REESE LIBRARY BIOLOGY

LIBRARY

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

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Accessions No. .f

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT,

THE

NATURALIST'S ASSISTANT

a $?anfrl3ooft for tlje ffioliector antr Stulrcnt

WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FIFTEEN HUNDRED WORKS

NECESSARY FOR THE SYSTEMATIC

ZOOLOGIST

BY J. S. KINGSLEY

BOSTON

S. E. CASSINO, PUBLISHER
1882

Copyright,
£T S. E. CASSINO,

1882.

ELECTROTYPED.

BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY,
No. 4 PEARL STREET.

UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER I.

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS.

MANY treatises and papers have been written on the methods
of collecting and preserving zoological specimens ; the more
important of which are enumerated below. Space prevents
giving the various operations in detail in this volume, but it
is hoped that the directions given, although concise, will
prove explicit and valuable. For more extended accounts of
the methods employed in collecting and preserving specimens,
the student is referred to the following works :

Boitard — Manuel du Naturaliste PrSparateur. Paris, 1853.

T. Brown — The Taxidermist's Manual. London, 1859.

Elliott Coues — Field Ornithology. Salem, 1874.

J. B. Davies — Naturalists' Guide. Edinburgh, 1853.

G. Dimmock — Directions for the Collecting of Coleoptera. Spring-
field, Mass., 1872.

J. H. Emerton — Life on the Seashore. Salem, 1880.

James Lewis — Directions for Collecting Land and Fresh Water
Shells (American Naturalist, vol. ii, 1868).

C. J. Maynard — Naturalists' Guide. Salem, 1870.

A. S. Packard, jr. — Directions for Collecting and Preserving In-
sects (Smithsonian Institution).

Smithsonian Directions for Collectors.

W. Swainson — Taxidermy. London, 1851.

1 (1)

2 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

C. A. Walker — Hints on Taxidermy (American Naturalist, vol. iii,
1870).

Lord Walsingham — Directions for Collecting Micro-Lepidoptera
(American Naturalist, vol. vi, 1872).

S. P. Woodward — Manual of the Mollusca. London, 1871.

VERTEBRATES.

Mammals and birds are most readily procured by shooting
with a gun, using shot large enough to kill, but not so large
as seriously to injure the specimen. The size of the shot to
be employed cannot, of course, be dogmatically prescribed,
as it varies with the size of the animal, but in general terms
" number 8 " shot will be large enough for all birds under
the size of a pigeon, while for birds of greater bulk, " number
5 ", or larger, will be required. These remarks apply equally
well to the smaller mammals ; for the larger ones a rifle may
be necessary. It must be insisted on that the collector shoot
at any part of the body rather than at the head. Some col-
lectors use a bow and arrow or a blow gun for the smaller
birds, and with slight practice become very expert. Traps
and snares of various sorts are frequently employed and with
the advantage of obtaining the specimen in an uninjured
condition. " Bird-lime " is also used to capture birds alive.

The English method of making this substance is as fol-
lows : the middle bark of the holly, mistletoe or distaff-thistle,
is chopped up and boiled in water several hours. The result-
ing liquid is then strained and concentrated by evaporation
until it assumes a gelatinous consistency, resembling moist
putty. Doubtless the bark of several of our American trees

VERTEBRATES. 3

and shrubs would answer the same purpose, but the writer is
not aware of any experiments having been tried. A substitute
may be made by taking ordinary wheat flour, placing it in a
bag of fine muslin and washing it in running water, aiding the
process by squeezing until all the starch is washed out, and
only the gluten remains behind. This gluten is an adhesive
substance, which is said to answer the purpose well.

A third formula for bird-lime is to take linseed oil and
heat it over a slow fire (carefully watching it to see that it
does not burn), until it is very thick, then pour it into cold
water. If it should prove too thick, the addition of a little
pine tar will readily thin it for use.

The bird-lime should be smeared on the branches of trees,
etc., where birds most do congregate, and by adhering to
their feet, it holds them fast, and renders them an easy prey
to the collector.

No matter how procured, all mammals and birds intended
for stuffing should have the mouth, nostrils, anus and all
wounds, stopped immediately with cotton wool to prevent
any soiling of the fur or feathers. It is also well to place each
bird head first in a cone made of cartridge paper, before
placing in the game bag, as this will prevent disarrangement
of the feathers.

All Vertebrates are really more valuable as alcoholic speci-
mens, than they are when mounted after the usual manner of
taxidermists, as the naturalist is then able at any time to
pursue any desired investigation of their anatomy, a course
from which he is utterly debarred with stuffed specimens.
Before being placed in spirit, the abdominal walls of all Ver-

4 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

tebrates should be cut open, care being taken not to injure
the viscera. This allows the alcohol to readily penetrate the
interior. It is also well to remove a portion of the skull, so
that the preservative fluid can have access to the brain. Al-
coholic specimens of foreign vertebrates thus prepared are
a great desideratum in all museums, and especially in those
where it is realized that science is more than skin deep, and
consists of more than a lot of scientific names.

The art of skinning mammals and birds may be more
readily learned by seeing another perform the operation than
from pages of description. For those who do not have an
opportunity of learning the methods employed by observation,
the following directions which are modified from those given
in Davies' " Naturalist's Guide " (by the way a very valuable
little work) may prove of use.

MAMMALS.

The cotton wool is first removed from the nostrils, mouth,
anus and wounds and replaced by fresh plugs. The animal
is then laid on its back, its legs pressed out and the fur
parted on the median line of the ventral surface. An incision
is then made through the skin, at the posterior portion of the
abdomen, care being taken to cut the skin only and not the
underlying muscles, this incision to be continued forward to
near the neck. With the left hand the skin is then raised
first on one side and then on the other, and at the same time
separated from the adjacent muscles with the handle of the
scalpel, an ivory paper knife or other blunt instrument held in

MAMMALS. 5

the right hand. The portion of the skin thus disengaged is
kept from adhering to the flesh of the body, by being sprinkled
with plaster of Paris. The anus is then cut through, and im-
mediately after, the tail at its junction with the body. The hind
legs are then cut off at the upper thigh joint, and the posterior
part of the body turned out of the skin. The carcase is now
suspended by the pelvis on a hook supported by a string
from the ceiling of the room, and the skin gently pulled down
from the back, the operation being facilitated by the handle
of the scalpel as before. The fore legs are then disarticu-
lated at the shoulder joint. The neck is then uncovered and
the head proceeded with. In skinning the latter part, great
care must be exercised to cut off the ears as close to the
skull as possible, and to preserve the eyelids, nostrils and lips
uninjured. The neck is now separated from the skull. The
trunk is now removed from the hook and laid aside, and the
legs successively hung on the hook, and the skin drawn down
as far as the toes. The flesh is then removed from the bones
of the legs, care being taken to leave the tendons uniting the
joints entire. In order to skin the tail, the first two or three
vertebrae are laid bare and attached to a stout cord. A
cleft stick is then made to embrace this portion already
skinned beyond the cord and gradually forced down toward
the extremity, carrying with it the freed skin.

The skin now being separated is carefully examined and
any flesh or fat removed by the scalpel. The inside of the
skin is then thoroughly rubbed over with the common white
arsenic of the shops (arsenious acid) or if preferred com-
pletely anointed with arsenical soap. The bones of the legs

6 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

are to be treated in the same manner, and, having been
wrapped with tow, are returned to their places. The skull is
next pulled out through the neck and freed from fat and flesh
and the brain removed through the opening behind. In
some cases it may be necessary to enlarge this opening by
breaking away the adjacent bone, but this course should be
avoided as much as possible, as the skull, from a scientific
standpoint, is ot as much value as the skin, and should
the latter by any means become destroyed (by no means an
uncommon occurrence), the specimen will still retain a
scientific value. It is well, when possible, to remove the
skull entirely from the skin and macerate it in water until
the flesh is removed, and the brain so decomposed as to be
readily shaken out of the opening. It is sometimes desirable
to preserve the skull and the skin separately, and at such times
a rough model of the skull may be made of plaster of Paris,
and placed in the skin, while such disposition is made of the
skull as may be desired. Should the skull be returned to the
head, the place of all flesh removed should be filled by
tow. A wire wrapped with tow may be inserted in the tail,
while the body is distended to something like its original
shape by the same material.

BIRDS.

A paper ring is made fitting tightly around the body ; this
is preserved as a measure of the proper size and is used
farther on. This ring is then removed, the bird laid on its
back, with the head pointing obliquely from the operator to-

BIRDS. 7

ward his left hand. The feathers are then separated in the
median line by the left hand, and an incision is made much
as in mammals, the extent of this slit varying somewhat
with the expertness of the operator, as well as the kind of
bird being skinned. The slit being made, the ringers are in-
serted between the skin and the flesh, and the parts exposed
dusted with plaster of Paris, to prevent any adhesion of the
feathers. In some cases, it is advantageous to sew strips of
cloth to the cut edges of the skin to keep the feathers clean,
and also to prevent the skin from stretching. The legs are
now pushed forward, and divided at the knee joints, after
which the vertebral column is divided, leaving the last joint
in the skin, as a support to the tail feathers. The body is
then suspended from the hook by the rump end, and the skin
separated from the back and sides (as in the case of mam-
mals) until the shoulder joints appear. If the bird in hand
be a water-fowl, it may be necessary to separate the wings at
the shoulder joint, but whenever possible the division had
best be made at the elbow. The neck is next to be skinned,
taking great care not to stretch the skin, especially in the case
of the long-necked birds. Then the head is separated from
the integument as far as the bill. Now remove the tongue
and muscles from the skull, and separate it from the neck,
placing the carcase aside, and remove the brain from the
skull with a quill, enlarging the opening if necessary for the
purpose. Great care should be taken, in skinning the head,
not to injure the external ear and the parts around the eyes.
The bones left in the legs (tibia) are now to be skinned,
cleaned, thoroughly covered with preservative (arsenic or

8 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

arsenical soap), and wrapped with tow. After treating the
skin of the leg with arsenic, the bones are to be returned to
their places by being gently pushed in. When the upper
bone of the wing (hutoerus) is retained, it must be treated
in the same manner. Except in the case of large birds, no
treatment is necessary for the bones of the fore wing. In
these, however, the muscles may be removed by making an
incision on the inside of the wing, and then impregnating
with arsenic, and fastening with two or three stitches. Now
remove all flesh and fat from the skull and skin, and impreg-
nate them thoroughly (the skull inside as well as out) with
arsenic. A wire about the length of the neck is then taken,
and one end being fastened in the base of the skull, a little
tow or flax filled with arsenic is wrapped around it, and the
head is pulled out of the neck by means of a string attached
to the bill, bringing with it the tow-covered wire. Next dis-
pose the wings in their proper position, place the paper ring,
mentioned above, around the body, stuff the skin out to its
proper dimensions with tow, sew up the slit, label and dry,
and the specimen is ready for the cabinet.

The foregoing directions are applicable to the majority of
birds but will have to be modified occasionally. The feet
of the larger birds of prey are frequently fleshy. In these
cases it will be necessary to cut a slit on the under side of
each toe and perhaps up to the back of the tarsus to remove
the muscles and tendons ; then rub in the preservative, fill
with tow and close the openings with a few stitches. The
webs on the feet of swimming birds had best be skinned be-
low and in all cases should be thoroughly poisoned.

BIRDS. 9

When the head is of such a size that the skin of the neck
cannot be drawn over it, as is the case with the flamingo
and most web- footed birds, it will be necessary to make an
incision in the neck near the base of the skull and through it
remove the brain, etc. This is an operation of considerable
nicety as the feathers are very liable to get daubed. In case,
however, any blood, brain or feculent matter should get on the
feathers, it should be carefully removed by a cloth dampened 'in
warm water. Grebes, and other water fowl with white silky
bellies are sometimes skinned from an incision in the back.
In this way the feathers are less liable to be daubed and to be
stained by the oil of the body when in the cabinet.

Humming birds from their diminutive size are not easily
skinned. They may, however, be preserved by making an in-
cision on the belly and removing as much of the soft parts as
possible with the forceps and scissors. The skin should then
be thoroughly poisoned and filled with cotton wool or tow.

On the label attached to each bird should be information
as to the following points :

Exact locality, date of capture, sex, food (ascertained by
an examination of crop and gizzard) color of the eyes, feet,
bill, gums, membranes, caruncles, etc. Attitude of body when
at rest. Does the bird perch or not ? The length in inches
from the tip of bill to the end of tail, the distance between
the extremities of the outstretched wings and the length of
the wing from the carpal joint.

Should it be desired to mount the specimen, information
on the following points will aid the taxidermist in giving the
proper position.

10

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Position of the wings whether supported or hanging, cross-
ing on the tail or not. Are they continuous, or covered by
the feathers of the back and breast, for the upper half or
third or two-thirds of their length? Do their extremities
reach the tip of the tail, the half or fourth of its length?
Are the heels covered by the feathers of the belly ?

The skins of mammals and birds prepared according to
the foregoing directions are really more valuable for the nat-
uralist than the mounted specimens. They may be kept

systematically arranged in
boxes or drawers. Mount-
ing mammals and birds is
the work of a taxidermist
and directions for the op-
erations are foreign to the
purposes of this work. If
it be desired to prepare the

specimens for exhibition
they had better be sent to
the professional taxidermist, as amateur work generally pres-
ents a very slovenly appearance. One thing, however, should
always be insisted on ; the stands employed should be of the
simplest character. For birds the form of stand shown in
the adjacent figure is preferable. These stands are usually
painted white. For mammals and many aquatic birds a
board is all that is necessary. By all means avoid the use
of mosc, mica sand, artificial leaves, etc., as they not only
afford excellent lurking places for vermin, but also detract
greatly from a scientific appearance of the collection ; they
and not the specimens attract the eye.

FIG.

COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS. II

NESTS AND EGGS.

The nests and eggs of birds are largely collected, espec-
ially by the young, and many a naturalist of note traces his
interest in zoology to h'.s early cabinet of eggs. It is not
necessary to tell where to look for nests as every one with his
eyes open can find them. Some are in tall trees, some birds
build in bushes, some on the ground, while others affect the
habitation of man.

When a nest is found, great care should be taken to iden-
tify the bird to which it belongs, otherwise both nest
and eggs are scientifically useless. In some cases
and especially with collectors in foreign countries,
it will be necessary to shoot the parent birds to ac-
complish this. All of the eggs should be taken and
labelled at once so as to be beyond a doubt at any

FIG. 2.

time. The contents should also be extracted. This
is effected by boring a hole in one side of the egg with an "egg
drill" (a steel instrument which can be procured of any dealer
in naturalists' supplies), fig. 2, and through this opening all
contents may be withdrawn. For this purpose some use a
fine nozzled syringe, while others insert the tip of a jeweller's
blow-pipe into the opening, and then by blowing in the egg
the yolk is forced out around the sides of the pipe. If incu-
bation has proceeded to any length it will be necessary to cut
the embryo up with fine pointed scissors and extract it in
fragments with the aid of a bent needle. The interior should
then be thoroughly rinsed, first with water and then with

12 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

arsenical soap. The opening can then be covered with a bit
of goldbeater's skin.

Exact labels giving the name of the bird laying the eggs,
the locality and date, the number of eggs in the nest, etc.,
should be kept with each specimen and numbered to corre-
spond with a number placed on the egg.

Eggs of our native birds taken at various stages of incu-
bation, the shell cracked and then the whole placed in 40
per cent, alcohol and in a few hours transferred to fresh and
slightly stronger spirit, and then after a day or two to alcohol
of 70 to 80 per cent., would 'be very desirable in every
museum of the world. Of course, with each egg should be
preserved not only the name of the species, but also the
number of hours since incubation began. Thus the student
will be able to trace more or less completely, according to
the amount of material at command, the development of the
various forms of which, at present, comparatively little is
known. The same process may be advantageously followed
with the eggs of other animals, and in dissecting mammals
all embryos should be carefully preserved.

REPTILES AND BATRACHIA.

The collection of snakes, turtles, lizards, frogs, toads,
and salamanders is not accompanied with any special difficulty
though proper precautions should be taken against venomous
serpents. Various species of each group affect certain lo-
calities, some living on land and others in the water. Some
live in the open fields, others in thick woods, while still others

FISHES. 13

are generally found in damp places under decaying timber,
etc.

All of the lower vertebrates are best preserved as "wet
specimens," and in fact with the exception of the turtles and
a few large forms are spoiled by being skinned and stuffed.
In skinning turtles the lower shell (plastron) should first be
removed with a chisel or saw ; the succeeding steps are essen-
tially the same as pursued with mammals. Alligators and
large lizards are skinned the same as mammals. When it
is desired to put any of the lower vertebrates in alcohol, an
incision should be made in the abdominal walls, so that the
spirit may more readily penetrate the viscera. This is abso-
lutely necessary if it be desired at any future time to investi-
gate any more of the anatomy than the osteology.

FISHES.

Besides the familiar hook and line, fishes may be obtained
by seines, trawls, etc., to be described further on under the
head, "Marine Collecting." A good way of obtaining many
forms is to visit the fish markets ; and also if possible hire
the fishermen themselves to bring in specimens of all sorts
that come up in their nets or on their lines. In this way
many varieties may be obtained which never appear in the
markets, as fishermen are accustomed to throw back all fish
which according to their ideas are not edible.

Fishes are almost universally preserved in alcohol, though
some of the largest ones are occasionally stuffed. At such
times a professional taxidermist had best be employed.

14 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

In putting in alcohol the abdominal walls should be opened
so that the spirit may the more readily enter and thus ensure
the preservation of the viscera, some parts of which are very
important even from a systematic standpoint.

Fishes in alcohol do not present a very interesting or
attractive appearance on the shelves of a museum, and only
the ichthyologist is able to decide on the identity of alcoholic
and fresh specimens. Many attempts have been made to
preserve fish dry but the majority of methods employed do
not produce very satisfactory results. The best process
known to the writer is that invented by Dr. H. E. Davidson,
who has not only described his method but has also given
chances to witness the operation which is as follows :

The necessary materials are thin pieces of soft wood about
one- eighth of an inch in thickness ; square sticks measuring
from three-fourths of an inch upwards ; plaster of paris
glycerine, tissue paper, pins, and double pointed carpet tacks-

The outline of the fish without the fins is marked on
two pieces of board which are held together by pieces of the
square sticks tacked across the ends, and then the portion
corresponding to the body is cut away so that we have two
strips of wood one following the dorsal and the other the
ventral contour of the fish. The fish is then placed in this
opening and the various fins are extended and fixed in
position with pins, the board in the meantime being supported
so that one side of the fish can freely extend through the
opening in the joined boards. Strips of tissue paper wet
with glycerine are then laid smoothly over the fish and next
a coating of plaster is poured over the same side. When

FISHES, 15

the plaster is hardened, the boards, etc., are reversed and the
rest of the work is carried on from the opposite side of the
body. All that portion of the fish which projects through
the opening is first cut away, and then all of the muscles,
bones and viscera, are carefully removed until nothing re-
mains but the skin supporting the fins and its plaster backing.
In this condition one side of the skin is entire and on the
other side a narrow strip of skin extends around the median
line of the body from a quarter to half of an inch in width.
The interior of the skin is now dusted with arsenic. The eye
is then placed in position and the skin is filled with plaster
mixed to about the consistency of cream. The double pointed
carpet tacks are then taken, and their points,
having been bent as shown in the adjacent
figure, are hooked into the strip of skin and
the loop embedded in the plaster. A small

FIG 3

strip of wood (previously coated with shellac
to prevent undue expansion from the moisture), is also em-
bedded in the plaster, its upper surface being even with that
of the plaster. The two halves of the board are separated
when the plaster becomes dry, the skin with its plaster interior
is removed from its mould and washed and the fins placed in
clips so that they may dry flat. When thoroughly dry, the
specimen is mounted on a wooden tablet by screws passing
into the embedded block and the whole is ready for exhibi-
tion.

No means have yet been found of preserving the ' natural
colors of the fish ; and the only way of representing them on
the specimens thus mounted is by means of paints.

1 6 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

This process which has been thus briefly described, is the
property of Dr. H. E. Davidson of Boston, and to him all
inquiries, as to the rights to use it, should be addressed.

SKELETONS.

Of fully as much importance as skins, and scarcely more
difficult to prepare, are skeletons of vertebrates, and when
from any circumstance it is impossible to prepare the whole
skeleton, the skull can frequently be preserved. The modus
operandi is essentially the same for all vertebrates.

Skeletons are of two sorts, natural and artificial : *. <?., those
where the bones are united by the ligaments, and those in
which the ligaments are removed as well as the flesh, and the
bones are articulated with wires and rods. Natural skeletons
can only be prepared when the subject is of small size ; not
exceeding the fox or goose in bulk. Skeletons of larger ani-
mals must be, to a greater or less extent, artificially articulated.

The skin is first removed from all parts of the body, the
head separated and the viscera extracted. Then as much of
the flesh as possible is removed with the scalpel, great care
being taken not to cut, scratch or otherwise injure the bones.
The body is then placed in cold water to macerate, some-
times a little caustic potash is added to the water to ac-
celerate the decomposition of the flesh, but except a gain
in time there are no advantages to be gained by the ad-
dition. For the first few days the water should be changed
every day, and when the flesh is partially decomposed as
much as possible is to be removed, taking care, if the skele-

SKELETONS. 1 7

ton is to be a natural one, not to injure the ligaments.
The partially cleaned skeleton is then returned to the mac-
erating tub, and on succeeding days is subjected to the
cleansing operation until all the flesh is removed. It may
be well, as a final step, to use a stiff nail brush to remove
the last traces of flesh.

The skull is treated in the same manner, and the brain
is broken up and removed with a stick, through the occipital
foramen. It is sometimes desirable to open the skull by
sawing off the top, and thus to remove the brain more care-
fully, preserving the tentorium and falx cerebri uninjured.

