2

68 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

body of his diminutive visitor, to discover what it is.
The hedgehog, displeased at this impertinent curiosity,
bristles up, and pricks the bear's nose. Wherever the
bear moves, if he lies down, if he stands upon his hind
legs, if he carefully places one paw on the ground be-
fore the other, he comes in contact with the sharp
spines of the hedgehog. If he goes to sleep, the
hedgehog crawls on to his huge carcass, and darts its
prickles into the bear's most tender parts, causing him
to have unpleasant dreams. This sort of treatment
enrages the bear beyond measure; the den soon be-
comes too hot to hold him, and, with a howl of mingled
rage and despair, he rushes headlong forth, leaving the
hedgehog in quiet possession of the premises.

69

CHAPTEE IX.

The Otter in Norway. — Where Found. — Its Description. — Its Habits. —
Its Nest. — Its Offspring. — Mode of Capture in Norway. — Food of the
Otter. — Bishop Heber's Description of a Tame Otter. — The Otter in
Confinement.— The Beaver in Norway.— Where Found. — Its Descrip-
tion.—Its Tail.— Its Habits. — Eepublican Notions. — Food of the
Beaver.— Its Flesh.

THE otter (Lutra vulgaris) is common on all the west
coast of Norway, and is also found on the banks of
large rivers and inland lakes. Pontoppidan says that
in his day it was as common on all fresh waters as it
was on the seacoast.

Although the common otter is a marine animal, cap-
turing fish on the seashore, and frequently swimming
out to a considerable distance from the land, in search
of its prey, it must not be confounded with the sea-
otter (Enhydra), which is a different creature, and is
not to be found in any part of Norway.

The otter in this country is about two feet long ; its
tail is long and flat, and is about thirteen to fifteen
inches in length. This caudal appendage is used by
the animal as a rudder, by which it turns itself with
astonishing rapidity and dexterity in the water ; it is

70 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

so jointed as to be extremely flexible. The legs are
short and strong ; the feet are broad and webbed, so
that it can swim and dive ; the eyes are small and
piercing, and are placed near the nose ; the ears are
short and upright ; the teeth are long and sharp. Its
colour is peculiar. It has two kinds of fur, an inner
and shorter, as well as an outer and longer; the shorter
hairs are pale gray, tipped with brown ; the longer
ones are darker gray, also brown at the ends ; the
under parts of the body are brownish-gray ; the nose
and whiskers are black.

In Norway the otter skins are generally purchased
by the Russians.

The otter which frequents large rivers and lakes
abides in holes, and under the roots of trees near the
water. Here the female makes a nest of dry grass and
rushes, and having gone nine weeks with young, she
produces, in the spring time of the year, an interesting
little family of three or five. Now we see why the nest
was placed near the water ; for, soon after the young
are born into the world, the mother teaches them to
take to their natural element, as well as to swim and
dive, so that they may be out of harm's way, should
danger approach on land, — so kind is nature in teach-
ing the meanest creatures how to act through their
instinct. The otter which frequents the sea-coast con-
ceals itself in rocky caves, or in cavities under large
boulders among the shingle on the beach. Soon after
the young are born, they are conducted to the salt
water, and are taught by their parent how to swim and
dive ; and they even venture out to a considerable dis-
tance from the land, while the mother paddles round
them, to see that no youngster, in search of adven-

THE YOUNG OF THE OTTER. 71

tures, goes too far out, and that no cunning monster
of the vasty deep may approach to injure her progeny.

As a general rule, the young of animals are pretty,
but it is quite the reverse with those of the otter, for
they are more ugly than their parents, and that is say-
ing a good deal. Their heads are misshapen, their ears
hang loose and uneven, their eyes are almost closed
up, their movements are ungainly and awkward, and
they are incessantly uttering a fretful and whining cry.

The otter is not hunted by dogs in Norway, as it is
in England. It is taken in the following manner: — The
otter's hole is first discovered, then a flat piece of wood
is placed in the earth or sand at the entrance of the
hole. In this flat piece of wood several iron spikes are
fixed, while a heavy log is kept upright, and over the
iron spikes, by means of a thin, broad piece of stick.
The luckless otter sets out on an excursion ; it is on
piscatorial intentions bent, and coming to the mouth of
its hole, it comes in contact with the trap, displaces
the stick that sustains the log, which falls, and the
poor little creature is transfixed on the iron spikes,
when it wriggles about for a moment, and dies. Some-
times the male otter is attracted from his den by imi-
tating the shrill cry of the female ; this is effected by
a peculiar kind of whistle. The otter has none of that
finer instinct which is observed in the beaver ; while,
on the other hand, the latter industrious little animal
always drives the otter away from its haunts, and it is
an understood thing that the beaver and otter are never
to be found near the same waters. It would appear
that these rival fishers always pertinaciously avoid the
localities frequented by each other, and only meet by-
accident.

72 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The otter does not take the trouble to make a regu-
lar domicile for itself. It seems to be too idle to do
that, or, perhaps, it will not take the pains to obtain a
habitation formed by its own industry, as is the case
with the beaver and badger. It takes up its abode in
natural holes in the ground, in the crevices of rocks,
under large stones, and sometimes even among floating
timber. Its den has by no means a pleasant smell, as
it is often the receptacle of stinking fish, which is con-
sidered a bonne bouche by the animal.

The otter feeds on various kinds of fish, which it
catches with much skill and dexterity. It destroys
much more than it is able to eat, and feeds on the
most delicate parts, wasting the remainder. It does
not eat the head or tail of a fish, but prefers the back
part of the neck. When fishes are scarce, and it is
pressed by hunger, it leaves the water, and betakes it-
self to the farmyard, where it preys on poultry, suck-
ing-pigs, and even on young lambs. When pursued
by dogs, it dives under water, and, if hard pressed,
turns at bay, and severely bites its persecutors.

The otter can be tamed, and especially when it is
captured young. Bishop Heber states that he once
passed a river in India where nine or ten otters were
busily engaged swimming about in the water, " te-
thered with straw collars and long strings to bamboo
stakes on the banks ."

When first captured, the otter is wild and fierce,
and attempts to bite the person that feeds it ; after
some days, the loss of its natural element renders it
sick and feeble, when it becomes more tractable. If
it does not die, it soon becomes reconciled to its fate,
and may be tamed. The chief difficulty is to keep it

THE BEAVER IN NORWAY. 73

alive. It should be fed at first with small fishes, then
with milk, and, after a short time, with bread and milk.
When sufficiently tame, it may be taught with an arti-
ficial or even with a dead fish ; should it injure the
fish, it must receive a gentle castigation with a whip.
When it knows how to dive in pursuit of a fish in
the water, it should be sent in to catch fishes for its
master.

The colour of the otter does not vary during the
winter in Norway. At this time of the year, when
pressed by hunger, and fishes are not to be obtained,
it feeds on crabs, limpets, frogs, and even on water-
rats, as well as on the bark of trees that grow near the
water.

The beaver (Castor fiber) was formerly very common
in Norway, and was principally found in Soloer, Oster-
dalen, Gudbrandsdalen, and Jemteland ; there is still
a Bsever-dalen and a Baever-elv, or river, in Oster-
dalen. It is now only to be met with on the estate of
Mr. Aall, a gentleman who resides near Arendal, in
the south of Norway. The Norwegian beaver is about
two feet ten inches in length, exclusive of the tail,
which is eight or ten inches more. Its colour is dark-
brown, but some are gray, through age or the effect of
climate. The tail is flat and oval, and is covered with
scales. It is said in Norway that the beaver cannot
let its tail remain long out of the water, so it always
sleeps with it hanging down in its natural element,
otherwise that useful appendage would become unser-
viceable. It is also believed here that, in the begin-
ning of winter, when the rivers are about to freeze, the
beaver keeps a space around him unfrozen by inces-
santly wagging his tail in the water, which he does

74 THE NATUEALIST IN NOEWAY.

even in his sleep ; and thus, in the most severe north-
ern winter,, he can always dive into and swim about
in his proper element ! Next to the tail, the most im-
portant article about the beaver is the front teeth ;
these incisors are long and sharp, and are protected
by a yellowish-red enamel. With these teeth, the
creature fells trees, such as the willow, birch, and
poplar, which grow near the water. According !to
Pontoppidan, when the beavers wish to get their build-
ing materials to the localities chosen for their habita-
tions, they use one of their fellows as a waggon, and
the rest drag along this strange vehicle by seizing the
porfcer-beaver by the throat with their teeth. Hie
beaver which was thus used as a beast of burden was
laid on his back, with his legs extended as far apart as
possible, between which the branches of the trees were
placed, and thus one load after another was conveyed
to its destination. "This work/' adds the bishop,
" makes the back of the beaver bald, as all the hair
upon it is lost, which hair in other cases is thought
most highly of, and is, as is well known, used for the
finest hats, as well as for a sort of fine cloth." It is
interesting, therefore, to know that beaver hats were
worn in Norway so far back as the middle of last
century.

The beaver is republican in his notions, and ba-
nishes from his society any member that has com-
mitted a serious offence against good government.
The beaver thus exiled is shunned by all his former
companions ; he wanders away from his tribe, and lives
in a hole which he burrows in the ground. It is just
possible that the beavers mentioned by Pontoppidan as
employed as beasts of burden were some incorrigible

FOOD OF THE BEAVER IN NORWAY. 75

offenders that were put to " hard labour" as a punish-
ment for misdemeanours against the community. The
beaver was once called in Norway erke-bygmester, or
arch-master-builder, on account of its constructive ta-
lents.

In summer the Norwegian beaver feeds on green
herbs and plants that grow near the water ; in autumn
it eats the numerous kinds of wild berries that are so
plentiful in this country ; in winter the food consists
of the outer bark of the willow, birch, and poplar.
The female brings forth two or three young ones in the
early part of summer. At this interesting time, the
male ungallantly leaves his wife, and only pays her an
occasional visit during the whole time the young are
with her.

In Norway the beaver makes its habitation close to
a running stream, and rather lower than the water.
The dwelling is divided into three compartments, and
the male and female reside in separate chambers ;
these compartments are divided by slight partitions,
which serve, doubtless, to prop up the entire edifice.
The building materials consist of branches of birch,
willow, and poplar, as well as of mortar made of mud
and mixed with stones. In process of time the
branches of which the habitations are constructed
throw out shoots and leaves ; the herbage around,
also, grows ; and the beaver- dwellings become con-
cealed, and are not easily discovered. It is evident that
this industrious little creature was once very common in
Norway, for we are told that its fur was an article of
considerable trade at the ancient Norwegian fair of El-
verum. The castoreum, anciently called in Norway bi-
bergeilj is a secretion contained in two small glandular

76 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

sacs, and is of a musky smell and acrid flavour. It
was formerly used in medicine, but is now chiefly em-
ployed in the manufacture of perfumery ; it gives the
specific designation of Castor to the animal.

The flesh of the beaver resembles fresh pork in
taste ; when it was common in Norway, it was in
much request. The part most in requisition was the
tail ; this was considered to be neither fish, flesh, nor
good red-herring, but a mixture of all three, and was
esteemed as a rare delicacy.

Although the beaver is now strictly preserved on
Mr. Aall's estate, the number does not perceptibly in-
crease. The peasants in the neighbourhood could,
probably, tell the reason why. The Norwegian bonder
are inveterate poachers.

77

CHAPTEE X.

The Lemming. — Where found in Norway. — Description of the Animal.
— Its Habits. — An Experiment. — Its Results. — A Singular Line of
Argument. — Migration of the Lemming from the North. — Cause of
the Migration. — The Migratory Hordes. — What becomes of them. —
Grimalkin and the Lemmings. — Pugnacity of the Lemming. — Its
Food. — A Plague of Lemmings. — Singular Superstitions. — Opinions
of Ancient Writers. — An Exorcism. — The Lemming's Nest.

THE lemming (Lemmus Norwegicus, Wormius) is a little
rodent animal which is very common in Norway, and
has engaged the attention of naturalists, as it is pecu-
liar to the country. Its home is in the fjelds of Nord-
land and Norwegian Lapland, and it is sometimes
common in the Dovre-fjeld. It has received various
names in this country, such as the fjeld-muus, or
mountain mouse, lemming, lom-hund, Icemus, Icemen,
sabel-muus, norsk-muus, etc. etc. It is called lum-
mick in Norwegian Lapland.

The following is the description of a lemming cap-
tured by the author near Christiania in 1863 : — The
occiput and crown of the head, running on to the nose,
jet black ; upper part of the neck, black ; two streaks
of tawny-yellow running down the sides of the neck ;

78 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

a black line from the back running on to the short
tail ; the lower upper surface of the body, tawny-
yellow, tinged here and there with black ; the whole
under surface of the body pale buff, rather lighter on
the throat; the eyes small, round, black, and piercing,
and on each cheek long, black and white whiskers.
The length five inches, with a mere stump of a tail ;
each foot has five toes ; the upper lip incised, and each
jaw has two sharp teeth. In colour it resembles a
guinea-pig, in shape and size it is like a mole.

It was at one time supposed that there were two
species of lemming in Norway, viz. the fj eld-lemming,
which frequented the mountains, and the skov-lemming,
which abode in the woods. This is now acknowleged
to have been a mistake. The Norwegian differs much
from the Russian lemming, as the latter is much smaller
in size.

The lemming does not burrow, although, when the
snow is on the ground, it makes openings in it in
search of food, and is then said to do serious damage
to the growing grass, for the grass in this country
grows underneath the snow. When there is no snow,
the little creature lives in narrow furrows among the
herbage, or in small, natural holes in stony ground.
The lemming is not easily kept in confinement, but
soon misses its liberty, pines, and dies. Some time
ago a friend of mine, while on a visit to Norwegian
Lapland, thought he would avail himself of the oppor-
tunity to carry a few lemmings home with him to
Christiania. With this intention he purchased twenty-
five in Finmark, which he placed in a long basket,
with sufficient vegetable food for their sustenance
until they arrived at Throndjem. At Throndjem a

MIGRATION OF THE LEMMING. 79

long wooden box was made expressly for the lemmings,
and this was properly strapped beneath the carriole.
The result was not encouraging ; the little animals
died off, one after the other, and when in sight of
Christiania, a sole survivor remained. My friend, dis-
appointed at his want of success, very unkindly killed
the surviving lemming, assigning a somewhat Irish
reason for his cruelty, " If the lemming had been
two, I would have kept them to breed from ; but as they
were only one, I killed it." It is not surprising that
the enterprise failed, when undertaken by a gentleman
so deficient in grammar, logic, and patience. Another
friend in Norway informed me that he had frequently
captured lemmings in the fjeld, and had carefully
transported them to his house, where they invariably
died ; they are, in fact, such tender little creatures,
that a rough grasp of the hand, or a slight blow of any
kind, will cause them to sicken and die.

The migration of the lemming from the north occurs
at uncertain periods. Sometimes they migrate for
several successive years, while sometimes an interval
of ten or twelve years elapses between their migrations.
Some persons assert that the migration is caused by
the little creatures knowing instinctively that the
coming winter will be unusually severe. If such were
the case, why is it that the lemmings migrate in the
spring, and not in the fall of the year ? Others assert
that the migration is caused by an unusually severe
winter, which so hardens the snow that the lemmings
cannot work into it to get their requisite food, and so
they abandon the inhospitable region in search of fresh
pastures and a more genial climate. Perhaps the true
cause of the migration is, that instinct teaches these

80 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

little creatures that their numbers are so multiplying
in the northern latitudes that it is necessary that a
part of them should leave for other localities. Be that
as it may, they certainly do migrate, at least great
numbers of them do so ; and when they have once left
their usual haunts, they wander onwards until they
come to the mighty ocean, which they enter, still in
search of some imaginary land of plenty, to meet a
watery grave. If this be correct, then man is not the
only animal that has visions of Utopia. It is a well-
ascertained fact, acknowledged by all naturalists ac-
quainted with the habits of the lemming, that the
migratory hordes never return to the place from
whence they set out. None are ever observed going
back to their abandoned homes in the dreary northern
land. When they leave the northern fjelds, they
wander off to various points on the North Sea ; great
numbers cross the mountains to the west coast of
Norway, and are drowned in the lakes and fjords on
their way thither ; others go to the Gulf of Bothnia,
and are drowned there. When migrating, large num-
bers fall victims to wild beasts and birds of prey.
The lynx, glutton, and white fox, leave the north in
pursuit of the lemmings when they migrate ; many
birds of prey do the same, eagles, hawks, owls, and
especially the gray or Lapland owl, and the snowy owl.
If, therefore, the English sportsman or naturalist
should happen at any time to be in Norway when the
lemmings are migrating, many rare specimens of birds
will fall before his gun, if he keeps in the track of the
little creatures. It is said that the reindeer feeds on
the lemming during its migration, but becomes ema-
ciated when it does so.

THE LEMMINGS AND THE CAT. 81

In the spring of 1863, one of the periodical migra-
tions of the lemming from the north of Norway took
place. Many made their appearance in the neighbour-
hood of Christiania, but they were few, indeed, in
comparison with those that made their way over the
western fjelds to the coast. I was informed that such
incredible numbers perished on their journey in the
lakes and fjords, that the smell of their putrefying
bodies tainted the air, and that cartloads of them were
buried by the inhabitants, in order to prevent an epi-
demic. During the migration an amusing scene might
have been witnessed early one morning in a gentle-
man's garden in the environs of Christiania, — a cat
was up betimes, and was prowling about in search of
small birds. Coming to a retired corner of the garden,
Grimalkin suddenly stood still, arched her back, and
displayed unmistakable signs of anger, if not of fea.r.
A pair of live lemmings were the cause of this state
of things ; they were, evidently, animals unknown to
the cat. As soon as her astonishment and anger
abated a little, Puss made a sudden spring, and put an
end to the lemmings. She did not attempt, however,
to eat them, but quietly left the spot, and did not re-
turn to it again. Neither cats nor dogs will eat the
lemmings, although they will kill them.

The lemming is a fierce and pugnacious little crea-
ture. It attacks horses in Norwegian Lapland, and
travellers are often, in this way, put to considerable
inconvenience, for a horse thus attacked by several
lemmings, which jump up at and bite its legs, often
becomes ungovernable and runs away at a headlong
speed. WheD a human being comes across these di-
minutive creatures, they arch their little bodies, bristle

a

82 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

their long whiskers, twinkle their sharp little black
eyes, stand on their hind legs, and squeal shrilly, as if
they were about to contend in a savage combat. As a
proof of this combativeness, it is said that in the
summer of 1788, when a review of some cavalry regi-
ments was being held near Throndjem, the lemmings
made their appearance on the ground in great num-
bers, and as the soldiers gallopped about, the little
animals stood on their hind legs, and gave a great
squeal, as if they had been prepared to fight, if the
dragoons had dared to charge them. When the lem-
ming migrates, it goes straight forward, and nothing
impedes it. It climbs mountains, scrambles over, or
marches through houses, swims across rivers, lakes,
and fjords, and races down hills. It only travels by
night, and conceals itself by day, when it takes its
rest. Arrived at a broad river, lake, or fjord, it is
said that a number of the strongest form a bridge
across with their bodies, over which the weaker ones
pass.

The lemming feeds on grasses and their seeds, as
well as on tender plants that grow on the ground. It
sometimes does great damage to the crops, for it is ex-
tremely partial to young cereals, viz. wheat, rye, and
barley ; but very little injury is done, unless it takes
up its abode for a considerable time in any particular
locality.

Mr. Lloyd gives the following interesting account of
the destructive habits of this little animal, on the au-
thority of a Norwegian clergyman : — " During certain
years the lemmings at times make their appearance
here (west coast of Norway), as well as in all the
country round about, in inconceivable numbers. The

83

year 1827., more especially, they did an immensity of
injury, having arrived when the grain was still on the
ground. In 1834 they did less damage, because the
harvest was then for the most part housed. Their
ravages might almost be compared to those of the
Egyptian grasshopper. In 1827 people erected scaf-
folding, that the corn might be raised above the
ground ; but they, nevertheless, climbed up to the
sheaves, where they sat as thick as birds. What with
battles amongst themselves and with the cats, they
made such a noise near to the parsonage, that it was
difficult to sleep, and if the door was left open, they
entered the house itself. They never descend to the
valley until the grass on the fjelds is withered and
dried up ; and in the places overrun by them they so
gnaw the sward itself, that it is needful to send the
grass to the opposite side of the fjord to prevent other
animals dying of hunger. Before the winter sets in,
nine-tenths of them commonly swim out into the fjord
and perish ; but the residue remain during the whole
winter, and make for themselves numerous runs under
the snow, and so gnaw away the bark from the trees
and bushes, that in the spring a white ring is formed
near to their roots, from which injury they soon perish."
It is to be regretted that the lemming's skin is con-
sidered of no value in Norway. It is soft and warm,
and one would suppose that it could be turned to some
practical account. In the far north it certainly serves
the purpose of lining for birds' nests, and large owls
not only line their nests with the lemming's hair, but
strip off whole portions of the skin of the little animal
wherewith to keep up a comfortable degree of warmth for
their young when they come unfledged into the world.

G 2

84 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

Many singular superstitions prevailed in Norway
concerning the lemming, and do so still in certain
country places. Some of the ignorant peasants still
believe that the lemmings fall from the clouds, and an
ancient chronicler has left this statement behind him,
" Lcemings illis dicti sunt mures noxii segetibus, Nor-
wegis peculiar es, quos ccelo decidisse," etc.

Olaus Magnus described the lemming as a little
animal with four feet, and of " divers colours," which
fell from the air during tempests and heavy showers.
He also supposed that they were either brought during
great storms of wind from remote countries, or were
engendered of putrescent matter in the heavens. The
same quaint writer thought it very strange that when
the lemmings fell from the clouds to the earth, grass in
state of semi-digestion was found in their stomachs ;
but this ought to have been a convincing proof that
they had never left the earth at all. Olaus Magnus
further describes the lemmings as like locusts, destroy-
ing everything green before them, while their bite was
considered to be venomous. People who resided in
the neighbourhood of heaps of dead lemmings were
afflicted with giddiness and jaundice. Says Pont-
oppidan, " Of Norway's four-footed creatures, one de-
scription is found which belongs to the tribe of rats or
mice, and which some persons call lemming ; from
what we see of them, though, God be praised ! that is
not often, once or twice in twenty years, they increase
very fast. When they migrate they assemble in great
flocks of some thousands, like the host of God to exe-
cute His will, namely, to punish the inhabitants by the
destruction of the seed, corn, and grass ; for where this
flock goes forward they make a visible trace on the

AN EXORCISM. 85

ground, cutting off all that is green and what they can
overcome, which they do until they reach their ap-
pointed destination or limit, which is the ocean's water,
in which they swim about for a short time, and at
length drown/'

Pontoppidan has a word to say also about the falling
of the lemming from the clouds. " There remains one
thing doubtful, which is this, whether it is to be be-
lieved, according to common rumour, that the lemmings
do fall from the air. Wormius, Scaliger, and other
great men, do not think this impossible to be, as frogs
and other small creatures can in their embryo state be
drawn up into the clouds, and, being formed, at length
fall down ; cum igitur tot animalium genera in nubibus
generata pluviis,fide dignorum auctorum constet testi-
monies "

It is a fact interesting to naturalists that the lemming
when migrating a century ago, followed precisely the
same course that is adopted in these days. This is
proved by the concurrence of all naturalists in Norway.
Another fact worth mentioning is this, although the
migration of these little creatures is considered to por-
tend a bad harvest, the hunters expect good sport that
year with the lynx, fox, and glutton, for those animals
follow in pursuit of the lemmings.

So great a misfortune was the invasion of the lem-
mings considered in ancient times that a regular fast-
day, or bede-dag, was kept once a year to avert the
plague. The following is a copy of the exorcism pro-
nounced by the clergy in the churches throughout
Norway on those fast-days : — " Exorcizo vos pestiferos
vermes, mures, aves, sen locustas aut animalia alia per
Deum Patrem Omnipotentem, et Jesum Christum filium

86 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

ejus, et Spiritum Sanctum ab utroque procedentem, ut
confestim recedatis ab his campis, seu vineis, vel aquis,
nee amplius in eis habitatis, sed ad ea loca trans eatis in
quibus nemini nocere possitis, et ex parte Dei Omnipo-
tentisy et totius curice coelestis, et Ecclesice Sanctce Dei,
vos maledicens, quocunque ieritis sitis maledidi, de-
ficientes de die in diem et decrescentes quatenus reliquiae
de vobis nullo in loco inveniantur; quod prcestare dignetur
qui venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos et sceculum per
ignem. Amen. Oremus"

Various conjectures have been formed as to what
becomes of the lemmings when, after their migration,
they have arrived at the end of their wanderings.
Some persons suppose that when they arrive at the
seaside, they enter the water and, swimming out to
sea, are drowned. It is most likely that when they
come in sight of the sea, they get a glimpse of the
islands in the distance, off the Norwegian coast, and
swimming out to them, their strength fails them, and
they are drowned.

The lemming constructs a snug little nest of blades
of dry grass and bits of straw, which she lines with the
hair from her own body ; she brings forth five or six
young ones at a birth, and breeds several times in the
year. When migrating, she carries as many of her
offspring as she can in her mouth and on her back.

87

CHAPTEE XL

The Ermine in Norway. — Where Found. — Its Skin. — A Koyal Gift. —
Habits of the Ermine. — Its Nest. — Its Offspring. — An Ingenious Ex-
pedient.— Pugnacity of the Ermine. — The Ermine and the Bear. — A
Small but Dangerous Assailant. — The Ermine and the Eagle. — Me-
thod of capturing the Ermine in Norway. — Its Food. — Its Colour. —
Medicinal Virtues. — The North Cape. — Its Description. — French
Travellers in Norway. — A Singular Mistake.

THE ermine (Mustela erminea) is found in all parts of
Norway. It is one of the few quadrupeds that are to
be met with in Magero, near the North Cape. During
the winter months ermine-skins may be frequently pur-
chased in the Christiania market ; their cost is about
ninepence each. In winter the hair is much longer
and softer than in summer. Great numbers of these
skins are sold by the Norwegians to the Russians, who
sell them again at an exorbitant price to the Chinese,
as well as to the Turks. In ancient times ermine-skins
were held in great estimation, and were even considered
a gift worthy of royalty itself. When King Christian
I. of Denmark paid a visit to the court of Rome, he
took with him some of the most valuable productions
of his dominions, and among other things were some

88 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

ermine-skins which he presented to the Pope, who was
much pleased with them.

The ermine is called in Norway hermeUn, and also
rose-rat, or the rat dwelling in holes. The little crea-
ture is an excellent swimmer, and on the coast of Fin-
mark it frequently goes on a voyage of discovery to one
of the small islands adjacent to the mainland in search
of the eggs of the seafowl which are found in the
crevices of the rocks there. Sometimes the female
makes her nest under a heap of stones near the water
on one of these islands,, and brings forth her young
there. It is, in that case, a serious question with her
as to how she is to convey her offspring in safety over
to the mainland. " Necessity is the mother of inven-
tion," and the little ermine hits upon the following
ingenious expedient. Having hunted about until she
has found a piece of wood of as smooth a surface as
possible, she places her young ones upon it, and push-
ing this frail vessel gently into the water, she herself
swims carefully by its side, in fear and trepidation for
the safety of her charge, but, at the same time, with
implicit confidence in her own skill. Now and again
she gives a gentle push with her snout or fore-paw to
the tiny bark, until at length, wearied but not over-
come, she arrives at the distant shore, proud, as she
has reason to be, at the success of her efforts.

The ermine brings forth her first brood, which are
from three to five in number, by about the end of May;
she breeds two or three times in the year.

The ermine, although so small, is a fierce and pug-
nacious little creature, and will even attack human
beings when assailed; it is doubtful if it has ever
been tamed. It will certainly live in confinement, but

THE EKMINE AND THE BEAR. 89

must always be kept a close prisoner, while even then
it will bite the person that feeds it. It is said in Nor-
way to be so fierce that even the bear is afraid of it.
When the bear happens by chance to approach the
ermine's retreat, he meets with an unpleasantly warm
reception. His little antagonist rushes forth in quite
a storm of passion, its eyes sparkling with rage, and
springs at the bear's ear, where it hangs on, biting and
scratching with might and main. The bear expe-
riences a mixed feeling of astonishment and fear ; he
feels the pain, but is unable to rid himself of the tor-
mentor. The more he shakes his unwieldy head, the
closer clings the ermine, biting and scratching with
his sharp teeth and claws all the time. The bear is
ashamed at being vanquished by so contemptible a foe,
so he rushes away headlong, his head bent down, his
" eyes in a fine frenzy rolling/' stamping with his feet,
and howling with all his might, until at length, the
ermine working away at the unfortunate victim's ear
all the time, the bear becomes so exhausted with rage
and loss of blood, that he cannot see before him, but
falls over the nearest precipice in his course, and is
killed • the ermine, of course, leaps off the bear's ear
just in the nick of time, that is, when Bruin conies to
the edge of the precipice.

Sometimes the ermine meets with its fate in a singu-
lar manner. The little creature in its rambles falls in
with an eagle asleep, when it coolly springs on the
back of the king of birds, and works away rapidly with
teeth and claws. This, of course, awakens the eagle,
and feeling some disagreeable stinging thing on its
back, the noble bird soars aloft, the ermine still cling-
ing to it. Presently the eagle gives himself a shake,

90 THE NATUKAL1ST IN NORWAY.

when the ermine falls to the ground, and is killed. It
is customary to shoot the ermine with blunt arrows,
which cannot penetrate, and, therefore, do not injure
the skin. It is necessary that the little animal should
be struck on the head, and either stunned or slain, so
that the fur may not be damaged. It is also captured
in various kinds of traps ; but the most simple, and
that which is generally adopted in this country, is this :
two large flat stones are placed where it is known that
ermines have their runs. One stone is propped up
over the other by a piece of wood, to which an enticing
bait is attached by a string. The ermine seizes the
bait, the stick falls, the upper stone drops down on the
lower one, and squeezes the poor little creature to
death. The skin, of course, remains uninjured.

The ermine resembles the weasel in appearance, but
is rather larger in size. Its food consists of small
birds, their eggs, rats, mice, and leverets. In the
north, it feeds greedily on the lemming, and the eggs
of seafowl. Its colour in summer is rufous-brown on
the upper parts, and yellowish-white on the under sur-
face of the body ; it becomes white all over in winter,
but with a yellow tinge. The tip of the tail is always
black. It has wonderful powers of suction, and when
it attacks a leveret or a large rat, seizes them by the
throat, and sucks their blood. At certain seasons it
emits a strong odour of musk.

Some persons in Norway believe that a draught of
ermine' s blood, taken when warm, is a cure for epi-
lepsy, as well as for fainting-fits. A draught of the
warm blood is also supposed to invigorate an aged
person.

As the ermine, the hare, and the lemming are the

THE NOKTH CAPE. 91

only quadrupeds to be found in the neighbourhood of the
North Cape, a brief account of that dreary headland
may interest the reader. The North Cape is the high-
est promontory on the northern shore of Magero, or
the lean island, so called on account of its barrenness.
Magero is also the most northern of the Norwegian
islands. The North Cape is not, however, the most
northern point of Norway and of Europe. That dis-
tinction belongs to the Nordkyn, a low promontory,
lying some miles further to the east. But as the
Nordkyn is low, while the North Cape is 950 feet
above the level of the sea ; and as the Nordkyn does
not stretch so1 far north, the North Cape will always
be considered the most northern point.

The North Cape is not a Norwegian appellation, and
this designation was not given to it by the Norwe-
gians, but most likely by the English sailors, who
passed it on their way to Archangel.

The rock forming the North Cape is perfectly smooth
and level on the summit. The character of the scenery
around it is by no means enlivening, for it is desolation
personified. Huge, towering rocks ; constant tem-
pests ; mighty masses of snow and floating ice j swarms
of seabirds, which hover round the inhospitable shore,
or perch on the rocks with dismal cries ; the land
everywhere void of vegetation ; such are the objects
of this gloomy spot, which remind the spectator of
Cowper's lines : —

" O Solitude ! where are the charms

That sages have seen in thy face ?
Better dwell in the midst of alarms,
Than reign in this horrible place !"

It is an interesting fact, to be attributed to the in-

92 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

fluence of the Gulf Stream, that the sea in the vicinity
of the North Cape is never completely frozen. Pont-
oppidan makes mention of this fact. " It is a strange
circumstance/' says the Bishop, " namely, open waters
in the north, while in the south they are frozen."