Under no circumstances should the bones be boiled as
that operation greases them and gives the skeleton an un-
sightly appearance. If the water is left too long without
changing, the bones are apt to become discolored.

When finally cleansed, the skeleton (if a natural one) has
a wire passed down the spinal canal, its end projecting from
the neck and then, being supported in the desired position by
strings or wires attached to a suitable framework, is left to
dry. When dry, the skull is fastened to its place on the
wire projecting from the neck, by means of copper or brass
wire, the lower jaw is articulated to the skull, and held in a
proper position by spiral springs. The body is then sup-
ported on a couple of upright standards, arising from a hori-
zontal base, and after being duly and fully labelled, the
specimen is complete.

It would be impossible, without occupying much more
space than is allowed, to describe the method of articulating
an artificial skeleton, while on the other hand it can be
2

1 8 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

readily understood, after a few minutes' study of one thus
prepared ; and therefore all who wish to articulate artificial
skeletons are respectfully requested to obtain the requisite
knowledge by observation. Great care, however, should
be exercised that none of the small bones be lost in the
process of maceration.

COLLECTING INSECTS.

Insects are the most numerous both in individuals and in
species of any group of the animal kingdom and may be

found almost everywhere
and at every season of the
year. Their beauty, their
numbers, and the ease
with which they may be
collected and preserved,
render them great favor-
FlG- 4- ites. Many a naturalist,

who has acquired prominence, traces his studies to the
collections of insects made in his youth.

The insect collector needs certain pieces of apparatus
none of them expensive and all easily made by one possess-
ing an ordinary an.ount of mechanical skill, or they may be
readily procured in the shops. Those most essential are
insect nets, means of killing, and conveniences for carrying
the specimens home.

An insect net, fig. 4, is readily made by taking a stout brass
wire (iron rusts too readily) and bending it into a ring about

COLLECTING INSECTS. 19

twelve or fifteen inches in diameter. The ends of the wire
should be bent out and soldered into a ferrule which will fit
on the end of a cane or other handle. The net proper
should be about twenty inches in depth and made of gauze
or mosquito netting. It should not be attached directly to
the ring, as it would then quickly fray out, but to a piece of
strong cotton cloth which in turn is sewed to the ring. Other
more elaborate forms are made in which the ring will fold up
for convenience in carrying, but the saving hardly repays the
additional expense. Those interested will find a good de-
scription and figure in Dr. Packard's "Directions for Collect-
ing and Preserving Insects, " published by the Smithsonian
Institution, page 4, fig. 2,
where one or two other
forms are also described.

The net is used princi-
pally for collecting the

strong flying insects (e. g., Butterflies), either on the wing
or while at rest. With a swoop the net is brought over the
insect, and then, by a dexterous twist, easily acquired but
not readily described, the bag is thrown over the ring and
the specimen is securely imprisoned. The insect may then
either be pinned while in the net or transferred to the
cyanide bottle to be described farther on. Lepidoptera may
be killed while in the net by giving the thorax a severe pinch,
of course taking care that the wings are not injured.

A shallow scoop net, fig. 5, made in the same manner as
the insect net above described is useful for collecting aquatic

20 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

insects. It is not necessary to detail the method of using it,
as any one will readily find out for himself.

For collecting stinging insects a pair of forceps, fig. 6, made
of wire, the distal extremities of which are bent into broad
blades covered with netting, will prove very convenient, es-
pecially as there is no danger of being stung. The bee or
other insects are caught between the blades while resting on a
flower, and while a prisoner is pinned ; and then, the blades
being opened, the pin is readily drawn from the meshes of
the netting.

An umbrella is indispensable in collecting certain forms of

insects. It is held spread open
in an inverted position beneath
the branches of some tree or
shrub, then the foliage is beaten
with a stick, and the insects
drop and are caught. This is

especially valuable for collecting certain Coleoptera, Spiders,
Microlepidoptera, Psocidae, etc.

For killing insects the most convenient plan is to take a
wide-mouthed bottle and place in the bottom a piece of cya-
nide of potassium (a dangerous poison) . Then some plaster
of Paris is mixed to a stiff paste with water and poured
over the cyanide. The plaster soon sets and holds the
chemical firmly, while its porosity allows the fumes of prussic
acid to pass readily into the vacant portion of the bottle.
The bottle after thus being prepared should be allowed to
stand open for a day to allow the moisture from the plaster

COLLECTING INSECTS. 21

to escape ; it should then be kept securely corked. One of
these cyanide bottles will answer for a season's collecting and
is safe for children to use. An older person, however, should
prepare the bottle, as the cyanide is very poisonous and
sometimes produces severe ulcers on the parts of the body
with which it may come in contact.

Some instead of cyanide use ether, chloroform, benzine,
or bisulphide of carbon in the bottle, but the rapidity with
which these evaporate renders them far less convenient than
the cyanide. Dr. Loew recommends moistening the bottom
of the collecting bottle with creosote for killing Diptera.
Lepidoptera may be killed by giving a severe pinch to the
sides of the thorax, though this is very apt to remove many
of the "feathers" from the body. The wings of a butterfly
should never be touched with the fingers and great care
should be taken to avoid mutilation of any insect.

For carrying specimens home the collector should be pro-
vided with wide-mouthed vials and bottles ; some empty
and some containing alcohol; a supply of "pill boxes" and
a cork-lined box two inches in depth and in its other dimen-
sions as large as can be conveniently carried in the pocket.
Insect pins of various sizes are indispensable. The insects
on being collected may be carried home alive by placing
them in the pill boxes or the empty vials ; or they may be
killed by the cyanide bottle or being placed in the alcohol,
or by pinching. Beetles and bugs may be kept in the al-
cohol, or with other forms pinned in the field and kept in
the cork-lined box. The writer has found a stiff round
crowned hat a very convenient substitute for the cork-lined

22 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

box, as the insects may be pinned on the inside and thus are
not seen by that class of society who think a naturalist a
little "cracked." Lepidoptera maybe conveniently carried
by folding the wings together and placing them in square
sheets of paper folded into a triangular form.

It is impossible to say exactly where insects may be found.
In general terms, gardens, the edges of woods and banks of
ponds and streams are more bountifully supplied than tree-
less meadows or deep forests. In winter the moss and'bark
on trees cover many beetles, spiders, Tingids and hymenop-
terous insects, as well as pupae of these and other orders.
In the summer, insects are far more numerous. The open
fields will afford numerous Lepidoptera, beds of flowers will
attract all orders, certain forms affect mushrooms and toad-
stools, and Silphida, Nitidulidcz, and StaphylinidtR, as well
as various flies, may be found in the vicinity of carrion. Old
boards and logs afford hiding places for various larvae as well
as spiders, myriapods and beetles, while in such places the
Thysanura thrive. In the moist loose earth at the edges or
woods Campodea, Trichopetalum, Scolopendrella and the
Pauropida should be sought. Other species of insects,
notably certain Scarabaida and dipterous larvae, live in ex-
crementitious matter. Ponds and streams contain large
numbers of insects ; beetles, bugs and the larvae of several
other groups. One may do much for science by studying
the transformations of these aquatic forms. Of the various
stages passed through by our species of dragon-flies, caddis-
flies, may-flies, etc., almost nothing is known. The galls
found on trees and plants may be taken home and the larvae

PINNING INSECTS. 23

contained in them reared, and the same course may be pur-
sued with all the larvae and pupae found while collecting.

PINNING INSECTS.

Insects are usually mounted for the cabinet on pins made
especially for the purpose, which can be procured of any
dealer in naturalists' supplies. Those most generally em-
ployed are brass, silver plated. A good quality should be
used, as with poor pins the specimen is apt to be covered
with verdigris while the pin itself is soon destroyed. To
avoid this, varnished pins, and silver and platinum wire
have been employed. A gold plated pin has been recently
introduced with very satisfactory results while the increase
in price is slight. The best silvered pins are those made
in Berlin by Klager. There are five sizes, of which num-
bers one, three, and five are the most convenient, number
one being the finest. Still smaller pins are made for minute
insects. The insect is impaled with one of these smallest pins
and fastened to a bit of cork which in turn is mounted on
a larger pin and the whole placed in the collection. Most
insects are pinned through the thorax, but beetles should
have the pin inserted through the right wing cover. The
specimens should all be pinned at an equal height, so that
about one-fourth of the pin extends above the insect. On
the pin below the insect should be kept labels, dates and
localities of capture, and all information of value. Very
minute insects are frequently glued to bits of card and
these are in turn pinned. It is most convenient to cover a

24 NATURALISTS1 ASSISTANT.

piece of card with gum, place the insects promiscuously
upon it and then when dry cut to suit the specimen. Thin
pieces of mica are also used in a similar manner.

To place the insects in the cabinet, what are known as pin-
ning forceps are frequently used. These are
forceps made after the usual manner, except
that the extremities are bent as shown in fig.
7, and the corrugations of the points are so
arranged as to hold the pin firmly. The pin
is grasped by them about a quarter of an
inch from the extremity and forced into the
bottom of the case with a gentle pressure.
By this method all danger of bending the
pins is averted, a result which frequently fol-
lows an attempt to set them with the fingers.
They may also be set with much greater reg-
ularity with the forceps than without.

SPREADING BUTTERFLIES.

Butterflies and moths should always have
the wings extended and it is frequently de-
sirable to mount other insects in the same

manner. This is accomplished by means of
FIG. 7.

a "setting board." A strip of pine or other

soft wood has a groove ploughed through the middle to
the depth of from three-quarters of an inch to an inch.
The bottom of the groove is generally lined with cork to
hold the point of the pin. It is frequently desirable to have

SPREADING BUTTERFLIES. 25

the surface of the setting board slightly bevelled towards the
middle groove, as in this way a drooping- appearance of the
wings is prevented. See fig. 8.

The pin is passed through the thorax of the insect into the

cork in the groove and then the body lying in the groove,
the wings are taken, first on one side and then on the other,
with a fine pair of forceps (never with the fingers) , placed

26 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

in the desired position and held either by a slip of cardboard
pinned to the setting board, or by the weight of a piece of
glass or sheet lead. The wings of the two sides should be
brought to symmetrical positions and the antennae and legs
disposed as desired and held in position with pins if neces-
sary. The board and its contents should then be put away
to dry, an operation which will occupy from three days to a
week or more according to the temperature and moisture of
the air.

The collector in the field will find it convenient to pack
butterflies in sheets of paper folded in triangles and in this
shape they may be kept as long as desired, of course all due
precautions being taken to prevent the ravages of injurious
insects. When it is desired to spread them they may be re-
laxed, no matter how long a time has elapsed since their col-
lection, by placing them in a covered box, the bottom of
which is covered with moist sand, the insects being protect-
ed from soiling by the intervention of a sheet of paper.
The box with its contents is then placed in a warm place
for half a day when the moisture arising from the sand will
have so relaxed the muscles and tendons that the specimens
may be spread in the manner above described.

Beetles, bugs, and orthoptera may be taken from the
alcohol and pinned at any time, but flies, Hymenoptera,
Neuroptera and Lepidoptera never present a good appear-
ance after immersion in spirits, though Hymenoptera and
Neuroptera stand the operation better than the others. A
protracted stay in the spirit injures the colors of all insects.

INFLATING LARVAE. 27

Insects frequently become broken while in the cabinet
and it is recommended that inspissated ox gall made into
a thick gum with a little water be employed in mending
them.

It is occasionally necessary to transport collections of in-
sects from one place to another and at such times the great-
est care should be taken to protect them from injury. The
collector in distant parts can send all but the Lepidoptera
and flies in spirit ; the former may be sent folded in envel-
opes while flies can only be pinned. In case mounted
specimens are to be sent the danger of damage is much
greater. Small cork-lined boxes should be employed and
the pins should be very firmly fixed, the points being forced
into the wood of the box. These smaller boxes should
then be placed in a larger one and surrounded on all sides
with crumpled paper, hay, "excelsior," or other elastic pack-
ing. By this process all jars received in transit are much
lessened.

INFLATING LARVAE.

Besides the usual manner of preserving larvae in spirit they
are sometimes inflated and dried. Several advantages accrue
from this method of preservation ; the colors are better
preserved, all hairs and spines retain their proper position
and the specimens are always in good condition for the
artist's pencil. The following account of the process is con-
densed from that of Mr. Scudder :

The necessary instruments for the operation are a small

28 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

tin oven, a spirit lamp, a pair of finely pointed scissors, a little
fine wire and a straw.

The oven is a tin box two and one-half inches high, two and
one-half wide and five long, the cover is of glass and one end
is perforated with a hole one and one-half inches in diameter.
See fig. 9. No solder should be used in its construction.

FIG. 9.

The wire should be very fine and annealed. It should not be
over one-half a millimetre (one-fiftieth of an inch) in diameter.
Kill the subject by a drop of ether or by immersion in
alcohol. If it be a hairy caterpillar it should remain at least
half an hour in alcohol and then rest two hours on blotting

MOUNTING SPIDERS. 29

paper, otherwise the hairs are apt to drop off. Then, holding
the larva in the left hand, enlarge the vent slightly below with
a vertical cut of the scissors, and next press the extremity
of the body with the fingers so as to force out the contents
of the rectum ; repeat the operation a little farther forward,
and so on, a slight additional portion of the contents of the
body being gently pressed out each time. Great care should
be exercised not to abrade the skin or get the exterior soiled
by the expelled portions. When a portion of the intestine
is extended, it should be seized with the forceps and, hold-
ing the head in the left hand, the tube should be forcibly
but steadily torn from its attachments bringing with it most
of the contents of the body.

The lamp is now lighted and placed under the oven ; and
a straw taken of a proper size to enter the enlarged vent ;
having cut off one end diagonally it is moistened and
carefully inserted into the opening for about a quarter of an
inch, and then pinned through the straw and anal plate with
a delicate insect pin. The caterpillar is then inflated with the
breath, taking care not to use too great a pressure, and then
extended horizontally in the oven, the inflation being con-
stantly continued. The posterior end should be dried first
(by keeping it in the hottest portion) and gradually working
forward, lastly the head. When all is dry the skin should
be removed from the straw by careful use of some blunt in-
strument or the finger nail.

A piece of wire is then taken, a little over twice the length
of the larva, and bent into the form shown in fig. 10, the free
ends being slightly incurved. A drop of shellac dissolved

30 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

in alcohol is then placed on the loop and the free ends
are gently inserted into the body until the hinder extremity
has passed half-way over the loop and the shellac has smeared
the inside sufficiently to hold the specimen when
dry. The folded end is then firmly wound around
an insect pin and the whole, after labelling, is placed
in a position where it can dry a couple of days be-
fore removal to the collection.

MOUNTING SPIDERS.

Spiders are usually preserved as wet preparations,
as when dried as insects usually are, the abdomen
shrinks badly. This, however, can be avoided as
follows :

Kill the spider by exposure to some poisonous
vapor or gas (ether, chloroform or prussic acid)
and then cut the body in two between the cepha-
lothorax and abdomen. An insect pin is then
FlG* I0" taken, its head inserted into the abdomen and its
point into a stick of wood, and then the abdomen is dried
by placing in the oven mentioned above, or in a test tube
heated over a spirit lamp. The specimen should be kept
turning so as to dry all sides evenly. When dry, the pin is
cut off a short distance from the abdomen and the anterior
portion of the spider is impaled on the extending part of the
pin, and then a second pin being passed through the thorax
(to be used in mounting in the collection), the whole is
returned to the oven until dry ; it is then labelled and placed
in the cabinet.

BREEDING LARVAE.

BREEDING LARVAE.

The finest specimens of Lepidoptera are obtained by
rearing from the larval or pupal stages. This is accomplished
by the use of breeding cages. For this purpose glass tum-
blers covered with gauze may be employed, but a better thing

FIG. ii.

is a box especially prepared for the purpose. Take a wooden
box without a cover, lay it on its side and tack a lath across
the lower edge so that a shallow tray is made ; then cover
the rest of the opening with gauze or mosquito netting-
Then put a small door in the side, which, by the inversion of
the box, becomes the top. The box should then have a layer
of moist earth reaching to the top of the lath. It is fre-
quently well to subdivide the box as larvae are occasionally
apt to desert a vegetable diet and eat their companions.

32 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Having prepared the box the larvae should be collected and
placed in it. With each larva should he collected portions
of the plant on which it feeds and these should be placed in
the box, inserting the ends of the twigs in the earth. When
they show signs of wilting new leaves should be collected
and the old ones removed.

Drawings should be made of each species of larvae at its
various stages, and in the notes which every naturalist should
keep, should be noted the food plant of the larva, the dates
of pupation and of the emergence of the imago, and every
other item which will serve to elucidate the life history ot
the insect. Frequently it is well, when a female insect has
been obtained, to attempt to rear others from the egg. The
insect should be furnished with that kind of food most
relished by the larva and allowed to deposit its eggs on it.
The date of oviposition, the size and shape of the eggs with
their markings and ornamentation and the date of hatching,
should be carefully preserved by means of notes and drawings.
Many of the coleopterous and dipterous larvae are car-
nivorous and should be supplied with meat. Other larvae are
aquatic and these must be reared in aquaria, over the top of
which gauze or musquito netting has been stretched. The
breeding cage should be kept in a light, airy position but
should not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The
earth in the bottom should be kept moist, otherwise the
health of the larva is endangered.

Mcst larvae enter the pupa stage in the fall, some climbing
up the wall of the cage and spinning a cocoon, while others
burrow in the earth and there pass the chrysalis portion of

BREEDING LARVAE. 33

their life. At the approach of cold weather, the breeding
cage should be removed to the cellar and kept there until
spring. The collector in his trips through the woods and
fields will find many pupae ; these should be brought home
and placed in the breeding cage and the imago obtained.
This method of breeding insects in confinement has many
advantages, the most prominent being that the images ob-
tained are perfect and not in that rubbed condition which is
frequent in those caught with the net.

Occasionally, a larva will fail to go through its proper
changes. This is generally caused by the presence of some
parasite. The most common of these parasites are Ichneu-
mon larvae. The adult ichneumon stings the larva and lays
its eggs ; these hatch and the progeny live on the juices and
tissues of its host until at last it succumbs, and then the para-
sites go through their changes and finally emerge as perfect
insects. These ichneumon flies should be carefully preserved
with full notes of the host, etc.

Spiders and Myriapods may be found everywhere and are
best preserved in spirit. With spiders should be preserved
careful notes of colors, and the form of the web, whether
vertical or horizontal, flat or dome shaped, etc. Especial
pains should be taken to collect the male which is much
smaller than the female and is frequently found with it. The
two cannot be kept together alive as the female is so fond
of her mate that she frequently eats him. Myriapods are
rather difficult to preserve, because their integument is so
thick that the alcohol does not readily penetrate and therefore
the tissues of the body decay and the specimen falls to pieces.
3

34 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

If a few of the rings be punctured so as to admit the spirit
to the interior of the body this may be prevented. The
spirit should also be frequently changed during the first few
days.

Along with the myriapods will generally be found the ter-
restrial Crustacea {Oniscida), known under the common
names of " Sow-bugs " and " Pill-bugs." These should also
be carefuly collected and preserved. These forms are
greatly desired as they 'have been almost wholly neglected
by American naturalists and but little is known of our native
species. Many of them, however, seem to be identical with
those of Europe, and no one should attempt to describe them
without access to the works of Brandt, Lereboullet, Kinahan,
etc.

MARINE COLLECTING.

Every portion of the sea teems with life, which varies, not
only according to geographical position but also with depth,
character of bottom, temperature of water, etc., etc. In
different circumstances different methods are employed for
collecting.

Certain forms, principally Amphipod Crustacea and shells,
may be found on the shore much above high-water mark.
Twice during the day the receding tide leaves a portion of
the shore uncovered, and this portion "between tide marks"
has its peculiar fauna. For collecting here, one should
wear rubber boots and be equipped with bottles, forceps, etc.
There should be a considerable variety in the bottles em-
ployed. A good idea is to have four or six large jars with

MARINE COLLECTING. 35

wide mouths kept upright in a basket ; one jar may be partly
filled with alcohol and corked, the others are to contain salt
water, and should remain open. In the pockets of the col-
lector should be carried a large number of " homoeopathic
vials," some empty and others with alcohol. A spade and a
long-handled net will also prove useful. Many forms will be
found in the seaweed covering the rocks ; the rocks them-
selves should be closely examined, turning them over for the
purpose if possible, and the mud of the shore should be
turned up with the spade for worms, shells, etc. The speci-

FlG. 12.

mens should be placed in one of the jars of water unless it
be thought best to place certain forms at once in alcohol.

For collecting the forms from that portion which is never
uncovered other methods have to be employed. Dredging is
the principal one, others are the use of the trawl, the "tangle,"
"pumping," etc.

The dredge, fig. 1 2 is a rectangular frame of iron with two
scrapers so that it will work no matter which side up it may fall.
To this frame a net is laced by means of copper wire passed
through holes in the scrapers and around the frame at the end.
This net should be surrounded with a stout canvas or leather

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

cover, so that it will not catch and tear on rocks, etc., on the
bottom. Iron handles are attached to the frame, and to one
of these the dredge rope is tied ; the other handle is made
fast to the rope by means of a bit of " spun yarn " or lighter
cord, as shown in fig. 13. The object of this is that, if the
dredge be caught on a rock, the smaller cord will break and
the dredge free itself. A weight should be attached to the

rope a short distance
(six to twelve feet) in
front of the dredge, so
that its mouth may be
kept on the bottom. The
length of rope paid out
should be about twice
the depth of the water
in which the dredging is
conducted. In dredging
from a sail-boat it is best,
if possible, to take ad-
vantage of the currents.
Put the dredge over the
bows, taking care that it
FlG- I3' does not turn inside out

or foul while going down, then let the boat drift as though
she were dragging an anchor. Where currents are not strong
enough the boat head should be turned toward the wind, so
that it will just move through the water, and then put the
dredge over the windward side near the stern. The boat will
then drift slowly, drawing the dredge over the bottom.