A whimsical mistake was made some years ago by
some French travellers concerning the locality of the
North Cape. Having arrived afc a point of land on an
extensive lake in Swedish Lapland, they supposed they
had reached the North Cape, although they were then
between two and three hundred miles distant from it.
They determined, however, to erect a monument which
should inform succeeding generations that they had
visited the most northern point in Europe ; so they
erected a heap of stones on the summit of the hill by
the side of this Swedish lake, whereon they placed an
inscription, that France gave them birth; Africa, India,
and the whole of Europe had been seen by them, and
that now, having arrived at the " end of the world,"
they wished to announce the remarkable fact to all
future comers. The names of the travellers were mo-
destly given at the end of the inscription. I have been
informed that, on his return home, one of the travellers
published a minute account of his visit to the " end of
the world."

Besides the ermine, hare, and lemming, a few tame
reindeer are kept by some wandering Lapps on Ma-
gero. The latter must have a melancholy time of it,
for, on account of the constant roughness of the sea,
they are very seldom able to visit the mainland.

93

CHAPTEE XII.

The Tame Keindeer in Norway. — Eeindeer Flax. — A Lapp Lady. —
Reindeer Harness. — The Travelling Sledge. — Viciousness of the
Keindeer. — Food of the Tame Eeindeer. — Eeindeer Cheese. — Eein-
deer Dogs. — Superstitious Feelings of the Lapps. — Hospitality of
the Lapps. — Eeindeer Venison.— Mode of Slaughtering the Eeindeer
in Lapland. — Eich Lapps. — Food of the Lapps.

IT will not be out of place in a work like this to give
some account of the tame reindeer. It is true, those
interesting animals are not exactly savage ; at the same
time, it must be confessed that they live almost en-
tirely in a wild state. They wander at large on the
mountains in the north of Norway, and are only kept
in a semi-state of subjection.

The reindeer furnishes its master, the wandering
Lapp, or native of Norwegian Lapland, with food;
warm fur coats are made from its skin, as well as ex-
cellent leather ; spoons, forks, and other articles are
made from its horns ; while the only household gods
that the poor Lapp possesses are made from the bones,
sinews, or muscles of the same serviceable creature.
The reindeer also draws its master's sledge, and trans-
ports its master's worldly goods from one place to

94 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

another. The nerves and sinews of the animal are
dried, then they are softened by being steeped for
some days in water, when they are worked up and
made into an article resembling flax ; a substance as
fine as cotton, and much stronger, is manufactured
from this flax. The weaving apparatus looks like a
large white comb, and is made of the broad frontal
horns of the reindeer. The hide of the reindeer is
tanned, and makes strong and durable harness, boots,
and other articles.

A Lapp female of the higher class wears a case of
reindeer leather hanging from a girdle round her
waist, at one end of which is a leather thimble, as well
as a receptacle for needles, which last is covered with
a moveable sheath of brass. The girdle is of solid
silver, generally gilt, and is ornamented with engrav-
ings of roses, lilies, and forget-me-nots. This latter
article is really a very pretty work of art, and would
not be despised by some village coquette. There is
very little of the flirt, however, about the Lapp belle.
She is a plain, sensible woman, who has to take a
practical view of every-day life ; and she has, more-
over, to assist her husband in his daily labours. She
has to milk the reindeer, to turn the milk into cheese,
to cook the dinner for the family, and to see that
everything in the tent is kept in proper order and in
its place. She is at no times good-looking, and, as
old age grows upon her, she becomes positively ugly.

The reindeer harness is of leather, manufactured
from the hide of the animal. It is very strong, and is
ornamented with scarlet cloth; for the Lapp has a
mania for bright colours. The scarlet housings are
adorned with the hair of the deer dyed black for the

A LAPP COLONY. 95

purpose, and embroidered artistically ; tlie scarlet
and black colours form an agreeable contrast. In
speaking of the harness, we allude to the collar which
goes round the reindeer's neck, as well as the reins
which are fastened to it. The initials of the owner's
name are worked on this scarlet collar with black
thread. The reindeer is fastened to the sledge by a
single strap, so that it is harnessed in a moment, and
is then ready to start off on its journey. The travel-
ling sledge is called in the Lapp language raido-geris,
and is made of birch-wood ; it is pointed at the end,
runs on a kind of wide keel, and resembles a coffin in
shape. It travels with incredible swiftness over the
snow. Another sledge, but covered in at the top, and
still more like a coffin than the other, is used for con-
veying the baggage, such as the tent and cooking
utensils. When travelling, two circular boxes, in
shape like large tambourines, are slung across the
back of the reindeer that draws the second sledge, and
are employed in the conveyance of the smaller articles,
such as the drinking- cups, spoons, and other small
things.

When a colony of Lapps is moving from place to
place, their numerous sledges have a rather pretty
effect. This is especially the case when a number of
sledges, drawn by reindeer, are passing over a broad
sheet of frozen water. The sledges; the reindeer,
with their scarlet and black trappings ; the Lapps,
with their wives and children ; and the numbers of
dogs running at the top of their speed, — render the
sight a most novel and interesting one.

The tame reindeer is by no means of an amiable dis-
position. It is by nature vicious, and, when drawing

96 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

the sledge, the Lapp driver has but little control over
it ; it often becomes restive, stands suddenly still, and
kicks out behind. Then it will occasionally stop when
running at full speed, turn round, and coolly attack
its driver with its horns. In this predicament, the
Lapp turns the sledge completely over, and gets
underneath ; the reindeer then pokes away at the
sledge with its horns, but injures itself more than its
master. When the vicious brute has expended its
wrath in this manner, and ceases its attack on the
sledge, the Lapp quietly emerges, sets the sledge on
its keel again, seizes the reins once more, and con-
tinues his journey as if nothing unusual had happened.
If the reindeer is too quick in its attack, the Lapp has
to depend for safety on his thick fur coats, which can-
not be penetrated easily by the deer's horns, as, in
order to prevent accidents of the kind, they are filed
at their points. Like the wild reindeer, the tame spe-
cies has many enemies, and numbers fall victims to
the bear, the wolf, and the glutton. The tame rein-
deer is neither so bold nor so powerful an animal as
the wild, and when attacked by beasts of prey it makes
but little resistance. The tame reindeer feeds princi-
pally on various kinds of lichens, and is driven to the
fjelds in summer, to search for them. In winter, it
finds the same kind of food under the snow, when its
frontal horns are very useful in scraping away the
snow from the places where the lichens grow. When
out grazing on the fjelds, the reindeer are prevented
from wandering too far by men who are regularly em-
ployed to watch them, and who are assisted in their
labours by dogs. Some Lapps have as many as forty
dogs to keep the reindeer together, and to drive them

REINDEEE CHEESE. 97

home to be milked. These animals are as sagacious
as English sheep-dogs, and can distinguish their re-
spective charges by some instinctive recognition of
their faces. The Lapp is neither kind nor gentle to
his dogs, but keeps them in a state of semi-starvation ;
they have to depend for their food on the bones of
the reindeer that are thrown to them, or to the licking
out of the pots as they lie round the Lapp's tent. A
grim joke is extant in Norway, to the effect that the
Lapp is too lazy to clean his pots and pans, so he
keeps his dogs hungry to do it for him.

A reindeer cheese is a particularly nasty-looking ar-
ticle of food. It is flat and round like a huge muffin.
Its flavour is very little better than its look. It is
said that the oil extracted from a reindeer cheese by
holding it before a bright fire is, if applied to the
affected part, a sure and safe remedy for the cure of
frost-bite.

The Lapps are extremely superstitious, and all out-
ward signs are closely observed among them as omens
of good or evil fortune : the stars, the appearance of
the clouds, the rising of the moon, the flight of birds
in small or large numbers, the falling of the leaves in
autumn with unusual rustling, are eagerly scanned and
watched. It is considered very unlucky to spill milk ;
and if a stranger,, sojourning among the Lapps, should
do this, the little people will dance about, tear their
hair, grin diabolically, and not be satisfied until the
head of the family has covered the spilled milk with
earth, then scooped it up in his hand, and scattered it,
outside the tent, to the winds of heaven.

The Lapps are very hospitable to strangers, although
suspicious of them at first. They will give the passing

H

98 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

traveller the best of everything they have ; and a
small present of tobacco, or a little brandy, is cheer-
fully accepted as ample recompense. When residing
among them, the food is the most trying part of the
affair, for one soon tires of reindeer venison. Break-
fast among this primitive people consists of reindeer
milk, to which all help themselves out of the same pot,
and generally with the same spoon. The dinner con-
sists of reindeer venison and soup; at the supper,
reindeer cheese is served out. When the meal is
ready, the master of the household takes his place
near the huge copper pan in which the reindeer ve-
nison and soup are cooked ; the wife, children, and
servants range themselves in a row, waiting to begin.
The head of the family then gravely sticks his fork into
a piece of venison, drags it out, and begins to eat it.
The others do the same, and the only respect paid to
the master is this : when a servant hooks out a piece of
venison that is particularly fat and inviting, he puts it
into the pot again, giving his master a grin as he does
so, as much as to say, " That belongs by right to you,
0 master !" WTien this is done, the master gives a
grunt of satisfaction, and complacently sticks his fork
into the reserved morsel of venison.

Reindeer venison from the tame animal is juicy and
well-flavoured ; it is not held so much in esteem, how-
ever, as that from the wild. Eeindeer milk is ex-
tremely indigestible for those who are unaccustomed
to it.

The Lapps have a peculiar way of slaughtering their
tame reindeer ; a sharp knife is thrust into the back
of the animal's head, which divides the spinal marrow
from the brain, and an instantaneous death, without

THE FOOD OF THE LAPPS. 99

pain, is the result. Immediately the reindeer falls
down dead, the knife is thrust into the heart, and thus
the blood is found in the stomach.

Some Lapps are rich, and possess from one to two
thousand head of tame reindeer. I have heard of one
wealthy Lapp who is the owner of ten thousand rein-
deer. This individual differs in no respect from his
fellows ; he dresses in the same manner, leads the
same hard life of toil that they do, and bears no out-
ward signs of riches.

The food of the Lapps is nearly always the same.
Tea is quite unknown among them; sometimes, but
not often, they get inferior coffee, and occasionally
fladbrod, or flat barley-cakes. Keindeer venison and
soup are what they chiefly depend on for their subsis-
tence, as well as the milk of the animal. Sometimes
they catch and eat fish, especially salt-water fish, when
they are near the seacoast. They drink a great deal of
finkel, a very strong spirit, which almost takes away
the breath of those who taste it for the first time ; it
is distilled from corn or potatoes, and is flavoured with
caraway seeds. These little people appear to thrive,
however, on their peculiar diet, and live to a good old
age.

H 2

100

CHAPTEE XIII.

THE BIEDS OP NORWAY.

Notes on the Birds of Norway.— The Eagles.— The Hawks, etc.

LITTLE has been written concerning the birds of this
country. Pontoppidan published a rambling account
of some of the birds of his own land, but it is so gar-
nished with the marvellous, and the worthy bishop
was so credulous in believing the most improbable
stories, that little reliance can be placed in his remarks.
Nilsson, the eminent Swedish naturalist, has made
certain allusions to the birds of Norway in his f Scan-
dinavinsk Fauna/ but he wrote especially of Sweden,
and his remarks concerning the feathered tribes of
the sister country are " like angels' visits, few and far
between." Professor Kasch, of the University of
Christiania, has published a detailed list of Norwegian
birds, in a magazine that is published monthly at
Christiania, but it gives but a meagre account of the
habits, or anything else, of even the most rare birds of
his country. The fact is, literary men in Norway have
the will, but not the means, to publish scientific works.
Your true Norseman reads eagerly the works of Dan-
ish authors, he puzzles his brains over Shakespeare,

LITERARY MEN IN NORWAY. >\\ \ \ • l{) j;

he does not disdain to glance at French novels, he de-
vours all the works of German play-writers, but he
does not honour the prophets of his own country. If
a Norwegian literary man were to publish a work on
any scientific subject, it would come forth stillborn
from the press ; perhaps an exception should be made
in favour of the late Professor Munch, who published
many volumes on the history of Norway. His works
had a certain success, but not in comparison to the
learning and research displayed in them. It is sur-
prising that the learned men of Norway do not come
forward, as they ought, to relieve their country of the
deserved stigma of not encouraging literature, but so
it is. I once asked the most accomplished naturalist
in Norway what was the reason that he did not pub-
lish a work on the natural history of his own country.
" Because it would not pay," was his reply ; " my
countrymen would not buy it." — "But," I ventured
gently to inquire, " do you think such a work would
be useful ? Besides, there is the honour of the thing."
The learned Professor shrugged his shoulders, and
smiled ; he evidently considered me a man of a very
sentimental turn of mind.

The birds of prey of this country are very nume-
rous ; but as a certain sum of money is paid by the
foged, or sheriff of a district, for the head of every
eagle, hawk, or owl that is brought to him, an indis-
criminate slaughter of such birds is carried on by the
Norwegian peasants.

The various species of woodpeckers are common in
all parts of Norway where woods abound ; these
woods contain vast numbers of coleopteric insects on
which the " Picidse" feed.

NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

Many tropical birds visit Norway during the brief
but hot summer ; they confine themselves, however,
to the southern parts of this country. It is difficult
for travellers to purchase specimens of rare birds in
this country, for anything in the shape of fish, flesh,
or fowl, that comes into the possession of the Norwe-
gian peasant, finds its way into his capacious pot. He
is also naturally a man of a suspicious disposition, and
would rather make sure of a few pence for the head of
a hawk from the foged than reserve the bird for a
stranger's purchase. The song of birds is heard in all
parts of Norway during the summer months. Most
song-birds, however, migrate early to warmer climes.

The Norwegians have a benevolent custom of erect-
ing a sheaf of corn on a pole, during the severe
winter, for the special benefit of small birds ; this is
generally done late in the autumn, and is considered a
time of rejoicing. The children have a feast on the
occasion, and are thus taught early that they should
be kind to dumb creatures. In towns the sheaf of
corn is generally placed outside the windows of the
houses.

The classification of Nilsson is principally adopted
in the following notes on the ornithology of Norway.

The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). This noble
bird is found in different parts of Norway. It is often
seen in Norwegian Lapland. It returns to the same
eyrie year after year, haunting some large river, inland
lake, or the neighbourhood of some mighty waterfall.
Although it lays two eggs, it has seldom more than a
single eaglet, to whom the strictest attention is paid,
until it is able to leave the nest and shift for itself.
It changes the colour of its plumage in Norway, and

103

that to so great an extent, that Norwegian naturalists
have often mistaken the old birds for a distinct species.
The last authenticated instance of a golden eagle
carrying off a child took place in Thelemarken towards
the end of the last century. A poor Norwegian pea-
sant woman was washing her clothes near the door of
her cottage, her infant, a fine boy, being in a cradle
by her side, when an eagle stooped, and carried off the
child to its nest in an inaccessible cliff at no great
distance. Some days afterwards a Norwegian sailor,
who happened to visit the place, scaled the cliff, but
found nothing more than the bare bones of the child
in the eagle's nest.

The cinereous or sea-eagle (Aquila albicilla) may
be said to have its home on the north-west coast of
Norway. It is frequently seen in the neighbourhood
of Bergen, Throndjem, and Christiansund ; sometimes
it may be seen hovering over extensive inland lakes
and large rivers at no great distance from the sea-
coast. A Norwegian clergyman oncS^shot a fine young
bird of this species in Saeterdalen, more than fifty
miles inland, which had a fresh mackerel in its stomach.
Some years since a sea-eagle's nest was discovered by
an English traveller on the coast of Finmark ; the
peasants in the neighbourhood declared that the same
eyrie had been used by eagles for forty consecutive
years. The eagles had carried off several lambs and
kids the preceding summer, as food for their young.
The nest was . formed of twigs of the birch and moun-
tain-ash, and was lined with hay and feathers, among
which were some of the eider duck ; a half-fledged
eaglet was found in the nest.

The sea-eagle feeds almost entirely on fish, although

104 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

it does not disdain a lamb or kid, when storms render
its favourite food scarce. Sometimes, when this bird
pounces on a large fish, it catches itself by its claws,
and is carried under water and drowned. The skele-
ton of a sea-eagle was once found on the body of a
porpoise that was caught near Christiansund.

The valley of Sseterdalen, alluded to above, is thirty
miles in length, and is celebrated in Norway for the
primitive custom of its people. The winter here is
often so severe that it hinders the crops from being
gathered in, and frequently destroys them, when the
poor suffer great privation. It is in this district that
pine-bark is often ground with the barley-meal to eke
out the scanty provisions. The fact of the pine-bark
being thus used in seasons of distress, has caused a
statement to be circulated that some poor people in
Norway live on it instead of bread. This is a popular
error, for human life could not be sustained for any
length of time on the bark of the pine alone. The
destruction of the harvest in some parts of Sgeterdalen
has occasionally driven the starving people into the
neighbouring district of Thelemarken, where, so report
states,^ they have not always met with a welcome re-
ception. Perhaps this irruption happens too often to
be pleasant. The inhabitants of Saeterdalen are primi-
tive in their dress, manners, and language. Their dia-
lect is peculiar, and they speak a language much less
harsh than the ancient Norse, and which is said in
some respects to resemble English. The women wear
a singular garment, called a " tjeld," which is said to
be like a Scotch plaid, so that some even affirm that
they are of Scotch extraction. The peasantry live
among their high mountains, forgetting and forgotten

A CONTENTED PEOPLE. 105

by the world. They are a happy and contented race,
and have few cares, unless Providence afflicts them
with a scarcity. They are singularly dirty in their
habits, and never dream of the luxuries of life, so that
if the traveller wishes to see the fine scenery of the
country, he must make up his mind to rough it, and
should provide himself with almost everything that
the wayfarer requires for food in the wilderness.

Pine-knots are burnt instead of candles in this part,
the roots or lower parts of the pine being used, where
the combustible matter has settled. These pine-knots
are stuck into the wall, and give a brilliant light j but
they burn very quickly, and require, therefore, to be
frequently replaced. The peasants on the coast burn
oil, which they extract from the dolphin and other
oleaginous kinds of fish.

The osprey (Pandion haliaetos) is common in all
parts of Norway ; it is often seen near the North
Cape, and on the Yarangerfjord, in East Finmark. I
have frequently observed it on the fjord near Chris-
tiania. Its Norwegian name is fislt-drn, or fish-eagle.
It feeds entirely on fish, and, like the sea-eagle, it
often boldly attacks a large fish, which is more than
a match for it, when the hapless bird is overpowered
and drowned. Sometimes two osprey s attack the
same fish, when a battle royal takes place between
them for the possession of the prize. It nests in this
country on lofty pines.

The gyrfalcon (Falco gyrfalco) is common in Fin-
mark; its nest is often found on Magero, near the
North Cape. This fine bird was formerly very com-
mon in Iceland, whence great numbers were annually
sent to Copenhagen, for the use of the royal falconry

106 THE NATUEALIST IN NOEWAY.

there. In those days hawking was a royal pastime,
and men travelled throughout Sweden and Norway to
buy up all the young falcons. The old birds were
often purchased as well, and were trained with a little
extra trouble. The Gyrfalco candicans occasionally
finds its way to Finmark from Greenland. A beautiful
specimen of this variety which I have seen in Norway
has the whole plumage snow-white, evenly marked on
the back, wings, and tail, with pale cinnamon; the
legs, bill, and sere, brilliant yellow,

The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is common
in Nordland and Norwegian Lapland. It migrates late
in the autumn, when it is often seen in the neighbour-
hood of Christiania. In Norway this bird often builds
its nest on a lofty pine.

The Hobby (Falco subbuteo) is rather common in the
south of Norway. It avoids the extreme north, and is
never seen further up than Throndjem, and but seldom
there. Its Norwegian name is Icerkefalk, or lark-falcon.
Migrates.

The merlin (Falco cesalori) is to be met with in the
middle of summer only in the south of Norway. It
was formerly used in this country to hunt snipes, larks,
and other small birds. It is still trained in Egypt to
hunt quails. In England it usually nests on the
ground, but in Norway its nest is commonly built on
trees. It lays from three to five eggs of a ferruginous-
yellow colour, marked with dark brown spots. It mi-
grates from Norway in the middle of August.

The kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is common all over
this country except within the Polar Circle, where it is
never found. It is called here taarnfalk, or tower falcon,
because it nests in ancient ruins, or in towers. Migrates.

HAWKS IN NORWAY. 107

The sparrow-hawk (Falco nisus) is common in all
parts of Norway excepting the north of Finmark ; it
builds its nest in a lofty pine, and begins to sit in the
beginning of June. Only partially migrates.

The goshawk (Astur palumbarius). This noble
bird is common enough in the central and southern
parts of this country. It is often seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Christiania. Its partiality for chickens
causes it to be called in Norway honse-tyv, or hen-
thief. It generally builds its nest here in a spruce-fir,
and lays from three to four pale-blue eggs. Migrates.

The kite (Milvius vulgaris) is seen in the early
spring in the vicinity of Christiania. As the season
advances, it leaves for the west coast of Norway,
where it is said to feed on the refuse of dead herrings,
which lie about the sands on the seacoast. At that
time of the year the herring fishery is in full opera-
tion, and large quantities of the entrails of the herrings
are flung away by the fishermen. This bird migrates
early in October.

108

CHAPTER XIV.

The Buzzards.— The Owls.

THE common buzzard (Buteo vulgaris) ; common in
all parts of Norway. It nests here in a beech or
spruce-fir. It only partially migrates.

The rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) appears
to confine itself to the extreme north, being often seen
in the vicinity of the North Cape. It visits Chris tiania
in spring and autumn, on its passage to and return
from the far north. It breeds among the fjelds in
Fininark, and makes its nest on trees, or on the sum-
mits of large rocks. A nest of this species was once
found in this country on a lofty pine, and its materials
formed a bundle, three feet and a half in circumference.
This bird feeds greedily on the lemming, which it finds
among the northern fjelds.

The honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus) is a rare bird
in Norway. I have seen it near Christiama, and also
at Eidsvold, near Lake Mjosen, about forty English
miles from Christiania. Two half-fledged birds of this
species may be seen in the Zoological Museum at
Christiania. They were taken out of a nest in the be-

LAKE MJOSEN. 109

ginning of May, at a place a few English miles distant
from Christiania. Bids void, mentioned above, is the
place where the ancient " Thing," or Parliament, was
held. Here, also, in 1814 was drawn up the present
Norwegian " grund-lov/' or constitution, which has
worked very well up to the present time, and has given
to the hardy Norsemen more liberty than is enjoyed by
any other nation, the English only excepted. Near
Eidsvold flows the Vormen river, which connects Lake
Mjosen with the river Glommen. To Eidsvold-bakken
comes the timber from Hedemarken, Thoten, and
southern Gudbrandsdalen, whence it is now conveyed
from Eidsvold to Christiania by the railway, to be
stored and sent afterwards to other countries. At
Lille Strom mens, on this line of railway, is a station
for a junction line leading to Kongsvinger, celebrated
for its beautiful scenery. In its vicinity is a castle,
the scene of two engagements which occurred between
the Norwegians and Swedes in 1808 and 1814, when,
according to Norwegian accounts, the Swedes suffered
a defeat on both occasions. By a singular coincidence
the Swedes were commanded at both battles by the
same luckless general.

Lake Mjosen, the largest inland sea in Norway, is
situated in the neighbourhood of Eidsvold. It is about
sixty English miles in length by about seven in breadth.
It is said to resemble Lake Como in Italy. Good
grayling-fishing may be had at Minde and near Eids-
vold, at either end of the lake. There is also good
wildfowl shooting on some parts of the lake.

The hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) is frequently seen
in summer in Finmark ; when migrating in autumn
to warmer climes, it visits Christiania. " At a dis-

110 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

tance," says Nilsson, " the male of this species resem-
bles the common gull." It c'ertainly does so in flight
and colour, but not in shape. The ash-coloured harrier
(Circus cineraceus) is as scarce in Norway as it is in
England ; it has been seen, perhaps, twice or thrice
here. The marsh harrier (Circus rufus) is also a very
rare bird here. Two fine specimens, both killed in
Norway, may be seen in the Zoological Museum at
Christiania. They are rufous-brown in colour; the
tarsi and toes are yellow, tinged with green. The
" Strigidae " are more common in Norway than in any
other country in Europe. In fact, one or two species
appear to confine themselves especially to Norwegian
Lapland. It is not surprising that a people so super-
stitious as the Norwegian bonder, or peasants, should
have many marvellous stories to relate, and should
entertain many strange fancies, concerning the bird
which has been dedicated to Minerva. Thus it is said
in country districts here, that if a person hears the
hooting of an owl at night, he will soon be dead ; if
a person comes across an owl in the day-time, it is a
sign of very bad luck. On. this account the unfortu-
nate owl is sadly persecuted in this country ; and if one
of the larger species should be spied in the twilight,
sitting on an old tree or perched on a ruin, the super-
stitious Londe will run away as fast as his legs will
carry him, to tell his friends that he has seen some-
thing worse than a ghost.

The gray or Lapland owl (Strix Lapponica, Retz) . —
This beautiful owl is occasionally seen in all parts of
Norway, but its home is in Norwegian Lapland. It
resorts to the northern fjelds in summer, where it flies
high above the regions of perpetual snow, seeking its

THE LAPLAND OWL. Ill

prey by day as well as by night. It preys on lemmings
and rats. When the lemmings migrate, the gray owl
follows in pursuit of them, and specimens may then
be procured by naturalists in the south of Norway.
The ground colour of this handsome owl is gray,
marked on the back, wings, and under parts, with
brownish-black ; beak short ; irides bright yellow ;
the facial feathers are fine and soft, pale gray in colour,
and each feather is tipped with blackish-gray; its
length is at least two feet six inches.

A few years since, a bonde, walking through a wood
near Christiania, saw a Lapland owl perched on a tree.
The poor fellow was scared at the sight, and thinking
" discretion the better part of valour," he made off as
fast as possible ; meeting some companions, he de-
scribed to them the extraordinary monster he had just
beheld. Their curiosity getting the better of their
fears, they procured a rusty musket or two, and re-
pairing to the wood, killed the owl. It was afterwards
sold to a private gentleman at Christiania for a specie
dollar, but the keeper of the museum in the town
hearing of it, claimed the bird ; for it is illegal in Nor-
way to sell any rare bird to a private individual, it
must be placed in the public museum of the place.
This owl was kept for some time in the Zoological
Museum at Christiania; it is now to be seen in the
Royal Museum at Bergen. This rare owl is to be seen
in the British Museum. A Norwegian naturalist in-
forms me that he has seen a specimen in the museum
of a town in Norfolk ; I rather think it must be at
Lynn. An English traveller that I met in Norway
informed me that a specimen of the Lapland gray owl
was to be found in the museum at Oxford. I have
searched for it there in vain.

112 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

The snowy owl (Strix nyctea) is also common be-
yond the Polar Circle. It visits in summer the northern
fjelds. During very severe winters it comes south,
and has been seen in numbers near Christiania, Chris-
tiansand, and other towns. Mr. Lloyd states that he
once saw a number of snowy owls on the Hardanger
fjelds at noonday. It feeds principally on lemmings ;
but when they are scarce, it kills hares, rats, and
mice.

The eagle-owl (Strix bubo) is seen in the western
fjelds of Norway, near Christiania, and also in Fin-
mark. Its nest has been found close to Lake Mjosen.
A pair of owlets that I saw taken out of this nest were
the most singular-looking little creatures imaginable ;
they were covered with a rufous-brown down, which
was as long and as coarse as horsehair ; they were
about half the size of the adult bird, and had terribly
sharp claws. A pair of adult birds were shot near
Christiania some time since under rather singular cir-
cumstances. A boy, the son of a peasant, saw the
owls, but his gun was only charged with powder, and
he had no shot. " Necessity is," however, " the
mother of invention," and the lad's wits were, no
doubt, sharpened at the anticipated payment, penge-
stykke, he would receive from the foged for the heads
of the owls, so a handful of gravel did instead of lead,
and both the owls were killed. They are now in the
Zoological Museum at Christiania. A Norwegian
friend of the author kept a pair of young eagle-owls
for some time in confinement ; they were placed in a
darkened room, and were fed on raw meat, entrails of
fish, etc. They hissed and made a snapping noise
when any person approached them.

A NORWEGIAN PROVERB. 113

The tawny owl (Strix aluco). Common in most
parts of Norway, where it is called the kat-ugle, or
cat-owl. Pontoppidan speaking of it says, "This owl's
head is more like a cat's than a bird's. The female
lays two eggs, and if one changes them for hens' eggs
the owl will hatch the eggs, but will eat the young
ones as soon as she perceives they are not her own.
This owl fights with the cat, and they do not leave off
until one is killed, so that their rivalry is not abated
by their resembling each other. This circumstance
reminds me of the Norsk saying, " Frende er frende
vaarst," or, " Relations are the worst friends."

This owl in Norway frequents the shady recesses of
the forest, where it builds its nest on the highest pines.
Partially migrates.

The long-eared owl (Otus vulgaris, Fleming) is found
in all parts of this country, excepting in Nordland and
Finmark. It keeps to woods of deciduous trees, in
which it makes its nest, and often takes forcible pos-
session of the nests of the crow and wood-pigeon.
Partially migrates.

The short- eared owl (Strix brachyotus). Even more
common in Norway than the preceding species. In
summer it is found among the fjelds of Norwegian
Lapland, where it nests in the rushes on marshy ground.
Its cry is said to resemble the barking of a dog. Mi-
grates.

The Ural owl (S. Uralensis, Pallas) is only found
in Finmark or Norwegian Lapland. Its colour is white,
spangled on the back and wings with brown ; the
under surface of the body is white, pencilled very
evenly with pale brown ; tail white, barred with black-
ish-brown. Length twenty-five inches.

i

114 THE NATUEALIST IN NOKWAY.

The hawk owl (8. funerea) is seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Christiania in spring and autumn, no
doubt when it is migrating from the north.

The barn owl (8. flammea). This owl, so common
in England, has been supposed to be unknown in
Sweden and Norway. Mr. Lloyd states that it has no
right to a place among the birds of Scandinavia, " for
the single specimen seen, and on the strength of which
Nilsson has included it in his fauna, was not in reality
secured in the peninsula, but on the mast of a ship off
the coast." This owl is, no doubt, a rara avis in Nor-
way, but I have seen an adult bird, which was taken
out of a nest in the parish of Baerum, about seven
English miles from Christiania. An English friend in
Norway also informs me that he once captured a pair
of barn owls, male and female, near Lake Mjosen.

The sparrow owl (Noctua passerina}. This small
species is rather common in Norway, although it does
not venture within the Polar Circle. It is a most de-
termined and courageous little creature, especially
when it is considered that it is not more than five or
six inches in length. It is called here the spurv-ugle,
or sparrow owl. It preys constantly on small birds,
such as sparrows, greenfinches, etc., but occasionally
falls a victim to their combined attack. A number of
sparrows, chaffinches, and other small birds, will join
together and attack this diminutive owl ; union then
is strength, and the little owl succumbs to his nume-
rous foes. He dies game, however, and kills numbers
of his adversaries before he himself bites the dust.
This pigmy owl is pale brown, spotted with white on
the upper parts of the body ; the under surface is
nearly white ; eyes small, sharp, and piercing ; claws

115

long and very sharp. It feeds by day on small birds,
young rats, and mice.

Tengmalm's owl is occasionally seen in Norway, and
generally in Finmark during the summer months,
whence it migrates late in the autumn. Its colour is
pale brown, marked with pearl-like spots, on account
of which it is called in Sweden perl-uggla, or pearl owl.
Length about eight inches. It preys by night on rats,
mice, and Coleoptera.

i2

116

CHAPTEE XV.

The Woodpeckers.— The Cuckoo.— The Wryneck.— The Wren.— The
Crow.— The Jay.— The Nutcracker.— The Night-jar.— The Bohemian
Waxwing.— The Garrulous Koller.— The Swallow.— The Starling.—
The Shrike.

NOEWAY is a country of contrasts, and a stranger to its
wild and romantic scenery would hardly suppose that
its feathered tribes are so numerous. Here the natu-
ralist will find a constant source of instruction and
amusement. I once asked an eminent Norwegian na-
turalist to explain to me the reason why the " Picidae"
were so much more common in Norway than in Eng-
land. "Your inquiry is very easily answered/' was
the reply ; " your country is thickly populated ; it is
overrun with railways ; you make the most of your
land, and you have but few forests, in which those
birds which delight in silence and solitude can conceal
themselves. Again, the Coleoptera are very common
in our woods, and, as you are well aware, woodpeckers
are very partial to them ; while in England you clear
your woods, and beetles and such-like insects are
scarce, and so, consequently, are this species of birds."
"What number of Coleoptera do you think there

117

are in Norway ? — I mean, of course, the different
kinds of them/' I asked.

' ' Well, I can hardly answer that question correctly,"
was the learned professor's answer ; " I have so far
discovered no less than 1700 different kinds, but there
are a great many more, and I hope one day to be able
to classify them."

I hinted that I should like to get the list from him,
to publish it in England ; but Norwegian literary men
are very jealous of aiding the literary men of other
countries, and my Norwegian friend vouchsafed no en-
couragement to the gentle hint I gave him.

The great black woodpecker (Picus martins) is com-
mon among the hilly forests and woods of Norway.
The peasants have given it the name of Gertrud's-fugl,
or Gertrude's bird, connecting it with the following
legend : — Once upon a time, of course very long ago,
our Saviour called on an old woman who lived all alone
by herself in a little cottage in an extensive forest in
Norway. Her name was Gertrude, and she was a hard
avaricious old creature, who had not a kind word for
anybody ; and although she was not badly off in a
worldly point of view, she was too stingy and selfish to
assist the poor wayfarer who passed by chance her
cottage-door. One day, our blessed Lord happened to
come by that way, and, being hungry and thirsty, he
asked of Gertrude a morsel of bread to eat and a cup
of cold water to drink. But no ; the wicked old
woman refused, and turned our Saviour from the door
with revilings and curses. Our Lord stretched forth
his hand towards the aged crone, and, as a punish-
ment, she was immediately transformed into a black
woodpecker. The wicked old creature has ever since

118 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

wandered about the world in the shape of a bird, seek-
ing her daily food from wood to wood, and from tree
to tree. The red patch on the woodpecker's poll is
supposed to be typical of the red nightcap that Ger-
trude always wore on her head. The Norwegian pea-
sants are very much afraid of this bird, and give it a
wide berth if they come across it in the woods.

The green woodpecker (Picus viridis) is pretty com-
mon in Norway as far north as Nordland. When the
peasants hear the cry of the gronspet, as they call this
bird, they say it is a sign of coming rain; in fact,
they even declare that the green woodpecker foretells
the approach of rainy weather several days before it
comes.

The gray-headed green woodpecker (P. canus or P.
viridis Norwegicus), called in Norway lille gronspet, or
little green woodpecker. It is smaller in size than
the preceding species ; its head is gray tinged with
black, and with a red mark ; back green ; tail black ;
under parts gray. It is rather a rare bird in this
country, but is frequently seen in the environs of Chris-
tiania in autumn and winter.

The white-backed woodpecker (P. leuconotus), called
in Norway hvid-rygget, or white-backed. It is often
seen during the summer months in Hedemarken and
Gudbrandsdalen ; the contrast between the black, white,
and pink colours of this bird, give it a very pretty
appearance.

The great spotted woodpecker (P. major) is to be
found in Norwegian Lapland. It is said in Norway
that this bird opens the pine cones with its beak, to
get at the seeds ; the female sits very closely on her

THE CUCKOO IN NOB WAY. 119

The lesser-spotted woodpecker (P. minor) also fre-
quents Norwegian Lapland.

The three-toed woodpecker (P. tridactylus) is called
in Norway tretaaet, and is pretty common all over the
country. In summer it resorts to the woods of the
higher fjelds in the north, where it feeds on the spines
of the spruce-fir, on larvae, etc.

The cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) visits Norway by
about the beginning of May. It is even seen near the
North Cape, and up among the highest mountains of
the Dovre-fjeld, amidst the regions of perpetual snow ;
the old birds migrate about the end of July, but the
younger ones remain a month later. The Norwegian
name gjog, somewhat resembles the appellation "gowk,"
which this bird receives in country districts in England.

The wryneck (Junx torquilla) is pretty common in
all parts of Norway, even in Fin mark.

The kingfisher (Alcedo ispida) is sometimes met
with on the fjord, near Christiania, and by Arendal
and other towns on the south coast of Norway. It is,
however, very wild, and never comes within range.

The bee-eater (Merops apiaster) is only occasionally
seen in the south of Norway ; the same may be said of
the hoopoe (Upupa epops). The creeper (Certhia fa-
miliaris) is by no means common, and does not visit
the far north. The nuthatch (Sitta Europcea) is only
a rare visitor to Norway.

The wren (Troglodytes vulgaris). — This little creature
is common in Norway. In summer it is often seen in
Finmark. It does not migrate from this country in
winter, but leaves the north for the south. It is wel-
comed by the Norwegian peasants as a little friend,
and is familiarly called Tommy-round-the-house, for it

120 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

becomes very tame, and often hops inside the peasant's
cottage. The following story is related in Norway
concerning the wren : — " The birds once upon a time
assembled to elect a king, when, after a good deal of
discussion, it was decided that the bird that could fly
the highest should be the chosen sovereign of all.
The eagle, of course, winged the highest flight, and
claimed the sovereignty; when the little wren cried
out, ' Not so ; I stood on the eagle's head, and, there-
fore, as I ascended higher than he did, I am your
king/ The claim was allowed by the birds, and the
wren was duly elected ; but the eagle was so exas-
perated at the decision that he caught up the wren in
a rage, flew up high in the air with his pigmy rival
in his claws, and dropped him to the ground ! The
wren was more frightened than hurt, but he lost part
of his tail in the fall, and has ever since gone about
with only half of that necessary appendage. Moral : —
Proud and ambitious people sometimes meet with an
unexpected downfall."

The ' ' Corvidas " may be said to be common in Nor-
way.

The raven (Corvus corax) is to be seen in various
parts of this country, and is often to be met with in
Finmark. It destroys much feathered game here, such
as the tyerper, ryper, etc. In winter it visits the sea-
coast, and feeds on fish. It pairs while the snow is on
the ground, and makes its nest in lofty pines, where it
lays from three to five greenish-coloured eggs, marked
with brown spots.

The hooded crow (0. comix) is also common in
Norwegian Lapland, where it breeds. Its food there

THE MAGPIE IN NORWAY. 121

consists of mussels, which grow to an incredibly large
size. The severe climate of the north often makes
this bird cream- white in colour. The carrion-crow
(C. corone) has been once seen in Norway; the speci-
men was shot, and is now in the Zoological Museum
at Christiania.

The rook (G. frugilegus) is rarely to be met with
in Norway, and never north of Throndjem. It mi-
grates in October, and returns early in the spring, but
does not make its nest until the beginning of June.

The jackdaw (C. monedula) remains during the
summer in Norwegian Lapland. Speaking of this
species, Mr. Lloyd says, " More generally it breeds in
towers and old buildings, but in the far north, from the
want of such-like localities, it nests in the wilds of the
forest."

The magpie (Pica caudata) is common in all parts of
Norway. It is a special favourite among the peasants,
who would not harm it on any consideration. The
Lapps esteem it highly, and do their best to entice it
about their tents. During the long and wearisome
winter of Norway, the magpie is to the Norwegian
bonder what the redbreast is to the country people of
England. This bird is allowed to come into the pea-
sant's cottage; it is regularly fed, and if any mis-
chievous person were to molest it, he would bring
down a storm about his ears which he would not forget
in a hurry. In country districts here, the people put
hens' eggs under the magpie, and consider the chickens
hatched in such a way will be prolific layers. When
this is done, the magpie is carefully watched at hatch-
ing time, and the chickens are removed as soon as they
come out of their shells, otherwise the magpie would

122 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

devour them. White magpies are occasionally seen in
Norway, the effect, probably, of the severe climate.

The common jay (Corvus glandarius) is common
enough in the Norwegian woods, but does not venture
north of Throndjem. It makes its nest here in spruce-
firs.

The Siberian jay (Lanius infaustus). — This species
is common in Norwegian Lapland. It is sometimes
seen in the vicinity of Christiania, and in the woods
round Lake Mjosen. Swedish naturalists assert that it
preys on small birds, and on feathered game that is
caught in snares ; it is also partial to rats and mice,
and devours wild berries. It nests in a spruce-fir, and
begins to sit early in April; the young are fully
fledged by the beginning of June, and are then ob-
served busily seeking their own food, which consists
of insects and larvae. The head of this bird is dark
brown; throat and under parts, pale lavender; the
upper parts and lateral tail feathers are red brown ;
the central tail feathers are pale lavender. It is a
much more sprightly and neater bird than the common
jay, although smaller in size.

The nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), called in
Norway noddekraaken, is seen in summer in the pine
forests of the Bergen and Throndjem Stifts, or pro-
vinces. It comes to the woods round Christiania in
autumn, when it is seen in flocks, feeding on acorns
and beech-nuts; in winter it ferrets out nuts in the
snow, cracks their kernels, and even eats their shells.
Its powers of digestion must equal those of a Nor-
wegian peasant, who can eat and digest almost any-
thing.

The night-jar (Caprimulgus Europwus) visits Norway

A SWEDISH LEGEND. 123

by about the end of May, and migrates towards the
end of August. In summer it is common in Finmark.
Professor Rasch says that the flesh of this bird is
extremely savoury.

The Bohemian waxwing (Bowbycilla garrula) is com-
mon in Lapland or Finmark during the summer months.
It does not appear to migrate, for I have frequently
seen it near Christiania in the middle of winter ; during
that inclement season, however, it no doubt leaves the
north of Norway for the south. A friend of mine at
Christiania kept a bird of this species for a long time
in confinement, for the sake of its beautiful plumage ;
its note was monotonous and uninteresting, and its
habits were dirty. During the Norwegian winter this
bird feeds entirely on wild berries.

The (< Hirundmida3 " are common in all parts of Nor-
way. The peasants are superstitious concerning them,
and would not allow a swallow's nest to be destroyed
on any account. Mr. Lloyd relates the following
Swedish legend concerning the swallow : — "When our
Saviour was crucified, a little bird came and perched
upon the cross, peered sorrowfully down upon the suf-
ferer, and twitted, ' Hug svala, svala, svala, Honom,'
that is, ' Console, console, console Him/ and hence it
obtained the name of svala"

Many people in Sweden and Norway believe that the
swallow hibernates instead of migrating. Pontoppidan
asserts that hundreds of swallows were found amongst
rushes in Norwegian lakes, in a semi-frozen state, and
that when brought into a warm room they revived.

The sand-martin (Hirundo riparia) is very common
on the banks of the Thana, a river which forms the
boundary between Swedish and Norwegian Lapland.

124 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The Swift is seen flying above the regions of perpetual
snow in the fjelds, hence it is called \LQYQ fjeld-svala, or
mountain-swallow. The common swallow is very
abundantly found in all parts of Norway, and even in
the Loffoden Islands; the martin is also as common.
Albino specimens of this species are often to be met
with here.

The starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is common on the
west coast of Norway. Albino specimens of this -bird
are rather common here.

The shrikes are not common in Norway, although
they have been seen more frequently during the last
few years. The Eussians tame the great butcher-bird
(Lanius excubitor), and keep it in a cage. The red-
backed shrike (Lanius collurio) is only to be met with
occasionally in the central and southern parts of Nor-
way.

125

CHAPTEE XYI.

The Song-birds of Norway.— The Wagtails.— The Titmice.— The Larks.
—The Pipits.

THE " Sylviadse," by which birds of sylvan habits and
warblers are meant, are common in various parts of
Norway ; several of them are found during the summer
months in Lapland. The song of birds is an unusually
pleasant sound in this land of solitudes ; and during
the short Norwegian summer, when the sun does not
set beneath the horizon, the birds appear to sing all
the night through ; the note of all singing-birds in
this country, however, does not seem to be so sweet
as in more southern climes. It may be added, that
the song of birds is not heard here until very late in
the spring, and very little in the autumn. The fact is,
that nearly all the warblers migrate from Norway to-
wards the end of August or very early in September.
The northern nightingale (Sylvia lusdnia, Nilsson)
arrives in the neighbourhood of Christiania in the
middle of May, and migrates in the beginning of
September ; its Norwegian name is nordlig natter gall,
or northern nightingale. It appears to be a different
bird from the nightingale (Philomela lusdnia] that

126 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

visits England. The following is Nilsson's description
of the northern nightingale' s song : —

" Tjun, tjun, tjun, tjun

Spi tui zqua

Tjo tjo tjo tjo tj5 tjo tjo tix ;
Qutio qutio qutio qutio
Zquo zquo zquo zquo
Tzy tzy tzy tzy tzy tzy tzy, tzy, tzy, tzi,
Quorrov tui zqua pipiquisi."

The northern nightingale rests in bushy thickets
near the water, and lays from four to five yellow-brown
eggs.

The blue -throated warbler (Sylvia Suecica). — This
beautiful little bird is commonly found in summer in
Nordland and Finmark, also in the Throndjem Amt,
and in the Dovre-fjeld. It breeds in the far north.
The throat and breast are metallic blue in colour, with
a patch of bright red-brown on the latter. It makes
its nest in bushes near the water, and sits in June on
four or five pale green eggs.

The white-throat (S. cinerea) and the lesser white-
throat (Curruca sylviella] are pretty common in cen-
tral and southern Norway ; they neither of them
venture north of Throndjem. The latter species is
called ntolleren, or the miller, in this country, from its
incessant klapp, Tdapp, which resembles the noise made
by the little mill that is placed in cherry-trees to scare
away birds.

The garden warbler (Sylvia hortensis) is called in
Norway havesanger, or garden songster. It is found
in all parts of the country, and its sweet note is often
heard in the most dreary parts of Norwegian Lapland.

The black-cap (Motacilla atricapilla) is also com-

THE EOBIN IN NORWAY. 127

mon, and is dignified by being called munlten, or the
monk. It migrates from Finmark towards the end of
August. The same may be said of the whinchat
(Saxicola rubetra), and of the wheat-ear (Saxicola
oenanthe) . The latter is seen in the Dovre-fjeld, wing-
ing its flight, and singing above the regions of perpe-
tual snow.

The robin (Motacilla rubecula) is common in Norway,
but is seldom seen within the Polar Circle. It arrives
in this country in the beginning of April, and migrates
in the middle of September. Some few of the species
are said to remain in Norway throughout the winter.

The redstart (Lusciola phoenicura) visits Norwegian
Lapland ; I once found its nest in an old garden wall
near Christiania. It is called in Norway rodstjcert} or
red- tail.

The wood warbler (Sylvia sibilatrix) is pretty com-
mon in this country, but does not venture within the
Polar Circle.

The willow warbler (8. trochilus) is common every-
where, even in Finmark. The chiffchaff (8. Tiippo-
lais) is also to be met with in Finmark. The sedge-
warbler (Salicaria phragmitis) is also common in
Finmark ; but the reed- warbler (Sylvia arundinacea)
does not venture within the Polar Circle, although it is
common in other parts of the country. The hedge-
sparrow (Accentor modularis) is common in Norway,
even in Norwegian Lapland. It arrives in this coun-
try as early as March, and migrates as late as the end
of November. The Alpine accentor (A. Alpinus) does
not visit Norway at all.

The gold-crested wren (Regulus cristatus) is called
in Norway the " Bird-king," no doubt from its golden

128 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

crest. Its favourite resort here is the thickest part of
the pine forests, and it is to be found wherever the
pine grows ; it has been seen near Christiania early
in February. The fire-crested regulus (Regulus igni-
capillus) has been seen once or twice in Norway.

The "Merulidae" are pretty common in all parts of
Norway.

The missel thrush (Turdus viscivorus) is occasionally
seen in Finmark, and also in the Dovre-fjeld. Its
Norwegian name is due-trost, or dove-thrush. It fre-
quents the mountain forests here, where it finds an
abundance of caterpillars, small grasshoppers, beetles,
et hoc genus omne. In winter its food consists of wild
berries, as the berries of the mountain-ash, and espe-
cially of the juniper. It makes its nest in pines.

The common thrush (T. musicus) is about as com-
mon in this country as the preceding. In Norway
there is no darkness at all during the months of June,
July, and August, when the song-thrush is heard sing-
ing throughout the night. This bird is sometimes
called the Norsk nightingale here.

The redwing (T. iliacus) passes the summer in Fin-
mark. In spring it is seen in flocks in the neigh-
bourhood of Christiania, on its way to the north, and
it is equally common in the same locality in the au-
tumn, on its return when migrating. Albino speci-
mens of this species are common in Norway. It ge-
nerally makes its nest here in a birch.

The fieldfare (T. pilaris) is common in all parts,
and is seen on Magero, close to the North Cape. It
makes its nest in a birch or spruce-fir, and begins to
sit in June. Mr. Lloyd relates the following amusing
story of a fieldfare : — " This bird is sometimes domes-

AN INTEMPERATE BIRD. 129

ticated in Scandinavia. Linnaeus makes mention of
one belonging to a publican in Stockholm that was al-
lowed its full liberty, and was accustomed to sip wine
out of the glasses of the guests, an indulgence that at
length caused it to become quite bald. When at an
after period, however, the great naturalist goes on to
tell us, the bird was confined to a cage, and debarred
access to wine, its poll was soon again replenished
with feathers \"

The ring-ouzel (Turdus torquatus) visits Norwegian
Lapland.

The blackbird (T. merula) is common here, but
does not venture within the Polar Circle. In summer
it sings in this country throughout the night.

The common dipper (Cinclus aquaticus) is common
in the north of Norway, from whence it does not mi-
grate. It breeds on the banks of the Thana river, in
East Finmark. Its Norse name \sfosse-ltonge, or king
of the waterfall.

The " Motacillidse" are pretty common in this
country.

The white wagtail (Motacilla alba) is found every-
where here, even in East Finmark. In the early
spring it is common in Christiania and the vicinity;
in the streets, as well as in the open country, almost
close to the feet of passengers, especially after rain,
when it hops about, picking up the small insects
which have been beaten down by the passing showers.
It is also common on the quays, and round the ram-
parts of Agershus Castle, a fortress which protects
Christiania on the side of the fjord.

The gray-headed wagtail (If. neglecta) is almost as

130 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

common in Norway as the preceding. Its favourite
resort in summer appears to be by the sides of lakes
in the fjelds.

The tomtits are common in all parts of Norway, and
several of the species are to be found in Norwegian
Lapland.

The great titmouse (Parus major) is called in Nor-
way the 'kjod-meise, or meat-tit ; for it is so fond of meat
that it hops about the door of the peasant's cottage,
watching for an opportunity of getting into the pantry,
spiis-kammer. It is frequently caught alive in a trap,
like a mouse, which is placed near the aforesaid pantry
for the purpose, and is baited with a bit of meat.

The cole titmouse (P. ater) is seen during the sum-
mer months in Finmark. It visits the neighbour-
hood of Christiania in winter, in the company of the
golden-crested wren.

The crested titmouse (P. cristatus) is called in
Norway the top-meise, or top-knot tit. It remains in
the pine woods. It comes to the neighbourhood of
Christiania in autumn, where it takes up its winter
quarters. It nests in the hole of a pine, and lays from
eight to ten white eggs, spotted with red.

The Siberian titmouse (P. Sibiricus) keeps to
Norwegian Lapland in summer ; in October it comes
down to the central parts, and is then to be met with
in Gudbrandsdal, Hallingdal, and Hedmarken. This
species is very tame, and fearlessly comes close to
human beings ; it nests in the hole of a pine, and lays
nine white eggs, marked with pale red spots. Halling-
dal is one of Norway 's most celebrated valleys. The
peasantry of the district are peculiar in their habits ;
they are partial to dancing and fighting, two very

ECCENTRIC NORWEGIANS. 131

dissimilar amusements, but a taste for which is no
doubt induced by strong animal spirits. The men are
so nimble of foot, that when they dance the " Hailing/'
they pirouette, give a sudden leap, and touch the ceil-
ing with the right foot. When under the influence of
drink, they gravely enter into amicable encounters,
shake hands before commencing, after the manner of
English pugilists, then draw their short knives
(tolkniv), and cut and slash at each other in all direc-
tions ; much wholesome blood-letting takes place, but
a tragical termination of the affair seldom occurs.
The traveller who has sufficient leisure on his hands
will find a short stay in this district interesting ; it is
about one hundred English miles from Christiania.

The marsh titmouse (P. palustris) is not so com-
mon as some other species ; it is, however, sparsely
seen in Einmark. Albino specimens of this kind are
often to be found in Norway.

The long-tailed titmouse (P. caudatus). — This
pretty and graceful little bird is common in Norway,
although it is said not to venture further north than
Throndjem; it nests in the branches of trees, and
surrounds the nest with the lichens which abound in
this country. The bright and varied colours of the
lichens, with the extraordinary size of the nest for so
small a bird, fixed, as it is, to the branches of the tree,
make it a pretty and remarkable little structure ; it is
wonderful, too, how the bird manages its long tail
when it sits on its eggs. Nature is, however, ever
kind to birds, and gives them ways and means where-
with we are unacquainted. This interesting little tit
lays from twelve to fifteen white eggs, dotted with
minute red spots.

K 2

132 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

The blue titmouse (P. cceruleus) is rather scarce in
Norway, and is not found at all in Norwegian Lap-
land.

The larks are, perhaps, rather more common in cer-
tain localities here than they are in England. The
skylark (Alauda arvensis) is found in Norwegian Lap-
land ; it arrives in the south of Sweden as early as the
beginning of January. I have seen a variety of this
species in Norway which was black, tinged with red-
brown. The crested lark (A. cristata of Linnaeus)
has been seen once or twice in Norway. The wood
lark (A. arbor ea), called in this country skov-lcerke,
is only found in the central parts ; it is rarely
observed near Chris tiania. The shore lark (A.
alpestris) is common in Finmark. A Norwegian natu-
ralist informs me that it is seen in large numbers in
the neighbourhood of Vadso, east Finmark. It packs
in the early autumn, and flocks of forty or fifty fly
about together. It nests on the coast, selecting mossy
places, and fits the nest so closely into the moss that
it is not easily discovered. The eggs are four or five
in number, and of a grayish colour, marked with blue
and brown spots.

The pipits are rather more common in this country
than they are in England.

The tree pipit (Anthus arboreus) is found in all
woody districts in Norway ; it is often seen near
Tromso, the principal town of Finmark.

The meadow pipit (A. pratensis) is found in sum-
mer among the fjelds of Finmark; it is very com-
mon near Christiania in spring and autumn. It arrives
in May and migrates in October.

The rock pipit (A. rupestris) is common on the

A USEFUL BIRD. 133

banks of all the Norwegian fjords ; it is a summer
visitor to the North Cape and East Finmark.

Nilsson says that this bird is considered extremely
useful by the fishermen of Sweden, as, when the water
on the coast is low, it proceeds to the bare rocks, and
destroys large numbers of small crabs (Cancer pulex),
which are so injurious to the fishing-nets that they
render them useless in a single night.

Richard's pipit (Anthus Richardi). — For the infor-
mation of travelling naturalists, I may mention that a
specimen of this species, shot near Frederickshald in
Norway, may be seen in the Zoological Museum at
Christiania.

134

CHAPTER XYI1.

The Buntings. — The Finches.— The Crossbills. — The Pigeons.

Two or three species of bunting are common in this
country, but are seldom seen in England.

The snow bunting is subject to varieties in colour,
according to the season of the year. The Lapland
bunting is common in Norway. The snow bunting
(Emberiza nivalis) is common during the summer
months in the northern fjelds of Norway. It is seen
above the regions of perpetual snow ; is called here
the snespurv, or snow sparrow; it has its winter
plumage in this country from October to March. The
summer plumage of a bird shot in the Dovre-fjeld is
snow-white, except the back, which is black ; the
contrast between the two colours gives the bird a re-
markable appearance, and the separation of the black
and white is as evenly marked as if it had been done
with a compass. In the middle of winter there is a
considerable tinge of red-brown on various parts of
the plumage. It breeds among the highest fjelds, and
makes its nest on the ground, in a place where there
are stones lying about ; it begins to sit towards the

THE LAPLAND BUNTING. 135

end of May on five eggs, which are white in colour,
marked towards the larger ends with brown and gray
spots.

The Lapland bunting (E. Lapponica) is called the
Laplandsk-spurv , or Lapland sparrow, in Norway ;
its colours are black, brown, and white, and across the
nape of the neck, reaching round the breast, is a broad
mark of brilliant red -brown. It migrates in the au-
tumn, when it is said that it does not pass through
Norway, but from Norwegian into Swedish Lapland,
thence through Finland to the south of Russia. It
breeds in the fjelds of Finmark, where it nests by a
tuft of coarse grass, and on marshy ground; it lays
five eggs, which are of a washy-yellow colour, marked
with faint olive-brown spots.

The reed bunting (E. schceniclus) is called in Norway
the sivspurv, or rush sparrow ; it breeds in the northern
fjelds on marshy ground, and in the vicinity of willow
and birch ; it nests among willows or bulrushes, and
lays from four to five eggs of a pale red-brown colour,
marked with purple-brown spots and streaks. The
male bird sits on the eggs in his turn, and Swedish
naturalists assert that the male always arrives in Scan-
dinavia a fortnight before the female.

The common bunting (E. miliaria) is common in
the south of Norway, where it remains throughout the
winter ; varieties of this species have been seen in
Norway, white or white tinged with brown.

The ortolan bunting (E. hortulana) is common in
the neighbourhood of Christiania from May to Sep-
tember, when it migrates.

The yellow-hammer (E. citrinella) is common in all
parts of Norway, even in Norwegian Lapland. Does

136 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

not migrate. It lays five eggs, which are marked all
over with black lines.

The Lesbian bunting (Bruant mitilene, Temminck)
has been seen in Finmark, but only occasionally.

The " Fringillidae " are common in all parts of Nor-
way, in the north as well as in the south.

The chaffinch (Fringilla ccelebs) is found in the cen-
tral and southern parts of this country. In autumn it
assembles in flocks in the neighbourhood of Christiania,
and then migrates.

The lesser redpole (F. linaria) is called in Norway
the rodkop, and is common in summer in Norwegian
Lapland ; it is also said to be common in the western
fjelds. During mild winters it is seen in flocks in the
neighbourhood of Christiania. The mealy redpole of
Yarrell is very rarely seen in Norway. A bird of this
species was shot near Christiania, November llth,
1862.

The siskin (F. spinus) is found as far north as Nord-
land ; it breeds in the forests, and nests in spruce-firs ;
lays six eggs, which are grayish-white, marked with
red-brown spots. It does not migrate.

The goldfinch (F. carduelis) is not so common here
as some of the other finches ; does not visit Norwe-
gian Lapland. It generally nests in this country in a
spruce-fir, and conceals its nest so craftily that it is not
easily discovered.

The common linnet (F. cannabina) is common in all
parts of Norway, except in Finmark. It remains
throughout mild winters in the south. The male bird
loses the red tinge during the winter.

The mountain linnet (F. flavirostris) visits Finmark

A THOUGHTFUL PROVISION. 137

in summer, and comes to the neighbourhood of
Christiania in autumn, where it takes up its winter
quarters.

The brambling (F. montifringilla) is called in Nor-
way the tyerg-fink, or mountain finch ; it is very
common during the summer months in the fjelds of
Norwegian Lapland. Migrates.

The greenfinch (F. clitoris) also breeds in Finmark.
It only partially migrates.

The -house sparrow (F. domestica) is as common in
Norway as it is in England. In the streets of the
towns, on the house-tops, along the quays of seaports,
this familiar bird is to be met with ; and even hopping
about the Lapp's tent, which is pitched in one place
to-day to be removed to another to-morrow. Sparrows
congregate in all parts of the country, unmindful of
the cold, and seem to be ubiquitous ; in winter they
depend almost entirely for their subsistence in this
country on the sheaf of corn which is fixed to the top
of a pole, and is erected near the homestead in coun-
try districts. Tidemand, the well-known Norwegian
artist, has represented this scene in one of his pictures.
It is Christmas-time, and the ground is covered with
snow, which is deep and frozen hard. A group of
peasants have gathered round the pole, with the sheaf
of corn attached to it; the chubby peasant children,
rosy in looks and strong in frame, have cakes in their
hands, and are entering into the spirit of the scene
with great glee. Sparrows and other small birds are
flying about, ready to make a descent on the pole when
the human creatures have departed.

The hedge sparrow is not so common in this country
as the house sparrow ; it does not visit the far north,

138 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

Albino varieties are often seen here, wholly or partially
white.

The bullfinch (Pyrrhula vulgaris) is common in the
woods round Christiania during the autumn and winter.
In summer it keeps to the mountain wilds, but is said
not to visit the extreme north. I have frequently seen
varieties of this species here, called in Norsk sort-
varietet, or black variety. They are soot-black in
colour, tinged with red-brown. As these varieties are
always procured in winter, the peculiar colour is, per-
haps, caused by extreme cold. The bullfinch receives
the name of dom-pap here. This appellation signifies
a canon of the cathedral (domMrke), so called in
Popish times for his melodious song, stemme, which
resembled the voices of the canons as they chanted
the " horas canonicas." In Norway the bullfinch is
captured by means of horsehair snares, inside of
which mountain-ash berries are placed, and when the
bird inserts his head to get at the bait, the hair tightens
round its neck, and it becomes a prisoner.

The hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris) is common
on the S.W. coast of Norway, where it feeds on the
kernels of the wild cherries which grow abundantly on
that coast. Large quantities of cherry-brandy (kirse-
bcer-brcpndeviin) are made there. The hawfinch opens
the cherry-stones, Mrsebcer-steen, with its strong beak,
and eats the contents. It is called in Norway the
kirsebcer-fugl, or cherry bird, and in Sweden the
sten-knock, or stone-breaker. It nests in a tree or
under a bush in a pine wood ; the nest is made of
twigs and lichens, and contains six eggs, which are a
pale olive-green, dotted with black, and streaked with
dusky-gray.

YOUNG CEOSSBILLS IN NORWAY. 139

The pine grosbeak (Pyrrhula enucleator) is found in
the north of Norway. It is erratic in its habits, and
is much more plentiful during some seasons than at
others. It is a beautiful songster, and is easily tamed.
It is called in Sweden tallbit, or fir-biter, and in
Norway fjeld-dompap, or mountain bullfinch ; it feeds
on the seeds in the fir cones, which it opens with its
strong beak ; it keeps to pine woods, where it nests in
a spruce-fir, at no distance from the ground ; it lays
three or four pale green eggs, marked with brown and
gray spots.

The parrot crossbill (Loxia pityopsittacus) is pretty
common in Norway, especially in the central and
northern parts. It feeds on the seeds of the pine-
cones, and on beech-nuts, etc. In winter it subsists
almost entirely on the berries of the mountain-ash,
which is very common in woods of deciduous trees in
Norway. This bird is, also, uncertain in its habits,
sometimes building its nest and sitting on its eggs as
early as February, sometimes much later. The nest is
generally made in a spruce-fir, and contains three or
four eggs of a dirty-white colour, marked with brown
spots. Mr. Lloyd gives the following account of the
young of this species : — " When the young leave the
nest they follow the mother, who feeds them ; but at
this period the male deserts the family ; one never
sees him in the company of a female that has newly-
fledged young. When these accompany the mother,
they keep up a terrible noise, screech most unmerci-
fully, and flutter with their wings. When feeding the
young, the female commonly allows the cone to fall on
the ground, the young follow her to the cone, out of
which she plucks the seeds and gives them, whilst

140 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

they, gaping and screeching, surround her on all sides."
The Norwegian name of this species is stor korsnceb,
or great crossbill.

The common crossbill (L. curvirostra) is called in
this country mindre korsnceb, or lesser crossbill, and is
not so common here as the preceding species. Its
habits are very similar. It lays four grayish- white eggs,
marked on different places with red and brown spots.

The white-winged crossbill (L. bifasciata, Nilsson).
— This bird is but little known to Norwegian natural-
ists, and is but an occasional visitor to this country.
The first known specimen in Sweden was shot near
Stockholm in 1792, and may be seen in the Zoological
Museum of that city ; one was shot near Christiania
in the autumn of 1840. The habits of this bird are
very similar to that of the other crossbills ; it is very
uncertain in its ways, and does not generally stay long
in one place; it remains almost always in the pine-
woods, and is very tame ; when the snow is on the
ground, it will even let itself be captured by the hand.
It builds its nest among the inner branches of a spruce-
fir, and lays five eggs, which are white, spotted with
yellow.

Of the " Columbidae," the wood pigeon is the only
species that is at all common in this country.

The wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) does not ven-
ture further north than the Nordre Throndjem Amt ;
it is common in Gudbrandsdalen, Hedemarken, and
Hallingdal. It arrives in the south of Norway in the
beginning of April, and migrates towards the end of
September ; its Norwegian name is ringduen, or ring-
dove ; it makes its nest in this country on fir-trees.