MARINE COLLECTING. . 3?

It is advisable to have the end of the dredge rope fastened
by a " safety cord," that is, a small cord tied around the
dredge rope and made fast to a cleat. Thus, in case the
dredge suddenly catch, the strain will break the smaller cord
and allow time for the boat to be turned around without
breaking the rope and loosing the dredge. When dredging
from a large boat in deep water this is absolutely indispen-
sable, if any regard be had for the preservation of the
collecting apparatus. An experienced person can judge of
the character of the bottom, the condition of the dredge,
etc., by the tremor of the dredge rope.

When full, the dredge should be pulled up, its contents
poured into sieves and then washed with water. The sieves
employed should be made of copper wire and have fine
meshes. They may be so arranged as to hang over the side
of the vessel, or they may be placed in a trough which will
carry away the dirty water without soiling the boat. When
washed, the contents of the dredge are picked over and the
specimens preserved according to their character. While this
operation is in progress, the dredge may be down gathering
new treasures.

The trawl, fig. 14, generally consists of a long beam, six to
ten feet in length, bearing a runner on each end, and attached
to the beam is a long net whose lower edge is weighted with
lead. This net should have several " pockets " and the
hinder end should have an opening, secured with a string.
The trawl is attached to the rope and used in a similar manner
to the dredge. It can only be used on smooth bottoms free
from rocks, and catches the fishes, shrimps, hydroids, etc.,

38 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

which affect such places. Sometimes, instead of having a
"beam," the trawl has two "wings" made of wood and
loaded on one edge so that they maintain an upright position.
These wings are attached to the rope after the fashion of a
kite so that the passage through the water forces them widely
apart. In this form, the upper edge of the net should be
floated with cork.

The tangle, fig. 15, is another piece of apparatus for

marine collecting and is useful for obtaining such bottom
forms as are covered with spines. It consists of an iron bar,
having on each end a wheel. To the bar are attached about
half a dozen chains, each chain having every few inches
bunches of hemp or untwisted rope. Such animals as the
Starfish, Brittle-stars and Shrimps, become entangled in the
bunches and are thus brought to the surface.

Another method of obtaining forms from the bottom is by
pumping. This was first employed by Meyer and Mobius in

MARINE COLLECTING.

39

their investigations of the fauna of the Bay of Kiel. A pump
was so arranged that the lower end of the pipe was within a
few inches of the bottom, and the forms brought up. by the

current were col-

II

lected by nets and
sieves.

Between the bot-
tom and surface
other forms may be
found; to collect
these a sunken net,
first used by Baur, is
employed.

The surface of the
sea at times is cov-
ered with infusoria
{Noctiluca, etc.),
jelly fishes, larval E-
chinoderms, Worms
and Crustacea, Cop-
epoda, Salpae, Sa-
gittae, etc. To ob-
tain these the surface
net is employed,
fig. 1 6. This con-
sists of a ring of
brass wire about a

foot and a half in diameter, to which is attached a net of
fine gauze. This is towed through the water, being frequently

40 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

pulled in and washed in a bucket of water. On placing
this water in the light it will be seen to be filled with
microscopic forms. The best time ,and place for using the
net are in protected harbors when the surface is smooth and
the sea phosphorescent. A place where two currents meet is
especially productive. Surface skimming was first employed
by Johannes Miiller.

After storms, it is well to examine the beaches to obtain
the deep water forms which have been cast on shore.
Among the " roots " of the " Devils' aprons " (Laminaria)

FIG. 16

will be found shells and starfish, while on the fronds frequently
occur Sertularians and Bryozoa.

Fish stomachs are another source of obtaining deep-water
forms, and they frequently contain rare shells. The fish
themselves should be carefully examined for external and
internal parasites.

The collections should be cared for as soon as possible, as
many forms soon badly decompose. With each package of
specimens should be placed a label, written with soft pencil
on stout paper, giving exact data of locality, depth, character

MARINE COLLECTING. 41

of bottom, date, etc. The smaller specimens should be
placed in homoeopathic vials and not mixed with larger forms.
For larger forms the common glass fruit jars are convenient,
both for collecting and as storage jars.

For the majority of marine forms, alcohol is the best pre-
servative. The specimen should be first placed in weak spirit
and after a few hours transferred to stronger and this process
again repeated. By this the wateris gradually extracted and all
undue contraction of tissues avoided. Crustacea and mollusks
intended for dissection should have the shell cut or cracked
before placing in alcohol so that the spirit may readily pene-
trate the soft parts which otherwise would rapidly decay.

Medusae and some other forms are not readily preserved
without great distortion, owing to the extremely large per-
centage of water in their composition. Various processes
and preparations have been employed, but success is as much
the result of accident as of any especial skill or of any superior
merit in the preservative. Possibly the best method is to
place the jelly-fish for a short time in a one-tenth to one-
twentieth per cent solution of osmic acid, and then transfer
to fifty per cent alcohol and after a few days place in sixty
per cent spirit. Another method is to employ a solution of
bay salt of a specific gravity of 1.148, to each quart of which
two ounces of alum have been added. The specimen is
daily changed to a fresh portion of the solution for a week.
Methylated spirit, 30 under proof, with forty drops of creosote
to the quart has also been recommended.

It is frequently desirable to preserve animals in their ex-
panded condition. So far as the writer is aware no method
3*

42 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

has been found in which gasteropods can be so preserved,
though many experiments have been tried. Sea anemones,
etc., may be readily killed expanded by gradually adding
picric acid to the vessel in which they are contained. An-
other way is to allow them to die in sea water which has
become stale. The former method, however, is the most
successful. Fresh-water Polyzoa, it is said, may be killed in
an expanded condition by adding a few drops of alcohol or
brandy to the water in which they are living.

Should it be desired to preserve the shell of a mollusk
without the animal, the whole may be macerated in water
and the contents carefully washed away. Bivalves should
have the two halves carefully tied together, while care should
be taken to preserve the opercuhim of such gasteropods as
possess it, as it has considerable systematic value.

The same methods may be employed in collecting fresh-
water invertebrata as in marine. Ponds and lakes can readily
be dredged and a trawl or siene will frequently bring up
numbers of rare forms. The beds of rivers contain numer-
ous shells (Strepomatidae, Viviparidae, Limnaeidae, Unionidae
and Cycladidae) , for which careful search should be made.
A dipper, with a perforated bottom, on a long stick, is fre-
quently a handy substitute for a dredge, in shallow water.

Land shells are most numerous in a limestone country. A
good place to hunt for them is under boards or fallen leaves.

LABELLING AND MOUNTING,

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER II.

LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS.

IT is on these two points, labelling and mounting, that
much of the instructiveness of a museum or collection de-
pends. The labelling conveys the information regarding
the specimen, while the mounting places the specimen in the
best position for observation and study.

LABELLING.

The labels used should; in size, be in proportion not only
to the size and prominence of the specimen, but also in re-
lation to the amount of information to be conveyed. It is
best to have but few sizes and to have a certain amount of
regularity in the labels employed. The most useful size is
one inch by two and one-half inches, but larger and smaller
ones must be occasionally used and the sizes of these must be
selected by those in charge of the collections. The smallest,
except those for insects, should measure not less than one-
half by one and one-half inches. For insects a label of one-
half by three-fourths of an inch is very useful. The labels
of whatever size employed should be as plain as possible and

(45)

46 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

the printing should be confined to a simple border. This
border possibly looks best when printed in red ink, and that
color is employed for the purpose by most museums. Heavy
paper or cardboard is best for the labels. When the label
is to be pasted, paper is preferable, but in all other cases the
cardboard possesses the greater advantages.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the label is to convey
information and this should be expressed in as concise and
plain a manner as possible. In some museums (e. g., that of
the Boston Society of Natural History), all labels are the
product of the printer's art and several copies of each are
struck off at once, thus affording a supply from which to re-
plenish as those on the specimens become defaced or injured.
The expense for this is far less than would be supposed.

In the majority of cases, however, this plan, cheap as it
has been found to be, is beyond the means of museums and
hence the labels should be written. This writing should
be done with black ink and in a legible hand, the ordinary
" marking hand " being well adapted for this purpose. For
ink, there is nothing better than India ink ground up in
acetic acid. Windsor and Newton's liquid India ink is thus
prepared and is handiest for the purpose. When it becomes
thick by evaporation, it can be diluted by the use of acetic
acid. Do not use water to dilute it as then the ink is spoiled.

The principal points which are usually to be enumerated
on a label are the generic and specific names, locality, date,
collector and donor. The adjoined label copied from one in
the Boston Society's museum shows the usual form. The
generic name should always begin with a capital, but opinions

LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS.

47

differ as to the initial of the specific, but with Americans the
weight of authority seems to be in favor of always beginning
the specific name with a small letter whether derived from a
proper name or not. It should not under any view begin
with a capital unless derived from a proper name. Following
the scientific name comes the "authority." Here again
opinions differ, some claiming that the name of the person
who first described the species should be given, no matter
whether it belong to the genus under which it originally was
described or not. Others claim that the name to be used is

Cat. III!

Orig. 1557

Nanemys guttata (Sch.) Ag.

SPECKLED TORTOISE.

S. Kneeland. Cohasset, Mass.

FIG. 17.

that of the person who first used the generic and specific
name together. A third party adopt a compromise and give
both names together, that of the describer of the species in
parenthesis, followed by that of the one who first used the
generic and specific combination which is adopted. For in-
stance, Herbst, in 1 796, described a hermit crab under the
name Cancer sclopetarius. In 1852, Dana characterized the
genus Clibanarius, and in 1859, Stimpson ascertained that
Herbst's species should be assigned to Dana's genus. Now
according to the first method the name would be written
Clibanarius sclopetarius Herbst ; according to the second

48

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Clibanarius sclopetarius Stimpson ; while the latter would be
Clibanarius sclopetarius (Herbst) Stimpson. The second
and third methods are most commonly adopted, the third
expressing more than the others. The best authorities omit
any comma between the scientific name and the authority.

Should the specimen be a type, an abnormal form or im-
mature stage, or possess any important features, that fact
should be noticed on the label. The original labels coming
with a specimen should be scrupulously preserved in con-
nection with it, as they give
avalueand authenticity
which the specimen could
not otherwise have.

Various methods have
been devised for affixing
labels to specimens. When
the object is fastened to

TIG. 18.

a tablet, it is best to affix

the label with paste or mucilage, or with short pins, one
at each end of the label. A mucilage made of equal
parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic in water, to which
a few drops of glycerine and carbolic acid have been added,
is possibly as good as any for fastening paper to wood, glass,
stone or metal. In all other cases the label holder devised
by the late Caleb Cooke is very advantageous. It is readily
made by folding a strip of thin tin one-eighth of an inch in
width in the manner shown in fig. 18. The label is placed in
the folds shown above and below (a and 6) which are then
closed with a pair of pincers. The label and holder are then

LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS.

49

fastened to the object holding the specimen. In the case of
a bird stand or wooden tablet, this is effected by perforating
the end c and then using a tack. When applied to a bottle,
copper wire is used. The end c is folded around the wire
and the wire then placed around the neck of the bottle and
the ends twisted tightly. The advantages of this method are
many ; the label is firmly held and at the same time can be
readily removed by loosening the
folds with a knife. All original labels
can be safely preserved out of sight
by placing between the public label
and the tin strip. The labels are
also kept flat and by bending the tin
at b can be readily disposed so as to
be more easily read when on a high
or low shelf.

In the case of alcoholic speci-
mens a label should always be kept
in the bottle, as well as one on the
outside. This label should be
written with a soft lead pencil, or
with India ink dissolved in acetic
acid (never with common ink) on parchment or very strong
paper. This label, which is intended only for the student
and curator, should contain every item of information re-
garding the specimens.

Insect-labels should be kept on the pin and should be small.
It is usual in arranging insects to place them in rows and
then in the farther left' hand corner is placed the family label,

FIG. 19.

50 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

next comes the generic, and then the specific ; the insects
belonging to the species are then extended in a transverse
row and following them on the left of the case, comes the
next specific label and so on. Some have adopted a method
of showing the geographical distribution of forms at a glance
by the color of the label, and in geological collections the
"age" by the same method, but it is doubtful if it repays
the extra trouble involved.

Labels can be obtained of " regular" sizes of most dealers
in naturalists' supplies at a cheaper rate than they can be
produced by local printers. Generic and specific names for
labelling certain groups of insects are also kept on sale and
well repay the cost.

Catalogues are important, though some of the largest mu-
seums almost wholly dispense with them. The best results
follow the use of the double system employing both books
and cards. In a book prepared for the purpose, each speci-
men is entered as received, with all possible information.
For this the books should be ruled in columns for the fellow-
ing entries : original number, current number, number of
specimens, name, sex and age, where collected, when col-
lected, by whom collected, donor, remarks. A number is
then affixed to the specimens corresponding to the entry in
the book catalogue. Sheets of printed numbers for this
purpose are kept for sale by dealers in naturalists' supplies.
Where possible, parchment numbers should be used and tied
to the specimen. Even better than parchment is the method,
which is now extensively adopted, of stamping the number
on sheet zinc with the steel punches which may be bought at

LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS.

any hardware store and then affixing the zinc to the speci-
men with stout twine or small copper wire. It is, however,
difficult by any ordinary method to affix a label permanently
to a fossil or mineral ; strings and wires will become loose
and paste and gum will crack off. In such case, the writer
has adopted the method of putting on each specimen (in the
least conspicuous place) a small spot of white paint, and on
this, when dry, the number is written with a pen ; there is no
danger of such a label being detached and lost. In the
book catalogue the specimens are arranged simply accord-
ing to number and without regard to systematic relations,
which are to be found in the card catalogue.

This card catalogue is made of cards arranged alphabeti-
cally or otherwise as may be desired, each bearing at the top
the generic and specific name and below the desired informa-
tion. These cards should be about three by five inches ;
their appearance, etc., are best seen from the following dia-
gram.

ARIUS EQUESTRIS.— BAIRD AND GIRARD.

Cat.
No.

No.
Spec.

Age.

Locality.

When
collected.

Nature.

Collected by

836
1142

i
4

Adult
Young

Indianola,
Tex.
Brownsville,
Tex.

18:4
April 25, 1858.

Skull

Al-
coholic

John H.Clark.

Capt.
Van Vliet.

By this system of book and card catalogues, it can at
once be seen exactly what specimens the museum contains,
and also, if the number be preserved, any lost labels can be

52 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

duplicated. It is convenient to have the catalogues subdi-
vided into groups corresponding to the larger divisions of the
animal kingdom, others for minerals, fossils, etc. The cards
can then be kept in drawers or trays and any necessary in-
terpolations can be made as desired. Cards suitable for this
can be obtained of standard sizes at the Readers' and Writers'
Economy stores in Boston, New York and other large cities.

MOUNTING SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION.

Mammals and birds designed for exhibition are usually
stuffed and mounted on stands. It does not fall within the
scope of this work to describe the methods employed by the
taxidermist in stuffing skins. It is well enough, however, to
reiterate the advice given on another page that the stand em-
ployed should be as simple as possible and all mica dust,
moss and artificial leaves be discarded as they detract greatly
from the appearance of a collection when viewed from a
scientific standpoint. On the underside of each stand, all
information regarding the specimen should be written with
a soft lead pencil, paint or India ink. Skeletons and skulls
should be supported on wires firmly fixed at their lower end
in a board. Ward's preparations are models in this respect.

Birds' eggs may be kept in the nest in which they belong.
Should the nest be wanting, the eggs present a very hand-
some appearance when placed in paper trays lined with pink
cotton wool. The most common method, however, is to

MOUNTING SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 53

mount on wooden tablets. These wooden tablets, which are
very generally adopted in museums for specimens of all kinds,
should be made of whitewood. The grain of pine shows too
plainly while basswood warps badly. It is best to have them
made with a depression in which to mount the specimen and
an elevated portion on which to affix the label. The form is
shown in section in fig. 20. These can be made in long

FIG. 20.

strips at any planing mill and then sawed up in lengths to
suit. The sizes should be so adjusted that two of the smallest
will equal the next in size and so on. They then readily fit
together and fill up a case without any bad gaps. The
smallest should be one inch wide by two long, the next in
size two inches square, then two by four, etc.

These tablets are usually painted dead black. A cheap
way of accomplishing this is with lampblack mixed with
spirits of turpentine and a very little oil. This, however, is
apt to rub off slightly and soil the hands and cases. A more
expensive paint, which produces the best results, is the ivory
black used by carriage makers. This should be mixed with
a little shellac varnish and applied with a brush. Sometimes

54 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

different colors are used for these tablets ; this in the case
of geological collections has its advantages, as different for-
mations may be indicated by the color of the tablet bearing
the specimen. The general effect, however, is not so good as
when a uniform black is employed in all departments of the
museum. Various substitutes for the wooden tablets have
been proposed and each has its advocates. Pasteboard,
slate and glass have all been used, but .wood, taking every-
thing into consideration, is the best.

The specimens are affixed to these tablets in various ways.
A common method is with "grafting wax." The grafting
wax, such as is used by gardeners, is kept melted in a glue
pot over a spirit lamp and a drop taken up with a brush and
placed in the desired spot on the tablet and the specimen
placed on it, and a few moments only are required to set the
wax and hold the specimen firmly. If at any time it be de-
sired to remove the object from the tablet, a knife blade
slightly warmed will accomplish it, and all wax may be cleaned
from the specimen by alcohol or turpentine. Others employ
sealing wax dissolved in alcohol, or common glue, for fasten-
ing the specimens, but while they hold the object securely,
it cannot be as readily removed.

Many minute forms (shells, etc.) cannot be fastened di-
rectly to the tablets and at such times small homoeopathic
vials are used. The specimens are placed in these and the
vials are then stopped with a cork or a bit of cotton wool,
and then cemented to the tablet by wax or glue. A label
should always be placed in each vial. A great desideratum

BOTTLES AND VIALS. 55

for this purpose is a vial of quadrangular outline with clear
flat sides.

In the case of the large branching corals (gorgonias, madre-
pores, etc.), a square box is taken and filled with plaster of
Paris mixed with water ; the coral is then placed in this in
an upright position and supported until the plaster sets. The
box is then taken apart and all rough places smoothed with a
case knife, and then the plaster is painted with lampblack
and turpentine. This forms a heavy base which holds the
specimen uprightly. The label may be applied to this base.
The coarse "builders' " plaster should be used for this pur-
pose, as it is much stronger (as well as much cheaper) than
the fine.

BOTTLES AND VIALS.

In every museum, vessels of glass are largely employed
and form a considerable item of expense. For exhibition
purposes, pains should be taken to obtain clear glass, free
from bubbles and irregularities producing distortion in the
view of the specimen. Glass stoppered vials and jars also
are preferable as they not only add to the appearance of the
collection, but they are less liable to leak, and permit the
alcohol to escape by evaporation than are those with corks.
The mouth of jars, vials, etc., should be as large as possible
so that specimens proportionate to the size of the bottle may
be readily admitted ; otherwise a larger amount of alcohol is
required than is necessary for the preservation of the specimen.

56 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

It is best in the case of minute specimens to place them in
homoeopathic vials with alcohol, then stop the vial with cork
and place the whole, cork downward, in a larger bottle which
in turn is to be filled with alcohol. This renders it easy at
any time to find the specimen which would not be the case
were it loose in a large bottle, while the alcohol in the outer
vial will have to evaporate until the cork of the smaller is
reached before there is the slightest danger of the contents
of the inner bottle being injured.

The best homoeopathic vials for museum purposes are
those made with straight sides without any neck or shoulder,
as then the inside can be readily cleansed and all specimens
can be readily taken out for examination. Rubber stoppers
do not answer overwell for museum purposes, as the alcohol
is apt to affect them and to set free the earth with which
they are adulterated, and cover the objects with a dense
white precipitate.

In the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge,
oval glass jars with flat sides are used for starfishes and
ophiurians. The mouth of the jar is ground and covered
with a glass plate fastened by cement and also by a strip of
tinfoil extending on both the glass cover and the sides of the
jar. The specimen is spread on glass or mica plates and fas-
tened with thread, bristles or silvered wire, and the whole
placed in the spirit.

Dissections of animal forms are preserved in alcohol by
extending on some substance not affected by the spirit. The
principal ones employed are mica, glass and wax. The ob-

BOTTLES AND VIALS. 57

ject is fastened to the glass or mica by strings passed through
holes bored for the purpose. These holes can readily be bored
in glass, with a three-cornered file moistened with spirits of
turpentine and mounted in a drillstock. When wax is used
the specimen is fixed with insect pins. It is well to blacken the
wax by melting it and stirring in lampblack. This forms a
good background against which all details are readily seen.
Great care should be exercised in selecting the wax, which
should be pure. The common adulterations of wax are water,
tallow and lard, and the presence of either of these produces
a flocculent precipitate in alcohol, which settles on the spec-
imen and ruins it, as it is very difficult to remove.

For storage purposes it is not necessary to use so good a
quality of glass as for exhibition. A very useful article is the
ordinary fruit jar with glass cover and screw top. The rub-
ber of these jars will occasionally have to be renewed as the
alcohol hardens the rubber and renders it brittle. At other
times large copper cans are used, fitted with wide openings
secured by screw covers, while for the largest forms special
tanks of copper or zinc are made. A barrel can be readily
fitted up for containing specimens, by carefully smoothing
off one end, removing the head and adjusting a wooden
cover with rubber packing over the end. To the sides of the
barrel are attached iron bars terminated by screws and these
project through the lid and by means of nuts fasten it
tightly. In any of these large storage vessels, numerous
small specimens may be kept by wrapping each (with its
label) in millinet, mosquito bar or coarse cotton cloth. The

58 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

same course may be pursued when sending specimens from
the field or from one museum to another. With fishes so
sent it is usual to place the labels under the gill covers.

Smaller specimens may be stored in cork-stoppered bot-
tles. A cheap way of obtaining these is to buy the empty
morphine and quinine bottles of the apothecary. These
are of good glass and have wide mouths. Corks for these
may readily be rendered tight by immersing in melted par-
afifine, or better in paraffine dissolved in benzine. These
storage bottles should be so arranged that any desired spec-
imen can readily be found.

One thing that should be constantly kept in mind in the
museum is that it is as easy to have too much on exhibition
as too little. The primary object of a collection is to in-
struct, but with many confusion only results. Every speci-
men should not be on exhibition ; nor should every species
or genus. It should be the object of the curator to make
the collection typical; to select those species which best
illustrate the larger groups, while all others are relegated
to drawers, boxes, etc., where they will be readily accessible to
the special student but will not aid in confusing the average
museum visitor.

The space thus gained should be utilized by labels and
cards, conveying in plain language the characters of the va-
r'.ous groups. It is also well to place in the cases drawings
illustrating the structure and growth of the various classes of
the animal kingdom. These may be plain or colored ac-
cording to nature, or conventionally, to show more clearly

BOTTLES AND VIALS. 59

the details of structure. The following conventional colors
are generally adopted :

Red, heart and arterial circulation.

Blue, veinous circulation.

Green, Iher.

Purple, kidneys.

Yellow, ovaries.

Orange, testes.

Brown, alimentary canal.

Neutral tint, nerves.

Large labels can be easily written with the "Audiographic
Pen," invented by Mr. D. S. Holman, of Philadelphia. This
has since been extensively sold under the name of "Automatic
shading Pen," and can be obtained at any stationery store.

ROOMS AND CASES,

UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER III.

ROOMS AND CASES.

IN a work intended for all classes of naturalists, no definite
rules can be laid down to govern in each case the construction
of the home of the collections. In many instances, the mu-
seum is a private one and is kept in a room of the dwelling
house ; between this and such immense collections as those
of the British Museum and the Jardin des Plantes, every
gradation may be found, each requiring peculiar accommo-
dations.

In the case of private collections, a room should be se-
lected, if possible having a northern exposure, well lighted
and fitted up with conveniences suitable to the nature of the
specimens. The windows should be screened with curtains
of yellow "holland" as this color tends to exclude the ac-
tinic rays of light and to preserve the specimens from fading.

For larger collections, such as are possessed by most col-
leges and many societies, more extensive accommodations are
necessary and a building should be especially devoted to
them. The average college museum building is but poorly
adapted for its purpose ; it is the result of consulting archi-
tects who know nothing of the requisites of such edifices.

(63)

64 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

The architect draws some showy or striking "elevation" with
useless towers and spires and narrow windows, and leaves in-
ternal arrangements to chance. The result is an ill contrived
building, with inaccessible and useless rooms, numerous dark
corners and disagreeable cross lights. But the greatest dis-
advantage lies in the impossibility of maintaining anything
like a systematic arrangement of the collections. The proper
way is first to arrange the rooms and apartments and
then to accommodate the walls and the roof to them. It
would be well for all having charge of the erection of build-
ings for the display of specimens of Natural History to visit
some of the larger museum buildings such as those at Bos-
ton, Cambridge, New Haven and Washington and consult
with the authorities there in charge as to the advantages and
disadvantages of the building occupied by them. It might
also be an advantage to visit the museums of New York,
Princeton and above all Philadelphia,1 to see how a museum
building should not be constructed.

The following plan is here inserted as a hint which might
be useful in the construction of a building of moderate size.
It contains some features of value but can of course be mod-
ified to suit circumstances. It is primarily designed for the
use of the average college.

1 The cases at Princeton are (or, were, at the writer's visit) worse if possible than the .
building, while no museum building could be less adapted for its purpose than that
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Those collections of Europe
which are tucked away in the corners of some old castle or which are displayed in the
cloisters of some former monastery are fully as well provided for. The building is the
result of architects working without intelligent supervision and was constructed by the
Academy in direct opposition to the views of its best scientific members.

ROOMS.

It consists of a main portion and a wing each two stories
in height. The main portion is a square of say fifty feet.
The walls are solid, there being no windows in the sides.

DOOR-

•ARGH

LECTURE ROOM.

FIG. 21.

The second floor consists of merely a gallery and thus the
whole of the main building is a single room, and lighted by

a lantern window in the roof. The walls are occupied on
5

66

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

both floors with vertical cases, and the lower floor is taken up
with table cases which are best for all specimens except
mounted vertebrates and alcoholic collections. The gallery is

RAIL CA3LS

STUDY

IT

LABORATORY

"\

J R R R

FIG. 22.

surrounded with a railing and this may also bear horizontal
cases.

Connected with the main portion by arches, on each floo»

BUILDINGS , 67

is a wing of say thirty feet square. This wing is lighted by-
windows in the ordinary way and contains on the ground floor
a hall with stairs leading to the basement and the second story ;
a closet for the janitor and a lecture room. On the second
floor are the laboratory, a room for necessary books of refer-
ence, and a small study for the professor or curator in charge.
In the basement can be placed the means of heating ; room
for the storage of specimens, macerating rooms, etc. If pos-
sible, both basement and laboratory should be supplied with
water.

For museums of the larger class, this plan will of course
prove inadequate and some other must be adopted. The
architect and others having the erection of a museum in
charge should visit the larger museums and consult with those
having them in charge.

A museum building should always, if possible, be isolated
and built in the most thoroughly fire-proof manner. The walls
should be of brick or stone, the girders, joists, etc., of iron,
and the floors of brick, iron, slate or some other incombusti-
ble material. Museums are far too valuable to be entrusted to
wooden buildings and even those thought to be fire-proof have
not always proved so. The fires at Portland and Chicago
each destroyed valuable collections stored in buildings which
were supposed to be secure against the devouring element.

One feature which should be adopted in every museum
building is adequate provision for laboratory work. In col-
lege museums this is best accomplished by having a large
room where all can be at once under the supervision of the
instructor. In buildings for society purposes it is better to

68 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

have a number of small rooms for this, which may be occu-
pied by those of the members who care to do any work in
the building. In the Philadelphia Academy building these
rooms are in alcoves leading from the Library ; in the Bos-
ton Society's Building there are two on each floor leading
from the exhibition halls ; in the New York Museum they are
all on the upper floor of the building.

CASES.

The cases are by no means an unimportant portion of a mu-
seum and great care should be taken in their construction.
It will not do to leave them entirely to a builder or cabinet
maker ; a naturalist should also be consulted. From an omis-
sion in this respect the cases in many museums are poorly
constructed. Notable examples are to be found in the in-
stances of Brown University and Princeton and Williams Col-
leges. At Brown the cases are very loosely constructed, leav-
ing large holes for the entrance of dust and vermin ; at
Princeton the extent of sash nearly equals that of glass, ren-
dering it almost impossible to see the specimens on ac-
count of darkness ; while those at Williams cannot be tightly
closed and the shelves are permanent and cannot be altered
in height. On the other hand, the cases of the American
Museum in New York, Yale College and the Peabody Mu-
seum of Archaeology at Cambridge are models, but are very
expensive. The cases of the Peabody Academy of Science
at Salem, Mass., are very good and others can be built like

CASES. 69

them at a cost not exceeding that of a poor case. It would
be well for those having charge of the equipment of a mu-
seum to visit these- four museums before building their own,
and thus avoid the endless grumbling and dissatisfaction
which might otherwise follow.

Cases for exhibition may be divided into two groups, ver-
tical and horizontal. The former are generally either placed
against the wall or are used to divide the exhibition room
into alcoves. Each upright case should have its own floor,
the floor of the room never being employed for that pur-
pose. Cases placed against the wall should also have their
own back. Otherwise any settling of the building will pro-
duce cracks through which dust and vermin find easy access.
Both floor and back should be made of thoroughly seasoned
matched lumber, or better still of zinc and should be fastened
to the rest of the case without the slightest crack. The rest
of the case should be of well seasoned timber, as light as is
consistent with strength, while large panes of good glass per-
mit a clear view of the specimens exhibited. The doors
should be very firmly made so that they cannot sag and plenty
of hinges should be used in hanging them. Means should
be employed of fastening them tightly in at least three places.
The lock invented by Prof. E. S. Morse, improved and manu-
factured by Mr. Jenks at Middleboro, Mass., is admirably
adapted for this purpose. In this lock all bolts act as wedges
drawing the door closely against the projecting portion of
the jamb.

To render the joint between the door and the frame tight,
several methods have been employed. Sometimes a thin

7o

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

strip of cotton wool has been tacked to the door, at oth-
ers the door and frame are fitted with tongue and groove.
This is possibly the best method and is, employed in the Yale
cases. A cheap means has been adopted at the Peabody
Academy 'of Science with good results. A thin strip of rub-
ber packing is folded and fastened by means of a strip of
wood to the case and against this fold the door closes sending

the joint all but air-
tight. The construc-
tion is readily seen from
figure 23. The floor of
a vertical case should
be some few inches
above the floor of the
exhibition room, and the space
thus left may be occupied by
drawers for the storage of speci-
mens. The shelves in an upright
case should be adjustable to any
desired height. A perfect method
of accomplishing this yet remains to be invented. Sometimes
sticks fitting into ratchets on which the shelves are supported
are employed, others support the shelves on "screw eyes"
screwed into the frame of the case. But doubtless the best
apparatus is the adjustable brackets. Two patterns of these
are made, one by Mr. Jenks and one by Mr. Gavitt, each
having its merits and objections. Possibly the former is
preferable. Each of these employs an iron bracket (hori-
-cntal or inclined as may be desired) which hooks into an

FIG. 23.

CASES.

iron frame and can be raised or lowered as circumstances de-
mand, by simply unhooking and placing in another hole.
These bracket irons should never be affixed to the wall of the
case but to a post inserted especially for the purpose.

Upright cases are necessary for alcoholic specimens and
mounted mammals and birds ; all other forms, with a very few
exceptions are better displayed in horizontal or table cases.
In the construction of these the same care to make the cases
tight should be used as in
vertical cases, and the
same methods, with slight
modification, may be used.
The manner of applying
the rubber strip is shown
in fig. 24. It is best to
make the case deep
enough to accommodate
any specimen that may be
obtained, and then to have
a false bottom which by
blocking up will bring the
contents as near the glass as is desired. It is sometimes
convenient to have upright cases in connection with the
horizontal and at such times the form shown in fig. 25
possesses advantages. Horizontal cases may be clear un-
derneath, or they may be fitted with glass for the exhibition
of large specimens, or with drawers. Specimens placed in
such position cannot be seen to advantage ; while drawers
afford a large amount of storage room and hence in most
instances are preferable-

FlG. 24.

72 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Insects are placed on exhibition in trays which are placed
in horizontal cases. These trays are made of light wood and
should be about ten by twelve inches by two deep. The
bottom should be lined with sheet cork, which may be
procured of any dealer in Naturalists' supplies, and over this
should be stretched paper so that the whole will present a
neat appearance. Prof. E. S. Morse has described in the

FIG. 25.

pages of the American Naturalist a convenient substitute for
cork in the bottoms of cases. A rectangular frame of light
wood strips of such a size as to be readily admitted into the
tray has stretched upon it sheets of paper, one above and one
below. The paper may be readily stretched by thoroughly
wetting it and while wet gluing it to the frame. Thus, when
dry it is as tight as a drum-head. This papered frame should
be supported about an eighth of an inch above the bottom

CASES.

73

of the case. The pin bearing the insect is passed through
both sheets of paper until its point penetrates the wood.
Thus three points of support are obtained. Other substitutes
for cork have been proposed, corn stalks elder pith pita, etc.,
but their use is attended with this disadvantage, that the sap
which they contain produces by fermentation an acid which
Corrodes a pin. '
Storage cases for insects are usually made in pairs, and

FIG. 26.

should have the two parts fitted together by tongue and
groove. This will be very effectual in excluding vermin.

A large proportion of the alcoholic specimens of any col-
lection will be kept in what are known as homoeopathic vials
and various ways for arranging and keeping these have been
devised. The common method is by laying them down in
shallow drawers, but this has the disadvantage of injuring the
cork by keeping it constantly soaked with alcohol. Mr.
Emerton has suggested a handy form which is well adapted

74

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

for laboratory purposes. Its construction is readily seen from
fig. 27. It consists of a shallow tray with a series of steps,
the bottles being held in place by rods running along the case.
When a row is not full, the vials are fastened by a wedge.

\

V

J

\\\\\\

y\->^A-^ — *^-s

FIG. 27.

This form may stand on the laboratory table or can hang
against the wall as desired. They can also be hinged to-
gether in pairs, labelled and placed on shelves.

CASES.

75

Perhaps the best form of case for homeopathic vials is that
described by the same gentleman in the American Natura-
list. Narrow deep drawers are made with the front, bottom,
back and one side of wood while the other side consists of
two wires. This holds the bottles in an upright position and
also admits an easy examination of the contents. These
drawers may be m .de of varying width but in no case should
the front be less than an inch across. This is none too wide
for the smallest vials. By making the drawers wider, larger

FIG. 28.

vials (one and two oz. can be admitted. The drawers may
advantageously be four and one-half inches in depth and twelve
inches in length. The bottles are fastened i.i position with a
wedge as shown in fij. 28. These drawers may be placed
together in a cabinet (fig. 29) and are interchangeable. By
this means any desired arrangement of the collections can' be
effected, new specimens can be interpolated at any time and
by having the drawers labelled any desired specimen can be
at once found.

Microscopic slides also require special cases. Of these

NATURALISTS ASSISTANT.

there are primarily two forms, those in which the specimens
lie flat and those in which they stand on an edge. The for-

mer are preferable from the reason that the "mount" is less
liable to slip. On the other hand they take up much more

CASES. 77

room. The specimens may be kept flat in drawers sliding in
a frame or in trays piled one on another and enclosed in a
li^ht box ; the former is the most convenient, the latter the
more compact.

When slides stand on their edges they are supported in the
box by strips of wood in which transverse grooves are cut
with a saw. In a box of this character many slides may be
packed in a small compass. Another method which has been
proposed is to take the frame of an ordinary school slate and
replace the' stone with pasteboard. Rubber cord is then sewed
through the pasteboard forming clips which support the slides.
Several of the frames are bound together in book form and
placed on the shelves.

The forms of cases above described will answer in the
majority of instances, but occasionally circumstances will de-
mand something different. No rules can be laid down to
cover every condition which may arise ; a use of common
sense and ingenuity will solve most difficulties.

THE MICROSCOPE,

CHAPTER IV.

THE MICROSCOPE.

To the student of Nature the microscope is indispensable ;
he requires it to obtain an enlarged view of the objects he
studies. The simplest form of microscope is a piece of glass
with one or both sides convex, and known as a lens. These

FIG. 30.

simple lenses are very cheap and still very handy. It is some-
times desirable to have two or three so mounted that either
one or more may be used, as occasion demands a greater or
6 (81)

82

NATURALISTS ASSISTANT.

less amount of amplification. This is frequently obtained by
an arrangement similar to that shown in fig. 30. For very
low powers it is convenient to have the style of mounting
used by watchmakers as this can readily be held by the
muscles around the eye, leaving both hands free for wcrk.

With the simple lens there are, however, disadvantages ; as,
when a clear view is obtained of the centre, objects at the
margin of the field are blurred and surrounded by rainbow
hues.

Various plans have been adopted to avoid these defects

FIG. 31.

FIG. 32.

(known as spherical and chromatic aberration), the simplest
is that of the Coddington lens (fig. 31) in which the glass
has a deep groove cut around the margin which is filled with
some black pigment leaving only a small opening in the
centre. This to a considerable extent does away with the
color and distortion but at the expense of the brilliancy of
the view obtained.

Another, and the better, method of avoiding aberration is
by having the lens made of different kinds of glass, which
produce different effects on light and which tend to balance
each other. These lenses are sold under the names of

THE MICROSCOPE. 83

"doublets" (two pieces of glass), "triplets'" (three pieces),
"platyscopic lenses," etc. A section of a triplet is shown
in fig. 32. A good triplet gives a perfectly flat field and is
free from rainbow hues around the object viewed.

Some means of support should be devised to hold the
simple lens. A very simple one may be made by means of
a block of wood, two bits of stiff iron wire, and a couple of
corks. The block of wood should be used as a base. In
its centre one of the pieces of wire should be fixed in an up-
right position. On this wire one of the corks should be

FIG. 33-

made to slide up and down freely, but not so loosely as to
slip. Through this cork the second rod should move with
the same freedom as the first, but at right angles ; and at its
farther extremity, the second cork, which is shaped to hold
the lens, should be fixed. The corks used in this way afford
a very smooth motion and the apparatus produces good
results.

A rather more expensive piece of apparatus for this pur-
pose is that shown in fig. 33, and which hardly needs any
explanation. The whole is made of brass and is especially
adapted for the usual style of mounting triplets. The two

84 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

joints of the apparatus enable a person to raise and depress
the lens and still keep it horizontal. The end portion con-
sists of a piece of brass tube with a slot cut in it to receive
the cover of the lens. Such an instrument can be made for
two dollars at the most, and to all intents and purposes will
serve instead of a dissecting microscope, all forms of which are
more or less inconvenient. When it is desirable to use trans-
mitted light, the watch glass or other transparent dish may be
placed in the mouth of a bottle and thus sufficient light for
all ordinary purposes can be obtained.

Dissecting microscopes are advertised by all dealers in
microscopic goods, but they are but little used by professional
naturalists, a triplet with a stand answering all their purposes
and that with few of the many objections which they all
have.

The compound microscope is next to be considered. In
this instrument an inverted image is formed by the lens
(or combination of lenses) nearest the object (called the
object glass) and viewed by the other lens nearer the eye
(the eye-piece or ocular). These lenses are mounted in a
tube fitted with appliances for bringing them nearer to or re-
moving them farther from an object placed on the stage.
Suitable methods are also employed for illuminating the ob-
ject, and a stand to support the whole completes the list of
necessary portions. These will now be taken up in order and
their various requisites discussed. In this the writer is well
aware that the views advanced are in direct opposition to
those held by many microscopists, but he is also aware that
they are in almost full accord with the opinions of those who

THE MICROSCOPE. 85

use the instrument as a means of research and not as a play-
thing.

First and foremost, the simpler the working parts are, the
better. Complication means a waste of time with no corre-
sponding gain. When a microscope becomes a mass of
machinery with screws, wheels, pinions and a thousand and
one appliances, its sphere of usefulness is gone.

The tube of the microscope should be short and, if the
owner has money for objectives, a draw tube and an ampli-
fier are utterly useless. The use of a draw tube is to increase
the length of the tube of the microscope and thus enlarge
the image formed by the objective, but it must be at once
evident that the increased size of the image is counterbal-
anced by a corresponding loss in distinctness and brilliancy.
But few objectives are made which will stand the strain of
the higher oculars and a draw tube. The continental workers
adopt the other method of using objectives of greater mag-
nifying power to obtain the desired amplification and it is only
necessary to refer to their published figures to show the
great superiority of their method. The writer would there-
fore advise instruments with short tubes, the amplification of
the image to depend on the objective.

There should be two methods of regulating the distance
between the objective and the object : one by which it can
be rapidly increased or diminished, while the other works at
a greatly lower rate of speed and thus is suitable for small
distances. These are called respectively the coarse and fine
adjustments. There have been many plans for regulating the
coarse adjustment, but two, however, having any extensive

86 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

application : by sliding tube, and by rack and pinion. For
the novi:e the latter is the better method but in the hands
of the experienced person equally good results are readily
obtained by the former plan. With the sliding tube, the tube
carrying the lenses is made to slide in a closely fitting collar
by a screwing motion. The rack and pinion dispense with
the collar and move the tube by a toothed wheel, working
into a straight bar fitted with similar teeth. The great ob-
jection to this is that the teeth wear rapidly, thus allowing
more or less "play" and causing the tube to move by jerks,
a serious disadvantage.

The methods employed for securing the fine adjustment
are still more numerous. Some move the "nose piece"
(/'. <?.,. move the objective without altering the position of the
tube) ; others move the tube, and still others move the stage.
These last forms are the worst of all and should never be em-
ployed. Between the other two and the various methods
employed for each, there is but little choice when well made.
The purchaser should, however, -always see that the fine ad-
justment works easily, responds to the slightest turn of the
adjusting screw, is durable, and can be regulated for very
short distances. If proper precautions are taken by the maker
to secure an absolutely straight motion without any lateral de-
viation cr shake, it is perhaps best to have the whole tube
move by the fine adjustment, rather than the objective alone.

The lenses are the important portion of the instrument
and upon their perfection its value almost entirely depends.
The eye-piece may either consist of two or three lenses
mounted in a short tube (Huygenian oculars) , or the lenses

THE MICROSCOPE. 87

may be united into one, forming the solid eye-piece. The
latter is the better and is at the same time more expensive
form. It is best to have two eye-pieces (those lettered A and
C by most American manufacturers being the most useful).
The greatest attention should be paid to the selection of the
objectives and, unless the purchaser be an experienced per-
son, some expert friend should, be called in to pass judgment
upon the lenses submitted. The great points to be secured
are absence of color, flatness of field, and distinctness of
image. All objectives above a one-fourth should be provided
with an adjustment for cover glass. The " angle of aperture "
should be reasonably large, but "high angled" lenses possess
no value corresponding to their high price except to "Diato-
maniacs."

Objectives are rated by English and American manufacturers
according to their focal length, this being the distance be-
tween the object and the "optical centre" of the lens when
an image is formed. Thus a £ inch does not have a quarter
of an inch between the objective and the object, but between
the optical centre (which is nearer the distal portion of the
lens than is the mathematical centre) and the object.

For the beginner, the most useful objectives will be an
inch and a quarter or fifth. As he proceeds in his studies and
his familiarity with the instrument increases, higher, lower,
and intermediate powers will be necessary.