PIGEONS IN NORWAY. 141

The stock dove (G. cenas) is by no means so common
as the preceding. It does not venture further north
than the Sondre Throndjem Amt. It nests here in
the holes of trees, and arrives by the end of March,,
migrating in September. The young birds are fully
fledged by the beginning of June. Called here blaa-
duen, or blue-dove.

The rock dove (G. livia) is supposed, and with every
appearance of reason to be the origin of the domestic
pigeon so commonly used nowadays at pigeon matches,
under the name of " blue rock." Its breeding ground
in this country is on the islands off the S.W. coast,
near Stavanger, viz. Kenneso, Omo, Mostero, etc. ;
there it makes its nest on the rocks and in the sides of
the cliffs, and, occasionally, stray birds find their way
over to the mainland. Its Norwegian name is Mippe-
duen, or rock- dove.

The turtle dove (G. turtur) is a very rare visitor to
either Sweden or Norway. The first known specimen
was shot at Malmo in Sweden, in 1813 ; another was
shot near the same place, October 16th, 1847, and may
be seen in the Zoological Museum at Lund ; another
has been shot at Quickjock, in Swedish Lapland.
Only one specimen has been observed in Norway, and
that is now in the Zoological Museum at Christiania.

142

CHAPTER XVIII.

The Feathered Game of Norway.

THE " Tetraonidse," with the exception of the red
grouse, so common in Great Britain, are found in
most parts of Norway. The word f< sport," however,
as it is understood in England, is inapplicable to this
country. There is not much shooting here, and the
sportsman considers himself fortunate when he bags
his ten or fifteen brace of birds in a single day. He
will have to go far, and fare roughly before he even
succeeds in doing that ; but the healthy exercise and
fine mountain air to be had in Norway are so invigo-
rating to the constitution that no true sportsman will
regret the time, trouble, and expense, which a sojourn
in this country has cost him.

Hybrids, interesting to naturalists, are frequently to
be met with in Norway. There is a hybrid, a cross
between the blackcock and the female capercaillie ;
another between the white grouse, or Type, and the
gray hen. The hybrids will be described more fully
when we come to them.

The common partridge (Perdix cinerea), called in

THE FEATHERED GAME OP NORWAY. 143

Norway the ra/phon, is occasionally seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Christiania and Lake Mjosen. It has not
been observed further north than Throndjem. The
few birds of the species to be met with in this country
are said not to migrate. The red-legged partridge
(P. rufa) has not hitherto been observed in Nor-
way. The same may be said of the pheasant (Phasi-
anus Colchicus).

The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus). — The male bird
is called tiur ; the female receives the name of roi in
Norway. Found in all parts of this country, where
there are pine-woods ; during the autumn and winter
it is by no means uncommon in the woods round
Christiania. It is a cunning and wary bird, and when
pursued by the sportsman dodges behind trees, in-
clines its head towards the ground, and listens atten-
tively for approaching footsteps. It is trapped in this
country in the following manner. The bird's run in
the pine-wood is first searched out; then two stout
branches of a tree, with the leaves on, are stuck up-
right into the ground. These branches must be fresh
and green, and in this way they do not excite the sus-
picions of the bird. They must also be placed suffi-
ciently far apart to admit of the capercaillie's passage
through them. A heavy piece of wood is placed
horizontally between the upright branches, and the
whole concern is covered over with fresh leaves and
twigs, so as to give everything a natural appearance.
The bird runs along the ground, enters the trap, dis-
places the stick sustaining the log of wood, which
falls, and smashes every bone in the unfortunate
fowl's body.

The English factory operatives at Christiania call

144 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

the capercaillie the " turpentine bird/' on account of
its peculiar flavour. In the early spring the flesh
tastes strongly of turpentine, as the bird then feeds
principally on the buds and spines of the pine and
spruce-fir.

Nilsson says that several varieties of the capercaillie
are found in Sweden. This is no doubt correct, as
the severity of the climate plays strange pranks with
the colours of the plumage of birds in the north.
Nilsson states that a cock-bird of this species has been
procured in Sweden, which had the whole of the
plumage of an ash-gray colour marked on the head
and neck with darker spots. It was obtained in
Swedish Lapland, and may be seen in the Upsal
Museum, under the name of Tetrao eremites. Another
variety, a hen, has the feathers very pale gray, marked
with yellow, and white streaks and lines; the under
parts white, streaked with red. Another variety, also
a hen, is of a dim white colour, streaked here and there
with black. This last may be seen in the Zoological
Museum at Stockholm.

The food of the capercaillie consists of the buds
and spines of the pine and spruce-fir, the juniper
berry, the buds of the alder and birch, hazel-nuts, and
even acorns. It breeds in the pine-woods, selecting a
spot where water is close at hand. The nest is made
in a hole in the moss or heather, and contains from
twelve to fifteen eggs, which are of a pale yellow,
marked with large and small pale brown spots. The
young are fed on ants, larvae, small worms, and cater-
pillars.

The black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) is pretty common
all over Norway, as far north as Upper Nordland, in

THE FEATHERED GAME OF NORWAY. 145

the Dovre-fjeld, in Osterdalen and Gudbrandsdalen.
It is polygamous, and breeds frequently with the fe-
male caper caillie, with the female rype, and even, at
least so it is said, with the wood-pigeon. It frequents
subalpine districts. The male is called in Norway
aarhane ; the female aarhone. The blackcock is fre-
quently seen during the breeding- season with the
female dal-rype, or white grouse of the valley.

The hybrid black grouse (Tetrao hybridus, Linnseus)
is called in Norway rakkelhane, and is a cross between
the blackcock and female capercaillie. It is much
more common in Norway than in Sweden. Writing
on the origin of this bird, Temminck says, vide vol. ii.,
p. 459, " Quelques naturalistes, et encore recemment
M. Nilsson, sont d'opinion que cette espece est un
batard, fruit de 1'accouplement de Tetrao urogallus
et Tetrao tetrix, mais ils sont en erreur." Temminck,
however, afterwards confessed that Nilsson was right.

The raltkelliane is black in colour, the back and
wings being tinged with black-brown ; the breast is
brilliant steel-blue; the tarsi are covered with white
feathers. It is a large bird, considerably larger than
the blackcock.

The hybrid white grouse (Tetrao logopides, Nilsson) .
— There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of
this bird. Nilsson asserts that it is a cross between
the blackcock and female dal-rype. Professor Esmark,
of the University of Christiania, maintains that it is a
cross between the cock dal-rype and the gray hen. I
am inclined to coincide in opinion with the last-men-
tioned naturalist, for these hybrids are more common
in Norway than in Sweden, and preference should,
therefore, be given to the opinions of Norwegian natu-

L

146 THE NATCEALIST IN NORWAY.

ralists on the subject. The following is the descrip-
tion of a specimen of this hybrid in the Zoological
Museum at Christiania. Head and nape of the neck
lavender, streaked with black ; a mark of buff over the
eye; throat and breast white, the latter spangled
with black ; the under parts snow-white ; back and
wings black, streaked with ash-gray; tail black,
marked here and there with white; flight feathers
white ; under tail feathers white ; tarsi and toes thickly
covered with short white feathers. This specimen
came from Osterdalen, and was preserved in an in-
genious manner. It was so " high" when it reached
Professor Esmark at Christiania that when handled,
the skin separated into thirteen pieces; the feathers
also dropped off the skin. The professor, who is an
accomplished taxidermist, placed the pieces of the
bird's skin in warm water, and when he had cleansed
them, he fitted them on a common bladder with gum.
The feathers were then taken singly, and fastened on
the bladder with gum. It is a perfect specimen now,
as it stands in the above-mentioned museum. The
habits of this hybrid are unknown.

The hazel grouse of Latham, Tetrao bonasia of Lin-
naeus, is commonly found in the central parts of Nor-
way. It is called here hjerpe. Its flesh is delicate,
and is much esteemed by the Norwegians; so much
so, that it is a common trick of the peasants to cut off
the bills of woodcocks, and then sell them as hjerper.

The hjerpe has the head gray, streaked with black
and red-brown ; throat black ; a white line runs down
each side of the face, and meets, in a circle round the
neck ; back gray, pencilled with black ; breast pen-
cilled with white ; tail grayish-brown, tipped with red-

THE FEATHERED GAME OP NORWAY. 147

brown ; flight- feathers dark brown, a white line
running along the shaft of each quill; belly white,
pencilled with brown ; sides red-brown ; tarsi and
toes covered with grayish-brown feathers. The bird
has sixteen feathers in its tail, and is fourteen inches
in length. It has a red wattle over each eye, which it
can conceal at pleasure. It nests on the ground, in
moss or heather, and lays from ten to twelve pale
yellow eggs, marked with brown spots.

Attempts have been made to introduce the hjerpe
into England, but, so far, without success ; the only
practicable plan would be to send sittings of the
eggs to England, and these may be procured with-
out much trouble, for the bird breeds 011 Naesodon,
a woody peninsula running into the fjord near Chris-
tiania.

Writing of the hjerpe a century ago, Pontoppidan
says : " Caro hujus avis laudatissima est,facilis concoc-
tionis, nutrimenti multi et optimi, primum dignitatis
apud veteres obtinuit"

The white grouse of the valley (Lagopus subalpina,
Nilsson). — This bird is called in Norway dal-rype, and
frequents the subalpine districts ; it is found in Nord-
land, in the lower parts of the Dovre-fjeld, in Oster-
dalen, Gudbrandsdalen, etc. The colour is snow-white
in winter, the " pinnae " being white at all times ;
late in the spring the feathers begin to change, when
the head, neck, and breast become red-brown. A
beautiful specimen of this species may be observed in
the Zoological Museum at Christiania ; it was shot
May 1st, 1863 ; it is in the breeding plumage, a male
bird of course. It has a comb as thin as a wafer, red
like coral, and crimped ; the head, neck, and breast

L 2

148 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

are brilliant red-brown, the feathers are very close, and
as smooth and glossy as satin.

With respect to the qucestio vexata as to the moult
or change of feathers of the rype, I must say, that
after a careful examination of specimens obtained in
every month of the year, I have come to the conclu-
sion that a moult does take place in the spring, but
the change of the red-brown plumage to the snow-
white is a gradual growing of the feathers, and not a
moult at all. One circumstance is interesting, namely,
that from October to mid-winter the feathers on the
tarsi and toes become thicker ; a most beautiful provi-
sion of nature, when it is considered that at that time
the bird is always either walking in or nestling in the
snow. It is said that the rype is white in winter, so
that it may resemble the snow in which it lies, and
thus escape the notice of birds of prey.

Pontoppidan mentions a singular circumstance re-
garding the rype : — ' ' When the first snow begins to
fall with an east or north-east wind, whole flocks of
rype are seen in the Bergen Stift, but when the first
snow comes with a west or southern wind, very few
are seen there. "

In Norway the rype is shot with a small-bore rifle
as it nestles in the snow'; large numbers are also
taken in snares. A bonde will capture as many as five
hundred or a thousand in this manner ; they are
brought to market in cart-loads, and are sold at a shil-
ling English per brace. The best way to cook them
is to place them in an iron stewpan over a slow fire,
with a lump of butter in it, and baste them with sour
cream ; cooked in this manner they are juicy and ten-
der, but if roasted in front of a bright fire, they are
dry and tough.

THE FEATHERED GAME OF NORWAY. 149

In the early spring the rype feeds on the tender buds
of the spruce-fir, which gives the flesh a peculiar fla-
vour, not disagreeable if there is not too much of it.
In summer it feeds on various grasses, and especially
on the Polygonum viviparum, called here rype-grds ;
in autumn and winter the food is principally wild
berries. The nest is made on the ground, generally
under a bush, and contains from ten to twelve eggs of
a ferruginous-yellow . colour, marked irregularly with
black spots.

The alpine grouse (Tetrao alpinus, Nilsson). — This
bird is generally found in the northern and central
alpine districts of Norway; it is also common in the
western fjelds, but much more so in Nordland and the
Dovre-fjeld than anywhere else ; it very seldom comes
near Christiania, and although it is pretty common in
the mountain regions of Sweden, it is not seen in
Denmark.

A cock bird procured from Gudbrandsdalen in
March has the whole of the plumage white, except the
lateral tail feathers, which are black ; tarsi and toes
thickly covered with short white feathers ; a line of
black across each eye, which is always wanting in the
female ; thin, erect comb. Towards the middle of May
this species assumes the full breeding plumage, when
the head, neck, and breast are bluish-gray, streaked
with black. Two young birds captured in August
are ash-gray, streaked with black and yellow-brown.

The fjeld-rype, as this bird is called in Norway, is
rather smaller in size than the dal-rype, and may be
distinguished from the latter in winter, when the
plumage of both kinds is white, by the black mark
across the eye.

150 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The fjeld-rype keeps to the higher fjelds, amidst the
regions of perpetual snow, and never breeds with the
dal-rype. Pontoppidan quotes an ancient writer on
this bird as follows : — " Eeperiuntur Lagopides in Alpi-
bus et Pyrenceis montibus et in summis jugis. In fri-
gore, nive et glade delectantur, ut ubi locis inferioribus
liquantur nives, altiora et soli aversa petant locdj in
quibus nix perennat."

Some naturalists have supposed that the fjeld-rype is
less common than the dal-rype, but Professor Esmark,
no mean authority, is of opinion that both species are
equally abundant in this country. In summer the food
consists of the blades, blossoms, and seeds of various
mountain plants ; in winter, of the seeds and buds of
alpine trees. The young are fed on insects and larvse.
The nest is made on the ground in the moss or coarse
heather, and is placed for shelter near a dwarf birch
or large stone. The eggs number from ten to twelve,
and are deposited in the nest so as to form a square ;
they are of a ferruginous -yellow colour, marked with
black-brown spots. When the young are hatched, the
cock bird leaves them to the care of the mother, and
Joins his bachelor friends on the high fjelds.

151

CHAPTER XIX.

The Bustard.— The Plover.— The Stork.— The Crane.— The Spoon-
bill.—The Heron.— The Quail.— The Ibis.— The Godwit.— The
Redshank.

THE bustards are by no means common in Norway.
The great bustard (Otis tarda) is sometimes seen in the
south. The little bustard (0. tetrax) has been seen
once in the extreme south of this country by an English
traveller.

The ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula) is rather
common on the coast of Norway, especially about
Mandal, Lister, Stavanger, and in the Flekke and
Bukn fjords. It is but seldom seen in the Christiania
fjord. It arrives here in March and migrates in Sep-
tember; it nests on the strand of fjords or by the
seacoast. The female entices strangers away from its
nest.

The little ringed plover (C. minor) is common in the
south of Norway ; it is also to be found on the banks
of the Glommen, Drammen, and Mandal rivers, as well
as in the Christiania and Kands fjords ; it migrates
early in September. Pontoppidan called this bird the

152 THE NATUKALIST IN NOEWAY.

nordvinds-fugl, or north-wind bird, because the pea-
sants living on the coast supposed that its cry prog-
nosticated the approach of a north wind. The bishop
also mentioned a bird which he called the sondenvinds-
fugl, or south-wind bird, as it came with a south wind.
" So that/' observes the learned divine, " those two
birds served as an excellent weather-glass, forming
their previsions of the weather by the pressure of the
winds on their bodies, somewhat after the fashion of
people who know by the feelings of their bodies when
there will be a change in the weather." The excellent
bishop was evidently troubled with corns.

The Kentish plover (C. Cantianus) is called in Nor-
way the hvidbrysted-ryle, or white-breasted plover ; it
is only occasionally seen in the south of this country.

The dotterel (C. morinellus) is called in Norway
rund-fugl, or round bird. It is scattered all over
Norway, and is found even near the North Cape.
Its breeding-grounds here are on the strands of moun-
tain lakes, but when the young are fledged it resorts to
the seacoast.

The golden plover (C. pluvialis) is common as far
north as the North Cape. It is found on all the low
moors, and on the strand of the lonely islands north
of Throndjem. It is frequently seen in spring near
Christiania, and also in August, when migrating.
It is called here the fjeld-hjerpe. Pontoppidan men-
tions it under the name heilo, and says, "It is of a
greenish colour on the back, and marked on the breast
with black and white spots."

The gray plover (Squatarola cinerea) is also common
in Norwegian Lapland. Nilsson says of it, {( Kottet dr
godt," or, " Its flesh is good."

THE LAPWING, ETC. 153

The lapwing (Vanellus cristatus) is occasionally seen
in the neighbourhood of Christiania. Great numbers
breed in the vicinity of Laurvig, Mandal, Christiansand,
Lister, and Stavanger. It arrives in Norway as early
as the middle of February. Albino varieties are occa-
sionally seen here of a white or dirty-white colour. Its
Norwegian name is viben. I have' not heard that
plovers' eggs are considered a delicacy here.

Curious superstitions exist in most countries con-
cerning birds, and in none more so than in Norway.
According to popular belief here, the swallow and
turtle-dove sympathized with our Saviour in His suf-
ferings ; not so the lapwing, which is said to have
mocked at the agonies of our Lord, and was, in con-
sequence, condemned to dwell in fens and morasses.
Mr. Lloyd mentions a strange legend concerning this
bird in Sweden. The lapwing was once a handmaiden
of the Virgin Mary, who stole the scissors of her mis-
tress, and, as a punishment, she was transformed into a
bird, bearing a tail forked like a pair of scissors, and
incessantly uttering the plaintive cry, " tyvit, tyvit"
or, " I stole them, I stole them."

The turnstone (Strepsilas interpres) is very rarely
seen near Christiania ; it is common in the north and
round the North Cape, as well as on the low rocks near
Throndjem. It migrates in September. Nilsson says
that the name of interpres, given to the species by Lin-
naeus, originated in a mistake. It is the redshank
(Totanus calidris) which is called tolk, or interpreter,
by the Swedish fishermen, on account of its giving a
warning cry to other birds of the approach of the
fowler. It breeds on the small islands off the south-
west coast of Norway, and also in the north. It makes

154 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

its nest in a hole in the sand, or by the side of a stone,
and lays four eggs of a yellow- gray colour, marked
with black spots. Nilsson says, " Kottet dr smakligt"
that is, ' ' Its flesh is savoury.-"

The oyster-catcher (Hcematopus ostralegus) is common
on all the Norwegian coasts up to the North Cape. It
arrives here as early as February, and migrates in
October. Its food consists of mussels, which grow to
an unusually large size in Finmark, and oysters. In
opening the mussel or oyster, the bird is sometimes
captured alive by the closing of the bivalve' s shell.

The sanderling (Calidris arenaria) is occasionally
seen during the summer months in Finmark; it has
been shot near Tromso, the capital of Norwegian Lap-
land. When migrating it is seen in the south-west of
Norway, keeping company with the little stint, dunlin,
and knot. Nilsson asserts, on the authority of a
brother naturalist, that the eggs are glossy, and of a pale
green colour, marked with blood-red spots and streaks.

The white stork (Ciconia alba) is occasionally seen
in the south of Norway. It arrives in April and mi-
grates in August. Norwegian country people have a
peculiar reverence for this bird, and think themselves
fortunate when it makes its nest on their houses. It is
believed that a house will never be consumed by fire
which has a stork's nest on the top of it. It is a
common saying in Germany that a stork will not build
its nest on the house of an individual that has not paid
his tithes to the clergy. Pontoppidan alludes to this
popular superstition : — " Les cigognes sont favorables
au clerge, car elles ne veulent point s&journer dans
aucune mile d'Allemagne ou Von ne paye point de dime
aux ecclesiastiques."

155

When a stork selects some outhouse here whereon
to build its nest, the people encourage it in every
possible way, and even prop up its nest with poles. I
have even heard of a cart-wheel being placed on the
summit of a house to form a proper and safe founda-
tion for a stork's nest. The eggs of the stork are
sometimes removed from the nest, and hens' eggs put
in their place, from the singular notion that the pro-
duce will be good layers. When this is done, however,
the chickens must be removed as soon as they are
hatched, otherwise the stork will devour them.

The black stork (C. nigra) is occasionally seen in the
south of Norway. It makes its nest in the crown of a
large tree ; the eggs are three or four in number,
perfectly white, and as large as those of a common
fowl.

The crane (Grus cinerea) is much less common now
in Norway than it was formerly. It is sometimes seen
on the Porsanger-fjord, in East Finmark; called here
tranen. Nests in rushes on marshy ground, and
sometimes on isolated buildings, and lays two eggs,
greenish-gray in colour, marked with brown spots and
blotches.

The spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia) is called in Nor-
way the ske-gaas, or spoon goose. It is sometimes
seen on the fjord near Christiania. It nests in tall
reeds by the water, and lays from two to four large
eggs, which are sometimes pure white, at other times
marked with pink spots.

The common heron ( Ardea cinerea) is pretty common
in the extreme west of Norway, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Stavanger, where it is said to remain
throughout the winter. Its Norwegian name is heiren.

156 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

Pontoppidan entertained some singular notions con-
cerning this bird. He says, " Ardea id habetab omnibus
avibus diversum, quod intestinum ccecum unicum et sim-
plex obtineant singulce, cum alice aves geminum nadce
sint ; by which it comes to pass that a heron may
swallow an eel three times,, which has scarcely dis-
appeared before one sees the head and the whole body
pass out again ex podice avis, and this it does several
times, turning round and swallowing the eel again."

The quail (Coturnix vulgaris). — Professor Kasch, of
the University of Christiania, an eminent Norwegian
naturalist, states that he has seen this bird in Thele-
marken, an extensive district in the south of Norway.
It is rather common in the south of Sweden.

The glossy ibis (Ibis faldnellus) is called here the
sort ibis, or black ibis, and is occasionally seen in the
north of Norway.

The curlew (Numenius arquata) is common along all
the west coast of this country as far north as Nordland.

The whimbrel (N. phceopus) is also common. It is
frequently seen in Norwegian Lapland, and on all
mountain morasses.

The black-tailed godwit (Limosa melanura) is rarely
seen in Norway. It breeds in the Swedish island of
Gottland, where it nests in the coarse grass on marshy
ground, and lays four eggs of a dull olive- green, spotted
and blotched with dark brown.

The bar-tailed godwit (L. rufa) is much more common
here than the preceding species, and is even found in
Norwegian Lapland. It migrates early in August,
wherefore it is called in Sweden Augusti-sndppa, or
August-snipe. Its Norwegian name is suggestive —
viz., rustrb'd langncebbe, or rusty-red longbill.

THE REDSHANK. 157

The common redshank (Totanus calidris) is called in
Norway the rodbenet sneppe, or red-legged snipe. It
is common about all the smaller lakes in this country,
and great numbers are observed on the flat rocks
north of Throndjem. It is also common in Finmark.
It is this bird, and not the turnstone, which is called
tolk, or interpreter, by the Swedish fishermen.

The spotted redshank (T. fuscus) breeds in the
north, as far up as the Icy Sea. It nests in the coarse
herbage on marshy ground. It migrates in October.
Nilsson says of it, " Kottet cur godt till stek," or, " Its
flesh is good if the bird is roasted on a spit."

158

CHAPTEE XX.

The Sandpiper.— The Stint.— The Avocet.— The Buff.— The Rail.—
The Moor Hen.— The Coot.— The Phalaropes.— The Woodcock.—
The Snipe.

THE green sandpiper (Totanus ochropus) is found all
over this country. It has been seen in great numbers
at the mouth of the river Passwig, which flows into the
Icy Sea.

The wood-sandpiper (T. glareola) is called here the
gronbenet sneppe, or green-legged snipe. It is nearly
as common as the preceding. It breeds in Fin-
mark; the nest is made on marshy ground, but it
has even been found on a tree, at a height of twelve
yards from the ground. The eggs are four in number,
and very pale green in colour, marked with dark red-
brown spots.

The common sandpiper (T. hypoleuca) is found ge-
nerally throughout Norway. It frequents the sides
of small lakes, as well as the banks of rivers. It is
called in Lapland skillili. It lays a large egg for its
size, on which account, as Mr. Lloyd informs us, the
Lapps have made this couplet on it : —

THE SPOTTED SANDPIPER, ETC. 159

" Skillili, Skillili, yvoddara, yvoddam,
Beusaka mone mateu
Patta tjyidnita piedja,"

which may be rendered as follows : —

" Skillili, Skillili ! I carry, I carry
An egg large as that of a Kipa,
So that my tail cocks in the air."

I have been informed by a Norwegian naturalist that
he has pursued this bird in a boat on the Christiania-
fjord, and that when he approached, it dived, but find-
ing itself unable to remain under on account of the
buoyancy of the water, it seized on a piece of seaweed
at the bottom with its bill, and held on until the boat
had left the spot !

The spotted sandpiper (T. macularius) is only an
occasional visitor to this country.

The semi-palmated sandpiper (T. semi-palmatus,
Temminck) . — This species has been occasionally seen
in Sweden and Norway. There is a specimen in the
Royal Zoological Museum at Stockholm, called in Swe-
den the sndppa med Jialflyckta fotter, or snipe with
half- webbed feet. Nilsson says that its home is in
North America, where it breeds in the salt-marshes.
It places its nest among the coarse grass on the salt-
marshes, and lays four large eggs of an olive colour,
marked at the larger ends with black-brown spots.

The greenshank (T. glottis) is common in summer in
the Norwegian fjelds, especially in the Dovre-fjeld. It
nests in the grass, under a dwarf-birch, and the eggs
are so placed that all the small ends point inwards ;
they are four in number, and pale olive in colour,
marked with black and brown spots. The young birds
are fully fledged here by the beginning of July.

160 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The curlew sandpiper (Tringa subarquata). — This
bird, which connects the snipes with the sandpipers,
is common during the summer months in the northern
parts of Norway. It only visits the south when mi-
grating. Migrates in the company of the knot. Its
breeding-grounds are in the north and north-east.
Nilsson says that it breeds in the south of Sweden.
This is likely enough, as Temminck asserts that it
breeds in Holland. Most probably, however, only a
few of this species breed in Holland and southern
Sweden, while the greater number proceed to the
north.

The purple sandpiper (T. maritima), like the pre-
ceding, is common during the breeding-season in
Norwegian Lapland ; Professor Rasch has met with it
here as late as November. Professor Keilhau, another
Norwegian naturalist, found this species common in
Spitzbergen and Iceland. Its favourite habitat here is
the naked rocks on the coast, which are covered at
high-tide. Now, these rocks are called in Norway
fjcere, and as the purple sandpiper is supposed by the
Norwegian fishermen to resemble a mouse, muus, as it
stands on the bare rocks, it is called here the fjcere-
muus. It breeds in East Finmark, where it makes its
nest on the high plateaux of the fjelds, and lays four
eggs of a yellowish-gray, marked with light brown
spots.

The knot (T. Canutus) is common during the breed-
ing season in Norwegian Lapland, Greenland, and Ice-
land. During the early autumn, the young birds of
the year are seen in flocks in the south of Sweden.
When migrating, they pass through Sweden, instead
of Norway, to more genial climes, instinct, no doubt,

THE LITTLE STINT, ETC. 161

pointing out to them the shorter route. Kjgerbolling,
the Danish naturalist, who studied the habits of this
species in Greenland, says that it lays three or four
greenish-yellow eggs, marked with large and small
brown spots.

The broad-billed sandpiper (T. platyrhynca) is not
common, although it is also found in Finmark. Pro-
fessor Rasch has shot it on Lake Oieren, not far
from Christiania, in the beginning of August. It has
been seen in the beginning of May near Fogstuen, a
station for travellers in the Dovre-fjeld. Some German
naturalists class this species with the curlews, and
Latham calls it the ' ' little curlew." It has nothing
in common with the curlews except the point of the
bill. Its eggs have been found in Norway in the mid-
dle of June ; they are chocolate-brown in colour.

Temminck's stint (T. Temminckii) is also found in
Finmark, whence it migrates in September. Nilsson
says it not only breeds in Lapland, but also in the cen-
tral parts of Sweden. It lays four glossy, pale yellow
eggs, marked with gray and red-brown spots.

The little stint (T. minuta). — This bird probably
breeds in Finmark. It is common near Christiania
in spring and autumn, on its way to and return
from the north. Nilsson says that large flocks of the
species are seen in the south of Sweden in the spring
and fall of the year. It keeps company with the dun-
lin when migrating. The nest is made on mountain
morasses, and Kjaerbolling says that the eggs are of a
pale olive-green, marked with minute red-gray, and
large brown spots.

The dunlin (T. variabilis) is common in all parts
of Norway.

162 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY,

Schinz's sandpiper (T. Schinzii). — This is a rara avis
here. It has been once seen in Finmark. It is com-
mon on the coast of Schleswig and Holstein.

The avocet (Recurvirostra avocetta) is only an occa-
sional visitor to the south of Norway. The same may
be said of the black -winged stilt (Himantopus mela-
nopterus) .

The ruff (Machetes pugnax). — This bird is common
in summer in Finmark. In August it leaves the north,
and may then be seen by Lake Mjosen, and near Christi-
ania. Its Norwegian name is brunshane, or noisy cock.

The " Kallidae" and " Lobipedidae" are more common
in Norway than they are in Great Britain.

The land-rail (Grex pratensis) is common in Norway,
and is to be met with considerably within the Polar
Circle.

The spotted crake (C. porzana) is common in the
southern and central parts of this country. It does
not visit the far north.

The little crake (C. pusilla) is by no means so com-
mon as the other species.

The water-rail (Rallus aquaticus). — This shy bird is
common near Christiansand, Lister, Mandal, and other
towns in the south of Norway. I have seen a bird that
was shot near Mandal as early as February.

The moor-hen (Gallinula chloropus) is pretty fre-
quently seen in the south of Norway, especially near
Laurvig, a seaport famous for its lobsters, the greater
part of which find their way to the London market.

The coot (Fulica atra) is common in Norway, but
does not venture far north. It has been seen near
Throndjem. It is called here the Uis-hone. The

THE GKAY PHALAROPE, ETC. 163

word blis signifies a blaze on the forehead, generally
applied to horses. The nest of the coot is made
among reeds, in the middle of a sheet of water, and
contains from eight to twelve dingy grayish -yellow
eggs, marked with dark spots.

The gray phalarope (Phalarorus lobatus). — Like the
coot, this bird is lobe-footed, and is an excellent
swimmer. It is by no means uncommon in this coun-
try, and has been frequently shot in Finmark and
Nordland. It breeds in the north, and on the coast
there, it is frequently observed swimming on the sea,
at a considerable distance from the land.

The red-necked phalarope (P. hyperboreus) is not
so common as the preceding, but is also found in
Norwegian Lapland. The nest is generally made by
a tuft of grass near the water, and contains four small
yellowish eggs, covered with dark -brown spots. It is
called in Lapland wesitiainen, or water- sparrow.

The woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) is common in the
woods round Throndjem, Bergen, and Christiania,
where it breeds. It arrives here in the beginning of
April, and migrates in November. It is called here
skovsneppe, or wood-snipe. Mr. Lloyd confirms the
statement of the woodcock transporting her young
from one place to another : — " Once, during a hare-
hunt, I myself shot a woodcock, flushed by the dogs,
when flying at about six feet from the ground, that
was bearing an unfledged young one in her claws. It
seemed to me she grasped it by the wings, one foot
having hold of the one wing, and the other foot of the
other ; though, in consequence of intervening boughs,
I did not observe the old bird when she rose, I was
fortunately so near to her as clearly to see what I have

M2

164 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

stated. I afterwards found two other young ones
under a neighbouring bush, where they had retreated
for shelter."

The woodcock does not appear to be much esteemed
in Norway. It is a common thing for the peasants to
bring them to market with their bills cut off, when
they are sold to confiding people as hjerper. The
young birds are fully fledged in this country by the
end of June.

The great snipe (8- major) is said to breed in the
central and southern parts ; it is called here the dob-
belt bekkasin, or double snipe. It nests on the ground
in marshy places, and lays from three to four pale
olive-green eggs, marked with black spots.

The common snipe (S. gallinago). — This species
is common in all parts of this country, in the north
as well as in the south, and especially on marshy
lands in the fjelds. It is called here the horse-gjog, or
horse -cuckoo, on account of the singular drumming
noise which it makes during the breeding season, and
which is supposed to resemble the neighing of a horse.
Pontoppidan, speaking of the bleating noise made by
this bird, says, " The horse-gjog is as big as a magpie ;
it does not cry ' cuckoo/ like another cuckoo, but bleats
like a goat, wherefore it has been called by some per-
sons jord-geedj capreolus."

This bird is also called the taage-fagl, or fog-bird,
because it is supposed to be most commonly seen in
foggy weather; albino varieties have been met with
in Norway, wholly or partially white.