Among the higher powers (£ inch and upward) it is cus-
tomary to have the lenses of the kind known as "immersion."
In these the end of the objective is wetted with a drop of
water which forms a thin film between the cover of the slide

88 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

and the lens. It is thus possible to obtain a more brilliant
view of the object as a larger amount of light can be passed
through the objective. Besides this there are other immersion
lenses, etc., in which oil, etc., take the place of the water.

It may not come amiss to say that the objectives of dif-
ferent makers, of the same nominal focal length, vary greatly
in their magnifying power. JThis results from the fact that
some manufacturers, in plain English, lie about their lenses
and sell for a fourth, for instance, a lens which in reality is a
sixth or an eighth, and thus obtain a reputation for making
lenses of wonderful power, while were their work tested upon
its true merits its rank would be much less. One prominent
American manufacturer notoriously does this and upon just
this fraud has acquired a great reputation.

Continental manufacturers have adopted an arbitrary sys-
tem of numbering their objectives, and, for the convenience
of many, the tables on the opposite page giving the equiva-
lent of each in inches are inserted.

Other prominent European, as well as the English and
American makers designate their objectives by their focal
length. The objectives of the Continental manufacturers are
fully equal for work to those of English or American opticians
while their prices are greatly lower, and the writer would
here advise every one to buy the objectives of Hartnack or
Zeiss, until American manufacturers offer their work at
reasonable prices.

The stage of the microscope should be firm and rigid. It
is frequently convenient to have a stage of glass sliding upon
brass supports, as thus a great smoothness of motion is ob-

THE MICROSCOPE.

HARTNACK.

No. Focal length.

ZEISS.
No. Focal length.

SCHIEK.
No. Focal length

NACHET.
No. Focal length.

1

2

A 1

1 2

0

2

2

1

A I

2 8

1

1

3

1

B f

3 |

2

i

2

4

I

c i

4 4

3

1
4

5

i

4

D ti

5 i

4

|

6

5

E i

6 i

5

t

7

6

F TV

7 £

6

A

8

i

8 *

7

A

9

-rV

91
12

8

A

101

A

10 A

9

A

11

Y«

11 A-

10

tV

12

-A-

11

iV

13

is

12

llff

14

-h

15

-J-

16

-i0-

17

-45

18

A'

tained. On the other hand, the glass stage is as frequently in
the way, and on the whole the student can very well dispense
with it, as its disadvantages will nearly or quite counterbalance
its convenience. No rubber should be employed around the
stage nor in fact anywhere around the microscope.2 The

1 Nos. TO to 1 8 are immersion.

2 Besides its electrical qualities which render it a nuisance, rubber is readily
affected by turpentine and benzole which are so necessary in microscopic work.

90 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

under side of the stage should be bevelled around the central
opening to admit of oblique illumination, and it is often con-
venient to have a thread cut in the opening itself to admit of
using objectives as " condensers " in using high powers. The
stage should also be provided with clips to hold the slide in
any desired position. Stage forceps are more bother than
they are worth.

The illumination of the object is accomplished by a mirror
and by a "bulls eye" ; the mirror is supported beneath the
stage and should be so arranged as to be readily placed at
different distances from the object and also so that the light
can be thrown at various angles upon the slide. Two mirrors,
one plain and the other concave, are usually furnished so
that varying intensities of light may be employed. With high
powers a lens is frequently employed to add to the illumina-
tion and is interposed between the mirror and the stage.
This is called a condenser. Some microscopes have the
mirror so arranged as to swing above the stage and thus
illuminate opaque objects ; in others this illumination is ef-
fected by the "bulls eye" a large lens of common glass
mounted on a separate standard.

It is usual to have some method of cutting off undesired
rays of light coming from the mirror. This is accomplished
by having apertures of various sizes so arranged that they
may be brought beneath the object. Various methods are
adopted to accomplish this but it is difficult to say which is
best. The microscope as described with its base, its supports,
and its means of connection of the various parts form what is
known as the "stand, " and this will now be considered.

THE MICROSCOPE. 9!

The stand should be solid and firm, without springiness or
"give" in its various parts. The base should be heavy so as
to prevent its easy overthrow. It is frequently convenient to
have the instrument so arranged that it may be inclined ; but
if an instrument with short tube and low body be procured
and fitted with a camera admitting of use in a vertical posi-
tion, inclination is rarely necessary.

The accessories which are necessary for the biologist are ex-
tremely few. First among them comes the camera lucida or
other means of seeing the object and the point of the pencil
at the same time. The simplest form consists of a bit of
thin glass so mounted near the eye-piece of the microscope
that the eye can see the point of the pencil through it, and at
the same time the image coming through the eye-piece is re-
flected by it to the eye. In other forms prisms of various
shapes replace the thin glass, or a very small metallic mirror
is employed. A prism properly mounted forms the most satis-
factory camera.

Occasionally, in differentiating certain structures in the
living animal, a polariscope is useful. This consists of two
prisms of Iceland spar properly prepared and placed, the one
below the object and between it and the mirror, the other,
either in connection with the objective or the eye-piece, be-
tween the object and the eye. When either of these is
revolved around the axis of the instrument, many structures
are seen to present different colors which vary as do the rel-
ative positions of the two prisms.

Other accessories such as mechanical stages, spot lenses,

92 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Lieberkuhns, parabolas, etc., etc., are but rarely used by the
true student and need not be described here.

This is a good place to say a word about the "Novelty,"
" Globe," "Craig," and other microscopes which are extensive-
ly advertised and as extensively recommended by clergymen,
teachers, and others. These microscopes, furnished for twen-
ty-five cents, are said to magnify 10,000 times, to show
animalcules in water and various other wonderful things, but
they are merely catch-pennies, and the clergy who recommend
such worthless instruments are entering a field in which they
are perfect ignoramuses. These cheap microscopes are
poorly made, give distorted and misleading images, and in a
word are worse than useless. The Craig is perhaps the worst
of the lot.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF MICROSCOPES.

From the days of Adams, Baker, Trembley, and the older
investigators, microscopes have been used extensively by
naturalists, and of course in these years various styles of in-
struments have originated, but all forms now manufactured
may be roughly classified under two heads, the English and
the Continental patterns. The latter are almost always
small, of great simplicity, and those of the prominent
makers like Zeiss, Hartnack, Merz, or Nachet, are invariably
of good workmanship. These have either a circular or horse-
shoe base from which arises the support of the working por-
tions of the instrument. The stage is almost invariably of

THE MICROSCOPE. 93

brass, without glass or mechanical attachments. The tube is
usually supported by an arm or bar and the coarse adjustment
is effected by means of a sliding tube. The fine adjustment
on all foreign instruments which the author has seen has in-
variably been well made and moves the arm and with it the
tube. The English model is larger and much more compli-
cated and clumsy. The base is usually of the tripod form
and the uprights supporting the working parts are much taller
than is necessary. In the higher priced instruments the
stage usually bears a plate of glass which in turn supports
the object. This glass stage, theoretically, is a great conven-
ience as it affords a very smooth motion and preserves the
working parts from corrosive liquids ; but in practice it is a
great nuisance and can well be dispensed with. The stage
in most of the English models is larger than in the continen-
tal and in this respect is better. The tube is generally sup-
ported by a curved arm and the coarse adjustment effected
by rack and pinion. The fine adjustment indifferently moves
either the whole tube or just the nose-piece, many manufac-
turers making both styles. The tube itself is almost always
unnecessarily long and this defect is increased by a draw
tube. When English and American students learn that defi-
nition is better than amplification, and that the shorter an
instrument is, the better and more useful it is, then, and not
till then, may we hope for a change for the better in this re-
spect. It may seem out of place in a work of this character
to speak of one instrument in higher terms than of another,
but there are many who wish to purchase microscopes who

94 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

have not had the necessary experience to select for them-
selves, hence the following words are written, and must
not in any way be considered as an advertisement, except
such as the merit of the various instruments themselves
demands.

In the writer's opinion, one of the best stands for all
ordinary work is the smaller compjund microscope manu-
factured by Carl Zeiss of Jena and designated by him as
"Va." This stand alone costs ninety marks ($22.50) and
when furnished with four eye-pieces and three objectives,
A, C, D, F, giving powers of 20-1500 diameters, sells for
three hundred and twenty marks ($80.00). This instrument
will answer all the requirements of the naturalist or histologist
in any special investigation. The ordinary student, however,
does not need these higher powers, and the same stand with
three eye-pieces and the objectives "A" and "D" (i inch
and I) will answer all ordinary requirements and is sold
for one hundred and seventy marks (about $42.50). Zeiss's
American agent is F. J. Emmerich, 138 Fulton St., New
York, who imports, charging 50 per cent, to cover freights
and duties.

The instruments of Hartnack are fully equal in value to
those of Zeiss and the differences in price are very slight.
Geo. A. Smith & Co., 149 A Tremont St., Boston, are the
American agents of Hartnack, or rather, of his successor,
Prazmowski, and furnish his instruments at very reasonable
prices. The stand III a with two eye-pieces, and objectives
4 and 7, giving powers from 50 to 450 diameters, is sold for

THE MICROSCOPE.

95

$50.00 ; with the addition of objective No. 9, the price is
$70.00. No better instrument for actual work can be bought.

When we come to speak of the comparative merits of the
instruments manufactured or extensively sold in America,
it is a rather more delicate matter to decide between them,
though no corresponding difficulty exists. Beyond all doubt
the best stand for the student is the American Histological
stand manufactured by J. Zentmayer, of Philadelphia, and
with an T8-y and a ± objective is sold for $50.00. Those who
prefer a ragk and pinion can obtain from this maker essen-
tially the same instrument with this addition ; the same stand
for $58.00. Were the stages of these instruments an inch
lower and an inch larger, as they could readily be made, they
would be much more convenient.

R. and J. Beck, of Philadelphia, make an excellent instru-
ment, the " Economic "(No. 263), which with two objectives
(i in. and ] in.) they sell for $40.00. The same with rack and
pinion and two eye-pieces (No. 264) is advertised for $55.00.

Bausch and Lomb, of Rochester, make the "Physicians'"
microscope, of fair workmanship, which with two eye-pieces
and two objectives, £ and £ (No. 550), brings $60.00. Their
instruments, however, would be much better did they avoid
the use of rubber in their construction.

The instruments and objectives of Tolles, of Boston, possess
no advantages at all commensurate with the greatly exorbitant
prices charged for them.

In case the student desires higher powers than those enum-
erated with the foregoing instruments, it will be for his advan-

96

tage to import the lenses of either Hartnack or Zeiss and
have them fitted by an " adapter" to his microscope. By
this method, he will obtain good objectives at about half the
prices charged for similar lenses of no better quality made
by American opticians.

Binocular microscopes have of late been extensively ad-
vertised, but for work possess not the slightest advantage and
are only manufactured so that the makers may add to the
prices and to the profits made on their instruments.

THE USE AND CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE.

It is a difficult task to give directions for the use of the
microscope as the varying uses to which it is put require as
varied a method of handling. All objects for the micro-
scope should be mounted either temporarily or permanently
on a glass slide. If it be a moist tissue or an object taken
from the water, a drop of water should be placed on the
slide, the object placed in it and the whole covered with a
piece of thin glass. The slide and its object are now ready
for examination. The microscope should now be made ready
and the objectives screwed on. It is best to use first the
lower powers and then the higher if necessary, with either
reflected or transmitted light according as the object is
opaque or transparent. There are several advantages con-
nected with this method of treatment, one being that in this
way a general idea of the structure is first obtained and the
various details are studied afterward. It is also much easier

THE MICROSCOPE. 97

to find an object under a low power, and, placing it in the cen-
tre of the field, it is in position when the higher powers are
employed.

In focussing the microscope it is better first to run the tube
down toward the slide to within the focal limits of the objec-
tive, watching the operation from the side and seeing that
the cover glass is not touched. Then, with the eye to the
eye-piece of the microscope, the tube is slowly moved back
by the coarse adjustment until a good view of the object is
obtained, and then the fine adjustment is used.

In using immersion objectives a drop of water is put on
the front of the objective which is then placed on the mi-
croscope and run down to the cover glass so that the water
forms a thin film between the objective and the cover glass.
A very simple experiment, for v/hich I am indebted to Mr.
Phin,3 shows how the immersion aids in the defining power
of the microscope. "Take four ordinary plate glass slides
and place a very small drop of water in the centre of three
of them. Across the ends of these three slides lay a narrow
strip of stout writing paper, and then place the four slides
together so that between every two there shall be a drop of
water and also two slips of paper to keep them apart. If
you now look through these four slides at any object, the
spots where the three drops of water have been placed will
look like a hole it will appear so clean and transparent."
The water produces exactly the same effect with the immer-

• Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope, p. 38, by John
Pbin,N.Y.,i875.
7

98 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

sion objective. Most objectives use water for an immersing
medium but some are adapted for oil of cedar, glycerine or
other liquid. Immersion objectives are valuable for some
special purposes, but for ordinary work the "dry" lenses are
much better.

Most high powers of American objectives have an adjust-
ment for thickness of cover glass. This is only necessary for
objectives of very high angle (and the higher the angle, be-
yond a certain point, the more use-
less the objective). It is better as

c— • \ / *-p well as much cheaper to purchase

\j| |y objectives without this adjustment

and then use the thinnest cover
glasses made. These objectives
without adjustment are always well
corrected and give good results.

Having mentioned high angle
lenses above, it may not be amiss to
FlG 34 speak of these glasses. This expres-

sion refers to the angular aperture of

the objective, or, in other words, the angle which the ex-
treme rays of light make with each other in entering the
objective, and the larger the angle the "higher" it is.

With every increase in the angular aperture, a shorter
working distance of the lens is necessary, and so with very
high-angled lenses the inconvenience of working far more
than counterbalances the gain in definition. Some makers
absurdly claim to make objectives of 180° angular aperture !
People making such claims should be carefully avoided, as

USE OF THE CAMERA. 99

their statements are apt to be equally unreliable and false in
other particulars. As will be seen from the above it is advis-
able to purchase the lower-angled lenses. The most conven-
ient glass ever used by the writer was a J of only 48° angular
aperture.

One criticism which the writer would make on the ordinary
objective is the utterly disproportionate length of brass to
the optical portion of lenses, making it next to impossible to
use low power objectives on the smaller stands. Fig. 34
represents one of these lenses drawn from measurements,
the shaded part indicating the optical portion and the
dotted line showing to what extent it might conveniently be
shortened. We commend it to the attention of opticians.

USE OF THE CAMERA.

The camera lucida, or camera, as it is commonly called,
is one of the most useful microscopic accessories. Two

FIG. 35.

forms are offered for sale and are represented in fig. 35 ; the
one at the left, A, is the most valuable one, but B is the cheaper.
The ray of light coming through the microscope falls upon an
inner surface of a glass prism and from thence is reflected
directly to the eye as in B, or to a second surface and thence
to the eye as in A. At the same time a ray of light coming

ioo NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

from the paper beneath passes through the prism and enters
the eye in the same direction as the first. These lines of
light are represented by dotted lines in the figures. It will
thus be seen that the eye perceives the object under the
microscope and a paper placed beneath, superimposed upon
one another. Its method of use is as follows : the micro-
scope is first focussed upon an object and then the tube is
brought to a horizontal position, the camera attached to the
eye-piece and a paper placed on the table beneath the camera.
Then looking down through the camera, one perceives at the
same time the paper and the object. A pencil may now be
made to trace on the paper the outlines of the object, and
the details afterward filled in free hand.

In the first figured camera the image by the two reflections
is first reversed and then reversed again, bringing it the same
as that seen by direct observation through the tube, giving
an outline, the details of which are easily filled in.

The second form having but a single reflection produces a
reversed image, and hence it is difficult to complete free
hand. Instead of a prism, the student may easily make his
own camera of this second form by mounting a piece of thin
glass in a bit of cork which can be affixed to the tube of the
microscope.

A third form, which is rarely seen in America, but which is
in the opinion of the writer the best, is the "vertical" camera,
manufactured by Carl Zeiss. This form may be applied to
the microscope when in a vertical position, throwing the im-
age to one side of the stand, and giving the clearest image
of any, of both object and pencil. It is also remarkably cheap

USE OF THE CAMERA. IOI

costing only twenty-one marks ($5.25) . Most students at first
find it difficult to use a camera, but practice soon overcomes
the difficulty and enables one to adjust the illumination prop-
erly, which otherwise is the principal cause of poor success.

The other accessories for the microscope which are of
value to the biologist are a stage micrometer, one or more
animalcule cages, glass cells, a compressorium (the one des-
cribed by Mr. Ryder4 possesses many advantages and is on
the whole the best) , and a bull's eye condenser which is neces-
sary with opaque objects, and when using the higher powers.
The polariscope is of use in mineralogy and in differentiating
some animal tissues. Rotary stages, unless accurately cen-
tred, are useless and then are of value only to the mineral-
ogists. The stage forceps which accompany most stands are
models of clumsiness, are wholly worthless, and can well be
dispensed with.

In writing the foregoing pages on the microscope and its
accessories, the writer has had this object in view : to show
that the simpler an instrument is, other things being equal,
the better it is, and that none need be deterred from purchas-
ing a microscope on the grounds that a good instrument
costs an outrageous amount. Just as soon as American stu-
dents realize that the simpler their apparatus is the better
their work will be, just so soon will American science rise
from its present low level.

There are three men in America, who never did a single
stroke of original work in their lives, to whom we are in-

4 American Naturalist, xiv, p. 691. 1880.

102

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

debted for the present low state of the microscopical branches
of biology. These men without knowing the first requisite
of biological work have denounced good instruments and
advocated useless ones, have based their opinions of the
worth of an instrument on its power of resolving diatoms, and
the result is that the beginner, influenced by their dogmatic
assertions and widely-copied opinions, has been led to pur-
chase an instrument wholly unsuitable for his ends and the
result has been discouragement and a cessation of microscopic
work.

THE LABORATORY.

CHAPTER V.

THE LABORATORY.

EVERY museum should have connected with it a laboratory
for practical work. This is especially desirable in connection
with College Museums, as there is but one way in which Zo-
ology should be taught : directly from the specimens. There
are in the United States some 370 institutions which rejoice
in the name of college or university, but not ten per -cent,
afford their students the slightest facilities for practical work.
It is sincerely to be hoped that the day is not far distant,
when this condition of affairs will be changed and specimens
will replace the text-book instruction.

The laboratory should be a commodious, well-lighted room,
with, if possible, a northern exposure, and furnished with
every convenience for the student. Tables for the students
should not be varnished, as in that case any accidental spilling
of alcohol will render them sticky and unpleasant. Instead,
the tables may be oiled and thus they will not be stained and
may be readily washed. Either pine or cherry is a good wood
for tables. A convenient size for tables for single students
is four feet by three, and two and one-half feet in height.
Should it be necessary to place more than one student at a

(105)

io6 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

table, the length should be increased so that each may have
at least ten square feet of table room.

The support of the table as well as the floor of the labora-
tory should be firm, so that all unnecessary vibration, which
would prove very annoying in microscopic work, may be
avoided. In the laboratory of Prof. Alex. Agassiz, at New-
port, each table has a support of its own wholly unconnected
with the floor of the room.

Concerning the chairs to be used in the laboratory but
little can be said. It is best, however, to use either wood or
leather-bottomed chairs. Of course no varnish should be
used upon them.

Larger tables than those mentioned above should be pro-
vided for the dissection of the larger forms, and these should
have either slate or metal tops to prevent the fluids, etc., from
sinking into the wood and causing disagreeable odors by their
decay.

The order should be enforced that every student should
put his table in good order at the close of the day, should dis-
pose of all refuse and clean all instruments before leaving
the laboratory.

If possible, the laboratory should be provided with water
and gas, and there should be kept in close connection a well
selected library of morphological works to which the students
should have unrestricted access, but should not be allowed
to remove from the building. A list of indispensable morpho-
logical works is given at the end of the next chapter. Good
bibliographies of anatomical and embryological works and

THE LABORATORY.

I07

papers will be found in Balfour's Embryology, Owen's An-
atomy and Gegenbaur's Anatomy.

Besides the tables and chairs, many of the following in-
struments, apparatus and reagents will be useful, all coming
into use in a laboratory where much original investigation is
carried on, while in an ordinary college course many may be
omitted.

INSTRUMENTS.

Scalpels, large and small. Tenotomes.

"Eye knives."

Dissecting scissors, straight and

curved.
Forceps of various sizes and

shapes.

Microscopes, dissecting and com-
pound.

Hand-lenses.

Microtome.

Beakers.

Tiles, white and black.

Test tube.

Turn tables.

Glass and earthen vessels of vari-
ous shapes and sizes.

Thin glass.

Glaziers' diamond.

Dropping and dipping tubes.

Tubs.

Aquaria.

Funnels.

Paper.

Pencils

Cartilage knives.
Bone saws.
Bone forceps.
Dissecting needles.
Valentine's knife.
Injecting apparatus.
Florence flasks.
Evaporating dishes.
Glass tubing.
Watch crystals.
Hot stage.
Washing bottles.
Water bath.
Glass slides.
Micrometer scale.
Writing diamond.
Thermometers.
Brackets.
Sponges.
Filter paper.
Dissecting forceps.
Colors.

REAGENTS.

Alcohol, absolute, 95 and 50 per Caustic potash.

Aqua ammonia.

cent.

io8

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Acid acetic.

" carbolic.

" chromic.

" formic,

«' hydrochloric.

•' lactic.

" nitric.

" osmic.

" picric.

" sulphuric.
Nitrate of silver.
Extract of logwood.
Alnm.

Picrocarminate of ammonia.
Canada balsam.
Dammar varnish.
Ring varnish.
Glycerine jelly.
Marine glue.
Chloroform.
Neutral salt solution.
Asphalt.

Brunswick black.
Bichromate of potash.
Wickerscheimer's solution.
Lampblack.
Caustic soda.
Benzole.
Magenta.

Morphia sulphate.

Curare.

Arsenic.

Corrosive sublimate.

Glycerine.

Carmine.

Eosin.

Vermilion.

Haematoxylin.

Creosote.

Prussian blue.

Kleinen berg's haematoxylin.

Benzole balsam.

Dammar lac.

Bell's cement.

Gelatine.

Miiller's fluid.

Salt.

Chloride of gold.

Paraffine.

Borax.

Acid nitrate of mercury.

Aniline green.

Iodine.

Turpentine.

Indigo.

Oil of Bergamot.

Oil of cloves.

Each student should provide himself -with the most useful
of instruments and reagents in the foregoing list, while those
which are but rarely used might be furnished by the labo-
ratory.

The uses of most of the various instruments, etc., in the
foregoing list will be described under the various heads which
follow, while the way in which many of the reagents are made

THE LABORATORY. 109

will be found in the chapter entitled " Recipes, Formulae, and
Useful Hints."

Each student should make extended notes of all of his
work and should accompany it by illustrative drawings.
From an experience of several years, the writer regards
"note-books " as the poorest form in which to keep notes, as
in a short time several books are filled and it becomes an
interminable job to find any desired item.

A far better way is to keep the memoranda, drawings, etc.,
on separate sheets which can be arranged in portfolios and
envelopes after any desired system, thus greatly facilitating
reference and admitting of future interpolations.

A word in regard to drawing may not come amiss. Most
persons have an idea that they cannot draw or learn to draw.
Nothing possesses less of truth. Any one with a little prac-
tice can make an intelligible drawing, though but few acquire
that skill and facility which are necessary for book illustration.
Almost every student whom the writer has seen enter a bio-
logical laboratory, has said that he or she could not possibly
draw and never could learn how. But those same students in
a very short space of time would produce creditable drawings
to illustrate their dissections. The great secret of drawing
is " patience." Drawing takes time, and the trouble with be-
ginners is that they want to hurry. No instruction is necessary
to enable a student to reproduce with more or less accuracy
the features of any preparation or dissection ; practice alone
will do it.

Drawings will express far more than pages of description,
and whenever it is practicable they should be employed.

no NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

For scientific work "bristol board" and a "six H" lead
pencil produce the best results. The shades may be put in with
India ink and a camel's hair or, better, a sable brush. In
case it be desired to color a drawing, water colors are best,
and the moist water colors are the most convenient to use.

It is frequently desirable to use certain colors for certain
organs and thus through a series of drawings to indicate the
parts with similar functions and the following list embraces
the conventional colors most used.

White or neutral tint, nerves.
Red, heart and arteries.
Blue, veins.

Brown, the alimentary canal.
Green, liver.
Purple, renal organs.
Yellow, female sexual organs.
Orange, male sexual organs.

In a series of drawings with these conventional tints the
eye readily appreciates the principal features of the anatomy
without the aid of descriptive text. Other organs than those
enumerated may be left blank or colored according to the
fancy of the artist.

The various photographic processes of reproducing illus-
trations have lately acquired great prominence and a few
hints on preparing drawings for the photographer may prove
of use.

The "direct transfer " process of the Heliotype Company
is but poorly fitted for scientific work and the results are very

THE LABORATORY. Ill

unsatisfactory. The drawings are made upon bristol board
with an ink containing alum and these are given to the com-
pany who produce facsimiles, but they are always muddy and
blurred.

For all other photo processes the drawings require that
each line should be perfectly black and smooth. The draw-
ings should always be made on bristol board. No wash
tints or pencil work will take, but all shades have to be ex-
pressed either by lines or dots. Winsor and Newton's liquid
India ink produces good results, especially if more cake ink
is rubbed up with it.

Of the photo processes the photo-lithographic is the most
satisfactory but this cannot be used along with press work,
but requires separate plates. The various processes for pro-
ducing raised plates (photo-electrotypes) do not vary much
and the chief distinction between them seems to lie in the
skill of the operators. The writer has noticed, however, that
by whatever process, if a poor electrotype resulted, it was
always attributed to the fault of the one furnishing the draw-
ing, and not to any fault of the photographer, electrotyper or
of the process.

LABORATORY WORK,

CHAPTER VI.

LABORATORY WORK.

THE account which follows is from the necessities of the
case greatly condensed, many points of great importance be-
ing entirely omitted. This account is intended for the
beginner only. For more extended directions the student
is directed to the list of books at the end of this chapter ;
those of Huxley and Martin, Tulk and Henfrey, Burden-
Sanderson, Strieker and Ranvier giving the best and most
detailed instructions. Beale's book, like most of his other
works, is in many respects unreliable.

DISSECTING.

All small objects should be dissected under water or a
mixture of alcohol and water, as these media tend to support
and float the parts and tissues which otherwise would mat to-
gether to a greater or less extent, and thus obscure the dis-
section. Dissecting troughs are used for this purpose.
These are usually made of tin (firj. 36). These troughs, for
ordinary work, should be about six by eight inches square,
and one and a half to two inches in depth. Small tin slips

(115)

n6 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

should be soldered to the sides near the bottom to hold the
false bottom in position. This false bottom may be of cork,
wax, or other material which will hold a pin. It is best for
most purposes to have the bottom black, either by mixing
lampblack v/ith the melted wax before it is run in, or by
painting the cork. Other larger and smaller tanks should
be provided for other work. The object to be dissected
should be pinned out upon the wax, and just enough water

FIG. 36.

to cover the specimen poured in ; a greater quantity interferes
with facility of work. When the water becomes discolored
or dirty, it should of course be changed.

In case of the smaller animals, as grasshoppers, etc., it is
frequently difficult to pin the subject out, but the following
plan will answer well. With a hot wire melt a small groove
in the wax bottom and, while the wax is still in a molten
condition, place the object in it and, when cold, it will be
held firmly. Before doing this the specimen should have all

DISSECTING. 1 1 7

moisture removed from the surface, and, of course, it should
not be placed above the middle line in the wax.

At the close of the day's work the specimen should be re-
moved from the tank and placed in alcohol, while the tank
itself should be placed wrong side up to drain.

Below is given a very brief account of the methods of
studying the gross anatomy of a number of types ; all descrip-
tions of the organs being intentionally omitted. As the
student proceeds, he should make drawings as well as notes
of his work and should endeavor to rely as much on himself
and as little on text books and instructors as possible.

Protozoa can only be studied with the microscope.

Sponges are best studied by cutting sections and examining
them under the microscope. The various structures and ar-
rangements of parts can then be made out more or less
clearly, and the eggs and embryo.; in various stages of de-
velopment can frequently be seen. To study the spicules,
the specimen should be macerated in water, then picked to
pieces with needles and examined under the microscope.

Sea Anemones are dissected from the side, when the
genitalia, mesenteries and digestive portions are seen. By
freezing and cutting transverse sections, the relations of the
mesenteries to the alimentary canal are made out. The
various cell layers should be studied in stained microscopic
sections and the lassoo cells should be looked for.

Starfish shquld have the upper surface of the armr, removed,
taking care that the portion around the madreporic body be
left uninjured until it becomes necessary to cut it away. Sea
Urchins may be divided into two halves by a horizontal plane,

n8 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

or one side of the skeleton may be broken in. Holothurians
should be first carefully examined, and the genital opening,
which is near the mouth, found. This genital opening should
be placed in the median line above, and then a longitudinal
incision made from the genital pore to near the anus. This
will expose the viscera and the parts will show a bilateral
symmetry. The relation of the longitudinal nerves and
canals, and the ambulacra should be studied by cutting
through the integument and one of the longitudinal muscles.
Clams are dissected by removing one valve. In order
that uniformity may be obtained the valve removed is the
left one. To ascertain the right and left, hold the clam with
the hinge from you, and the end from which the siphons ex-
tend at your right hand ; the upper valve will then be the left
one. Insert a dull knife in the gape of the shell and cut the
strong muscles which hold it closed. These will be found in
the cla»Ji near the hinge line, at the two ends of the shell.
In the mussel (Mytilus) and the oyster but one such muscle
will be found. The heart (near the hinge line) , the aliment-
ary canal with its tortuous course and the nervous system
may be then studied. The gills under the microscope show
a fine example of ciliary action.

Snails should be extracted from the shell, by breaking it or
otherwise, and opened from the dorsal surface.

The larger worms may also be opened from above, but
many of the smaller ones, especially among tlie lower forms,
must be studied in sections.

Lobsters are opened by removing a portion of the carapax
exposing the circulatory apparatus, etc. The nervous system

DISSECTING. % ' 119

lies on the floor of the body cavity and in a portion of its
course is covered by bony arches. These must be broken
down. The homologies of the legs and mouth parts should
also be investigated. The gills will be found under the sides
of the carapax. The relations and motions of the teeth found
in the stomach will prove an interesting subject for study.
Insects are dissected in much the same way as lobsters, but
from their smaller size require more delicate manipulation.

Frogs are one of the best of vertebrates for study. In inves-
tigating the visceral anatomy they should be killed by pithing;
a needle is forced into the spinal canal at the base of the skull
and forced down the canal and also into the brain. The frog
is now opened in the median ventral line and the parts care-
fully dissected out. The heart will continue beating for a
considerable time after the animal has been killed. The
brain is studied by opening the skull from the top. The
muscles are easily dissected, their origin and insertion readily
seen and the results produced by each one, readily under-
stood. Fishes and many mammals are generally opened from
the side. The left side is the one usually chosen, the head
being directed toward the left hand of the operator.

The amount of time which can be advantageously spent
on a single form or even on a single specimen is very great.
In studying the anatomy of any form there should be no
haste. Not a single cut should be made until the student
realizes just why and what results will follow. It is far better
to know the structure of one form well than to have a super-
ficial and very vague idea of a dozen or more forms.

120 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

INJECTING.

The circulatory system is best studied in injected speci-
mens. These are prepared as follows : an artery or other
vessel is exposed and opened and in the opening the nozzle
of the injecting apparatus is inserted. Usually an injecting
syringe is use. This is a metal instrument, closely resembling
the ordinary "surgeon's syringe," provided with
nozzles of various sizes. Sometimes instead of a
syringe an apparatus is used in which the weight
of water or mercury is employed to force in the
injection. This has the advantage of affording
a steadier pressure then can be obtained in the
ordinary manner. Fig. 37 represents this ap-
paratus. Three bottles are required, each of
which is corked with a stopper through which
two glass tubes pass. One of each pair of tubes
goes to the bottom of the bottle
while the other merely passes
through the corks. One bottle
(/£) is filled with water and is
suspended by a string (a) pas-
sing over a pulley by which its

height may be regulated. This bottle is connected with the
second (d) by a rubber pipe attached to the long glass tube
in each. This in turn is connected with the third by a second
rubber pipe attached to the short glass tube and from this
bottle runs a rubber pipe bearing the glass injecting nozzle.
The methods of use are as follows : the tube connecting

INJECTING. 121

the first two bottles is filled and acts as a siphon and thus
conveys the water to the second bottle creating there a pres-
sure which in turn is communicated to the bottle, <?, which
contains the injecting material and which is thus forced out
into the subject. By elevating or depressing the bottle b any
desired pressure may be obtained.

With the injecting apparatus a colored fluid is forced into
the vessels, rendering it very easy to trace them in dissecting.
In some cases a saturated solution of prussian blue is suffi-
cient for this purpose but it is better to employ albumen or
gelatine as a basis.

Common gelatine is melted over a slow fire with the aid
of water, in the proportions necessary to make a stiff jelly
when cold. These proportions are usually given on the out-
side of the package. When melted, the coloring matter is
stirred in. This may be an aqueous solution of carmine or
prussian blue. Vermilion and yellow ochre are sometimes
used but from their weight they are not readily held in
suspension.

In injecting with gelatine the object must be first warmed
and then kept in warm water while the operation is being
performed, otherwise the jelly will set before the fine vessels
are filled. To ensure success the specimen injected should
be fresh, not alcoholic. When injected, the vessels should be
tied and the specimen put away to cool so that the jelly may
set. It is well to place it immediately in alcohol as that
reagent facilitates the process by the extraction of water.

The place for the introduction of the injecting fluid varies
with the form operated upon, as well as the system to be

122 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

filled. In Vertebrates the arterial system may be injected
from the aorta. In Crustacea a small hole should be bored
through the carapax immediately over the heart and into this
the nozzle of the syringe should be inserted, taking care that
the tip enters, but does not pass through the heart. Injecting
mollusks is rather more difficult, the injection should be
forced into the heart, or into the vessel at the base of the
gills • while starfishes are most easily injected by cutting off an
arm and inserting the nozzle into the tube found on the lower
surface. Insects and worms are only injected w;th very
delicate manipulation. The method just described injects
only the arterial system. To fill the veins is not so easy. It
is best accomplished by forcing the injection into some distal
portion and allowing it to find its way back to the heart.
Thus the web of a frog's foot, the claw of a lobster and the
foot of a mollusk are the best places for those forms. Great
care must be exercised in performing an injection that the
pressure employed is not sufficient to rupture the vessels.
The more recently life is extinct the stronger the vessels are.
Besides injecting colored material to aid in the demonstra-
tion of the circulating system, various preservations are some-
times injected into the arteries, alimentary canal and body
cavity to aid in keeping the specimens. Herr Wickerschei-
mer recommends his fluid for this purpose.

SECTION CUTTING.

It is necessary in making microscopic examinations of
structures and tissues to have them thin enough to be trans-
parent, or very translucent, otherwise they cannot be well

SECTION CUTTING. 123

illuminated. There are two ways of accomplishing this : by
teasing and by cutting sections.

The easier method is by teasing. To do this a portion of
the object is placed on a slide with the addition of a few
drops of water, alcohol, glycerine or neutral salt solution ac-
cording to the nature of the specimens and the objects or
portions which it is desired to see. Then with two dissecting
needles the tissue is teased or pulled into shreds, and then
examined under the microscope, or mounted permanently
after any desired method.

Teasing produces good results in fibrous tissue where it is
desired to isolate the fibres, as in nerves, muscles, connective
tissue, etc. At other times it does not work so well.

Section cutting is, however, the most universal and in the
majority of cases the best method of preparing substances for
examination, but at the same time it requires more time to
accomplish. The various processes can conveniently be taken
up in the following order : hardening and decalcifying, em-
bedding, cutting and freeing from the embedding material.

Fresh tissues are generally either too soft, or in the case of
bones, teeth, scales, and shell too hard to admit of being read-
ily cut and hence certain steps must be taken to prepare them
for the razor.

Suppose we have an object, an embryo tadpole for instance,
of which we desire to obtain sections. This in its natural con-
dition would be far too soft and must be hardened. This
hardening may be accomplished in various ways. The most
common method is first to place it for a few hours in weak
alcohol (about 40 per cent.) ; it is then transferred to stronger

124 NATURALISTS7 ASSISTANT.

(say 60 per cent.) spirit and after a short time is placed in
strong alcohol (90 to 95 per cent.). The object after a day
or two in this will be found to be much harder, and to pos-
sess a consistence fitting it for the use of the razor. The
object of the successive uses of spirit of increasing strength
is to prevent that contraction and distortion of the object
which would occur were it placed at once in the strongest
alcohol.

Muller's fluid is also extensively used for hardening objects,
as are also chromic acid and Kleinenberg's picric acid. The
modus operandi is essentially the same with either. The
specimen is placed in a large quantity of the solution (Mul-
ler's fluid as directed on p. 138, or chromic acid 1 and £ per
cent.) and after a day or two, is transferred to alcohol. These
solutions must not be too strong nor must the specimens be
kept too long in them, else they will become so brittle as to
crumble under the section knife, rendering it impossible to ob-
tain thin sections. A little experience will enable one to esti-
mate the proper time for various tissues.

Osmic acid (one to one-tenth per cent, solution) is also
very useful for hardening and at the same time it stains the
section more or less darkly from a gray to a black. As noted
on another page, it is selective in its staining, affecting nerves
and fatty tissues more strongly than other tissues. The object
is placed in the solution a varying number of hours according
to the tissue, and then is washed thoroughly with distilled water
and transferred to alcohol.

Other methods advocated by some students consist of the
use of bichromate of potash, and among the older workers

SECTION CUTTING. 125

corrosive sublimate, but the foregoing answer all practical
purposes.

When there are bone or lime salts in the tissues, chromic acid
is the most useful reagent. It serves at the same time to
harden the soft portions and to decalcify and thus soften the
hard. The object must be placed in a large quantity of the
fluid of a greater strength (one to two per cent.) and the
acid should be frequently changed until all lime salts have
disappeared. Of course, with this increase in strength of acid
and the length of time of immersion, one runs a risk of the
other portion becoming brittle, but this cannot well be
avoided. In some cases it is necessary to use dilute hydro-
chloric acid in place of the chromic. This should rarely be
used of greater strength than one per cent. After the sub-
stance is thoroughly decalcified it is transferred to alcohol.

Frequently specimens contain such a large amount of pig-
ment matter as to render the thinnest section opaque and to
utterly obscure all cell limits. In such cases it is necessary
to immerse the tissues in 25 per cent, nitric acid, and to watch
closely until the color disappears. This usually takes some
hours, and the sections cut from such material are not very
satisfactory but are the best that can be obtained.

The process of embedding comes next in order. The sub-
stances used are many, the mo'st common being pure par-
affine, a mixture of paraffine and oil or tallow, wax and tallow,
transparent soap, gum arabic, and glycerine jelly. With most
substances paraffine, without the admixture of anything, gives
the best results, though many advise the addition of a fourth
to a half of paraffine oil, or lard, or tallow, to render it softer.

126 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

It will be seen that in the above hardening processes the
specimen was left in strong alcohol. This fits it for the next
step, which is to soak it for a while (say half an hour) in spirits
of turpentine. While the specimen is soaking the paraffine
should be melted in a water bath (or in its absence a sand
bath may suffice), over a spirit lamp or gas jet. A small por-
tion of the paraffine should always be allowed to remain un-
melted as thus the remainder will not acquire too high a
temperature. When melted a portion of the paraffine is
poured into a paper tray covering the bottom to the depth of
an inch, and just allowed to " set." The object is then re-
moved from the turpentine, the superfluous spirit being re-
moved by blotting paper, and next placed on the surface of
the paraffine in the tray and completely covered by more of
the melted paraffine. When cold it is ready for cutting. The
object when placed in the tray should be in such a position
that the sections may be cut in the desired plane, and note
should be taken of its position, as after the paraffine becomes
hard this is difficult to ascertain.

In case the specimen to be embedded contains cavities,
pains should be taken to fill these with paraffine. The usual
method of doing this is to transfer the object directly from
the turpentine to a mixture of half turpentine and half par-
affine which is kept just melted. After a few minutes' immer-
sion in this mixture it is transferred to the tray and the process
completed as before.

A convenient tray may be made from common writing paper
by taking a piece of proper proportions to the object to be
embedded, longer than wide and folded on the lines shown in

SECTION CUTTING.

127

the accompanying figure. This is then made into a tray, the
diagonals coming on the outside of the ends arid then the
portions which project on each of the shorter sides are folded
down, thus holding the whole securely.

In case a section cutter with a hollow tube (e. g., the Ster-
ling microtome) be employed, it is better to embed directly in
the tube, the process being essentially the same.

When soap is used for an embedding medium, the object is
soaked in water instead of turpentine and the soap is melted
with the addition of a slight amount of the same fluid. Other-
wise the process is the same as before.

FIG. 38.

The foregoing methods both require heat and with many
tissues as nerves, this produces an injurious effect. To avoid
this gum arable is employed. The specimen is washed in
water and then placed in a thick mucilage of gum arabic and
water, and the whole immersed in strong alcohol. The alco-
hol extracts the water and thus coagulates and hardens the
whole.

Glycerine jelly requires heat but otherwise is used the same
as gum arabic. Mr. Moseley found it very useful in studying
the structure of Millepora and allied corals.

128 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Elder pith is used by a few as an embedding material for
some animal tissue, but I have had no experience with it.
The object, surrounded with pith, is placed in the tube of the
microtome and then the pith is wetted which causes it to swell
and hold the whole firmly.

Of late years freezing has been a favorite method with those
objects which are injured by heat. In this process the speci-
men is immersed in a mucilage of gum arabic in the tube of
the microtome and frozen by an ether spray, or by having the
tube surrounded by a tank in which is kept a freezing mixture
of salt and ice.

Having embedded our object the next thing in order is to
cut the sections. The first thing necessary is a knife. The
most usual form is an ordinary razor, one side of which is
ground flat. It is well to have the other side concave as thus
a thinner edge is procured and the razor acts less like a wedge.
At other times a knife made especially for the purpose is used.
The knife, or razor, should be kept very sharp, and should
have a perfect edge, free from any nicks, even if too small to
be seen by the naked eye, as these will catch and ruin the
section.

With practice good sections can be readily cut free hand,
and it is always desirable that the student should be able to
produce good results in this manner, whether he possess a
microtome or not. In cutting sections free hand the bit of
paraffine is held in the left hand and the razor either drawn
towards or pushed from the operator with the right. Some
work one way and some the other ; the razor should not be
pushed straight through but should have a drawing stroke,

SECTION CUTTING. 1 29

When about to begin cutting the sections, the paraffine
mass 'should be removed from the tray and trimmed to a con-
venient size, leaving more material behind the object than in
front of it. Slices should then be carefully taken from above
the object until it is reached and then even greater care should
be taken. In case a mass of tissue is being cut it should be
pared down until a good surface is reached, the slices taken
off being rejected. When an embryo is being cut every slice,
whether perfect or not, should be preserved. Always, when
cutting sections from paraffine embedding^, the up-
per surface of the razor should be flooded with
strong alcohol ; when soap is used water replaces
the alcohol and with glycerine jelly glycerine is
useful. The object of this is to float the object up
and prevent its sticking to the razor and thus be-
coming torn. It is convenient to have a shallow
tank before the worker filled with alcohol or water,
into which the razor with the section is dipped, the
section being floated off and the razor wetted for FlG- 39
the next section at the same time. When a sufficient number
of sections have been cut from a paraffine embedding, the
embedded material may be sealed up by placing a drop or
two of melted paraffine on the cut end and the wfiole then
labelled and put aside for future sections. A specimen thus
embedded will keep for months without injury and may be
cut from at any time.