The jacksnipe (8. gallinula) is by no means so
common as the preceding, but it is, nevertheless, fre-
quently seen in all parts of Norway, even in Finmark.

THE JACKSNIPE TN NORWAY. 165

It is called here the smaa-bekkasin, or small snipe. It
is supposed that a few birds of this species do not
migrate, but pass the winter in the south of Norway.
Temminck is of opinion that this bird breeds in the
environs of St. Petersburg. It certainly does so in
Norwegian and Swedish Lapland. Kjgerbolling affirms
that it breeds in Denmark.

Nilsson says that the eggs are of a pale yellow, or
gray-olive-green, marked with brown spots.

166

CHAPTEE XXI.

The Geese.— The Swans.

WILD geese are so common in the Scandinavian penin-
sula that it is the custom in Sweden to capture large
numbers of them in nets; at other times, regular
battues are held, when hundreds are shot, knocked on
vthe head with sticks, or even taken alive in the 'melee.
In Swedish and Norwegian Lapland it is a common
practice to set steel traps near the water, which capture
the geese when they come to feed.

The gray-legged goose (Anser ferus) is said to be
the stock-bird of our domesticated species. It is
common in summer on the north and north-west coast
of Norway, where it breeds ; it is also common during
the breeding-season on the small islands north of
Bergen, especially on Smolen and Hitteren, near
Throndjem. Kjaerbolling says that it breeds in Den-
mark, but is much less common there now than it was
formerly. Pontoppidan speaks of having seen immense
flocks of this species off the coast of Nordland, and
near Bergen and Throndjem.

Nilsson asserts that the gray-legged goose breeds only

WILD GEESE IN LAPLAND. 167

on the east coast of Sweden. This is an error. Eve-
rest, writing in 1829, says, " We met with the common
gray wild goose, male and female, and their brood of
eight newly-hatched goslings, among the small islands
near Tjotoe ; but they become more frequent as we
advance northwards. They are said to be birds that
keep to the coast, and they are usually seen feeding
below high- water mark." The wild goose feeds on fine
grasses and their seeds, and on aquatic plants ; their
nest is made in the coarse herbage by the water, and
contains from eight to twelve dirty yellow eggs.

In Sweden, wild geese are frequently taken or shot
by means of the skjut-ko, or shooting-cow, which is
made of stout canvas stretched on a kind of frame-
work somewhat resembling a cow in shape. A hole
is made in the head of the false cow, and the sportsman
having got inside, pokes his gun through this hole,
which is taken by the geese for the cow's horn. It
should be mentioned that the false cow is painted of a
colour to resemble the real animal. When all is ready,
the sportsman quietly walks forward, and easily gets
within range. The geese are, in fact, so completely
deceived that they sometimes fly on to the back of the
skjut-ko.

Large numbers of wild geese are captured in Lap-
land during the moulting season, when, having lost
many of their wing-feathers, they are unable to rise
from the ground. " At this season," says Lloyd, " the
Finnish ny-byggare, or squatters, as well as the Lapps,
get up regular hunts ; provided with several dogs,
they proceed to the morasses, where geese are known
to resort, which, although frequently very wet and
difficult to traverse, are not impassable. Firearms

168 THE NATUEALIST IN NOEWAY.

are needless, it being considered superfluous to waste
powder and shot when the birds may be obtained
without; the men, therefore, are only equipped with
stout sticks. When arrived at the scene of action, the
dogs are slipped from their couplings, and start the
birds, whose only means of escape is by reaching the
nearest water. Should they succeed in this, they com-
monly manage to get off; but, should they not be so
fortunate, the dogs soon come up with them, and by a
bite in the head or neck presently put them out of
their misery ; in the meanwhile, the sportsman with
his stick kills such as he falls in with. But as on
these occasions the birds retreat very quickly, he would
have much difficulty in overtaking them if he did not,
during the chase, proceed on the principle of never
running directly after, but alongside of and past them,
and as if not aware of their presence ; in which case
they, believing themselves unobserved, squat at once,
and conceal themselves in the grass, where they re-
main entirely motionless, so that one may go directly
up to the spot and secure them with the hand."

Sometimes the geese turn on the dogs in their own
defence. " When one meets with the large geese in
the moulting season," says Laestatius, "and that a
boat be not at hand, one may drive them to the shore
either by casting of stones or by swimming. In the
year 1828, here in Karesuando, upwards of a hundred
wild geese were killed by several squatters in a remote
and sequestered lake."

A common piece de resistance in Norway is the
breast of a wild goose, dried in the sun, and smoked
like a red-herring ; it is eaten uncooked. Smoked
hams and herrings, as well as salmon, are also eaten

THE BEAN GOOSE, ETC. 169

raw in this country ; but Norwegian stomachs will
digest anything, however nasty, if capable of mastica-
tion.

The bean goose (A. segetum). — This bird resembles
the preceding species, except that it is smaller in size ;
it is common in Norwegian Lapland, where it breeds
on mountain morasses. " It is notable," says Nilsson
of this species, " that this goose is unknown in Siberia,
where the gray-leg goose is so common."

The bean goose feeds on aquatic plants and their
seeds ; it also frequents the .corn and bean fields,
whence its name of " segetum." It breeds, in May, in
the fjelds of Norwegian Lapland, as well as by the
Porsanger-fjord. The nest contains from seven to ten
white eggs.

Mr. Malm, an eminent Swedish naturalist, describes
how, in the spring of the year, a flock of nineteen of
this species was captured near Lund, in the south of
Sweden. The birds were on their way to their breed-
ing grounds in the north, when they alighted within
a farmyard enclosure that was surrounded by high
palisades. Wearied with their long journey, they
were unable to fly over the high fences, and were all
captured alive.

The bernicle goose (A. leucopsis) is called here the
fjeld-gaas, or mountain goose. It is frequently seen
in Bast Finmark, but does not breed there. Its home
during the season of incubation is on the eastern shores
of the White Sea. When migrating it passes south-
wards through Sweden, and not by way of Norway.

The white-fronted goose (A. albifrons). — This is
another species which is common enough in Finmark
during the breeding season ; it is observed near

170 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

Christiania when migrating. It is called here the blis-
gaas, or goose with a blaze; nests in the high fjelds
by the waterside,, where it lays from four to six yellow-
white eggs. Nilsson says, " Kottet ar ganska smak-
ligt," or, " Its flesh is very savoury."

The Brent goose (A. brenta) is also said to breed in
Finmark. The Swedes call it the prut, as the peculiar
noise which it makes is supposed to resemble the voice
of an old woman who is beating down the price, prut,
of an article she wishes to buy.

The red-breasted goose (A. ruficollis) has been twice
killed in Sweden. I may mention, for the information
of naturalists travelling in that country, that they may
be seen in the Royal Museum at Lund. It has been
once seen in Norway.

The pink-footed goose (A. brachyrhynchus) has been
seen, in summer, in Bast Finmark. It is probably
identical with Kjaerbolling's dvarg gaas, or dwarf goose.

"The swan/' says Pontoppidan, "is a rare visitor,
and is not, properly speaking, a Norsk bird, wherefore
it is not found in the east country, where the winter
does not leave any water unfrozen, but on the western
side, where I have observed that the winters have
been milder than in Denmark and Germany, and
where the sea is always open ; there swans are found,
especially in Sund-fjord by Svane-gaard and the
neighbourhood, but not in any great numbers, for they
are but the young of some few stragglers, which the
hard winters of 1719 and 1740 drove hither, in search
of open water, when the frost was so severe in France,
that the sentinels died at their posts, the vines were
frozen, and the birds fell down dead from the air.
Then the whole Baltic Sea was frozen, and people

SWANS IN NORWAY. 171

passed over the ice, from Copenhagen to Dantzic, as
securely as if they had travelled by land. But all the
salt waters in our land were open, especially by Ber-
gen ; so God's good providence brought us then
many water-birds, and among them swans. This
would appear astonishing to a philosopher, namely,
open water in the north, when it was frozen in the
south."

It is an interesting circumstance, that the swans on
the north-west coast of Norway go to the large inland
lakes during the breeding-season, where they remain
until the approach of winter, but when these lakes
become frozen, they return to the seacoast, which is
always open on account of the influence of the Gulf
Stream.

The mute swan (Cygnus olor) is by no means com-
mon here. A pair, in a tame state, may be seen on
an ornamental sheet of water in the Royal Park at
Christiania ; they readily come to be fed by strangers,
who throw bits of cake and bread to them.

Wild swans are common in the south of Norway,
where great numbers are killed annually for the sake
of the " swan-down." Hundreds of swans congregate
on the southern lakes, and are pursued in boats, when
they are knocked on the head with long sticks, or are
captured alive. The scene is an animated one, and
brings in considerable profits to the sportsmen, if the
parties concerned deserve that appellation.

The hooper (G. ferus) is found, during the summer
months, on the inland lakes of Norway, as far north
as the south of Finmark. In winter it goes to the
seacoast, from whence it partially migrates. When
the winter has not been very severe or prolonged, the

172 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

hooper makes its appearance in Lapland towards the
end of March, when it is frequently captured in steel
traps, which are placed near the openings in the ice,
and capture the swans when they come to drink. It
is called here the sang-svane, or singing swan.

Bewick's swan (C. Bewickii) is occasionally observed
in this country. I have seen a specimen that was
shot on Lake Mjosen. It has eighteen feathers in the
tail, while the hooper has twenty. Its home is in
Siberia ; it is also said to breed in Iceland. The nest
is made in beds of rushes, and contains seven brownish-
yellow eggs.

The Polish swan (G. immutabilis). — Northern natu-
ralists have asserted that this species is not to be
found in Scandinavia. I have observed it once in
Norway.

173

CHAPTER XXII.

The Divers.— The Grebes.— The Q-uillemots.— The Auks.— The
Puffin.— The Cormorants. — The Gannet.

DURING the breeding-season, some of the divers retire
to the freshwater lakes in the interior of this country.
When the young are old enough to fly, the parents
conduct them to the seaside, in order to teach them
how to swim and dive ; and when they consider them
sufficiently proficient, they leave them to their own
resources. In Nordland and Finmark, the peasants
make ornaments and head-dresses with the feathers
from the breasts of the " Colymbidae." The skin of
the breast, with the feathers attached, goes through a
simple process of preparation, and is then considered
fit for use.

The black-throated diver (Colymbus arcticus). — This
species is common in Norway, and is especially so, on
some of the northern lakes, during the breeding sea-
son. It is seen on the Christiania-fjord in the spring,
on its way to the lakes ; it returns to the fjord with
its young, and migrates late in the autumn. It is
called here the almindelig lorn, or common loon. It

174 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

makes a rough kind of nest among the reeds or coarse
herbage by the side of inland lakes, where it lays two
eggs of a gray -brown colour, tinted with black, and
marked with black spots. When the young are born,
the unnatural mother generally kills one of them, but
she endeavours to make amends by exhibiting unusual
care for the survivor. She swims about in the water,
and dives to the bottom with her offspring on her
back.

The flesh of this bird is rank and tough, but the
Lapps esteem it as a delicacy, a proof that there is no
accounting for taste in such matters.

The red-throated diver (G. septentrionalis) . — Also
common in Finmark during the breeding-season. Its
Norwegian name is smaa-lom, or small loon. The
red throat fades when the breeding- season is over,
and entirely disappears in winter. The nest is made
close to the water, and contains two greenish eggs,
marked with brown spots. During the time of incu-
bation, the male deserts the female, and joins his
bachelor friends, but when the young are hatched, he
returns to his forsaken spouse, and behaves like a
respectable husband and father. Then he may be
seen carrying his young ones on his back, and swim-
ming about and diving with them in that position.

The great northern diver (G. glacialis). — By no
means common here, although it breeds on the small
islands off the west coast of Finmark. It is much
more common, during the breeding-season, in Iceland,
Greenland, and Spitzbergen. The peasants in Fin-
mark make caps of the breast of this bird, and believe
that it was first made without legs, but that nature,
becoming sensible of her mistake, got into a pet, and

THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. 175

flung a pair of legs after the bird, which, fully accounts
for their singularly retrograde situation. It is for the
same reason, according to Pontoppidan, that the bird
makes its nest close to the water, so that it can roll
off the nest into its natural element without using its
legs at all. The Norwegian peasants declare that
they know when stormy weather is approaching, by
the peculiar cry which the immer then utters.

Pontoppidan says of this bird, (( Its wings are so
short, it can hardly raise itself with them; and its
legs are so far back that they are not so much used
to walk with as to paddle along the water ; on which
account the immer is never seen to come ashore, ex-
cepting in the week before Christmas, wherefore the
fourth Sunday in Advent is called by the people Immer,
or as the people express it, Ommer Sunday." The
bishop does not give an altogether incorrect descrip-
tion of this species, but some of his remarks are
amusing, as for example, that the bird has two holes
under its wings, wherein it deposits its eggs, which
it carries about with it, hatching them with as much
facility on the water, as other birds do on dry land.

The great northern diver does not migrate, but
remains on the water until the ice forms, wherefore it
is called in Norway the iislom, or ice loon. The Nor-
wegian peasants esteem its flesh, with which they
generally make soup. The nest is generally made on
some small island in the centre of a lake ; it contains
two eggs of a yellowish-gray, marked with brown
spots. One of the eggs is generally addled, which,
perhaps, accounts for the statement that the female
always destroys one of its young.

The great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus) is pretty

176 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

common in the central and southern parts of this
country, but is not found in the extreme north. The
nest is made in a floating mass of reeds, and contains
four white eggs, which soon become stained by the de-
cayed vegetable matter with which the bird covers
them. According to Nils son, the nest is made of
floating bulrushes (Scirpus lacustris) and other water
plants -, it is fastened to the reeds in such a manner
that it cannot be carried off by the winds. The upper
part of the nest is flat, and the eggs are found towards
the end of July or in the beginning of August. When
the female sees any person approaching the nest, she
covers the eggs with broken rushes or grass, and
dives to the bottom of the water, coming up to breathe
at a considerable distance, by which she deceives
strangers as to the position of the nest. When the
young birds take to the water, the mother shelters
them under her wings when danger is apprehended.
It is called in Norway hvidstrubet dykker, or white-
throated diver. Migrates in October.

The red-crested grebe (P. rubricollis) . — This species,
which is called in Norway graastrubet dyltker, or gray-
throated diver, is by no means so common as the pre-
ceding. It is, however, frequently seen in the south
of Norway, whence it migrates in September.

The Sclavonian grebe (P. cornutus) is found in all
likely localities in this country. It is often seen on the
Christiania-fjord, but arrives later and migrates earlier
than the preceding. Mr. Lloyd asserts that birds of
this species remain in Denmark during mild winters.

The P. ardicus, Boie. — This bird appears to be the
Sclavonian grebe in its autumn plumage. At a meeting
of the Academy of Sciences, held at Stockholm, in 1849,

THE LITTLE GREBE, ETC. 177

Professor C. S. Sundervall stated that the P. arcticus
and the P. cornutus were identical, but in different
stages of plumage. Kjaerbolling considers them to be
distinct.

The eared grebe (P. auritus) is scarce everywhere
in this country, but is occasionally seen in all likely
localities. It is easily distinguished from other species
by a tuft of orange-yellow feathers on the cheeks,
which passes over the auriculars, and looks as if it had
been brushed off the face of the bird by a human hand.
Nilsson calls it the svart-halsad dopping, or black-
necked dipper. It makes its nest in the reed beds
of rivers and lakes.

The little grebe (P. minor) is only found in the
south of Norway. It has been shot at Horten, a town
on the Christiania-fjord, as early as the beginning of
March. It is called in Norway the lille dyMer, or little
diver.

We come now to a class of birds which are strictly
maritime in their habits, and breed in colonies on the
north-west coast of Norway. Many of these birds,
however, venture inland during the winter months, and
thousands of auks and guillemots are seen on the
Christiania-fjord in autumn.

The common guillemot (Uricu troile) is found by
thousands during the breeding-season on the west and
north-west coast of Finmark. It is called in Sweden
the sill dopping, or herring dipper, on account of its
partiality for young herrings, which abound on the
east coast of Sweden and on the west coast of
Norway. It often lays its single egg on the bare
rock. The colour of the egg varies considerably,
sometimes being whitish-green, at others of a very

N

178 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

pale blue, marked with black and brown spots and
blotches.

Brunnick's guillemot (Z7. Brunnichii) has its home
in Greenland and Spitzbergen, whence it visits Norway.
It is easily distinguished by the thickness of its bill.
The eggs differ from the preceding species by being
rounder in shape and not so long.

The ringed guillemot (U. lacrymans) is common on
the coast of Finmark, and is generally to be seen with
the common guillemot. It is very similar in appearance
to the common guillemot, except that it has a white
ring round the eye, which extends on to the neck, and
is somewhat like the lash of a whip.

The black guillemot (U. grylle) is common on the
west and north-west coast of Norway. In autumn the
old birds are seen on the fjord near Christiania, the
young birds of the year lower down the fjord. Its
Norwegian name of teiste resembles the English pro-
vincial name of tyste. It lays two eggs in the holes or
crevices of rocks, and sometimes among stones on the
beach. The eggs are very pale green, marked with
black, brown, or ash-gray spots. The Norwegians eat
its flesh, and also make soup of it.

The little auk (Mergulus melanoleucos) . — The home
of this bird is in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen,
but numerous colonies visit the coast of Finmark. It
is called here the alke-konge, or auk king. It lays a
single bluish-white egg, marked with black spots, in
the hole of a rock. Nilsson says that in the winter of
1830-31 many flocks of this species visited the coast
of Scania, in the south of Sweden ; at times the harbour
of Ystad was almost covered with them.

The razor-bill (Alca torda) is seen in flocks on the

THE GEEAT AUK, ETC. 179

coast of Fimnark, and also on many of the Norwegian
fjords.

The great auk (A. impennis). — This bird may be
considered extinct in Norway, as it has not been seen
for many years. It is said to be still found in Iceland.
A few years ago a specimen was picked up dead on the
shore near Frederickstad, in Norway. In 1844 two
birds of this species were sent to Copenhagen from
Iceland. The egg is large ; the colour of it is dirty-
white, tinged with yellow, and blotched and streaked
at the larger end with black*

The puffin (Fratercula arctica) .-r-This singular-look-
ing bird is very common on the coast of Finmark,
where large flocks breed on Fugle-O, or bird-island.
It is also common in the Loffoden Islands. Many
young birds of this species are seen on the Christiania-
fjord in autumn. It is called here the lund-fugl. Not
only do the Norwegian peasants eat the puffin, but
they also salt it down for winter use. The down is
also held in almost as much esteem as eiderrdown ;
but as it is plucked from the breast of the bird when
dead, it does not posses the elasticity of eider-down.

The common cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) is comr
mon on the coast of Finmark, where it breeds. Pontr
oppidan says that this bird is very expert in catching
fishes, and that it can dive twenty or thirty fathoms in
pursuit of its prey. It has the power of remaining a
long time under water. It is called in Sweden the
hafs-tjdder, or sea capercaillie. In autumn it is often
seen on the rivers and lakes of southern Norway. It
nests in the broad crevices, or on the ledges of rocks,
and lays from five to six dirty-white eggs, tinged with
green.

N2

180 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The shag (P. cristatus) . — This bird is smaller in size
than the preceding, wherefore it is called in Norway
the smaasltarv , or small cormorant. It is common on
the west coast of Finmark and Nordland, in this
country. The nest is made of dry seaweed, and con-
tains from three to five greenish- white eggs.

The gannet (Sulcu bassana) is common enough in
some parts of Norway. It is seen in winter on the
Christiania-fjord, and towards the early spring it pro-
ceeds to the south-west coast of Norway in pursuit of
the young herrings. This bird is called in Norway
the havsule. Sule is an old Norsk word, still in use
liere, and appears to be a corruption of the word svale,
or swallow. Thus, liavsille means sea-swallow, a desig-
nation which the gannet has gained for its high flight.
It was known to Pontoppidan, who has given an amu-
sing engraving of it in his work on the natural history
of Norway. The gannet there represented has its legs
very far back, and a large horny protuberance on its
head, resembling in shape an old-fashioned snuffbox.
The bishop says, " The gannet is like a goose, and is
eatable when roasted or salted. It is not seen in Nor-
way until the end of January, or in the beginning of
February, when the herring fishery begins. It does
not come nearer land than half a Norwegian mile;
thus the fisherman knows when the fish are in the
narrow and shallow waters. At Easter it is seen no
more. It is so stupid that, by laying a few herrings
on a floating-board, it may be enticed to the boat, and
killed with the oar." The nest is made of seaweed
and dry grass, and contains a single greenish-white
egg. The egg is small, considering the size of the
bird.

181

CHAPTEE XXIII.

The Gulls.— The Skuas.

SOME years ago a German naturalist, residing near the
Varanger-fjord, close to the Eussian frontier, in the
eastern part of Finmark, obtained specimens of almost
every known species of gull. The " Laridae" are not
only common in East and West Finmark, but also on
all the fjords with which Norway abounds.

The little gull (Larus minutus). — According to
Nilsson this species is confined to the island of Gott-
land, off the Swedish coast. It is occasionally seen in
Norway, where it is called the dverg-maage, or dwarf
gull. It breeds in the island of Gottland, and lays
three eggs, which are yellowish-brown or yellowish-
green in colour, marked with large and small grayish
and brown spots.

The black-headed gull (L. ridibundus). — This bird
is called in Norway lattermaagen, or the laughing
gull, as its cry is supposed to resemble a laugh. It is
by no means common here, although it has been seen
in summer on some of the Norwegian lakes, at a con-

182 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

siderable distance inland. The laughing gull (L. atri-
cilla) is very seldom seen in this country.

The ivory gull (L. eburneus). — The home of this
species is in Greenland and Spitzbergen, whence it oc-
casionally visits the west coast of Finmark and Nord-
land, in Norway. It also occasionally visits the vici-
nity of Bergen and Throndjem. It feeds on fish, alive
and dead \ and when pressed by hunger, it will eat fish
in a putrid state. Its Norwegian name is hvid-maage,
or white gull.

The kittiwake (L. tridactylus) .— During the summer
months this bird visits the far north ; it is seen on the
Christiania-fjord in autumn when migrating. It is said
to pass the winter in the south of Sweden, when the
weather is not very severe. Mr. Lloyd speaks of an
old female kittiwake that wa£ found alive one winter's
morning in the kitchen of a house at Lund, a town in
the south of Sweden. " During the preceding night
she had fallen down the chimney, on the top of which
she had probably perched to rest herself." Called in
Norway tretaaet-maage, or three-'toed gull. Professor
Keilhau says it breeds on the coast of Finmark. The
nest is made on low rocks, and contains three eggs of
a pale olive colour, marked with gray and brown spots.
Nilsson says that the young are fully fledged by the
beginning of July.

The common gull (L. canus). — Common on all the
Norwegian coasts, and is frequently seen inland, in-
deed, Nilsson says he saw it on the Norwegian moun-
tains ; called here the graa-maage, or gray gull, and
fislt-maage, or fish-gull. Nilsson speaks of a variety
of this species, called in Sweden the hvitspolig fisk-
m'dse, or white-quilled fishing gull, very similar in ap-

THE ICELAND GULL, ETC. 183

pearance to the common gull, but larger in size, and
with a larger bill.

The Iceland gull (L. Islandicus) is found in summer
in great flocks in Iceland, and also in Greenland. It
visits the coast of Finmark and Nordland in wi ter.
Many birds of this species pass the winter in East Fin-
mark, and may be observed on the Var anger-fjord
there. It is called here the Islandsk-maage, or Ice-
land gull. It feeds on live and dead fish, and is by
no means particular as to what it gets. It frequently
follows in the wake of ships to pounce on the offal that
may be thrown overboard. It breeds in Greenland
and Iceland, and keeps company with the glaucous gull
(L. glaucus).

The herring gull (L. argentatus). — Common on all
the Norwegian coasts, in the north, as well as in the
south. It is said to be so common on the island of
Sylt, off the coast of Schleswig, that from thirty to
forty thousand eggs of this species, which are greatly
esteemed for their flavour, are annually sold. It is
called in Norway the store graa maage, or great gray
gull. The nest is made on the bare rock, and contains
three eggs, larger in size than those of other gulls, and
of a greenish-blue colour, marked with brown and ash-
gray spots. It does not migrate from this country.

The great black-backed gull (L. marinus). — Found
in the south of Norway, whence it does not migrate.
It occasionally visits the far north, and has been shot
near Tromso, the capital of Finmark. It feeds on
fishes, young sea-birds, mussels, and small crabs. The
nest is made on the marshes by the sea, and contains
three or four greenish -yellow eggs, marked with large
and small brown-black spots. The eggs are much es-

184 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

teemed as an article of food. It is called in Norway
the hav-maage, or sea-gull.

The lesser black -backed gull (L. fuscus) is found
generally throughout Norway, on the west coast in
January and February, during the herring fishery. In
summer it visits the coast of Finmark. It is called
here the silde-maage, or herring gull, for when the
shoals of herrings make their appearance off the west
coast of this country, and get into the shallow water,
this bird is seen skimming the surface of the sea, and
seizing any straggling young herrings which sport
near the top of the water. When the fishermen see
the herring gulls approach, they know that the fishes
are in the neighbourhood. The appearance, therefore,
of this bird is always considered a welcome sign on
the west coast. It feeds principally on young her-
rings, in pursuit of which, it dives to a considerable
distance under water. The nest is made on barren
land near the sea, and on rocks. The eggs vary much
in colour, and are grayish-brown, pale green, or olive-
green, marked with red-brown and dark brown spots.

The glaucous gull (L. glaucus) is found in Greenland,
Iceland, and Spitzbergen ; a few also breed on the coast
of West Finmark, as well as near the Yaranger-fjord
in East Finmark. It is common in winter off the west
coast of Finmark and Nordland. It is called here the
Spidsberg-maage, or Spitzbergen gull. It is of large
size, being two feet six inches long, and will eat
almost anything; and when pressed by hunger in
winter, it even subsists on the excrement of other
birds. It has a strong penchant for the eggs of other
sea-birds, especially for those of the eider-duck, as
well as for her ducklings. The nest is made on a

THE COMMON SKUA, ETC. 185

liigli rock or precipice by the sea, and contains three
eggs, yellowish-gray in colour, marked with dark
brown and ash-gray spots. Mr. Malm, an eminent
Swedish naturalist, says that this species breeds on
Keno, an island in Bast Finmark, in company with
many thousands of other seafowl.

The "Lestrinas" are only common, in summer, in
the north of Norway. They come south in autumn,
and are then seen in the south and south-west.

The following is Pontoppidan's description of the
skua : — ff Skue er of skabniny ncesten som en stor
maage, og Jculsort som en ravn" that is, " The skua is
in form nearly like a large gull, and coal-black like a
raven." The severe climate of the north has no effect
on these birds.

The common skua (Lestris catarractes) . — This species
is common enough on the northern coasts of Norway.
A straggling bird is occasionally seen near Bergen,
but no further south.

Pontoppidan gives it the character of being very
courageous in defence of its young, " When any per-
son approaches its nest, the skua is not ashamed to
assail him, and strikes hard with its wings ; wherefore,
one must sometimes use one's knife to defend oneself,
against which they fly and kill themselves."

It attacks and kills young gulls, and the young of
other seafowl. It breeds in flocks, and lays two
eggs, yellowish-green in colour, marked with large
and small brown and gray spots.

The pomarine skua (L. pomarinus). — Common in
the same localities as the preceding. It is often seen
in the neighbourhood of the North Cape. It is called
here the bredstjerted-jo, or broad-tailed jo.

186 THE NATUEALIST IN NOEWAY.

Richardson's skua (L. Richardsonii) . — Common all
along the Norwegian coasts. Professor Rasch, of the
University of Christiania, says he once shot two male
birds and a female of this species by the side of a
small inland sea near Mandal, in the south of Norway.
This bird preys on young gulls, on which account it is
called in Norway the jo-tyv, or jo thief.

Buffon's skua (L. Buffonii). — This species is com-
mon in Swedish and Norwegian Lapland. It is seen
in the Dovre-fjeld, as well as in the mountains of Lap-
land, on which account it is called in Sweden the
fjall-lalbe, or mountain mew. Professor Esmark in-
forms me that this species breeds in Finmark, where
it makes its nest by the sides of small inland lakes.

187

CHAPTER XXIV.

The Terns.— The Petrels.— The Great Shearwater.— The Manx Shear-
water.— Seafowl off the Coast of Norway. — Methods of Capturing
them and their Eggs.

THE Caspian tern (Sterna caspia). — This bird makes
its appearance on the west coast of Norway in May,
and migrates in the autumn. It forms its nest on the
bare rock, and lays two or three eggs, of a pale gray
colour, tinged with green, and covered with black and
brown spots.

The Sandwich tern (S. cantiaca) is only a rare visitor
here.

The common tern (S. hirundo) is common every-
where in the north, as well as in the south. It is
called here the almindelig terne, or common tern, and
also makrel terne, or mackerel tern, for it follows the
shoals of mackerel, in pursuit of the small fishes and
marine insects which make for the surface of the
water as the mackerel pass under them.

The roseate tern (8. Dougallii) is merely a casual
visitor to this country ; it has been seen, however, in
Norwegian Lapland. Its habits are but little known

188 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

here. Nilsson says little about it, and Lloyd does not
include it among the Scandinavia fauna. I have been
informed by a Norwegian friend, on the authority of
a German naturalist residing in East Finmark, that
the roseate tern occasionally breeds there. The eggs
are stone colour, marked with black, brown, and gray
spots.

The Arctic tern (S. arctica) is also common in Nor-
wegian Lapland, where it breeds. This species, and
not the common tern, is the 8. hirundo of Linnaeus.
It was Temminck who pointed out the difference. It
much resembles the common tern, except that the
bill is bright red, and short ; the mantle and wings
are of a darker shade than in the other species, while
the legs are much shorter. It is called in Sweden the
rodndbbad tarna, or red-billed tern. It feeds on
fishes, insects, and small crabs. It makes its nest in
a hole in the sand, and lays two or three eggs, similar
in colour to those of the common tern, but smaller in
size.

The lesser tern (8. minuta). — I have only seen a
single specimen of this interesting little species in
Norway. It is pretty common in the south of Sweden,
as well as in Denmark. It lays two or three very
pale stone-coloured eggs, marked with small black and
gray spots.

The black tern (S. nigra). — This bird is pretty
common in marshy places, in the central and southern
parts of this country; it does not visit the extreme
north, nor is it so early a visitor here as some of the
other species. Its Norwegian name is sort ternen, or
black tern. Feeds on insects and larvas, and makes
its nest in marshy places, or by the sides of inland

THE WHISKEEED TEEN, ETC. 189

lakes. It lays three or four yellowish-gray eggs,
marked with brown spots.

The white-winged black tern (S. leucoptera, Tem-
nrinck). — This bird is occasionally seen in Norway
and Sweden. According to Lloyd, it is rare in Den-
mark. Its habits are unknown.

The whiskered tern (S. leucopareia) is simply a
casual visitor here. Kjaerbolling, the Danish natu-
ralist, says that it lays three or four eggs, pale green,
marked with brownish-gray and dark brown spots.

The gull-billed tern (S. Anglica) and the noddy tern
(S. stolida) are neither of them found in Norway.

The storm birds, as the petrels may be called, are
rather common on the west coast of Norway. Bul-
wer's petrel and Wilson's petrel are unknown here.
At any rate, I have not heard, on any trustworthy
authority, that they have been seen in this country.
The habits of these species are, strictly speaking,
maritime. They appear to live on the water, and are
only driven on land by high winds.

The Fulmar petrel (Procellaria glacialis) . — This bird
breeds in the Arctic regions. It is seen by sailors
skimming the water at a long distance from land. It
is often driven by gales of wind on to the coast of
Finmark and Nordland. During severe winters, it is
frequently met with in the south of Norway. I have
seen a specimen that was picked up dead in the E-oyal
Palace gardens at Christiania, after a severe storm.
It is called here the hav-hest, or sea horse, because it
is supposed, when breathing, to imitate the snorting
of a horse, while the way in which it walks the water
is considered to resemble a horse's gallop. The oil
extracted from it is said to be a remedy for rheumatic

190 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

complaints and other ills which flesh is heir to. The
Norwegian peasants consider its flesh to be tender and
well-flavoured. Its food consists of the dead whales
and seals which it finds floating on the sea, as well as
the marine insects adhering to their bodies. The nest
is made in a hole in the shingle on the beach, or in
the fissure of a rock, and contains a single white

egg-

The stormy petrel (Thalassidroma procellaria] is
pretty common off" the west coast of Norway. The
fishermen meet with it many miles from land. It
nests in the holes of a cliff", or under large stones, and
lays a single white egg, much smaller than that of the
Fulmar petrel.

The great shearwater (Puffinus major) is a bird of
occasional occurrence on the north and north-west
coast of Norway ; it is called here the store-skrabe, or
great scraper. Large numbers of this species are
said to breed on the banks of Newfoundland, and a
few in Iceland.

The Manx shearwater (P. Anglorum) is often seen
off the west coast of Norway. The fishermen say
they often fall in with it at a long distance from the
land ; it is called the skrabe, or the scraper, because it
is said to scrape a hole in the sand by the side of a
large stone, where it makes its nest, but does not in-
cubate after the fashion of other birds, for it some-
times lies with its belly on the eggs, at other times on
its back ! It is said to conceal itself by day, and to
venture forth in search of food when the sun has gone
down. The nest is made in a hole in the sand by a
large stone, or in the hole of a rock, and contains one
large white egg.

191

SEAFOWL OFF THE NORWEGIAN COAST.

The north and north-west coast of Norway abound
with various species of seabirds. Speaking of these
winged fowls of the air, Pontoppidan says, " Their
feathers and down, which are collected and sent to
foreign parts, together with their flesh and eggs, afford
a good living to many people, and the good grass
which grows from the manure left by the dung of the
birds on the islands and holms on the coast." The
bishop goes on to state, that the ground on the nume-
rous islands off the coast is so covered with nests that
it is difficult to find a bare spot for one's foot ; and as
for the myriads of seabirds in the air, read what the
same learned divine says about them : — " Tantaque
supervolantium turba, ut nubium instar, solem coelumque
auferant ; tantusque voci/erantium clangor et strepitus,
ut prope alloquentes vix audias."

As the feathers of seafowl are so valuable, it will be
easily understood that the poor fishermen on the coast
readily underwent danger and trouble in procuring
them. On the west coast of Finmark small dogs are
trained to go into holes in the rocks for the purpose of
dragging out the puffins, auks, and guilbmots that
had ensconced themselves there. I have been in-
formed that a small species of dog is trained for the
purpose, and that the little animal goes in, seizes a
bird by the tail, that bird seizes another, and so on in
succession, until the dog backs out of the hole,
dragging a string of birds after him ! Relata refero.

In Pontoppidan's amusing work on the natural his-
tory of Norway, a woodcut is given of the " NordlansJc
fugle -fangst" or method of obtaining seafowl and their

192 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

eggs in the north. " The fowlers," says the bishop,
" either climb up those high and steep rocks, finding
here and there a resting-place for their feet, or else
they are let down from the top, a hundred fathoms or
more, that they may get into the hollow places under
the overhanging cliffs and caves made by nature/'

When the fowlers climbed the rocks they were
assisted in their work by a long pole, twenty feet in
length, and which had an iron hook at the end ; the
men who were standing below fastened the iron hook
at the end of the pole in the waistband of the climber ;
they then gently pushed him up the rock, until he
came to some part of it in which he could place his
feet ; another man was then assisted up in like manner,
and the two men were able to help each other higher
up still. It generally happened, however, that one or
more fowlers perished every year in following their
dangerous but exciting occupation.

Herr Peter Clausen, an ancient Norwegian divine,
who flourished in the early days of the Reformation,
and was a bitter enemy of Popery, states that a law
was then in vogue, that if a fowler were killed in
climbing the rocks, his nearest relation was obliged to
kill himself in a similar manner, and if he refused to
do so, the dead man was denied Christian burial. One
would suppose that few men would be willing to break
their necks for the melancholy satisfaction of knowing
that their deceased relations would be decently in-
terred. If any such absurd law existed, it was doubt-
less made for the purpose of teaching the fowlers
themselves to be careful how they risked their lives.

When the rocks were so high that no one could
climb them, the fowlers were let down from above by

NORWEGIAN FOWLERS. 193

ropes, and thus captured the birds sitting on their
eggs in such numbers that a boat was soon filled with
them. This reminds one of Shakespeare's description
of " one that gathers samphire, dreadful trade I" The
Norwegian fowlers go down precipitous cliffs where
they can barely find places to insert their fingers and
toes, and are nothing daunted, although a hundred
fathoms or more intervene between them and the
bases of the rocks.

194

CHAPTEE XXY.

The Ducks of Norway.— The Eider Ducks.

PONTOPPIDAN mentions a species of duck, which he
calls the stock-and, or log-duck, because it deposited
its eggs on a log of wood immersed in the water ; the
eggs being hatched by the heat of the sun's rays.
This would, probably, be none other than the common
wild duck or mallard, which sometimes places its nest
among timber partly immersed in the water or in the
fork of a decayed tree. Audubon mentions having
found the mallard's nest on large and prostrate logs
three feet above the ground, in the centre of a corn-
brake at a considerable distance from the water. I
once found a mallard's nest in the fork of a decayed
tree in a gentleman's park in Yorkshire, at several
hundred yards from, but in sight of a pond.

It appears to have been believed in ancient times
that certain water-birds, and especially ducks, were
generated on the coast of Great Britain from putrefac-
tions and fermentations in the water. An old writer
says on this subject, ' ' Aves Britannicas non oriri ex
arborum frudibus aut foliis, aut ex lignis navium in

THE COMMON EIDEE. 195

mare decidentibus atque in fungos aut concJiulas degene-
rantibus, fundamentum habeo, quod nee ratio } nee expe-
rimentum, nee auctoritas id persuadet. Concedo equidem
ex lignis putrescentibus in marl nasei vermes, non circa.
Scotiam tantum, sed alibi etiam. Nego tamen aves
Britannicas, de quibus hie sermo est, inde habere ortum
suum" Thus Pontoppidan writes, but it is evident
that the bishop thought it necessary to declare his
unbelief in the peculiar notions entertained in his own
days concerning the origin of British birds ; he goes
on to declare that those birds were produced from eggs,
after incubation, " more alienorum anserum. Probatur
testimonio Alberti Magni, Gerhardi a Vera, et Batavo-
rum, qui id oculis viderunt."

The common eider (Somateria mollissima) is called
in Norway the eddr-fugl, and breeds on the small
islands off the north and north-west coast of Finmark.
It is also common in the Varanger-fjord, in East Fin-
mark, and in the Loffodens. This bird was formerly
very common in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen \
but it has been so persecuted there for the last twenty
years, that its numbers have greatly decreased. The
same may be said of it on the breeding-grounds off
the Norwegian coast. A few straggling birds may
sometimes be seen near Christiansand; and I have
myself seen a remarkably fine male specimen, which
was shot on Ladegaardsoen, near Christiania, in the
month of May.

The down of the eider is more valuable than that of
any other bird. The reason of this is simple : this
species plucks the down off her breast to line her nest
with, hence its elasticity. The down is so elastic, that
the quantity required wherewith to line a large quilt

02

196 THE NATUKALIST IN NOEWAY.

may be compressed in a man's hat. If the down is
plucked by hand from the breast of a dead bird, it has
no elasticity at all.

The eider is strictly preserved in the north of Nor-
way, and is not allowed to be killed north of Thrond-
jem. The penalty is 1 sp. dollar for every bird de-
stroyed, a considerable sum for a Norwegian peasant
to pay. So few birds visit the southern and central
parts of this country, that, the law does not prohibit
the killing of them there. So much care is now taken
of the birds on their breeding- grounds, that a gun is
not allowed to be discharged in the neighbourhood,
for fear it should scare them away. Notwithstanding
all precautions, however, the species gets scarcer and
scarcer every year. The places where they breed are
called in the Norwegian language fugle-vcer, or bird
islands.

The female eider plucks the down from her own
breast, in order to line her nest with it. She is very
tame during the time of incubation, and will quietly
let any person take her off the nest, in order to re-
move the down. A Norwegian naturalist, writing to
me from Hammerfest, the principal town of Norwegian
Lapland, says, — " The eider, though naturally wild,
while sitting on her eggs allows herself to be kicked or
thrown off her nest in the search for down ; and it is not
found that she deserts her nest, or makes another the
same year." I may mention that this bird is so tame,
she even makes her nest under the door-step of the
fisherman's cottage.

Eider-down is soft and elastic, and is pale brown in
colour. It is exported from the north of Norway to
Denmark, France, Kussia, Germany, and Great Britain.

EIDER-DOWN. 197

In Norway the down is used for light beds. These
" overdowns," as they are called here, are uncomfort-
able coverings. They are oppressively hot in summer,
and no doubt check perspiration, being also conducive
to nightmare and wakefulness. It would be difficult,
however, to find a house in Norway where they are
not used.

The people on the coast of Norway are allowed by
law to remove the down twice from the eider's nest.
The bird then covers the eggs a third time with the
down from her breast, which is not permitted to be
taken until the eggs are hatched ; but it should be re-
moved from the nest as soon as the ducklings are out
of their shells, otherwise it will be worthless, especially
if rain should happen to fall on it. The eider covers
her eggs with the down when she leaves her nest in
search of food. Instinct teaches her to do so, in order
to protect the eggs from the gulls, skuas, and crows,
which are constantly on the watch to steal them. The
gull and skua occupy the same terrain as the eider,
and not only steal numbers of the eggs, but commit
sad ravages among the eider ducklings when they first
take to the water.

This species of duck is not affected by the severe
cold of the north. It is constantly on the water, ex-
cept during the time of incubation, and it is frequently
frozen hard and fast in the ice on the fjords. This
only takes place when the winter sets in unusually
early.

Pontoppidan gives us this information concerning
the eider : — " If the first five eggs are taken away the
bird lays again, but" only three eggs, and in another
nest; and if those are stolen, she lays a single egg.

198 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The female sits on the eggs for four weeks, and the
male bird watches by her side. If any human being
or beast of prey approaches the nest, the male bird
cries liu, Tiu} hu, and then the female covers her eggs
with moss and down, which she has ready for the pur-
pose, and joins her mate on the water. If she remains
away too long, the male bird drives her back with his
wings, and if the eggs are spoilt, he gives her a beat-
ing, and deserts her."

The male eider does not at any time sit on the eggs,
but when the ducklings take to the water, he accom-
panies them, and scares away gulls, skuas, and other
birds. The eminent Danish naturalist Kjgerbolling
estimates that 72,000 nests of the eider duck are
found annually in Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen,
and the north of Norway. The number of nests
found in former years was much greater. Kjaerbolling
also states that each nest yields a sixth of a pound of
down. He must be speaking of the down before it
has been cleansed, for I have been informed by a Nor-
wegian naturalist, who resides at Hammerfest, and has
studied the habits of the eider on its breeding- grounds,
that the quantity of clean down procured from each
nest, and fit for sale, does not amount to more than an
ounce. Some years ago the best eider-down could
be purchased at Hammerfest for twelve shillings, Eng-
lish money, per ounce ; now the price is sixteen shil-
lings per ounce, and it is much dearer at Christiania.

The eider feeds on mussels, crabs, shrimps, and
small fishes ; it opens the mussels by throwing them
down from a height on to a rock or stone, when the
shells are broken. The nest is made of dry grass and
seaweed, and is lined with moss and down ; it is never

THE KING EIDER. 199

placed on a spot higher than twenty feet above the
sea level ; the nest contains five or six eggs, as large
as those of a goose, and are grayish -green in colour.
When the pairing season approaches, the male birds
assemble on their fighting grounds and contend for
the possession of the females ; these latter stand
quietly looking on to witness the combats, and appear
to view with complacency the prowess of their fa-
vourites.

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis). — This beau-
tiful species is common enough in Iceland and Spitz-
bergen ; it frequently visits the Loffoden Islands and
the west coast of Finmark, but is seldom seen in any
other part of Norway ; the Swedes call it the prcikt-
ejder, or beautiful eider, and it well deserves the name.

The following is a brief description of the male
bird of this species : — Crown of the head and nape of
the neck, pale lavender or mauve ; cheeks, light sea-
green ; the base of the maxilla has a black line which
runs along each side of the throat, and is triangular in
shape; breast, pale pink; back and mantle, snow*
white ; shoulders, lower parts of the back, stern, and
tail, black ; secondaries, white ; tertials and quills,
black ; belly, vent, and under tail-coverts, black ;
sides, snow-white ; bill, legs, and feet, brown-red ;
irides, orange-red. The contrast and brilliancy of the
colours give the bird a charming appearance. A knob
or protuberance rises from the root of the bill, the
upper edge of which is lined with short white feathers,
while the outer edge is covered with short, black
feathers, as smooth as velvet ; the colour of this knob
is brown-red. The female resembles the common
eider, except she is not so clumsy-looking.

200 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

The Norwegian peasants believe that the king eider
is a very ancient bird of the common species, and as
the protuberance alluded to above somewhat resembles
a crown in shape, they call him the ed&r-konge, or eider
king. The food is much the same as that of the com-
mon species. The eggs are five or six in number, and
are olive-gray in colour; they are rather smaller in
size than those of the common eider.

201

CHAPTEE XXVI.

The Other Species of Duck in Norway.

THE common shieldrake (Tadorna vulpanser) is pretty
common on all the Norwegian lakes and fjords, espe-
cially on Lake Mjosen and on the small lakes in
Thelemarken ; it is called here the ring-gaas, probably
from the band of bright red-brown which passes round
the breast and on to the back ; its Swedish name is
graf-and, or burrowing duck, no doubt because the
female often nests in rabbit burrows by the seaside ;
if she leaves her nest during the season of incubation
for too long a time the male drives her back with his
wings. Pontoppidan asserts that the male and female
sit by turns on the eggs, and that the ducklings are
hatched in four weeks.

The ruddy shieldrake (T. rutila). — Very seldom to
be met with in this country. Norwegian naturalists
know little or nothing of its habits.

The shoveller (Anas clypeata) is another rare bird
here, but has been shot near Christiania and also in
Finmark ; called here the skovl-and, or shovel duck ;
the nest is made of grass, and is lined with the down

202 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

from the breast of the duck herself. The eggs vary
from eight to twelve in number, and are white, tinged
with a greenish shade.

The gadwall (A. strepera). — Another very rare bird
in Norway. The eggs are said to be from seven to
nine in number, and greenish-gray in colour.

The pintail (A. acuta). — Called here the spids-and,
and is common during the breeding-season in Norwe-
gian Lapland ; it is seldom met with in the neighbour-
hood of Christiania. The pintail is said to be partial
to wild berries, especially the bilberry. The female
lays from six to nine dirty white eggs, which she
covers, when in search of food, with the down from
her own breast.

The wild duck (A. bosch.as). — Common in all parts
of this country, in the north as well as in the south,
and even high up among the fjelds where water is to
be found; called here the grces-and, or grass duck,
also the vild-and. In summer this bird is common on
all the inland lakes of Norway ; there visitors to
Christiania will find it on Lake Oieren, a few English
miles distant from the Norwegian capital. When
winter approaches, it betakes itself to the seacoast.
According to Pontoppidan, the male and female sit on
the eggs alternately.

The garganey (A. querquedula) is occasionally seen
in the south and south-west of Norway. The nest is
made on marshy ground of reeds, grass, and down
from the bird's breast, and contains from nine to
twelve very pale buff eggs.

The teal (A. crecca). — Next to the wild duck, this is
the most common species to be met with in this coun-
try ; it breeds on marshy ground on the fjelds, on the

THE WIGEON, ETC. 203

islands off the south-west coast, and in Norwegian
Lapland ; called here the krik-and ; it nests on marshy
ground, and lays from eight to twelve very pale buff
eggs, marked with almost imperceptible brown spots.
Nilsson says of this species, " Kottet dr Idckcrt/3 or,
"its flesh is dainty/'

The wigeon (A. Penelope) is very common during
the summer months in Nordland and Finmark, where
it breeds ; it is seen in flocks in the vicinity of Chris-
tiania in autumn as well as at the mouth of the
Glommen, the largest river in Norway. The Norwe-
gian name is pip-and. The favourite breeding-grounds
are by the sides of the northern lakes ; the nest is
lined with the down from the bird's breast, and con-
tains from six to eight creamy-white eggs. Nilsson
says that the female has her ducklings with her as
early as Midsummer.

The American wigeon (A. Americana). — A bird of
very rare occurrence in this country.

Steller's western duck (A. Stelleri) is occasionally
seen in East Finmark ; breeds in Kamskatka ; is said
to arrive on the Yaranger-fjord in East Finmark in
May, but does not make its appearance there every
year. The following is the description of a male and
female shot in East Finmark : — The male bird has the
head and neck grayish-white, with a small patch of
dark green on the forehead and occiput ; throat and
lower part of the neck, running on to the back, me-
tallic blue-black ; a white ring round the neck ; breast,
belly, and flanks, pale red-brown ; back, lower part
of wing, and tail, blue-black ; shoulder of wing,
white ; quills, bluish-brown ; a curl of pure white
feathers on the frontal part of the wing ; vent and

204 THE NATCTKALIST IN NORWAY.

under tail-feathers, dusky-brown; irides, red-brown;
speculum, white ; a circle of black round eaoh eye ;
bill, legs, and feet, black. The female is pale brown,
pencilled with dark brown; speculum, blue-black; the
feathers tipped with white.

Steller's duck is called in Sweden the Alforr adore, or
betrayer of the long-tailed hareld, because it immedi-
ately precedes the arrival of that bird, and seems to an-
nounce its coming, for soon after Steller's duck appears
the long-tailed duck is observed in the same locality.

The velvet scoter (Oidemia fusca) . — Common during
the breeding-season in Lapland . It is found in the spring
and autumn on the Christiania-fjord, and is the last of
the duck tribe to leave the stormy region of the North
Cape. Also common on the small lakes in the western
fjelds of Norway. Many male birds of the species are
observed on the Christiania-fjord in July, having appa-
rently deserted the females when they have their duck-
lings with them. Although a bird delighting in high
latitudes, it is said by Nilsson not to visit either Ice-
land or Greenland. Called in Norway the svart-and,
or swarthy duck. The nest contains from eight to
twelve pale buff eggs of a large size. Only partially
migrates, and numbers remain in the south of Norway
throughout the winter.

The common scoter (0. nigra). — This bird breeds
in Lapland, and is common there. In autumn many
young birds of the year are observed on the Christi-
ania-fjord. Partially migrates ; nests under a low
bush by the side of a lake, and lays from eight to ten
very pale-yellow eggs, rather smaller in size than
those of the preceding species. Called in Norway the
sj'oorre, or sea blackcock.

THE SURF SCOTER, ETC. 205

The surf scoter (O.perspidllata). — Occasionally seen
in Finmark, where a few pairs are said to breed. Very
little is known of its nidification, except that the eggs
are said to be white.

The tufted duck (Fuligula cristata). — This bird is
called in Norway the top-and, or crested duck. It is
common in Finmark, where it breeds. Observed near
Christiania and in the southern parts of this country
in autumn. The Swedes give it the name of viggen,
or the wedge, from its fanciful resemblance to that ar-
ticle, as the bird lies on the surface of the water. The
nest contains from six to eight greenish-gray eggs.
The flesh is very oily and fat, and the Norwegian pea-
sants make soup of it.

The scaup duck (F. marila). — Called here the
berq-and. or mountain duck. Breeds in Finmark, and

«/ J 7

also, so it is said, in the western fjelds of this country.
The nest is made in the herbage by the side of a lake,
and contains from eight to ten olive-gray eggs, tinged
with green. Incubation begins at the end of May.

The pochard (F.ferina) is one of the rarest ducks
in this country. It is common enough in Iceland,
where it breeds. Passes through Norway when mi-
grating. The Swedes give it the name of rodhalsad
dykand, or red-necked diving duck. The nest is made
in coarse herbage by the water, and the bird lines it
with down from her own breast. She lays from nine
to fourteen yellowish-gray eggs, sometimes tinted with
green. Nilsson says of it, " Kottet dr fortraffligt" or,
" its flesh is excellent."

The ferruginous duck (F. nyroca) is of rare occur-
rence here. It is said to breed in Schleswig and
Holstein.

206 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

The golden eye (F. dangula) is common in Fin-
mark, and also on the Throndjem-fjord during the
breeding-season. It is seen in the Christiania-fjord in
the spring, on its way to the north ; called in Norway
the knip-and. Lloyd says of it, " From the brilliancy
of the eye of this bird, there is a saying in Sweden,
' Klart som ett knip-oga,' that is, ' bright as the eye of
the golden-eye garrot.' '• The peasants of Fimnark
are partial to the eggs of this species. The nest is
made under a low bush, and sometimes in the hole of a
tree, and contains from nine to twelve pale-green eggs,
tinted with blue. When the nest is made in a tree,
the mother takes the ducklings, one at a time, to the
water, by holding them between her neck and bill.

Burro w^s golden-eye is occasionally seen in Finmark.
It has been shot on the Varanger-fjord. Breeds in
Iceland, and lays from ten to fourteen pale-green eggs.
The buffel-headed duck (F. albeola) has not been seen
in Norway.

The harlequin duck (F. histrionica) is only of rare
occurrence here; I have, however, seen a male and
female that were shot in Finmark. According to
Nilsson, albino varieties of this species have been seen
in Sweden that were white, streaked with brown. The
harlequin is called in Sweden the strom-and, and in
Iceland the straum-ond, both appellations signifying
stream duck. The nest is made by the side of a run-
ning stream, and contains from six to nine pale yel-
lowish-white eggs.

The long-tailed duck (F. glacialis). — This beau-
tiful bird is common during the breeding-season
in Norwegian Lapland ; also in the Dovre-fjeld, where
it has been captured by a small lake in its full breed-

THE LONG-TAILED DUCK, ETC. 207

ing plumage ; it also breeds in the western fjelds of
Norway. In spring and autumn it is by no means un-
common on the fjord near Christiania. Nils son says
that numbers of the long-tailed duck pass the winter
in the south coast of Sweden, in natural openings in
the ice. Mr. Von Wright confirms this statement,
and asserts that this bird dives down through the
openings in the frozen water, which are, however,
generally covered with a film of ice as thin as a wafer.
It probably does the same in the south of Norway, as
it is called here the iis-and, or ice duck. I have exa-
mined many specimens of this species in Norway, no
two of which were alike. The colours of the plumage
vary considerably when the breeding-season is over.
A beautiful specimen, in its full breeding plumage,
may be seen in the Zoological Museum at Christiania.
When the long-tailed duck goes to the inland lakes to
breed, it feeds on aquatic plants ; on its return to the
seacoast, it feeds on mollusks. The nest is made in
the herbage on marshy ground, and is lined with the
down from the bird's breast. The eggs are from six
to eight in number, and are pale yellowish-gray in
colour. During the time of incubation the male de-
serts the female, but returns to her when the duck-
lings make their appearance, and carefully leads them
to the water.

The smew (Mergus albellus) is of very rare occur-
ence in this country. It breeds in Siberia.

The red-breasted merganser (M. serrator). — Com-
mon in all parts of Norway. The Norwegian fisher-
men consider that when it makes its appearance on
the coast, it is a sign that the winter is drawing to a
close. Called here langncebbet fisk-and, or long-billed

208 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

fish-duck. The food consists entirely of slimy kinds
of fish, especially eels, in seizing which the bird is
greatly assisted by its saw-like bill. The female lays
from six to ten pale buff eggs, of a large size.

The hooded merganser (M. cucullatus) has not been
seen in Norway.

The goosander (If. merganser}. — This bird is found
generally throughout Norway, and is as common on
the large rivers and fjords as on the coast. Everest
states, that he found its nest off Oster Bisoer, on the
south coast of Norway, which contained five eggs, of
a reddish-white colour. Its Norwegian name is stor
fisk-and, or great fish-duck. It appears to indulge in
a plurality of wives, as it is generally followed by two
or three females.

Nilsson says, that he once shot a male bird of this
species, which had a kind of eel (Zoarceus viviparus),
twelve inches long, which it had partly swallowed;
the tail of the eel reached as far as the bill of the
bird, and the head was already partly digested in its
stomach.

Naturalists have often been puzzled to know how
the female could convey her young to the water, when
she made her nest in a tree. I have been informed
that she seizes the young bird by the neck, swings it
over her back, and thus conveys it to its natural ele-
ment; returning to' the nest, she repeats the process
over and over again, until she has brought all her
young ones to the water, when she sails away with
them in triumph.' The flesh of the goosander is by
no means palatable, being oily and fishy, but the Nor-
wegian peasants declare that it makes excellent soup.
De gustibus non est disputandum.

209

CHAPTER XXVII.

The Fisheries of Norway.— The Herring Fishery.— The Cod Fishery —
Salmon and Salmon-Bivers in Norway.

IT is well known that the principal wealth of Norway
consists in her fisheries ; these are to be found on the
west and northern coasts. The herring fishery is
carried on about Stavanger and other parts of the
west coast, while the cod fishery is to be found in the
neighbourhood of the Loffoden Islands, and on the
west coast of Finmark. The town of Bergen main-
tains a considerable and lucrative trade in the export
of stock-fish and salted herrings. Thousands of bar-
rels of cod and herrings are sent every year from
Bergen to Spain, Portugal, Italy, and other Roman
Catholic countries, to be eaten on fast-days.

The herring fishery here commences with the new
year, and lasts for three or four months ; it is also
carried on for a short time in autumn. As the season
approaches, many precautions are taken, so that the
arrival of the shoals of fish may be known as soon as
they make their appearance in the shallow waters off
:he coast. The letting down of the nets into the sea

p

210 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

is an expensive business, and it is necessary, therefore,
that the " take " should be large enough to pay. The
men let down their nets under the orders of a head
man or captain ; there is, however, much shouting and
noise when this is done, so that the Norwegians have
a proverb to this effect, which is supposed to be ex-
pressive of any scene of noise and bustle, " Det var
som om man sJculde ved med en silde-net" or, in En-
glish, " That was as if a herring- net should be brought
up." When a cast of the net has been made, the
boats approach to take out the fishes ; this is accom-
plished by means of a large basket, fastened to a long
pole. Sometimes it happens that the fishes are too
numerous to be all removed at one time ; then the net
is fastened, which is called en laas, or a lock. When
the net is emptied, the fishes are taken in boats to the
shore, where they are salted down in barrels ; an in-
cision is first made in the neck of the fish, so as to
enable the brine to penetrate easily. The salt used is
of the coarsest kind, and it requires a very strong
stomach to digest an ordinary salted herring in Nor-
way. Sometimes a Norwegian peasant will bring out
a barrel of herrings that has been kept a year, to
knock off the head and pour off the brine ; the stench
that arises is abominable, but the worthy man eyes
his treasure as if it were the most delicious dainty.

The herrings taken off the Norwegian coast appear
to be smaller in size than the English fish of the same
kind. This is, perhaps, owing to the fact that the
meshes of the English fisherman's net must, according
to law, be of a certain size, so as to allow the smaller
fishes to pass through and escape; whereas, no re-
striction of the kind is imposed on the Norwegian

THE FISHEKIES OP NOEWAY. 211

fisherman. This is a mistake, for the herring is a
timid and fanciful fish, and abandons certain parts of
a coast where it is too much persecuted. For this
reason, it frequently happens that the herring fishery
in this country varies very much, and is not so good
in some seasons as it is at others.

The herrings make their appearance off the west
coast of Norway, in immense shoals (stimle), by about
the beginning of January, and are pursued by whales,
seals, dolphins, and other large fishes, as well as by
gulls and other birds, that devour great quantities of
them. The herring gull (Larus argentatus) is always
a welcome bird to the fisherman, who knows by its
appearance that the herrings are not far off. This
species of gull skims the surface of the water, and
preys on the young herrings that, in their sportive
gambols, come up to breathe, or to throw themselves
into the air.

I may mention, by way of giving an estimate of the
importance of this fishery, that no less than 800,000
barrels of salted herrings are put on one side during
a single season, extending over three or four months,
to say nothing of immense numbers that are eaten
all over the country while they are fresh. The barrels
of salted herrings are exported from Bergen, Stavanger,
and other towns on the west coast, not only to ports
in the Mediterranean, but also to many places in
Norway, for the peasants in this country live for the
most part on salted herrings during the winter months.
Fresh herrings may be purchased at Christiania, during
the season, for about fourpence the score. The Nor-
wegian red herring is a small fish, and is generally
eaten in a raw state ; it is very inferior in flavour to
the Yarmouth bloater. p 2

212 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

As the herring fishery, in Norway, is carried on
during the most inclement part of the winter, it is
attended with great hardships. Many thousands of
poor fishermen assemble on the west coast, and ac-
commodation for them is but scanty. They live in
huts, and are much exposed to the inclemency of the
weather, for the climate of that part of Norway is
damp, and generally foggy. These poor fishermen
are a quiet and orderly race, of thrifty habits, and the
hard labour in which they are engaged from morning
until night allows them no time for quarrels or dis-
putes.

The cod fishery is carried on off the Loffoden Is-
lands, a group extending from Bodo, the capital of
Nordland, to some distance beyond Tromso, the capital
of Finmark, or Norwegian Lapland. Their southern
extremity is twenty miles from the mainland, which
the islands gradually approach, until further north-
wards they form a channel. The people of Bodo,
Tromso, Hammerfest, and other places in the north,
almost depend for their subsistence on the fisheries.
About 16,000 fishermen assemble on the Loffodens
by about the beginning of February, when the fishing
for cod commences, and lasts until the middle or end
of April. The cod are caught in the west fjord,, off
the east coast of the Loffodens. The depth of water
can be sounded at a distance of fourteen miles from
the islands, where it varies from 200 to 300 fathoms.
The fishing " banks," as they are called, which are, in
fact, terraces under water, are nearer the islands.
These banks, or ledges, which are perpendicular, have
no gradual slope, and are three in number. The first
lies at a depth of 30 or 40 fathoms, when it drops

THE FISHERIES OF NORWAY. 213

suddenly to tlie second, which is at a depth of about
40 or 50 fathoms; again, the third bank drops sud-
denly, and without any slope whatever, to a depth of
about 120 fathoms. South of these natural ledges,
there is no bottom at 300 fathoms. The cod resort
to these natural terraces to spawn, and because there
they are protected from the winds and waves. When
caught, the cod are salted or dried, and then become
the stock-fish of commerce. They are then conveyed
in jagts, or smacks, small vessels with one large sail,
to Throndjem, Christiansand, Bergen, and Stavanger,
to be ready for exportation. The fishery produces
from sixteen to eighteen millions of cod every season,
besides 20,000 barrels of cod-liver oil, and 6000 bar-
rels of cods' roe.

Cod-liver oil is very cheap in Norway, as well as
pure and good, for its yield is so great that it is not
worth while to adulterate it ; the best oil is brown in
colour. The people on the whole of the north-west
coast of Norway depend on the cod -fishery for their
livelihood. The trade is one of barter ; the merchant
receives his stipulated amount of fish from the fisher-
men, and pays in kind. The latter are often deeply
in debt to the former; that is, they receive their
payments in goods in advance, and are then unable
to pay in fish. This is a pernicious system ; it pre-
vents thrifty habits, with attendant evils, among the
fishermen.

The famous Mahlstrom is in the neighbourhood of
the Loffoden Islands. This celebrated whirlpool or
current has been greatly exaggerated ; the stories of
ships and whales having been sucked in by it are
simply fabulous. It is situated between Moskeno, an

214 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

island of the Loffoden group, and Loppod point. The
swiftness of the current depends on the wind and
state of the weather and tide. With a boisterous
west wind, the current runs constantly to the east-
ward, both with the ebb and flood ; if the sea then
rises, the velocity of the current increases, and the
sound is rendered unnavigable. During winter storms,
and even when a strong gale is blowing in summer,
it is not safe to go through the channel ; but with a
fair wind, and in fine weather, there is no danger.
There is at no time a vortex, although ships caught in
the current may be drifted on to the rocks, and be
lost ; to avoid the most dangerous part, it is necessary
to keep to the Loppod point. So little is thought of
the Mahlstrom by the hardy northern mariners, who
are acquainted with it, that the frail barks of the
country pass and repass at all states of the tide, except
under the circumstances previously described. Small
boats actually fish in the centre of the channel. Far
from drawing in great whales, the fish sport about
in the current; and experienced fishermen, knowing
this, lay down their lines there ; for it is certain that
all kinds of fish, whether in fresh or salt water, prefer
localities where there are eddies or currents.

The Norwegians are great epicures as regards salt-
water fish, which must be brought to their doors
alive, otherwise, they will not purchase. The small
cod-fish only is eaten at a gentleman's table, and the
larger ones are considered only fit for poor people.
" There is an art in the roasting of eggs," and cer-
tainly nothing can be more delicious than a young
cod, purchased alive at one's door in a Norwegian
town, then killed and cleaned, boiled in water with a

CKABS, LOBSTEES, ETC. 215

few pinches of salt, and served with a sauce, of which
sour cream forms the principal ingredient. Soles are
almost unknown in Norway, and I never saw more
than a single pair of that popular English fish in the
Christiania fish-market. On inquiring their price of
the old woman to whom they belonged, her answer
was, " Oh, take them for nothing if you like, they are
nasty sea-devils !" Although the sole is so scarce
here, the common flat fish is abundant enough. The
whiting and mackerel are also very common and
cheap, the latter especially so, as it is only eaten by
poor people, from the popular belief that it preys on
the bodies of those who have been drowned at sea.
A short time since, some sailors who perished in a
shipwreck in the Christiania-fjord, were found to have
been half eaten by mackerel ; the fish has been very
unpopular in the town ever since. A horrible story
is related of a man who, bathing in the Christiania-
fjord, was set upon and devoured by a shoal of
mackerel ; he was seen struggling in the water, with
his arms and the upper part of his body covered with
mackerel as thick as bees.

Crabs are very common in some of the Norwegian
fjords, and a favourite dish in this country is a hot
crab-pie. The crab is carefully shelled, and is then
placed in a dish covered with a thick layer of puff-
paste ; this is a very appetizing dish.

Lobsters are found in any quantity off the south
coast of Norway, and a soup made of young lobsters
is delicious — a dainty dish even for Lucullus ; thou-
sands of lobsters are sent annually from Laurvig, a
small seaport in the south of Norway, to the London
markets. I have frequently purchased live lobsters in

216 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

the Christiania market for sixpence per dozen. Only
the small lobsters are eaten here, the larger and
coarser ones are exported ; considering the difference
of price between Norway and London, the profits of
the Norwegian lobster-trade must be enormous.

The dolphin is common in some of the larger Nor-
wegian fjords, and is eaten by all classes. The flesh
is firm, and has somewhat the flavour of fresh pork.
The common seal is also common in the Norwegian
fjords. I have often seen seals basking in the sun on
the low rocks in the fjord near Christiania ; they
shuffle off to the water as soon as any one approaches.
Whales are occasionally seen off the coast of Finmark ;
the same may be said of sharks during the summer
months, on the south coast of Norway.

While on the subject of fishing, I may just mention
a peculiar method of capturing fish, which is common
to Norway and Scotland. The fishes are caught at
night by a trident, or barbed spear, called in Scotland
a ' ' leister," and in Norway " en lyster" A bright
fire of coals is made in a grating in the bow of a boat,
and the light attracts the fishes, which come to look
at the blaze, when a man stands ready with the leister,
so as to spear the fish as it comes into view.

The traveller in this country who is fond of novelty,
may just ask for and taste a morsel of rak-oret. This
is literally rotten fish. It is generally made of trout,
which is buried in the ground until it is in a state of
putrefaction, when it is taken up and eaten. The
flavour may be imagined, but cannot be described ; it
is, however, considered a great delicacy by certain
Norwegians, even of the better class.

Although the English sportsman who visits Norway

THE SALMON-EIVEES OF NORWAY. 217

for the purpose of bear or reindeer hunting, may,
perhaps, have to return home disappointed with his
luck, such is not likely to be the case, if he is fond of
salmon -fishing, and comes here to follow that pursuit.
This may be called, par excellence, the national sport
of Norway. Its numerous and large rivers abound
with fine salmon ; large sea-trout are to be caught at
the mouths of many of the rivers running into the
fjords ; and delicious salmon-trout (Salmo trutta) may
be purchased, in season, at any market-town ; trout
are plentiful in nearly all the rivers and lakes. The
following are the principal salmon-rivers in Norway.
The Norwegian word elv signifies river.

SALMON-EIVEES NEAE CHEISTTANIA.

It unfortunately happens that the fishing near the
capital of Norway is hardly worth having. Some
salmon are to be found in the Drammen Elv, near the
town of that name, and large sea-trout are to be caught
at its mouth.

The Yormen Elv, which runs into the Glommen at
L^ke Mjosen, has salmon in it, as also the Glommen
itself.

Excellent trout-fishing is to be had in the small
lakes, which are situated at a distance of from fifteen
to twenty English miles from Christiania. Lake
Oieren may be specially mentioned.

Excellent grayling-fishing may be had in the Vor-
men, near Eidsvold, about forty miles from Chris-
tiania, and which can be reached by the railway.

The pike-perch, which grows to a large size, some
twenty pounds or more, is to be met with in Lake

218 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

Oieren. In this inland lake, at times, there is also
some good wild-duck shooting, as well as snipes.
Good woodcock shooting may be had near Christiania,
but there are no ryper, elk, or reindeer.

THE SOUTH OP NORWAY.

The fishing in the south of Norway is not to be
compared with that in the north.

The Torrisdals Ely, which runs into the sea near
Christiansand, contains some good salmon. The same
may be said of the Mandals Elv. The Logen, near
Laurvig, is the best salmon-river in the south of Nor-
way. Some good fishing may be had in some of the
rivers between the towns of Mandal and Stavanger.

The shooting in the south of Norway is very indif-
ferent. Black game may occasionally be had, and an
English friend, who was staying for a time at Chris-
tiansand in his yacht, informed me that he had had
good sport in the vicinity with the "brown bird/'
The expression was somewhat indefinite ; perhaps he
meant the hjerpe.

THELEMARKEN.

There are some good salmon-rivers in this beautiful
district, and trout are plentiful in the lakes. Barnard,
in his ' Sport in Norway/ says, " The river running
into the lake (Bandags Yand) here is a magnificent
trout-stream, and has some pools which an ardent
fisherman will rejoice to wet his line in. ^ery large
trout can be taken, and those fond of spinning will
find good sport by rowing to and fro across the mouth
of the river where it debouches into the lake."

The rak-oret, mentioned before, is mostly made from

THE SALMON-RIVERS OF NORWAY. 219

trout taken from the Mjos Vand, in this district ; this
lake is 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The
trout in the immediate neighbourhood are as red as
salmon.

The shooting in this part of Norway is excellent.
Ryper are plentiful in the fjelds, as also reindeer; and
bears are numerous.

SONDRE BERGENHUUS.

This amt, of which Bergen is the capital, contains
many good salmon-rivers, which are easy of access to
English travellers, as there is a regular summer com-
munication between Hull and Bergen by Messrs. T.
Wilson and Sons' steamers.

The Steindals Elv contains salmon, but they are
small in size. A steamer from Bergen lands pas-
sengers at Ostensjo, within a walk of the Steindals.
The Ostudfos, one of the highest waterfalls in this
country, is in the neighbourhood.

The Vik Elv, which runs into the upper end of the
Hardanger-fjord, is a small but good river. The Vo-
ring, one of the most magnificent waterfalls in Norway,
if not in Europe, may be visited from hence.

The Vosse Elv and the Bolstedb'ren Elv are excel-
lent salmon-rivers north of Bergen, and contain large
fishes.

Eeindeer are found in the Hardanger fjelds, but are
not so common as in the Fille and Dovre fjelds.

This part of Norway is celebrated for its bold and
romantic scenery.

NORDRE BERGENHUUS.
In this amt is the Sogne-fjord, into which many

220 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

rivers run, all of which, more or less, contain salmon ;
the Lierdals Elv and the Aardals Elv are the best.

The Aurlands Elv runs into the Aurland-fjord, a
branch of the Sogne-fjord, and contains some good
salmon. Large sea-trout may be found at the mouths
of the three last-mentioned rivers.

The Gudvangen is an excellent river, and possesses
the advantage of having a good station near it.

The general shooting in this amt is good. There
are plenty of ryper in the fjelds, some capercaillie in
the woods ; while, to those who are fond of adventure,
a bear-hunt will afford good sport, for Bruin is rather
common here.

ROMSDAL.

The English tourist or sportsman who lands at
Christiania can proceed to this amt by road, visiting
Lake Mjosen, and the lovely valley of Gudbrandsdal,
on his way northwards. The Gudbrandsdal may be
considered the best part of Norway for general sport.
Its rivers and lakes contain salmon and trout ; while
good reindeer-shooting may be had in the mountains.
The feathered game are, perhaps, more numerous in
Gudbrandsdal than anywhere else in this country. At
the mouth of the Romsdal-fjord is Molde, at which the
steamer from Bergen to the north lands passengers.

The Rauma Elv is the best river in this amt ; it also
contains trout of a large size. The salmon in this
river run large ; indeed, it may be said of salmon-
fishing in general in Norway, the farther north, the
larger the fish.

The Sundals Elv, which rises in the Dovre-fjeld, is
another good river. The same may be said of the

THE SALMON-RIVERS OP NORWAY. 221

Eridsfjord Elv, which falls into a branch of the Lange-
fjord. Further north is the Surendal Elv, a first-class
salmon river; further north of which again is the
Boevre Elv. All these rivers abound with fine trout.

SONDRE THRONDJEMS AMT.

The Guul Elv, which falls into the Throndj em-fjord
a few miles below that city, is one of the most cele-
brated salmon-rivers in this country.

The Nid Elv, near Throndjem, has some first-class
salmon in it. Below the Leer-fos is a very pretty
waterfall.

The salmon in many of the rivers in this amt are
very large ; and it is by no means uncommon to catch
a fish weighing forty pounds. The reindeer-shooting
in the Dovre-fjeld, which is in Sondre Throndjems
Amt, is the best sport of the kind to be had in Nor-
way. Here, also, is the best ryper shooting. On Hit-
teren, an island off the coast near Throndjem, there
are some red deer, the only place in Norway where
they are found. Permission could be obtained, no
doubt, for a day's sport there. Bears may occasionally
be met with in this amt.

NORDRE THRONDJEMS AMT.

The Namsen Elv, the most celebrated salmon-river
in Norway, is in this amt. It rises in the Nams Vand,
a lake 1300 feet above the level of the sea; and the
river itself is reached by steamer from Throndjem.
The whole of the fishing on this noted river has been
leased to Englishmen, a hint which the angler will
probably understand. The fishing below the Fiskum-
fos is supposed to be the best ; and here a salmon was

222 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

once caught which weighed sixty pounds. The Sand-
dola Elv, which runs into the Namsen, is a good river
for salmon.

Good ryper, capercaillie, and black-game shooting,
may be had in this amt. Here, also, are numerous
herds of reindeer and many bears. An encampment
of Lapps may sometimes be met with in this amt.

NORDLAND.

Comparatively speaking, but little is known of the
fishing in this amt. It is said to contain many excel-
lent rivers, but owing to the scarcity of roads, and the
extensive forests, it is almost a terra incognita.

The Beiren Elv is a small but good river, in the
neighbourhood of Bodo, a town on the coast of Nor-
land. The steamer from Throndjem stops at Bodo ;
and the Loffoden Islands may be visited from thence.

The shooting in this amt is very poor. There are
plenty of bears, but they keep in the recesses of the
forest, and very seldom venture forth.

FINMARK.

This is the most northern amt in Norway, and is
better known to English people by the name of Nor-
wegian Lapland.

The Alten Elv. — This noted salmon-river was visited
a year or two ago by the Duke of Edinburgh, accom-
panied by the Duke of Roxburgh, to whom it afforded
some excellent sport. The Alten falls into the fjord
of the same name. A Norwegian friend, who resides
in Finmark, informs me that he has caught salmon
weighing forty pounds in this river, which has about

THE SALMON-EIVEES OF NOEWAY. 223

twenty-five English miles of good fishing in it, the
whole of which is leased.

The Jacobs Elv falls into the Varanger-fjord in East
Finmark, and is another good river. The Tana Elv
divides Norwegian from Eussian Lapland, and con-
tains plenty of salmon. Char are found in the Kemi
Elv, near Hammerfest, which take the fly.

Excellent ryper shooting may be had on some of the
islands off the coast of Finmark, and bears are nume-
rous on the mainland.

224

CHAPTER XXYIII.

The Climate of Norway.— Its Effect on Vegetation.— Wild Berries.—
Vegetables . — Trees . — Minerals .

THE short Norwegian summer is oppressively hot,
while the long and dreary winter is cold in proportion.
The climate is, however, by no means unhealthy, and
suits Englishmen very well, whose constitutions are
not delicate. In winter, the cold here is intense. In
the northern parts of the Scandinavian peninsula the
glass often marks 40° below the zero of Fahrenheit.
It is a peculiarity of this intense cold that it is not
felt so much as one might suppose, unless a person is
travelling or walking quickly. The cold appears to
have the power of freezing the wind ; and were it not
for the appearance of ice and snow in all directions,
people would hardly know that the weather was so
cold. When the atmosphere is in this state, although
the cold is not so perceptible as one might think, yet
if a person were to ascend to the top story of a house,
and throw down from thence a basin of warm water,
it would be a lump of ice by the time it reached the
ground.

AGRICULTURE IN NORWAY. 225

The sea on the western coast of Finmark is never
frozen, because it is under the influence of the Gulf
Stream, which keeps it at a moderate temperature
throughout the most severe winters. The Baltic is
frozen in winter, because its waters are shallow, and
many large rivers flow into it, thereby lowering the
temperature. The Christian ia-fjord is never frozen,
except near the town itself, because its waters are
deep ; and the rivers which run into it are small and
unimportant. The rivers of Norway are always frozen
in winter.

The climate of Christiania is pleasant throughout
the year; its temperature is equable; and, although
the cold in winter is severe, it is not disagreeably so,
on account of the dry ness of the air.

Agriculture is rather in a primitive condition here,
and the bonde, or peasant farmer, does the best he can
with his few acres, which yield a scanty subsistence for
himself and family. Very little wheat is grown in this
country; it is generally imported from Spain, Ger-
many, and Russia. Barley and rye, as well as oats,
are extensively produced. Vegetation is very rapid
here, for the days are so long, and the nights are so
short, in these northern latitudes, that nature is always
making progress. It is said that barley will grow
two-and-a-half inches in the course of twenty-four
hours in the extreme north of Norway. It is planted
and harvested in the short space of ten weeks. In
Finmark, however, the crops often do not ripen
at all.

The climate of this country has a peculiar effect on
all flowering plants. The flowers are brighter in co-
lour, and the scent is much more powerful than in

Q

226 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

England; on the other hand, although various fruits
ripen out-of-doors here, their flavour is much inferior
to those of the same kind grown in more southern
countries.

Wheat does not grow further north than 64°, oats
up to 68|°, rye up to 69° ; barley as high as 70°. In
the latitude of the North Cape, the sun is above the
horizon from the middle of May to the end of July.
During that time vegetation is constantly progressing,
and it may be remarked that the grass grows beneath
the snow. The sun is below the horizon from Novem-
ber 17th to January 26th. There is no intermediate
season between winter and summer. By the end of
April, the season begins to change from ice and snow
to excessive warmth, and in the middle of May the earth
is covered with a green mantle, and the trees are in
leaf.

The common blue hyacinth, the primrose, the snow-
drop, the violet, and the lily of the valley grow abun-
dantly in the woods round Christiania. Various spe-
cies of ferns are common in different parts of the
country, and the following plants, among others, may
be found: — Pinguicula villosa, Triticum violaceum,
Epilobium origanifolium, Stellaria alpestris, Equisetwn
variegatum, Woodsia ilvensis, Ranunculus nivalis, Saxi-
fraga cotyledonj Equisetum hyemale, and Woodsia hy-
perborea, etc.

Professor Blytt, an eminent Norwegian botanist,
who is now no more, has found in the Dovre-fjeld
alone, no less than 200 mosses, 150 lichens, 50 algae,
and 439 phanerogamous plants and ferns.

There are no shady shrubberies in Norwegian coun-
try districts, as there are in England. No doubt the

WILD BEEEIES OF NORWAY. 227

severe winter would destroy our English evergreen
plants, and so they are not grown at all in Norway.
The people in towns contrive to grow green shrubs in
their rooms, among which a common lily appears to
be preferred, which afford a pleasant relief to the eyes,
which often smart in winter from constantly looking
at the snow. I have even seen large green trees
growing in rooms, in large tubs, in this country,
reaching nearly as high as the ceiling, and which
would be left to grow in the open air in England. In
the drawing-rooms of houses, a moveable trellis-work
may often be seen, which is placed near the window,
and is covered with deliciously green ivy; then the
windows are generally full of plants that are green in
winter, such as myrtle, box, etc. Almost every kind
of everlasting flower may be met with in Norwegian
towns, but I fancy they come from Germany. These
everlasting flowers are much used in Norway in the
making of wreaths, immortelles, and crosses, with
which graves are decorated.

THE WILD BEREIES OF NORWAY.

Bilberry (V. myrtillus). — Grows in a wild state over
the whole of this country, and is sent in barrels to
England, where it is sold as coming from Russia.
Norwegian name, Uaabcer. It is said in Norway that
the brown bear at times feeds voraciously on this
berry, and so sets his teeth on edge by its acidity,
that he is obliged to turn to a flesh diet by way of a
change, when, of course, he commits extensive inroads
on the farmers' cattle.

Cloudberry (Rubus Chamcemorus) . — Grows plenti-
fully on all marshy grounds. It is common in Fin-

Q2

228 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

mark, and is called multebcer here. The plant has a
leaf like a strawberry, and the fruit is found at the
end of an upright stalk ; it is pale buff in colour,
and somewhat resembles a mulberry in shape. It is
eaten with cream, and has a pleasant flavour after one
is accustomed to it ; while it is said to be an excellent
antiscorbutic. It grows in latitude 71°. The Nor-
wegians are very partial to this berry, and eat it with
avidity whenever they can get it. It is rather dear,
and but little of it comes to market; what does, is
immediately bought up.

Mulberry (Moms alba et nigra). — Both kinds grow
in the south of Norway.

Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia) . — Grows wild here,
but not in the extreme north.

Kaspberry (Eubus idceus). — Called in Norway, bringe-
bcer. It grows wild up to latitude 70°.

Strawberry (Fragaria vesca). — Norwegian name,
jordbcer. Is found in. a wild state all over Norway.
It is frequently preserved, and eaten with roast meat.

Red currant (Ribes rubrum). — Is found wild in all
parts. Called here ribs.

Elder (Sambucus nigra). — Grows as far north as
Throndjem.

Cherry (Prunus avium). — Grows abundantly in a
wild state in the west of Norway. The Norwegians
are very fond of cherry-brandy, which they call here
k irse beer- brandeviin .

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.

Ordinary vegetables do well in this country. Green
peas are said to grow three inches in twenty-four hours
in Finmark. Potatoes grow in all parts, even in East

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS OF NOEWAY. 229

Finmark, and in the Loffoden Islands. This useful
tuber was first introduced into Norway in 1770, by
the instrumentality of Caroline Matilda, Queen of
Norway and Denmark, sister to George III. of Eng-
land. Cabbages, turnips, carrots, onions, and peas
flourish in all parts. In winter, green vegetables are
not to be had at any price ; it is customary, therefore,
to store up cabbages and other vegetables as winter
approaches. Dry peas form a favourite dish in Nor-
way ; they are soaked in water for some hours, and
are then stewed in cream. They are very nice for a
change, but one soon tires of them.

Of fruits, apricots ripen as far north as Throndjem ;
the same may be said of the peach. Apples ripen in
gardens up to lat. 65°. Several varieties of pears and
plums are to be met with in this country. Grapes
ripen against walls, as well as the quince, in the south
of Norway, but not when the winter sets in early.

Of nuts, walnuts ripen as far north as Throndjem ;
the red and white filbert only in the south. The
chestnut sometimes ripens near Christiania.

TREES.

The oak grows in many parts of Norway, but, as a
general rule, is not much higher than a shrub. A few
stunted oaks may be seen in the gardens surrounding
the royal palace at Christiania. At Valen, in Sond-
hordland, is an oak 127 feet high. The Norwegians
speak reverently of this tree, and it is certainly a
natural curiosity.

The alder is common on the banks of some of the
southern rivers.

The ash is found as far north as Throndjem. The

230 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

mountain-ash grows in all woods of deciduous trees ;
and the berries are extremely welcome to small birds
during the long and severe Norwegian winters.

The beech is by no means common here, and is
found only in the south. The purple beech is occa-
sionally seen in gardens.

The birch is common everywhere. Its limit in the
Dovre-fjeld is 3750 feet above the level of the sea;
at that height it is little larger than a bush. This
tree is held in great esteem in Norway ; and at Christ-
mas the peasants, in some places, offer libations to it ;
the roots are made into bracelets and other fancy
articles. The peasants also exhibit considerable skill
in carving pieces of birch-wood, which occupies their
long winter evenings. Most of the household furni-
ture in this country is made from the wood of the
birch, and it is largely consumed as fuel in the huge
Norwegian stoves. The Lapps in Finmark make their
beds of birch-twigs, which are almost as springy as a
mattress.

The elm grows among other trees in the woods, con-
siderably further north than Throndjem.

The wild holly is common on the west coast; the
same may be said of the honeysuckle. The horse-
chestnut is seen in gardens as far north as Throndjem.

The ivy grows wild near Bergen, and in some other
places not far north.

The juniper is to be found all over the country ; its
limit above the level of the sea being much the same
as that of the birch.

The lime grows in sheltered spots in the south of
Norway. A fine row of limes may be seen near Agers-
hus Castle, Christiania.

MINERALS OP NORWAY. 231

The larch grows in a cultivated state in the extreme
south of Norway.

The maple may be met with in Thelemarken.

The spruce-fir is the most common tree in Norway,
and large forests of it are to be found, but not within
the Polar Circle. The same may be said of the Scotch
fir, with the addition, that it is to be seen in East
Finmark.

Many species of willow are to be found in all parts
of Norway, even in Finmark.

The yew is only to be met with in the extreme south
of this country.

MlNEEALS.

The minerals of Norway are iron, copper, silver,
cobalt, and nickel.

Iron is chiefly found in the south. The ore is very
pure, and produces 95 per cent, of metal. Coal has
not been discovered in this country, and, as a natural
consequence, mining operations are yet in their in-
fancy; as, however, one or two English ironmasters
are turning their attention to Norway, it is very pos-
sible that there may be a change before long.

Copper is found in the neighbourhood of Roraas,
where the mines are extensive; also in the valley of
the Alten, in West Finmark.

Silver is principally found in the valley of the
Laagen Elv, at Kongsberg; and, as many changes
have taken place in the mines, some information about
them may be interesting. The first miners came from
Germany, and are said to have been an upright and
thrifty set of people. The discovery of the precious
metal was made by a farmer's boy, who accidentally

232 THE NATUEALIST IN NOEWAY.

kicked over a piece of the glittering ore, as it lay on
the ground, and, pleased with the brilliant stone, he
carried it home with him, when some scientific person
discovered its worth. The mines were worked for
many years at a loss; but about 1768 they yielded a
handsome profit. Sometimes they have been worked
on public, and sometimes on private account. In
1833, the mines were worked by the State, at a profit
of £80,000 ; a large sum for a poor country like Nor-
way. They are now carried on under the control of
three directors, who employ about 400 hands. It is
said that the ore is purer than that of any other
country in Europe.

Cobalt has been found near Drammen ; and nickel
near Espedalen.

Gold is said to have been found near Eidsvold, but
not in any quantity.

Pla.te8.pfc3.

v'7. H. Fi icTx del .

NORWEGIAN FLOWERS.

233

CHAPTEE XXIX.

The Flora of the Dovre-fjeld.— The Ferns of Norway.

IT is said that all the alpine flora of the North may
be found in the Dovre-fjeld. The best stations for
botanists in this range of mountains are Tofte, Jerkin
Kongsvold, and Drivstuen. The last mentioned is in
Drivdalen, watered by the Driv Elv; and here, says
Professor Blytt, "nearly all the alpine flora seems to
have concentrated." The limit of birch varies from
3700 to 3750 feet above the level of the sea. I have
generally adopted the names given to plants by Lin-
nasus. The figures placed after each species refer to
the numbers of the plates in the ' Flora Danica/

RANUNCULACEJJ.

Thalictrum alpinum; 11. — Common on high grounds,
but does not reach the birch- limit.

T. simplex; 244. — Much the same as the preceding.

Anemone vernalis ; 29. — Common all over the fjeld.

Ranunculus reptans ; 108. — Common, and up to the
birch-limit. Found near Kongsvold.

R. platanifolius ; 3. — Common in Drivdalen.

234 THE NATUEALIST IN NOEWAY.

R. glacialis ; 19. — Common up to the regions of per-
petual snow.

R. nivalis ; 1699. — Found close to the perpetual
snow, side by side with the Phippsia algida, Saxifraga
oppositifolia, and Draba alpina. The yellow flower
imparts its tint to the grounds on which it grows.

R. pygmceus ; 144. — This small plant grows up to
the birch-limit.

R. hyperboreus; 331. — On marshy ground on Har-
bakken.

R. auricomus. — Near Fogstuen and Kongsvold.

R. polyanthemos; 1700. — In Drivdalen and by Driv-
stuen, as high up as the limit of fir.

R. avris. — Common on high ground.

R. repens. — By Jerkin, but does not grow as high
as the birch-limit.

Caltha palustris ; 668. — Is found above the birch-
limit '} e. g. at Harbakken.

Aconitum lycoctonum ; 123. — Grows up to the limit
of birch.

Actcea spicata ; 498. — Between Kongsvold and Driv-
stuen.

PAPAVEEACEJ:.

Papaver nudicaule ; 41. — Found in the northern
part of the fjeld.

FUMAEIACE^:.

Fumaria qfficinalis ; 940. — At Tofte, and in Driv-
dalen.

CEUCIFEEJ].

Barbarea vulgaris. — Above the limit of fir, near
Kongsvold.

ALPINE FLOKA OF NOEWAY. 235

Turritis glabra ; 809. — Between Kongsvold and
Drivstuen.

Arabis alpina; 62. — Over the whole fjeld, and above
the birch-limit.

A. liirsuta ; 1040. — Here and there in Drivdalen.

A. thaliana; 1106. — By Kongsvold and Tofte.

A.petrcea; 1392. — Scarce.

Cardamine bellidifolia ; 20. — Common as high up as
the snow.

C. amara; 148. — By Jerkin and Kongsvold.

C. pratensis ; 1039. — As the foregoing.

Draba alpina ; 56. — Over the whole fjeld, up to the
perpetual snow.

D. muricella. — Yery rarely to be met with. Has
been found on Harbakken and on Gederyggen, near
Jerkin.

D. hirta. — Common everywhere on the fjeld. The
same may be said of Draba incana.

D. Lapponica; 142. — The earliest flowering plant
on the fjeld.

Thlaspi arvense; 973. — Common.

Camelina sativa; 1038. — Scarce.

Brassica campestris ; 550. — By Tofte, Bergsgaard,
and Lie.

Sinapis arvensis ; 753. — In fjelds near Lie.

Subularia aquatica ; 35. — On the banks of the Yo-
laso. The word so in Norwegian means an inland sea
or lake.

YlOLAEIE-E.

Viola palustris ; 83. — Common, and above the limit
of birch.

V. umbrosa. — Common in Gudbrandsdalen, one of

236 THE NATUEALIST IN NORWAY.

the most lovely valleys in Norway. The same may be
said of Viola hirta.

V. mirabilis ; 1045. — On the mountain sides of
Drivdalen, and on Harbakken in places not exposed
to the sun.

F. canina. — Scarce, found just above Jerken.

F. montana; 1329. — In small woods in Drivdalen.

F. arenaria. — Common by Fogstuen, Jerkin, and
Kongsvold.

V. biflora ; 46. — Common everywhere.

V. tricolor. — Found by Jerkin, Kongsvold, and
Tofte.

DROSERACE2E.

Drosera rotundifolia ; 1028. — On the roadside over
Harbakken.

Parnassia palustris ; 584. — Common, all over the
fjeld.

Poly gala vulgaris ; 516. — By Bergsgaard and Tofte.
P. uliginosa.~-M.OTe common than the last.

CARYOPHYLLE^.

Silene acaulis ; 21. — As high up as the perpetual
snow.

S. inftata ; Smith, Flora Brit. 467. — Common, but
not beyond the birch-limit.

S. rupestris ; 4. — Common, and above the birch-

limit.

Lychnis viscaria ; 1032. — Beyond the fields by Tofte
and Rustgaard.

L. sylvestris. — Common on the fjeld.

ALPINE FLORA OF NOEWAT. 237

L. apetala ; 806. — ;0n the road between Lie and
Fogstuen.

L. pratcnsis ; 792. — By Tofte and Kongsvold. A
variety, with red flowers, is found in Drivdalen.

L. alpina ; 65. — Common.

Spergula arvensis ; 1033. — By Tofte.

S. saginoides ; 1577. — Common all over the fjeld.

Sagina procumbens ; 2103. — By roads and mountain
sides all over the fjeld.

Stellaria nemorum; 271. — In shady places all over
the fjeld.

S. media; Smith, Brit. 2, p. 475. — By the side of
the sceters all over the fjeld. The sceter is a small
cabin where the peasant girls live in summer to look
after the cattle on the mountains.

8. graminea ; 2116. — Found here and there on Jer-
kindsho and by Kongsvold.

8. longifolia. — Near Kongsvold.

S. alpestris. — Common up to the limit of the willow.

8. crassifolia, /3. subalpina. — On marshy grounds by
Jerkin.

8. uliginosa. — In woody places in Drivdalen.

8. cerastoides ; 92. — Very common, and up to the
perpetual snow.

Alsine stricta. — On marshy ground, up to perpetual
snow.

Stellaria biflora of Linnaeus. — Same as the foregoing,
but on dry ground.

Alsine rubella; 1646. — In Drivdalen, from Kongs-
vold to Vaarstien.

Arenaria serpyllifolia ; 977. — Near Tofte.

Cerastium alpinum; 6, ft. glabratum ; 979. — Com-
mon all over the fjeld ; ft. glabr. common by Fogstuen.

C. vulgatum ; 1645. — Common by roads and sceters.

238 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

GERANIACE^E.

Geranium sylvatiGum; 124. — Common above the
birch-limit. Varieties with pink and white flowers.
G. pratense. — By Tofte ; uncommon.
G. cicutarium; 986. — Near Eise in Drivdalen.

BALSAMINE^E.

Impatiens Noli-me-tangere ; 582. — By Drivstuen in
Drivdalen.

OXALIDE^E.
Oxalis Acetosella; 980. — Grows up to the birch-limit.

LEGUMINOS.E.

Anthyllis vulneraria ; 988. — Under Harbakken, a
little below the limit of birch.

Trifolium medium; 1273. — By Tofte, where it dis-
appears just below the birch-limit.

T. pratense; 989. — Common as far up as Jerkin and
Fogstuen. The same may be said of T. repens ; 990.

Lotus corniculatus ; 991. — Up to the birch-limit.

Phaca frigida ; 856. — Pretty common everywhere.

P. Lapponica. — Common from Tofte to Drivstuen.

P. oroboides ; 1396. — Common on the hills abont
Tofte and in Drivdalen.

Astragalus alpinus ; 51. — Common all over the fjeld.

Vicia sylvatica ; 277. — Between Kongsvold and Driv-
stuen in Drivdalen.

V. Cracca; 804. — Over the whole fjeld to the birch-
limit.

V. sepium; 699. — By Tofte, Jerkin, Kongsvold, and
in Drivdalen.

ALPINE PLOEA OP NOEWAY. 239

Lathyrus pratensis ; 527. — At Tofte, below the birch-
limit.

ROSACES.

Prunus padus ; 205. — Found at Drivstuen, in Driv-
dalen, in August.

Spircea ulmaria; 547. — Common in Drivdalen.

Dry as octopetala; 31. — Here and there on Gederyg-
gen, near Jerkin; more common in meadows near
Kongsvold.

Geum rivale; 722. — Common up to the willow-limit.

Eubus Idceus ; 788. — Common in Drivdalen.

R. saxatiUs ; 134. — Over the whole fjeld.

R. Chamcemorus ; 1. — Common in marshy places
over the whold fjeld. The fruit is called multebcer
here, and is held in high estimation; it is an anti-
scorbutic. The plant has a leaf like a strawberry ; the
fruit is pale buff in colour.

Frag aria vesca. — By Tofte and Kongsvold.

Potentilla nivea; 1035. — Here and there in the fir-
region between Drivstuen and Rise, in Drivdalen.

P. Norwegica ; 171. — Found by Tofte as high up as
barley grows.

P. Tormentilla ; 589. — Common everywhere.

P. aurea ; 114. — Common up to the perpetual snow.

P. argentea ; 865. — By Tofte, and between Kongs-
vold and Drivstuen.

P. anserina ; 544. — By Tofte and Rustgaard.

P. Comarum ; 636. — Here and there in marshy
places.

SMaldia procumbens ; 32. — Common up to the per-
petual snow.

Alchemilla vulgaris ; 693. Common everywhere.
A variety /3. montana is to be met with by Tofte.

240 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

A. alpina; 49. — Found up to the perpetual snow.

Rosa villosa; 1458. — Below Kise, in Drivdalen.

E. cinncmomea; 1214. — On the south side of the
mountain by Lie.

Mespilus cotoneaster ; 112. — Near Bergsgaard, and
in Drivdalen, up to the birch-limit.

Sorbus Aucupa/ria ; 1034. — In Drivdalen, but not
found between the fir and birch-limit.

ONAGRARIE^:.

Epilobium angustifolium ; 289. — Common up to the
birch-limit.

E. montanum ; 922. — Found in Drivdalen, up to
the fir-limit.

Kpalustre; 1574.— By Tofte.

E. alpinum ; 322. — Common to the birch-limit.

E. omngifolium. — Found occasionally near Fogstuen,
and more common by Drivstuen, in Drivdalen.

E.nutans; 1387. — On swampy places between Lie
and Fogstuen.

Circwa alpina; 1321. — Common to the birch-limit.

HALORAGE2E.

Myriophyllum spicatum; 681. — Found in Volaso.
Callitriche verna; 129. — On low grounds.
C. autumnalis ; In Lake Vola, or Yolaso.
Hippuris vulgaris ; 87. — In a swamp near Jerkin;
in a swamp between Kongsvold and Drivstuen.

TAMARISCINE^E.

Myricaria Germanica; 234. — On the banks of the
river by the mill near Tofte.

ALPINE FLOEA OF NOEWAY. 241

POETULACE^].

Montia fontana ; 131. — Common in damp places up
to above the birch-limit.

PAEONYCHIE^E.

Scleranthus perennis ; 563. — Near the birch-limit,
above Tofte.

CEASSULACE^:.

Sedum Rhodiola ; 183. — Common over the whole
fjeld above the birch-limit.

S. album; 66. — Near Tofte.

S. acre; 1644. — The same as the last.

8. annuum; 59. — Over the whole fjeld, but not above
the birch.

GEOSSULAEIE^E.

Ribes rubrum; 967. — In Drivdalen. Called here
ulve-bcer, or wolf-berry. In Norway wild animals, such
as bears and wolves, often devour large quantities of
wild berries When they are ripe.

SAXIFEAGACE^E.

Saxifraga oppositifolia ; 34. — Common up to the
perpetual snow.

S. cotyledon; 241. — Here and there in Drivdalen,
from Yaarstien to Drivstuen.

S. ccespitosa; 71 and 1388. — Occasionally over the
whole fjeld, up to the perpetual snow.

8. petrcea. — Here and there, all over the fjeld, but
rarely above the birch-limit.

S. cernua ; 22 and 399. — Up to the perpetual snow.

E

242 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

8. rivularis ; 11. — On high ground.

8. nivalis ; 28. — Here and there all over the fjeld,
especially by Kongsvold, and in Drivdalen.

8. hieracifolia ; 2, 301.— By Storho, above Tofte.

8. stellaris ; 23. — Common, and up to the perpetual
snow.

8. aizoides; 72. — From Grudbrandsdal up to the
snow-region.

Ckrysosplenium alternifolium ; 366. — By Kongsvold.

UMBELLIEERJE.

Carum Carvi; 1091. — By Jerkin and Kongsvold, but
not above the birch-limit. Caraway-seeds are much
used in Norway. They are put outside fancy-bread,
on children's cakes ; to flavour soup, etc. Then the
Norwegian " aquavit," a very strong, white spirit, dis-
tilled from corn or potatoes, and on which the Norse-
man gets drunk, is flavoured with caraway. The
flavour it gives to bread is by no means disagreeable.

Pimpinella saxifraga; 669. — The same as the fore-
going.

Angelica sylvestris ; 1639. — Over the whole fjeld, up
to the birch-limit, by Tofte and Drivdalen.

Archangelica officinalis ; 206. — Here and there ; plen-
tiful near Kongsvold and in Drivdalen.

Heracleum Sphondylium. — By Jerkin, Kongsvold,
and in Drivdalen.

Anthriscus sylvestris ; 2050. — Found in places all
over the fjeld.

CORNER.

Cornus Suecica; 5. — Near Drivstuen, in Drivdalen;
does not reach the birch-limit.

ALPINE FLOEA OP NORWAY. 243

CAPEIFOLIACE.E.

Linncea borealis ; 3. — Found here and there up to
the birch-limit.

Gal'wm uliginosum ; 1509. — By Fogstuen and Kongs-
vold, below the birch-limit.

G. verum; 1146. — By Tofte, Kustgaard, and Drivr
stuen.

G. boreale ; 1024. — Common in meadows by Jerkin
and Kongsvold.

G. Aparine ; 495. — In fields in the neighbourhood
of Tofte.

VALEEIANE.E.

Valeriana afficinalis ; 570. — By Tofte, Kongsvold,
and in Drivdalen, under the birch-limit.

DIPSACEJJ.

Scabiosa arvensis ; 447. — By Tofte, near the birch-
limit ; by Kustgaard, Jerkin, Kongsvold, and in Driv-
dalen.

COMPOSITE,

Tussilago Farfara ; 595. — Here and there all over
the fjeld, up to the larger willows.

T.frigida; 61. — Here and there all over the fjeld,
by Kongsvold, and up to the perpetual snow.

linger on acre. — Near Tofte, Jerkin, Kongsvold, and
in Drivdalen.

E. alpinum ; 292. — Common everywhere.

E. elongatum. — In birch woods all over the fjeld.

E. uniflorum ; 1397. — Common on the highest parts
of the fjeld, above the birch-limit.

Solidago virgaurea ; 663. — Common up to the birch-
limit.

E 2

244 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

Gnaphalium dioicum ; 1228. — Common all over the
fjeld, above the birch-limit.

6r. alpinum. — Found close up to the perpetual
snow.

G. sylvaticum ; 1229. — Below Drivstuen in Drivda-
len.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum ; 944. — By Vaarstien,
below the birch-limit.

Matricaria inodora ; 696. — Grows on sterile ground
near Tofte, Jerkin, and Kongsvold.

AchiUea Millefolium ; 737. — Common, and above
the birch-limit.

Artemisia vulgaris ; 1176. — Near Tofte, Kongsvold,
and in Drivdalen, below the birch-limit.

A. Norvegica; 801. — Common by Kongsvold, and
in Drivdalen.

Tanacetum vulgar e ; 871. — Between Laurgaard and
Tofte.

Arctium Lappa ; 612. — Found in Drivdalen.

Carduus crispus ; 621. — By Tofte and Kongsvold,
and here and there in Drivdalen.

C.palustris. — By Tofte.

C. heterophyllus ; 109. — Common up to the birch-
limit.

Serratula alpina; 37. — Common to the birch-limit.

8. arvensis ; 644. — In fields by Tofte.

Centaurea scabiosa ; 1231. — By Tofte.

Sonchus arvensis ; 606. — By Tofte, Eustgaard, and
below Drivstuen to the limit of corn.

S. oleraceus; 682. — Same as the last.

8. alpinus; 182. — By Kongsvold, and here and there
in Drivdalen.

Crepis tedorum ; 501 . — Found on the roofs of houses

ALPINE FLOEA OF NORWAY. 245

by Tofte, Kongsvold, etc. Sparingly over the birch-
limit.

Leontodon Taraxacum; 574. — Common.

L. corniculatum. — On hills by Tofte, and on Har-
bakken.

Hieracium Pilosella ; 1110. — In the fir-regions in
Drivdalen.

H. Auricula ; 1111. — Above the fir -limits in Driv-
dalen.

H. collinum. — Here and there in Drivdalen.

H. aurantiacum ; 1112. — Occasionally met with in
meadows near Drivstuen.

H. alpinum ; 27. — All over the fjeld up to the
larger willows.

H. murorum. — Found in various places.

jBT. prenanthoides. — Sparingly found near Kongsvold,
more common near Drivstuen.

H. boreale. — Found in various places in Drivdalen.

H. umbellatum; 680. — In places in Drivdalen, not
above the birch-limit.

H. paludosum; 928. — Found in meadows by Fog-
stuen and in Drivdalen.

Hypochceris maculata ; 249. — By Bergsgaard.

Apargia autumnalis ; 1996. — Over the whole fjeld.

CAMPANULACE^:.

Campanula uniflora ; 1512. — On Knudso.
C. rotundifolia ; 1086. — Common all over the fjeld.

YACCINIE^E.

Vaccinium uliginosum; 231. — Grows above the birch-
limit.

V. Myrtillus; 40. — Called Uaabcer here. Common

246 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

all over the fjeld. The berries are sent in barrels to
England.

F. Vitis-idma. — Common.

F. Oxy coccus ; 80. — On Harbakken. Does not ripen
there.

ERICINIEJ:.

Empetrum nigrum; 975. — Ripens above the birch-
limit.

Arbutus Uva-ursi ; 35. — Up to the perpetual snow.

A. alpina ; 73. — Same as the preceding.

Pyrold rotundifolia; 1816. — Occasionally above the
birch-limit.

P. minor; 55. — Found rather higher up than the
preceding.

P. secunda; 402. — Up to the fir-limit in Drivdalen.

Andromeda polifolia; 54. — Grows up to the birch-
limit.

A. hypnoides ; 10. — Above the limit of birch up to
the perpetual snow.

Erica vulgaris ; 677. — Common, and just above the
birch-limit.

Menziesia ccerulea; 57. — From the region of spruce-
fir in Gudbrandsdalen up to the perpetual snow.

Azalea procumbens ; 9. — Common as far up as the
snow.

GrENTIANEJB.

Menyanthes trifolia; 541. — As high up as Fogstuen.
Gentiana nivalis ; 16. — Not higher than the birch-
limit.

G. glacialis, Yillars ; 318. — Higher up the fjeld than
the preceding.

G. campestris ; 367. — Up to the birch -limit.

ALPINE FLORA OP NORWAY. 247

6r. amarella; 328. — Is found up to and above the
birch-limit.

POLEMONIDE^].

Polemonium cceruleum; 255. — Between Tofte and
Lie, by Jerkin and Kongsvold, everywhere below the
birch-limit.

BORAGINEJI.

Lycopsis arvensis ; 435. — Found in fields by Tofte.

Asperugo procumbens ; 552. — Found near Tofte,
Fogstuen, and Drivstuen.

Myosotis ccespitosa, Schultz. — Not found above the
birch-limit.

M. arvensis. — Found in Drivdalen.

M. sylvatica; 583. — Found as high up on the fjeld
as the larger willows. The limit of the larger willows
is about 5000 feet, of snow about 5500 feet, above the
sea-level.

M. deflexa; 1568. — Found between Kongsvold and
Drivstuen in Drivdalen.

M. Lappula ; 692. — Found on hills near Tofte.

ANTIRRHINE.E.

Linaria vulgaris ; 982. — Found occasionally in Driv-
dalen, but does not grow higher than the limit of
barley.

RHINANTHACE.E.

Melampyrum pratense ; 2238. — Close up to the
birch-limit near Jerkin and Kongsvold.

M. sylvaticum ; 145. — The same as the preceding.

Pedicularis palustris ; 2055. — Common up to the
limit of birch.

248 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

P. (Ederi, Vahl; 30. — On marshy ground all over
the fjeld, up to the perpetual snow.

P. Lapponica; 2. — Same as the last.

Rhinanthus Crist a-g alii ; 981. — Common up to the
birch-limit.

Bartsia alpina ; 43. — Common; grows beyond the
birch-limit.

Euphrasia officinalis ; 1037. — Common; varieties
are found with very small flowers.

Veronica serpyllifolia ; 492. — Up to and over the
birch-limit.

V. alpina; 16. — Up as high as the larger willows.

V. saxatilis ; 342. — Same as the last, but grows
lower down.

V. officinalis ; 248. — Common everywhere up to the
birch-limit, but not beyond.

V. Chamcedrys ; 448. — Near Rustgaard on Har-
bakken.

LABIATE.

Galeopsis Tetrahit ; 1271. — Up to the barley-limit. .

G. cannabina; 929. — About the same as the last.

Lamiumpurpureum; 523. — Common as far as Tofte.

Glechoma hederacea ; 789. — Disappears between the
road connecting Lie with Tofte ; is found beneath the
fir-limit.

Stachys palustris ; 1103. — Not found beyond fields
by Tofte.

Thymus Acinos ; 814. — Near Tofte, and also near
Drivstuen, in Drivdalen.

Dracocephalum Ruyschianum ; 121. — Below the fir-
limit in meadows near Tofte.

Prunella vulgaris ; 910. — Common up to the birch-
limit.

ALPINE FLORA OF NORWAY. 249

LENTIBULARIE.S;.

Pinguicula vulgaris ; 93. — Common up to the per-
petual snow-drifts.

P.villosa; 1921. — Common on the banks of small
lakes near the farmhouse at Fogstuen.

PKIMULACE^.

Diapensia Lapponica ; 47. — Occasionally found all
over the fjeld on places exposed to wind and rain.

Androsace septentrionalis ; 7. — Near Tofte, Kongs-
vold, Jerkin, and Drivstuen, but not above the birch-
limit.

Primula farinosa ; 125. — Common over the whole
fjeld ; occasionally found above the birch-limit.

P.stricta; 1385. — Here and there ; on Harbakken,
between Jerkin and Kongsvold, on the left side of the
way.

Trientalis Europcea ; 84. — Common, and over the
birch-limit.

PLANTAGINEJI.

Plantago major ; 461. — Found on Harbakken, above
Rustgaard.

P. media; 581. — Grows over the whole fjeld, but
not found above the birch-limit.

CHENOPODE^:.

Chenopodium album; 1150. — Found near Tofte.

•

POLYGONEJE.

Rumex Acetosa. — Common ; found above the birch-
limit.

250 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

E. Acetosella; 1161. — By Jerkin, below the birch-
limit.

R. domesticus. — Grows near houses by Jerkin and
Fogstuen.

Oxyria digyna; 14. — Common over the whole fjeld,
up to the perpetual snow.

Polygonum viviparum; 13. — Over the birch-limit; is
often seen with pink flowers.

P. aviculare; 803. — Found above the birch-limit on
Harbakken.

P. Convolvulus; 741. — Up to the barley-limit, by
Tofte.

Koenigia Islandica ; 418. — Found everywhere on
marshy ground.

THYMELE^E.

Daphne Mezereum ; 268. — Above Kustgaard, on
Harbakken.

EUPHOEBIACE^E.

Euphorbia helioscopia; 725. — Up to the limit of bar-
ley, by Tofte.

Urtica urens ; 739. — Near mountain-hovels.
U. dioica ; 746. — Near mountain-hovels, and more
common than the last.

AMENTACE2E.

Betula alba; 1467. — Up to ^aarstien on Dovre-
fjeld, 3193 feet above the level of the sea.
B. humilis. — Occasionally found on the fjeld.
B.nana; 91. — Grows everywhere on the fjeld up

ALPINE FLOEA OF NOEWAY. 251

to the perpetual snow, but is simply a bush in the
last-mentioned spot.

Alnus incana. — In Drivdalen, some hundred feet
above the fir-limit.

Popidus tremula. — Is found as a bush near Kongs-
vold.

Salix pentandra ; 943. — Between Tofte and Lie, and
near Drivstuen.

8. glauca, 0. Lapponum ; 1058, 7. appendiculata ;
1056, S. denudata. — They grow over the whole fjeld,
up to the perpetual snow.

S. lanata; 1057. — Same as the last-mentioned.

8. hastata; 1238. — Common over the whole fjeld,
high above the birch-limit.

S. arbuscula ; Fries. — Here and there in many
places, above the birch-limit.

8. phylicifolia ; 1052. — This, and many varieties,
are found all over the fjeld.

8. caprea ; 245. — Does not grow above the birch-
limit.

8. depressa. — Same as the last.

8. limosa. — Very common all over the fjeld.

8. myrsinites ; 1054. — Common.

S. pyrenaica Norvegica ; Fries. — Sparingly near Fog-
saaen, above Fogstuen.

8. reticulata ; 212. — Up to and above the birch-
limit.

8. Jierbacea ; 117. — Common up to the perpetual
snow.

8. polaris ; Wahl. — Not so common as the last, but
is found in many places, and up to the perpetual
snow.

252 THE NATUEALIST IN NOKWAY.

CONIFERS.

Juniperus communis ; 1119. — Is found high above
the birch-limit.

Pinus sylvestris. — Its highest growth is between Lie
and Fogstuen.

ALISMACE^:.

Triglochin palustre ; 490. — Found somewhat above
the birch-limit.

POTAME^:.
Potamogeton gramineum. — Found in Lake Vola.

Orchis maculata; 933. — On marshy ground up to
and beyond the birch-limit.

0. cruenta; 876. — At Bergsgaard up to the birch-
limit.

Satyrium albidum; 115. — Here and there in marshy
places up to the birch-limit.

8. viride ; 77. — Common; often found above the
birch-limit.

S. nigrum ; 998. — Scarce.

8. conopseum; 224. — Common all over the fjeld,
and above the birch-limit.

Ophrys alpina ; 452. — Common on the hills above
Tofte.

Serapias latifolia; 811. — Karely found; occasionally
to be met with near Bergsgaard.

Listera cordata, Smith; 1298. — Grows near Yolaso-
berg.

Neottia repens, Swartz; 812. — Is found below the
mill, by Tofte.

ALPINE FLOEA OP NORWAY. 253

Paris quadrifolia; 139. — As high, as the fir-limit,
between Kongsvold and Drivstuen.

Convallaria majalis ; 854, — Near Tofte and Driv-
stuen, up to the birch-limit.

C. verticillata ; 86. — Up to the fir-limit, in Driv-
dalen.

Majanthemum bifolium, De Candolle ; 291. — Above
the fir-limit, in Drivdalen.

COLCHICACE/E.

Tofieldia borealis, Wahl. ; 36. — Common ; grows
above the birch-limit.

Juncus arcticus, Willdenow; 1095. — Very common.

/. filiformis ; 1207. — Here and there all over the
fjeld.

/. ustulatus, Hartmann. — Common, but is not found
above the birch-limit.

J. Stygius. — Has been found between Kongsvold and
Snsshatten.

Sngehatten is one of the most celebrated mountain
peaks in Norway, and rises from the lowlands of the
Dovre-fjeld. Three valleys meet at its base. It was
for a long time supposed to be the highest mountain
in this country ; then to Skagstol-Tind, in the Horun-
gerne-f jeld, was assigned the pre-eminence ; now it is
stated, on unquestionable authority, that the Gallo-
pigen, in the Horungerne -fjeld, is the highest moun-
tain peak in this country. It is 9000 feet above the
level of the sea.

254 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

/. biglumis ; 120. — Very common ; grows above the
birch-limit.

/. triglumis ; 132. — Same as the preceding.

J. trifidus ; 107 and 1691. — Very common; above
the birch-limit.

/. bufonius; 1098. — Up to the fir-limit.

Luzula pilosa, Willdenow. — Grows up to the birch-
limit, by Fogstuen.

L. parviflora ; 1929. — Here and there over the
whole fjeld, up to the willow-limit.

L. campestris ; 1333. — Grows, with its varieties, in
Drivdalen.

L. hyperborea, Brown, ' Parry's Voyage/ page 283 ;
Fl. D. 1386. — Common over the whole fjeld, up to the
limit of the larger willows.

L. arcuata, Hartmann. — Only found on the highest
parts of the fjeld, in the region of perpetual snow.

L. spicata; 270. — Very common all over the fjeld,
but not much above the birch-limit.

TYPHACE^.
Sparganium natans ; 360. — In Lake Vola.

CYPERACE^.

Sdrpus ccespitosus. — Up to and above the birch-
limit. Common.

8. Bceothryon, Ehrhart; 1862. — Found occasionally
by Fogstuen and Kongsvold up to the birch-limit.

8. palustris ; 273. — Found in a pond by the way-
side, below Tofte.

Eriophorum alpinum ; 620. — Here and there all
over the fjeld, e. g., on Harbakken, by Fogstuen,
Kongsvold, Jerkin, and Brivstuen.

ALPINE FLORA OP NORWAY. 255

JE. capitatum, Hoffmann; 1502. — Up to the per-
petual snow, and down to the fir-region.

E. vaginatum ; 236. — Over the whole fjeld, a little
above the birch-limit.

E. angustifolium ; 1442. — Here and there all over
the fjeld, about as high as the preceding.

E. latifoUum ; 1381. — Same as the last.

Kobresia scirpina, Willdenow ; 1529. — Here and
there on Harbakken, Jerkindshaso, Gederyggen, and
by Kongsvold.

K. caricincb, Willd. — Found growing on peat soil
near Tofte, and on marshy ground on Harbakken.

Carex dioica ; 369. — Common all over the fjeld, and
above the birch-limit.

G. parallela, Sommerfeldt. — Not so common as the
preceding. Found in damp places and in meadows.

C. capitata ; 2061. — Scarce; also found on marshy
ground between Fogstuen and Jerkin.

C. rupestris, Allioni ; 1401. — Found here and there
on the road over Harbakken.

C. microglochin ; 1402. — Common on marshy ground
between Harbakken and Drivstuen.

G. incurva, Lightfoot ; 432. — Here and there in
marshy places below the birch-limit.

C. chordorrhiza ; 1408. — In marshy places over the
whole fjeld, up to the birch-limit.

G. lagopina; 294. — Grows up to the larger willows.

G. loliacea ; 1403. — In the fir-region, between Lie
and Fogstuen.

G. canescens ; 285. — Common, with its variety, /?.
alpicola, above the birch-limit.

G.flava; 1047.— By Kongsvold, Tofte, and in Driv-
dalen.

256 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

C.filiformis; 379 and 1344. — Near Fogstuen, Jer-
kin, and Kongsvold, up to the birch-limit.

C. rotundata; 1407. — Here and there in company
with C. pulla.

G. capillaris ; 168. — Is found above the limit of
birch.

C. ustulata; 1590. — Common from the fir-limit up
to the perpetual snow.

C. frigida ; Hartmann. — Here and there on the
highest parts of the fjeld, up to the perpetual snow.

C. panicea ; 261. — Common, with its varieties, up
to and beyond the birch-limit.

G. omithopoda ; 1405. — Grows on hills near Tofte.

G. ericetorum ; 1765. — Common over the whole fjeld,
and above the birch-limit.

C. alpina; 403. — As the preceding.

G. atrata; 158. — Common up to the limit of birch.

G. Buxbaumii; 1406. — Here and there in marshy
places near Fogstuen, Jerkin, and Kongsvold.

C. pallescens ; 1050. — Scarce, and not high up on
the fjeld.

C. limosa ; 646. — Sparingly found, with its varieties,
over the whole fjeld.

G. ampullacea ; 2248. — Near Kongsvold and Fog-
stuen.

G. vesicaria ; 647. — As the preceding.

G. aquatilis. — In marshes below Fogstuen.

G. saxatilis ; 159. — Very common up to the per-
petual snow.

G. ccespitosa; 1281. — Here and there over the whole
fjeld, and above the limit of birch.

G. pulla, Goodenough. — Very common up to per-
petual snow.

ALPINE FLORA OF NOJBWAY. 257

GRAMINE^E.

Alopecurus geniculatus ; 861. — Common by the sides
of roads. Found in a small sheet of water at the foot
of Blaaho, above the birch-limit.

Phleum pratense; 1985. — Here and there at low
altitudes.

P. alpinum ; 213. — Very common.

Phalaris arundinacea ; 259. — Found on the banks
of the river above Drivstuen.

Holcus atropurpureus, "Wahl. ; 961. — Scarce. Found
on the road between Lake Yola and Blaaho.

Anthoxanthum odoratum; 666. — Very common, and
high above the birch-limit.

Milium effusum; 1143. — Grows in Spraenbsekdalen,
and up to the birch-limit.

Phippsia algida, Brown. — Up to the perpetual snow
on Knudsho and Nystuho.

Agrostis rubra. — Here and there below the birch-
limit.

A. alpina, Scop. — Common over the whole fjeld,
above the limit of birch.

A. canina; 1443. — By Jerkin, Kongsvold, and in
Drivdalen.

Calamagrostis Holler iana, De Candolle. — By moun-
tain streams near Drivstuen.

C. epigeios, Roth. ; 2, 165. — Grows in a meadow
below Tofte, and by the side of the road between
Tofte and Lie.

C. stricta; 1803. — Common as high up as the birch-
limit.

C. sylvatica, De Candolle ; 1683. — Common.

Air a ccespitosa ; 240. — Plentiful up to the limit of

birch.

s

258 THE NATURALIST IN NOEWAY.

A. alpina; 1625. — Is found high above the birch-
limit.

A. flexuosa ; 157. — Common.

A. subspicata; 228.— As the last.

Avena pubescens ; 1203. — Has been found high
above where the birch grows.

Poa annua ; 1686. — Common near cultivated places.

P. laxa, Hsenke; 2342. — Common up to the larger
willows.

P. flexuosa, Wahl. — Found on Goutstifjeld, Blaaho,
Knudsho, and Nystuho.

P. alpina; 807. — Common all over the fjeld, above
the birch -limit.

P. trivialis ; 1685. — In moist and shady places in
Drivdalen.

P. pratensis ; 1444. — Found, with its varieties, in
grassy spots, and by the roadsides in certain localities.
Wahlenberg's iantha is found high above the birch-
limit.

P. nemoralis ; 749. — Common in shady places in
Drivdalen.

P. ccesia, Smith. — Common near Kongsvold.

Glyceria distans, Wahl. ; 251 and 2222. — Found near
Tofte and Jerkin.

Catabrosa aquatica, De Beauvois; 381. — On marshy
ground near Tofte.

Melica nutans ; 962. — Up to the birch-limit.

Molinia ccerulea, Monch; 239. — Below the birch-
limit, in Drivdalen.

Dadylis glomerata ; 743. — Up to the fir-limit.

Festuca ovina. — Common over the whole fjeld.

F. rubra. — Common above the birch-limit; a va-
riety, /3. subvillosa, is found near Fogstuen and Kongs-
vold.

ALPINE FLORA OP NORWAY. 259

F. elatior; 1323. — Common.

Triticum repens ; 748. — In Drivdalen.

T. violaceum, Hornem. ; 2044. — Is common in the
higher parts of Drivdalen.

T. caninum ; 1447. — Here and there in shady spots
in Drivdalen.

Nardus stricta; 1022. — Common all over the fjeld,
and above the birch-limit.

EQUISETACEJ;.

Equisetum arvense ; 2001. — Here and there over the
whole fjeld, up to the limit of the larger willows.

E. sylvaticum ; 1182. — In Drivdalen over the fir-
limit.

E. umbrosum ; 1780. — Same as the preceding.

E. palustre ; 1183. — In moist and marshy places.

E. hyemale ; 1409. — Scarce. Found in Drivdalen,
and near Kongsvold and Jerkin.

E. variegatum, Willd. ; 2490. — Same as the last.

E. scirpoides, Willd. — Common on the highest parts
of the fjeld.

I have been much indebted to Professor Blytt's
( Botanisk Eeise/ in obtaining trustworthy information
on the flora of the Dovre-fjeld.

THE FERNS OF NORWAY.

Polypodium vulgare. — Common on stony and rocky
places in various parts, as far north as East Finmark.
Is found up to and above the birch-limit in the Dovre-
fjeld.

P. Phegopteris.— Common in all Norwegian woods.
It is to be met with in the woods round Christiania,
and near Alten and Hammerfest in Finmark. Is occa-

260 THE NATURALIST IN NOKWAY.

sionally met with in Drivdalen, but is by no means so
common in the Dovre-fjeld as the preceding.

P. Dryopteris. — Found in shady spots from Christi-
ania up to Throndjem. Barely seen in Finmark. In
the Dovre-fjeld up to, and sometimes above the birch-
limit.

P. Robertianwn. — Grows in rocky limestone soils
from Christiania as far north as Throndjem, but no
farther north.

P. Rhceticum. — Common in all mountain regions,
from the extreme south to the far north. It is found
upwards of 4000 feet above the level of the sea.

Woodsia Ilvensis. — Grows in the mountain regions
from Christiansand up to East Finmark. Although
scattered over the whole country, it is by no means
common, and is generally found in the moist crevices
in rocks. Professor Blytt says that it grows in the
fir region in Drivdalen.

W. hyperborea. — Much the same as the last, but is
rather more common.

Lycopodium clavatum. — Found in the region of fir
in the Dovre-fjeld, and in mountain morasses in Fin-
mark. It is said that the Lapps adorn their children's
heads with chaplets made from this species, and that
the spikes of the plants, projecting on all sides, remind
those singular little people of fairies.

L. annotinum. — This rare fern is found in many of
the Norwegian pine-forests. Found in woods in Driv-
dalen. A variety, L. alpestre, Hartmann, is found all
over the Dovre-fjeld, up to the willow-limit.

L. Selago. — Common in the Dovre-fjeld, up to the
perpetual snow. It is supposed to possess medicinal
virtues, and being a powerful irritant, it is used in

THE FERNS OF NORWAY. 261

Sweden and Norway as a decoction wherewith to get
rid of vermin in cattle.

L. inundatum. — Grows on the banks of lakes in the
south of Norway.

Opliioglossum vulgatmn. — This small fern is found in
moist places on the shores of some of the Norwegian
fjords.

Botrychium Lunaria. — Is pretty common all over the
country, even in the north. In the Dovre-fjeld it is
found by Kongsvold, and in Drivdalen.

B. rutaceum. — Less common than the preceding.
Grows near Christiania and in Gudbrandsdalen.

Blechnum Spicant. — Common in some parts of the
west of Norway, and in Finmark. Found in the Dovre-
fjeld as high as the fir grows.

Cystopteris fragilis. — The brittle bladder-fern is
pretty common in all damp places in the Norwegian
fjelds.

G. montana. — Common in moist places in the Dovre-
fjeld ; near Kongsvold and in Drivdalen.

C. crenata. — This rare fern is said to be found in
only one or two places in Gudbrandsdalen, viz. near
Kringelen and Yig.

0. regia. — Found in alpine regions in the south of
Norway. I have seen it at Bserum, seven English
miles from Christiania.

Iiastrea Thelypteris. — Found in marshy places. I
have seen it near Christiania.

PolystichumFilix-mas. — Common all over the country
up to Bast Fmmark. Is found in Drivdalen above the
fir-limit.

P. cristatum. — Is common in the vicinity of Christi-
ania.

262 THE NATURALIST IN NORWAY.

P. spinulosum, De Candolle. — Is found in Drivdalen
as high as the fir-limit.

P. dilatatiim. — Professor Blytt calls this a variety of
the preceding. It is found in Drivdalen up to the fir-
limit.

P. rigidum, De Candolle. — A very rare fern in this
country.

Aspidium Loncliitis. — Found in rocky places up to
the birch-limit in the Dovre-fjeld.

A. angular e. — This rare species is to be found near
Christiania, Bergen, and Throndjem. The last-men-
tioned locality appears to be its limit northwards.

Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum. — Grows in sandy and
rocky spots in the south-west of Norway.

A. Filix-fcemina. — Common in moist places in the
woods in all parts, even in East Finmark. Grows on
the mountains up to the limit of fir.

A. Trichomanes. — Common in sheltered places
among rocks up to the southern part of Nordland.

A. viride. — Common in the Dovre-fjeld up to the
birch-limit. Is found in the southern parts of Fin-
mark.

A. Rnta-muraria. — This diminutive plant grows on
old walls, and in the fissures of rocks, near Christiania,
Bergen, and near Alten in Finmark.

A. septentrionale. — Is common in all rocky and stony
places in this country. Is found in East Finmark, and
in the Dovre-fjeld above the birch-limit.

A. Breynii, Eetz. — Scarce. Is not found higher
north than Throndjem. I have seen it also on Naesodon,
a peninsula running into the fjord near Christiania.

Pteris aquilina. — Found in rocky places as far north
as Kordland.

THE FERNS OF NORWAY. 263

Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. — Only to be met with, in
one or two sheltered places in the extreme south of
Norway.

Allosorus crispus. — The mountain parsley grows on
all rocky places in the west of Norway, and in Thele-
ma,rken.

Hymenophyllum Wilsoni. — Found on moist ground
on rocks near Christiansand and Bergen.

Scolopendrium vulgare. — This fern has only recently
been discovered in Norway. It grows on old walls.

Equisetum variegatum. — The variegated rough
Horsetail may be placed among the Norwegian ferns.
It is found by some of the Norwegian rivers and lakes.

THE END.

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