After cutting, the sections are to be freed from their em-
bedding material. In the case of paraffine this is accom-
plished by immersion in turpentine. When soap, or gum, or
9

130 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

jelly is used, water will accomplish this. After being freed,
they may be kept in alcohol or mounted as desired. In
handling sections the greatest care should be exercised. A
very convenient instrument is a section lifter, consisting of
a thin sheet of metal attached at an angle to a handle.
This is passed under a section floating in the liquid which
is gently lifted and floated off in the desired place.

In case it be desired to keep the sections in consecutive
order, each as cut must be transferred to its proper recepta-
cle and properly labelled.

To aid in cutting sections mechanical appliances have
been invented. These are known as microtomes or section
cutters. Of these many forms have been in use, the best
and most common being those described below.

The simplest form is the Sterling microtome (so called
from its inventor) . This consists of a tube in which moves
a plug, regulated by a screw with a large graduated head.
The other end of the tube bears a large brass or glass plate
over the surface of which the razor passes.

The method of using is simple : the embedded material oc-
cupies the tube resting on the plug, a slight turn of the
screw moves the whole forward, a slice is taken off with the
razor, and the process is repeated.

By knowing the number of threads to the inch of the
screw, and the fraction of a turn which it made in cutting
each section, the thickness is an easy matter to ascertain.
This section cutter (as in fact all others) produces sections
with parallel surfaces, a rather difficult thing to obtain by cut-
ting free hand.

SECTION CUTTING. 13!

Some iii using this microtome prefer to hold it in the hand,
others fasten it to the table and thus have both hands free
for work.

FIG. 40.

The next form to be described is the "Sledge Microtome"
which was introduced to the American public by Dr. C. S.
Minot. It is probably the best of these instruments.

132 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

It consists of a heavy oblong base about four by ten
inches and about a quarter of an inch in thickness. Arising
from this base is an upright plate ; on either side of these are
"ways, " those on one side being horizontal and on the other
slightly inclined. On the horizontal ones a carrier travels
holding the knife, while on the other a second carrier is
borne, moved by a screw. This second carrier holds the
embedded specimen. Its method of operation is as fol-
lows : the embedded material is placed in the carrier which
is moved forward and upward until it is high enough to cut.
Then the knife is slowly but steadily drawn across the end of
the embedded object. The knife is then returned, the screw
turned the fraction of a revolution, and then another sec-
tion cut. Of course the knife is to be constantly wet with
alcohol. A valuable addition to this instrument may be made
by having the object carrier mounted on a universal joint, thus
permitting any desired inclination. Some sections of this
model are made of wood and are good for nothing.

Dr. Seiler's microtome is well shown in the figure and
needs no further description. It possesses this advantage
over all others, that the knife has a drawing motion.

Freezing microtomes are sometimes employed. These
are generally of the Sterling pattern and have an attachment
by which a considerable degree of cold may be obtained
either by ice and salt or by ether spray.

BOOKS FOR THE LABORATORY. 133

Balfour, F. M. Treatise on Comparative Embryology. 2 vols.
(1 pub.), 8vo. London, 1880.

Beale, L. S. How to work with the Microscope. 5th edit.
8vo. London, 1880.

Brooks, W. K. Handbook of Invertebrate Zool. Boston, 1882.

Burden, Sanderson. Handbook for the Physiological Labora-
tory. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1877.

Foster and Balfour. Elements of Embryology. 12mo. Lon-
don, 1874.

Foster, M. Text Book of Physiology. 12mo. London, 1877.

Clark, H. J. Mind in Nature. 8vo. N. Y., 1865.

Gegenbaur, C. Elements of Comparative Anatomy. 8vo.
London, 1878.

Huxley, T. H. Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated An-
imals. 12mo. London, 1871.

Huxley, T H. Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated
Animals. 12mo. N. Y., 1878.

Huxley & Martin. Elementary Biology. 12mo. N. Y., 1876.

Milne-Edwards, H. Lecons sur la Physiologic et 1'Anatomie
comparee de 1'homme et des Animaux. 13 vols., 8vo. Paris,
1857-79.

Owen, Richard. The Anatomy of Vertebrates. 3 vols., 8vo.
London, 1868.

Ranvier. Traite d'Histologie. 8vo. Paris, 1875. 5 parts pub.

Rolliston, G. Forms of Animal Life 8vo Oxford, 1870.

Schafer, E. A. A Course of Practical Histology. 8vo.
London, 1877.

Siebold & Stanuius. Comparative Anatomy (the Inverte-
brata translated by Burnett [Boston, 1851], the rest in German
and Frenrh editions.)

Strieker S. Handbook of Human and Comparative Histol-
ogy. 8vo. N. Y., 1872.

Tulk & Henfrey. Anatomical Manipulation. 12mo. Lond 1844.

CHAPTER VII.

RECIPES, FORMULAE AND USEFUL HINTS.

Ammonia carmine.

Pulverized carmine 15 grains.

Aqua ammonia (strong) 40 drops.
Absolute alcohol I oz.

Glycerine 2 oz.

Distilled water 2 oz.

Put the carmine in a test tube. Pour in the ammonia, boil a few
seconds and set the whole aside for a day to allow the superfluous am-
monia to evaporate. Add the mixed glycerine and water, then the al-
cohol and filter.
Borax carmine.

Pulverized carmine 15 grains.

Saturated aqueous solution of borax 15 fl. dr.
Mix and add absolute alcohol 15 fl. dr.

Filter and collect the crystals when dry. Dissolve nine grains of the
crystals in one ounce of distilled water.

Picrocarminate of ammonia (Picrocarmine).

Make a strong solution of carmine in ammonia and water, and a
saturated solution of picric acid in water. Mix the acid solution with
the carmine until the ammonia is just neutralized. Then filter.
Hcematoxylin.

Rub together in a mortar one part extract of logwood and three parts
pulverized alum (by measure) and afterward add enough water to dis-

(136)

136 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

solve only a portion of the resulting powder. Let the solution stand
several days until it becomes saturated and assumes a dark violet color.
If still too red add more alum. Then filter and dilute with one-fourth
of seventy-five per cent, alcohol.
Hcematoxylin (No. 2).

Ground Campeachy wood I oz.

Pulverized alum 2 oz.

Mix and triturate in a mortar for twenty minutes; then add two
ounces of hot distilled water, and let the whole stand a couple of days.
Filter and add to each ounce a quarter of an ounce of ordinary alco-
hol. After standing twenty-four hours more, filter again to remove the
precipitated alum. This will keep two months in a well stoppered vial.
Hcematoxylin. (No. 3).

Hsematoxylin crystals 35 parts.

Absolute alcohol 1000 parts.

Water (distilled) 3000 parts.

Alum 10 parts.

Dissolve the haematoxylin in the alcohol, the alum in the water and
mix. The mixture is purple at first, but gradually turns blue. It can-
however be used at once after filtering.
Ilcematoxylin (Kleinenberg's Method).

Make a saturated solution of crystallized chloride of calcium in 70
per cent, alcohol, and add alum until no more will be dissolved. This
is the first solution; the second is a saturated solution of alum in 70 per
cent, alcohol. Mix these two solutions in the proportions one of the
first to eight of the second. Then to the mixture add a few drops of a
saturated solution of crystallized hsematoxylin in absolute alcohol.

Prey's Fuschine solution.

Crystallized fuschine I centigramme.

Absolute alcohol 15-20 drops.

Distilled water 15 cu. centimetres.

This, though a useful staining medium, possesses the disadvantage that
it cannot be used where the tissue is to be mounted in balsam.

RECIPES, FORMULAE AND USEFUL HINTS. 137

Eosin andfuschine (aniline colors) are used in a two per cent, aque-
ous solution but have a tendency to stain all parts equally. The method
of operation is similar to that with carmine.

Nitrate of silver is used for differentiating the walls of cells. The ob-
ject is placed for a few moments in a solution made of nitrate of silver,
one part, distilled water, 500 parts, then washed in distilled water and
exposed to the direct rays of the sun. It is then mounted as may be
desired and shows the cell walls black, and in many cases this is the
only way in which they can be seen at all.

Osmic acid, in one-tenth per cent, solution, is useful fo studying
nerves and fatty tissues as it stains them black. Great care should be
taken in using osmic acid as it is one of the most poisonous substances
known, and its vapor badly affects the eyes and nasal passages.

Chloride of gold is also of value in studying the histology of the
nerves. Sections are first placed from five to seven minutes in a one
half per cent, solution of the chloride, then soaked in distilled water
several hours, next placed in water acidulated with lactic acid to reduce
the chloride, and after the proper color (a dark purple) is obtained, the
specimens are washed with distilled water and soaked in alcohol and
mounted as may be desired.

Moleschott's acetic acid and alcohol (strong).

Strong acetic acid (sp. gr. 1 . 070) i part.

Strong alcohol I part.

Distilled water 2 parts.

This hardens many organs, makes connective tissue transparent and
renders albumen distinct.

Moleschott's acetic acid (weak).

Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.070) I part.

Alcohol 25 parts.

Distilled water 50 parts.

This is better for delicate tissues than the strong. Besides rendering
connective tissue transparent, acetic acid renders the nuclei of cells
more plainly visible. When a one per cent, solution of acetic acid is

138 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

mixed with about one-third its bulk of ordinary haematoxylin solution,
the connective tissue corpuscles are stained a beautiful purple.
Muller's Fluid.

Sulphate of soda I part.

Bichromate of potash 2 parts.

Water 100 parts.

Muller's fluid for hardening the retina.

Bichromate of potash 2<& grammes.

Sulphate of soda I gramme.

Distilled water 100 grammes.

Besides its hardening properties, this is useful for preserving glands,

mucous membranes and ciliated cells.

Bichromate of potash for macerating specimens is used in a ^ per
cent, aqueous solution.

Iodized serum.

Take the amniotic fluid of a cow or other mammal, add a crystal or
two of iodine and allow it to stand a few days, with frequent agitation.
Then filter. Any other serous fluid may be used. Iodized serum seems
to macerate tissues and at the same time to preserve the original form of
the histological elements. The iodine tends to prevent putrefaction
and at the same time renders the elements of the tissue firmer.

Artificial iodized serum.

Take one ounce of the white of an egg; pick out the chalazese and
mix with nine ounces of water and fifty grains of common salt. Then
add several crystals of iodine.

Neutral salt solution is a £ per cent, solution of common salt in dis-
tilled water. It is useful in studying living tissues as the cells do not
exhibit such marked changes as when pure water is used.

Glycerine jelly.

Cooper's gelatine I oz.

Best glycerine 6 oz.

Carbolic acid 20 drops.

RECIPES, FORMULAE AND USEFUL HINTS. 139

Soak the gelatine over night in water; in the morning add the
swelled gelatine to the glycerine and carbolic acid heated to about 200°
Fahr. in a vrater bath. Continue the heating several hours until the
water is all expelled. Then filter and bottle. The filtering is difficult
and can only be accomplished by the aid of heat.

Glycerine jelly.

The original method of making this is as follows : Take any quan-
tity of gelatine and let it soak several hours in cold water. Pour off
the superfluous water and melt the soaked gelatine by the aid of heat.
To each ounce of the fluid gelatine add one drachm of alcohol and
mix well. Then add a fluid drachm of the white of an egg and mix
well while the gelatine is cool but still fluid. Now boil until the albu-
men coagulates and the gelatine is quite clear. Filter through fine
flannel, and to each fluid ounce of the clarified gelatine add six fluid
drachms of pure glycerine (Price's is the best) and mix well.

Glycerine and gum.

Dissolve two parts by weight of gum arabic in two parts of cold water
and add one part of glycerine. Mix well but use no heat, and strain.
Keep in a tightly stoppered vial. This medium has the advantage in
mounting, that no heat is required, while it becomes solid in a short
time after mounting.

Dr. Lang's method of studying nervous histology of the Turbel-
laria.

50 parts I per cent, solution of Picrocarminate of ammonia.

50 parts 2 per cent, aqueous solution of eosin.

Objects are hardened in alcohol and placed in this solution one-half
to four days. The picric acid is then extracted by 70 per cent, alcohol,
and the specimens washed with 90 per cent, and absolute alcohol as long
as any eosin is dissolved. In embedding in paraffine a copious use of
creasote is recommended. This produces in sections of Dendroc&la,
carmine red nuclei and nucleoli, glands, adipose tissue, while all other
parts are eosin red.

Dr. Treub, in studying the nuclei of plants, first killed the cells by

140

NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

absolute alcohol; then placed the tissues in I per. cent solution of picro-
carminate from four to twelve hours. They were next shaken in dis-
tilled water to remove the picric acid and placed in glycerine and water
which is gradually replaced by pure glycerine containing I per cent,
of formic acid. By this proces the nuclei are stained bright red, the
rest of the cell being uncolored.

Goadby's solution for preserving specimens.
No. i. Bay salt 4 oz.

Alum 2 oz.

Corrosive sublimate 2 grs.
, Rain water I qt.

No. 2. Salt. h lb.

White arsenic 20 grs.

Corrosive sublimate 2 grs.

Boiling rain-water I qt.
Arsenical soap.

BECOEURS.

Camphor 5 oz.

White arsenic 2lbs.

White soap. 2 Ibs.

Salts of tartar 12 oz.

Powdered chalk 4 oz.

The soap is melted with a little water over the fire, and the chalk and
tartar added. It is then removed from the fire and the arsenic, and
lastly the camphor mixed with a little alcohol is stirred in. The paste
is then packed in jars and labelled.

Arsenical soap.

SWAINSON'S.

White arsenic I oz.

White soap I oz.

Carbonate of potash I dr.

Distilled water 6 dr.

Camphor 2 dr.
This composition is formed in cakes like ordinary soap. *

RECIPES, FORMULAE AND USEFUL HINTS. 14!

Arsenical soap.

SIMON'S.

Soap 1 1 Ib.

Alum 8 oz.

Carbonate of potash 4 oz.

Common salt 4 oz.

Powdered chalk 8 oz.

Powdered camphor 2 oz.

Water I pt.
Melted by heat, the camphor being added last.

Arsenical soap.

LAURENT'S.

Arsenite of potash 2 dr.

Alum 2 dr.

Powdered camphor 2 dr.

White soap £ oz.

Alcohol 6 oz.

The first two placed in a bottle and the alcohol poured over them.
When dissolved, the other ingredients are added. This composition
requires to be tightly corked.

Bullock's arsenical powder.

White arsenic I Ib.

Burnt alum I Ib.

Tanner's bark 2 Ibs.

Camphor i oz.

Musk £ oz.

The first three to be firmly powdered and passed through a sieve, the
others then to be added and the whole thoroughly mixed.

Corrosive sublimate solution.

Dissolve one ounce of corrosive sublimate in one quart of alcohol in
a glass vessel. This solution is to be applied with a string-wound brush
as the presence of metal will produce a discoloration.

142 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

"Sugar" for moths.

Ale & pint.

Honey £ lb.

Sugar 4 lb.

Rum I oz.

Oil of bitter almond 5 drops.

The ale is heated and the sugar and honey added. When cold the
rum and oil of almond, having been previously mixed are poured in
and the whole thoroughly stirred.
"Sugar" for moths. No. 2.

A thick sugar made of brown sugar with a small quantity of rum.
Dr. Lcconte's poison for insects.

Saturated alcoholic solution of arsenic 8 fl. oz.
Strychnine 1 2 grs.

Crystallized carbolic acid i dr.

Heavy benzine and alcohol enough to make one quart.
Heavy benzine should be used (about 10-12 oz.), as lighter will not
mix with alcohol. The benzine should be tested for grease, by moistening
paper with it. If all greasy appearance does not disappear on drying
it should be rejected. This poison is to be applied to the insects in the
cabinet by an atomizer.
A good mucilage.

Take equal parts of gum arabic and gum tragacanth, swell in water
and then dissolve by means of heat, then add a^few drops of carbolic
acid and a few of glycerine. The carbolic acid prevents fermentation
or mould, the glycerine keeps it from cracking or scaling off when
dry.

Thick flour paste added to common glue adheres well to glass as also
does the mucilage made of gum arabic and gum tragacanth.
"Electrical Cement."

Melt together ten oz. of resin, two oz. of beeswax, two oz. of red
ochre, and add a teaspoonful of plaster of Paris. This is used hot for ce-
menting brass or wood to glass.

RECIPES, FORMULA AND USEFUL HINTS. 143

Peron's Luting.

Common resin
Red ochre
Yellow wax
Oil of turpentine

First melt the wax, then add the resin, next stir in the ochre and
lastly the turpentine. According as the ochre or other ingredients pre-
dominate, the luting will be brittle or elastic. Great care should be
taken that the mixture does not take fire and the vessel used should be
capable of containing at least three times the quantity made at one
time.

Grafting wax.

Melt together eight oz. resin, three of beeswax and one of lard. Run
in sticks. It improves with age.

Black ink.

A black ink is frequently desirable and is almost impossible to obtain
in the stores. A good ink may be made by boiling eight oz. of pow-
dered nut galls and one oz. extract of logwood in three quarts of water
for an hour. Strain and add four oz. of copperas (sulphate of iron),
three oz. of gum arabic and one of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) ;
let it stand until dissolved and strain again. A few cloves will keep
it from moulding.

Old alcohol which has been discolored by specimens can be cleaned
by filtering through animal charcoal, but nothing will completely remove
disagreeable odors though a redistillation will sometimes help it.
After filtering, the spirit should be brought to a proper strength (to be
ascertained by the hydrometer) by adding new alcohol.
To blacken brass.

It is occasionally desirable to blacken portions of instruments as stages
of microscopes, etc. This may be done by cleaning the brass of all
grease, then covering with a solution of nitrate of copper which on the
application of heat turns the surface to a jet black. If desirable, it may
then be lacquered by applying shellac varnish and heating slightly.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,

USEFUL WORKS OF REFERENCE.

THE following list includes only such works as will aid the
student in arranging and identifying his collections, all mor-
phological papers being purposely omitted. The more useful
of these are printed in full face type. While the list is far
from perfect it is hoped that it will prove of use to the
zoologist.

The majority of the titles have been translated either in
full or in abstract, but the language in which the article is
written is indicated by the abbreviation following the title.
For a more complete list of papers, students should refer to
the various special bibliographies quoted. The catalogues
published by Friedlander und Sohn of Berlin will also prove
useful.

All Museums should possess Dictionaries of French,

German, Latin, Swedish, Danish, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese

(147)

148 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

and Norse languages ; as many important works are published
in those tongues.

Other necessary works are :

Agassiz L., Nornenclator Zoologicus, 4to, Solduri, 1846-48.

Marschall, A. I)., Nomeuclator Zoologicus, 8vo, Wien, 1873 (a
continuation of Agassiz's work).

A large Atlas of the world.

Lippincott's complete pronouncing Gazetteer, 2 vols., 8vo,
Philadelphia, 1880.

Scudder, S. H., Catalogues of Scientific Serials of all coun-
tries, 8vo, Cambridge, 1879.

Royal Society's list of Scientific Papers, 8 vols, 4to, London,
1868.

CHAPTER VIII.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

GENERAL ZOOLOGY.

Bonaparte, C. S. Iconografia della Fauna Italica. 3vols.,fol.
Rome, 1832-41. (Ital.)

Brehm, A. E. Thierleben (Animal life, a general account
of the Animal Kingdom). 10 vols., 8vo. Leipzig, 1868-78.
(Ger.)

Bronn und Gerstaecker. Klassen und Ordmmg der
Thierreich. 8vo. Many plates. Leipzig, 1863— (Ger.)

Cooper, Suckley and Gibbs. Zoology in vol. xn, Reports
Pacific R. R. Survey. 4to. Washington, 1860. (Separate as
Natural History of Washington Territory).

Cuvier Kegne Animal. Edition by Audouin, Blanchard,
Deshayes, Milne Edwards, Valenciennes, etc. 22 vols., 4to, 903
pis. Paris, 1849, et seq.

Donovan, E. Naturalists' Repository. 5 vols. London, 1834.

Eydoux et Gervais. Voyage of the Favorite. Paris, 1839.
(Fr.)

Eydoux et Souleyet. Voyage of the Bonite. 2 vols.,.8vo,
and folio Atlas. Paris, 1841-52. (Fr.)

Fubricius, O Fauna Groenlanclica. 8vo. Leipzig, 1780.

Gay, C. History of Chili. 5 vols., 8vo, 4to plates. Paris,
1847. (Sp.) Zoology by Gay, Nicollet, Blanchard, etc.

(149)

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Allman, G. J. Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or
Tubularian Hydioids. 2 vols. fol. (Ray Soc.) 23 pis. London,
1871-72.

Van Beneden, P. J. Polyps of Belgium. 4to. 19 pis. Brus-
sels, 1866.

Clark, H. E. Prodrome of Lucernaria. (Jour. Bost. Socy.
1863)

Clarke, S. F. New Hydroids. (Am. Jour. Sci. iii, 1876.)

Clarke, S. F. Alaskan Hydroids. (Proo. Pliila. Acad. 1877.)

Dana, J. D. Zoophytes U. S. Exploring Expedition.
4to, with folio atlas, 6.1 pis. New Haven, 18!6-59.

Dana, J. D. Structure and Classification of Zoophytes.
4 to. Phila., 1846.

Dana, J. D. Coral and Coral Islands. 8vo. N. Y., 1872.

Dnnielssen and Koren. Results of the Norse Northern Expe-
dition. 3 pts. pub. 8vo. 1877-79.

Diiben et Koren. Review of Scandinavian Echinodermata.
8vo. Stockholm, 1845.

220 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

Duchassaing et Michelotti. Corals of the Antilles. 2 pts.
4to. 21 pis. Tunn, 1860-64. (Fr.)

Esper, E. J. Die Pflanzenthiere. (Zoophyta.) 3 pts. and suppl.
4to. 443 pis. Nurenburg, 1791-1830. (Ger.)

Forbes, E. History of British Starfishes and other Echino-
dermata. 8vo. London, 1841.

Forbes, E. Monograph of British Naked-eyed Medusa?. (Ray
Soc.) fol. 13 pis. London, 1846.

Gegenbaur, C. Contributions to a better knowledge of the
Siphonophora. 4to. 10 pis. Leipzig, 1854-60.

Gosse, P. H. Actinologia Brittanica. (British Sea Anemo-
nes and Corals.) 8vo. London, 1860.

Gray, J. E. Catalogues of Echinida, Starfishes, Sea Pens
and Stony Corals in British Museum. Zool. 8vo. 1855-70.

Gray, J. E. Synopsis of the Star Fish in British Museum.
4to. 16 pis. London, 1867.

Greene, J. R. Manual of the Coelenterata. 8vo. London,
1869.

Haeckel, E. Contributions to Nat. Hist, of Hydromedusae.
8vo. Leipzig, 1865.

Haeckel, E. System der Medusen. 4to, many plates.
1879. (Ger.)

Hincks, T. Natural History of British Hydroid Zoo-
phytes. 2 vols. 8vo. 67 pis. London, 1868.

Hulton, F. W. Catalogue New Zealand Echinodermata. 8vo.
Wellington, 1872.

Huxley, T. H. Oceanic Hydrozoa. (Ray Soc.) 4to. 12
pis. London, 1859.

Johnston, G. History of British Zoophytes. 8vo.
44 pis. Edinburg, 1838; 2 edit. 74 pis. London, 1847.

Kolliker, A. Siphonophora of Messina, fol. 12 pi. Leipzig,
1853. (Ger.)

Kolliker, A. Descriptions, Anatomical and Systematic, of the
Alcionaria. (Pt. i, 4to, 24 pis. Frankfort, 1872. (Oer.)

BIBLIOGRAPAY. 221

Lamouroux, J. G. History of the flexible Coralline polypid-
oms. 8vo, 19 pis. Caen, 1810. (Fr.) English Edition, London,
1824

Leidy, J. Marine Invertebrate Fauna of Rhode Island and New
Jersey. (Jour. Phil. Acad., iii, 1855).

Lockington. List of Echinoidea in Collection of California
Academy. (Proc. Cal. Acad., vii, 1875.)

Ltitken, C. Echinoderms of Central America. 8vo. Copen-
hagen, 1858.

Liitken, C. Additamenta ad historian! Ophiuridarum. 4to,
7 pis. Copenhagen, 1859-G9. (Lat.)

Lyman, T. Ophiuridse and Astrophytidse. (111. Cat.
Mus. Comp. Zool., No. 1, 1864. Suppl. No. 6, 1871.)

Lyman, T. ' Ophiuridae and Astrophytidse, new and old. (Bul-
letin M. C. Z., iii, 1874).

Lyman, T. O^hiuridse and Ai-trophytidae of the Hassler Expe-
dition. Memoirs M. C. Z, 1874.

Macready, J. Proc. Elliot Socy., i. 1856-60.

Merten", II. Observations and Researches on Beroid Acale-
phae. 4to, 13 pis. St. Petersburg, 1833. (Ger.)

Milne-Edwards, H. Researches on the Polyps. 8vo, 28 pis.
Paris, 1838. (Fr.)

Milne-Edwards, H. Natural History of the Polyps proper.
Svo, 31 pis. Paris, 1857-60. (Fr.)

Miilier und Troschel. System der Asteriden. 4to, 12 pis.
Brunswick, 1842. (Ger.)

Pervier, E. Revision of Stellierdes. (Arch. Zool. Exp. et
Gen. ,iv, 1875.) (Fr.)

Pourtales, L. F. de. Deep Sea Corals. (Illust. Catalogue M.
C. Z., iv, 1871).

Pourtales, L. F. de. Corals and Antipathea of the Caribbean
Sea. (Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., vi, 1880.)

Rathbun, R. Echinoid Fauna of Brazil. (Am. Jour. Sci.,
1878.)

222

Rathbun, R. List of Brazilian Echinoderms. (Trans. Conn.
Acad., v, 1878).

Richiardi, S. Monograph of PennatulidaB. 8vo, 14 pis. Bo-
logna, 1869. (Ital.)

Sars, M. Memoir on living Crinoids. 4to, 6 pis. Christiana,
1868. (Fr.)

Sars, M. Review of Norse Echinodermata. 8vo. Christiana,
1861.

Savigny, J. C Iconographie des Echinodermes, Polypes et
Zoophytes del'Egypt, fol. 28 pis. Paris, 1810.

Selenka, E. Anatomy and Revision of the Holothu-
rians. (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool. xvii.) 1807. 4 pis. (Ger.)

Semper, C. Scientific Results of Travels in Philip-
pene Archipelago. Holothurians. 4to, 37 pis. Leipzig,
1867-8. (The most .valuable work on the subject ever pub-
lished.)

Trywell, G. MMIHIM! of British Sea Anemones. 8vo, 7 pis.
London, 1856.

Verrill, A. E. Re vision of Polypes, east coast of Amer-
ica. (Memoirs Bost. Socy. i, 1863.)

Verrill, A. E. List of Polypes and Corals sent by Museum
Comp. Zool. (Bulletin M. C. Z.) i, 1864.

Verrill, A. E. Synopsis of Polypes and Corals of No. Pacific
Exploring Expedition. (Bulletin Essex Inst. iv-vi, 1866-69.)

Verrill, A. E. Notes on Radiata. (Trans. Conn. Acad. i,
1868-71.)

Verrill, A. E. New and imperfectly known Echinoderms and
Corals. (Proc. Bost. Socy. xii. 1869.)

Vogt, C. Sipbonophora and Tunicata of Nice. 2 vols., 4to,
27 pis. Geneva, 1854. (Fr.)

• BIBLIOGRAPHY. 223

SPONGES AND PROTOZOA.

Bowerbank, J. Monograph, of British Spongiadse.

3vols. 8vo, 129 pis. (Kay Soc.) London, 1864-74.

Bowerbank, J. Monograph of Silicco-fihrous sponges. 8vo.
London, 1809-70.

Butschli, O. Contributions to a knowledge of the Flagel-
lata. (Zeit. Wiss. Zool. xxviii, 1878.) (Ger.)

Carpenter, W. B- Researches on Foraminifera. 4to
22 pis. London, 1850-01.

Carpenter, Parker and Jones. Introduction to study
of Foraminifera. fol. 22 pis. (Ray Soc.) London, 1802.

Claparede et Lachmann. Studies of Infusoria and
Rhizopoda.' 2 vols. 4lo, 37 pis. Geneva, 1858-01 (Fr.)

D'Orbigny, A. Foraminifera in de la Sagra's Cuba. Paris,
1839. (Fr.)

Duchassaing et Michelotti. Sponges of the Caribbean
and Antilles. 4to. 25 pis. Harlem, 1804. (Fr.)

Dujardin, F. Natural Hisfory of the Infusoria.
(Suites a Buflbn). 8vo. Paris, 1841. (Fr.)

Ehrenberg, C. G. Organization, Classification and Geograph-
ical Distribution of the Infusoria. 4to. 24 pis. Berlin, 1830-36.
(Ger.)

Ehrenberg, C. G. Die Infusionthierchen. fol. 04 pis.
Leipzig, 1838. (Ger.)

Greene, J R. Manual of the Protozoa. 8vo. London, 1871.

Haeckel, E. Monograph of the Radiolaria. Folio with
atlas, 35 pis. Berlin, 1802. (Ger.)

Haeckel, E. Monograph of Monera. 8vo. Jena, 1868. (Ger.)

Haeckel, E. Monograph of Calcispongise. 3 vols. 4to.
CO pis. Berlin, 1872. (Ger.)

Hertwig R. Studies on Rhizopoda. (Jena Zeitsch., 1877.
Ger.)

224 NATURALISTS' ASSISTANT.

4r

Hyatt, A. Revision of North American Poriferse.
(Mem. Bost. Soc. ii, 1874.)

Johnston, G. History of British Sponges. 8vo. Edinburg,
1842.

Leidy, J. Flora and Fauna in living Animals. (Smithsonian
Contributions v, 1853.)

Leidy, J. Fresh Water Rhizopoda of North Amer-
ica. (Hay den's Survey.) 4to, 48 pis. 1880.

Parker and Jones. Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 10 pts.,
8vo. (London), 1859-72.

Parker and Jones. On some Foraminifera from the North At-
lantic. 4to, 8 pis. (London, 18G5.)

Pritchard, A. History of the Infusoria. 8vo. London, 1842.

2 edit. 8vo, 13 pis. London, 1840.

Quennerstedt, A. Contributions to the Swedish Infusoria
fauna. 4to (Lund), 1860-70. (Swcd.)
Stein, Pr. Die Organismus der Infusionsthiere.

3 vols., 4to, many pis. Leipzig, 1859-77. (Ger.)
Williamson. Monograph Recent Foraminifera. (Ray Socy.)

fol. London, 1857.

INDEX.

PAGK

PAGE

Aberration ....

82

Breeding cage .

31

Acetic acid . . .

137

Breeding larvae .

31

Adjustment of microscope

85

Bullock's arsenical pow-

Adjustment for cover-glass

98

der-

141

Alcohol

41

Bulls eye ....

90

Alcoholic specimens .

3

Butterfly nets

19

Ammonia carhiins .

135

Butterfly triangles

25

Angle of aperture

98

Arsenical powdor .

141

Cabinets for bottles .

74

Argentic nitrate

137

Camera lucida .

91,95)

Arsenical soap .

140

Card catalogues

51

Artificial serur.i

138

Care of microscope .

96

Auric chloride .

37

Caring for collections

40

Carmine

l.°,5

B&tr&chiji • • • •

12

Cases . .

63, (!8

Bausch and Lomb micro-

Cases for microscopic

scope ....

95

slides ....

75

Beam trawl

37

Cases for small bottles .

73

"Reek's microscopes .

95

Catalogues ....

50

Beating for insects .

20

Cement ,

142

Bccoeur's arpenical soap

140

Chairs

106

Bibliography

149

Chloride of gold

137

Bichromate of potash

38

Chromic acid

125

Birdlime ....

2, 3

Clams, disserting

118

Birds

6

Coarse adjustment of mi-

Blackening brass

143

croscope ....

85

Blackening wax

57

Coddington lens

82

Black ink . ,

143

Collecting and preserving,

Blow gun . . . ,

2

works on .

1

Borax carmine . . .

135

Collecting batrachia .

12

Boring glass . .

57

Collecting equipment

Si

Bottom collecting . .

35

Collecting insects

18

Bottles ....

55

Collecting net

18

Brackets for shelves

70

Collecting reptiles

12

Brass, to blacken

1, 3

Collecting umbrella .

20

(225)

226

INDEX.

PAGE

PAGE

Collecting vertebrates

2

Gasteropoda

118

College museums

64

Gelatine injections

121

Colors; conventional

59

Generic names . . ,

46

Compound microscope

84

Glass, to bore

57

CompressArium

101

Glass stages

8!)

Condenser . ...

90

Glycerine and gum

139

Conventional colors .

59, 110

Glycerine jelly .

121, 138

Corrosive sublimate .

141

Goadby's solutions •

140

Craig microscope

92

Gold chloride

137

Crustacea

118

Grafting wax

54, 143

Cyanide bottle

20

Gum . .

48

Cyanide of potassium

20

Gum arabic

127

Gumming insects

23

Destroying pigment .
Diaphragm ....

125

90

Haematoxylin

135

Dissecting ....

115

Hardening tissues

12.)

Dissecting insects, etc.
Dissecting microscopes .

116
84

Hartnack microscopes
Hartnack objectives .

94

89

Dissecting tank .

115

-Heliotype .

110

Dissections preserved

56

High angle lenses

98

Dissolving paraffine .

129

"Homoeopathic" collec-

Drawing ....

109

tions

73

Drawtube ....

85

Homoeopathic vials .

5(>

Dredging . ...

35

Horizontal cases

71

Huygenian oculars .

86

Eggs .....

11

Egg drill ....
Eggs exhibiting .
Elder pith ....

11

52
128

Ichneumon parasites .
Illustrations
Imbedding .

33
109
125, 127

Electrical cement
Eosin

142

Imbedding tray .
Immersion lenses

87,97

Equipment, collecting
Exhibition cases .

34
69

India ink .
Inflating larvae .

46
27

Exhibiting birds' eggs

52

Inflating oven
Injecting .

28
120

Injecting media

121

Fine adjustment of microscope 85

Ink

46, 143

Fishes

13

Ink for labels

46

Focal length of objectives

87

Insects .

18

Focussing the microscope

97

Insect cases

72

Formulae . . . .

135

Insect forceps

24

Freezing microtome .

129

Insect labels

49

Freezing tissues . . .

129

Insect localities .

22

Frey's fuschine . . .

136

Insect net ....

23

119

T f

Fruit jars . . . .

41, 57

insGCt pins • • • •
Insect poison

142

Fuschine ....

136

Instruments for laboratory

107

INDEX.

227

PAGE

PAGE

Iodized serum

138

Mounting shells .

M

Mounting skeletons .

17

Jars for storage

57

Mounting specimens .

45

Jellyfish

41

Mounting spiders

90

Mucilage . . - .48,

!«

Killing insects .

20

MUllers fluid . , .124,

13S

Killing spiders .

30

Museum plans .

64

Killing marine forms

41

Myriapoda ....

33

Kleinenberg's haematoxylin

136

Nacbet objectives

89

Labels ....

45

Natural skaletons

17

Label holders . ...

48

Nests and eggs .

11

Labels, large

59

Neutral salt solution

i:>s

Labelling birds .

9

Nitric acid

125

Labelling bottles

49

Nitrate of silver

i:J7

Labelling fossils and mi-

Note books

10'.)

nerals ....

50

Novelty microscope

92

Labelling insects

49

Laboratories « . . .67,

105

Objectives .

84

Laboratory necessaries .

107

Oculars ....

84

Laboratory tables

105

Old a'cohol

143

Laboratory work

115

Oniscidae

34

Lamellibranchs

118

Osmic acid . . . 124,

1:57

Land shells

42

Ox gall for mending insects

96

Large labels

59

Larvae, breeding

81

Packing butterflies .

95

Larvae, inflating

27

Packing insects

96

Laurent's arsenical soap .

141

Packing jars

57

Leconte's insect poison .

142

Painting tablets

5:5

Lenses ....

81

Paper trays

12<5

Lens holder

83

Paraffin e ....

125

Lilting sections

129

Peron's luting

143

Lobsters • .

118

Perosmic acid .

137

... -

69

Photo-illustrations . .

111

Logwood (see Haematoxylin)

135

Picrocarmine

135

Pigment ....

1-2.1

Macerating skeletons

16

Pill bugs ....

34

Macerating skulls

17

Pinning forceps

24

Mammals ....

4

Pinning insects

23

Marine collecting . .

34

Plan for museum . .

64

Medusae ....

41

Poison bottle . . *

20

Mending insects

26

Poisoning insects

'JO

Microscope ....

81

Polariscope

91

Microscopic slide cases

75

Polyzoa ....

42

Microtomes . . .127,

130

Potassic bichromate

1:58

Moistenring insects .

25

Protozoa . . . . .

117

Moleschott's acetic acid .

137

Printed labels .

48

Mounting fishes . . .

14 Pumping ....

58

228

INDEX.

PAGE

PAGE

Quinine bottles

58

Stands for birds

10

Starfish ....

117

Reagents

107

Sterling microtome .

130

Recipes

135

Storage jars

57

Relaxing insects

25

Storing specimens

57

Reptiles

12

Stretching paper

72

Revolving stages

101

Substitutes for cork

72

Rooms

63

Sugar for moths

141

Sunken net

3!)

Safety cord

37

Surface collecting

3!)

Schieck objectives

89

Swainson's soap

140

Scoop nets

19

Sea anemones

117

Tables ....

106

Sea urchins

117

Table cases

71

Section cutters .

127, 130

Tablets ....

53

Section cutting

122

Tangle ....

38

Section knife

128

Teasing tissues

123

Section lifter

129

Tightening cases

70

Seiler's microtome

132

Tolles' instruments .

M|

Serum

138

Transparent soap

127

Setting insects .

24

Transporting insects

fit

Shelf brackets

70

Trawl .....

37

Shot ....

2

Triplets ....

82

Silver nitrate

137

Turtles ....

r,

Simon's arsenical soap

141

Typical collections .

58

Skeletons

16

Skimming .

39

Use of microscope

9!i

Skimming net

40

Useful hints

135.

Skinning birds .

9

Skinning mammals .

4
. 17

Vertebrates

2,119

Sledge microtome •

131

| 1 o

Vertical camera
Vials . . .

100
55

Soap for imbedding

127

*

Softening tissues

125

Washing the collections .

37

Solid eye-pieces

87

Wing trawl

38

Sow bugs . . .

34

Wooden tablets

53

Specific names .

46

Work tables

105

Spiders

33

Works on collecting

1

Spiders, mounting

30

Spreading insects

24

Zeiss microscopes

94

Spreading board

2t

Zeiss objectives

89

Sponges .

* 117

Zentmayer microscopes .

95

NATURALISTS' INSTRUMENTS.

We keep constantly on hand an assortment of Instruments used by Natural-
ists, such as

SCALPELS, BIRD-STUFFING FORCEPS, SCISSORS (curved and straight,

EGG BLOWERS, EGG DRILLS, INSECT PINS,

INSECT PIN FORCEPS, &c.

SCALPELS, Ebony Handle . . . $ .75

BIRD-STUFFING FORCEPS, 75, 1.25, 1.75, 2.00, 2.25, 2.75

According to length.

SCISSORS, Straight 75, 1.00

SCISSORS, Curved . . 1.25, 1.37, 1.50

EGG DRILLS .25 to 1.50

SYRINGES . 4.00 to 25.00

EGG BLOWERS, Nickeled 50

NATURALISTS' CASES.

PROF. MARKS' CASE INSTRUMENTS $6.00

PROF. WILDER'S CASE INSTRUMENTS . . 10.00

CODMAN & SHURTLEFF,

Surgical and Dental Instruments,

13 AND 15 TREMONT STREET,

BOSTON, MASS.

HARTNACK MICROSCOPES.

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Acknowledged by the most eminent experts as the best in-
struments in the world for

fflSTOLOGICAL, BOTANICAL, AND OTHER
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Arrangements have
been made by which
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their Objectives, can
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SOLE AGENTS

we guarantee them to be
as represented.

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The microscopic anatomy of a Starfish.

The general anatomy of a Sea Urchin,

The embryology and metamorphosis of the Sea Urchin and Starfish,
The general anatomy of the Earthworm,

The microscopic structure of the Earthworm,
The anatomy of the Leech,

The anatomy of a Crab.

The metamorphosis of a Crab,

The structure and development of Cyclops,
The anatomy of a Grasshopper,

The general anatomy of Unio,

The microscopic anatomy of Unio,

The embryology and metamorphosis of Unio,

The anatomy and embryology of the Squid.

Illustrated by nearly two hundred cuts from the author's draw-
Ings, or from drawings made from nature under his direction.

S. E. CASSINO, Publisher,

BOSTON, MASS.

NEW WORK

- ON -

SEA MOSSES.

\\ TE shall issue in a few days an elegantly illustrated "MANUAL OF AMERICAN SEA
MOSSES," prepared by Rev. A. B. Hervey. It is just such a work as has lon^
been needed and much called for: a handy, convenient book for sea-side use.
Nothing of the kind has been published in this country; Harvey's great work, com-
pleted 25 years ago, in three ponderous quartos, being too expensive and too cum-
bersome for general and popular use.

It is a complete Collector's Guide, giving practical information as to the best times,
places and methods of collecting the necessary apparatus, and the details of float-
ing out, pressing, drying, preserving, and mounting these beautiful plants Full
directions are also given of the best methods of studying and identifying these plants.
Full "keys" art. given, at the head of each group, by which the most inexperienced
may be easily guided to the genus to which the plant he is studying belongs.

While in the description of species the method of treatment is popular, and
especially adapted to the need of amateur botanists and sea-side collectors, all the state-
ments are made with scientific accuracy and carefulness. Ail the common species
belonging to the three great groups of Green, Olive Colored and Red Algz, are taken
up in order, and so described in detail, that it is believed they may be easily identified
whenever found. The book is thus made a complete guide to all the common and
beautiful forms of our Atlantic flora, north of the Carolinas, including nearly all the
characteristic forms of the Pacific coast, for California, Oregon and the North.

The plates, twenty in number, are drawn and colored from nature, and represent
twenty-four of the most interesting, beautiful and characteristic species, in not less
than nineteen genera.

The work is issued in elegant binding, 12 mo., over 300 pages, and is printed on fine,
heavy paper, with 20 full-paged colored plates. Price, postpaid, $2.00.

%gF*For sale by all booksellers, or sent, postpaid, on receipt
of Price, by the publisher.

S. E. CASSINO, PUBLISHER,

32 HAWLEy STREET, BOSTON, MASS.

NATURAL HISTORY STORE.

ESTABLISHED IN 1859.

No. 168 TREMONT STREET,
BOSTON.

W. J. KNOWLTON,

(SUCCESSOR TO BBEWSTER & KNOWLTON)

DEALER IN

Birds, Minerals, Fossils, Shells,

AND

OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY FROM
ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.

NATURALISTS', TAXIDERMISTS',

AND MINERALOGISTS' SUPPLIES,

BIRDS' EYES AT LOWEST PRICES.
Send for Catalogue,

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

OEC

gy

7 1932

MAR 3 1933

MAY 6 1939
APR 9 1940

MAR 27 1941

APR161957

APR 2 1957

MAY 2 5 1963

LD 21-50m-8,-32

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY